Unnamed: 0
int64 0
7.84k
| id
stringlengths 1
79
| raw_text
stringlengths 15
171k
| vw_text
stringlengths 51
47.3k
|
|---|---|---|---|
3,200 | Koo_Stark | Kathleen Dee-Anne Stark, better known as Koo Stark (born April 26, 1956), is an American film actress and photographer. "Koo Stark's Photography" . Retrieved 7 October 2007 She is perhaps best known for her relationship with Prince Andrew, son of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, before his marriage to Sarah, Duchess of York. Early life The daughter of the film producer Wilbur Stark (1912-1995) and New York television host Kathi Norris (1919-2005), Stark was educated privately in Manhattan at Miss Hewitt's School for Young Ladies. She moved to London aged 16. Film and television acting Her best known and most controversial performance was the lead role in the 1976 erotic film Emily, which includes a scene in a shower with Stark and another woman. The film's soundtrack included a title song written for the film by Rod McKuen, and was a late-night staple of early pay-cable channels such as HBO. She also played the part of Camie (sometimes spelled as “Cammie”) in the 1977 film Star Wars. She appeared in just two scenes, both of which were eventually cut in editing. The role of Rost in the Doctor Who serial "Attack of the Cybermen" was meant for her but she allegedly had a disagreement with the production team over her fee and was replaced by Sarah Berger. She appeared in a 1989 episode of the cult sci-fi tv show Red Dwarf. In an alternate universe, Dave Lister is hugely successful, including being married to a gorgeous, titled wife, played by Stark. Personal life After parting from Prince Andrew following his return from the Falklands War, she was married for some years to Tim Jefferies, sometime associated with the model Claudia Schiffer. She has one daughter, Tatiana (born March 12, 1997) by another relationship. "Koo Stark's Photography" Op.cit. "Koo's praise for her daughter's father" The Independent (London), Aug 18, 1998. . Retrieved 7 October 2007. Stark lives in London and has been a practicing Buddhist since 1994. It was being reported by mainstream UK press in late September 2008 that she had been evicted from her home, was on the verge of bankruptcy, and living in a West London hotel by the good graces of the hotel management until her financial situation could be resolved. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-1063304/Homeless-Koo-Stark-moves-hotel-runs-6-000-afford-pay.html Health In 2002 she was diagnosed with breast cancer, resulting in a mastectomy and a course of chemotherapy. In 2003, she underwent her second mastectomy. Due to her experience with cancer she has founded a cancer awareness agency, Keep Abreast. Cultural influence The Montreal-based electro-pop band Koo Starck named themselves after a hybrid of Koo Stark and designer Philippe Starck, as they claimed their inspiration as "industrial design, soft porn, and royal scandal." Another Canadian band, Chixdiggit, has a song titled "Koo Stark" on its 2005 album, Pink Razors. External links References | Koo_Stark |@lemmatized kathleen:1 dee:1 anne:1 stark:12 good:2 know:3 koo:8 bear:2 april:1 american:1 film:7 actress:1 photographer:1 photography:2 retrieve:2 october:2 perhaps:1 best:2 relationship:2 prince:2 andrew:2 son:1 queen:1 elizabeth:1 ii:1 united:1 kingdom:1 marriage:1 sarah:2 duchess:1 york:2 early:2 life:2 daughter:3 producer:1 wilbur:1 new:1 television:2 host:1 kathi:1 norris:1 educate:1 privately:1 manhattan:1 miss:1 hewitt:1 school:1 young:1 lady:1 move:2 london:4 aged:1 act:1 controversial:1 performance:1 lead:1 role:2 erotic:1 emily:1 include:3 scene:2 shower:1 another:3 woman:1 soundtrack:1 title:2 song:2 write:1 rod:1 mckuen:1 late:2 night:1 staple:1 pay:2 cable:1 channel:1 hbo:1 also:1 play:2 part:2 camie:1 sometimes:1 spell:1 cammie:1 star:1 war:2 appear:2 two:1 eventually:1 cut:1 edit:1 rost:1 doctor:1 serial:1 attack:1 cybermen:1 mean:1 allegedly:1 disagreement:1 production:1 team:1 fee:1 replace:1 berger:1 episode:1 cult:1 sci:1 fi:1 tv:1 show:1 red:1 dwarf:1 alternate:1 universe:1 dave:1 lister:1 hugely:1 successful:1 marry:2 gorgeous:1 titled:1 wife:1 personal:1 follow:1 return:1 falklands:1 year:1 tim:1 jefferies:1 sometime:1 associate:1 model:1 claudia:1 schiffer:1 one:1 tatiana:1 march:1 op:1 cit:1 praise:1 father:1 independent:1 aug:1 live:1 practice:1 buddhist:1 since:1 report:1 mainstream:1 uk:2 press:1 september:1 evict:1 home:1 verge:1 bankruptcy:1 living:1 west:1 hotel:3 grace:1 management:1 financial:1 situation:1 could:1 resolve:1 http:1 www:1 dailymail:1 co:1 femail:1 article:1 homeless:1 run:1 afford:1 html:1 health:1 diagnose:1 breast:1 cancer:3 result:1 mastectomy:2 course:1 chemotherapy:1 undergo:1 second:1 due:1 experience:1 found:1 awareness:1 agency:1 keep:1 abreast:1 cultural:1 influence:1 montreal:1 base:1 electro:1 pop:1 band:2 starck:2 name:1 hybrid:1 designer:1 philippe:1 claim:1 inspiration:1 industrial:1 design:1 soft:1 porn:1 royal:1 scandal:1 canadian:1 chixdiggit:1 album:1 pink:1 razor:1 external:1 link:1 reference:1 |@bigram koo_stark:6 queen_elizabeth:1 sci_fi:1 hugely_successful:1 op_cit:1 verge_bankruptcy:1 http_www:1 www_dailymail:1 dailymail_co:1 diagnose_breast:1 breast_cancer:1 keep_abreast:1 external_link:1 |
3,201 | Blitz_BASIC | Blitz BASIC is a commercial compiler for the BASIC programming language. Originally developed on the Amiga, Blitz BASIC compilers are now available on several platforms. The Blitz products are mainly designed for programming games but also feature support for graphical user interfaces and general applications. The term Blitz BASIC is often used to refer to the general syntax used in the entire range of Blitz languages, as well as the original product that started them. History The first compiler, originally designed by Acid Software from New Zealand, was Blitz BASIC for the Amiga. It competed with Europress Software's AMOS. Both AMOS and Blitz were distinguished from other BASIC implementations by their built-in support for writing computer games. It was shortly after this time that Acid Software became known as Blitz Research Limited and concentrated solely on the development and promotion of Blitz languages and tools. Blitz Basic Blitz Basic was released in October 2000 for Microsoft Windows and allowed only 2D graphics. It was Blitz Research's first product and was published by Idigicon. It has been discontinued by its developers. Recognition of Blitz Basic increased when a limited range of "free" versions were distributed on popular UK computer magazines such as PC Format. This resulted in a legal dispute between the developer and publisher which was eventually amicably resolved. Blitz3D Blitz3D was then released later in September 2001 and was also for Microsoft Windows. It was distributed at first by Idigicon. Blitz3D is Blitz Basic with a built in 3D engine and command list allowing the creation of 3D games for the first time in the Blitz range of languages. It kept all of Blitz BASIC's older commands and incorporated an entirely new set for the movement and rendering of three-dimensional objects. It used DirectX7 to create 3D, and competes with other similar PC game-development languages such as Dark Basic. Blitz Research Limited later signed a deal with Idigicon giving them full rights to distribute Blitz Basic, to clear their stock of copies of Blitz 3D, and to now allow Blitz Research Limited to distribute Blitz3D themselves. BlitzPlus In February 2003 Blitz Research Limited released BlitzPlus, also for Microsoft Windows. It does not have the 3D engine of Blitz3D, but does bring new features to the 2D side of the language by allowing some control over Microsoft Windows forms and widgets, as well as implementing compatibility of the 2D engine as far back as DirectX 1. BlitzMax The latest in the range of Blitz languages is BlitzMax which, unlike previous Blitz products, is designed to run on multiple operating systems. It was released for Mac OS X first, in December 2004, and then for Microsoft Windows and Linux in May 2005. BlitzMax brought the largest change of language structure to the modern range of Blitz products by adding object-oriented concepts and switching the graphics layer to favour OpenGL. BlitzMax is also the first modular version of the language, allowing modules/plugins to be written for the language itself. This opened up new possibilities for programmers to configure the language, as well as to purchase additional components from Blitz Research Limited. For instance, the official BlitzMax cross-platform GUI module (known as MaxGUI) was released by Blitz Research Limited, allowing developers to write GUI interfaces for their applications on Linux (FLTK), Mac (Cocoa), and Windows. Various user-contributed modules extend the use of the language by wrapping such libraries as wxWidgets, Cairo, FontConfig as well as a selection of database modules. In addition, there are many third-party 3D modules available for BlitzMax, including MiniB3D - an open-source OpenGL engine which can be compiled and used on all 3 of BlitzMax's supported platforms. In October 2007, BlitzMax update v1.26 included the addition of a reflection module http://www.blitzbasic.com/Community/posts.php?topic=72891#814878 , which further increased the flexibility of the language. As of BlitzMax update v1.32, BlitzMax ships with new threading and Lua Scripting modules and most of the standard library functions have been updated so that they are unicode friendly http://www.blitzbasic.com/Community/posts.php?topic=83917#947391 . Programs written in BlitzMax require compilation on the target platform since BlitzMax is multi-platform but not entirely cross-platform. Compilation for each target CPU (Mac PPC, Mac Intel, Linux Intel, Windows Intel) requires a hardware computer based on that CPU upon which the BlitzMax compiler is run. This allows the creation of an executable binary for that platform. To compile for more than one platform requires the compiler to be run on that platform, and thus requires as many target computer platforms as systems on which your sourcecode is to be deployed. However, BlitzMax as a language itself requires very little modification in order to be fully cross-platform compatible and in many cases requires just a recompilation, making cross-platform development quick and easy. Blitz3D SDK The latest product from Blitz Research Limited, a 3D graphics engine based on the engine in Blitz3D. It is designed to be used with C++, C#, Blitz Max and PureBasic, however it can be used with other languages. Unfortunately there are several outstanding issues with the SDK which are currently being resolved - but which preclude release of any applications (Blitz3D SDK Bug Reports) Max3D module Blitz Research is currently working on a next-generation 3D engine which will feature an easy-to-use command API similar to but more advanced than that of Blitz3D. The module will be designed to provide a cross-platform 3D graphics API, bringing official 3D support to Mac and Linux. The module is rumored to be initially based on OpenGL with possibly later support for DirectX on Windows. It is also said to be similar to the Blitz3D SDK in that initially it will provide an interface for the BlitzMax language and later provide access from other languages such as C or a derivative thereof. Sample code The following code creates a windowed application under Windows that shows the current time in binary and decimal format. This code is written in Blitz Basic, but will compile and run in both Blitz3D and BlitzPlus. See below for the same example in BlitzMax. AppTitle "Binary Clock" Graphics 150,80,16,3 ;Copy, modify and redistribute this source as much as you like ;##################################################### ; MAIN LOOP ;##################################################### ;create a timer that means the main loop will be ;executed twice a second secondtimer=CreateTimer(2) Repeat Hour = Left(CurrentTime$(),2) Minute = Mid(CurrentTime$(),4,2) Second = Right(CurrentTime$(),2) If Hour >= 12 Then PM = 1 If Hour > 12 Then Hour = Hour - 12 If Hour = 0 Then Hour = 12 ;should do this otherwise your PM dot would be ;left up once the clock rolled past midnight! Cls Color(0,255,0) ;make the text green for the PM part If PM = 1 Then Text 5,5,"PM" ;set the text colour back to white for the rest Color(255,255,255) For bit=0 To 5 xpos=20*(6-bit) binaryMask=2^bit ;do hours If (bit<4) If (hour And binaryMask) Text xpos,5,"1" Else Text xpos,5,"0" EndIf EndIf ;do the minutes If (minute And binaryMask) Text xpos,25,"1" Else Text xpos,25,"0" EndIf ;do the seconds If (second And binaryMask) Text xpos,45,"1" Else Text xpos,45,"0" EndIf Next ;make the text red for the decimal time Color(255,0,0) Text 5,65,"Decimal: " + CurrentTime$() ;set the text back to white for the rest Color(255,255,255) ;will wait half a second WaitTimer(secondTimer) Forever BlitzMax version of the above clock: AppTitle = "Binary Clock" Graphics 145,85 secondtimer = CreateTimer(2) Repeat Hour = CurrentTime()[..2].ToInt() Minute = CurrentTime()[4..6].ToInt() Second = CurrentTime()[6..].ToInt() If Hour >= 12 Then PM = 1 If Hour > 12 Then Hour = Hour - 12 If Hour = 0 Then Hour = 12 'should do this otherwise your PM dot would be 'Left up once the clock rolled past midnight! Cls SetColor(0,255,0) 'make the text green For the PM part If PM = 1 Then DrawText "PM",5,5 'set the text colour back To white For the rest SetColor(255,255,255) For bit=0 Until 6 xpos=20*(6-bit) binaryMask=2^bit 'do hours If (bit<4) If (hour & binaryMask) DrawText "1",xpos,5 Else DrawText "0",xpos,5 EndIf EndIf 'do the minutes If (minute & binaryMask) DrawText "1", xpos,25 Else DrawText "0", xpos,25 EndIf 'do the seconds If (second & binaryMask) DrawText "1",xpos,45 Else DrawText "0",xpos,45 EndIf Next 'make the text red For the decimal time SetColor(255,0,0) DrawText "Decimal: " + CurrentTime(),5,65 'set the text back To white For the rest SetColor(255,255,255) Flip 'will wait half a second WaitTimer(secondTimer) If KeyHit(KEY_ESCAPE) Then Exit Forever Notable software written using Blitz Basic Eschalon: Book I - BlitzMaxFairway Solitaire - BlitzMax Grid Wars - BlitzMaxPlatypus - Blitz 2D (Mac port, BlitzMax) Worms - originally titled Total Wormage and developed in Blitz Basic on the Amiga before its commercial release IGN. Worms Blast Preview Wonderful Wizard of Oz - BlitzMax Unwell Mel - BlitzMax References See also Protean IDE - an IDE for blitzbasic/plus/3d IDEal IDE BLIde - a .NET IDE for BlitzMax MaxIDE Community Edition - An open source branch of the default IDE maintained by some members of the Blitzmax Community. Project Studio - a .Net IDE for Blitz3d/Basic and BlitzMax External links Blitz Research official site of the Blitz Basic distributor wxMax for BlitzMax Brucey's wxWidgets language binding for BlitzMax MaxMods for BlitzMax Brucey's mods for BlitzMax BlitzBasic on WikiWikiWeb BlitzBasic on WikiWikiWeb Official site of the french Blitz Basic community German Blitz Basic site Socoder Russian electronic BlitzBasic-related magazine "Blitz Et Cetera" BlitzBASIC codebase code archive Syntaxbomb - Indie Coders Community Forums Grey Alien BlitzMax Game Framework Misc BlitzMax modules a selection of useful modules for BlitzMax including Theora movie playback Blitzforum.de German portal inclusive forum and German commandreference BitBrothers Team Site Polish portal of BlitzBasic language. Books on Blitz Basic Learn to Program 2D Games in Blitz Basic by John "Krylar" Logsdon, (2003) website of creator http://www.krylarskreations.com/bb_book.shtml Game Programming for Teens by Maneesh Sethi, (2003), ISBN 1-59200-068-1 Games Programming for the Absolute Beginner with Blitzmax by Sloan Kelly, ISBN 0-9553771-0-2 3D Game Programming for Teens by Eric Grebler, (2006) ISBN 1-59200-900-X | Blitz_BASIC |@lemmatized blitz:40 basic:22 commercial:2 compiler:5 programming:2 language:19 originally:3 develop:2 amiga:3 available:2 several:2 platform:13 product:6 mainly:1 design:5 program:5 game:9 also:6 feature:3 support:5 graphical:1 user:2 interface:3 general:2 application:4 term:1 often:1 use:9 refer:1 syntax:1 entire:1 range:5 well:4 original:1 start:1 history:1 first:6 acid:2 software:4 new:5 zealand:1 compete:1 europress:1 amos:2 distinguish:1 implementation:1 build:2 write:6 computer:4 shortly:1 time:5 become:1 know:2 research:10 limit:7 concentrate:1 solely:1 development:3 promotion:1 tool:1 release:7 october:2 microsoft:5 window:8 allow:7 graphic:6 publish:1 idigicon:3 discontinue:1 developer:3 recognition:1 increase:2 limited:1 free:1 version:3 distribute:4 popular:1 uk:1 magazine:2 pc:2 format:2 result:1 legal:1 dispute:1 publisher:1 eventually:1 amicably:1 resolve:2 later:4 september:1 engine:7 command:3 list:1 creation:2 keep:1 old:1 incorporate:1 entirely:2 set:5 movement:1 rendering:1 three:1 dimensional:1 object:2 create:3 competes:1 similar:3 dark:1 sign:1 deal:1 give:1 full:1 right:2 clear:1 stock:1 copy:2 blitzplus:3 february:1 bring:3 side:1 control:1 form:1 widget:1 implement:1 compatibility:1 far:2 back:5 directx:2 blitzmax:32 late:2 unlike:1 previous:1 run:4 multiple:1 operate:1 system:2 mac:6 x:2 december:1 linux:4 may:1 large:1 change:1 structure:1 modern:1 add:1 orient:1 concept:1 switch:1 layer:1 favour:1 opengl:3 modular:1 module:11 plugins:1 open:3 possibility:1 programmer:1 configure:1 purchase:1 additional:1 component:1 instance:1 official:4 cross:5 gui:2 maxgui:1 fltk:1 cocoa:1 various:1 contribute:1 extend:1 wrap:1 library:2 wxwidgets:2 cairo:1 fontconfig:1 selection:2 database:1 addition:2 many:3 third:1 party:1 include:3 source:3 compile:3 update:3 reflection:1 http:3 www:3 blitzbasic:8 com:3 community:6 post:2 php:2 topic:2 flexibility:1 ship:1 thread:1 lua:1 scripting:1 standard:1 function:1 unicode:1 friendly:1 require:6 compilation:2 target:3 since:1 multi:1 cpu:2 ppc:1 intel:3 windows:1 hardware:1 base:3 upon:1 executable:1 binary:4 one:1 thus:1 sourcecode:1 deploy:1 however:2 little:1 modification:1 order:1 fully:1 compatible:1 case:1 recompilation:1 make:5 quick:1 easy:2 sdk:4 c:3 max:1 purebasic:1 unfortunately:1 outstanding:1 issue:1 currently:2 preclude:1 bug:1 report:1 work:1 next:3 generation:1 api:2 advanced:1 provide:3 rumor:1 initially:2 possibly:1 say:1 access:1 derivative:1 thereof:1 sample:1 code:4 following:1 windowed:1 show:1 current:1 decimal:5 see:2 example:1 apptitle:2 clock:5 modify:1 redistribute:1 much:1 like:1 main:2 loop:2 timer:1 mean:1 execute:1 twice:1 second:9 secondtimer:4 createtimer:2 repeat:2 hour:18 leave:3 currenttime:8 minute:6 mid:1 pm:10 otherwise:2 dot:2 would:2 roll:2 past:2 midnight:2 cl:2 color:4 text:16 green:2 part:2 colour:2 white:4 rest:4 bit:8 xpos:14 binarymask:8 else:6 endif:8 red:2 wait:2 half:2 waittimer:2 forever:2 toint:3 setcolor:4 drawtext:8 flip:1 keyhit:1 exit:1 notable:1 eschalon:1 book:2 blitzmaxfairway:1 solitaire:1 grid:1 war:1 blitzmaxplatypus:1 port:1 worm:2 title:1 total:1 wormage:1 ign:1 blast:1 preview:1 wonderful:1 wizard:1 oz:1 unwell:1 mel:1 reference:1 protean:1 ide:6 plus:1 ideal:1 blide:1 net:2 maxide:1 edition:1 branch:1 default:1 maintain:1 member:1 project:1 studio:1 external:1 link:1 site:4 distributor:1 wxmax:1 brucey:2 bind:1 maxmods:1 mod:1 wikiwikiweb:2 french:1 german:3 socoder:1 russian:1 electronic:1 related:1 et:1 cetera:1 codebase:1 archive:1 syntaxbomb:1 indie:1 coder:1 forums:1 grey:1 alien:1 framework:1 misc:1 modules:1 useful:1 theora:1 movie:1 playback:1 blitzforum:1 de:1 portal:2 inclusive:1 forum:1 commandreference:1 bitbrothers:1 team:1 polish:1 learn:1 john:1 krylar:1 logsdon:1 website:1 creator:1 krylarskreations:1 shtml:1 teen:2 maneesh:1 sethi:1 isbn:3 absolute:1 beginner:1 sloan:1 kelly:1 eric:1 grebler:1 |@bigram blitz_basic:18 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 microsoft_window:5 http_www:3 text_xpos:6 xpos_else:6 xpos_endif:6 drawtext_xpos:6 wonderful_wizard:1 wizard_oz:1 external_link:1 et_cetera:1 |
3,202 | Ordered_pair | In mathematics, an ordered pair is a collection of objects having two coordinates (or entries or projections), such that one can always uniquely determine the object, which is the first coordinate (or first entry or left projection) of the pair as well as the second coordinate (or second entry or right projection). If the first coordinate is a and the second is b, the usual notation for an ordered pair is (a, b). The pair is "ordered" in that (a, b) differs from (b, a) unless a = b. Cartesian products and binary relations (and hence the ubiquitous functions) are defined in terms of ordered pairs. Generalities Let and be two ordered pairs. Then the characteristic (or defining) property of the ordered pair is: The entries of an ordered pair can be other ordered pairs, enabling the recursive definition of ordered n-tuples (ordered lists of n terms). For example, the ordered triple (a,b,c) can be defined as (a, (b,c)), i.e., as one pair nested in another. This approach is mirrored in computer programming languages that enable constructing a list of elements from nested ordered pairs. For example, the list (1 2 3 4 5) becomes (1, (2, (3, (4, (5, {}))))). The Lisp programming language employs such lists as its primary data structure. The set of all ordered pairs whose first element is in some set X and whose second element is in some set Y is called the Cartesian product of X and Y, and written X×Y. A binary relation over the field X∪Y is a subset of X×Y. If one wishes to employ to denote the open interval on the real number line, the ordered pair may be denoted by the variant notation Defining the ordered pair using set theory The above characteristic property of ordered pairs is all that is required to understand the role of ordered pairs in mathematics. Hence the ordered pair can be taken as a primitive notion, whose associated axiom is the characteristic property. Strikingly, this was the approach taken by the N. Bourbaki group in its Theory of Sets, published in 1954, long after Kuratowski discovered his famed reduction. The Kuratowski definition was added in the second edition of Theory of Sets, published in 1970. If one agrees that set theory is an appealing foundation of mathematics, then all mathematical objects must be defined as sets of some sort. Hence if the ordered pair is not taken as primitive, it must be defined as a set. Several set-theoretic definitions of the ordered pair are given below. Wiener's definition Norbert Wiener proposed the first set theoretical definition of the ordered pair in 1914: He observed that this definition made it possible to define the types of Principia Mathematica as sets. Principia Mathematica had taken types, and hence relations of all arities, as primitive. Kuratowski definition The standard Kuratowski definition of the ordered pair (a, b) is: (a, b)K := {{a}, {a, b}}. Given some ordered pair p, the property "x is the first coordinate of p" can be formulated as: The property "x is the second coordinate of p" can be formulated as: Note that this definition remains valid when the first and the second coordinate are identical, so that p = (x, x) = {{x}, {x, x}} = {{x}, {x}} = {{x}}. In this case, the right conjunct is trivially true, since Y1 ≠ Y2 is never the case. Variants The above Kuratowski definition of the ordered pair is "adequate" in the sense that it satisfies the characteristic property that an ordered pair must satisfy, namely that . This definition is also arbitrary, as there are other adequate definitions of similar or lesser complexity, such as: (a, b)reverse := {{b}, {a, b}}; (a, b)short := {a, {a, b}}; (a, b)01 := {{0,a}, {1, b}}. The "reverse" pair is of little interest, as it has no obvious advantage (nor disadvantage) over the Kuratowski pair. The "short" pair is so-called because it requires two rather than three pairs of curly braces. A drawback is that proving that it satisfies the characteristic property requires the ZFC axiom of regularity. Moreover, if one accepts the standard construction of the natural numbers, then 2 is the set {0, 1} = {0, {0}}, which is indistinguishable from the pair (0, 0)short. Proving the characteristic property Prove: (a, b) = (c, d) if and only if a = c and b = d. Kuratowski: Only if. Two cases: a = b, and a ≠ b. If a = b: (a, b)K = {{a}, {a, b}} = {{a}, {a, a}} = {{a}}. (c, d)K = {{c}, {c, d}} = {{a}}. Thus {c} = {c, d} = {a}, which implies a = c and a = d. By hypothesis, a = b. Hence b = d. If a ≠ b, then (a, b)K = (c, d)K implies {{a}, {a, b}} = {{c}, {c, d}}. Suppose {c, d} = {a}. Then c = d = a, and so {{c}, {c, d}} = {{a}, {a, a}} = {{a}, {a}} = {{a}}. But then {{a}, {a, b}} would also equal {{a}}, so that b = a which contradicts a ≠ b. Suppose {c} = {a, b}. Then a = b = c, which also contradicts a ≠ b. Therefore {c} = {a}, so that c = a and {c, d} = {a, b}. If d = a were true, then {c, d} = {a, a} = {a} ≠ {a, b}, a contradiction. Thus d = b is the case, so that a = c and b = d. If. If a = c and b = d, then {{a}, {a, b} = {{c}, {c, d}}. Thus (a, b)K = (c, d)K. Reverse: (a, b)reverse = {{b}, {a, b}} = {{b}, {b, a}} = (b, a)K. If. If (a, b)reverse = (c, d)reverse, (b, a)K = (d, c)K. Therefore b = d and a = c. Only if. If a = c and b = d, then {{b}, {a, b}} = {{d}, {c, d}}. Thus (a, b)reverse = (c, d)reverse. Short: For a formal Metamath proof of the adequacy of the short pair, see the proof of theorem opthreg. Quine-Rosser definition Rosser (1953) J. Barkley Rosser, 1953. Logic for Mathematicians. McGraw-Hill. employed a definition of the ordered pair, due to Quine and requiring a prior definition of the natural numbers. Let be the set of natural numbers, and define Applying this function simply increments every natural number in x. In particular, does not contain the number 0, so that for any sets x and y, Define the ordered pair (A, B) as Extracting all the elements of the pair that do not contain 0 and undoing yields A. Likewise, B can be recovered from the elements of the pair that do contain 0. In type theory, and in set theories such as New Foundations that are outgrowths of type theory, the Quine-Rosser pair has the same type as its projections (and hence is termed a "type-level" ordered pair). Hence this definition has the advantage of enabling a function, defined as a set of ordered pairs, to have a type only 1 higher than the type of its arguments. For an extensive discussion of the ordered pair in the context of Quinian set theories, see Holmes (1998) Holmes, Randall, 1998. Elementary Set Theory with a Universal Set. Academia-Bruylant. The publisher has graciously consented to permit diffusion of this monograph via the web. Copyright is reserved. . Morse definition Morse-Kelley set theory (Morse 1965) Morse, Anthony P., 1965. A Theory of Sets. Academic Press makes free use of proper classes. Morse defined the ordered pair so that its projections could be proper classes as well as sets. (The Kuratowski definition does not allow this.) He first defined ordered pairs whose projections are sets in Kuratowski's manner. He then redefined the pair (x, y) as , where the component Cartesian products are Kuratowski pairs on sets. This second step renders possible pairs whose projections are proper classes. The Quine-Rosser definition above also admits proper classes as projections. Category theory A category-theoretic product A x B in a category of sets represents the set of ordered pairs, with the first element coming from A and the second coming from B. In this context the characteristic property above is a consequence of the universal property of the product and the fact that elements of a set X can be identified with morphisms from 1 (a one element set) to X. While different objects may have the universal property, they are all naturally isomorphic. References | Ordered_pair |@lemmatized mathematics:3 ordered:31 pair:44 collection:1 object:4 two:4 coordinate:7 entry:4 projection:8 one:6 always:1 uniquely:1 determine:1 first:9 left:1 well:2 second:9 right:2 b:59 usual:1 notation:2 differs:1 unless:1 cartesian:3 product:5 binary:2 relation:3 hence:7 ubiquitous:1 function:3 define:12 term:3 generality:1 let:2 characteristic:7 property:11 enable:3 recursive:1 definition:19 n:3 tuples:1 list:4 example:2 triple:1 c:34 e:1 nest:2 another:1 approach:2 mirror:1 computer:1 programming:1 languages:1 construct:1 element:8 becomes:1 lisp:1 program:1 language:1 employ:3 primary:1 data:1 structure:1 set:29 whose:5 x:21 call:2 write:1 field:1 subset:1 wish:1 denote:2 open:1 interval:1 real:1 number:6 line:1 may:2 variant:2 use:2 theory:12 require:4 understand:1 role:1 take:4 primitive:3 notion:1 associated:1 axiom:2 strikingly:1 bourbaki:1 group:1 publish:2 long:1 kuratowski:10 discover:1 famed:1 reduction:1 add:1 edition:1 agree:1 appeal:1 foundation:2 mathematical:1 must:3 sort:1 several:1 theoretic:2 give:2 wiener:2 norbert:1 propose:1 theoretical:1 observe:1 make:2 possible:2 type:8 principia:2 mathematica:2 arity:1 standard:2 k:10 order:2 p:5 formulate:2 note:1 remain:1 valid:1 identical:1 case:4 conjunct:1 trivially:1 true:2 since:1 never:1 adequate:2 sense:1 satisfy:3 namely:1 also:4 arbitrary:1 similar:1 less:1 complexity:1 reverse:8 short:5 little:1 interest:1 obvious:1 advantage:2 disadvantage:1 rather:1 three:1 curly:1 brace:1 drawback:1 prove:3 zfc:1 regularity:1 moreover:1 accept:1 construction:1 natural:4 indistinguishable:1 thus:4 imply:1 hypothesis:1 implies:1 suppose:2 would:1 equal:1 contradict:2 therefore:2 contradiction:1 formal:1 metamath:1 proof:2 adequacy:1 see:2 theorem:1 opthreg:1 quine:4 rosser:5 j:1 barkley:1 logic:1 mathematician:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 due:1 prior:1 apply:1 simply:1 increments:1 every:1 particular:1 contain:3 extract:1 undoing:1 yield:1 likewise:1 recover:1 new:1 outgrowth:1 level:1 high:1 argument:1 extensive:1 discussion:1 context:2 quinian:1 holmes:2 randall:1 elementary:1 universal:3 academia:1 bruylant:1 publisher:1 graciously:1 consent:1 permit:1 diffusion:1 monograph:1 via:1 web:1 copyright:1 reserve:1 morse:5 kelley:1 anthony:1 academic:1 press:1 free:1 proper:4 class:4 could:1 allow:1 manner:1 redefine:1 component:1 step:1 render:1 admit:1 category:3 represent:1 come:2 consequence:1 fact:1 identify:1 morphisms:1 different:1 naturally:1 isomorphic:1 reference:1 |@bigram ordered_pair:27 uniquely_determine:1 cartesian_product:3 kuratowski_definition:5 norbert_wiener:1 principia_mathematica:2 trivially_true:1 advantage_disadvantage:1 axiom_regularity:1 mcgraw_hill:1 morse_kelley:1 category_theoretic:1 |
3,203 | Bayesian_probability | Bayesian probability interprets the concept of probability as 'a measure of a state of knowledge' ET. Jaynes. Probability Theory: The Logic of Science Cambridge University Press, (2003). ISBN 0-521-59271-2 . Under the Bayesian interpretation of probability, the primitive concept is the epistemic probability distribution of a random variable: This distribution's properties can be studied via the empirical distribution of finite samples. Procedures for testing hypotheses about probabilities (using finite samples) are due to Ramsey (1926) and de Finetti: Ramsey, Frank Plumpton; “Truth and Probability” ( PDF), Chapter VII in The Foundations of Mathematics and other Logical Essays (1931). de Finetti, Bruno. "Probabilism: A Critical Essay on the Theory of Probability and on the Value of Science," (translation of 1931 article) in Erkenntnis, volume 31, September 1989. de Finetti, Bruno. 1937, “La Prévision: ses lois logiques, ses sources subjectives,” Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincaré, de Finetti, Bruno. "Foresight: its Logical Laws, Its Subjective Sources," (translation of the 1937 article in French) in H. E. Kyburg and H. E. Smokler (eds), Studies in Subjective Probability, New York: Wiley, 1964. de Finetti, Bruno. Theory of Probability, (translation by AFM Smith of 1970 book) 2 volumes, New York: Wiley, 1974-5. Both Bruno de Finetti and Frank P. Ramsey acknowledge their debts to pragmatic philosophy, particularly (for Ramsey) to Charles S. Peirce. The "Ramsey test" for evaluating probability distributions is implementable in theory, and has kept experimental psychologists occupied for a half century: This work demonstrates that Bayesian-probability propositions can be falsified, and so meet an empirical criterion of Charles S. Peirce, whose work inspired Ramsey. (This falsifiability-criterion was popularized by Karl Popper.) In many non-Bayesian conceptions of probability, the primitive concept is the limiting frequency of an (infinite) sequence of random variables. One of the crucial features of the Bayesian view is that a (Bayesian) probability can be assigned to a hypothesis; under the frequentist view, a hypothesis is a proposition that is either true or false, and whose probability is therefore either one or zero. Bayesian updating using conditional probability The probability of a hypothesis given the data (the posterior) is proportional to the product of the likelihood times the prior probability (often just called the prior). The likelihood brings in the effect of the data, while the prior specifies the belief in the hypothesis before the data was observed. More formally, Bayesian inference uses Bayes' formula for conditional probability: where is a hypothesis, and is the data. is the prior probability of : the probability that is correct before the data was seen. is the conditional probability of seeing the data given that the hypothesis is true. is called the likelihood. is the marginal probability of . is the posterior probability: the probability that the hypothesis is true, given the data and the previous state of belief about the hypothesis. is the prior probability of witnessing the data under all possible hypotheses. Given any exhaustive set of mutually exclusive hypotheses , we have: . We can consider here to index alternative worlds, of which there is exactly one which we inhabit, and is the hypothesis that we are in the world . is then the probability that we are in the world and witness the data. Since the set of alternative worlds was assumed to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive, the above formula is a case of the law of alternatives. is the normalizing constant, which in many cases need not be evaluated. As a result, Bayes' formula is often simplified to: where denotes proportionality. In general, Bayesian methods are characterized by the following concepts and procedures: The use of hierarchical models, and the marginalization over the values of nuisance parameters. In most cases, the computation is intractable, but good approximations can be obtained using Markov chain Monte Carlo methods. The sequential use of the Bayes' formula: when more data becomes available after calculating a posterior distribution, the posterior becomes the next prior. In frequentist statistics, a hypothesis is a proposition (which must be either true or false), so that the (frequentist) probability of a frequentist hypothesis is either one or zero. In Bayesian statistics, a probability can be assigned to a hypothesis. Broadly speaking, there are two views on Bayesian probability that interpret the 'state of knowledge' concept in different ways. For the objectivist school, the rules of Bayesian statistics can be justified by desiderata of rationality and consistency Richard T. Cox, Algebra of Probable Inference, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001 . Such desiderata of rationality and constency are also important for the subjectivist school, for which the state of knowledge corresponds to a 'personal belief' (rather than the objective state of knowledge in the world) de Finetti, B. (1974) Theory of probability (2 vols.), J. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York . The objective and subjective variants of Bayesian probability differ mainly in their interpretation and construction of the prior probability. History Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace, one of the main early developers of Bayesian statistics. The term Bayesian refers to Thomas Bayes (1702–1761), who proved a special case of what is now called Bayes' theorem. However, it was Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827) who introduced a general version of the theorem and used it to approach problems in celestial mechanics, medical statistics, reliability, and jurisprudence Stephen M. Stigler (1986) The history of statistics. Harvard University press. Chapter 3. . The frequentist view of probability overshadowed the Bayesian view during the first half of the 20th century due to prominent figures such as Ronald Fisher, Jerzy Neyman and Egon Pearson; however Bayesian methods were sometimes used by Fisher and Neyman in applications and both statisticians encouraged Bayesian research by associates. The word Bayesian appeared in the 1950s, and by the 1960s it became the term preferred by people who sought to escape the limitations and inconsistencies of the frequentist approach to probability theory Jeff Miller, "Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (B)" Stephen. E. Fienberg, When did Bayesian Inference become "Bayesian"? Bayesian Analysis (2006). . Before that time, Bayesian methods were known under the name of inverse probability (because they often involve inferring causes from effects). In the 20th century, the ideas of Laplace were further developed in two different directions, giving rise to the objective and subjective Bayesian schools. In the objectivist school, the statistical analysis depends on only the model assumed and the data analysed JM. Bernardo (2005), Reference analysis, Handbook of statistics, 25, 17-90 . No subjective decisions need to be involved. In contrast, the subjectivist school denies the possibility of fully objective analysis for the general case. In the further development of Laplace's ideas, the subjective school predates the objectivist school. The idea that 'probability' should be interpreted as 'subjective degree of belief in a proposition' was proposed by John Maynard Keynes in the early 1920s. This idea was taken further by Bruno de Finetti in Italy (Fondamenti Logici del Ragionamento Probabilistico, 1930) and Frank Ramsey in Cambridge (The Foundations of Mathematics, 1931). Gillies, D. (2000), Philosophical Theories of Probability. (Routledge). See p50-1 "The subjective theory of probability was discovered independently and at about the same time by Frank Ramsey in Cambridge and Bruno de Finetti in Italy." The approach was devised to solve problems with the frequentist definition of probability but also with the earlier, objectivist approach of Laplace . The subjective school was further developed and popularized in the 1950's by L.J. Savage. The strong revival of objective Bayesian inference was mainly due to Harold Jeffreys, whose seminal book "Theory of probability" first appeared in 1939. In 1957, Edwin Jaynes promoted the concept of maximum entropy for statistical inference, which is an important principle in the formulation of objective methods, mainly for discrete problems. In 1979, José-Miguel Bernardo introduced reference analysis, which offers a general applicable framework for objective analysis. In contrast to the frequentist view of statistics, the Bayesian viewpoint has an axiomatic basis. In 1946, Richard T. Cox showed that the rules of Bayesian inference follow from a simple set of desiderata, including the representation of degrees of belief by real numbers and the need for consistency . Another fundamental justification of the Bayesian approach is De Finetti's theorem, which was formulated in 1930 de Finetti, B. (1930), Funzione caratteristica di un fenomeno aleatorio. Mem. Acad. Naz. Lincei. 4, 86-133 . Other well-known proponents of Bayesian probability theory include I.J. Good, B.O. Koopman, Dennis Lindley, Howard Raiffa, Robert Schlaifer and Alan Turing. In the 1980's, there was a dramatic growth in research and applications of Bayesian methods, mostly attributed to dramatic improvements in hardware and software, and an increasing interest in nonstandard, complex applications Wolpert, RL. (2004) A conversation with James O. Berger, Statistical science, 9, 205-218 . Despite growth of Bayesian research, most undergraduate teaching is still based on frequentist statistics José M. Bernardo (2006) A Bayesian mathematical statistics prior. ICOTS-7 . Nonetheless, Bayesian methods are widely accepted and used, such as for example in the field of machine learning Bishop, CM., Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning. Springer, 2007 . Justification of the Bayesian view The Bayesian approach of placing probability distributions on hypotheses and using conditional probability for updating has been supported by several arguments: For example, the Cox axioms, the Dutch book argument and de Finetti's theorem. Richard T. Cox has argued that Bayesian inference is the only inductive inference that is logically consistent . The rules of probability necessary follow from some simple desiderata, such as consistency and the fact that a probability is expressed numerically; there are alternative methods of updating probabilities that avoid "Dutch books", although they cannot deviate too much from conditioning (Bayes's rule). A decision-theoretic justification of Bayesian methods was given by Abraham Wald, who proved that every Bayesian procedure is admissible; conversely, every admissible statistical procedure is either a Bayesian procedure or a limit of Bayesian procedures. Wald's result established the Bayesian formalism as a fundamental technique in frequentist statistics. Personal probabilities and objective methods for constructing priors Following the work on expected utility theory of Ramsey and von Neumann, decison-theorists have accounted for rational behavior using a probability distribution for the agent. Johan Pfanzagl completed The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by providing an axiomatization of subjective probability and utility, a task left uncompleted by von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern: Their original theory supposed that all the agents had the same probability distribution, as a convenience. Pfanzagl's axiomatization was endorsed by Oskar Morgenstern: "Von Neumann and I have anticipated" the question whether probabilities "might, perhaps more typically, be subjective and have stated specifically that in the latter case axioms could be found from which could derive the desired numerical utility together with a number for the probabilities (c.f. p. 19 of The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior). We did not carry this out; it was demonstrated by Pfanzagl . . . with all the necessary rigor" (page 65). Ramsey and Savage noted that the individual agent's probability distribution could be objectively studied in experiments. The role of judgment and disagreement in science has been recognized since Aristotle and even more clearly with Francis Bacon. The objectivity of science lies not in the psychology of individual scientists, but in the process of science and especially in statistical methods, as noted by C. S. Peirce. Recall that the objective methods for falsifying propositions about personal probabilities have been used for a half century, as noted previously. Procedures for testing hypotheses about probabilities (using finite samples) are due to Ramsey (1926) and de Finetti: Ramsey, Frank Plumpton; “Truth and Probability” ( PDF), Chapter VII in The Foundations of Mathematics and other Logical Essays (1931). de Finetti, Bruno. "Probabilism: A Critical Essay on the Theory of Probability and on the Value of Science," (translation of 1931 article) in Erkenntnis, volume 31, September 1989. de Finetti, Bruno. 1937, “La Prévision: ses lois logiques, ses sources subjectives,” Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincaré, de Finetti, Bruno. "Foresight: its Logical Laws, Its Subjective Sources," (translation of the 1937 article in French) in H. E. Kyburg and H. E. Smokler (eds), Studies in Subjective Probability, New York: Wiley, 1964. de Finetti, Bruno. Theory of Probability, (translation by AFM Smith of 1970 book) 2 volumes, New York: Wiley, 1974-5. Both Bruno de Finetti and Frank P. Ramsey acknowledge their debts to pragmatic philosophy, particularly (for Ramsey) to Charles S. Peirce. The "Ramsey test" for evaluating probability distributions is implementable in theory, and has kept experimental psychologists occupied for a half century: This work demonstrates that Bayesian-probability propositions can be falsified, and so meet an empirical criterion of Charles S. Peirce, whose work inspired Ramsey. (This falsifiability-criterion was popularized by Karl Popper.) Of course, modern work on the experimental evaluation of personal probabilities use the randomization, blinding, and Boolean-decision procedures of the Peirce-Jastrow experiment. http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm Peirce's randomized experiment and use of logistic regression to evaluate personal probabilities are discussed in these articles: Since individuals act according to different probability judgements, these agents' probabilites are "personal" (but amenable to objective study). Of course, personal probabilities are problematic for science and for some applications where decision-makers lack the knowledge or time to specify an informed probability-distribution (on which they are prepared to act). To meet the needs of science and of human limitations, Bayesian statisticians have developed "objective" methods for specifying prior probabilities. Indeed, some Bayesians have argued the prior state of knowledge defines the (unique) prior probability-distribution for "regular" statistical problems; c.f. well-posed problems. Finding the right method for constructing such "objective" priors (for appropriate classes of regular problems) has been the quest of statistical theorists from Laplace to John Maynard Keynes, Harold Jeffreys, and Edwin Thompson Jaynes: These theorists and their successors have suggested several methods for constructing "objective" priors: Maximum entropy Transformation group analysis Reference analysis Each of these methods contributes useful priors for "regular" one-parameter problems, and each prior can handle some challenging statistical models (with "irregularity" or several parameters). Each of these methods has been useful in Bayesian practice. Indeed, methods for constructing "objective" (alternatively, "default" or "ignorance") priors have been developed by avowed subjective (or "personal") Bayesians like James Berger (Duke University) and José-Miguel Bernardo (Universitat de València), simply because such priors are needed for Bayesian practice, particularly in science. Alas, each of these methods gives implausible priors for some problems, and so the quest for "the universal method for constructing priors" continues to attract statistical theorists. Thus, the Bayesian statistican needs either to use informed priors (using relevant expertise or previous data) or to choose among the competing methods for constructing "objective" priors. Scientific method The scientific method can be interpreted as an application of Bayesian inference. In this view, Bayes' rule guides (or should guide) the updating of probabilities about hypotheses conditional on new observations or experiments. ET Jaynes' Probability Theory: The Logic of Science (2003) Some experiments on belief revision have suggested that humans change their beliefs faster when using Bayesian methods than when using informal judgement. Subjects changed their beliefs faster by conditioning on evidence (Bayes's theorem) than by using informal reasoning, according to a classic study by the psychologist Ward Edwards: This article has been cited by hundreds of articles. Bayesian methods have been used for hundreds of years, so there are many examples of Bayesian inference to scrutinize. Of the tens of thousands of papers published using Bayesian methods, few criticisms have been made of implausible priors in concrete applications. Such criticisms are themselves welcomed by Bayesian statisticians, as part of the inevitable revisions of science. See George E. P. Box and George C. Tiao's (1973) Bayesian Inference in Statistical Analysis. Nonetheless, worries about the possible problems of Bayesian methods continue to appear. Some scientists have raised the concerns that a Bayesian view could be problematic for scientific judgements, since a Bayesian information processor (it is claimed) tends to confirm already established views and to suppress controversial views. Jonathan J. Koehler. (1993). "The influence of prior beliefs on scientific judgments of evidence quality". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 56, 28-55. It would be useful to provide examples of such "Bayesian information processors" outside the nightmares of non-Bayesian scientists, since Bayesian methods have been used for hundreds of years and in tens of thousands of scientific journal articles. Such worries would warrant more attention were they to be accompanied by experimental evidence that would challenge the perception that Bayesian methods facilitate belief revision or were they to discuss published examples of implausible priors that led to practical problems. References http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm Ramsey, Frank Plumpton; “Truth and Probability” ( PDF), Chapter VII in The Foundations of Mathematics and other Logical Essays (1931). de Finetti, Bruno. "Probabilism: A Critical Essay on the Theory of Probability and on the Value of Science," (translation of 1931 article) in Erkenntnis, volume 31, September 1989. de Finetti, Bruno. 1937, “La Prévision: ses lois logiques, ses sources subjectives,” Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincaré, de Finetti, Bruno. "Foresight: its Logical Laws, Its Subjective Sources," (translation of the 1937 article in French) in H. E. Kyburg and H. E. Smokler (eds), Studies in Subjective Probability, New York: Wiley, 1964. de Finetti, Bruno. Theory of Probability, (translation by AFM Smith of 1970 book) 2 volumes, New York: Wiley, 1974-5. De Groot, Morris, Optimal Statistical Decisions. Wiley Classics Library. 2004. (Originally published 1970.) ISBN 0-471-68029-X. ET Jaynes' Probability Theory: The Logic of Science (2003) See also Bayesian brain: the application of Bayesian theory to the functioning of the brain Bayesian experimental design Bayesian inference: Statistical inference and methods using Bayesian probability Bayesian network: Bayesian reasoning for multiple variables in the presence of conditional independencies Bertrand's paradox: a paradox in classical probability, solved by Bayesian methods Expected utility De Finetti's game: a procedure for evaluating someone's subjective probability Fiducial inference: Fisher's attempt to produce probability-distributions on the parameter space without using a prior. Frequency probability: the main alternative to the Bayesian view Inference Likelihood function Maximum entropy thermodynamics: a Bayesian view of thermodynamics due to Edwin T. Jaynes Predictive inference Probability interpretations Uncertainty Footnotes External links A tutorial on Bayesian probabilities A. Hajek and S. Hartmann: Bayesian Epistemology (review article) On-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms, by David MacKay, has many chapters on Bayesian methods, including introductory examples; arguments in favour of Bayesian methods (in the style of Edwin Jaynes); state-of-the-art Monte Carlo methods, message-passing methods, and variational methods; and examples illustrating the intimate connections between Bayesian inference and data compression. An Intuitive Explanation of Bayesian Reasoning A very gentle introduction by Eliezer Yudkowsky An on-line introductory tutorial to Bayesian probability from Queen Mary University of London Jaynes, E.T. (1998) Probability Theory : The Logic of Science. Bretthorst, G. Larry, 1988, Bayesian Spectrum Analysis and Parameter Estimation in Lecture Notes in Statistics, 48, Springer-Verlag, New York, New York; Jeff Miller "Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (B)" James Franklin The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal, history from a Bayesian point of view. Is the portrait of Thomas Bayes authentic? Who Is this gentleman? When and where was he born? The IMS Bulletin, Vol. 17 (1988), No. 3, pp. 276-278 | Bayesian_probability |@lemmatized bayesian:79 probability:86 interpret:4 concept:6 measure:1 state:8 knowledge:6 et:3 jaynes:8 theory:24 logic:4 science:16 cambridge:3 university:5 press:3 isbn:2 interpretation:3 primitive:2 epistemic:1 distribution:13 random:2 variable:3 property:1 study:7 via:1 empirical:3 finite:3 sample:3 procedure:9 test:4 hypothesis:18 use:25 due:5 ramsey:17 de:29 finetti:23 frank:7 plumpton:3 truth:3 pdf:3 chapter:5 vii:3 foundation:4 mathematics:6 logical:6 essay:6 bruno:16 probabilism:3 critical:3 value:4 translation:9 article:11 erkenntnis:3 volume:6 september:3 la:3 prévision:3 lois:3 logiques:3 source:6 subjectives:3 annales:3 l:4 institut:3 henri:3 poincaré:3 foresight:3 law:4 subjective:17 french:3 h:6 e:9 kyburg:3 smokler:3 eds:3 new:10 york:9 wiley:8 afm:3 smith:3 book:6 p:4 acknowledge:2 debt:2 pragmatic:2 philosophy:2 particularly:3 charles:4 peirce:9 evaluate:5 implementable:2 keep:2 experimental:5 psychologist:3 occupy:2 half:4 century:5 work:6 demonstrate:3 proposition:6 falsify:3 meet:3 criterion:4 whose:4 inspire:2 falsifiability:2 popularize:3 karl:2 popper:2 many:4 non:2 conception:1 limiting:1 frequency:2 infinite:1 sequence:1 one:6 crucial:1 feature:1 view:14 assign:2 frequentist:10 either:6 true:4 false:2 therefore:1 zero:2 update:2 conditional:6 give:7 data:13 posterior:4 proportional:1 product:1 likelihood:4 time:4 prior:26 often:3 call:3 bring:1 effect:2 specifies:1 belief:10 observe:1 formally:1 inference:18 bayes:9 formula:4 correct:1 see:5 marginal:1 previous:2 witness:2 possible:2 exhaustive:2 set:3 mutually:2 exclusive:2 consider:1 index:1 alternative:5 world:5 exactly:1 inhabit:1 since:5 assume:2 case:6 normalizing:1 constant:1 need:6 result:2 simplify:1 denote:1 proportionality:1 general:4 method:36 characterize:1 following:1 hierarchical:1 model:3 marginalization:1 nuisance:1 parameter:5 computation:1 intractable:1 good:2 approximation:1 obtain:1 markov:1 chain:1 monte:2 carlo:2 sequential:1 becomes:1 available:1 calculate:1 become:3 next:1 statistic:12 must:1 broadly:1 speak:1 two:2 different:3 way:1 objectivist:4 school:8 rule:5 justify:1 desideratum:4 rationality:2 consistency:3 richard:3 cox:4 algebra:1 probable:1 john:3 hopkins:1 constency:1 also:3 important:2 subjectivist:2 corresponds:1 personal:8 rather:1 objective:15 b:5 vols:1 j:4 son:1 inc:1 variant:1 differ:1 mainly:3 construction:1 history:3 pierre:2 simon:2 marquis:1 laplace:6 main:2 early:5 developer:1 term:2 refers:1 thomas:2 prove:2 special:1 theorem:5 however:2 introduce:2 version:1 approach:6 problem:10 celestial:1 mechanic:1 medical:1 reliability:1 jurisprudence:1 stephen:2 stigler:1 harvard:1 overshadow:1 first:2 prominent:1 figure:1 ronald:1 fisher:3 jerzy:1 neyman:2 egon:1 pearson:1 sometimes:1 application:7 statistician:3 encourage:1 research:3 associate:1 word:3 appear:3 prefer:1 people:1 seek:1 escape:1 limitation:2 inconsistency:1 jeff:2 miller:2 know:4 us:2 fienberg:1 analysis:10 name:1 inverse:1 involve:2 infer:1 cause:1 idea:4 develop:3 direction:1 rise:1 statistical:12 depend:1 analyse:1 jm:1 bernardo:4 reference:4 handbook:1 decision:6 contrast:2 deny:1 possibility:1 fully:1 development:1 predate:1 degree:2 propose:1 maynard:2 keynes:2 take:1 far:2 italy:2 fondamenti:1 logici:1 del:1 ragionamento:1 probabilistico:1 gillie:1 philosophical:1 routledge:1 discover:1 independently:1 devise:1 solve:2 definition:1 developed:1 savage:2 strong:1 revival:1 harold:2 jeffreys:2 seminal:1 edwin:4 promote:1 maximum:3 entropy:3 principle:1 formulation:1 discrete:1 josé:3 miguel:2 offer:1 applicable:1 framework:1 viewpoint:1 axiomatic:1 basis:1 show:1 follow:3 simple:2 include:3 representation:1 real:1 number:2 another:1 fundamental:2 justification:3 formulate:1 funzione:1 caratteristica:1 di:1 un:1 fenomeno:1 aleatorio:1 mem:1 acad:1 naz:1 lincei:1 well:2 proponent:1 koopman:1 dennis:1 lindley:1 howard:1 raiffa:1 robert:1 schlaifer:1 alan:1 turing:1 dramatic:2 growth:2 mostly:1 attribute:1 improvement:1 hardware:1 software:1 increase:1 interest:1 nonstandard:1 complex:1 wolpert:1 rl:1 conversation:1 james:3 berger:2 despite:1 undergraduate:1 teaching:1 still:1 base:1 mathematical:1 icots:1 nonetheless:2 widely:1 accept:1 example:6 field:1 machine:2 learning:2 bishop:1 cm:1 pattern:1 recognition:1 springer:2 place:1 updating:2 support:1 several:3 argument:3 axiom:2 dutch:2 argue:2 inductive:1 logically:1 consistent:1 necessary:2 fact:1 express:1 numerically:1 avoid:1 although:1 cannot:1 deviate:1 much:1 condition:2 theoretic:1 abraham:1 wald:2 every:2 admissible:2 conversely:1 limit:1 establish:2 formalism:1 technique:1 construct:6 expect:2 utility:4 von:3 neumann:3 decison:1 theorist:4 account:1 rational:1 behavior:4 agent:4 johan:1 pfanzagl:3 complete:1 game:3 economic:2 provide:2 axiomatization:2 task:1 leave:1 uncompleted:1 oskar:2 morgenstern:2 original:1 suppose:1 convenience:1 endorse:1 anticipate:1 question:1 whether:1 might:1 perhaps:1 typically:1 specifically:1 latter:1 could:4 find:2 derive:1 desired:1 numerical:1 together:1 c:4 f:2 carry:1 rigor:1 page:1 note:4 individual:3 objectively:1 experiment:5 role:1 judgment:2 disagreement:1 recognize:1 aristotle:1 even:1 clearly:1 francis:1 bacon:1 objectivity:1 lie:1 psychology:1 scientist:3 process:2 especially:1 recall:1 previously:1 course:2 modern:1 evaluation:1 randomization:1 blinding:1 boolean:1 jastrow:1 http:2 psychclassics:2 yorku:2 ca:2 small:2 diffs:2 htm:2 randomize:1 logistic:1 regression:1 discuss:2 act:2 accord:2 judgement:3 probabilites:1 amenable:1 problematic:2 maker:1 lack:1 specify:2 informed:2 prepared:1 human:3 indeed:2 bayesians:2 defines:1 unique:1 regular:3 pose:1 right:1 appropriate:1 class:1 quest:2 thompson:1 successor:1 suggest:2 transformation:1 group:1 contributes:1 useful:3 handle:1 challenging:1 irregularity:1 practice:2 alternatively:1 default:1 ignorance:1 avowed:1 like:1 duke:1 universitat:1 valència:1 simply:1 ala:1 implausible:3 universal:1 continue:2 attract:1 thus:1 statistican:1 relevant:1 expertise:1 choose:1 among:1 compete:1 scientific:5 guide:2 observation:1 revision:3 change:2 faster:2 informal:2 subject:1 evidence:4 reasoning:2 classic:2 ward:1 edward:1 cite:1 hundred:3 year:2 scrutinize:1 ten:2 thousand:2 paper:1 publish:3 criticism:2 make:1 concrete:1 welcome:1 part:1 inevitable:1 george:2 box:1 tiao:1 worry:2 raise:1 concern:1 information:3 processor:2 claim:1 tend:1 confirm:1 already:1 suppress:1 controversial:1 jonathan:1 koehler:1 influence:1 quality:1 organizational:1 would:3 outside:1 nightmare:1 journal:1 warrant:1 attention:1 accompany:1 challenge:1 perception:1 facilitate:1 lead:1 practical:1 groot:1 morris:1 optimal:1 library:1 originally:1 x:1 brain:2 functioning:1 design:1 network:1 multiple:1 presence:1 independency:1 bertrand:1 paradox:2 classical:1 someone:1 fiducial:1 attempt:1 produce:1 space:1 without:1 function:1 thermodynamics:2 predictive:1 uncertainty:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 tutorial:2 hajek:1 hartmann:1 epistemology:1 review:1 line:2 textbook:1 learn:1 algorithm:1 david:1 mackay:1 introductory:2 favour:1 style:1 art:1 message:1 passing:1 variational:1 examples:1 illustrate:1 intimate:1 connection:1 compression:1 intuitive:1 explanation:1 reason:1 gentle:1 introduction:1 eliezer:1 yudkowsky:1 queen:1 mary:1 london:1 bretthorst:1 g:1 larry:1 spectrum:1 estimation:1 lecture:1 verlag:1 franklin:1 conjecture:1 pascal:1 point:1 portrait:1 authentic:1 gentleman:1 bear:1 ims:1 bulletin:1 vol:1 pp:1 |@bigram bayesian_probability:10 probability_distribution:10 random_variable:2 de_finetti:23 finetti_bruno:12 henri_poincaré:3 falsifiability_criterion:2 karl_popper:2 conditional_probability:4 bayesian_inference:10 posterior_probability:1 mutually_exclusive:2 markov_chain:1 monte_carlo:2 probable_inference:1 wiley_son:1 bayes_theorem:2 simon_laplace:1 celestial_mechanic:1 ronald_fisher:1 maynard_keynes:2 edwin_jaynes:3 statistical_inference:2 josé_miguel:2 howard_raiffa:1 alan_turing:1 inductive_inference:1 von_neumann:3 oskar_morgenstern:2 francis_bacon:1 http_psychclassics:2 psychclassics_yorku:2 yorku_ca:2 small_diffs:2 diffs_htm:2 logistic_regression:1 de_valència:1 external_link:1 introductory_tutorial:1 springer_verlag:1 |
3,204 | Joy_Division | Joy Division were an English rock band formed in 1976 in Salford, Greater Manchester. Originally named Warsaw, the band primarily consisted of Ian Curtis (vocals and occasional guitar), Bernard Sumner (guitar and keyboards), Sumner was also credited as "Bernard Dicken", "Bernard Albrecht" and "Bernard Albrecht-Dicken" on Joy Division releases Peter Hook (bass guitar and backing vocals) and Stephen Morris (drums and percussion). Joy Division rapidly evolved from their initial punk rock influences, to develop a sound and style that pioneered the post-punk movement of the late 1970s. According to music critic Jon Savage, the band "were not punk but were directly inspired by its energy". Savage, Jon. "Foreword". Touching from a Distance: Ian Curtis and Joy Division. London: Faber, 1995 (2nd ed. 2001, 3rd ed. 2005). ISBN 0-571-17445-0 Their self-released 1978 debut EP, An Ideal for Living, caught the attention of the Manchester television personality Tony Wilson. Joy Division's debut album, Unknown Pleasures, was released in 1979 on Wilson's independent record label Factory Records, and drew critical acclaim from the British press. Despite the band's growing success, vocalist Ian Curtis was beset with depression and personal difficulties, including a dissolving marriage and his diagnosis with epilepsy. Curtis found it increasingly difficult to perform at live concerts, and often had seizures during performances. In May 1980, on the eve of the band's first American tour, Curtis, overwhelmed with depression, committed suicide. Joy Division's posthumously released second album, Closer (1980), and the single "Love Will Tear Us Apart" became the band's highest charting releases. After the death of Curtis, the remaining members reformed as New Order, achieving critical and commercial success. History Formation On 4 June 1976, Sumner and Hook separately attended a Sex Pistols show at the Manchester Lesser Free Trade Hall. While only an estimated 35 to 40 people were present, the performance has since been credited with igniting the Manchester punk music scene, inspiring many of the attendants to form their own groups. Sumner later said that he felt that the Pistols "destroyed the myth of being a pop star, of a musician being some kind of god that you had to worship". Savage, Jon. "Joy Division: Someone Take These Dreams Away". Mojo. July 1994. Inspired by the performance, Sumner and Hook formed a band with their friend Terry Mason, who had also attended the show. Sumner bought a guitar, Hook a bass, and Mason a drum kit. An advertisement was placed in the Virgin Records store in Manchester for a vocalist. Ian Curtis, who knew the three from meeting at earlier gigs, responded and was hired without audition. According to Sumner, "I knew he was all right to get on with and that's what we based the whole group on. If we liked someone, they were in." Curtis, Deborah. Touching from a Distance: Ian Curtis and Joy Division. London: Faber, 1995 (2nd ed. 2001, 3rd ed. 2005). ISBN 0-571-17445-0, p. 42 Buzzcocks manager Richard Boon suggested the band call themselves the Stiff Kittens, and they were billed under this name for their first public performance, but the band instead chose the name Warsaw shortly before the gig, in reference to the song "Warszawa" by David Bowie. Curtis, pp. 43–44 Gimarc, p. 68 Warsaw played their first gig on 29 May 1977, supporting the Buzzcocks, Penetration, and John Cooper Clarke at the Electric Circus. Gimarc, p.68 Tony Tabac played drums that night after joining the band two days earlier. Curtis, p. 44 Gimarc, p. 68 Mason was soon made the band's manager and Tabac was replaced on drums in June 1977 by Steve Brotherdale, who also played in the punk band Panik. Gimarc, p. 73 During his tenure with Warsaw, Brotherdale tried to get Curtis to leave the band and join Panik but Curtis declined. Curtis, p. 48 In July 1977, Warsaw recorded a set of four demo tracks at Pennine Sound Studios, Oldham. Ott, p. 9 Gimarc, p. 77 Uneasy with Brotherdale's aggressive personality, the band fired him soon after the demo sessions. Driving home from the studio, they pulled over and asked Brotherdale to check on a flat tyre; when he got out of the car, they sped off. Curtis, p. 49 In August 1977, the band placed an advertisement in a music shop window seeking a replacement drummer. Stephen Morris, who had attended the same school as Curtis, was the sole respondent. Deborah Curtis, Ian's wife, stated that Morris "fitted perfectly" with the other men, and that with his addition Warsaw became a "complete 'family'". Curtis, p. 50 In order to avoid confusion with the London punk band Warsaw Pakt, the band renamed themselves Joy Division in late 1977, borrowing their new name from the prostitution wing of a Nazi concentration camp mentioned in the 1955 novel The House of Dolls. Reynolds, p. 111 The group recorded another demo at Pennine Studios in December, and played their first gig as Joy Division on 25 January 1978 at Pip's in Manchester. Curtis, p. 55 Gimarc, p. 108, 115 Early releases Joy Division were approached by RCA Records to record a cover of Nolan "N.F." Porter's "Keep On Keepin' On" and was afforded recording time at a professional Manchester studio in return. Joy Division spent late March and April 1978 writing and rehearsing material. Ott, p. 33 During the Stiff/Chiswick Challenge concert on 14 April, the group caught the attention of Tony Wilson and Rob Gretton, who became supporters of the band. Curtis berated Wilson for not putting the group on his defunct Granada Television show So It Goes; Wilson responded that Joy Division would be the next band he would showcase on TV. Curtis, p. 61 Joy Division spent the first week of May 1978 recording at Manchester's Arrow Studios; Gretton became the band's manager soon after recording was completed. The band were unhappy with the Grapevine Records head John Anderson's insistence on adding sythesizer into the mix to soften the sound, and asked to be dropped from the contract that they had recently signed with RCA. Ott, p. 42 Gimarc, p. 135 Joy Division made their recorded debut in June 1978 when the band self-released their debut EP, An Ideal for Living, and a track of theirs, "At a Later Date", was featured on the compilation album Short Circuit: Live at the Electric Circus (which had been recorded live on 2 October 1977). Curtis, pp. 51–52, 140 In the Melody Maker review of the EP, Chris Brazier said that it "has the familiar rough-hewn nature of home-produced records but they're no mere drone-vendors—there are a lot of good ideas here, and they could be a very interesting band by now, seven months on". Brazier, Chris. An Ideal For Living review. Melody Maker. 24 June 1978. The packaging—which featured a drawing of a Hitler Youth member on the cover—coupled with the nature of the band's name, fueled speculation about their political affiliations. Curtis, p. 54 While Hook and Sumner later admitted to being intrigued by fascism at the time, Morris insisted that the group's obsession with Nazi imagery came from a desire to keep memories of the sacrifices of their parents and grandparents during World War II alive. He argued that accusations of neo-Nazi sympathies merely provoked the band "to keep on doing it, because that's the kind of people we are". In September 1978, Joy Division made their television performance debut on the local news show Granada Reports, hosted by Tony Wilson. Curtis, p. 202 Later in the month, Joy Division contributed two tracks recorded with producer Martin Hannett to the compilation double-7" EP A Factory Sample, the first release by Tony Wilson's record label, Factory Records. Joy Division soon joined Factory's roster, after buying themselves out of the deal with RCA. Factory Records did not have record contracts, so Joy Division (and, later, New Order) were never officially signed to the label. Gimarc, p. 158 Rob Gretton was made a partner in the label to represent the interests of the band. Shadowplayers [DVD]. LTM, 2006 On 27 December, Ian Curtis suffered his first recognisable epileptic episode. During the ride home after a show at the Hope & Anchor in London, Curtis had a seizure and was taken to a hospital. Curtis, p. 69 In spite of his illness, Joy Division's career continued to progress. Curtis appeared on the front cover of the 13 January 1979 issue of the NME due to the persistence of music journalist Paul Morley; that same month the band recorded their first radio session for BBC Radio 1 DJ John Peel. According to Deborah Curtis, "Sandwiched in between these two important landmarks was the realization that Ian's illness was something we would have to learn to accommodate." Curtis, p. 71 Unknown Pleasures In April 1979, the band began recording their debut album, Unknown Pleasures, at Strawberry Studios in Stockport. Producer Martin Hannett contributed significantly to the final sound. The band initially disliked the "spacious, atmospheric sound" of the album, which did not reflect their more aggressive live sound. Hook said in 2006, "It definitely didn't turn out sounding the way I wanted it.... But now I can see that Martin did a good job on it.... There's no two ways about it, Martin Hannett created the Joy Division sound." Wilkinson, Roy. "Ode to Joy". Mojo Classic: Morrissey and the Story of Manchester. 2006. The album cover was designed by Peter Saville, who would go on to provide artwork for future Joy Division releases. Unknown Pleasures was released in June and sold through its initial pressing of 10,000 copies. Tony Wilson said that the relative success of the album turned the indie label into a true business and a "revolutionary force" that operated outside of the major record label system. Reviewing the album for Melody Maker, writer Jon Savage called Unknown Pleasures an "opaque manifesto" and declared "[leaving] the twentieth century is difficult; most people prefer to go back and nostalgize, Oh boy. Joy Division at least set a course in the present with contrails for the future—perhaps you can’t ask for much more. Indeed, Unknown Pleasures may very well be one of the best, white, English, debut LPs of the year". Savage, Jon. Unknown Pleasures review. Melody Maker. 21 July 1979. Joy Division performed on Granada TV again in July 1979, and made their only nationwide TV appearance in September on BBC2's Something Else. They supported the Buzzcocks in a 24-venue UK tour that began that October, which allowed the band to quit their regular jobs. The non-album single "Transmission" was released in November. Joy Division's burgeoning success drew a devoted following nicknamed the "Cult With No Name", who were stereotyped as "intense young men dressed in gray overcoats". Reynolds, p. 115 Closer and Curtis's suicide In January 1980, Joy Division set out on a European tour. While the tour was difficult, Curtis only experienced two grand mal seizures in the two months preceding the tour's final date. Curtis, p. 107 With Martin Hannett again producing, the band recorded their second album, Closer, in March at London's Britannia Row Studios. Raftery, Brian. "He's Lost Control". Spin. May 2005. March also saw the release of the Licht und Blindheit single (featuring the songs "Dead Souls" and "Atmosphere") on the small French label Sordide Sentimental. Gimarc, p. 307 Lack of sleep and long hours destabilised Curtis's epilepsy and his seizures became almost uncontrollable. Curtis, p. 113 Curtis would often have seizures during shows, which left him feeling ashamed and depressed. While the band was concerned about their singer, audience members on occasion thought his behaviour was part of the show. Curtis, p. 114 On 7 April, Curtis attempted suicide by overdosing on phenobarbitone. The next evening, Joy Division was set to play a gig at the Derby Hall in Bury. With Curtis recovering, it was decided that the band would play a combined set with Alan Hempstall of Crispy Ambulance and Simon Topping of A Certain Ratio filling in on vocals for the first few songs. Curtis came onstage to perform for part of the set. When Topping came back out to finish the set for Curtis, some in the audience started throwing bottles at the stage. Gretton leapt into the crowd and a riot ensued. Several April gigs were cancelled due to the continuing ill health of Curtis, but the band filmed a promotional video for the forthcoming "Love Will Tear Us Apart" single that month. Gimarc, p. 322 The band played what would be their final show at the University of Birmingham's Chamberlain Hall on 2 May. Morley, Paul; Thrills, Adrian. "Don't Walk Away in Silence". NME. 14 June 1980. Joy Division were due to begin their first American tour in May 1980. While Curtis had expressed a desire to take time off to a few acquaintances, he feigned excitement about the tour around the band because he did not want to disappoint his band mates or Factory Records. Reynolds, p. 117 At the time, Curtis's relationship with his wife, Deborah Curtis (the couple married in 1975 as teenagers), was collapsing. Contributing factors were his ill health, her being mostly excluded from his life with the band, and his relationship with a young Belgian woman named Annik Honoré whom he had met on a European tour. The evening before Joy Division were to embark on the American tour, Curtis returned to his home in Macclesfield in order to talk to his estranged wife. He asked her to drop the divorce suit she had filed; later, he told her to leave him alone in the house until he caught his train to Manchester the next morning. Curtis, pp. 131–132 Early on the morning of 18 May 1980, Curtis hanged himself in his kitchen; Deborah Curtis discovered his body when she returned around midday. Curtis, p. 132 Tony Wilson said in 2005, "I think all of us made the mistake of not thinking his suicide was going to happen.... We all completely underestimated the danger. We didn't take it seriously. That's how stupid we were." Aftermath Curtis's suicide "made for instant myth", in music critic Simon Reynolds's words. Reynolds, p. 118 Jon Savage wrote in his obituary for Curtis in Melody Maker, "Now no one will remember what his work with Joy Division was like when he was alive; it will be perceived as tragic rather than courageous." Savage, Jon. "From safety to where?" Melody Maker. 14 June 1980. In June 1980, the posthumous single "Love Will Tear Us Apart" was released, which hit number thirteen on the British singles chart. Curtis, p. 138 In July 1980, Closer finally came out, peaking at number six on the British album chart. NME reviewer Charles Shaar Murray wrote, "Closer is as magnificent a memorial (for 'Joy Division' as much as for Ian Curtis) as any post-Presley popular musician could have." Murrary, Charles Shaar. "Closer to the Edge" [Closer review]. NME. 19 July 1980. The members of Joy Division had made a pact long before Curtis's death that, should any member leave, the remaining members would change the name of the group. Eventually renaming themselves New Order, the band was reborn as a three-piece with Sumner assuming vocal duties; the group later recruited Morris's girlfriend Gillian Gilbert to round out the lineup as keyboardist and second guitarist. New Order's first single, the 1981 release "Ceremony", featured the last two songs written with Ian Curtis. Ott, p. 112 While the group struggled in its early years to escape the shadow of Joy Division, New Order eventually went on to much greater commercial success than their predecessor band. Further Joy Division material has been released since the band's demise. Still, a compilation of live tracks and rare recordings, was issued in 1981. Factory put out the Substance compilation in 1988, which included several out-of-print singles. Another compilation, Permanent, was released in 1995 by London Records, which had acquired the Joy Division catalogue after Factory Records went bankrupt in 1992. A comprehensive box set, Heart and Soul, came out in 1997. Musical style Joy Division took time to develop their sound. As Warsaw, the band played "fairly undistinguished punk-inflected hard-rock". Critic Simon Reynolds asserted that "Joy Division's originality really became apparent as the songs got slower." The group's music took on a "sparse" quality; in Reynolds's description, "Peter Hook's bass carried the melody, Bernard Sumner's guitar left gaps rather than filling up the group's sound with dense riffage, and Steve Morris's drums seemed to circle the rim of a crater." Reynolds, p. 110 Sumner described the band's characteristic sound in 1994: "It came out naturally: I'm more rhythm and chords, and Hooky was melody. He used to play high lead bass because I liked my guitar to sound distorted, and the amplifier I had would only work when it was at full volume. When Hooky played low, he couldn't hear himself. Steve has his own style which is different to other drummers. To me, a drummer in the band is the clock, but Steve wouldn't be the clock, because he's passive: he would follow the rhythm of the band, which gave us our own edge." Over time, Ian Curtis began to sing in a low, baritone voice, which often drew comparisons to Jim Morrison of The Doors (one of Curtis's favourite bands). Reynolds, p. 112 Sumner acted as the unofficial musical director of the band, a role that he carried over into New Order. While Sumner was the group's primary guitarist, Curtis played the instrument on a few recorded songs and during a few shows. Curtis hated playing guitar, but the band insisted he do so. Sumner said, "He played in quite a bizarre way and that to us was interesting, because no one else would play like Ian." Curtis, p. 75 During the recording sessions for Closer, Sumner began using self-built synthesizers and Hook used a six-string bass for more melody. Reynolds, p. 116 Producer Martin Hannett "dedicated himself to capturing and intensifying Joy Division's eerie spatiality". Hannett believed punk rock was sonically conservative because of its refusal to utilise studio technology to create sonic space. The producer instead aimed to create a more expansive sound on the group's records. Hannett said, "[Joy Division] were a gift to a producer, because they didn't have a clue. They didn't argue." Hannett demanded clean and clear "sound separation" not only for individual instruments, but even for individual pieces of Morris's drumkit. Morris recalled, "Typically on tracks he considered to be potential singles, he'd get me to play each drum on its own to avoid any bleed-through of sound." Reynolds, p. 113 Lyrics Ian Curtis was the group's sole lyricist. Curtis would write frantically when the mood took him; he would then listen to the band's music (which was often arranged by Sumner) and used the lyrics that were most appropriate. Curtis, p. 74 Words and images such as "coldness, pressure, darkness, crisis, failure, collapse, loss of control" reoccur in his songs. In 1979, NME journalist Paul Rambali wrote, "The themes of Joy Division's music are sorrowful, painful, and sometimes deeply sad." Rambali, Paul. "Take No Prisoners, Leave No Clues". NME. 11 August 1979. The band refused to explain their lyrics to the press or print the words on lyrics sheets. Curtis told the fanzine Printed Noise, "We haven't got a message really; the lyrics are open to interpretation. They're multidimensional. You can read into them what you like." The other band members later admitted they paid little attention to what Curtis was writing. Deborah Curtis recalled that only with the release of Closer did many who were close to the singer realise "[h]is intentions and feelings were all there within the lyrics." Curtis, p. 139 The surviving members of the band in retrospect regret not seeing warning signs in Curtis's lyrics. "This sounds awful but it was only after Ian died that we sat down and listened to the lyrics," Morris said in 2007. "You'd find yourself thinking, 'Oh my God, I missed this one.' Because I'd look at Ian's lyrics and think how clever he was putting himself in the position of someone else. I never believed he was writing about himself. Looking back, how could I have been so bleedin' stupid? Of course he was writing about himself. But I didn't go in and grab him and ask, 'What's up?' I have to live with that." Live performances In contrast to the sound of their studio recordings, Joy Division typically played loud and aggressively during live performances. The band were unhappy with Hannett's mixing of Unknown Pleasures, which reduced the abrasiveness of their sound. According to Sumner, "the music was loud and heavy, and we felt that Martin had toned it down, especially with the guitars." In concert, the group interacted little with the crowd; Paul Morley wrote, "[D]uring a Joy Division set, outside of the songs, you'll be lucky to hear more than two or three words. Hello and goodbye. No introductions, no promotion." Morley, Paul. "Simply the First Division". NME. 16 February 1980. While singing, Curtis would often perform what was referred to as his "'dead fly' dance", where the singer's arms would "start flying in [a] semicircular, hypnotic curve". Simon Reynolds noted that Curtis's dancing style was reminiscent of an epileptic fit, and that he was dancing in the manner for some months before he was diagnosed with epilepsy. Live performances became problematic for Joy Division, due to Curtis's condition. Sumner later said, "We didn't have flashing lights, but sometimes a particular drum beat would do something to him. He'd go off in a trance for a bit, then he'd lose it and have a[n epileptic] fit. We'd have to stop the show and carry him off to the dressing-room where he'd cry his eyes out because this appalling thing had just happened to him." Lester, Paul. "Torn Apart: The Legend of Joy Division." Record Collector. November 2007. Legacy Despite their short career and cult status, Joy Division have exerted a wide-reaching influence. John Bush of Allmusic argues that Joy Division "became the first band in the post-punk movement by...emphasizing not anger and energy but mood and expression, pointing ahead to the rise of melancholy alternative music in the '80s." The band's dark and gloomy sound, which Martin Hannett described in 1979 as "dancing music with Gothic overtones", presaged the gothic rock genre. While the term "gothic" originally described a "doomy atmosphere" in music of the late 1970s, the term was soon applied to specific bands like Bauhaus that followed in Joy Division's wake. Reynolds, p. 352 Standard musical fixtures of early gothic rock bands included "high-pitched post-Joy Division basslines usurp[ing] the melodic role" and "vocals that were either near operatic and Teutonic or deep, droning alloys of Jim Morrison and Ian Curtis." Reynolds, p. 353 Joy Division has influenced bands ranging from contemporaries U2 and The Cure to post-punk revival artists such as Interpol, Bloc Party and Editors. U2 frontman Bono stated that his group "worshipped" Joy Division. NewOrderStory [DVD]. Warner Bros., 2005. The singer said in the band's 2006 autobiography U2 by U2, "It would be harder to find a darker place in music than Joy Division. Their name, their lyrics and their singer were as big a black cloud as you could find in the sky. And yet I sensed the pursuit of God, or light, or reason...a reason to be. With Joy Division, you felt from this singer, beauty was truth and truth was beauty, and theirs was a search for both." McCormick, Neil (ed). U2 by U2. HarperCollins Publishers, 2006. ISBN 0-00-719668-7, p. 92 Artists including electronica performer Moby and Red Hot Chili Peppers guitarist John Frusciante have described their appreciation for Joy Division's music and the influence it has had on their own material. Dalley, Helen. "John Frusciante". Total Guitar. August 2002. In 2005, Joy Division were inducted along with New Order into the UK Music Hall of Fame. Two biopics have been released that dramatise Joy Division on film. 24 Hour Party People (2002) presented a somewhat fictionalised account of the rise and fall of Factory Records, in which the members of Joy Division served as supporting characters. Tony Wilson said of the film, "It's all true, it's all not true. It's not a fucking documentary", insisting that whenever possible during the production of the film, he favoured the "myth" over the truth. The 2007 black and white film Control, directed by Anton Corbijn, is a biography of Ian Curtis (portrayed by Sam Riley) that uses Deborah Curtis's biography of her late husband, Touching from a Distance (1995), as its basis; Corbijn, Anton; Wise, Damon. "Joy Division". Mojo. November 2007. others consulted for the picture included Tony Wilson and New Order, who scored the film. Control had its international premiere on the opening night of Director's Fortnight at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival, where it was critically well-received. The same year Grant Gee directed a documentary about the band, simply entitled Joy Division. Discography Unknown Pleasures (1979) Closer (1980) References Curtis, Deborah. Touching from a Distance: Ian Curtis and Joy Division. London: Faber, 1995 (2nd ed. 2001, 3rd ed. 2005). ISBN 0-571-17445-0 Gimarc, George. Punk Diary: The Ultimate Trainspotter's Guide to Underground Rock 1970-1982. Backbeat Books, 2005. ISBN 0-87930-848-6 Ott, Chris. Unknown Pleasures. (33⅓ series) New York: Continuum, 2004. ISBN 0-8264-1549-0 Reynolds, Simon. Rip It Up and Start Again: Postpunk 1978–1984. Penguin, 2005. ISBN 0-14-303672-6 Savage, Jon. "Joy Division: Someone Take These Dreams Away". Mojo. July 1994. Notes be-x-old:Joy Division | Joy_Division |@lemmatized joy:62 division:62 english:2 rock:7 band:60 form:3 salford:1 great:2 manchester:10 originally:2 name:9 warsaw:8 primarily:1 consist:1 ian:18 curtis:77 vocal:5 occasional:1 guitar:9 bernard:5 sumner:18 keyboard:1 also:4 credit:2 dicken:2 albrecht:2 release:18 peter:3 hook:8 bass:5 backing:1 stephen:2 morris:9 drum:7 percussion:1 rapidly:1 evolve:1 initial:2 punk:11 influence:4 develop:2 sound:19 style:4 pioneer:1 post:5 movement:2 late:6 accord:4 music:15 critic:3 jon:8 savage:8 directly:1 inspire:3 energy:2 foreword:1 touch:4 distance:4 london:7 faber:3 ed:7 isbn:7 self:3 debut:7 ep:4 ideal:3 living:2 catch:3 attention:3 television:3 personality:2 tony:9 wilson:11 album:11 unknown:10 pleasure:10 independent:1 record:28 label:7 factory:9 draw:3 critical:2 acclaim:1 british:3 press:2 despite:2 grow:1 success:5 vocalist:2 beset:1 depression:2 personal:1 difficulty:1 include:5 dissolving:1 marriage:1 diagnosis:1 epilepsy:3 find:4 increasingly:1 difficult:3 perform:4 live:10 concert:3 often:5 seizure:5 performance:8 may:8 eve:1 first:13 american:3 tour:9 overwhelm:1 commit:1 suicide:5 posthumously:1 second:3 closer:8 single:9 love:3 tear:3 u:6 apart:4 become:8 high:3 charting:1 death:2 remain:2 member:9 reform:1 new:10 order:10 achieve:1 commercial:2 history:1 formation:1 june:8 separately:1 attend:3 sex:1 pistols:1 show:10 less:1 free:1 trade:1 hall:4 estimate:1 people:4 present:3 since:2 ignite:1 scene:1 many:2 attendant:1 group:16 later:8 say:11 felt:3 pistol:1 destroy:1 myth:3 pop:1 star:1 musician:2 kind:2 god:3 worship:2 someone:4 take:9 dream:2 away:3 mojo:4 july:7 friend:1 terry:1 mason:3 buy:2 kit:1 advertisement:2 place:3 virgin:1 store:1 know:2 three:3 meet:2 early:5 gig:6 respond:2 hire:1 without:1 audition:1 right:1 get:6 base:1 whole:1 like:6 deborah:8 p:44 buzzcocks:3 manager:3 richard:1 boon:1 suggest:1 call:2 stiff:2 kitten:1 bill:1 public:1 instead:2 choose:1 shortly:1 reference:2 song:8 warszawa:1 david:1 bowie:1 pp:3 gimarc:11 play:16 support:3 penetration:1 john:6 cooper:1 clarke:1 electric:2 circus:2 tabac:2 night:2 join:3 two:9 day:1 earlier:1 soon:5 make:8 replace:1 steve:4 brotherdale:4 panik:2 tenure:1 try:1 leave:7 decline:1 set:9 four:1 demo:3 track:5 pennine:2 studio:9 oldham:1 ott:5 uneasy:1 aggressive:2 fire:1 session:3 drive:1 home:4 pull:1 ask:5 check:1 flat:1 tyre:1 car:1 speed:1 august:3 shop:1 window:1 seek:1 replacement:1 drummer:3 school:1 sole:2 respondent:1 wife:3 state:2 fit:3 perfectly:1 men:2 addition:1 complete:2 family:1 avoid:2 confusion:1 pakt:1 rename:2 borrow:1 prostitution:1 wing:1 nazi:3 concentration:1 camp:1 mention:1 novel:1 house:2 doll:1 reynolds:15 another:2 december:2 january:3 pip:1 approach:1 rca:3 cover:4 nolan:1 n:2 f:1 porter:1 keep:3 keepin:1 afford:1 recording:4 time:6 professional:1 return:3 spend:2 march:3 april:5 writing:1 rehearse:1 material:3 chiswick:1 challenge:1 rob:2 gretton:4 supporter:1 berate:1 put:3 defunct:1 granada:3 go:8 would:17 next:3 showcase:1 tv:3 week:1 arrow:1 unhappy:2 grapevine:1 head:1 anderson:1 insistence:1 add:1 sythesizer:1 mix:1 soften:1 drop:2 contract:2 recently:1 sign:3 recorded:1 date:2 feature:4 compilation:5 short:2 circuit:1 october:2 melody:9 maker:6 review:5 chris:3 brazier:2 familiar:1 rough:1 hewn:1 nature:2 produce:2 mere:1 drone:2 vendor:1 lot:1 good:2 idea:1 could:4 interesting:1 seven:1 month:6 packaging:1 drawing:1 hitler:1 youth:1 couple:2 fuel:1 speculation:1 political:1 affiliation:1 admit:2 intrigue:1 fascism:1 insist:3 obsession:1 imagery:1 come:6 desire:2 memory:1 sacrifice:1 parent:1 grandparent:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 alive:2 argue:2 accusation:1 neo:1 sympathy:1 merely:1 provoke:1 september:2 local:1 news:1 report:1 host:1 contribute:3 producer:5 martin:8 hannett:10 double:1 sample:1 roster:1 deal:1 never:2 officially:1 partner:1 represent:1 interest:2 shadowplayers:1 dvd:2 ltm:1 suffer:1 recognisable:1 epileptic:3 episode:1 ride:1 hope:1 anchor:1 hospital:1 spite:1 illness:2 career:2 continue:2 progress:1 appear:1 front:1 issue:2 nme:7 due:4 persistence:1 journalist:2 paul:7 morley:4 radio:2 bbc:1 dj:1 peel:1 sandwich:1 important:1 landmark:1 realization:1 something:3 learn:1 accommodate:1 begin:5 strawberry:1 stockport:1 significantly:1 final:3 initially:1 dislike:1 spacious:1 atmospheric:1 reflect:1 definitely:1 turn:2 way:3 want:2 see:2 job:2 create:3 wilkinson:1 roy:1 ode:1 classic:1 morrissey:1 story:1 design:1 saville:1 provide:1 artwork:1 future:2 sell:1 pressing:1 copy:1 relative:1 indie:1 true:3 business:1 revolutionary:1 force:1 operate:1 outside:2 major:1 system:1 writer:1 opaque:1 manifesto:1 declare:1 twentieth:1 century:1 prefer:1 back:3 nostalgize:1 oh:2 boy:1 least:1 course:2 contrail:1 perhaps:1 much:3 indeed:1 well:2 one:5 best:1 white:2 lp:1 year:3 nationwide:1 appearance:1 else:3 venue:1 uk:2 allow:1 quit:1 regular:1 non:1 transmission:1 november:3 burgeon:1 devote:1 following:1 nickname:1 cult:2 stereotype:1 intense:1 young:2 dress:2 gray:1 overcoat:1 european:2 experienced:1 grand:1 mal:1 precede:1 britannia:1 row:1 raftery:1 brian:1 lose:2 control:4 spin:1 saw:1 licht:1 und:1 blindheit:1 dead:2 soul:2 atmosphere:2 small:1 french:1 sordide:1 sentimental:1 lack:1 sleep:1 long:2 hour:2 destabilise:1 almost:1 uncontrollable:1 feel:1 ashamed:1 depress:1 concern:1 singer:6 audience:2 occasion:1 think:5 behaviour:1 part:2 attempt:1 overdose:1 phenobarbitone:1 evening:2 derby:1 bury:1 recovering:1 decide:1 combined:1 alan:1 hempstall:1 crispy:1 ambulance:1 simon:5 topping:1 certain:1 ratio:1 filling:1 onstage:1 top:1 finish:1 start:3 throw:1 bottle:1 stage:1 leapt:1 crowd:2 riot:1 ensue:1 several:2 cancel:1 ill:2 health:2 film:7 promotional:1 video:1 forthcoming:1 university:1 birmingham:1 chamberlain:1 thrill:1 adrian:1 walk:1 silence:1 express:1 acquaintance:1 feign:1 excitement:1 around:2 disappoint:1 mate:1 relationship:2 marry:1 teenager:1 collapse:2 factor:1 mostly:1 exclude:1 life:1 belgian:1 woman:1 annik:1 honoré:1 embark:1 macclesfield:1 talk:1 estranged:1 divorce:1 suit:1 file:1 tell:2 alone:1 train:1 morning:2 hang:1 kitchen:1 discover:1 body:1 midday:1 mistake:1 happen:2 completely:1 underestimate:1 danger:1 seriously:1 stupid:2 aftermath:1 instant:1 word:4 write:9 obituary:1 remember:1 work:2 perceive:1 tragic:1 rather:2 courageous:1 safety:1 posthumous:1 hit:1 number:2 thirteen:1 chart:2 finally:1 peak:1 six:2 reviewer:1 charles:2 shaar:2 murray:1 magnificent:1 memorial:1 presley:1 popular:1 murrary:1 close:3 edge:2 pact:1 change:1 eventually:2 reborn:1 piece:2 assume:1 duty:1 recruit:1 girlfriend:1 gillian:1 gilbert:1 round:1 lineup:1 keyboardist:1 guitarist:3 ceremony:1 last:1 struggle:1 escape:1 shadow:1 predecessor:1 far:1 demise:1 still:1 rare:1 substance:1 print:3 permanent:1 acquire:1 catalogue:1 bankrupt:1 comprehensive:1 box:1 heart:1 musical:3 fairly:1 undistinguished:1 inflect:1 hard:2 assert:1 originality:1 really:2 apparent:1 slow:1 sparse:1 quality:1 description:1 carry:3 gap:1 fill:1 dense:1 riffage:1 seem:1 circle:1 rim:1 crater:1 describe:4 characteristic:1 naturally:1 rhythm:2 chord:1 hooky:2 use:5 lead:1 distorted:1 amplifier:1 full:1 volume:1 low:2 hear:2 different:1 clock:2 passive:1 follow:2 give:1 sing:2 baritone:1 voice:1 comparison:1 jim:2 morrison:2 door:1 favourite:1 act:1 unofficial:1 director:2 role:2 primary:1 instrument:2 hat:1 quite:1 bizarre:1 build:1 synthesizer:1 string:1 dedicate:1 capture:1 intensify:1 eerie:1 spatiality:1 believe:2 sonically:1 conservative:1 refusal:1 utilise:1 technology:1 sonic:1 space:1 aim:1 expansive:1 gift:1 clue:2 demand:1 clean:1 clear:1 separation:1 individual:2 even:1 drumkit:1 recall:2 typically:2 consider:1 potential:1 bleed:1 lyric:10 lyricist:1 frantically:1 mood:2 listen:2 arrange:1 appropriate:1 image:1 coldness:1 pressure:1 darkness:1 crisis:1 failure:1 loss:1 reoccur:1 rambali:2 theme:1 sorrowful:1 painful:1 sometimes:2 deeply:1 sad:1 prisoner:1 refuse:1 explain:1 sheet:1 fanzine:1 noise:1 message:1 open:1 interpretation:1 multidimensional:1 read:1 pay:1 little:2 realise:1 h:1 intention:1 feeling:1 within:1 survive:1 retrospect:1 regret:1 warn:1 awful:1 die:1 sit:1 miss:1 look:2 clever:1 position:1 bleedin:1 grab:1 contrast:1 loud:2 aggressively:1 mixing:1 reduce:1 abrasiveness:1 heavy:1 tone:1 especially:1 interact:1 uring:1 lucky:1 hello:1 goodbye:1 introduction:1 promotion:1 simply:2 february:1 refer:1 fly:2 dance:4 arm:1 semicircular:1 hypnotic:1 curve:1 note:2 reminiscent:1 manner:1 diagnose:1 problematic:1 condition:1 flash:1 light:2 particular:1 beat:1 trance:1 bit:1 stop:1 room:1 cry:1 eye:1 appalling:1 thing:1 lester:1 torn:1 legend:1 collector:1 legacy:1 status:1 exert:1 wide:1 reach:1 bush:1 allmusic:1 argues:1 emphasize:1 anger:1 expression:1 point:1 ahead:1 rise:2 melancholy:1 alternative:1 dark:1 gloomy:1 gothic:4 overtone:1 presage:1 genre:1 term:2 doomy:1 apply:1 specific:1 bauhaus:1 wake:1 standard:1 fixture:1 pitch:1 basslines:1 usurp:1 ing:1 melodic:1 either:1 near:1 operatic:1 teutonic:1 deep:1 alloy:1 range:1 contemporary:1 cure:1 revival:1 artist:2 interpol:1 bloc:1 party:2 editor:1 frontman:1 bono:1 neworderstory:1 warner:1 bros:1 autobiography:1 darker:1 big:1 black:2 cloud:1 sky:1 yet:1 sense:1 pursuit:1 reason:2 beauty:2 truth:3 search:1 mccormick:1 neil:1 harpercollins:1 publisher:1 electronica:1 performer:1 moby:1 red:1 hot:1 chili:1 pepper:1 frusciante:2 appreciation:1 dalley:1 helen:1 total:1 induct:1 along:1 fame:1 biopics:1 dramatise:1 somewhat:1 fictionalised:1 account:1 fall:1 serve:1 character:1 fucking:1 documentary:2 whenever:1 possible:1 production:1 favour:1 direct:2 anton:2 corbijn:2 biography:2 portray:1 sam:1 riley:1 husband:1 basis:1 wise:1 damon:1 others:1 consult:1 picture:1 score:1 international:1 premiere:1 opening:1 fortnight:1 cannes:1 festival:1 critically:1 receive:1 grant:1 gee:1 entitle:1 discography:1 george:1 diary:1 ultimate:1 trainspotter:1 guide:1 underground:1 backbeat:1 book:1 series:1 york:1 continuum:1 rip:1 postpunk:1 penguin:1 x:1 old:1 |@bigram ian_curtis:14 bass_guitar:1 backing_vocal:1 drum_percussion:1 punk_rock:2 savage_jon:5 critical_acclaim:1 vocalist_ian:2 commit_suicide:1 drum_kit:1 david_bowie:1 gimarc_p:10 deborah_curtis:6 avoid_confusion:1 concentration_camp:1 melody_maker:6 parent_grandparent:1 martin_hannett:6 ode_joy:1 twentieth_century:1 riot_ensue:1 charles_shaar:2 jim_morrison:2 someone_else:1 torn_apart:1 warner_bros:1 harpercollins_publisher:1 hot_chili:1 chili_pepper:1 hall_fame:1 fictionalised_account:1 anton_corbijn:1 cannes_film:1 backbeat_book:1 start_postpunk:1 |
3,205 | FM-2030 | FM-2030 (October 15, 1930 – July 8, 2000) was a transhumanist philosopher and futurist. FM-2030 was born Fereidoun M. Esfandiary (). He became notable as a transhumanist with the book "Are You a Transhuman?: Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World", published in 1989. In addition he wrote a number of works of fiction under his original name F.M. Esfandiary. The son of an Iranian diplomat, he traveled widely as a child, http://www.mahmag.org/philosophy.php?itemid=119 living in 17 countries by age 11; http://www.ghandchi.com/esfandiary.htm then, as a young man, he represented Iran in the 1948 Olympic Games and served on the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine from 1952 to 1954. http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/spe/rbk/faids/fm2030.pdf On July 8, 2000, FM-2030 died from pancreatic cancer and was placed in cryonic suspension at the Alcor Life Extension Foundation in Scottsdale, Arizona, where his body remains today. He is survived by his four sisters and brother. F.M. Esfandiary changed his name to FM-2030 for two main reasons. Firstly, to reflect the hope and belief that he would live to celebrate his 100th birthday in 2030; Secondly, and more importantly, to break free of the widespread practice of naming conventions that are rooted in a collectivist mentality, and exist only as a relic of humankind's tribalistic past. Traditional names almost always stamp a label of collective identity - varying from gender, to nationality - on the individual, thereby existing as prima facie elements of thought processes in the human cultural fabric, that tend to degenerate into stereotyping, factionalism, and discrimination. In his own words, "Conventional names define a person's past: ancestry, ethnicity, nationality, religion. I am not who I was ten years ago and certainly not who I will be in twenty years. [...] The name 2030 reflects my conviction that the years around 2030 will be a magical time. In 2030 we will be ageless and everyone will have an excellent chance to live forever. 2030 is a dream and a goal." http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1076532 Many of FM-2030's predictions about social trends from the 1970s through the early 21st century proved remarkably prescient. FM-2030 argued that the inherent dynamic of the modern globalizing civilization would bring such changes about despite the best efforts of conservative elites to enforce traditional beliefs. FM-2030 once said, "I am a 21st century person who was accidentally launched in the 20th. I have a deep nostalgia for the future." http://www.nycny.com/columns/nichols/nichols09-15-00.html Books by FM-2030 Fiction The Day of Sacrifice 1959 available as an eBook The Beggar 1965 Identity Card 1966 (ISBN 0-460-03843-5) available as an eBook Non-fiction UpWingers: A Futurist Manifesto 1973 (ISBN 0-381-98243-2) (pbk.) Available as an eBook ISBN FW00007527 , Publisher: e-reads, Pub. Date: Jan 1973, File Size: 153K Telespheres 1977 Optimism one; the emerging radicalism 1970 (ISBN 0-393-08611-9) Are You a Transhuman?: Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World 1989 (ISBN 0-446-38806-8). References External links Intimacy in a Fluid World, by F.M. Esfandiary NPR story about FM-2030 Up-Wing Priorities (PDF), by F.M. Esfandiary Ilija Trojanow on F.M. Esfandiary: Searching for Identity in Iran's Labyrinthine Bureaucracy | FM-2030 |@lemmatized fm:9 october:1 july:2 transhumanist:2 philosopher:1 futurist:2 bear:1 fereidoun:1 esfandiary:7 become:1 notable:1 book:2 transhuman:2 monitoring:2 stimulate:2 personal:2 rate:2 growth:2 rapidly:2 changing:1 world:3 publish:1 addition:1 write:1 number:1 work:1 fiction:3 original:1 name:6 f:5 son:1 iranian:1 diplomat:1 travel:1 widely:1 child:1 http:5 www:5 mahmag:1 org:3 philosophy:1 php:2 itemid:1 living:1 country:1 age:1 ghandchi:1 com:2 htm:1 young:1 man:1 represent:1 iran:2 olympic:1 game:1 serve:1 united:1 nation:1 conciliation:1 commission:1 palestine:1 nypl:1 research:1 chss:1 spe:1 rbk:1 faids:1 pdf:2 die:1 pancreatic:1 cancer:1 place:1 cryonic:1 suspension:1 alcor:1 life:1 extension:1 foundation:1 scottsdale:1 arizona:1 body:1 remain:1 today:1 survive:1 four:1 sister:1 brother:1 change:3 two:1 main:1 reason:1 firstly:1 reflect:2 hope:1 belief:2 would:2 live:2 celebrate:1 birthday:1 secondly:1 importantly:1 break:1 free:1 widespread:1 practice:1 convention:1 root:1 collectivist:1 mentality:1 exist:2 relic:1 humankind:1 tribalistic:1 past:2 traditional:2 almost:1 always:1 stamp:1 label:1 collective:1 identity:3 varying:1 gender:1 nationality:2 individual:1 thereby:1 prima:1 facie:1 element:1 thought:1 process:1 human:1 cultural:1 fabric:1 tend:1 degenerate:1 stereotyping:1 factionalism:1 discrimination:1 word:1 conventional:1 define:1 person:2 ancestry:1 ethnicity:1 religion:1 ten:1 year:3 ago:1 certainly:1 twenty:1 conviction:1 around:1 magical:1 time:1 ageless:1 everyone:1 excellent:1 chance:1 forever:1 dream:1 goal:1 npr:2 template:1 story:3 storyid:1 many:1 prediction:1 social:1 trend:1 early:1 century:2 prove:1 remarkably:1 prescient:1 argue:1 inherent:1 dynamic:1 modern:1 globalizing:1 civilization:1 bring:1 despite:1 best:1 effort:1 conservative:1 elite:1 enforce:1 say:1 accidentally:1 launch:1 deep:1 nostalgia:1 future:1 nycny:1 column:1 nichols:1 html:1 day:1 sacrifice:1 available:3 ebook:3 beggar:1 card:1 isbn:5 non:1 upwingers:1 manifesto:1 pbk:1 publisher:1 e:1 read:1 pub:1 date:1 jan:1 file:1 size:1 telespheres:1 optimism:1 one:1 emerge:1 radicalism:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 intimacy:1 fluid:1 wing:1 priority:1 ilija:1 trojanow:1 searching:1 labyrinthine:1 bureaucracy:1 |@bigram f_esfandiary:5 http_www:5 pancreatic_cancer:1 cryonic_suspension:1 scottsdale_arizona:1 celebrate_birthday:1 prima_facie:1 ethnicity_nationality:1 npr_org:1 php_storyid:1 futurist_manifesto:1 isbn_pbk:1 external_link:1 |
3,206 | Locomotive | Three body styles of diesel locomotive: cab unit, hood unit and box cab. These locomotives are operated by Pacific National in Australia. R class steam locomotive number R707 as operated by the Victorian Railways of Australia. A Green Cargo RC 4 class electric locomotive repainted in its original livery for the Swedish 150-year railway anniversary in 2006. A locomotive is a railway vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. The word originates from the Latin loco – "from a place", ablative of locus, "place" + Medieval Latin motivus, "causing motion", and is a shortened form of the term locomotive engine, first used in the early 19th century to distinguish between mobile and stationary steam engines. A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its sole purpose is to move the train along the tracks. In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles. These are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple units, motor coaches or railcars. The use of these self-propelled vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains, but rare for freight (see CargoSprinter). Vehicles which provide motive power to haul an unpowered train, but are not generally considered locomotives because they have payload space or are rarely detached from their trains, are known as power cars. Traditionally, locomotives pull trains from the front. Increasingly common is push-pull operation, where a locomotive pulls the train in one direction and pushes it in the other, and can be controlled from a control cab at the other end of the train. __TOC__ Origins The first successful locomotives were built by Cornish inventor Richard Trevithick. In 1804 his unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in Wales. Although the locomotive hauled a train of 10 tons of iron and 70 passengers in five wagons over nine miles (14 km), it was too heavy for the cast iron rails used at the time. The locomotive only ran three trips before it was abandoned. Trevithick built a series of locomotives after the Penydarren experiment, including one which ran at a colliery in Tyneside where it was seen by the young George Stephenson. The first commercially successful steam locomotive was Matthew Murray's rack locomotive, The Salamanca, built for the narrow gauge Middleton Railway in 1812. This was followed in 1813 by the Puffing Billy built by Christopher Blackett and William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery Railway, the first successful locomotive running by adhesion only. Puffing Billy is now on display in the Science Museum in London, the oldest locomotive in existence. In 1814 George Stephenson, inspired by the early locomotives of Trevithick and Hedley persuaded the manager of the Killingworth colliery where he worked to allow him to build a steam-powered machine. He built the Blücher, one of the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotives. Stephenson played a pivotal role in the development and widespread adoption of steam locomotives. His designs improved on the work of the pioneers. In 1825 he built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway which became the first public steam railway. In 1829 he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe. Locomotives vs. multiple units Advantages of locomotives An early design of electric locomotive showing the steeplecab arrangement: North Eastern Railway No.1, England from 1905 There are many reasons why the motive power for trains has been traditionally isolated in a locomotive, rather than in self-propelled vehicles. Ease Should the locomotive fail, it is easy to replace it with another. Failure of the motive power unit does not require taking the entire train out of service. Maximum utilization of power cars Idle trains waste costly motive power resources. Separate locomotives enable costly motive power assets to be moved around as needed. Flexibility Large locomotives can be substituted for small locomotives where the grades are steeper and more power is needed. Obsolescence cycles Separating the motive power from payload-hauling cars enables one to be replaced without affecting the other. At times locomotives have become obsolete when their cars were not, and vice versa. Advantages of multiple units There are several advantages of multiple unit (MU) trains compared to locomotives. Energy efficiency Multiple units are more energy efficient than locomotive-hauled trains and more nimble, especially on grades, as much more of the train's weight (sometimes all of it) is placed on driven wheels, rather than suffer the dead weight of unpowered coaches. No need to turn locomotive Many multiple units have cabs at both ends , the train may be reversed without uncoupling/re-coupling the locomotive, giving quicker turnaround times, reducing crew costs, and enhancing safety. In practice, the development of driving van trailers and cab cars has removed the need for locomotives to run-around, giving easy bi-directional working and removing this MU advantage. Reliability As multiple unit trains have multiple engines, the failure of one engine does not prevent the train from continuing its journey. A locomotive drawn passenger train typically only has one power unit, meaning the failure of this causes the train to be disabled. However, some locomotive hauled passenger trains may utilize more than one locomotive, as do many locomotive hauled freight trains, and so are able to continue at reduced speed after the failure of one locomotive. Safety Multiple units normally have completely independent braking systems on all cars, meaning the failure of the brakes on one car does not prevent the brakes throughout the train from operating safely. Locomotive classifications Motive power Locomotives may generate their power from fuel (wood, coal, petroleum or natural gas), or they may take power from an outside source of electricity. It is common to classify locomotives by their source of energy. The common ones include: Steam Walschaerts valve gear in a steam locomotive. In this animation, the red color represents live steam entering the cylinder, while the blue represents expanded (spent) steam being exhausted from the cylinder. A steam locomotive at the Gare du Nord, Paris, 1930 Locomotive 030-219 of Renfe in Miranda de Ebro In the 19th century the first railway locomotives were powered by steam, usually generated by burning coal. Because steam locomotives included one or more steam engines, they are sometimes referred to as "steam engines". The steam locomotive remained by far the most common type of locomotive until after World War II. The first steam locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick; it first ran on 21 February 1804, although it was some years before steam locomotive design became economically practical.. The first commercial use of a steam locomotive was The Salamanca on the narrow gauge Middleton Railway in Leeds in 1812. The locomotive Fairy Queen, built in 1855 runs between Delhi and Alwar in India and is the oldest steam locomotive in regular (albeit tourist-only) service in the world, and the oldest steam locomotive operating on a mainline. The all-time speed record for steam trains is held by an LNER Class A4 4-6-2 Pacific locomotive of the LNER in the United Kingdom, number 4468 Mallard, which pulling six carriages (plus a dynamometer car) reached 126 mph (203 km/h) on a slight downhill gradient down Stoke Bank on 3 July 1938. Aerodynamic passenger locomotives in Germany attained speeds very close to this and due to the difficulties of adequately balancing and lubricating the running gear, this is generally thought to be close to the practicable limit for a direct-coupled steam locomotive. Before the middle of the 20th century, electric and diesel-electric locomotives began replacing steam locomotives. Steam locomotives are less efficient than their more modern diesel and electric counterparts and require much greater manpower to operate and service. British Rail figures showed the cost of crewing and fuelling a steam locomotive was some two and a half times that of diesel power, and the daily mileage achievable was far lower. As labour costs rose, particularly after the second world war, non-steam technologies became much more cost-efficient. By the end of the 1960s-1970s, most western countries had completely replaced steam locomotives in passenger service. Freight locomotives generally were replaced later. Other designs, such as locomotives powered by gas turbines, have been experimented with, but have seen little use, mainly due to high fuel costs. By the end of the 20th century, almost the only steam power still in regular use in North America and Western European countries was on heritage railways largely aimed at tourists and/or railroad hobbyists, known as 'railfans' or 'railway enthusiasts', although some narrow gauge lines in Germany which form part of the public transport system, running to all-year-round timetables retain steam for all or part of their motive power. Steam locomotives remained in commercial use in parts of Mexico into the late 1970s. Steam locomotives were in regular use until 2004 in the People's Republic of China, where coal is a much more abundant resource than petroleum for diesel fuel. India switched over from steam-powered trains to electric and diesel-powered trains in the 1980s, except heritage trains. In some mountainous and high altitude rail lines, steam engines remain in use because they are less affected by reduced air pressure than diesel engines. Steam locomotives remained in routine passenger use in South Africa until the late 1990s, but are now reserved to tourist trains. In Zimbabwe steam locomotives are still used on shunting duties around Bulawayo and on some regular freight services. As of 2006 DLM AG (Switzerland) continues to manufacture new steam locomotives. DLM AG website Diesel EMD GP50 diesel-electric freight locomotive of the Burlington Northern Railroad Starting in the 1940s, the diesel-powered locomotive began to displace steam power on American railroads. Following the end of World War II, diesel power began to appear on railroads in many countries, By the 1960s, few major railroads continued to operate steam locomotive. (See Dieselization) As is the case with any vehicle powered by an internal combustion engine, diesel locomotives require some type of power transmission system to couple the output of the prime mover to the driving wheels. In the early days of diesel railroad propulsion development, electric, hydraulic and mechanical power transmission systems were all employed with varying degrees of success. Of the three, electric transmission has proved to be most popular, and although diesel-hydraulic locomotives have certain advantages and are continuously used in some European countries, most modern Diesel-powered locomotives are diesel-electric. Diesel locomotives require considerably less maintenance than steam, with a corresponding reduction in the number of personnel needed to keep the fleet in service. The best steam locomotives spent an average of three to five days per month in the shop for routine maintenance and running repairs. Heavy overhauls were frequent, often involving removal of the boiler from the frame for major repairs. In contrast, a typical diesel locomotive requires no more than eight to ten hours of maintenance per month. and may run for many years between heavy overhauls. Diesel units are not as polluting as steam power; modern units produce low levels of exhaust emissions. Diesel-electric locomotives are often fitted with "dynamic brakes" that use the traction motors as electrical generators during braking to assist in controlling the speed of a train on a descending grade. Electric Soviet electric locomotive VL60pk (ВЛ60пк), c. 1960. In 1894, a Hungarian engineer Kálmán Kandó developed high-voltage three phase alternating current motors and generators for electric locomotives; he is known as the father of the electric train. His work on railway electrification was done at the Ganz electric works in Budapest. The first installation was on the Valtellina line, Italy, in 1902. Kandó was the first who recognised that an electric train system can only be successful if it can use the electricity from public networks. After realising that, he also provided the means to build such a rail network by inventing a rotary phase converter suitable for locomotive usage. The electric locomotive is supplied externally with electric power, either through an overhead pickup or through a third rail. While the capital cost of electrifying track is high, electric trains and locomotives are capable of higher performance and lower operational costs than steam or diesel power. Electric locomotives, because they tend to be less technically complex than diesel-electric locomotives, are both easier and cheaper to maintain and have extremely long working lives -- there are many examples of electric locomotives operating for more than half a century with minimal overhaul, and it is not unusual for electric locomotives to be operating close to their centenary. A French TGV holds the world speed record for the fastest wheeled train, having reached 574.8 km/h (357 mph) on 3 April, 2007. Some electric locomotives can also operate off battery power to enable short journeys or shunting on non-electrified lines or yards. Battery-powered locomotives are used in mines and other underground locations where diesel fumes or smoke would endanger crews, and where external electricity supplies cannot be used due to the danger of sparks igniting flammable gas. Battery locomotives are also used on many underground railways for maintenance operations, as they are required when operating in areas where the electricity supply has been temporarily disconnected. Hydrogen In 2002 the first 3.6 tonne, 17 kW hydrogen (fuel cell)-powered mining locomotive was demonstrated in Val-d'Or, Quebec. In 2007 the educational mini-hydrail in Kaohsiung, Taiwan went into service. Gas turbine-electric UP 68, one of Union Pacific's 4,500 hp 'veranda' turbines. From the Don Ross Collection A gas turbine-electric locomotive, or GTEL, is a locomotive that uses a gas turbine to drive an electrical generator or alternator. The electric current thus produced is used to power traction motors. This type of locomotive was first experimented with in 1920 but reached its peak in the 1950s to 1960s. The turbine (similar to a turboshaft engine) drives an output shaft, which drives the alternator via a system of gears. A turbine offers some advantages over a piston engine. The number of moving parts is much smaller, and the power to weight ratio is much higher. A turbine of a given power output is also physically smaller than an equally powerful piston engine, allowing a locomotive to be very powerful without being inordinately large. However, a turbine's power output and efficiency both drop dramatically with rotational speed, unlike a piston engine, which has a comparatively flat power curve. Gas turbine locomotives are very powerful, but also tend to be very loud. Union Pacific Railroad operated the largest fleet of gas turbine-electric locomotives in the world, and was the only railroad to use them for hauling freight in regular service. Most other GTELs have been built for small passenger trains, and only a few have seen any real success in that role. After the 1973 oil crisis and the subsequent rise in fuel costs, gas turbine locomotives became uneconomical to operate, and many were taken out of service. This type of locomotive is now rare. Hybrid A hybrid locomotive is a Locomotive that uses an on-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS) and a fuelled power source for propulsion. Hybrid trains typically are powered either by Fuel Cell technology or the diesel-electric hybrid which reduces fuel consumption through regenerative braking and switching off the hydrocarbon engine when idling or stationary (as used in automobiles such as the Toyota Prius). Slug or Drone A slug or drone locomotive is a non-powered unit attached to a diesel-electric locomotive to provide additional traction and braking capability. The slug has traction motors but no engine, power being supplied by the attached locomotive (known as a 'mother'). At slow speeds, a diesel-electric prime mover can potentially produce more power than can be usefully used by its own traction motors; a slug increases the number of traction motors available to use the power more effectively. Slugs are mainly used in rail yards for switching duties, in which case they are normally built without a cab. Other slugs, designed for use on service trains, may be fitted with a cab, which can control the whole consist, and may also provide additional fuel storage for the mother locomotive. In recent years, conventional locomotives have been used in place of slugs on service trains, remotely controlled from the lead locomotive configuration. CP Rail used a prototype drone locomotive system called LOCOTROL which evolved into today's systems. Utilisation The three main categories of locomotives are often subdivided in their usage in rail transport operations. There are passenger locomotives, freight locomotives and switcher (or shunting) locomotives. These categories determine the locomotive's combination of physical size, starting tractive effort and maximum permitted speed. Freight locomotives are normally designed to deliver high starting tractive effort—needed to start trains that may weigh as much as 15,000 tons—and deliver sustained high power, at the sacrifice of maximum speed. Passenger locomotives develop less starting tractive effort but are able to operate at the high speeds demanded by passenger schedules. Mixed traffic locomotives (US English: general purpose or road switcher locomotives) are built to provide elements of both requirements. They do not develop as much starting tractive effort as a freight unit but are able to haul heavier trains than a passenger engine. Most steam locomotives are reciprocating units, in which the pistons are coupled to the drivers (driving wheels) by means of connecting rods. Therefore, the combination of starting tractive effort and maximum speed is greatly influenced by the diameter of the drivers. Steam locomotives intended for freight service generally have relatively small diameter drivers, whereas passenger models have large diameter drivers (as large as 84 inches in some cases). With diesel-electric and electric locomotives, the gear ratio between the traction motors and axles is what adapts the unit to freight or passenger service, although a passenger unit may include other features, such as head end power (also referred to as hotel power or electric train supply) or a steam generator. Some locomotives are designed specifically to work mountain railways, and feature extensive additional braking mechanisms and sometimes rack and pinion. Steam locomotives built for steep rack and pinion railways frequently have the boiler tilted relative to the wheels, so that the boiler remains roughly level on steep grades. Wheel arrangement Wheel Arrangement is one type of classification. Common methods include the AAR wheel arrangement,UIC classification, and Whyte notation systems. Remote control locomotives In the second half of the twentieth century remote control locomotives started to enter service in switching operations, being remotely controlled by an operator outside of the locomotive cab. Locomotives in numismatics Locomotives have been a subject for collectors' coins and medals. One of the most famous and recent ones is the 25 euro 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway commemorative coin. The obverse shows two locomotives: a historical and a modern one. This represents the technical development in locomotive construction between the years 1854 and 2004. The upper half depicts the “Taurus”, a high performance locomotive. Below is shown the first functional Alpine locomotive, the Engerth; constructed by Wilhelm Freiherr von Engerth. See also Electric multiple unit Locomotives in art List of locomotives List of locomotive builders Headboard (train) Articulated locomotive Autorail Bank engine Duplex locomotive Air brake Railway brakes Regenerative (dynamic) brakes Vacuum brake References External links An engineer's guide from 1891 Animated engines, Steam Locomotive International Steam Locomotives Turning a Locomotive into a Stationary Engine, Popular Science monthly, February 1919, page 72, Scanned by Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=7igDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA72 | Locomotive |@lemmatized three:6 body:1 style:1 diesel:27 locomotive:135 cab:8 unit:20 hood:1 box:1 operate:12 pacific:4 national:1 australia:2 r:1 class:3 steam:51 number:5 victorian:1 railway:19 green:1 cargo:1 rc:1 electric:36 repaint:1 original:1 livery:1 swedish:1 year:7 anniversary:1 vehicle:6 provide:6 motive:9 power:46 train:43 word:1 originate:1 latin:2 loco:1 place:4 ablative:1 locus:1 medieval:1 motivus:1 cause:2 motion:1 shortened:1 form:2 term:1 engine:19 first:15 use:29 early:4 century:6 distinguish:1 mobile:1 stationary:3 payload:4 capacity:1 sole:1 purpose:2 move:3 along:2 track:2 contrast:2 self:3 propel:1 carrying:1 normally:4 consider:2 may:10 refer:3 multiple:10 motor:8 coach:2 railcar:1 propelled:2 increasingly:2 common:6 passenger:15 rare:2 freight:11 see:6 cargosprinter:1 haul:6 unpowered:2 generally:4 space:1 rarely:1 detach:1 know:4 car:8 traditionally:2 locomotives:10 pull:4 front:1 push:2 operation:4 one:16 direction:1 control:8 end:6 origins:1 successful:5 build:15 cornish:1 inventor:1 richard:2 trevithick:4 unnamed:1 tramway:1 penydarren:2 ironwork:1 near:1 merthyr:1 tydfil:1 wale:1 although:5 ton:2 iron:2 five:2 wagon:1 nine:1 mile:1 km:3 heavy:4 cast:1 rail:8 time:5 run:8 trip:1 abandon:1 series:1 experiment:3 include:5 colliery:3 tyneside:1 young:1 george:2 stephenson:4 commercially:1 matthew:1 murray:1 rack:3 salamanca:2 narrow:3 gauge:3 middleton:2 follow:2 puffing:1 billy:2 christopher:1 blackett:1 william:1 hedley:2 wylam:1 running:2 adhesion:2 puff:1 display:1 science:2 museum:1 london:1 old:3 existence:1 inspire:1 persuade:1 manager:1 killingworth:1 work:6 allow:2 machine:1 blücher:1 flanged:1 wheel:8 play:1 pivotal:1 role:2 development:4 widespread:1 adoption:1 design:7 improve:1 pioneer:1 locomotion:1 stockton:1 darlington:1 become:5 public:3 rocket:1 enter:3 win:1 rainhill:1 trial:1 success:3 lead:2 establish:1 company:1 pre:1 eminent:1 builder:2 united:3 kingdom:2 state:1 much:9 europe:1 v:1 advantage:6 show:4 steeplecab:1 arrangement:4 north:2 eastern:1 england:1 many:8 reason:1 isolate:1 rather:2 ease:1 fail:1 easy:3 replace:5 another:1 failure:5 require:6 take:3 entire:1 service:14 maximum:4 utilization:1 idle:1 waste:1 costly:2 resource:2 separate:2 enable:3 asset:1 around:3 need:6 flexibility:1 large:5 substitute:1 small:5 grade:4 steep:3 obsolescence:1 cycle:1 hauling:1 without:4 affect:1 obsolete:1 vice:1 versa:1 several:1 mu:2 compare:1 energy:4 efficiency:2 efficient:3 hauled:2 nimble:1 especially:1 weight:3 sometimes:3 driven:1 suffer:1 dead:1 turn:2 reverse:1 uncouple:1 couple:4 give:3 quicker:1 turnaround:1 reduce:2 crew:3 cost:8 enhance:1 safety:2 practice:1 drive:5 van:1 trailer:1 remove:2 bi:1 directional:1 working:1 reliability:1 prevent:2 continue:4 journey:2 drawn:1 typically:2 mean:4 disable:1 however:2 utilize:1 able:3 reduced:2 speed:11 completely:2 independent:1 brake:9 system:10 throughout:1 safely:1 classification:3 generate:2 fuel:9 wood:1 coal:3 petroleum:2 natural:1 gas:9 outside:2 source:3 electricity:4 classify:1 walschaerts:1 valve:1 gear:4 animation:1 red:1 color:1 represent:3 live:1 cylinder:2 blue:1 expand:1 spend:2 exhaust:2 gare:1 du:1 nord:1 paris:1 renfe:1 miranda:1 de:1 ebro:1 usually:1 burn:1 remain:5 far:2 type:5 world:6 war:3 ii:2 february:2 economically:1 practical:1 commercial:2 leeds:1 fairy:1 queen:1 delhi:1 alwar:1 india:2 regular:5 albeit:1 tourist:3 operating:1 mainline:1 record:2 hold:2 lner:2 mallard:1 six:1 carriage:1 plus:1 dynamometer:1 reach:3 mph:2 h:2 slight:1 downhill:1 gradient:1 stoke:1 bank:2 july:1 aerodynamic:1 germany:2 attain:1 close:3 due:3 difficulty:1 adequately:1 balance:1 lubricate:1 think:1 practicable:1 limit:1 direct:1 middle:1 begin:3 less:5 modern:4 counterpart:1 great:1 manpower:1 british:1 figure:1 two:2 half:4 daily:1 mileage:1 achievable:1 low:3 labour:1 rise:2 particularly:1 second:2 non:3 technology:2 western:2 country:4 later:1 turbine:12 little:1 mainly:2 high:10 almost:1 still:2 america:1 european:2 heritage:2 largely:1 aim:1 railroad:8 hobbyist:1 railfans:1 enthusiast:1 line:4 part:4 transport:2 round:1 timetables:1 retain:1 mexico:1 late:2 people:1 republic:1 china:1 abundant:1 switch:4 powered:3 except:1 mountainous:1 altitude:1 affected:1 air:2 pressure:1 routine:2 south:1 africa:1 reserve:1 zimbabwe:1 shunt:3 duty:2 bulawayo:1 dlm:2 ag:2 switzerland:1 manufacture:1 new:1 website:1 emd:1 burlington:1 northern:1 start:8 displace:1 american:1 appear:1 major:2 dieselization:1 case:3 internal:1 combustion:1 transmission:3 output:4 prime:2 mover:2 driving:1 day:2 propulsion:2 hydraulic:2 mechanical:1 employ:1 vary:1 degree:1 prove:1 popular:2 certain:1 continuously:1 considerably:1 maintenance:4 corresponding:1 reduction:1 personnel:1 keep:1 fleet:2 best:1 average:1 per:2 month:2 shop:1 repair:2 overhaul:3 frequent:1 often:3 involve:1 removal:1 boiler:3 frame:1 typical:1 eight:1 ten:1 hour:1 pollute:1 produce:3 level:2 emission:1 fit:2 dynamic:2 traction:7 electrical:2 generator:4 assist:1 descending:1 soviet:1 c:1 hungarian:1 engineer:2 kálmán:1 kandó:2 develop:3 voltage:1 phase:2 alternate:1 current:2 father:1 electrification:1 ganz:1 budapest:1 installation:1 valtellina:1 italy:1 recognise:1 network:2 realise:1 also:8 invent:1 rotary:1 converter:1 suitable:1 usage:2 supply:5 externally:1 either:2 overhead:1 pickup:1 third:1 capital:1 electrify:1 capable:1 performance:2 operational:1 tend:2 technically:1 complex:1 cheap:1 maintain:1 extremely:1 long:1 life:1 example:1 minimal:1 unusual:1 centenary:1 french:1 tgv:1 fast:1 wheeled:1 april:1 battery:3 short:1 electrified:1 yard:2 mine:1 underground:2 location:1 fume:1 smoke:1 would:1 endanger:1 external:2 cannot:1 danger:1 spark:1 ignite:1 flammable:1 area:1 temporarily:1 disconnect:1 hydrogen:2 tonne:1 kw:1 cell:2 mining:1 demonstrate:1 val:1 quebec:1 educational:1 mini:1 hydrail:1 kaohsiung:1 taiwan:1 go:1 union:2 hp:1 veranda:1 ross:1 collection:1 gtel:1 alternator:2 thus:1 peak:1 similar:1 turboshaft:1 shaft:1 via:1 offer:1 piston:4 ratio:2 physically:1 equally:1 powerful:3 inordinately:1 drop:1 dramatically:1 rotational:1 unlike:1 comparatively:1 flat:1 curve:1 loud:1 gtels:1 real:1 oil:1 crisis:1 subsequent:1 uneconomical:1 hybrid:4 board:1 rechargeable:1 storage:2 res:1 fuelled:1 consumption:1 regenerative:2 braking:3 hydrocarbon:1 idling:1 automobile:1 toyota:1 prius:1 slug:7 drone:3 attach:1 additional:3 capability:1 attached:1 mother:2 slow:1 potentially:1 usefully:1 increase:1 available:1 effectively:1 whole:1 consist:1 recent:2 conventional:1 remotely:2 configuration:1 cp:1 prototype:1 call:1 locotrol:1 evolve:1 today:1 utilisation:1 main:1 category:2 subdivide:1 switcher:2 determine:1 combination:2 physical:1 size:1 tractive:5 effort:5 permit:1 deliver:2 weigh:1 sustain:1 sacrifice:1 demand:1 schedule:1 mixed:1 traffic:1 u:1 english:1 general:1 road:1 element:1 requirement:1 reciprocate:1 driver:4 connect:1 rod:1 therefore:1 greatly:1 influence:1 diameter:3 intend:1 relatively:1 whereas:1 model:1 inch:1 axle:1 adapt:1 feature:2 head:1 hotel:1 specifically:1 mountain:1 extensive:1 mechanism:1 pinion:2 frequently:1 tilt:1 relative:1 roughly:1 method:1 aar:1 uic:1 whyte:1 notation:1 remote:2 twentieth:1 operator:1 numismatics:1 subject:1 collector:1 coin:2 medal:1 famous:1 euro:1 semmering:1 alpine:2 commemorative:1 obverse:1 historical:1 technical:1 construction:1 upper:1 depict:1 taurus:1 functional:1 engerth:2 construct:1 wilhelm:1 freiherr:1 von:1 art:1 list:2 headboard:1 articulate:1 autorail:1 duplex:1 vacuum:1 reference:1 link:1 guide:1 animated:1 international:1 monthly:1 page:1 scan:1 google:2 book:3 http:1 com:1 id:1 pg:1 |@bigram steam_locomotive:27 self_propel:1 self_propelled:2 richard_trevithick:2 locomotive_haul:3 merthyr_tydfil:1 mile_km:1 commercially_successful:1 narrow_gauge:3 stockton_darlington:1 darlington_railway:1 pre_eminent:1 vice_versa:1 bi_directional:1 gare_du:1 du_nord:1 mph_km:1 freight_locomotive:4 gas_turbine:7 diesel_engine:1 internal_combustion:1 combustion_engine:1 prime_mover:2 diesel_hydraulic:1 hydraulic_locomotive:1 steam_locomotives:4 traction_motor:6 h_mph:1 spark_ignite:1 kaohsiung_taiwan:1 turboshaft_engine:1 piston_engine:3 regenerative_braking:1 cp_rail:1 shunt_locomotive:1 start_tractive:5 tractive_effort:5 twentieth_century:1 commemorative_coin:1 coin_obverse:1 freiherr_von:1 external_link:1 id_pg:1 |
3,207 | Foonly | Foonly was the computer company formed by Dave Poole, who was one of the principal Super Foonly designers as well as one of hackerdom's more colorful personalities. The PDP-10 successor was to have been built by the Super Foonly project at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory along with a new operating system. The intention was to leapfrog from the old DEC timesharing system SAIL was then running to a new generation, bypassing TENEX which at that time was the ARPANET standard. ARPA funding for both the Super Foonly and the new operating system was cut in 1974. The design for Foonly contributed greatly to the design of the PDP-10 model KL10. The following few paragraphs are a personal account of the events, by Dave Dyer: Dave Poole, Phil Petit, and Jack Holloway came to Information International (Triple-I or III) with a proposal to build an updated version of the original design (using ECL instead of TTL). I'm not quite sure how it came about - pretty crazy idea - but the connections between Triple-i and SAIL were deep and wide in those days. Triple-i was using PDP-10s for OCR, and for their groundbreaking movie group under Gary Demos and John Whitney Jr. Triple-I had the usual grandiose plans requiring bigger and better computers. <p> The three foonly principals spent about a year designing, constructing, and debugging the F-1. Poole was the mainstay, Petit was around quite a bit, and Holloway appeared only at crucial moments. My impression was that Triple-i paid the costs of construction and very little more - an incredible deal for Triple-i, considering that the F-1 actually worked. It would have been a very expensive boat anchor if it hadn't. I did a lot of work on the software - console computer program, a second version of the microcode assembler, and a port of tops-10 to run on foonly itself; and spent many fine hours with Poole, deducing I-Box bugs from errant program behavior. <p> Shortly after the F-1 was operational, Triple-I and I parted ways and I mostly lost track of the F-1. Triple-i got out of the movie biz; the Foonly ended up following Gary Demos to several other early digital effects companies. <p> Foonly Inc carried on, building F2,3,4,&5 in various quantities for people who wanted pdp-10's but not to pay DEC's prices. The first few "little foonly" models were built from 2901 bitslices, based on a design originally intended to be the F1's console computer. Alas, I don't think the F1 ever had a proper console - it always had some KA-10 attached. One of the first "little foonly" computers was sold to Symbolics for use as their original file server. Another customer was Tymshare Inc. The first Foonly machine, the F-1, was the computational engine used to create some of the graphics in the movie "Tron". The F-1 was the fastest PDP-10 ever built, but only one was ever made. Foonly Inc. didn't acquire any financial resources as a result of building the F-1, and the company's smaller, slower, and much less expensive machines ran not the popular TOPS-20 but another TENEX variant called Foonex; this seriously limited their market. Also, the machines shipped were actually wire-wrapped engineering prototypes requiring individual attention from more than usually competent site personnel, and thus had significant reliability problems. Poole's legendary temper and unwillingness to suffer fools gladly did not help matters. By the time of the Jupiter project cancellation in 1983, Foonly's proposal to build another F-1 was eclipsed by the Mars, and the company never quite recovered. Added by Phil Petit, (one of the above-mentioned Foonly designers): The word "foonly" appeared one day as I was debugging my assembler, and typing in random nonsense to test the "ASCII" pseudo op. The word hung around, and got attached to one small project or another from time to time, until the project to build a new PDP-10 compatible machine came along. That seemed like a good thing to use the name Foonly for, so we did. <p> Many elements of our original Stanford design were incorporated into the KL-10 by DEC, with the permission of Stanford. In particular, almost the whole M-box (the memory interface and cache) was incorporated unchanged, except to replace TTL with ECL. <p> May 9, 2007<p> Added by Dan Martin - Principle Engineer for Tymshare Inc. <p> Tymshare sold the Foonly F4 to the Airforce for the Arpanet project. Several of the boards were converted to multi-wire process, and the console computer was replaced by an IBM PC running an application developed using Pascal. Interface boards were developed by myself that brought the total boot time from 15 mins to under 10 seconds. The old console computers were LISP derivatives that took forever to load. LISP was an artificial intelligence language that was not bad for a lab environment, but a nightmare for the market environment. I worked with Dave Poole for 4 years, and I have to admit he is very intelligent, was not a pleasant experience. <p> Sept 21, 2008 References This article is partly based on the public domain Jargon File External links Lars Brinkman's table showing the F1 in perspective with other PDP-10 models | Foonly |@lemmatized foonly:18 computer:7 company:4 form:1 dave:4 poole:6 one:7 principal:2 super:3 designer:2 well:1 hackerdom:1 colorful:1 personality:1 pdp:7 successor:1 build:8 project:5 stanford:3 artificial:2 intelligence:2 laboratory:1 along:2 new:4 operating:2 system:3 intention:1 leapfrog:1 old:2 dec:3 timesharing:1 sail:2 run:4 generation:1 bypass:1 tenex:2 time:5 arpanet:2 standard:1 arpa:1 funding:1 cut:1 design:5 contribute:1 greatly:1 model:3 following:1 paragraph:1 personal:1 account:1 event:1 dyer:1 phil:2 petit:3 jack:1 holloway:2 come:3 information:1 international:1 triple:8 iii:1 proposal:2 updated:1 version:2 original:3 use:6 ecl:2 instead:1 ttl:2 quite:3 sure:1 pretty:1 crazy:1 idea:1 connection:1 deep:1 wide:1 day:2 ocr:1 groundbreaking:1 movie:3 group:1 gary:2 demo:2 john:1 whitney:1 jr:1 usual:1 grandiose:1 plan:1 require:2 big:1 good:2 p:8 three:1 spend:2 year:2 designing:1 constructing:1 debug:2 f:8 mainstay:1 around:2 bit:1 appear:2 crucial:1 moment:1 impression:1 pay:2 cost:1 construction:1 little:3 incredible:1 deal:1 consider:1 actually:2 work:3 would:1 expensive:2 boat:1 anchor:1 lot:1 software:1 console:5 program:2 second:2 microcode:1 assembler:2 port:1 top:2 many:2 fine:1 hour:1 deduce:1 box:2 bug:1 errant:1 behavior:1 shortly:1 operational:1 part:1 way:1 mostly:1 lose:1 track:1 get:2 biz:1 end:1 follow:1 several:2 early:1 digital:1 effect:1 inc:4 carry:1 various:1 quantity:1 people:1 want:1 price:1 first:3 bitslices:1 base:2 originally:1 intend:1 ala:1 think:1 ever:3 proper:1 always:1 ka:1 attach:2 sell:2 symbolics:1 file:2 server:1 another:4 customer:1 tymshare:3 machine:4 computational:1 engine:1 create:1 graphic:1 tron:1 fast:1 make:1 acquire:1 financial:1 resource:1 result:1 small:2 slow:1 much:1 less:1 popular:1 variant:1 call:1 foonex:1 seriously:1 limit:1 market:2 also:1 ship:1 wire:2 wrap:1 engineering:1 prototype:1 individual:1 attention:1 usually:1 competent:1 site:1 personnel:1 thus:1 significant:1 reliability:1 problem:1 legendary:1 temper:1 unwillingness:1 suffer:1 fool:1 gladly:1 help:1 matter:1 jupiter:1 cancellation:1 eclipse:1 mar:1 never:1 recover:1 add:2 mention:1 word:2 type:1 random:1 nonsense:1 test:1 ascii:1 pseudo:1 op:1 hung:1 compatible:1 seem:1 like:1 thing:1 name:1 element:1 incorporate:2 kl:1 permission:1 particular:1 almost:1 whole:1 memory:1 interface:2 cache:1 unchanged:1 except:1 replace:2 may:1 dan:1 martin:1 principle:1 engineer:1 airforce:1 board:2 convert:1 multi:1 process:1 ibm:1 pc:1 application:1 develop:2 pascal:1 bring:1 total:1 boot:1 min:1 lisp:2 derivative:1 take:1 forever:1 load:1 language:1 bad:1 lab:1 environment:2 nightmare:1 admit:1 intelligent:1 pleasant:1 experience:1 sept:1 reference:1 article:1 partly:1 public:1 domain:1 jargon:1 external:1 link:1 lars:1 brinkman:1 table:1 show:1 perspective:1 |@bigram artificial_intelligence:2 ibm_pc:1 external_link:1 |
3,208 | Forseti | For the folk music band, see Forseti (band). Forseti zu Gericht sitzend (1881) by Carl Emil Doepler Forseti (Old Norse "the presiding one", actually "president" in Modern Icelandic and Faroese) is the Æsir god of justice, peace and truth in Norse mythology. Fosite is a god of the Frisians often identified with Scandinavian Forseti. So Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, who takes forseti "praeses" as the original meaning, postulating an (unattested) Old High German equivalent forasizo (cf. modern German Vorsitzender "one who presides"). Grimm notes that the god's sanctuary at Heligoland would have made him an ideal candidate of a deity known to both Frisians and Scandinavians, but has to admit it is surprising that he should remain entirely unmentioned by Saxo Grammaticus. Norse Forseti He was the son of Baldr and Nanna. His home was Glitnir, its name, meaning shining, referring to the hall's silver ceiling and golden pillars, which radiated light that could be seen from a great distance. Forseti was considered the wisest and most eloquent of gods of Asgard. In contrast to his fellow god Tyr, who presided over the bloody affairs of carnal law, Forseti presided over disputes resolved by mediation. He sat in his hall, dispensing justice to those who sought it, and was said to be able to always provide a solution that all parties considered fair. Like his father Baldr, he was a gentle god and favored peace so all judged by him could live in safety as long as they upheld his sentence. Forseti was so respected that only the most solemn oaths were uttered in his name. The first element in the name Forsetlund (Old Norse Forsetalundr), a farm in the parish of Onsøy ('Odins island'), Norway, seem to be the genitive case of Forseti. Frisian Fosite Fosite's place of worship was on Heligoland. It was destroyed in 785 by Ludger. According to legend, twelve Asegeir or old ones once wandered all over Scandinavia gathering local laws. They wanted to get the best laws from all the tribes and compile them into one set of laws applicable to all of them, thus uniting them in peace. It is said that after gathering laws from all the regions, they embarked on a sea voyage to a remote place where they could safely discuss the process of compilation. However, a vicious storm arose and while at the mercy of sea they invoked the name of Forseti to save them from peril. They noticed that a 13th person appeared in the boat and safely led it to a deserted island. There, the person (presumably Forseti himself) split the earth and a spring was formed. Having consecrated the place he dictated the unified code of laws that merged all the best regulations of various local laws and suddenly vanished. The island became a place of worship to Fosite and the spring was its holy place. All major legal assemblies gathered at the island. The disputes were undertaken in the light of day only, and never in winter as it was believed that darkness was anathema to truth and just resolve. "Fositesland" is mentioned by Alcuin as in confinio Fresorum et Danorum. Adam von Bremen identifies the "Fosite island" with Heligoland. Fosite has been suggested to be a loan of Greek Poseidon into pre-Proto-Germanic, perhaps via Greeks purchasing amber (Pytheas is known to have visited the area of Heligoland in search of amber). the equation Greek Poseidon = Germanic Fosite was noted in at least as early as 1977 in Franz Spilka, Rätsel der Heimat nr. 21. See also Poetic Edda References | Forseti |@lemmatized folk:1 music:1 band:2 see:3 forseti:12 zu:1 gericht:1 sitzend:1 carl:1 emil:1 doepler:1 old:4 norse:4 preside:4 one:4 actually:1 president:1 modern:2 icelandic:1 faroese:1 æsir:1 god:6 justice:2 peace:3 truth:2 mythology:2 fosite:7 frisian:3 often:1 identify:2 scandinavian:2 jacob:1 grimm:2 teutonic:1 take:1 praeses:1 original:1 meaning:1 postulate:1 unattested:1 high:1 german:2 equivalent:1 forasizo:1 cf:1 vorsitzender:1 note:2 sanctuary:1 heligoland:4 would:1 make:1 ideal:1 candidate:1 deity:1 know:2 admit:1 surprising:1 remain:1 entirely:1 unmentioned:1 saxo:1 grammaticus:1 son:1 baldr:2 nanna:1 home:1 glitnir:1 name:4 mean:1 shining:1 refer:1 hall:2 silver:1 ceiling:1 golden:1 pillar:1 radiate:1 light:2 could:3 great:1 distance:1 consider:2 wise:1 eloquent:1 asgard:1 contrast:1 fellow:1 tyr:1 bloody:1 affair:1 carnal:1 law:7 dispute:2 resolve:2 mediation:1 sit:1 dispense:1 seek:1 say:2 able:1 always:1 provide:1 solution:1 party:1 fair:1 like:1 father:1 gentle:1 favor:1 judge:1 live:1 safety:1 long:1 uphold:1 sentence:1 respected:1 solemn:1 oath:1 utter:1 first:1 element:1 forsetlund:1 forsetalundr:1 farm:1 parish:1 onsøy:1 odin:1 island:5 norway:1 seem:1 genitive:1 case:1 place:5 worship:2 destroy:1 ludger:1 accord:1 legend:1 twelve:1 asegeir:1 wander:1 scandinavia:1 gather:3 local:2 want:1 get:1 best:2 tribe:1 compile:1 set:1 applicable:1 thus:1 unite:1 region:1 embark:1 sea:2 voyage:1 remote:1 safely:2 discuss:1 process:1 compilation:1 however:1 vicious:1 storm:1 arose:1 mercy:1 invoke:1 save:1 peril:1 notice:1 person:2 appear:1 boat:1 lead:1 desert:1 presumably:1 split:1 earth:1 spring:2 form:1 consecrate:1 dictate:1 unified:1 code:1 merge:1 regulation:1 various:1 suddenly:1 vanish:1 become:1 holy:1 major:1 legal:1 assembly:1 undertake:1 day:1 never:1 winter:1 believe:1 darkness:1 anathema:1 fositesland:1 mention:1 alcuin:1 confinio:1 fresorum:1 et:1 danorum:1 adam:1 von:1 bremen:1 suggest:1 loan:1 greek:3 poseidon:2 pre:1 proto:1 germanic:2 perhaps:1 via:1 purchase:1 amber:2 pytheas:1 visit:1 area:1 search:1 equation:1 least:1 early:1 franz:1 spilka:1 rätsel:1 der:1 heimat:1 nr:1 also:1 poetic:1 edda:1 reference:1 |@bigram emil_doepler:1 icelandic_faroese:1 norse_mythology:1 jacob_grimm:1 grimm_teutonic:1 teutonic_mythology:1 saxo_grammaticus:1 proto_germanic:1 poetic_edda:1 |
3,209 | Jahangir | Nur-ud-din Salim Jahangir (full title: Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram, Khushru-i-Giti Panah, Abu'l-Fath Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi [Jannat-Makaani] (September 20, 1569-November 8, 1627) ( August 31, 1569 NS November 8, 1627) was the ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1605 until his death. The name Jahangir is from Persian جہانگير, meaning "Conqueror of the World". Nur-ud-din or Nur al-Din is an Arabic name which means " Light of the Faith." Born as Prince Muhammad Salim, he was the third and eldest surviving son of Mughal Emperor Akbar. Akbar's twin sons, Hasan and Hussain, died in infancy. His mother was the Rajput Princess of Amber, Jodhabai (born Rajkumari Hira Kunwari, eldest daughter of Raja Bihar Mal or Bharmal, Raja of Amber, India). However, writer Salman Rushdie has said that his research of Mughal history for The Enchantress of Florence did not find the name Jodhabai among numerous names mentioned in historical records or manuscripts of that era as Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar's wives or concubines. Rushdie suggested that Jodhabai may never have existed and could just be a fictional character coming into folklore later on; he published a short story in the New Yorker on this premise of Jodha as Akbar's "imaginary wife." Jahangir was a child of many prayers. It is said to be by the blessing of Shaikh Salim Chishti (one of the revered sages of his times) that Akbar's first surviving child, the future Jahangir, was born. He was born at the dargah of the Shaikh Salim Chishti, within the fortress at Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. The child was named Salim after the darvesh and was affectionately addressed by Akbar as Sheikhu Baba. Akbar developed an emotional attachment with the village Sikri (abode of Chishti). Therefore, he developed the town of Sikri and shifted his imperial court and residence from Agra to Sikri, later renamed as Fatehpur Sikri. Education Akbar ensured that his son received the best education possible. Salim started his studies at the age of four and was taught Fārsi, Turkish, Arabic, Urdū, history, arithmetic, geography and other sciences by important tutors like Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, a renowned soldier and scholar. Revolt In 1600, when Akbar was away from the capital on an expedition, Salim broke into an open rebellion, and declared himself Emperor. Akbar had to hastily return to Agra and restore order. There was a time when Akbar thought of putting Khusraw on the throne instead of Salim. Prince Salim forcefully succeeded to the throne on November 3, 1605, eight days after his father's death. Salim ascended to the throne with the title of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi, and thus began his 22-year reign at the age of 36. Jahangir soon after had to fend off his son, Prince Khusraw, when he attempted to claim the throne based on Akbar's will to become his next heir. Khusraw was defeated in 1606 and confined in the fort of Agra. As punishment Khusraw was blinded, and the Sikh Guru Arjun (the religious spiritual head of the sect at the time) was put to death, for giving the then fugitive Khusraw money when he visited Guru Arjun. Jahangir's rule was characterized by the same religious tolerance as his father Akbar, with the exception of his hostility with the Sikhs, which was forged so early on in his rule. In 1622, Khurram (Shah Jahan), younger brother of Khusraw, had Khusraw murdered in a conspiracy to eliminate all possible contenders to the throne. Taking advantage of this internal conflict, the Persians seized the city of Qandahar and as a result of this loss, the Mughals lost control over the trade routes to Afghanistan, Persian and Central Asia and also exposed India to invasions from the north-west. Jahangir - Social sciences UCLA Reign Jahangir in Darbar, from the Jahangir-nama, c.1620. Gouache on paper. Gold Mohur of Jahangir, with his portrait, 1611. An aesthete , Jahangir decided to start his reign with a grand display of "Justice", as he saw it. To this end, he enacted Twelve Decrees that are remarkable for their liberalism and foresight. During his reign, there was a significant increase in the size of the Mughal Empire, half a dozen rebellions were crushed, prisoners of war were released, and the work of his father, Akbar, continued to flourish. Much like his father, Jahangir was dedicated to the expansion of Mughal held territory through conquest. During this regime he would target the peoples of Assam near the eastern frontier and bring a series of territories controlled by independent rajas in the Himalayan foothills from Kashmir to Bengal. Jahangir would challenge the hegemonic claim over Persia by the Safavid rulers with an eye on Kabul, Peshawar and Qandahar which were important centers of the central Asian trade system that northern India operated within. In 1622 Jahangir would send his son Khurram against the combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda. After his victory Khurram would turn against his father and make a bid for power. As with the insurection of his eldest son Khusraw, Jahangir was able to defeat the challenge from within his family and retain power. Jahangir promised to protect Islam and granted general amnesty to his opponents. He was also notable for his patronage of the arts, especially of painting. During his reign the distinctive style of Mughal painting expanded and blossomed. Jahangir supported a flourishing culture of court painters. Jahangir is most famous for his golden “chain of justice.” The chain was setup as a link between his people and Jahangir himself. Standing outside the castle of Agra with sixty bells, anyone was capable of pulling the chain and having a personal hearing from Jahangir himself. Furthermore, Jahangir preserved the Mughal tradition of having a highly centralized form of government. The son of a Hindu Rajput mother who converted to Islam, Jahangir made the precepts of Sunni Islam the cornerstone of his state policies. A faithful Muslim, as evidenced by his memoirs, he expressed his gratitude to Allah for his many victories. Jahangir, as a devout muslim, did not let his personal beliefs dictate his state policies. Sovereignty, according to Jahangir, was a “gift of God” not necessarily given to enforce God’s law but rather to “ensure the contentment of the world.” In civil cases, Islamic law applied to Muslims, Hindu law applied to Hindus, while criminal law was the same for both Muslims and Hindus. In matters like marriage and inheritance, both communities had their own laws that Jahangir respected. Thus Jahangir was able to deliver justice to people in accordance of their beliefs, and also keep his hold on empire by unified criminal law. In the Mughal state, therefore, defiance of imperial authority, whether coming from a prince or anyone else aspiring to political power, or a Muslim or a Hindu, was crushed in the name of law and order. Jahangir's relationship with other rulers of the time is one that was well documented by Sir Thomas Roe, especially his relationship with the Persian King, Shah Abbas. Though conquest was one of Jahangir’s many goals, he was a naturalist and lover of the arts and did not have quite the same warrior ambition of the Persian king. This led to a mutual enmity that, while diplomatically hidden, was very clear to observers within Jahangir’s court. Furthermore, Abbas had, for many years, been trying to recover the city of Kandahar, which Jahangir was not keen to part with, especially to this king whom he did not particularly care for, despite seeing him as an equal. In this state, Jahangir was also open to the influence of his wives, a weakness exploited by many. Because of this constant inebriated state, Nur Jahan, the favourite wife of Jahangir, became the actual power behind the throne. Marriage Salim was made a Mansabdar of ten thousand (Das-Hazari), the highest military rank of the empire, after the emperor. He independently commanded a regiment in the Kabul campaign of 1581, when he was barely twelve. His Mansab was raised to Twelve Thousand, in 1585, at the time of his betrothal to his cousin Manbhawati Bai, daughter of Bhagwan Das of Amber. Raja Bhagwant Das, was the son of Raja Bharmal and the brother of Akbar's wife Rajkumari Hira Kunwari, also known as Mariam Zamani. The marriage with Manbhawati Bai took place on February 13, 1585. Manbhawati gave birth to Khusraw Mirza. Thereafter, Salim was allowed to marry, in quick succession, a number of accomplished girls from the aristocratic Mughal and Rajput families. One of his favourite wives was a Rajput Princess, known as Jagat Gosain and Princess Manmati, who gave birth to Prince Khurram, the future Shah Jahan, Jahangir's successor to the throne. The total number of wives in his harem was more than eight hundred. Jahangir married the extremely beautiful and intelligent Mehr-ul-Nisa (better known by her subsequent title of Nur Jahan), in May 1611. She was the widow of Sher Afghan. She was witty, intelligent and beautiful, which was what attracted Jahangir to her. Before being awarded the title of Nur Jahan ('Light of the World'), she was called Nur Mahal ('Light of the Palace'). Her abilities are said to range from fashion designing to hunting. There is also a myth that she had once killed four tigers with six bullets. Nur Jahan Nur Jahan The story of Nur Jahan must occupy a very important place in the history of Jahangir. She was the widow of a rebel officer, Sher Afghan, of Mughals. The governor of Bengal was killed by him and consequently he suffered the same fate at the hands of the guards of the Governor. His widow, Mehr-un-Nisaa, was brought to Agra and placed in the Royal harem in 1607. Jahangir married her in 1611 and gave her the title of Nur Jahan or "Light of the World". Jahangir is thought to have had a hand in the death of her husband. But there is no conclusive evidence to prove that he was guilty of that crime. The character of Nur Jahan was fascinating and deserves praise. She had a piercing intelligence, a versatile temper and sound common sense. She possessed great physical strength and courage. She went on hunting tours with her husband, and on more than one occasion shot and killed ferocious tigers. Her devotion to Jahangir was unmatched. She loved him so much that he forgot all about the world. No wonder he entrusted all the work of the government to her. The loss of Kandahar was due to Nur Jahan. When the Persians besieged Kandahar, Nur Jahan was at the helm of affairs. She ordered Prince Khurram to march for Kandahar, but the latter refused to do so. There is no doubt that the refusal of the prince was due to her behaviour towards him. She was favouring her son-in-law, Shahryar, at the expense of Khurram. Khurram suspected that in his absence, Shahryar might be given promotion and he might die on the battlefield. It was this fear which forced Khurram to rebel against his father rather than fight against the Persians and thereby Kandahar was lost to the Persians. Conquests Jahangir (l) and Akbar (r). Jahangir was responsible for ending a century long struggle with the state of Mewar.The campaign against the Rajputs was pushed so extensively that the latter were made to submit and that too with a great loss of life and property. Jahangir also thought of capturing the fort of Kangra, which Akbar had failed to do. Consequently a siege was laid, which lasted for fourteen months, and the fort was taken in 1620. The district of Kistwar, in the state of Kashmir, was also conquered. Death Jahangir's Mausoleum in Shahdara, Lahore The health of Jahangir was completely shattered by too much drinking of alcohol. He was trying to restore it by visiting Kashmir and Kabul. He went from Kabul to Kashmir but returned to Lahore on account of a severe cold. Jahangir died on the way from Kashmir in 1627 and was buried in Shahdara Bagh, a suburb of Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan. He was succeeded by his third son, Prince Khurram who took the title of Shah Jahan. Jahangir's elegant mausoleum is located in the Shahdara locale of Lahore and is a popular tourist attraction in Lahore. Autobiography Jahangir was an excellent writer and loved nature. He recorded various details of flora and fauna from all over India. He was not only curious, but a scientific observer of minute details of species, a number of his observations are detailed in Tuzk-e-Jahangiri, also referred to as Jahangirnama Jahangiri Intro. . He liked paintings and collected many of them in his palace. Some of them are still found in museums. There is hardly any contemporary anywhere in the world who matched his curiosity, style and diction. Jahangir and Religion While Sunni Islam was the state religion, there was no widespread pressure to convert; indeed, Jahangir specifically warned his nobles that they "should not force Islam on anyone." In the first century of Islamic expansion this attitude was taken partially because of concerns that an absence of non-Muslims would deprive the state of a valuable source of revenue. However, as the jizya was not imposed by Jahangir, there might have been more behind this policy of toleration than mere economic reasoning. Jahangir was certainly willing to engage with other religions, and Edward Terry, an English chaplain in India at the time, saw a ruler under which "all Religions are tolerated and their Priefts [held] in good efteeme." Brahmins on the banks of the Ganges received gifts from the emperor, while following a meeting with Jadrup, a Hindu ascetic, Jahangir felt compelled to comment that "association with him is a great privilege." He enjoyed debating theological subtleties with Brahmins, especially about the possible existence of avatars. Both Sunnis and Shias were welcome at court, and members of both sects gained high office. When drunk, Jahangir swore to Sir Thomas Roe, England’s first ambassador to the Mughal court, that he would protect all the peoples of the book. Many contemporary chroniclers were not even sure quite how to describe his personal belief structure. Roe labelled him an atheist, and although most others shied away from that term, they did not feel as though they could call him an orthodox Sunni. He relied greatly on astrologers, though that was not seen as unusual for a ruler at the time, even to the extent that he required that they work out the most auspicious time for the imperial camp to enter a city. Roe believed Jahangir’s religion to be of his own making, "for hee envyes Mahomett, and wisely sees noe reason why he should not bee as great a prophet as hee, and therfore proffeseth him selfe soe … he hath found many disciples that flatter or follow him." At this time, one of those disciples happened to be the current English ambassador, though his initiation into Jahangir’s inner circle of disciples was devoid of religious significance for Roe, as he did not understand the full extent of what he was doing: Jahangir hung "a picture of him selfe sett in gould hanging at a wire gould chaine, with one pendent foule pearle" round Roe’s neck. Roe thought it "an especiall favour, for that all the great men that weare the Kings image (which none may doe but to whom it is given) receive no other then a meddall of gould as bigg as six pence." Had Roe intentionally converted, it would have caused quite a scandal in London. But since there was no intent, there was no resultant problem. Such disciples were an elite group of imperial servants, with one of them being promoted to Chief Justice. However, it is not clear that any of those who became disciples renounced their previous religion, so it is probable to see this as a way in which the emperor strengthened the bond between himself and his nobles. Despite Roe’s somewhat casual use of the term 'atheist', he could not quite put his finger on Jahangir’s real beliefs. Roe lamented that the emperor was either "the most impossible man in the world to be converted, or the most easy; for he loves to heare, and hath so little religion yet, that hee can well abyde to have any derided." Broad toleration for other religions made little sense to Europeans forged in the heat of religious conflict, while the lifestyle and pretensions Jahangir afforded himself meant that it was difficult to see him as a devout Muslim. Sri Ram Sharma argues though that contemporaries and some historians have been too disparaging about Jahangir’s beliefs, simply because he did not persecute non-believers and enforce his views on others. This should not imply that the multi-confessional state appealed to all, or that all Muslims were happy with the situation in India. In a book written on statecraft for Jahangir, the author advised him to direct "all his energies to understanding the counsel of the sages and to comprehending the intimations of the 'ulama." At the start of his regime many staunch Sunnis were hopeful, because he seemed less tolerant to other faiths than his father had been. At the time of his accession and the elimination of Abu'l Fazl, his father’s chief minister and architect of his eclectic religious stance, a strong orthodox nucleus of noblemen had gained power in administration." Jahangir did not always benevolently regard some Hindu customs and rituals. On visiting a Hindu temple, he found a statue of a man with a pig’s head, which was supposed to represent God, so he "ordered them to break that hideous form and throw it in the tank." If the Tuzuk is reliable on this subject (and there is no reason to suspect that it is not), then this was an isolated case. J. F. Richards argues that "Jahangir seems to have been persistently hostile to popularly venerated religious figures." This is perhaps misleading. Hindu ascetics like Jadrup were treated with respect, and it was only those who upset the order of the state that were seen as a threat to the state, with their popularity making them even more dangerous. A Muslim, who had gained some followers by claiming that he had surpassed the understanding of the companions of Muhammad, was imprisoned in Gwalior Fort. If he had been allowed to spread his message there was potential for serious disturbance, so he had to be stopped. Most notorious was the execution of the Sikh Guru Arjun. It is unclear that Jahangir even understood what a Sikh was, referring to Guru Arjun as a Hindu, who had "captured many of the simple-hearted of the Hindus, and even of the ignorant and foolish followers of Islam, by his ways and manners … for three or four generations (of spiritual successors) they had kept this shop warm." The trigger for Guru Arjun’s execution was his support for Jahangir’s rebel son Khusrau, yet it is clear from Jahangir's own memoirs that he disliked Guru Arjun before then: "many times it occurred to me to put a stop to this vain affair or bring him into the assembly of the people of Islam." Guru Arjun was handed over to the Mughal governor of Lahore, and was tortured to death for refusing to convert to Islam. Jahangir ordered his execution, but it is unlikely that he also ordered Guru Arjun to be tortured and converted, for two reasons; one, because we have no other examples from Jahangir’s generally tolerant reign to support the idea that he forced people to convert to Islam, and two, because Jahangir makes no note of Guru Arjun’s torture, yet cheerfully describes the torture of two other rebels, as well as Guru Arjun’s execution. Jahangir maintained his hostility towards the Sikhs, imprisoning Guru Hargobind, the successor of Guru Arjun, for several years. A rana was described as an infidel, but only because he was fighting against the Mughals, and infidel was used as an everyday phrase to describe all non-Muslims anyway. Admittedly Muslims were discouraged from performing most Hindu rites, with Jahangir lamenting that many Muslims prayed at a temple dedicated to Durga, and worshipped at a black stone. With Jahangir himself occasionally taking part in Hindu ceremonies, the aforementioned example was probably one way of showing support for the idea that Muslim and Hindus should not mix their rituals. His attitude to religion in his domain was relaxed yet diligent. He saw himself as doing Allah’s bidding, yet he was inquisitive enough to explore new ideas about religion, intelligent enough to understand that Hindus were in the majority and grand enough in his pretensions not to need to obey every line of the Qur’an. Such a religious situation allowed the more recently arrived form of Christianity to have opportunity to grow. Jahangir did not seem to have anything against Christianity. He wrote fondly of Akbar's reign, when "Sunnis and Shias met in one mosque, and Franks and Jews in one church, and observed their own forms of worship." Roe noted that "of Christ he never utters any word unreverently." His prayer room in Agra contained pictures of "our Lady and Chrift." In the imperial palace in Lahore, over one of the doors, according to William Finch, a merchant, was "the Picture of our Sauiour," with an image of the Virgin Mary facing it. Elsewhere, the emperor had pictures of angels and demons, with the demons having a "moft vgly fhape, with long hornes, ftaring eyes … with fuch horrible difformity and deformity, that I wonder the poore women are not frightened therewith." It is possible that Jahangir might have seen these images in their Islamic persona, as the Qur’an features such creatures, yet depiction of living things was harem (forbidden), so the images could well have been created by a Christian artist. However, as Mughal art was still heavily Persian-influenced, images of living beings were allowed, and widespread, so perhaps the otherworldly images had nothing to do with Christianity at all; they nonetheless caught Finch’s eye. Muqarrab Khan sent to Jahangir "a European curtain (tapestry) the like of which in beauty no other work of the Frank painters has ever been seen." One of his audience halls was "adorned with European screens." Christian themes attracted Jahangir, and even merited a mention in the Tuzuk. One of his slaves gave him a piece of ivory into which had been carved four scenes. In the last scene "there is a tree, below which the figure of the revered (hazrat) Jesus is shown. One person has placed his head at Jesus' feet, and an old man is conversing with Jesus and four others are standing by." Though Jahangir believed it to be the work of the slave who presented it to him, Sayyid Ahmad and Henry Beveridge suggest that it was of European origin, and possibly showed the Transfiguration. Wherever it came from, and whatever it represented, it was clear that a European style had come to influence Mughal art, otherwise the slave would not have claimed it as his own design, nor would he have been believed by Jahangir. There was even some baseless suggestion that Jahangir had converted to Christianity. Thrown by the religious tolerance of Akbar and Jahangir's rule, the Jesuits had long thought that they were always on the verge of conversion. Finch recounted how there "was much ftirre with the King about Chrytianitie, hee affirming before his Nobles, that it was the foundeft faith, and that of Mahomet lies and fables." This is an extremely implausible story, yet the fact that Finch told it at all shows the extent to which Christianity was evident in the Mughal court. Jahangir apparently allowed a Jesuit to teach some Indian boys Portuguese and elements of Christian doctrine, and the Jesuits were also allowed to open churches in Ahmadabad and Hooghly. Christians were allowed to openly celebrate Christmas, Easter and other such festivals, and the Jesuits were even given an allowance and gifts in order to carry on with their work, with a few Indians converting to Christianity. Given the toleration of Hinduism, such imperial leeway was not shocking. Christianity occupied a special place in Islamic canon, as did Isa (Jesus), who was considered to be amongst the greatest prophets. What did surprise some observers was the forcible conversion of three sons of Jahangir’s brother, Prince Daniyal, to Christianity, followed by a parade to celebrate their conversions. This was seen by the Jesuits as a gigantic step forward, but the English and the locals knew better. Hawkins dryly commented that Jahangir made his nephews Christian "not for any zeale he had to Chriftianitie, as the [Jesuit] Fathers, and all Chriftians thought; but vpon the prophecie of certain learned Gentiles [Hindus], who told him that the fonnes of his fhould [will] be difinherited, and the children of his brother fhould raigne. And therefore he did it, to make thefe children hatefull to all Moores." This highlighted the likely limits of Christianity in India. Its inhabitants already had mono- and poly-theistic religions from which to choose, and the European Christians had done little to demonstrate the attractiveness of conversion. A few did convert, though Terry believed that this was only for Jesuit money, as they did not appear to know anything about their new religion, and Roe agreed on this matter. Even Jahangir’s nephews were allowed to return to the Islamic fold, because "the King of Portugall sent them no presents nor wives." Christianity was tolerated because it posed no real threat. It certainly had an effect on the arts, but it is difficult to discern any other lasting impact on Mughal India. Jahangir and Art Jahangir was fascinated with art and architecture. Jahangir himself is far from modest in his autobiography when he states his prowess at being able to determine the artist of any portrait by simply looking at a painting . As he said: “…my liking for painting and my practice in judging it have arrived at such point when any work is brought before me, either of deceased artists or of those of the present day, without the names being told me, I say on the spur of the moment that is the work of such and such a man. And if there be a picture containing many portraits, and each face is the work of a different master, I can discover which face is the work of each of them. If any other person has put in the eye and eyebrow of a face, I can perceive whose work the original face is, and who has painted the eye and eyebrow.” Jahangir took his connoisseurship of art very seriously. Paintings created under his reign were closely catalogued, dated and even signed, providing scholars with fairly accurate ideas as to when and in what context many of the pieces were created, in addition to their aesthetic qualities. He was not only an admirer of Christian artwork but also a purveyor of it. This was largely due to earlier Jesuit missions during his father’s reign. Jesuits had brought with them various books, engravings, and paintings and, when they saw the delight Akbar held for them, sent for more and more of the same to be given to the Mughals, as they felt they were on the “verge of conversion,” a notion which proved to be very false. Instead, both Akbar and Jahangir studied this artwork very closely and replicated and adapted it, adopting much of the early iconographic features and later the pictorial realism for which Renaissance art was known for. Jahangir was notable for his pride in the ability of his court painters. A classic example of this is described in Sir Thomas Roe’s diaries, in which the Emperor had his painters copy a European miniature several times creating a total of five miniatures. Jahangir then challenged Roe to pick out the original from the copies, a feat Sir Thomas Roe could not do, to the delight of Jahangir. Jahangir was also revolutionary in his adaptation of European styles. A collection at the British Museum in London contains seventy-four drawings of Indian portraits dating from the time of Jahangir, including a portrait of the emperor himself. These portraits are a unique example of art during Jahangir’s reign because before, and for sometime after, faces were not drawn full, head-on and including the shoulders as well as the head as these drawings are. During his time, Jahangir also pioneered several ornate genealogies illustrated with portraits of each family member in the style of Italian Renaissance painters . Jahangir’s love for hunting met his love for art as he commissioned artists on multiple occasions to paint him while hunting and would even paint scenes himself, from time to time . Jahangir was also known for his vast collection of illuminated Persian albums that contained writings as well as paintings . In media Nur-ud-din Salim Jahangir, his father Akbar the Great and Anarkali, were portrayed in the Hindi film Mughal-e-Azam, in which Jahangir was played by Dilip Kumar. Jalal Agha also played the younger Jahangir at the start of the film. See also Jahangirnama Anarkali Hiran Minar Tomb of Jahangir References Further reading External links The World Conqueror: Jahangir Tūzuk-i-Jahangīrī Or Memoirs of Jahāngīr | Jahangir |@lemmatized nur:17 ud:5 din:6 salim:13 jahangir:104 full:3 title:6 al:4 sultan:1 azam:2 wal:1 khaqan:1 mukarram:1 khushru:1 giti:1 panah:1 abu:2 l:3 fath:1 muhammad:5 padshah:2 ghazi:2 jannat:1 makaani:1 september:1 november:3 august:1 ns:1 ruler:5 mughal:16 empire:4 death:6 name:7 persian:10 جہانگير:1 mean:2 conqueror:2 world:8 arabic:2 light:4 faith:3 born:2 prince:9 third:2 eldest:3 survive:2 son:12 emperor:9 akbar:22 twin:1 hasan:1 hussain:1 die:3 infancy:1 mother:2 rajput:5 princess:3 amber:3 jodhabai:3 rajkumari:2 hira:2 kunwari:2 daughter:2 raja:5 bihar:1 mal:1 bharmal:2 india:8 however:4 writer:2 salman:1 rushdie:2 say:5 research:1 history:3 enchantress:1 florence:1 find:4 among:1 numerous:1 mention:2 historical:1 record:2 manuscript:1 era:1 jalaluddin:1 wife:8 concubine:1 suggest:2 may:3 never:2 exist:1 could:5 fictional:1 character:2 come:4 folklore:1 later:3 publish:1 short:1 story:3 new:3 yorker:1 premise:1 jodha:1 imaginary:1 child:5 many:14 prayer:2 blessing:1 shaikh:2 chishti:3 one:16 revered:1 sage:2 time:16 first:3 future:2 bear:2 dargah:1 within:4 fortress:1 fatehpur:2 sikri:5 near:2 agra:7 darvesh:1 affectionately:1 address:1 sheikhu:1 baba:1 develop:2 emotional:1 attachment:1 village:1 abode:1 therefore:3 town:1 shift:1 imperial:6 court:7 residence:1 rename:1 education:2 ensure:2 receive:3 best:1 possible:4 start:4 study:2 age:2 four:6 teach:2 fārsi:1 turkish:1 urdū:1 arithmetic:1 geography:1 science:2 important:3 tutor:1 like:7 abdur:1 rahim:1 khan:2 khanan:1 renowned:1 soldier:1 scholar:2 revolt:1 away:2 capital:1 expedition:1 break:2 open:3 rebellion:2 declare:1 hastily:1 return:3 restore:2 order:8 thought:1 put:5 khusraw:9 throne:7 instead:2 forcefully:1 succeed:2 eight:2 day:2 father:11 ascend:1 thus:2 begin:1 year:3 reign:10 soon:1 fend:1 attempt:1 claim:4 base:1 become:3 next:1 heir:1 defeat:2 confine:1 fort:4 punishment:1 blind:1 sikh:5 guru:12 arjun:11 religious:8 spiritual:2 head:5 sect:2 give:11 fugitive:1 money:2 visit:3 rule:3 characterize:1 tolerance:2 exception:1 hostility:2 forge:2 early:2 khurram:9 shah:4 jahan:13 young:2 brother:4 murder:1 conspiracy:1 eliminate:1 contender:1 take:7 advantage:1 internal:1 conflict:2 seize:1 city:3 qandahar:2 result:1 loss:3 mughals:4 lose:2 control:2 trade:2 route:1 afghanistan:1 central:2 asia:1 also:17 expose:1 invasion:1 north:1 west:1 social:1 ucla:1 darbar:1 nama:1 c:1 gouache:1 paper:1 gold:1 mohur:1 portrait:7 aesthete:1 decide:1 grand:2 display:1 justice:4 saw:4 end:2 enact:1 twelve:3 decree:1 remarkable:1 liberalism:1 foresight:1 significant:1 increase:1 size:1 half:1 dozen:1 crush:2 prisoner:1 war:1 release:1 work:11 continue:1 flourish:1 much:5 dedicate:2 expansion:2 hold:4 territory:2 conquest:3 regime:2 would:10 target:1 people:6 assam:1 eastern:1 frontier:1 bring:5 series:1 independent:1 himalayan:1 foothill:1 kashmir:5 bengal:2 challenge:3 hegemonic:1 persia:1 safavid:1 eye:5 kabul:4 peshawar:1 center:1 asian:1 system:1 northern:1 operate:1 send:4 combined:1 force:4 ahmednagar:1 bijapur:1 golconda:1 victory:2 turn:1 make:9 bid:1 power:5 insurection:1 able:3 family:3 retain:1 promise:1 protect:2 islam:9 grant:1 general:1 amnesty:1 opponent:1 notable:2 patronage:1 art:11 especially:4 paint:4 distinctive:1 style:5 painting:7 expand:1 blossom:1 support:4 flourishing:1 culture:1 painter:5 famous:1 golden:1 chain:3 setup:1 link:2 stand:2 outside:1 castle:1 sixty:1 bell:1 anyone:3 capable:1 pull:1 personal:3 hearing:1 furthermore:2 preserve:1 tradition:1 highly:1 centralized:1 form:4 government:2 hindu:14 convert:10 precept:1 sunni:6 cornerstone:1 state:13 policy:3 faithful:1 muslim:13 evidence:2 memoir:3 express:1 gratitude:1 allah:2 devout:2 let:1 belief:5 dictate:1 sovereignty:1 accord:2 gift:3 god:3 necessarily:1 enforce:2 law:8 rather:2 contentment:1 civil:1 case:2 islamic:5 apply:2 hindus:2 criminal:2 matter:2 marriage:3 inheritance:1 community:1 respect:2 deliver:1 accordance:1 keep:2 unified:1 defiance:1 authority:1 whether:1 else:1 aspire:1 political:1 relationship:2 well:8 document:1 sir:4 thomas:4 roe:15 king:6 abbas:2 though:7 goal:1 naturalist:1 lover:1 quite:4 warrior:1 ambition:1 lead:1 mutual:1 enmity:1 diplomatically:1 hidden:1 clear:4 observer:3 try:2 recover:1 kandahar:5 keen:1 part:2 particularly:1 care:1 despite:2 see:10 equal:1 influence:3 weakness:1 exploit:1 constant:1 inebriated:1 favourite:2 actual:1 behind:2 mansabdar:1 ten:1 thousand:2 da:3 hazari:1 high:2 military:1 rank:1 independently:1 command:1 regiment:1 campaign:2 barely:1 mansab:1 raise:1 betrothal:1 cousin:1 manbhawati:3 bai:2 bhagwan:1 bhagwant:1 know:7 mariam:1 zamani:1 place:5 february:1 birth:2 mirza:1 thereafter:1 allow:8 marry:3 quick:1 succession:1 number:3 accomplished:1 girl:1 aristocratic:1 jagat:1 gosain:1 manmati:1 successor:3 total:2 harem:3 hundred:1 extremely:2 beautiful:2 intelligent:3 mehr:2 ul:1 nisa:1 subsequent:1 widow:3 sher:2 afghan:2 witty:1 attract:2 award:1 call:2 mahal:1 palace:3 ability:2 range:1 fashion:1 design:2 hunt:3 myth:1 kill:3 tiger:2 six:2 bullet:1 must:1 occupy:2 rebel:4 officer:1 governor:3 consequently:2 suffer:1 fate:1 hand:3 guard:1 un:1 nisaa:1 royal:1 think:5 husband:2 conclusive:1 prove:2 guilty:1 crime:1 fascinate:2 deserves:1 praise:1 piercing:1 intelligence:1 versatile:1 temper:1 sound:1 common:1 sense:2 possess:1 great:7 physical:1 strength:1 courage:1 go:2 hunting:1 tour:1 occasion:2 shot:1 ferocious:1 devotion:1 unmatched:1 love:4 forget:1 wonder:2 entrust:1 due:3 besiege:1 helm:1 affair:2 march:1 latter:2 refuse:2 doubt:1 refusal:1 behaviour:1 towards:2 favour:2 shahryar:2 expense:1 suspect:2 absence:2 might:4 promotion:1 battlefield:1 fear:1 fight:2 thereby:1 r:1 responsible:1 century:2 long:3 struggle:1 mewar:1 push:1 extensively:1 submit:1 life:1 property:1 capture:2 kangra:1 fail:1 siege:1 lay:1 last:2 fourteen:1 month:1 district:1 kistwar:1 conquer:1 mausoleum:2 shahdara:3 lahore:7 health:1 completely:1 shatter:1 drinking:1 alcohol:1 account:1 severe:1 cold:1 way:4 bury:1 bagh:1 suburb:1 punjab:1 pakistan:1 elegant:1 locate:1 locale:1 popular:1 tourist:1 attraction:1 autobiography:2 excellent:1 loved:1 nature:1 various:2 detail:3 flora:1 fauna:1 curious:1 scientific:1 minute:1 specie:1 observation:1 tuzk:1 e:2 jahangiri:2 refer:2 jahangirnama:2 intro:1 collect:1 still:2 museum:2 hardly:1 contemporary:3 anywhere:1 match:1 curiosity:1 diction:1 religion:12 widespread:2 pressure:1 indeed:1 specifically:1 warn:1 noble:3 attitude:2 partially:1 concern:1 non:3 deprive:1 valuable:1 source:1 revenue:1 jizya:1 impose:1 toleration:3 mere:1 economic:1 reasoning:1 certainly:2 willing:1 engage:1 edward:1 terry:2 english:3 chaplain:1 tolerate:2 priefts:1 good:1 efteeme:1 brahmins:1 bank:1 ganges:1 follow:3 meeting:1 jadrup:2 ascetic:2 felt:2 compel:1 comment:2 association:1 privilege:1 enjoy:1 debate:1 theological:1 subtlety:1 brahmin:1 existence:1 avatar:1 shia:1 welcome:1 member:2 gain:3 office:1 drunk:1 swore:1 england:1 ambassador:2 book:3 chronicler:1 even:11 sure:1 describe:5 structure:1 label:1 atheist:2 although:1 others:3 shy:1 term:2 feel:1 orthodox:2 rely:1 greatly:1 astrologer:1 unusual:1 extent:3 require:1 auspicious:1 camp:1 enter:1 believe:4 making:1 hee:4 envyes:1 mahomett:1 wisely:1 noe:1 reason:3 bee:1 prophet:2 therfore:1 proffeseth:1 selfe:2 soe:1 hath:2 disciple:5 flatter:1 happen:1 current:1 initiation:1 inner:1 circle:1 devoid:1 significance:1 understand:4 hung:1 picture:5 sett:1 gould:3 hanging:1 wire:1 chaine:1 pendent:1 foule:1 pearle:1 round:1 neck:1 especiall:1 men:1 weare:1 image:6 none:1 doe:1 meddall:1 bigg:1 penny:1 intentionally:1 cause:1 scandal:1 london:2 since:1 intent:1 resultant:1 problem:1 elite:1 group:1 servant:1 promote:1 chief:2 renounce:1 previous:1 probable:1 strengthen:1 bond:1 somewhat:1 casual:1 use:2 finger:1 real:2 lament:2 either:2 impossible:1 man:4 easy:1 heare:1 little:3 yet:7 abyde:1 derided:1 broad:1 european:8 heat:1 lifestyle:1 pretension:2 afford:1 meant:1 difficult:2 sri:1 ram:1 sharma:1 argue:2 historian:1 disparage:1 simply:2 persecute:1 believer:1 view:1 imply:1 multi:1 confessional:1 appeal:1 happy:1 situation:2 write:2 statecraft:1 author:1 advise:1 direct:1 energy:1 counsel:1 comprehend:1 intimation:1 ulama:1 staunch:1 hopeful:1 seem:3 less:1 tolerant:2 accession:1 elimination:1 fazl:1 minister:1 architect:1 eclectic:1 stance:1 strong:1 nucleus:1 nobleman:1 administration:1 always:2 benevolently:1 regard:1 custom:1 ritual:2 temple:2 statue:1 pig:1 suppose:1 represent:2 hideous:1 throw:2 tank:1 tuzuk:2 reliable:1 subject:1 isolated:1 j:1 f:1 richards:1 persistently:1 hostile:1 popularly:1 venerated:1 figure:2 perhaps:2 misleading:1 treat:1 upset:1 threat:2 popularity:1 dangerous:1 follower:2 surpass:1 understanding:1 companion:1 imprison:2 gwalior:1 spread:1 message:1 potential:1 serious:1 disturbance:1 stop:2 notorious:1 execution:4 unclear:1 simple:1 hearted:1 ignorant:1 foolish:1 manner:1 three:2 generation:1 shop:1 warm:1 trigger:1 khusrau:1 dislike:1 occur:1 vain:1 assembly:1 torture:4 unlikely:1 two:3 example:4 generally:1 idea:4 note:2 cheerfully:1 maintain:1 hargobind:1 several:3 rana:1 infidel:2 everyday:1 phrase:1 anyway:1 admittedly:1 discourage:1 perform:1 rite:1 pray:1 durga:1 worship:2 black:1 stone:1 occasionally:1 ceremony:1 aforementioned:1 probably:1 show:4 mix:1 domain:1 relax:1 diligent:1 bidding:1 inquisitive:1 enough:3 explore:1 majority:1 need:1 obey:1 every:1 line:1 qur:2 recently:1 arrive:2 christianity:10 opportunity:1 grow:1 anything:2 fondly:1 shias:1 meet:2 mosque:1 frank:2 jew:1 church:2 observe:1 christ:1 utter:1 word:1 unreverently:1 room:1 contain:3 lady:1 chrift:1 door:1 william:1 finch:4 merchant:1 sauiour:1 virgin:1 mary:1 facing:1 elsewhere:1 angel:1 demon:2 moft:1 vgly:1 fhape:1 horne:1 ftaring:1 fuch:1 horrible:1 difformity:1 deformity:1 poore:1 woman:1 frighten:1 therewith:1 persona:1 feature:2 creature:1 depiction:1 living:2 thing:1 forbidden:1 create:4 christian:7 artist:4 heavily:1 otherworldly:1 nothing:1 nonetheless:1 catch:1 muqarrab:1 curtain:1 tapestry:1 beauty:1 ever:1 audience:1 hall:1 adorn:1 screen:1 theme:1 merit:1 slave:3 piece:2 ivory:1 carve:1 scene:3 tree:1 revere:1 hazrat:1 jesus:4 person:2 foot:1 old:1 converse:1 present:3 sayyid:1 ahmad:1 henry:1 beveridge:1 origin:1 possibly:1 transfiguration:1 wherever:1 whatever:1 otherwise:1 baseless:1 suggestion:1 jesuit:9 verge:2 conversion:5 recount:1 ftirre:1 chrytianitie:1 affirm:1 foundeft:1 mahomet:1 lie:1 fable:1 implausible:1 fact:1 tell:3 evident:1 apparently:1 indian:3 boy:1 portuguese:1 element:1 doctrine:1 ahmadabad:1 hooghly:1 openly:1 celebrate:2 christmas:1 easter:1 festival:1 allowance:1 carry:1 hinduism:1 leeway:1 shock:1 special:1 canon:1 isa:1 consider:1 amongst:1 surprise:1 forcible:1 daniyal:1 parade:1 gigantic:1 step:1 forward:1 local:1 hawkins:1 dryly:1 nephews:1 zeale:1 chriftianitie:1 chriftians:1 vpon:1 prophecie:1 certain:1 learned:1 gentile:1 fonnes:1 fhould:2 difinherited:1 raigne:1 thefe:1 hatefull:1 moore:1 highlight:1 likely:1 limit:1 inhabitant:1 already:1 mono:1 poly:1 theistic:1 choose:1 demonstrate:1 attractiveness:1 appear:1 agree:1 nephew:1 fold:1 portugall:1 pose:1 effect:1 discern:1 lasting:1 impact:1 architecture:1 far:2 modest:1 prowess:1 determine:1 look:1 practice:1 judge:1 point:1 deceased:1 without:1 spur:1 moment:1 face:5 different:1 master:1 discover:1 eyebrow:2 perceive:1 whose:1 original:2 connoisseurship:1 seriously:1 closely:2 catalogue:1 date:2 sign:1 provide:1 fairly:1 accurate:1 context:1 addition:1 aesthetic:1 quality:1 admirer:1 artwork:2 purveyor:1 largely:1 earlier:1 mission:1 engraving:1 delight:2 notion:1 false:1 replicate:1 adapt:1 adopt:1 iconographic:1 pictorial:1 realism:1 renaissance:2 pride:1 classic:1 diary:1 copy:2 miniature:2 five:1 pick:1 feat:1 revolutionary:1 adaptation:1 collection:2 british:1 contains:1 seventy:1 drawing:2 include:2 unique:1 sometime:1 draw:1 shoulder:1 pioneer:1 ornate:1 genealogy:1 illustrate:1 italian:1 commission:1 multiple:1 vast:1 illuminated:1 album:1 writing:1 medium:1 anarkali:2 portray:1 hindi:1 film:2 play:2 dilip:1 kumar:1 jalal:1 agha:1 hiran:1 minar:1 tomb:1 reference:1 read:1 external:1 tūzuk:1 jahangīrī:1 jahāngīr:1 |@bigram nur_ud:5 ud_din:5 muhammad_salim:1 salman_rushdie:1 emotional_attachment:1 ascend_throne:1 sikh_guru:2 guru_arjun:11 shah_jahan:3 eldest_son:1 sunni_islam:2 express_gratitude:1 anyone_else:1 shah_abbas:1 nur_jahan:10 conclusive_evidence:1 tourist_attraction:1 flora_fauna:1 sunni_shia:1 shy_away:1 multi_confessional:1 virgin_mary:1 ivory_carve:1 forcible_conversion:1 external_link:1 |
3,210 | Mage:_The_Ascension | Mage: The Ascension is a Role-playing game based in the old World of Darkness, and was published by White Wolf Game Studio. The characters portrayed in the game are referred to as mages, and are capable of feats of magic. The idea of magic in Mage is broadly inclusive of diverse ideas about mystical practices as well as other belief systems, such as science and religion, so that most mages do not resemble typical fantasy wizards. In 1996, Mage: The Ascension won the Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Rules 1995. In 2005, White Wolf released a new game marketed under the same name (Mage) for the new World of Darkness series, Mage: The Awakening, with some of the same game mechanics but with substantially different premises and setting. Metaphysics The basic premise of Mage: The Ascension is that everyone has the capacity, at some level, to shape reality. This capacity, personified as a mysterious alter-ego called the Avatar, is dormant in most people, who are known as sleepers, whereas Mages (and/or their Avatars) are said to be Awakened. Because they're awakened, Mages can consciously affect changes to reality via willpower, beliefs, and specific magical techniques. The beliefs and techniques of Mages vary enormously, and the ability to alter reality can only exist in the context of a coherent system of belief and technique, called a paradigm. A paradigm organizes a Mage's understanding of reality, how the universe works, and what things mean. It also provides the Mage with an understanding of how to change reality, through specific magical techniques. For example, an alchemical paradigm might describe the act of wood burning as the wood "releasing its essence of elemental Fire," while modern science would describe fire as "combustion resulting from a complex chemical reaction." Paradigms tend to be idiosyncratic to the individual Mage, but the vast majority belong to broad categories of paradigm, e.g., Shamanism, Medieval Sorcery, religious miracle working, and superscience. In the Mage setting, everyday reality is governed by commonsense rules derived from the collective beliefs of sleepers. This is called the consensus. Most Mages' paradigms differ substantially from the consensus. When a mage performs an act of magic that does not seriously violate this commonsense version of reality, in game terms this is called coincidental magic. Magic that deviates wildly from consensus is called vulgar magic. When it is performed ineptly, or is vulgar, and especially if it is vulgar and witnessed by sleepers, magic can cause Paradox, a phenomenon in which reality tries to resolve contradictions between the consensus and the Mage's efforts. Paradox is difficult to predict and almost always bad for the mage. The most common consequences of paradox include physical damage directly to the Mage's body, and paradox flaws, magic-like effects which can for example turn the mage's hair green, make him mute, make him incapable of leaving a certain location, and so on. In more extreme cases paradox can cause Quiet (forms of madness that afflicts mages and may leak into reality), Paradox Spirits (nebulous, often powerful beings which purposefully set about resolving the contradiction, usually by directly punishing the mage), or even the removal of the Mage to a paradox realm, a pocket dimension from which it may be difficult to escape. In Mage, there is an underlying framework to reality called the Tapestry. The Tapestry is naturally divided into various sections, including the physical realm and various levels of the spirit world, or Umbra. At the most basic level, the Tapestry is composed of something called Quintessence, the essence of magic and what is real, in game terms. Quintessence can have distinctive characteristics, called resonance, which are broken down into three categories: dynamic, static, and entropic. In order to understand the metaphysics of the Mage setting, it is important to remember that many of the terms used to describe magic and Mages e.g., Avatar, Quintessence, the Umbra, and Paradox, Resonance, as well as the game mechanics a player uses to describe the areas of magic in which his character is proficient-- the Spheres, look, mean, and are understood very differently depending on the paradigm of the Mage in question, even though they are often, in the texts of the game, described from particular paradigmatic points-of-view. In-character, only a Mage's Paradigm can explain what each of these things is, what it means, and why it's the way it is. Game setting History Early times In the game, Mages have always existed, though there are legends of the Pure Ones who were shards of the original, divine One. Early mages cultivated their magical beliefs alone or in small groups, generally conforming to and influencing the belief systems of their societies. Obscure myths suggest that the precursors of the modern organizations of mages originally gathered in ancient Egypt. This period of historical uncertainty also saw the rise of the Nephandi in the Near East. This set the stage for what the game's history calls the Mythic Ages. Until the late Middle Ages, mages' fortunes waxed and waned along with their native societies. Eventually, though, mages belonging to the Order of Hermes and the Messianic Voices attained great influence over European society. However, absorbed by their pursuit of occult power and esoteric knowledge, they often neglected and even abused humanity. Frequently, they were at odds with mainstream religions, envied by noble authorities and cursed by common folk. The Order of Reason Seeing their chance, mages who believed in proto-scientific theories banded together under the banner of the Order of Reason, declaring their aim was to create a safe world with Man as its ruler. They won the support of Sleepers by developing the useful arts of manufacturing, economy, wayfaring and medicine. They also championed many of the values that we now associate with the Renaissance. Masses of Sleepers embraced the gifts of early Technology and the Science that accompanied them. As the masses' beliefs shifted, the Consensus changed and wizards began to lose their position as their power and influence waned. This was intentional. The Order of Reason perceived a safe world as one devoid of heretical beliefs, ungodly practices and supernatural creatures preying upon humanity. As the defenders of the common folk, they intended to replace the dominant magical groups with a society of philosopher-scientists as shepherds, protecting and guiding humanity. In response, non-scientific mages banded together to form the Council of Nine Traditions where mages of all the major magical paths gathered. They fought on battlefields and in universities trying to undermine as many discoveries as they could, but to no avail - technology made the march of Science unstoppable. The Traditions' power bases were crippled, their believers mainly converted, their beliefs ridiculed all around the world. Their final counteroffensives against the Order of Reason were foiled by internal dissent and treachery in their midst. Rise of the Technocracy However, from the turn of 17th century on, the goals of the Order of Reason began to change. As their scientific paradigm unfolded, they decided that the mystical beliefs of the common people were not only backward, but dangerous, and that they should be replaced by cold, measurable and predictable laws of nature and respect for human genius. They replaced long-held theologies, pantheons, and mystical traditions with ideas like rational thought and the scientific method. As more and more sleepers began to use the Order's discoveries in their everyday lives, Reason and rationality came to govern their beliefs, and the old ways came to be regarded as misguided superstition. However, The Order of Reason became less and less focused on improving the daily lives of sleepers and more concerned with eliminating any resistance to their chokehold on the minds of humanity. Ever since a reorganization performed under Queen Victoria in the late 1800s, they call themselves The Technocracy. Contemporary setting The Order of Reason renamed itself the Technocracy and espoused an authoritarian rule over Sleepers' beliefs, while suppressing the Council of Nine's attempts to reintroduce magic. The Traditions replenished their numbers (which had been diminished by the withdrawal of two Traditions, the secretive Ahl-i-Batin, and the Solificati, alchemists plagued by scandal) with former Technocrats from the Sons of Ether and Virtual Adepts factions, vying for the beliefs of sleepers and with the Technocracy, and perpetually wary of the Nephandi (mages who consciously embrace evil and service to a demonic or alien master) and the Marauders (mages who resist Paradox with a magical form of madness). While the Technocracy's propaganda campaigns were effective in turning the Consensus against mystic and heterodox science, the Traditions maintained various resources, including magical nodes, hidden schools and fortresses called Chantries, and various realms outside of the Consensus in the Umbra. Finally, from 1997-2000, a series of metaplot events destroyed the Council of Nine's Umbral steadings, killing many of their most powerful members. This also cut the Technocracy off from their leadership. Both sides called a truce in their struggle to assess their new situation, especially since these events implied that Armageddon was soon at hand. Chief among these signs was creation of a barrier between the physical world and spirit world (the Umbra). This barrier was called the Avatar Storm because it affected the spiritual being of the Mage (the Avatar). This Avatar Storm was the result of a battle in India on the so-called "Week of Nightmares." These changes were introduced in supplements for the second edition of the game and became core material in the third edition. Later plot and finale Aside from common changes introduced by the World of Darkness metaplot, mages dealt with renewed conflict when the hidden Rogue Council and the Technocracy's Panopticon encouraged the Traditions and Technocracy to struggle once again. The Rogue Council only made itself known through coded missives, while Panopticon was apparently created by the leaders of the Technocracy to counter it. This struggle eventually led to the point on the timeline occupied by the book called Ascension. While the entire metaplot has always been meant to be altered as each play group sees fit, Ascension provided multiple possible endings, with none of them being definitive (though one was meant to resolve the metaplot). Thus, there is no definitive canonical ending. Since the game is meant to be adapted to a group's tastes, the importance of this and the preceding storyline is largely a matter of personal preference. Factions The metaplot of the game involves a four-way struggle between the technological and authoritarian Technocracy, the insane Marauders, the cosmically evil Nephandi and the nine mystical Traditions (that tread the middle path), to which the player characters are assumed to belong. (This struggle has in every edition of the game been characterized both as primarily a covert, violent war directly between factions, and primarily as an effort to sway the imaginations and beliefs of sleepers.) Mages divide themselves according to their cultures, beliefs and even historical accidents or arbitrary alliances. The primary groups include: Council of Nine Mystic Traditions Akashic Brotherhood Celestial Chorus Cult of Ecstasy Dreamspeakers Euthanatos Order of Hermes Sons of Ether Verbena Virtual Adepts The Technocratic Union Iteration X Progenitors The New World Order The Syndicate The Void Engineers Others Crafts Marauders Nephandi The Ahl-i-Batin The Taftani Rules and continuity The core rules of the game are similar to those in other World of Darkness games; see Storyteller System for an explanation. Like other storytelling games Mage emphasizes personal creativity and that ultimately the game's powers and traits should be used to tell a satisfying story. One of Mage's highlights is its system for describing magic, based on spheres, a relatively open-ended 'toolkit' approach to using game mechanics to define the bounds of a given character's magical ability. Different Mages will have differing aptitudes for spheres, and player-characters' magical expertise is described by allocation of points in the spheres. There are nine known spheres: Correspondence Deals with spatial relations, giving the Mage power over space and distances. Correspondence magic allows powers such as teleportation, seeing into distant areas, and at higher levels the Mage may also co-locate herself or even stack different spaces within each other. Correspondence can be combined with almost any other sphere to create effects that span distances. Entropy This sphere gives the Mage power over order, chaos, fate and fortune. A mage can sense where elements of chance influence the world and manipulate them to some degree. At simple levels machines can be made to fail, plans to go off without a hitch, and games of chance heavily influenced. Advanced mages can craft self-propagating memes or curse entire family lines with blights. The only requirement of the Entropy sphere is that all interventions work within the general flow of natural entropy. Forces Forces concerns energies and natural forces and their negative opposites (i.e. light and shadow can both be manipulated independently with this Sphere). Essentially, anything in the material world that can be seen or felt but is not material can be controlled: electricity, gravity, magnetism, friction, heat, motion, fire, etc. At low levels the mage can control forces on a small scale, changing their direction, converting one energy into another. At high levels, storms and explosions can be conjured. Obviously, this Sphere tends to do the most damage and be the most flashy and vulgar. Along with Life and Matter, Forces is one of the three 'Pattern Spheres' which together are able to mold all aspects of the physical world. Life Life deals with understanding and influencing biological systems. Generally speaking, any material object with mostly living cells falls under the influence of this sphere. Thus, being alive protects a thing from direct manipulation by the Matter sphere and vice versa. Simply, this allows the mage to heal herself or transform simple life-forms at lower levels, working up to healing others and controlling more complex life at higher levels. Usually, seeking to improve a complex life-form beyond natural limits causes the condition of pattern bleeding: the affected life form begins to wither and die over time. Along with Matter and Forces, Life is one of the three Pattern Spheres. Matter Matter deals with all inanimate material. Stone, dead wood, water, gold, and the corpses of once living things are only the beginning. With this Sphere, matter can be reshaped mentally, transmuted into another substance, or given altered properties. Along with Life and Forces, Matter is one of the three Pattern Spheres. Mind The Mind Sphere is very self-explanatory, dealing with control over one's own mind, the reading and influencing of other minds, and a variety of subtler applications such as Astral Projection and psychometry. At high levels, Mages can create new complete minds or completely rework existing ones. Prime This sphere deals directly with Quintessence, the raw material of the tapestry, which is the metaphysical structure of reality. This sphere allows Quintessence to be channeled and/or funneled in any way at higher levels, and it is necessary if the mage ever wants to conjure something out of thin air (as opposed to transforming one pattern into another). Uses of Prime include general magic senses, counter-magic, and making magical effects permanent. Spirit This sphere is an eclectic mixture of abilities relating to dealings with the spirit world or Umbra. It includes stepping into the Near Umbra right up to traveling through outer space, contacting and controlling spirits, communing with your own or others' avatars, returning a Mage into a sleeper, returning ghosts to life, creating magical fetish items, and so forth. Unlike other Spheres, the difficulty of Spirit magic is often a factor of the Gauntlet, making these spells harder for the most part. The Sphere is referred to as Dimensional Science by the Technocratic Union. Time This sphere deals with dilating, slowing, stopping or traveling through time. Due to game mechanics, it is simpler to travel forward in time than backwards. Time can used to install delays into spells, view the past or future, and even pull people and objects out of linear progression. Time magic offers one means to speed up a character to get multiple actions in a combat round, a much coveted power in turn-based role-playing. The tenth sphere One of the plot hooks that the second edition books put forth were persistent rumors of a "tenth sphere". Though there were hints, it was deliberately left vague. The final book in the line, "Ascension" implies that the tenth sphere is the sphere of Ascension (in as much as spheres are practically relevant at that point in the story). As the book presents alternative resolutions for the mage line, Chapter Two also presents an alternative interpretation that the tenth sphere is "Judgement" or "Telos" and that Anthelios (the red star in the World of Darkness metaplot) is its planet (each sphere has an associated planet and umbral realm). Sphere sigils The various sphere sigils are, in whole or in part, symbols taken from alchemical texts. From Symbols, Signs and Signets, Lehner, Ernst (1950) published by World Publishing Co., Cleveland by way of a post to Everything2.com (possibly containing the archived contents of an email to the old wizards.com Mage email list). Accessed 12/15/2006. Latin terms obtained from The alchemy website's copy of symbols from Medicinisch-Chymisch- und Alchemistisches Oraculum, Ulm, 1755. Accessed 12/15/2006. Correspondence is a symbol for amalgam or amalgamation, "Amalgama". Entropy is a symbol for rotting or decay, "Putredo/putrefactio". The sigil of Forces is part of the symbol for "boiling, "Ebbulio". Life is a symbol for composition, "Compositio". As with Correspondence, the sigil of Matter is another symbol for the process of amalgamation, "Amalgama". Mind is a symbol for the sun, "Sol". Prime is a symbol meaning essence, "Essentia". Spirit may be derived from the symbol for fumes, "Fumus". Time is the symbol for dust, "Pulvis". The tenth symbol depicted in Ascension is a symbol for the planet Neptune. Symbols.com, accessed 12/15/2006 . Mage: The Sorcerer's Crusade also presented a symbol for the tenth sphere, a combination of the symbols for stone and distillation. A post to Bill's Mage Forum by Enantiodromos, 09/14/2003 Because Mage's themes are potentially quite complex and esoteric, and because its Sphere system rules are relatively open-ended, Mage is often daunting, particularly to novice roleplayers and those accustomed to other games whose rules govern the use of magic with greater precision but less flexibility (e.g., games with catalogues of established 'spells.') The third revision of the rules, Mage: The Ascension Revised, made significant changes to the rules and setting, mainly to update Mage with respect to its own ongoing storyline, particularly in regards to events that occurred during the run of the game's second edition. (Like other World of Darkness games, Mage uses a continuing storyline across all of its books.) Some fans preferred the second edition without the changes. Notes See also List of Mage: The Ascension books References External links Official sites Official page GURPS edition | Mage:_The_Ascension |@lemmatized mage:42 ascension:10 role:2 play:2 game:27 base:4 old:3 world:18 darkness:6 publish:2 white:2 wolf:2 studio:1 character:7 portray:1 refer:2 mages:23 capable:1 feat:1 magic:19 idea:3 broadly:1 inclusive:1 diverse:1 mystical:4 practice:2 well:2 belief:16 system:7 science:6 religion:2 resemble:1 typical:1 fantasy:1 wizard:3 win:2 origin:1 award:1 best:1 roleplaying:1 rule:9 release:2 new:5 market:1 name:1 series:2 awakening:1 mechanic:3 substantially:2 different:3 premise:2 set:5 metaphysics:2 basic:2 everyone:1 capacity:2 level:11 shape:1 reality:11 personify:1 mysterious:1 alter:3 ego:1 call:15 avatar:7 dormant:1 people:3 know:3 sleeper:11 whereas:1 say:1 awaken:2 consciously:2 affect:2 change:9 via:1 willpower:1 specific:2 magical:11 technique:4 vary:1 enormously:1 ability:3 exist:3 context:1 coherent:1 paradigm:9 organize:1 understanding:3 universe:1 work:3 thing:4 mean:7 also:8 provide:2 example:2 alchemical:2 might:1 describe:7 act:2 wood:3 burning:1 essence:3 elemental:1 fire:3 modern:2 would:1 combustion:1 result:2 complex:4 chemical:1 reaction:1 tend:2 idiosyncratic:1 individual:1 vast:1 majority:1 belong:3 broad:1 category:2 e:4 g:3 shamanism:1 medieval:1 sorcery:1 religious:1 miracle:1 working:1 superscience:1 setting:3 everyday:2 govern:3 commonsense:2 derive:2 collective:1 consensus:7 differ:2 perform:3 seriously:1 violate:1 version:1 term:4 coincidental:1 deviate:1 wildly:1 vulgar:4 ineptly:1 especially:2 witness:1 cause:3 paradox:9 phenomenon:1 try:2 resolve:3 contradiction:2 effort:2 difficult:2 predict:1 almost:2 always:3 bad:1 common:5 consequence:1 include:6 physical:4 damage:2 directly:4 body:1 flaw:1 like:4 effect:3 turn:4 hair:1 green:1 make:8 mute:1 incapable:1 leave:1 certain:1 location:1 extreme:1 case:1 quiet:1 form:6 madness:2 afflict:1 may:4 leak:1 spirit:8 nebulous:1 often:5 powerful:2 purposefully:1 usually:2 punish:1 even:6 removal:1 realm:4 pocket:1 dimension:1 escape:1 underlying:1 framework:1 tapestry:4 naturally:1 divide:2 various:5 section:1 umbra:6 compose:1 something:2 quintessence:5 real:1 distinctive:1 characteristic:1 resonance:2 break:1 three:4 dynamic:1 static:1 entropic:1 order:13 understand:1 important:1 remember:1 many:4 use:8 mechanics:1 player:3 area:2 proficient:1 sphere:34 look:1 understood:1 differently:1 depend:1 question:1 though:5 text:2 particular:1 paradigmatic:1 point:4 view:2 explain:1 way:5 history:2 early:3 time:8 legend:1 pure:1 one:14 shard:1 original:1 divine:1 cultivate:1 alone:1 small:2 group:5 generally:2 conform:1 influence:6 society:4 obscure:1 myths:1 suggest:1 precursor:1 organization:1 originally:1 gather:2 ancient:1 egypt:1 period:1 historical:2 uncertainty:1 saw:1 rise:2 nephandi:4 near:2 east:1 stage:1 mythic:1 age:2 late:2 middle:2 fortune:2 wax:1 wan:2 along:4 native:1 eventually:2 hermes:2 messianic:1 voice:1 attain:1 great:2 european:1 however:3 absorb:1 pursuit:1 occult:1 power:8 esoteric:2 knowledge:1 neglect:1 abused:1 humanity:4 frequently:1 odds:1 mainstream:1 envy:1 noble:1 authority:1 curse:2 folk:2 reason:8 see:6 chance:3 believe:1 proto:1 scientific:4 theory:1 band:2 together:3 banner:1 declare:1 aim:1 create:5 safe:2 man:1 ruler:1 support:1 develop:1 useful:1 art:1 manufacturing:1 economy:1 wayfaring:1 medicine:1 champion:1 value:1 associate:2 renaissance:1 mass:2 embrace:2 gift:1 technology:2 accompany:1 shift:1 begin:4 lose:1 position:1 intentional:1 perceive:1 devoid:1 heretical:1 ungodly:1 supernatural:1 creature:1 prey:1 upon:1 defender:1 intend:1 replace:3 dominant:1 philosopher:1 scientist:1 shepherd:1 protect:1 guide:1 response:1 non:1 council:6 nine:6 tradition:9 major:1 path:2 fight:1 battlefield:1 university:1 undermine:1 discovery:2 could:1 avail:1 march:1 unstoppable:1 cripple:1 believer:1 mainly:2 convert:2 ridicule:1 around:1 final:2 counteroffensive:1 foil:1 internal:1 dissent:1 treachery:1 midst:1 technocracy:10 century:1 goal:1 unfold:1 decide:1 backward:1 dangerous:1 cold:1 measurable:1 predictable:1 law:1 nature:1 respect:2 human:1 genius:1 long:1 held:1 theology:1 pantheon:1 rational:1 thought:1 method:1 life:13 rationality:1 come:2 regard:2 misguided:1 superstition:1 become:2 less:3 focus:1 improve:2 daily:1 concerned:1 eliminate:1 resistance:1 chokehold:1 mind:7 ever:2 since:3 reorganization:1 queen:1 victoria:1 contemporary:1 rename:1 espouse:1 authoritarian:2 suppress:1 attempt:1 reintroduce:1 replenish:1 number:1 diminish:1 withdrawal:1 two:2 secretive:1 ahl:2 batin:2 solificati:1 alchemist:1 plague:1 scandal:1 former:1 technocrat:1 son:2 ether:2 virtual:2 adept:1 faction:3 vie:1 perpetually:1 wary:1 evil:2 service:1 demonic:1 alien:1 master:1 marauder:3 resist:1 propaganda:1 campaign:1 effective:1 mystic:2 heterodox:1 maintain:1 resource:1 node:1 hidden:2 school:1 fortress:1 chantry:1 outside:1 finally:1 metaplot:6 event:3 destroy:1 umbral:2 steadings:1 kill:1 member:1 cut:1 leadership:1 side:1 truce:1 struggle:5 assess:1 situation:1 imply:1 armageddon:1 soon:1 hand:1 chief:1 among:1 sign:2 creation:1 barrier:2 storm:3 spiritual:1 battle:1 india:1 week:1 nightmare:1 introduce:2 supplement:1 second:4 edition:7 core:2 material:6 third:2 later:1 plot:2 finale:1 aside:1 deal:7 renew:1 conflict:1 rogue:2 panopticon:2 encourage:1 coded:1 missive:1 apparently:1 leader:1 counter:2 lead:1 timeline:1 occupy:1 book:6 entire:2 fit:1 multiple:2 possible:1 ending:1 none:1 definitive:2 thus:2 canonical:1 end:3 adapt:1 taste:1 importance:1 precede:1 storyline:3 largely:1 matter:9 personal:2 preference:1 involve:1 four:1 technological:1 insane:1 cosmically:1 tread:1 assume:1 every:1 characterize:1 primarily:2 covert:1 violent:1 war:1 sway:1 imagination:1 accord:1 culture:1 accident:1 arbitrary:1 alliance:1 primary:1 akashic:1 brotherhood:1 celestial:1 chorus:1 cult:1 ecstasy:1 dreamspeakers:1 euthanatos:1 verbena:1 adepts:1 technocratic:2 union:2 iteration:1 x:1 progenitors:1 syndicate:1 void:1 engineer:1 others:3 crafts:1 taftani:1 continuity:1 similar:1 storyteller:1 explanation:1 storytelling:1 emphasize:1 creativity:1 ultimately:1 trait:1 tell:1 satisfying:1 story:2 highlight:1 relatively:2 open:2 toolkit:1 approach:1 define:1 bound:1 give:4 aptitude:1 expertise:1 allocation:1 correspondence:5 spatial:1 relation:1 space:3 distance:2 allow:3 teleportation:1 distant:1 high:5 co:2 locate:1 stack:1 within:2 combine:1 span:1 entropy:4 chaos:1 fate:1 sense:1 element:1 manipulate:2 degree:1 simple:2 machine:1 fail:1 plan:1 go:1 without:2 hitch:1 heavily:1 advanced:1 craft:1 self:2 propagate:1 meme:1 family:1 line:3 blight:1 requirement:1 intervention:1 general:2 flow:1 natural:3 force:8 concern:1 energy:2 negative:1 opposite:1 light:1 shadow:1 independently:1 essentially:1 anything:1 felt:1 control:5 electricity:1 gravity:1 magnetism:1 friction:1 heat:1 motion:1 etc:1 low:2 scale:1 direction:1 another:4 explosion:1 conjure:2 obviously:1 flashy:1 pattern:5 able:1 mold:1 aspect:1 influencing:2 biological:1 speak:1 object:2 mostly:1 live:1 cell:1 fall:1 alive:1 protects:1 direct:1 manipulation:1 vice:1 versa:1 simply:1 heal:2 transform:2 seek:1 beyond:1 limit:1 condition:1 bleeding:1 affected:1 wither:1 die:1 inanimate:1 stone:2 dead:1 water:1 gold:1 corps:1 living:1 beginning:1 reshape:1 mentally:1 transmute:1 substance:1 altered:1 property:1 explanatory:1 reading:1 variety:1 subtler:1 application:1 astral:1 projection:1 psychometry:1 complete:1 completely:1 rework:1 prime:3 raw:1 metaphysical:1 structure:1 channel:1 funnel:1 necessary:1 want:1 thin:1 air:1 oppose:1 us:1 sens:1 permanent:1 eclectic:1 mixture:1 relate:1 dealing:1 step:1 right:1 travel:3 outer:1 contact:1 commune:1 return:2 ghost:1 fetish:1 item:1 forth:2 unlike:1 difficulty:1 factor:1 gauntlet:1 spell:3 harder:1 part:3 dimensional:1 dilating:1 slow:1 stop:1 due:1 simpler:1 forward:1 backwards:1 install:1 delay:1 past:1 future:1 pull:1 linear:1 progression:1 offer:1 speed:1 get:1 action:1 combat:1 round:1 much:2 coveted:1 playing:1 tenth:6 hook:1 put:1 persistent:1 rumor:1 hint:1 deliberately:1 left:1 vague:1 implies:1 practically:1 relevant:1 present:3 alternative:2 resolution:1 chapter:1 interpretation:1 judgement:1 telos:1 anthelios:1 red:1 star:1 planet:3 sigils:2 whole:1 symbols:1 take:1 symbol:16 signet:1 lehner:1 ernst:1 publishing:1 cleveland:1 post:2 com:3 possibly:1 contain:1 archived:1 content:1 email:2 list:2 access:3 latin:1 obtain:1 alchemy:1 website:1 copy:1 medicinisch:1 chymisch:1 und:1 alchemistisches:1 oraculum:1 ulm:1 amalgam:1 amalgamation:2 amalgama:2 rot:1 decay:1 putredo:1 putrefactio:1 sigil:2 boiling:1 ebbulio:1 composition:1 compositio:1 process:1 sun:1 sol:1 meaning:1 essentia:1 fume:1 fumus:1 dust:1 pulvis:1 depict:1 neptune:1 sorcerer:1 crusade:1 combination:1 distillation:1 bill:1 forum:1 enantiodromos:1 theme:1 potentially:1 quite:1 daunting:1 particularly:2 novice:1 roleplayers:1 accustom:1 whose:1 precision:1 flexibility:1 catalogue:1 establish:1 revision:1 revise:1 significant:1 update:1 ongoing:1 occur:1 run:1 continue:1 across:1 fan:1 prefer:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 site:1 page:1 gurps:1 |@bigram mage_ascension:5 alter_ego:1 vast_majority:1 wax_wan:1 queen_victoria:1 vice_versa:1 astral_projection:1 raw_material:1 persistent_rumor:1 external_link:1 |
3,211 | History_of_China | Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River () valley in the Neolithic era. The written history of China begins with the Shang Dynasty (ca. 1550BCE - ca. 1046 BCE). Turtle shells with ancient Chinese writing from the Shang Dynasty have been carbon dated to as early as 1500 BCE. Henry Cleere. Archaeological Heritage Management in the Modern World. 2005. Routledge. p. 318. ISBN 0415214483. The origins of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy, developed during the Zhou Dynasty (1045BCE to 256 BCE) that followed the Shang. It was the longest lasting dynasty and spans the period in which the written script evolved from ancient oracle script to the beginnings of modern Chinese writing. The feudal Zhou Dynasty eventually broke apart into individual city states, creating the Warring States period. In 221 BCE, Qin Shi Huang united the various warring kingdoms and created the first Chinese empire. Successive dynasties in Chinese history developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the Emperor of China to directly control the vast territories. The conventional view of Chinese history is that of a dynasty alternating between periods of political unity and disunity and occasionally becoming dominated by foreign asian peoples, most of whom were assimilated into the Han Chinese population. Cultural and political influences from many parts of Asia, carried by successive waves of immigration, expansion, and assimilation, merged to create modern Chinese culture. __TOC__ Prehistory Paleolithic What is now China was inhabited by Homo erectus more than a million years ago. Recent study shows that the stone tools found at Xiaochangliang site are magnetostratigraphically dated 1.36 million years ago. The archaeological site of Xihoudu () in Shanxi Province is the earliest recorded use of fire by Homo erectus, which is dated 1.27 million years ago. The excavations at Yuanmou and later Lantian 蓝田show early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of Homo erectus found in China is the so-called Peking Man discovered in 1923-27. Three pottery pieces were unearthed at Liyuzui Cave in Liuzhou, Guangxi Province dated 16,500 and 19,000 BCE. "The discovery of early pottery in China" by Zhang Chi, Department of Archaeology, Peking University, China Neolithic The Neolithic age in China can be traced back as early as 10,000 BCE Early evidence for proto-Chinese millet agriculture is carbon-dated to about 7,000 BCE. The Peiligang culture of Xinzheng county, Henan was excavated in 1977. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and to support specialist craftsmen and administrators. In late Neolithic times, the Yellow River valley began to establish itself as a cultural center, where the first villages were founded; the most archaeologically significant of those was found at Banpo, Xi'an. The Yellow River was so named because of the loess that would build up on the bank and down in the earth then sink, creating a yellowish tint to the water. China The early history of China is complicated by the lack of a written language during this period coupled with the existence of documents from later time periods attempting to describe events that occurred several centuries before. The problem in some sense stems from centuries of introspection on the part of the Chinese people which has blurred the distinction between fact and fiction in regards to this early history. By 7000 BCE, the Chinese were farming millet, giving rise to the Jiahu culture. At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6,000-5,000 BCE have been discovered "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing." These pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese. BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Chinese writing '8,000 years old' Later Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture around 2500 BCE. Ancient era Xia Dynasty The Xia Dynasty of China is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Records of the Grand Historian and Bamboo Annals, from ca. 2100 BCE to 1600 BCE. Though there is disagreement pertaining to the actual existence of the dynasty, there is archaeological evidence which points to its possible existence. The historian Sima Qian (145 BCE-90 BCE) and the account in Chinese the Bamboo Annals date the founding of the Xia Dynasty to 4,200 years ago, but this date has not been corroborated. Most archaeologists now connect the Xia to excavations at Erlitou in central Henan province, Bronze Age China at National Gallery of Art where a bronze smelter from around 2000 BCE was unearthed. Early markings from this period found on pottery and shells are thought to be ancestors of modern Chinese characters. Scripts found on Erlitou pottery (written in Simplified Chinese) With few clear records matching the Shang oracle bones or the Zhou bronze vessel writings, the Xia era remains poorly understood. Shang Dynasty Remnants of advanced, stratified societies dating back to the Shang found in the Yellow River Valley. The earliest discovered written record of China's past dates from the Shang Dynasty in perhaps the 13th century BCE, and takes the form of inscriptions of divination records on the bones or shells of animals—the so-called oracle bones. Archeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the Shang Dynasty, c 1600–1046 BCE are divided into two sets. The first set, from the earlier Shang period (ca.1600–1300 BCE) comes from sources at Erligang, Zhengzhou and Shangcheng. The second set, from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, consists of a large body of oracle bone writings. Anyang in modern day Henan has been confirmed as the last of the Shang's nine capitals (c 1300–1046 BCE). The Shang Dynasty featured 31 kings, from Tang of Shang to King Zhou of Shang. In this period, the Chinese worshiped many different gods - weather gods and sky gods - and also a supreme god, named Shang-Ti, who ruled over the other gods. Those who lived during the Shang Dynasty also believed that their ancestors - their parents and grandparents - became like gods when they died, and that their ancestors wanted to be worshipped too, like gods. Each family worshiped its own ancestors. Around 1500 BCE, the Chinese began to use written oracle bones to predict the future. By the time of the Chou Dynasty (about 1100 BCE), the Chinese were also worshiping a natural force called t'ien, which is usually translated as Heaven. Like Shang-Ti, Heaven ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China, called the Mandate of Heaven. The ruler could rule as long as he or she had the Mandate of Heaven; it was believed that the emperor or empress had lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven. The Records of the Grand Historian state that the Shang Dynasty moved its capital six times. The final (and most important) move to Yin in 1350 BCE led to the dynasty's golden age. The term Yin Dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to specifically refer to the latter half of the Shang Dynasty. Chinese historians living in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the actual political situation in early China is known to have been much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can possibly refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou, is known to have existed at the same time as the Shang. Written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty. However, Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper. Zhou Dynasty Bronze ritual vessel (You), Western Zhou Dynasty The Zhou Dynasty was the longest dynasty in Chinese history, from 1027 to approximately 221 B.C. By the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the Zhou Dynasty began to emerge in the Yellow River valley, overrunning the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their rule under a semi-feudal system. The Zhou were a people who lived west of Shang, and the Zhou leader had been appointed "Western Protector" by the Shang. The ruler of the Zhou, King Wu, with the assistance of his brother, the Duke of Zhou, as regent managed to defeat the Shang at the Battle of Muye. The king of Zhou at this time invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize his rule, a concept that would be influential for almost every successive dynasty. The Zhou initially moved their capital west to an area near modern Xi'an, near the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into the Yangtze River valley. This would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese history. Spring and Autumn Period Chinese pu vessel with interlaced dragon design, Spring and Autumn Period. In the 8th century BCE, power became decentralized during the Spring and Autumn Period (春秋時代), named after the influential Spring and Autumn Annals. In this period, local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for hegemony. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the northwest, such as the Qin, forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to Luoyang. This marks the second large phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou. In each of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only. Local leaders for instance started using royal titles for themselves. The Hundred Schools of Thought (諸子百家/诸子百家) of Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period, and such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism (儒家), Taoism (道家), Legalism (法家) and Mohism (墨家) were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The Spring and Autumn Period is marked by a falling apart of the central Zhou power. China now consists of hundreds of states, some only as large as a village with a fort. Warring States Period After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of 5th century BCE, and the years in which these few states battled each other are known as the Warring States Period. Though there remained a nominal Zhou king until 256 BCE, he was largely a figurehead and held little real power. As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning, were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system of commandery and prefecture (郡縣/郡县). This system had been in use since the Spring and Autumn Period and parts can still be seen in the modern system of Sheng & Xian (province and county, 省縣/省县). The final expansion in this period began during the reign of Ying Zheng (嬴政), the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi in 214 BCE enabled him to proclaim himself the First Emperor (Qin Shi Huangdi, 秦始皇帝). Imperial era Qin Dynasty Historians often refer to the period from Qin Dynasty to the end of Qing Dynasty as Imperial China. Though the unified reign of the Qin (秦) Emperor lasted only 12 years, he managed to subdue great parts of what constitutes the core of the Han Chinese homeland and to unite them under a tightly centralized Legalist government seated at Xianyang (咸陽/咸阳) (close to modern Xi'an). The doctrine of legalism that guided the Qin emphasized strict adherence to a legal code and the absolute power of the emperor. This philosophy of Legalism, while effective for expanding the empire in a military fashion, proved unworkable for governing it in peace time. The Qin presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition, including the event known as the burning and burying of scholars. This would be the impetus behind the later Han Synthesis incorporating the more moderate schools of political governance. The Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang. The Qin Dynasty is well known for beginning the Great Wall of China, which was later augmented and enhanced during the Ming Dynasty (明朝). The other major contributions of the Qin include the concept of a centralized government, the unification of the legal code, written language, measurement, and currency of China after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods. Even something as basic as the length of axles for carts had to be made uniform to ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire. Han Dynasty A Han Dynasty oil lamp with a sliding shutter, in the shape of a kneeling female servant, 2nd century BCE. The Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) emerged in 206 BCE, with its founder Liu Bang proclaimed emperor in 202. It was the first dynasty to embrace the philosophy of Confucianism, which became the ideological underpinning of all regimes until the end of imperial China. Under the Han Dynasty, China made great advances in many areas of the arts and sciences. Emperor Wu (Han Wudi 漢武帝/汉武帝) consolidated and extended the Chinese empire by pushing back the Xiongnu (sometimes identified with the Huns) into the steppes of modern Inner Mongolia, wresting from them the modern areas of Gansu, Ningxia and Qinghai. This enabled the first opening of trading connections between China and the West, the Silk Road. Han Dynasty general Ban Chao expanded his conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea. Ban Chao, Britannica Online Encyclopedia The first of several Roman embassies to China is recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in 166, and a second one in 284. Nevertheless, land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. In CE 9, the usurper Wang Mang (王莽) founded the short-lived Xin ("New") Dynasty (新朝) and started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms. These programs, however, were never supported by the land-holding families, for they favored the peasants. The instability brought about chaos and uprisings. Emperor Guangwu (光武帝) reinstated the Han Dynasty with the support of land-holding and merchant families at Luoyang, east of Xi'an. This new era would be termed the Eastern Han Dynasty. Han power declined again amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs. The Yellow Turban Rebellion (黃巾之亂/黄巾之乱) broke out in 184, ushering in an era of warlords. In the ensuing turmoil, three states tried to gain predominance in the Period of the Three Kingdoms. This time period has been greatly romanticized in works such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Wei and Jin Period After Cao Cao reunified the North in 208CE, his son proclaimed the Wei dynasty in 220CE. Soon, Wei's rivals Shu and Wu proclaimed their independance, leading China into the Three Kingdoms Period. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families. Although the Three Kingdoms were reunified by the Jin Dynasty in 280 CE, this structure was essentially the same until the Wu Hu uprising. Wu Hu Period Taking advantage of civil war in the Jin Dynasty, the contemporary non-Han Chinese (Wu Hu, 五胡) ethnic groups controlled much of the country in the early 4th century and provoked large-scale Han Chinese migrations to south of the Chang Jiang. In 303 the Di people rebelled and later captured Chengdu, establishing the state of Cheng Han. Under Liu Yuan the Xiongnu rebelled near today's Linfen County and established the state of Han Zhao. His successor Liu Cong captured and executed the last two Western Jin emperors. Sixteen kingdoms were a plethora of short-lived non-Chinese dynasties that came to rule the whole or parts of northern China in the 4th and 5th centuries. Many ethnic groups were involved, including ancestors of the Turks, Mongolians, and Tibetans. Most of these nomadic peoples had to some extent been "Sinicized" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the Ch'iang and the Xiong-nu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times. A limestone statue of the Bodhisattva, from the Northern Qi Dynasty, 570 AD, made in what is now modern Henan province. Southern and Northern Dynasties Signaled by the collapse of East Jin (東晉/东晋) Dynasty in 420, China entered the era of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The Han people managed to survive the military attacks from the nomadic tribes of the north, such as the Xian Bei (鮮卑), and their civilization continued to thrive. In Southern China, fierce debates about whether Buddhism should be allowed to exist were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. Finally, near the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties era, both Buddhist and Taoist followers compromised and became more tolerant of each other. In 589, Sui (隋) annexed the last Southern Dynasty, Chen (陳/陈), through military force, and put an end to the era of Southern and Northern Dynasties. Sui Dynasty The Sui Dynasty (隋朝), which managed to reunite the country in 589 after nearly four centuries of political fragmentation, played a role more important than its length of existence would suggest. The Sui brought China together again and set up many institutions that were to be adopted by their successors, the Tang. Like the Qin, however, the Sui overused their resources and collapsed. Also similar to the Qin, traditional history has judged the Sui somewhat unfairly, as it has stressed the harshness of the Sui regime and the arrogance of its second emperor, giving little credit for the Dynasty's many positive achievements. Tang Dynasty A Chinese Tang Dynasty tri-colored glaze porcelain horse (ca. 700 AD). On June 18, 618, Gaozu (唐高祖) took the throne, and the Tang Dynasty (唐朝) was established, opening a new age of prosperity and innovations in arts and technology. Buddhism, which had gradually been established in China from the first century, became the predominant religion and was adopted by the imperial family and many of the common people. Chang'an (長安/长安) (modern Xi'an西安), the national capital, is thought to have been the world's largest city at the time. The Tang and the Han are often referred to as the most prosperous periods of Chinese history. The Tang, like the Han, kept the trade routes open to the west and south and there was extensive trade with distant foreign countries and many foreign merchants settled in China. The Tang introduced a new system into the Chinese government, called the "Equal Field System" （均田制）.This system gave families land grants from the Emperor based on their needs, not their wealth. From about 860 the Tang Dynasty began to decline due to a series of rebellions within China itself, and in the previously subject Kingdom of Nanzhao (南詔/南诏) to the south. One of the warlords, Huang Chao (黃巢), captured Guangzhou in 879, killing most of the 200,000 inhabitants including most of the large colony of foreign merchant families there. In late 880 Luoyang surrendered to him and on 5 January, 881 he conquered Chang'an. The emperor Xizong (唐僖宗) fled to Chengdu and Huang established a new temporary regime, which was eventually destroyed by Tang forces, but another time of political chaos followed. Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (五代十國), lasted little more than half a century, from 907 to 960. During this brief era, when China was in all respects a multi-state system, five regimes succeeded one another rapidly in control of the old Imperial heartland in northern China. During this same time, 10 more stable regimes occupied sections of southern and western China, so the period is also referred to as that of the Ten Kingdoms (十國). Song Dynasty and Liao, Jin, Western Xia Homeward Oxherds in Wind and Rain, by Li Di, 12th century In 960, the Song Dynasty (960-1279) (宋朝) gained power over most of China and established its capital in Kaifeng (開封, later known as 汴京), starting a period of economic prosperity, while the Khitan Liao Dynasty (遼朝/遼国) ruled over Manchuria, present-day Mongolia, and parts of Northern China. In 1115 the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) (金朝/金國) emerged to prominence, annihilating the Liao Dynasty in 10 years. Meanwhile, in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi, and Ningxia, there emerged a Western Xia Dynasty (西夏) from 1032 up to 1227, established by Tangut tribes. It also took power over northern China and Kaifeng from the Song Dynasty, which moved its capital to Hangzhou (杭州). The Southern Song Dynasty also suffered the humiliation of having to acknowledge the Jin Dynasty as formal overlords. In the ensuing years China was divided between the Song Dynasty, the Jin Dynasty and the Tangut Western Xia (西夏). Southern Song experienced a period of great technological development which can be explained in part by the military pressure that it felt from the north. This included the use of gunpowder weapons, which played a large role in the Song Dynasty naval victories against the Jin in the Battle of Tangdao and Battle of Caishi on the Yangtze River in 1161. Furthermore, China's first permanent standing navy was assembled and provided an admiral's office at Dinghai in 1132, under the reign of Emperor Renzong of Song. The Song Dynasty is considered by many to be classical China's high point in science and technology, with innovative scholar-officials such as Su Song (1020-1101) and Shen Kuo (1031-1095). There was court intrigue with the political rivals of the Reformers and Conservatives, led by the chancellors Wang Anshi and Sima Guang, respectively. By the mid to late 13th century the Chinese had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi. There were enormous literary works compiled during the Song Dynasty, such as the historical work of the Zizhi Tongjian. Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as Along the River During Qingming Festival and Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, while there were great Buddhist painters such as Lin Tinggui. Yuan Dynasty Yang Guifei Mounting a Horse, by Qian Xuan (1235-1305 AD). Jurchen tribes' Jin Dynasty, whose names are also rendered "Jin" in pinyin, was defeated by the Mongols, who then proceeded to defeat the Southern Song in a long and bloody war, the first war where firearms played an important role. During the era after the war, later called the Pax Mongolica, adventurous Westerners such as Marco Polo travelled all the way to China and brought the first reports of its wonders to Europe. In the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols were divided between those who wanted to remain based in the steppes and those who wished to adopt the customs of the Chinese. Kublai Khan (忽必烈/元世祖), grandson of Genghis Khan (成吉思汗), wanting to adopt the customs of China, established the Yuan Dynasty (元朝). This was the first dynasty to rule the whole of China from Beijing (北京) as the capital. Beijing had been ceded to Liao in CE 938 with the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan Yun (燕雲十六州，燕云十六州). Before that, it had been the capital of the Jin, who did not rule all of China. Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people. Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33-53. The 14th century epidemics of plague (Black Death) is estimated to have killed 30% of the population of China. Ming Dynasty Court Ladies of the Former Shu, by Ming painter Tang Yin (1470-1523). Throughout the Yuan Dynasty, which lasted less than a century, there was relatively strong sentiment among the populace against the Mongol rule. The frequent natural disasters since the 1340s finally led to peasant revolts. The Yuan Dynasty was eventually overthrown by the Ming Dynasty (明朝) in 1368. Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming Dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages of Zheng He (鄭和，郑和, original name Ma Sanbao 馬三保，马三保). Zhu Yuanzhang (朱元璋) or (Hong-wu, 洪武皇帝/明太祖), the founder of the dynasty, laid the foundations for a state interested less in commerce and more in extracting revenues from the agricultural sector. Perhaps because of the Emperor's background as a peasant, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture, unlike that of the Song and the Mongolian Dynasties, which relied on traders and merchants for revenue. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of Emperor Yong-le (永樂皇帝，永乐皇帝/明成祖), independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes. 1580s foreign relations of the Ming Dynasty The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Zhu Yuanzhang necessarily continued to use what he called the "Grand Secretaries"[内阁] to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline. Emperor Yong-le strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops (some estimate as many as 1.9 million ) was created. The Chinese armies conquered Vietnam (越南) for around 20 years, while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in Eastern Turkestan. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded, and proved to be a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's Forbidden City reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished. In 1449 Esen Tayisi led an Oirat Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor at Tumu. In 1542 the Mongol leader Altan Khan began to harass China along the northern border. In 1550 he even reached the suburbs of Beijing. The empire also had to deal with Japanese pirates attacking the southeastern coastline; "China > History > The Ming dynasty > Political history > The dynastic succession", Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2007 general Qi Jiguang was instrumental in defeating these pirates. The deadliest earthquake of all times, the Shaanxi earthquake of 1556 that killed approximately 830,000 people, occurred during the Jiajing Emperor's reign. During the Ming dynasty the last construction on the Great Wall was undertaken to protect China from foreign invasions. While the Great Wall had been built in earlier times, most of what is seen today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watch towers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length. Qing Dynasty Territory of Qing China in 1892 The Qing Dynasty (清朝, 1644–1911) was founded after the defeat of the Ming, the last Han Chinese dynasty, by the Manchus (滿族，满族). The Manchus were formerly known as the Jurchen (女真) and invaded from the north in the late seventeenth century. An estimated 25 million people died during the Manchu conquest of the Ming Dynasty (1616-1644). The Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of China proper. The Manchus enforced a 'queue order' forcing the Han Chinese to adopt the Manchu queue hairstyle and Manchu-style clothing. The traditional Chinese clothing, or Hanfu (漢服，汉服) was also replaced by Manchu-style clothing. Qipao (bannermen dress (旗袍) and Tangzhuang (唐裝)). The penalty for not complying was death. Emperor Kangxi (康熙皇帝/清聖祖) ordered the creation of the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters ever put together at the time. The Manchus set up the "Eight Banners" system (八旗制度) in an attempt to avoid being assimilated into Chinese society. The "Eight Banners" were military institutions set up to provide a structure with which the Manchu "bannermen" were meant to identify. Banner membership was to be based on traditional Manchu skills such as archery, horsemanship, and frugality. In addition, they were encouraged to use the Manchu language, rather than Chinese, though this had been changed significantly in the later course of the dynasty. Bannermen were given economic and legal privileges in Chinese cities. French political cartoon from the late 1890s. A pie representing China and is being divided between UK, Germany, Russia, France and Japan. Over the next half-century, the Qing consolidated control of some areas originally under the Ming, including Yunnan. They also stretched their sphere of influence over Xinjiang, Tibet and Mongolia. But during the nineteenth century, Qing control weakened. Britain's desire to continue its opium trade with China collided with imperial edicts prohibiting the addictive drug, and the First Opium War erupted in 1840. Hong Kong was ceded to Britain in 1842 under the Treaty of Nanjing. A large rebellion, the Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864), involved around a third of China falling under control of the Taiping Tianguo, a quasi-Christian religious movement led by the "Heavenly King" Hong Xiuquan. Only after fourteen years were the Taipings finally crushed - the Taiping army was destroyed in the Third Battle of Nanking in 1864. The death toll during the 15 years of the rebellion was about 20 million, Userserols. "Userserols." Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century. Retrieved on 2007-04-11. In addition, more costly rebellions in terms of human lives and economics followed with the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars, Nien Rebellion, Muslim Rebellion, Panthay Rebellion and the Boxer Rebellion. Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0 In many ways, the rebellions and the unequal treaties the Qing were forced to sign with the imperialist powers are symptomatic of the Qing's inability to deal with the new challenges of the 19th century. The Dowager Empress Cixi By the 1860s, the Qing Dynasty had put down the rebellions at enormous cost and loss of life. This undermined the credibility of the Qing regime and, spearheaded by local initiatives by provincial leaders and gentry, contributed to the rise of warlordism in China. The Qing Dynasty under the Emperor Guangxu (光緒皇帝/清德宗) proceeded to deal with the problem of modernization through the Self-Strengthening Movement (自強運動，自强运动). However, between 1898 and 1908 the Empress Dowager Cixi had the reformist Guangxu imprisoned for being 'mentally disabled'. The Empress Dowager (慈禧太后), with the help of conservatives, initiated a military coup, effectively removed the young Emperor from power, and overturned most of the more radical reforms. He died one day before the death of the Empress Dowager (some believe Guangxu was poisoned by Cixi). Official corruption, cynicism, and imperial family quarrels made most of the military reforms useless. As a result, the Qing's "New Armies" were soundly defeated in the Sino-French War (1883-1885) and the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). At the start of the 20th century, the Boxer Rebellion threatened northern China. This was a conservative anti-imperialist movement that sought to return China to old ways. The Empress Dowager, probably seeking to ensure her continued grip on power, sided with the Boxers when they advanced on Beijing. In response the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China. Consisting of British, Japanese, Russian, Italian, German, French, US and Austrian troops, the alliance defeated the Boxers and demanded further concessions from the Qing government. Modern era Republic of China Frustrated by the Qing court's resistance to reform and by China's weakness, young officials, military officers, and students—inspired by the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen (孫中山，孙中山)—began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the creation of a republic. Slavery in China was abolished in 1910. A revolutionary military uprising, the Wuchang Uprising, began on October 10, 1911 in Wuhan (武漢，武汉). The provisional government of the Republic of China (中華民國，中华民国) was formed in Nanjing on March 12, 1912 with Sun Yat-sen as President, but Sun was forced to turn power over to Yuan Shikai (袁世凱), who commanded the New Army and was Prime Minister under the Qing government, as part of the agreement to let the last Qing monarch abdicate (a decision Sun would later regret). Over the next few years, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies, and declared himself emperor in late 1915. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates; faced with the prospect of rebellion, he abdicated in March 1916, and died in June of that year. His death left a power vacuum in China; the republican government was all but shattered. This ushered in the warlord era, during which much of the country was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders. In 1919, the May Fourth Movement (五四運動，五四运动) began as a response to the insult imposed on China by the Treaty of Versailles ending World War I, but quickly became a protest movement about the domestic situation in China. The discrediting of liberal Western philosophy amongst Chinese intellectuals was followed by the adoption of more radical lines of thought. This in turn planted the seeds for the irreconcilable conflict between the left and right in China that would dominate Chinese history for the rest of the century. In the 1920s, Sun Yat-Sen established a revolutionary base in south China, and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With Soviet assistance, he entered into an alliance with the fledgling Communist Party of China (CPC, 中國共產黨，中国共产党). After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, Chiang Kai-shek (蔣介石，蒋介石), seized control of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party or KMT, 國民黨，国民党) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in a military campaign known as the Northern Expedition (北伐). Having defeated the warlords in south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CPC and relentlessly chased the CPC armies and its leaders from their bases in southern and eastern China. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the Chinese Soviet Republic (中華蘇維埃共和國，中华苏维埃共和国), the CPC forces embarked on the Long March (長征，长征) across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at Yan'an in Shaanxi Province (陝西省延安市). During the Long March, the communists reorganized under a new leader, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung, 毛澤東，毛泽东). The bitter struggle between the KMT and the CPC continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year long Japanese occupation (1931-1945), of various parts of the country. The two Chinese parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), which became a part of World War II. Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the KMT and the CPC resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement. By 1949, the CPC had occupied most of the country. (see Chinese Civil War) At the end of WWII in 1945 as part of the overall Japanese surrender, Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to Republic of China troops giving Chiang Kai-shek effective control of Taiwan. Surrender Order of the Imperial General Headquarters of Japan, 2 September 1945 , "(a) The senior Japanese commanders and all ground, sea, air, and auxiliary forces within China (excluding Manchuria), Formosa, and French Indochina north of 16 degrees north latitude shall surrender to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek." When Chiang was defeated by CPC forces in mainland China in 1949, he fled to Taiwan with his government and the remnants of his army, along with most of the KMT leadership and a large number of their supporters. 1949 to Present With the CPC's victory, and their proclamation of the People's Republic of China (中華人民共和國,中华人民共和国) on October 1, 1949, Taiwan was again politically separated from mainland China, and continues to be governed by the Republic of China to the present day. No peace treaty has ever been signed between the two opposing parties. For the history of the People's Republic of China since 1949, see History of the People's Republic of China. For the history of the Republic of China since 1949, see Republic of China on Taiwan (1949-present). See also Religion in China Chinese armour Chinese exploration Chinese historiography Chinese sovereign Culture of China Dynasties in Chinese history Ethnic groups in Chinese history Foreign relations of Imperial China Four occupations History of Hong Kong History of Islam in China History of Macau History of science and technology in China List of recipients of tribute from China List of tributaries of Imperial China List of Chinese rebellions List of Neolithic cultures of China List of past Chinese ethnic groups Military history of China Naval history of China Table of Chinese monarchs Timeline of Chinese history Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project Notes References From hunter-gatherers to farmers Magnetostratigraphic dating of early humans in China, by Rixiang zhu, Zhisheng An, Richard Potts, Kenneth A. Hoffman. [he Discovery of Early Pottery in China, by Zhang Chi, Department of Archaeology, Peking University, China. Prehistory Discovery of residue from fermented beverage consumed up to 9,000 years ago in Jiahu, Henan Province, China. By Dr. Patrick E McGovern, University of Pennsylvania archaeochemist and colleagues from China, Great Britain and Germany. Xia Dynasty David S. Nivison (1993), “Chu shu chi nien”, Early Chinese Texts: a bibliographical guide (editor—Loewe M.) p.39–47 (Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China). James Legge (1865), The Chinese Classics III: The Shoo King Prolegomena (Taipei: Southern Materials Center). (This contains an English translation of the Bamboo Annals.) Shang Dynasty Stephen W. Durrant (1995), The Cloudy Mirror: Tension and Conflict in the Writings of Sima Qian. Albany : State University of New York Press. Han Dynasty de Crespigny, Rafe. 1977. The Ch’iang Barbarians and the Empire of Han: A Study in Frontier Policy. Papers on Far Eastern History 16, Australian National University. Canberra. de Crespigny, Rafe. 1984. Northern Frontier. The Policies and Strategies of the Later Han Empire. Rafe de Crespigny. 1984. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University. Canberra. de Crespigny, Rafe. 1989. "South China under the Later Han Dynasty" (Chapter One from Generals of the South: the Foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu by Rafe de Crespigny, in Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 16 Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra 1989) de Crespigny, Rafe. 1996. "Later Han Military Administration: An Outline of the Military Administration of the Later Han Empire." Rafe de Crespigny. Based on the Introduction to Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling being the Chronicle of Later Han for the years 189 to 220 CE as recorded in Chapters 59 to 69 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang, translated and annotated by Rafe de Crespigny and originally published in the Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 21, Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra 1996. Dubs, Homer H. 1938. The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. One. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc. Dubs, Homer H. 1944. The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Two. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc. Dubs, Homer H. 1955. The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Three. Ithaca, New York. Spoken Languages Services, Inc. Hill, John E. 2004. The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. Draft annotated English translation. Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue ?? by Yu Huan ??: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between CE 239 and 265. Draft annotated English translation. Hirth, Friedrich. 1875. China and the Roman Orient. Shanghai and Hong Kong. Unchanged reprint. Chicago, Ares Publishers, 1975. Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N. 1979. China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BCE – CE 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Twitchett, Denis and Loewe, Michael, eds. 1986. The Cambridge History of China. Volume I. The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 BCE – CE 220. Cambridge University Press. Jin, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties de Crespigny, Rafe. 1991. "The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A History of China in the Third Century AD." East Asian History, no. 1 June 1991, pp. 1–36, & no. 2 December 1991, pp. 143–164. Australian National University, Canberra. Miller, Andrew. 1959. Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty. University of California Press. Sui Dynasty Wright, Arthur F. 1978. The Sui Dynasty: The Unification of China. CE 581-617. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 0-394-49187-4 ; 0-394-32332-7 (pbk). Tang Dynasty Benn, Charles. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517665-0. Pelliot, Paul. 1904. "Deux itinéraires de Chine en Inde à la fin du VIIIe siècle." BEFEO 4 (1904), pp. 131–413. Schafer, Edward H. 1963. The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T’ang Exotics. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1st paperback edition. 1985. ISBN 0-520-05462-8. Schafer, Edward H. 1967. The Vermilion Bird: T’ang Images of the South. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Reprint 1985. ISBN 0-520-05462-8. Shaffer, Lynda Norene. 1996. Maritime Southeast Asia to 1500. Armonk, New York, M.E. Sharpe, Inc. ISBN 1-56324-144-7. Wang, Zhenping. 1991. "T’ang Maritime Trade Administration." Wang Zhenping. Asia Major, Third Series, Vol. IV, 1991, pp. 7–38. Song Dynasty Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Shiba, Yoshinobu. 1970. Commerce and Society in Sung China. Originally published in Japanese as So-dai sho-gyo--shi kenkyu-. Tokyo, Kazama shobo-, 1968. Yoshinobu Shiba. Translation by Mark Elvin, Centre for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan. Ming Dynasty Duyvendak, J.J.L. China’s Discovery of Africa (London: Probsthain, 1949) Sung, Ying-hsing. 1637. T’ien kung k’ai wu. Published as Chinese Technology in the seventeenth century. Translated and annotated by E-tu Zen Sun and Shiou-chuan Sun. 1996. Mineola. New York. Dover Publications. The Social and Political Systems Further reading Abramson, Marc S. (2008). Ethnic Identity in Tang China. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. ISBN 978-0-8122-4052-8. Ankerl, G. C. Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INU PRESS Geneva, 2000. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. Creel, Herrlee Glessner. The Birth of China. 1936. Fairbank, John King, China : a new history, Cambridge, Mass. : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992. ISBN 0674116704 Feis, Herbert, The China Tangle: The American Effort in China from Pearl Harbor to the Marshall Mission, Princeton University Press, 1953. Hammond, Kenneth J. From Yao to Mao: 5000 Years of Chinese History. The Teaching Company, 2004. (A lecture on DVD.) Giles, Herbert Allen. The Civilization of China. Project Gutenburg e-text. A general history, originally published around 1911. Giles, Herbert Allen. China and the Manchus. Project Gutenberg e-text. Covers the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, published shortly after the fall of the dynasty, around 1912. Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends. Moscow: URSS, 2006. ISBN 5-484-00559-0 (Chapter 2: Historical Population Dynamics in China). Laufer, Berthold. 1912. JADE: A Study in Chinese Archaeology & Religion. Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1974. Terrill, Ross, 800,000,000: the real China, Boston, Little, Brown, 1972 Wilkinson, Endymion Porter, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&printsec=frontcover Chinese history : a manual], revised and enlarged. - Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University, Asia Center (for the Harvard-Yenching Institute), 2000, 1181 p., ISBN 0-674-00247-4; ISBN 0-674-00249-0 External links Historical maps of China Maps to be combined and compared History of China: Table of Contents - Chaos Group at University of Maryland Chinese Database by Academia Sinica Manuscript and Graphics Database by Academia Sinica Picturing China: 1870-1950 China Chronology World History Database A universal guide for China studies Chinese History Forum History Forum - Discuss Chinese history at History Forum's Asian History section Chinese Siege Warfare - Mechanical Artillery and Siege Weapons of Antiquity - An Illustrated History bought to you by History Forum A Simplified History of China Yin Yu Tang: A Chinese Home Explore the historical contents of domestic architecture during the Qing dynasty and its pertinence to Chinese heritage and historical culture. Early Medieval China is a journal devoted to academic scholarship relating to the period roughly between the end of the Han and beginning of the Tang eras. Cultural Revolution Propaganda Poster China Rediscovers its Own History 100 minute lecture on Chinese history given by renowned scholar/author Yu Ying-shih, Emeritus Professor of East Asian Studies and History at Princeton University. Resources for Middle School students Readable resources for students in grades 5-9 - more than 250 links. Wolfram Eberhard, A history of China (online), February 7, 2006 [EBook #17695], ISO-8859-1 China from the Inside - 2006 PBS documentary. KQED Public Television and Granada Television for PBS, Granada International and the BBC. Oriental Style The Genuine Soul of Ancient Chinese People Chinese Text Project Texts and translations of historical Chinese works. Ancient Asian World History, culture and archaeology of the ancient Asian continent. Many articles and pictures be-x-old:Гісторыя Кітая | History_of_China |@lemmatized chinese:86 civilization:5 originate:1 various:4 city:5 state:20 along:5 yellow:7 river:9 valley:5 neolithic:5 era:14 write:11 history:56 china:134 begin:13 shang:32 dynasty:127 ca:5 bce:32 turtle:1 shell:3 ancient:7 carbon:2 date:8 early:24 henry:1 cleere:1 archaeological:4 heritage:2 management:1 modern:15 world:8 routledge:1 p:4 isbn:13 origin:1 culture:11 literature:1 philosophy:6 develop:2 zhou:24 follow:5 long:8 lasting:1 span:1 period:36 script:3 evolve:1 oracle:5 beginning:2 writing:4 feudal:3 eventually:5 break:2 apart:2 individual:2 create:5 war:19 qin:15 shi:4 huang:4 unite:3 warring:1 kingdom:12 first:15 empire:10 successive:3 bureaucratic:1 system:13 enable:3 emperor:26 directly:1 control:9 vast:1 territory:3 conventional:1 view:1 alternating:1 political:17 unity:1 disunity:2 occasionally:1 become:9 dominate:2 foreign:8 asian:12 people:17 assimilate:2 han:36 population:7 cultural:4 influence:4 many:14 part:12 asia:7 carry:1 wave:1 immigration:1 expansion:3 assimilation:1 merge:1 prehistory:2 paleolithic:1 inhabit:1 homo:3 erectus:3 million:9 year:19 ago:5 recent:1 study:13 show:1 stone:1 tool:1 find:7 xiaochangliang:1 site:2 magnetostratigraphically:1 dated:2 xihoudu:1 shanxi:1 province:8 record:11 use:10 fire:1 excavation:2 yuanmou:1 later:9 lantian:1 蓝田show:1 habitation:1 perhaps:3 famous:1 specimen:1 call:7 peking:3 man:1 discover:2 three:9 pottery:5 piece:1 unearth:2 liyuzui:1 cave:1 liuzhou:1 guangxi:2 discovery:4 zhang:2 chi:3 department:2 archaeology:4 university:21 age:5 trace:1 back:3 evidence:4 proto:1 millet:2 agriculture:4 peiligang:1 xinzheng:1 county:3 henan:5 excavate:1 come:5 increased:1 ability:1 store:1 redistribute:1 crop:2 support:3 specialist:1 craftsman:1 administrator:1 late:16 time:15 establish:11 center:5 village:2 found:4 archaeologically:1 significant:1 banpo:1 xi:6 named:1 loess:1 would:12 build:4 bank:1 earth:1 sink:1 yellowish:1 tint:1 water:1 complicate:1 lack:1 language:4 couple:1 existence:6 document:1 attempt:3 describe:2 event:2 occur:3 several:3 century:26 problem:2 sense:1 stem:1 introspection:2 blur:1 distinction:1 fact:2 fiction:1 regard:1 farm:1 give:6 rise:2 jiahu:2 damaidi:1 ningxia:3 cliff:1 carving:1 feature:2 character:4 sun:9 moon:1 star:1 god:9 scene:1 hunt:1 graze:1 pictograph:1 repute:1 similar:2 confirm:3 bbc:2 news:1 pacific:1 old:4 yangshao:1 supersede:1 longshan:1 around:8 xia:11 historical:7 grand:4 historian:5 bamboo:3 annals:4 though:4 disagreement:1 pertain:1 actual:2 point:2 possible:1 sima:4 qian:3 account:3 founding:1 corroborate:1 archaeologist:1 connect:1 erlitou:2 central:6 bronze:4 national:8 gallery:1 art:4 smelter:1 marking:1 think:2 ancestor:5 simplified:2 clear:1 match:1 bone:5 vessel:3 remain:4 poorly:1 understood:1 remnant:2 advanced:2 stratified:1 society:5 discovered:1 past:2 take:4 form:3 inscription:1 divination:1 animal:1 archeological:1 finding:2 provide:3 c:4 divide:4 two:5 set:7 source:2 erligang:1 zhengzhou:1 shangcheng:1 second:4 yin:5 殷:1 consist:3 large:11 body:1 anyang:6 day:4 last:9 nine:1 capital:9 king:10 tang:17 worship:4 different:1 weather:1 sky:1 also:14 supreme:1 name:5 ti:3 rule:16 live:6 believe:3 parent:1 grandparent:1 like:5 die:4 want:3 family:9 predict:1 future:1 chou:2 natural:3 force:11 ien:2 usually:1 translate:3 heaven:7 decide:1 mandate:5 ruler:4 could:1 empress:6 lose:2 disaster:2 great:11 number:2 realistically:1 sovereign:2 apparently:1 concern:1 response:4 royal:3 house:2 overthrow:3 new:22 grant:2 move:5 six:2 final:2 important:3 lead:7 golden:3 term:3 synonymous:1 although:3 lately:1 specifically:1 refer:6 latter:1 half:3 accustom:1 notion:1 one:8 succeed:3 another:3 situation:3 know:9 much:3 complicated:1 hence:1 scholar:5 suggest:3 possibly:1 entity:1 exist:4 concurrently:1 however:5 western:13 often:4 hesitant:1 associate:1 settlement:4 contemporaneous:1 example:1 sanxingdui:1 technologically:1 culturally:2 unlike:2 inconclusive:1 prove:3 far:4 realm:1 extend:3 leading:1 hypothesis:1 official:4 coexist:2 trade:8 numerous:1 diverse:1 area:6 proper:2 ritual:1 approximately:3 b:1 end:9 millennium:1 emerge:4 overrun:1 appear:1 semi:1 west:5 leader:8 appoint:1 protector:1 wu:9 assistance:2 brother:1 duke:1 regent:1 manage:4 defeat:10 battle:5 muye:1 invoke:1 concept:3 legitimize:1 influential:3 almost:1 every:1 initially:1 near:4 preside:2 series:6 yangtze:2 migration:2 north:8 south:11 spring:7 autumn:7 pu:1 interlaced:1 dragon:1 design:1 power:17 decentralize:1 春秋時代:1 local:5 military:16 assert:1 vie:1 hegemony:1 aggravate:1 invasion:5 northwest:2 east:8 luoyang:3 mark:3 phase:1 eastern:5 hundred:3 arise:1 strongman:1 hold:4 continue:6 subservience:1 instance:1 start:4 title:1 school:4 thought:2 諸子百家:1 诸子百家:1 blossom:1 intellectual:3 movement:6 confucianism:3 儒家:1 taoism:1 道家:1 legalism:3 法家:1 mohism:1 墨家:1 partly:1 change:3 fall:3 fort:1 consolidation:1 seven:1 prominent:1 nominal:2 largely:1 figurehead:1 little:4 real:2 neighboring:1 include:9 sichuan:1 liaoning:1 annex:2 govern:3 administrative:1 commandery:1 prefecture:2 郡縣:1 郡县:1 since:5 still:1 see:6 sheng:1 xian:2 省縣:1 省县:1 reign:4 ying:3 zheng:2 嬴政:1 unification:3 annexation:1 region:3 zhejiang:1 fujian:1 guangdong:1 proclaim:4 huangdi:1 秦始皇帝:1 imperial:13 qing:19 unified:1 秦:1 subdue:1 constitute:1 core:1 homeland:1 tightly:1 centralize:1 legalist:1 government:12 seat:1 xianyang:1 咸陽:1 咸阳:1 close:1 doctrine:1 guide:3 emphasize:2 strict:1 adherence:1 legal:3 code:2 absolute:1 effective:2 expand:3 fashion:1 unworkable:1 peace:2 brutal:1 silencing:1 opposition:1 burning:1 burying:1 impetus:1 behind:1 synthesis:1 incorporate:1 moderate:1 governance:1 terracotta:1 army:8 well:1 wall:4 augment:1 enhance:1 ming:16 明朝:2 major:2 contribution:1 centralized:1 measurement:1 currency:1 tribulation:1 even:2 something:1 basic:1 length:3 axle:1 cart:1 make:4 uniform:1 ensure:2 viable:1 trading:2 throughout:2 oil:2 lamp:1 sliding:1 shutter:1 shape:1 kneel:1 female:1 servant:1 ce:9 founder:2 liu:3 bang:1 embrace:1 ideological:1 underpinning:1 regime:7 advance:2 science:3 wudi:1 漢武帝:1 汉武帝:1 consolidate:1 push:1 xiongnu:2 sometimes:1 identify:2 hun:1 steppe:2 inner:1 mongolia:3 wrest:1 gansu:2 qinghai:1 opening:1 connection:1 silk:2 road:1 general:5 ban:2 chao:3 conquest:3 across:2 pamirs:1 shore:1 caspian:1 sea:4 britannica:2 online:3 encyclopedia:1 roman:2 embassy:1 route:1 nevertheless:1 land:7 acquisition:2 elite:1 gradually:2 drain:1 tax:2 base:9 usurper:1 wang:4 mang:1 王莽:1 short:2 xin:1 新朝:1 extensive:2 program:2 economic:4 reform:4 never:1 favor:1 peasant:4 instability:1 bring:3 chaos:3 uprising:4 guangwu:1 光武帝:1 reinstate:1 holding:1 merchant:5 decline:3 amidst:1 feud:1 consort:1 clan:2 eunuch:1 turban:1 rebellion:15 黃巾之亂:1 黄巾之乱:1 usher:1 warlord:5 ensuing:1 turmoil:1 try:2 gain:3 predominance:1 greatly:1 romanticize:1 work:5 romance:1 wei:3 jin:15 cao:2 reunify:2 son:1 soon:1 rival:2 shu:3 independance:1 characterize:1 gradual:1 decentralization:1 increase:3 structure:2 essentially:1 hu:3 advantage:1 civil:2 contemporary:2 non:2 五胡:1 ethnic:5 group:5 country:7 provoke:1 scale:2 chang:3 jiang:1 di:2 rebel:2 capture:4 chengdu:2 cheng:1 yuan:9 today:2 linfen:1 zhao:1 successor:2 cong:1 execute:1 sixteen:3 plethora:1 whole:2 northern:16 involve:2 turk:1 mongolian:2 tibetan:1 nomadic:2 extent:1 sinicized:1 ascent:1 notably:1 ch:3 iang:2 xiong:1 nu:1 already:1 allow:2 frontier:3 within:3 limestone:1 statue:1 bodhisattva:1 qi:2 ad:4 southern:13 signal:1 collapse:2 東晉:1 东晋:1 enter:2 survive:1 attack:2 tribe:3 bei:1 鮮卑:1 thrive:1 fierce:1 debate:1 whether:1 buddhism:2 frequently:1 court:4 noble:1 finally:3 buddhist:2 taoist:1 follower:1 compromise:1 tolerant:1 sui:9 隋:1 chen:1 陳:1 陈:1 put:3 隋朝:1 reunite:1 nearly:1 four:3 fragmentation:1 play:3 role:4 brought:1 together:2 institution:2 adopt:7 overuse:1 resource:3 traditional:4 judge:1 somewhat:1 unfairly:1 stress:1 harshness:1 arrogance:1 credit:1 positive:1 achievement:1 tri:1 color:1 glaze:1 porcelain:3 horse:2 june:3 gaozu:1 唐高祖:1 throne:2 唐朝:1 open:2 prosperity:2 innovation:1 technology:4 predominant:1 religion:3 common:1 長安:1 长安:1 an西安:1 prosperous:1 keep:1 rout:1 distant:1 settle:1 introduce:1 equal:1 field:1 均田制:1 need:1 wealth:1 due:1 previously:1 subject:1 nanzhao:1 南詔:1 南诏:1 黃巢:1 guangzhou:1 kill:3 inhabitant:2 colony:1 surrender:5 january:1 conquer:2 xizong:1 唐僖宗:1 flee:2 temporary:1 destroy:2 five:3 ten:3 kingdoms:1 song:18 五代十國:1 brief:1 respect:1 multi:1 rapidly:1 heartland:1 stable:1 occupied:1 section:2 十國:1 liao:4 homeward:1 oxherds:1 wind:1 rain:1 li:1 宋朝:1 kaifeng:2 開封:1 汴京:1 khitan:1 遼朝:1 遼国:1 manchuria:2 present:5 jurchen:3 金朝:1 金國:1 prominence:1 annihilate:1 meanwhile:1 northwestern:1 shaanxi:3 西夏:2 tangut:2 hangzhou:1 杭州:1 suffer:1 humiliation:1 acknowledge:1 formal:1 overlord:1 ensue:1 experience:1 technological:1 development:1 explain:1 pressure:1 felt:1 gunpowder:1 weapon:2 naval:2 victory:2 tangdao:1 caishi:1 furthermore:1 permanent:1 stand:2 navy:2 assemble:1 admiral:1 office:1 dinghai:1 renzong:1 consider:1 classical:1 high:1 innovative:1 su:1 shen:1 kuo:1 intrigue:1 reformer:1 conservative:3 chancellor:1 anshi:1 guang:2 respectively:1 mid:1 dogma:1 neo:3 confucian:2 formulate:1 zhu:4 enormous:2 literary:1 compile:1 zizhi:2 tongjian:2 flourish:2 grandiose:1 artwork:1 qingming:1 festival:1 eighteen:1 nomad:1 flute:1 painter:2 lin:1 tinggui:1 yang:1 guifei:1 mount:1 xuan:1 whose:1 render:1 pinyin:1 mongol:7 proceed:3 bloody:1 firearm:1 pax:1 mongolica:1 adventurous:1 westerner:1 marco:1 polo:1 travel:1 way:4 report:3 wonder:1 europe:1 wish:1 custom:2 kublai:1 khan:3 忽必烈:1 元世祖:1 grandson:1 genghis:1 成吉思汗:1 元朝:1 beijing:6 北京:1 cede:2 yan:2 yun:1 燕雲十六州:1 燕云十六州:1 reportedly:1 complete:2 census:1 roughly:2 ping:1 ho:1 estimate:3 total:1 sung:3 chin:1 études:1 pp:5 epidemic:1 plague:1 black:1 death:7 lady:1 former:5 less:2 relatively:2 strong:2 sentiment:1 among:1 populace:1 frequent:1 revolt:1 urbanization:1 grow:3 division:1 labor:1 complex:2 urban:2 nanjing:3 contribute:2 growth:1 private:2 industry:3 particular:1 small:2 specialize:1 paper:2 cotton:1 good:1 market:2 proliferate:1 town:1 mainly:1 food:1 necessary:1 manufacture:1 pin:1 despite:1 xenophobia:1 characteristic:1 increasingly:1 popular:1 isolated:1 contact:1 outside:1 particularly:1 japan:4 considerably:1 explore:2 indian:2 ocean:2 reach:3 africa:3 voyage:1 鄭和:1 郑和:1 original:1 sanbao:1 馬三保:1 马三保:1 yuanzhang:2 朱元璋:1 hong:5 洪武皇帝:1 明太祖:1 lay:1 foundation:2 interested:1 commerce:2 extract:1 revenue:2 agricultural:1 sector:1 background:1 rely:1 trader:1 landholding:1 expropriate:1 estate:1 confiscate:1 fragment:1 rent:1 slavery:2 forbidden:2 consequently:1 yong:2 le:2 永樂皇帝:1 永乐皇帝:1 明成祖:1 independent:1 landholder:1 predominate:1 law:1 might:1 pave:1 remove:2 bad:1 poverty:1 previous:1 relation:2 unify:1 autocratic:1 necessarily:1 secretary:1 内阁:1 assist:1 immense:1 paperwork:1 bureaucracy:2 memorial:1 petition:1 recommendation:1 edict:2 reply:1 kind:1 prevent:1 able:2 adapt:1 strenuously:1 beyond:1 border:2 demand:2 send:2 ambassador:1 tribute:3 masted:1 ship:1 displace:1 ton:2 troop:4 vietnam:1 越南:1 fleet:1 sail:1 cruise:1 coast:1 turkestan:1 maritime:3 nation:4 envoy:1 domestically:1 canal:1 stimulus:1 domestic:3 iron:1 per:1 produce:2 book:3 print:1 movable:1 type:1 palace:1 current:1 splendor:1 potential:1 fully:1 exploit:1 widely:1 cultivate:1 textile:1 esen:1 tayisi:1 oirat:1 culminate:1 zhengtong:1 tumu:1 altan:1 harass:1 suburb:1 deal:3 japanese:10 pirate:2 southeastern:1 coastline:1 dynastic:1 succession:1 encyclopædia:1 jiguang:1 instrumental:1 deadly:1 earthquake:2 jiajing:1 construction:1 undertake:1 protect:1 either:1 repair:1 brick:1 granite:1 enlarge:2 watch:1 tower:1 redesign:1 cannon:1 place:1 清朝:1 manchu:14 滿族:1 满族:1 formerly:1 女真:1 invade:2 seventeenth:2 estimated:1 norm:1 enforce:1 queue:2 order:3 hairstyle:1 style:3 clothing:3 hanfu:1 漢服:1 汉服:1 replace:1 qipao:1 bannermen:3 dress:1 旗袍:1 tangzhuang:1 唐裝:1 penalty:1 comply:1 kangxi:1 康熙皇帝:1 清聖祖:1 creation:2 dictionary:1 ever:2 eight:3 banner:3 八旗制度:1 avoid:1 mean:1 membership:1 skill:1 archery:1 horsemanship:1 frugality:1 addition:2 encourage:1 rather:1 significantly:1 course:1 privilege:1 french:4 cartoon:1 pie:1 represent:1 uk:1 germany:2 russia:1 france:1 next:2 consolidated:1 originally:4 yunnan:1 stretch:1 sphere:1 xinjiang:1 tibet:1 nineteenth:2 weaken:1 britain:3 desire:1 opium:2 collide:1 prohibit:1 addictive:1 drug:1 erupt:1 kong:3 treaty:3 taiping:3 third:5 tianguo:1 quasi:1 christian:1 religious:1 heavenly:1 xiuquan:1 fourteen:1 taipings:1 crush:1 nanking:1 toll:1 userserols:2 statistic:1 oppression:1 atrocity:1 retrieve:1 costly:1 human:2 life:3 economics:1 punti:1 hakka:1 nien:2 muslim:2 panthay:1 boxer:4 damsan:1 harper:1 steve:1 fallon:1 katja:1 gaskell:1 julie:1 grundvig:1 carolyn:1 heller:1 thomas:1 huhti:1 bradley:1 maynew:1 christopher:1 pitt:1 lonely:1 planet:1 unequal:1 treaties:1 sign:2 imperialist:2 symptomatic:1 inability:1 challenge:1 dowager:5 cixi:3 cost:1 loss:1 undermine:1 credibility:1 spearhead:1 initiative:1 provincial:3 gentry:1 warlordism:1 guangxu:3 光緒皇帝:1 清德宗:1 modernization:1 self:1 strengthen:1 自強運動:1 自强运动:1 reformist:1 imprison:1 mentally:1 disabled:1 慈禧太后:1 help:1 initiate:1 coup:1 effectively:1 young:2 overturn:1 radical:2 poison:1 corruption:1 cynicism:1 quarrel:1 useless:1 result:1 soundly:1 sino:3 threaten:1 anti:1 seek:2 return:1 probably:1 continued:1 grip:1 side:1 alliance:3 british:1 russian:1 italian:1 german:1 u:1 austrian:1 concession:1 republic:11 frustrate:1 resistance:1 weakness:1 officer:1 student:3 inspire:1 revolutionary:3 idea:1 yat:3 sen:3 孫中山:1 孙中山:1 advocate:1 abolish:2 wuchang:1 october:2 wuhan:1 武漢:1 武汉:1 provisional:1 中華民國:1 中华民国:1 march:4 president:1 turn:3 shikai:1 袁世凱:1 command:1 prime:1 minister:1 agreement:1 let:1 monarch:2 abdicate:2 decision:1 regret:1 assembly:1 declare:1 ambition:1 fiercely:1 oppose:3 subordinate:1 face:1 prospect:1 leave:1 vacuum:1 republican:1 shatter:1 ushered:1 shift:1 coalition:1 compete:1 may:1 fourth:1 五四運動:1 五四运动:1 insult:1 impose:1 versailles:1 quickly:1 protest:1 discrediting:1 liberal:1 amongst:1 adoption:1 line:1 plant:1 seed:1 irreconcilable:1 conflict:2 left:1 right:1 rest:1 fragmented:1 soviet:2 fledgling:1 communist:2 party:4 cpc:9 中國共產黨:1 中国共产党:1 cancer:1 protégés:1 chiang:6 kai:3 shek:3 蔣介石:1 蒋介石:1 seize:1 kuomintang:1 nationalist:1 kmt:4 國民黨:1 国民党:1 campaign:1 expedition:1 北伐:1 secure:1 allegiance:1 relentlessly:1 chase:1 drive:1 mountain:1 中華蘇維埃共和國:1 中华苏维埃共和国:1 embark:1 長征:1 长征:1 desolate:1 terrain:1 guerrilla:1 陝西省延安市:1 reorganize:1 mao:3 zedong:1 tse:1 tung:1 毛澤東:1 毛泽东:1 bitter:1 struggle:1 openly:1 clandestinely:1 occupation:2 nominally:1 united:1 front:1 ii:1 resume:1 fail:1 reconciliation:1 negotiated:1 occupy:1 wwii:1 overall:1 taiwan:5 headquarters:1 september:1 senior:1 commander:1 ground:1 air:1 auxiliary:1 exclude:1 formosa:1 indochina:1 degree:1 latitude:1 shall:1 generalissimo:1 mainland:2 leadership:1 supporter:1 proclamation:1 中華人民共和國:1 中华人民共和国:1 politically:1 separate:1 armour:1 exploration:1 historiography:1 islam:1 macau:1 list:5 recipient:1 tributary:1 table:2 timeline:1 chronology:2 project:4 note:1 reference:1 hunter:1 gatherer:1 farmer:1 magnetostratigraphic:1 dating:1 rixiang:1 zhisheng:1 richard:1 potts:1 kenneth:2 hoffman:1 residue:1 ferment:1 beverage:1 consume:1 dr:1 patrick:1 e:8 mcgovern:1 pennsylvania:2 archaeochemist:1 colleague:1 david:1 nivison:1 chu:1 text:5 bibliographical:1 editor:1 loewe:3 berkeley:3 jam:1 legge:1 classic:1 iii:1 shoo:1 prolegomenon:1 taipei:1 material:1 contain:1 english:3 translation:6 stephen:1 w:1 durrant:1 cloudy:1 mirror:1 tension:1 albany:1 york:6 press:13 de:10 crespigny:9 rafe:9 barbarian:1 policy:2 australian:5 canberra:5 strategy:1 faculty:3 chapter:4 monographs:2 administration:3 outline:1 introduction:2 huan:2 ling:1 chronicle:1 annotate:4 publish:5 dub:3 homer:3 h:5 pan:3 ku:3 vol:4 baltimore:2 waverly:2 inc:4 ithaca:1 speak:1 service:1 hill:2 john:3 accord:1 hou:1 hanshu:1 draft:2 weilue:1 yu:3 compose:1 hirth:1 friedrich:1 orient:1 shanghai:1 unchanged:1 reprint:3 chicago:1 ares:1 publisher:1 hulsewé:1 f:2 n:1 stage:1 annotated:1 leiden:1 j:4 brill:1 twitchett:1 denis:1 michael:1 ed:1 cambridge:4 volume:1 december:1 miller:1 andrew:1 california:3 wright:1 arthur:1 alfred:1 knopf:1 pbk:1 benn:1 charles:1 everyday:1 oxford:1 pelliot:1 paul:1 deux:1 itinéraires:1 chine:1 en:1 inde:1 à:1 la:1 fin:1 du:1 viiie:1 siècle:1 befeo:1 schafer:2 edward:2 peach:1 samarkand:1 ang:3 exotics:1 los:2 angeles:2 paperback:1 edition:1 vermilion:1 bird:1 image:1 shaffer:1 lynda:1 norene:1 southeast:1 armonk:1 sharpe:1 zhenping:2 iv:1 ebrey:1 walthall:1 palais:1 social:3 boston:2 houghton:1 mifflin:1 company:2 shiba:2 yoshinobu:2 dai:1 sho:1 gyo:1 kenkyu:1 tokyo:1 kazama:1 shobo:1 elvin:1 centre:1 michigan:1 duyvendak:1 l:1 london:1 probsthain:1 hsing:1 kung:1 k:1 ai:1 tu:1 zen:1 shiou:1 chuan:1 mineola:1 dover:2 publication:2 read:1 abramson:1 marc:1 identity:1 philadelphia:1 ankerl:1 g:1 arabo:1 bharati:1 inu:1 geneva:1 creel:1 herrlee:1 glessner:1 birth:1 fairbank:1 mass:2 belknap:1 harvard:3 feis:1 herbert:3 tangle:1 american:1 effort:1 pearl:1 harbor:1 marshall:1 mission:1 princeton:2 hammond:1 yao:1 teach:1 lecture:2 dvd:1 giles:2 allen:2 gutenburg:1 gutenberg:1 cover:1 shortly:1 korotayev:1 malkov:1 khaltourina:1 macrodynamics:1 secular:1 cycle:1 millennial:1 trend:1 moscow:1 ur:1 dynamic:1 laufer:1 berthold:1 jade:1 terrill:1 ross:1 brown:1 wilkinson:1 endymion:1 porter:1 http:1 google:1 com:1 id:1 printsec:1 frontcover:1 manual:1 revise:1 yenching:1 institute:1 external:1 link:2 map:2 combine:1 compare:1 content:2 maryland:1 database:3 academia:2 sinica:2 manuscript:1 graphic:1 picture:2 universal:1 forum:4 discus:1 siege:2 warfare:1 mechanical:1 artillery:1 antiquity:1 illustrated:1 buy:1 home:1 architecture:1 pertinence:1 medieval:1 journal:1 devote:1 academic:1 scholarship:1 relate:1 revolution:1 propaganda:1 poster:1 rediscover:1 minute:1 renowned:1 author:1 shih:1 emeritus:1 professor:1 middle:1 readable:1 grade:1 wolfram:1 eberhard:1 february:1 ebook:1 iso:1 inside:1 pb:2 documentary:1 kqed:1 public:1 television:2 granada:2 international:1 oriental:1 genuine:1 soul:1 continent:1 article:1 x:1 гісторыя:1 кітая:1 |@bigram shang_dynasty:13 zhou_dynasty:7 qin_shi:3 shi_huang:2 homo_erectus:3 guangxi_province:1 blur_distinction:1 bbc_news:1 xia_dynasty:5 archaeological_evidence:1 sima_qian:2 poorly_understood:1 archeological_finding:1 parent_grandparent:1 archaeological_finding:1 technologically_advanced:1 culturally_diverse:1 shang_zhou:3 yangtze_river:2 autumn_annals:1 qin_dynasty:3 qing_dynasty:7 strict_adherence:1 ming_dynasty:9 han_dynasty:14 inner_mongolia:1 silk_road:1 caspian_sea:1 britannica_online:2 jin_dynasty:6 chang_jiang:1 nomadic_tribe:1 buddhist_taoist:1 sui_dynasty:4 tang_dynasty:6 shen_kuo:1 neo_confucian:1 zhu_xi:1 qingming_festival:1 yuan_dynasty:5 marco_polo:1 kublai_khan:1 genghis_khan:1 mongol_invasion:2 neo_confucianism:1 dynastic_succession:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 nineteenth_century:2 hong_kong:3 boxer_rebellion:2 lonely_planet:1 dowager_empress:1 empress_dowager:4 mentally_disabled:1 soundly_defeat:1 sino_japanese:2 anti_imperialist:1 sun_yat:3 yat_sen:3 yuan_shikai:1 prime_minister:1 treaty_versailles:1 chiang_kai:3 kai_shek:3 mao_zedong:1 negotiated_settlement:1 generalissimo_chiang:1 hunter_gatherer:1 ferment_beverage:1 de_crespigny:9 crespigny_rafe:5 hou_hanshu:1 hanshu_draft:1 draft_annotate:2 west_weilue:1 yu_huan:1 alfred_knopf:1 isbn_pbk:1 los_angeles:2 southeast_asia:1 boston_houghton:1 houghton_mifflin:1 dover_publication:2 belknap_press:1 pearl_harbor:1 project_gutenburg:1 project_gutenberg:1 id_printsec:1 printsec_frontcover:1 revise_enlarge:1 external_link:1 propaganda_poster:1 emeritus_professor:1 old_гісторыя:1 |
3,212 | History_of_Nauru | The history of Nauru has been intrinsically linked with the extraction of phosphate. Initially inhabited by Micronesian and Polynesian peoples, Nauru was annexed by Germany in the late 19th century, and extraction of the island's phosphate began in 1906. Following World War I it became a League of Nations mandate territory administered by Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The island was occupied by Japan during World War II, and after the war entered into trusteeship again. Nauru achieved independence in 1968. Early history Nauru was first settled by Micronesian and Polynesian peoples at least 3,000 years ago. Nauru Department of Economic Development and Environment. 2003. First National Report To the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) URL Accessed 2006-05-03 Nauruans subsisted on coconut and pandanus fruit, and caught juvenile ibija fish, acclimated them to freshwater conditions, and raised them in Buada Lagoon, providing an additional reliable source of food. McDaniel, C. N. and Gowdy, J. M. 2000. Paradise for Sale. University of California Press ISBN 0520222296 } pp 13-28 Traditionally only men were permitted to fish on the reef, and did so from canoes or by using trained Man-of-war Hawks. In 1798 John Fearn, captain of the British whaling ship Hunter, became the first European to land on the island, naming it Pleasant Island. This name was used until Germany annexed the island 90 years later. From around the 1830s, Nauruans had contact with Europeans from whaling ships and traders who replenished their supplies at the island. Around this time, beachcombers and deserters began to live on the island. The islanders traded food for alcoholic toddy and firearms. The latter were used during the 10-year war which began in 1878 and reduced the population from 1400 to 900. German protectorate The island was annexed by Germany in 1888 and incorporated into Germany's Marshall Islands Protectorate. The arrival of the Germans ended the war, and social changes brought about by the war established kings as rulers of the island, the most widely known being King Auweyida. Christian missionaries from the Gilbert Islands also arrived at the island in 1888. Ellis, A. F. 1935. Ocean Island and Nauru - their story. Angus and Robertson Limited. pp 29-39 At the time there were twelve tribes on Nauru: Deiboe, Eamwidamit, Eamwidara, Eamwit, Eamgum, Eano, Emeo, Eoraru, Irutsi, Iruwa, Iwi and Ranibok. Today the twelve tribes are represented by the twelve-pointed star in the flag of Nauru. Phosphate was discovered on the island by New Zealander Albert Ellis. Beginning in 1906, the Pacific Phosphate Company started exploitation of the rock, and the first shipment left Nauru in 1907. Ellis, A.F. 1935. Ocean Island and Nauru - their story. Angus and Robertson Limited World War I In 1914 Australia took control of Nauru. Then Britain held control until 1920, when the League of Nations gave Britain, Australia and New Zealand a Trustee Mandate over the territory. The British Phosphate Commissioners (BPC) were given the rights to phosphate mining. In 1932, the first Angam Baby was born. World War II Nauru Island under attack by B-24 Liberator bombers of the Seventh Air Force In December 1940 the Nazi German auxiliary cruisers Orion and Komet sank five merchant ships and bombarded the island, causing damage to the phosphate mining. In 1942 the Japanese occupied Nauru. The native Nauruans were badly treated by the occupying forces. On one occasion forty nine leprosy sufferers were reputedly loaded on to boats which were towed out to sea and sunk. In 1943 some 1200 Nauruans were taken to Truk (now Chuuk in the Federated States of Micronesia) as slave labourers. On January 1 1946 with Micronesia now under American control, the approximately 800 Nauruans who survived were returned to Nauru on a BPC ship 'Trienza'. During the post-war period, Nauru was administered by Australia as a UN Trust Territory. Independence On January 31, 1968 Nauru became the world's smallest independent republic. Phosphate rights were acquired from Britain in 1970 and the Nauru Phosphate Corporation was established. Money gained from the exploitation of phosphate was put into the Nauru Phosphate Royalties Trust and gave Nauruans the second highest GDP Per Capita (second only to the United Arab Emirates) and one of the hightest standards of living in the world. Modern-day Nauru By the close of the twentieth century, the phosphate supplies were fast running out. Nauru finally joined the UN in 1999. As its phosphate stores began to run out (by 2006, its reserves were exhausted), the island was reduced to an environmental wasteland. Nauru appealed to the International Court of Justice to compensate for the damage from almost a century of phosphate strip-mining by foreign companies. In 1993, Australia offered Nauru an out-of-court settlement of 2.5 million Australian dollars annually for 20 years. New Zealand and the UK additionally agreed to pay a one-time settlement of $12 million each. Declining phosphate prices, the high cost of maintaining an international airline, and the government's financial mismanagement combined to make the economy collapse in the late 1990s. By the millennium Nauru was virtually bankrupt. In 2000, the G7 nations put pressure on the country to review its banking system, which is used by Russian criminals for money laundering. In 2001, Nauru was brought to world attention by the Tampa affair, a Norwegian cargo ship at the centre of a diplomatic dispute between Australia, Norway and Indonesia. The ship carried asylum seekers, hailing primarily from Afghanistan, who were rescued while attempting to reach Australia. After much debate many of the immigrants were transported to Nauru, an arrangement known in Australia as the "Pacific Solution". Shortly thereafter, the Nauruan government closed its borders to most international visitors, preventing outside observers from monitoring the refugees' condition. In December 2003, several dozen of these refugees, in protest of the conditions of their detention on Nauru, began a hunger strike. The hunger strike was concluded in early January 2004 when an Australian medical team agreed to visit the island. Since then, according to recent reports, all but two of the refugees have been allowed into Australia. During 2002 Nauru severed diplomatic recognition with Taiwan (Republic of China) and signed an agreement to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China. This move followed China's promise to provide more than U.S. $130 million in aid. In 2004, Nauru broke off relations with the PRC and re-established them with the ROC. Nauru was also approached by the U.S. with a deal to modernize Nauru's infrastructure in exchange for suppression of the island's lax banking laws that allow activities that are illegal in other countries to flourish. Under this deal, allegedly, Nauru would also establish an embassy in China and perform certain "safehouse" and courier services for the U.S. government, in a scheme codenamed "Operation Weasel". Nauru agreed to the deal and instituted banking reform, but the U.S. later denied knowledge of the deal. The matter is being pursued in an Australian court, and initial judgments have been in favor of Nauru. The government is desperately in need of money to pay off salary arrears of civil servants and to continue funding the welfare state built up in the heyday of phosphate mining (Nauruans pay no taxes). Nauru has yet to develop a plan to remove the innumerable coral pinnacles created by mining and make those lands suitable for human habitation. See also Angam Day Nauru Phosphate Corporation Nauru Phosphate Royalties Trust Notes and references External links Timeline BBC News U.S. State Department Background Note: Nauru United States Army in World War II - The War in the Pacific - Seizure of the Gilberts and Marshalls | History_of_Nauru |@lemmatized history:2 nauru:37 intrinsically:1 link:2 extraction:2 phosphate:18 initially:1 inhabit:1 micronesian:2 polynesian:2 people:3 annex:3 germany:4 late:2 century:3 island:18 begin:6 follow:2 world:8 war:12 become:3 league:2 nation:4 mandate:2 territory:3 administer:2 australia:9 new:4 zealand:3 united:4 kingdom:1 occupy:1 japan:1 ii:3 enter:1 trusteeship:1 achieve:1 independence:2 early:2 first:5 settle:1 least:1 year:4 ago:1 department:2 economic:1 development:1 environment:1 national:1 report:2 convention:1 combat:1 desertification:1 unccd:1 url:1 access:1 nauruan:7 subsist:1 coconut:1 pandanus:1 fruit:1 catch:1 juvenile:1 ibija:1 fish:2 acclimate:1 freshwater:1 condition:3 raise:1 buada:1 lagoon:1 provide:2 additional:1 reliable:1 source:1 food:2 mcdaniel:1 c:1 n:1 gowdy:1 j:1 paradise:1 sale:1 university:1 california:1 press:1 isbn:1 pp:2 traditionally:1 men:1 permit:1 reef:1 canoe:1 use:4 trained:1 man:1 hawk:1 john:1 fearn:1 captain:1 british:2 whaling:1 ship:6 hunter:1 european:2 land:2 name:2 pleasant:1 later:2 around:2 contact:1 whale:1 trader:1 replenish:1 supply:2 time:3 beachcomber:1 deserter:1 live:1 islander:1 trade:1 alcoholic:1 toddy:1 firearm:1 latter:1 reduce:2 population:1 german:3 protectorate:2 incorporate:1 marshall:2 islands:2 arrival:1 end:1 social:1 change:1 bring:2 establish:5 king:2 ruler:1 widely:1 know:2 auweyida:1 christian:1 missionary:1 gilbert:2 also:4 arrive:1 elli:3 f:2 ocean:2 story:2 angus:2 robertson:2 limit:1 twelve:3 tribe:2 deiboe:1 eamwidamit:1 eamwidara:1 eamwit:1 eamgum:1 eano:1 emeo:1 eoraru:1 irutsi:1 iruwa:1 iwi:1 ranibok:1 today:1 represent:1 point:1 star:1 flag:1 discover:1 zealander:1 albert:1 pacific:3 company:2 start:1 exploitation:2 rock:1 shipment:1 leave:1 limited:1 take:2 control:3 britain:3 hold:1 give:3 trustee:1 commissioner:1 bpc:2 right:2 mining:5 angam:2 baby:1 bear:1 attack:1 b:1 liberator:1 bomber:1 seventh:1 air:1 force:2 december:2 nazi:1 auxiliary:1 cruiser:1 orion:1 komet:1 sank:1 five:1 merchant:1 bombard:1 cause:1 damage:2 japanese:1 occupied:1 native:1 badly:1 treat:1 occupying:1 one:3 occasion:1 forty:1 nine:1 leprosy:1 sufferer:1 reputedly:1 load:1 boat:1 tow:1 sea:1 sink:1 truk:1 chuuk:1 federated:1 state:4 micronesia:2 slave:1 labourer:1 january:3 american:1 approximately:1 survive:1 return:1 trienza:1 post:1 period:1 un:2 trust:3 small:1 independent:1 republic:3 acquire:1 corporation:2 money:3 gain:1 put:2 royalty:2 second:2 high:2 gdp:1 per:1 caput:1 arab:1 emirate:1 hightest:1 standard:1 living:1 modern:1 day:2 close:2 twentieth:1 fast:1 run:2 finally:1 join:1 store:1 reserve:1 exhaust:1 environmental:1 wasteland:1 appeal:1 international:3 court:3 justice:1 compensate:1 almost:1 strip:1 foreign:1 offer:1 settlement:2 million:3 australian:3 dollar:1 annually:1 uk:1 additionally:1 agree:3 pay:3 decline:1 price:1 cost:1 maintain:1 airline:1 government:4 financial:1 mismanagement:1 combine:1 make:2 economy:1 collapse:1 millennium:1 virtually:1 bankrupt:1 pressure:1 country:2 review:1 banking:3 system:1 russian:1 criminal:1 laundering:1 attention:1 tampa:1 affair:1 norwegian:1 cargo:1 centre:1 diplomatic:3 dispute:1 norway:1 indonesia:1 carry:1 asylum:1 seeker:1 hail:1 primarily:1 afghanistan:1 rescue:1 attempt:1 reach:1 much:1 debate:1 many:1 immigrant:1 transport:1 arrangement:1 solution:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 border:1 visitor:1 prevent:1 outside:1 observer:1 monitor:1 refugee:3 several:1 dozen:1 protest:1 detention:1 hunger:2 strike:2 conclude:1 medical:1 team:1 visit:1 since:1 accord:1 recent:1 two:1 allow:2 sever:1 recognition:1 taiwan:1 china:4 sign:1 agreement:1 relation:2 move:1 promise:1 u:5 aid:1 break:1 prc:1 roc:1 approach:1 deal:4 modernize:1 infrastructure:1 exchange:1 suppression:1 lax:1 law:1 activity:1 illegal:1 flourish:1 allegedly:1 would:1 embassy:1 perform:1 certain:1 safehouse:1 courier:1 service:1 scheme:1 codenamed:1 operation:1 weasel:1 institute:1 reform:1 deny:1 knowledge:1 matter:1 pursue:1 initial:1 judgment:1 favor:1 desperately:1 need:1 salary:1 arrears:1 civil:1 servant:1 continue:1 fund:1 welfare:1 build:1 heyday:1 nauruans:1 tax:1 yet:1 develop:1 plan:1 remove:1 innumerable:1 coral:1 pinnacle:1 create:1 suitable:1 human:1 habitation:1 see:1 note:2 reference:1 external:1 timeline:1 bbc:1 news:1 background:1 army:1 seizure:1 |@bigram micronesian_polynesian:2 combat_desertification:1 desertification_unccd:1 url_access:1 buada_lagoon:1 marshall_islands:1 angus_robertson:2 nauru_phosphate:5 phosphate_mining:3 liberator_bomber:1 auxiliary_cruiser:1 per_caput:1 arab_emirate:1 twentieth_century:1 money_laundering:1 asylum_seeker:1 shortly_thereafter:1 sever_diplomatic:1 diplomatic_relation:1 desperately_need:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
3,213 | Blue_Angels | For the 1960 syndicated television series, see The Blue Angels (TV series)The United States Navy's Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron, popularly known as the Blue Angels, first performed in 1946 History of the Blue Angels, Blue Angels official website. and is currently the oldest flying aerobatic team. The squadron's six demonstration pilots fly the Boeing F/A-18 Hornet in more than 70 shows at 34 locations throughout the United States each year, where they still employ many of the same practices and techniques used in their aerial displays in 1946. Since their inception, the "Blues" have flown a variety of different aircraft types for more than 427 million spectators worldwide. Mission The mission of the Blue Angels is to enhance Navy recruiting, and credibly represent Navy and Marine Corps aviation to the United States and its Armed Forces to America and other countries as international ambassadors of good will. Air show overview The Blue Angels show season runs each year from March until November. They perform at military and civilian airfields, and often perform directly over major cities such as San Francisco and Seattle during "Fleet Week" maritime festivals. During the aerobatic demonstration, the Blue Angels operate six FA-18 Hornet aircraft, split into the Diamond (Blue Angels 1 through 4) and the Lead and Opposing Solos (Blue Angels 5 and 6). Most of the show alternates between maneuvers performed by the Diamond and those performed by the Solos. The Diamond, in tight formation and usually at lower speeds, performs maneuvers such as formation loops, barrel rolls, and transitions from one formation to another. The Solos fly many of their maneuvers just under the speed of sound, showcasing the high performance capabilities of their individual Hornets through the execution of high-speed passes, slow passes, fast rolls, slow rolls, and very tight turns. Some of the maneuvers include both solo F/A-18s performing at once, such as opposing passes (toward each other in what appears to be a collision course) and mirror formations (back-to-back. belly-to-belly, or wingtip-to-wingtip, with one jet flying inverted). The Solos join the Diamond near the end of the show for a number of maneuvers in the Delta formation. The parameters of each show must be tailored to local weather: in clear weather the "high" show is performed; in overcast conditions a "low" show is performed, and in limited visibility (weather permitting) the "flat" show is presented. The "high" show requires an ceiling and visibility of from the show's centerpoint. "Low" and "flat" ceilings are 3,500 and respectively. Squadron nickname, insignia and paint scheme Water condensation in the strake vortices of a Hornet during a tight maneuver. When initially formed, the unit was called the Navy Flight Exhibition Team. The squadron was officially redesignated as the United States Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron in December 1974. The original team adopted the nickname Blue Angels in 1946, when one of them came across the name of New York City's Blue Angel nightclub in the New Yorker Magazine. The team introduced themselves as the "Blue Angels" to the public for the first time on July 21 1946 in Omaha, Nebraska. The official Blue Angels insignia was designed by then team leader Lt. Cmdr. R.E. "Dusty" Rhodes and approved by CNO in 1949. It is nearly identical to the current design. In the cloud in the upper right quadrant, the aircraft were originally shown heading down and to the right. Over the years, the plane silhouettes have changed along with the squadron's aircraft. Additionally, the lower left quadrant, which contains the Chief of Naval Air Training insignia, has occasionally contained only Naval Aviator wings. Originally, demonstration aircraft were navy blue (nearly black) with gold lettering. The current shades of blue and yellow were adopted when the team transitioned to the Bearcat in 1946. For a single year in 1949, the team performed in a blinding all-yellow scheme with blue markings Campbell, War Paint, p171 ). The current paint scheme, including yellow stripe markings along the top of the fuselage, and "U.S. Navy" on the bottom of the wings, was designed by team member Robert L. Rasmussen in 1957. Current aircraft "Bert" conducting a Jet Assisted Take Off. The "Blues" FA-18 aircraft are former fleet aircraft that are nearly combat-ready. They can be repainted and readied for combat service in just 72 hours. Blue Angels Frequently Asked Questions Significant modifications to each aircraft include removal of the aircraft gun and replacement with the tank that contains the paraffin-based smoked oil used in demonstrations, installation of inverted fuel pumps to increase the time aircraft can spend inverted without fuel starvation, and outfitting with the control stick spring system that is used to facilitate more precise aircraft control inputs. The standard demonstration configuration is such that the pilot must overcome 40 pounds of nose-down stick input to maintain level flight. The Blue Angels do not wear G-suits, because the air bladders inside them would repeatedly deflate and inflate. That would interfere with the control stick between a pilot's legs. Instead, Blue Angel pilots tense their stomach muscles and legs to prevent blood from rushing from their heads and rendering them unconscious. The show narrator flies Blue Angel 7—a two-seat FA-18B—to shows sites. The Blue Angels use this jet for backup, and to give demonstration flights to civilians (usually members of the press). The #4 slot pilot often flies the #7 aircraft in Friday "practice" shows. The Blue Angels use a United States Marine Corps C-130T Hercules nicknamed "Fat Albert" for logistics, carrying spare parts, equipment, and to carry support personnel between shows. They also use "Bert" for a short aerial demonstration just prior to the jet demonstration at selected venues. "Fat Albert Airlines" flies with an all-Marine crew of three officers and five enlisted personnel. Team members The first Blue Angel Flight Demonstration Squadron, 1946–1947 assembled in front of one of their F6F Hellcats (l to r): Lt. Al Taddeo, Solo; Lt. (J.G.) Gale Stouse, Spare; Lt. Cdr. R.M. "Butch" Voris, Flight Leader; Lt. Maurice "Wick" Wickendoll, Right Wing; Lt. Mel Cassidy, Left Wing. All team members, both officer and enlisted, come from the ranks of regular Navy and United States Marine Corps units. The demonstration pilots and narrator are made up of Navy and USMC Naval Aviators. Pilots typically serve two years, and position assignments are made according to team needs, pilot experience levels, and career considerations for members. The team leader (#1) is the Commanding Officer and is always a Navy Commander or Captain. Pilots of numbers 2-7 are Navy Lieutenants or Lieutenant Commanders. There is usually one Marine among this group, a Captain/Major. The number 7 pilot narrates for a year, and then typically flies Opposing and then Lead Solo the following two years. It is not uncommon for the number 3 pilot to move to the number 4 (slot) position for his second year. Blue Angel #4 serves as the demonstration safety officer, due largely to the perspective he is afforded from the slot position within the formation, as well as his status as a second-year demonstration pilot. There are a number of other officers in the squadron, including a Naval Flight Officer, the USMC C-130 pilots, a Maintenance Officer, an Administrative Officer, and a Flight Surgeon. Enlisted members range from E-4 to E-9, and perform all maintenance, administrative, and support functions. After serving with the "Blues", members return to fleet assignments. Members of the 2009 season USN Blue Angels Team: Flying Blue Angel No.1 CDR Greg McWherter (Commander/Leader) Flying Blue Angel No.2 LCDR Paul Brantuas (Right Wing) Flying Blue Angel No.3 Major Chris Collins (Left Wing) Flying Blue Angel No.4 LT Mark Swinger (Slot) Flying Blue Angel No.5 Major Nate Miller (Lead Solo) Flying Blue Angel No.6 LT Frank Weisser (Opposing Solo) Flying Blue Angel No.7 LT Ben Walborn (Advance Pilot/Narrator) LT Amy Tomlinson No.8 (Events Coordinator) Major Drew Hess (C-130 Pilot) Capt Brendan Burks (C-130 Pilot) Capt Edward Jorge (C-130 Pilot) LT Manuel Sanchez (Maintenance Officer) LT Johannah Valentine (Flight Surgeon) CWO4 Adolfo P. DeMontalvo (Executive/Administrative Officer) Capt Tyson Dunkelberger (Public Affairs Officer) LT Anthony Robinson (Supply Officer) Training and weekly routine The "Blues" support crew watches the team perform in the Grumman F9F-2 Panther jet fighter. Annual winter training takes place at NAF El Centro, CA, where new and returning pilots hone skills learned in the fleet. Separation between the formation of aircraft and their maneuver altitude is gradually reduced over the course of about two months in January and February. The team returns to their home base of Pensacola, Florida in March, and continue to practice throughout the show season. A typical week during the season has practices at NAS Pensacola on Tuesday and Wednesday mornings. The team then flies to its show venue for the week on Thursday, conducting "circle and arrival" orientation maneuvers upon arrival. The team flies a "practice" airshow at the show site on Friday. This show is attended by invited guests but is often open to the general public. The main airshows are conducted on Saturdays and Sundays, with the team returning home on Sunday evenings. Mondays are the only routine day off. History 1940s F6F-5 Hellcats in 1946 On April 24, 1946 Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Chester Nimitz issued a directive ordering the formation of a flight exhibition team to boost Navy morale, demonstrate naval air power, and maintain public interest in naval aviation. However, an underlying mission was to help the Navy generate public and political support for a larger allocation of the shrinking defense budget. In April of that year, Rear Admiral Ralph Davison personally selected Lieutenant Commander Roy Marlin "Butch" Voris, a World War II fighter ace, to assemble and train a flight demonstration team, naming him Officer-in-Charge and Flight Leader. Voris selected three fellow instructors to join him (Lt. Maurice "Wick" Wickendoll, Lt. Mel Cassidy, and Lt. Cmdr. Lloyd Barnard, veterans of the War in the Pacific), and they spent countless hours developing the show. The group perfected its initial maneuvers in secret over the Florida Everglades so that, in Voris' words, "...if anything happened, just the alligators would know." The team's first demonstration before Navy officials took place on May 10, 1946 and was met with enthusiastic approval. On June 15 Voris led a trio of Grumman F6F-5 Hellcats, specially modified to reduce weight and painted sea blue with gold leaf trim, through their inaugural 15-minute-long performance at their Florida home base, Naval Air Station Jacksonville. The team employed a an SNJ Texan, painted and configured to simulate a Japanese Zero, to simulate aerial combat. This aircraft was later painted yellow and dubbed the "Beetle Bomb". The team thrilled spectators with low-flying maneuvers performed in tight formations, and (according to Voris) by "...keeping something in front of the crowds at all times. My objective was to beat the Army Air Corps. If we did that, we'd get all the other side issues. I felt that if we weren't the best, it would be my naval career." The Blue Angels' first public demonstration also netted the team its first trophy, which sits on display at the team's current home at NAS Pensacola. On August 25, 1946 the Blue Angels switched to the Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat and introduced the famous "diamond" formation at the World Air Carnival in Birmingham, Alabama. The team soon became known worldwide for its spectacular aerobatic maneuvers. On August 25, 1946 the squadron upgraded their aircraft to the F8F-1 Bearcat. In 1949, the team acquired a Douglas R4D Sky Train for logistics to and from show sites. The team's SNJ was also replaced by a F8F-1 "Bearcat", painted yellow for the air combat routine. The Blues transitioned to the straight-wing Grumman F9F-2 Panther on July 13, 1949, wherein the F8F-1 "Beetle Bomb" was relegated to solo aerobatics before the main show, until it crashed on takeoff at a training show in Pensacola in 1950. 1950s The "Blues" continued to perform nationwide until the start of the Korean War in 1950, when (due to a shortage of pilots) the team was disbanded and its members were ordered to combat duty. Once aboard the aircraft carrier USS Princeton the group formed the core of VF-191 (Satan's Kittens). The Blue Angels were officially recommissioned on October 25, 1951, and reported to NAS Corpus Christi, Texas. Lt. Cdr. Voris was again tasked with assembling the team (he was the first of only two commanding officers to lead them twice). In 1953 the team traded its Sky Train for a Curtiss R5C Commando. The Blues remained in Corpus Christi until the winter of 1954, when they relocated to their present home at NAS Pensacola. It was here they progressed to the swept-wing Grumman F9F-8 Cougar. F9F-8 Cougar formation in 1956 The first Marine Corps pilot, Capt Chuck Hiett, joined the team and they relocated to their current home of NAS Pensacola in the winter of 1954. In August 1954, "Blues" leader LCDR Ray Hawkins becomes the first naval aviator to survive an ejection at supersonic speeds when his F9F-6 became uncontrollable on a cross-country flight. In Sept 1956, the team added a sixth aircraft to the flight demonstration in the Opposing Solo position, and gave its first performance outside the United States at the International Air Exposition in Toronto, Canada. It also upgraded its logistics aircraft to the Douglas R5D Skymaster. Grumman F11F-1 Tiger, 1957-69 In January 1957, the team left its winter training facility at Naval Air Facility El Centro, California for a ten year period. For the next ten years, the team would winter at NAS Key West, Florida. For the 1957 show season, the Blue Angels transitioned to the supersonic Grumman F11F-1 Tiger, first flying the short-nosed, and then the long-nosed versions. The first Six-Plane Delta Maneuvers were added in the 1958 season. 1960s In July 1964, the Blue Angels participated in the Aeronaves de Mexico Anniversary Air Show over Mexico City, Mexico, before an estimated crowd of 1.5 million people. In 1965, the Blue Angels conducted a Caribbean island tour, flying at five sites. Later that year, they embarked on a European tour to a dozen sites, including the Paris Air Show, where they were the only team to receive a standing ovation. The Blues toured Europe again in 1967 touring six sites. In 1968 Skymaster transport aircraft was replaced with a C-121J Constellation, and LT Mary Russell became the first woman assigned to the squadron as the Administrative Officer. The Blues transitioned to the two-seat McDonnell Douglas F-4J Phantom II in 1969, nearly always keeping the back seat empty for flight demonstrations. The Phantom was the only plane to be flown by both the "Blues" and the United States Air Force Thunderbirds. That year they also upgraded to the 'Lockheed C-121 Super Constellation for logistics. 1970s McDonnell F-4J Phantom IIs The Blues received their first U.S Marine Corps Lockheed KC-130F Hercules (Bureau Number 150690) in 1970. An all-Marine crew manned it. That year, they went on their first South American tour. In 1971, the team conducted its first Far East Tour, performing at a dozen locations in Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Guam, and the Philippines. In 1972, the Blue Angels were awarded the Navy's Meritorious Unit Commendation for the two-year period from March 1, 1970 - December 31, 1971. Another European tour followed in 1973, including air shows in Tehran, Iran, England, France, Spain, Turkey, Greece, and Italy. In December 1974 the Navy Flight Demonstration Team downsized to the subsonic McDonnell Douglas A-4F Skyhawk II and was reorganized into the Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron. This reorganization permitted the establishment of a commanding officer (the flight leader), added support officers, and further redefined the squadron's mission emphasizing the support of recruiting efforts. Commander Tony Less was the squadron's first official commanding officer. All six Blue Angel A-4F Skyhawks fly in delta formation, smoke on. 1980s On November 8, 1986 the Blue Angels completed their 40th anniversary year during ceremonies unveiling their present aircraft, the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, the first multi-role fighter/attack aircraft. The power and aerodynamics of the Hornet allows them to perform a slow, high angle of attack "tail sitting" maneuver, and to fly a "dirty" (landing gear down) formation loop, the last of which is not duplicated by the Thunderbirds. Also in 1986, LCDR Donnie Cochran, joined the Blue Angels as the first African-American Naval Aviator to be selected. He would return to lead the team in 1993. 1990s In 1992 the Blue Angels deployed for a month-long European tour, their first in 19 years, conducting shows in Sweden, Finland, Russia (the first foreign flight demonstration team to perform there), Romania, Bulgaria, Italy, the United Kingdom and Spain. In 1998, CDR Patrick Driscoll made the first "Blue Jet" landing on a "haze gray and underway" aircraft carrier, USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75). 2000s In 2006, the Blue Angels marked their 60th year of performing. Blue Angels Monumental Moments On October 30, 2008 a spokesman for the team announced that the team would complete its last three performances of the year with five jets instead of six. The change was because one pilot and another officer in the organization had been removed from duty for engaging in an "inappropriate relationship". The Navy stated that one of the individuals was a man and the other a woman, one a Marine and the other from the Navy, and that Rear Admiral Mark Guadagnini, chief of Naval air training, was reviewing the situation. At the next performance at Lackland Air Force Base following the announcement the #4 or slot pilot, was absent from the formation. A spokesman for the team would not confirm the identity of the pilot removed from the team. On November 6, 2008 both officers were found guilty at an admiral's mast on unspecified charges but the resulting punishment was not disclosed. Scutro, Andrew, "2 Blue Angels found guilty, await punishment", Military Times, November 8, 2008. Aircraft timeline The "Blues" have flown nine different demonstration aircraft and five support aircraft models. Demonstration aircraft Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat - June-August 1946 Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat - August 1946-1949 Grumman F9F-2 Panther - 1949-June 1950 (first jet); Grumman F9F-5 Panther - 1951-Winter 1954/55 Grumman F9F-8 Cougar - Winter 1954/55-mid-season 1957 (swept-wing) Grumman F11F-1 Tiger - mid-season 1957-1969 (first supersonic jet) McDonnell F-4J Phantom II - 1969-December 1974 Douglas A-4F Skyhawk - December 1974-November 1986 McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F/A-18A/B Hornet - November 1986-Present. They are currently transitioning to the F/A-18C/D. Support Douglas R4D Sky Train - 1949-1955 Curtiss R5C Commando - 1953 Douglas R5D Skymaster - 1956-1968 Lockheed C-121 Super Constellation - 1969-1973 Lockheed C-130 Hercules - 1970-Present Miscellaneous aircraft SNJ TexanLockheed T-33 Shooting Star '''F7U Cutlass Show routine The solos make a "knife-edge" pass. The far aircraft is actually slightly higher than the near aircraft to make them appear in-line to the audience. Blue Angels aircraft perform the "Section High Alpha", the slowest maneuver of their show. During the maneuver the two jets slow down to as they pitch the nose of the F/A-18 up to 45 degrees. Blue Angel number seven roars past during the Fleet Week 2007 air show over the San Francisco Bay. Blue Angels on Delta Formation. Fat Albert (C-130) – high performance takeoff Fat Albert - Parade Pass (Photo Pass. The plane banks around the front of the crowd) Fat Albert - Flat Pass Fat Albert - Head on Pass Fat Albert - Short-Field Assault Landing FA-18 Engine Start-Up and Taxi Out Diamond Take-off (Either a loop on takeoff, a half-Cuban 8 takeoff, or a Half Squirrel Cage) Solos Take-off (Blue Angel #5: Dirty Roll on Take-Off; Blue Angel #6: Low Transition pitch up) Diamond 360: Aircraft 1, 2, 3 and 4 are in their signature 18" wingtip-to-canopy diamond formation. Opposing Knife-Edge Pass Diamond Roll: The whole diamond formation rolls as a single entity. Opposing Inverted to Inverted Rolls Diamond Aileron Roll: All 4 diamond jets perform simultaneous aileron rolls. Fortus: Solos flying in carrier landing configuration with #5 inverted, establishing a "mirror image" effect. Diamond Dirty Loop: The diamond flies a loop with all 4 jets in the carrier landing configuration. Minimum Radius Turn Double Farvel: Diamond formation with aircraft 1 and 4 inverted. Opposing Minimum Radius Turn Echelon Parade Opposing Horizontal Rolls Left Echelon Roll: The roll is made into the Echelon, which is somewhat difficult for the outside aircraft. Sneak Pass: the fastest speed of the show is about 700 mph (just under Mach 1 at sea level) Video Line-Abreast Loop – the most difficult formation maneuver to do well. #5 joins the diamond as the 5 jets fly a loop in a straight line Opposing Four-Point Hesitation Roll Vertical Break Opposing Pitch Up Barrel Roll Break Section High-Alpha Pass: (tail sitting), the show's slowest maneuver Blue Angels FAQ Low Break Cross Inverted Tuck Over Roll Tuck Under Break Delta Roll Fleur de Lis Solos Pass to Rejoin Loop Break Cross (Delta Break): After the break the aircraft separate in six different directions, perform half Cuban eights then cross in the center of the performance area. Delta Breakout Delta Pitch Up Break to Land Source: Videos of these maneuvers Accidents During its history, 26 Blue Angels pilots have been killed in air show or training accidents. Investigators probe Blue Angels crash, MSNBC, April 22, 2007 Through the 2006 season there have been 262 pilots in the squad's history, Blue Angels Alumni FAQ, last updated March 17, 2007. giving the job a 10% fatality rate. 1946 - September: Lt. "Robby" Robinson was killed during a performance when a wingtip broke off his Bearcat, sending him into an unrecoverable spin. 1952 - Two Panthers collided during a demonstration in Corpus Christi, Texas and one pilot was killed. The team resumed performances two weeks later. October 14, 1958 - Cmdr. Robert Nicholls Glasgow died during an orientation flight just days after reporting for duty as the new Blue Angels leader. Blue Angels crash artifacts found 50 years later, Associated Press, March 3, 2009 September 2, 1966 - Lt. Cmdr. Dick Oliver crashed his Tiger and was killed at the Canadian International Air Show in Toronto. February 1, 1967 - Lt Frank Gallagher was killed when his Tiger stalled during a practice Half Cuban 8 maneuver and spun into the ground. February 18, 1967 - Capt. Ronald Thompson was killed when his Tiger struck the ground during a practice formation loop. January 14, 1968 - Opposing solo Lt. Bill Worley was killed when his Tiger crashed during a practice double immelman. June 4 1971 - CDR Harley Hall safely ejected after his Phantom caught fire and crashed during practice over Narragansett Bay near the ex-NAS Quonset Point in Rhode Island. January 8, 1972 - Lt. Larry Watters was killed when his Skyhawk struck the ground while practicing inverted flight. March 8, 1973 - Capt. John Fogg, Lt. Marlin Wiita and LCDR Don Bentley survived a multi-aircraft mid-air during practice over the Superstition Mountains in California. July 26, 1973 - 2 pilots and a crew chief were killed in a mid-air collision between 2 Phantoms over Lakehurst, NJ during an arrival practice. Team Leader LCDR Skip Umstead, Capt. Mike Murphy and ADJ1 Ron Thomas perished. The rest of the season was cancelled after this incident. February 22, 1977 - Opposing solo Lt. Nile Kraft was killed when his Skyhawk struck the ground during practice. November 8, 1978 - One of the solo Skyhawks struck the ground after low roll during arrival maneuvers at NAS Miramar. Navy Lieutenant Michael Curtain was killed. May 31, 1980 - Lead Solo Lt. Jim Ross was unhurt when he ejected from his Skyhawk after it suffered a fuel line fire during a show at NS Roosevelt Roads, Puerto Rico. The plane landed in a swamp near the air base. February 22, 1982 - Lt. Cmdr Stu Powrie, Lead Solo was killed when his Skyhawk struck the ground during winter training at Naval Air Facility El Centro, California just after a dirty loop. July 13, 1985 - Lead and Opposing Solo Skyhawks collided during a show at Niagara Falls, killing opposing solo Lt. Cmdr. Mike Gershon. Lt. Andy Caputi ejected and parachuted to safety. "Navy Blue Angel Aviators Die in Crash", October 28, 1999, accessed April 23, 2007 February 12, 1987 - Lead solo Lt. Dave Anderson ejected from his Hornet after a dual engine flameout during practice near El Centro, CA. January 23, 1990 - Two Blue Angel Hornets suffered a mid-air collision during a practice at El Centro. Marine Corps Maj. Charles Moseley ejected safely. Cmdr. Pat Moneymaker landed his airplane, but it never flew again. "Pilot Blamed In Blue Angel Crash", Pensacola News Journal, June 13, 1990, archived at The Moneymaker Family Tree, accessed April 23, 2007 October 28, 1999 - Lt. Cmdr. Kieron O'Connor, flying in the front seat of a two-seat Hornet, and recently selected demonstration pilot Lt. Kevin Colling (in the back seat) struck the ground during circle and arrival maneuvers in Valdosta, Georgia. Neither pilot survived. "Blue Angel crash victims identified", CNN, October 28, 1999, accessed April 23, 2007 December 2, 2004 - Lt. Ted Steelman ejected from his F/A-18 approximately one mile off Perdido Key after his aircraft struck the water, suffering catastrophic engine and structural damage. He suffered minor injuries. "Blue Angels Pilot Ejects Before Plane Crashes", Fox News, December 2, 2004, accessed April 23, 2007 April 21, 2007 - Lt. Cmdr. Kevin J. Davis crashed his Hornet near the end of the Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort airshow in Beaufort, South Carolina Pilot killed in S.C. Blue Angel crash" and was killed, . U.S. Navy "Blue Angels" jet crashes Blue Angels Pilot fascinated by flying (See 2007 Blue Angels South Carolina crash). Other incidents involving former Blue Angels 1951 - LCDR Johnny Magda, while flying in Korea, was the first former Blue Angel killed in combat. January 27, 1973 - CDR Harley Hall (1970 team leader) was shot down flying an F-4J over Vietnam, and was officially listed as Missing In Action. In the media John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John with Blue Angels, 1982 The Blue Angels was a dramatic television series, starring Dennis Cross and Don Gordon, inspired by the team's exploits and filmed with the cooperation of the Navy. It aired in syndication from September 26, 1960 to July 3, 1961. Blue Angels TV series, 1960 The Blue Angels were the subject of "Flying Blue Angels," a pop song recorded by George, Johnny and the Pilots (Coed Co 555), that debuted on Billboard Magazines "Bubbling Under the Hot 100" chart on September 11, 1961. Threshold: The Blue Angels Experience was a 1975 documentary film, written by Dune author Frank Herbert, featuring the team in practice and performance during their F-4J Phantom period; many of the aerial photography techniques pioneered in Threshold were later used in the film Top Gun. In 2005, the Discovery Channel aired a documentary miniseries, Blue Angels: A Year in the Life, focusing on the intricate day-to-day details of that year's training and performance schedule. Blue Angels: A Year in the Life "Blue Angels: A Year in the Life" (2005) The video for the American rock band Van Halen's 1986 release "Dreams" consists of Blue Angels performance footage. The video was originally shot featuring the Blues in the A-4 Skyhawk. It was later reshot after the transition to the F/A-18 Hornet. The Blue Angels appeared on an episode of Tim Allen's television sitcom Home Improvement as themselves. The Blue Angels were featured in the I-Max film "Magic of Flight". The Blue Angels Creed, written by JO1 Cathy Konn, 1991-1993: Notable alumni Captain Chuck Brady — Astronaut Captain Donnie Cochran — first African-American Blue Angels aviator Captain Robert L. Rasmussen — Aviation Artist Commander Raleigh Rhodes —World War II veteran and third leader of the Blue Angels Captain Roy Marlin Voris — First Blue Angel leader Admiral Patrick M. Walsh — Left Wingman and Slot Pilot, 1985-1987; Vice Chief of Naval Operations 2009 air show schedule MarchNAF El Centro, CA Mar. 14 Punta Gorda, FL Mar. 21/22 Tyndall AFB, FL Mar. 28/29AprilTuscaloosa, AL, AL Apr. 4/5 NAS Corpus Christi, TX Apr. 18/19 Seymour Johnson AFB, NC Apr. 25/26MayNAS New Orleans, LA May 2/3 Barksdale AFB, LA May 9/10 MCAS Beaufort, SC May 16/17 USNA, Annapolis, MD May 20/22 Pax River, MD May 23/24 Janesville, WI May 30/31JuneIndianapolis, IN June 6/7 Denver, CO June 13/14 Davenport, IA June 20/21 North Kingstown, RI June 27/28JulyBinghamton, NY July 4/5 Pensacola Beach, FL July 11 Ypsilanti, MI July 18/19 Sioux Falls, SD July 25/26AugustSeattle, WA Aug. 1/2 Salinas, CA Aug. 8/9 Fargo, ND Aug. 22/23 Offutt AFB, NE Aug. 29/30SeptemberToronto, Canada Sep. 5/7 NAS Fallon, NV Sep. 11 Reno Air Races, NV Sep. 19/20 Redding, CA Sep. 26/27OctoberMCAS Miramar, CA Oct. 2/4 San Francisco, CA Oct. 10/11 NAS Oceana, VA Oct. 17/18 Fort Worth, TX Oct. 24/25 Houston, TX Oct. 31November'Houston, TX Nov. 1 Jacksonville Beach, FL Nov. 7/8 NAS Pensacola, FL Nov. 13/14 For up-to-date information and complete details about the Navy Blue Angelss, visit their official website. See also Blue Angels Alumni Association Thunderbirds USAF Naval aviation Modern US Navy carrier air operations List of military aircraft of the United States (naval) / List of US Naval aircraft United States Naval Aviator United States Marine Corps Aviation Military aviation List of United States Navy aircraft squadrons References Further reading (2005). "The First Blue Angel." Miramar 50th Air Show Special Commemorative Program 18. (2005). "The Blue Angels History." Miramar 50th Air Show Special Commemorative Program 22. Blue Angels Timeline (1946–1980) accessed November 10, 2005. "First Blue: Monterey resident Butch Voris formed the nation’s most-loved aviation team" article by Brett Wilbur in the April 1, 2004 edition of the Monterey County Weekly'' — accessed October 16, 2005. "Grumman and the Blue Angels" article by William C. Barto at the Grumman Memorial Park official website — accessed October 15, 2005. "First Blue: The story of World War II Ace Butch Voris and the Creation of the Blue Angels" by Robert K. Wilcox, Thomas Dunne Books/St.Martins Press, 2004, www.robertkwilcox.com http://moneymaker.rootsweb.com/newspapers/clip08.htm External links Blue Angels, official U.S. Navy web site The Blue Angels, show schedules and other information First Blue Angel, the story of World War II Ace Butch Voris and the Creation of the Blue Angels U.S. Navy Blue Angels Alumni Association official website Blue Angels Fan Site includes photos, video, memorabilia, and information Blue Angels at San Francisco Air Show Pictures RTP-TV Aerospace Show on the Blue Angels (online video) 2004 Photo of Navy Blue Angels aerobatic team Lists all Blue Angels Pilots Killed or Ejected The Blue Angels and Friends Network - Blue Angels videos, photos, friends, fans and former pilots of the Blue Angels Flying Full Circle: A 10-minute short film documenting the experience of a VIP ride with the Blue Angels 1968 Blue Angel #5 F11F-1 Tiger on display at Combat Air Museum | Blue_Angels |@lemmatized syndicate:1 television:3 series:4 see:3 blue:124 angel:97 tv:3 united:13 state:13 navy:30 flight:23 demonstration:26 squadron:14 popularly:1 know:2 first:31 perform:19 history:5 official:8 website:4 currently:2 old:1 fly:35 aerobatic:4 team:51 six:7 pilot:37 boeing:2 f:13 hornet:12 show:44 location:2 throughout:2 year:25 still:1 employ:2 many:3 practice:16 technique:2 use:7 aerial:4 display:3 since:1 inception:1 variety:1 different:3 aircraft:40 type:1 million:2 spectator:2 worldwide:2 mission:4 enhance:1 recruiting:1 credibly:1 represent:1 marine:12 corp:5 aviation:7 armed:1 force:3 america:1 country:2 international:3 ambassador:1 good:1 air:34 overview:1 angels:6 season:10 run:1 march:6 november:8 military:4 civilian:2 airfield:1 often:3 directly:1 major:5 city:3 san:4 francisco:4 seattle:1 fleet:5 week:5 maritime:1 festival:1 operate:1 fa:4 split:1 diamond:16 lead:10 oppose:15 solo:21 alternate:1 maneuver:21 tight:4 formation:20 usually:3 low:8 speed:5 performs:1 loop:10 barrel:2 roll:17 transition:8 one:11 another:3 solos:2 sound:1 showcasing:1 high:9 performance:12 capability:1 individual:2 execution:1 pass:3 slow:6 fast:2 turn:3 include:7 performing:1 toward:1 appear:3 collision:3 course:2 mirror:2 back:4 belly:2 wingtip:4 jet:14 invert:7 join:5 near:6 end:2 number:8 delta:8 parameter:1 must:2 tailor:1 local:1 weather:3 clear:1 overcast:1 condition:1 limited:1 visibility:2 permit:2 flat:3 present:5 require:1 ceiling:2 centerpoint:1 respectively:1 nickname:3 insignia:3 paint:7 scheme:3 water:2 condensation:1 strake:1 vortex:1 initially:1 form:3 unit:3 call:1 exhibition:2 officially:3 redesignated:1 december:7 original:1 adopt:2 come:2 across:1 name:2 new:5 york:1 nightclub:1 yorker:1 magazine:2 introduce:2 public:6 time:4 july:10 omaha:1 nebraska:1 design:3 leader:12 lt:34 cmdr:9 r:3 e:3 dusty:1 rhodes:2 approve:1 cno:1 nearly:4 identical:1 current:6 cloud:1 upper:1 right:4 quadrant:2 originally:3 head:3 plane:6 silhouette:1 change:2 along:2 additionally:1 leave:5 contain:3 chief:5 naval:19 train:5 occasionally:1 aviator:7 wing:9 black:1 gold:2 lettering:1 shade:1 yellow:5 bearcat:6 single:2 blind:1 marking:2 campbell:1 war:7 stripe:1 top:2 fuselage:1 u:7 bottom:1 member:9 robert:4 l:3 rasmussen:2 bert:2 conduct:6 assist:1 take:6 former:4 combat:7 ready:1 repaint:1 readied:1 service:1 hour:2 frequently:1 ask:1 question:1 significant:1 modification:1 removal:1 gun:2 replacement:1 tank:1 paraffin:1 base:5 smoked:1 oil:1 installation:1 inverted:2 fuel:3 pump:1 increase:1 spend:2 without:1 starvation:1 outfit:1 control:3 stick:3 spring:1 system:1 facilitate:1 precise:1 input:2 standard:1 configuration:3 overcome:1 pound:1 nose:3 maintain:2 level:3 wear:1 g:2 suit:1 bladder:1 inside:1 would:8 repeatedly:1 deflate:1 inflate:1 interfere:1 leg:2 instead:2 tense:1 stomach:1 muscle:1 prevent:1 blood:1 rush:1 render:1 unconscious:1 narrator:3 two:12 seat:6 site:8 backup:1 give:3 press:3 slot:6 friday:2 corps:4 c:12 hercules:3 fat:7 albert:7 logistics:4 carry:2 spare:2 part:1 equipment:1 support:8 personnel:2 also:7 short:4 prior:1 select:5 venue:2 airline:1 crew:4 three:3 officer:20 five:4 enlisted:1 assemble:3 front:4 hellcat:4 al:3 taddeo:1 j:2 gale:1 stouse:1 cdr:6 butch:5 voris:11 maurice:2 wick:2 wickendoll:2 mel:2 cassidy:2 enlist:2 rank:1 regular:1 make:6 usmc:2 typically:2 serve:2 position:4 assignment:2 accord:2 need:1 experience:3 career:2 consideration:1 commanding:2 always:2 commander:6 captain:6 lieutenant:4 among:1 group:3 narrates:1 following:1 uncommon:1 move:1 second:2 serf:1 safety:2 due:2 largely:1 perspective:1 afford:1 within:1 well:2 status:1 maintenance:3 administrative:4 surgeon:2 range:1 function:1 return:5 usn:1 greg:1 mcwherter:1 lcdr:6 paul:1 brantuas:1 chris:1 collins:1 left:1 mark:3 swinger:1 nate:1 miller:1 frank:3 weisser:1 ben:1 walborn:1 advance:1 amy:1 tomlinson:1 event:1 coordinator:1 drew:1 hess:1 capt:7 brendan:1 burk:1 edward:1 jorge:1 manuel:1 sanchez:1 johannah:1 valentine:1 adolfo:1 p:1 demontalvo:1 executive:1 tyson:1 dunkelberger:1 affair:1 anthony:1 robinson:2 supply:1 training:8 weekly:2 routine:4 watch:1 grumman:15 panther:5 fighter:3 annual:1 winter:8 place:2 naf:1 el:6 centro:6 ca:7 hone:1 skill:1 learn:1 separation:1 altitude:1 gradually:1 reduce:2 month:2 january:6 february:6 home:7 pensacola:9 florida:4 continue:2 typical:1 nas:12 tuesday:1 wednesday:1 morning:1 thursday:1 circle:3 arrival:5 orientation:2 upon:1 airshow:2 attend:1 invited:1 guest:1 open:1 general:1 main:2 airshows:1 saturday:1 sunday:2 evening:1 monday:1 day:4 april:9 operation:3 admiral:5 chester:1 nimitz:1 issue:2 directive:1 order:2 boost:1 morale:1 demonstrate:1 power:2 interest:1 however:1 underlying:1 help:1 generate:1 political:1 large:1 allocation:1 shrinking:1 defense:1 budget:1 rear:2 ralph:1 davison:1 personally:1 roy:2 marlin:3 world:5 ii:7 ace:3 charge:2 fellow:1 instructor:1 lloyd:1 barnard:1 veteran:2 pacific:1 countless:1 develop:1 perfect:1 initial:1 secret:1 everglades:1 word:1 anything:1 happen:1 alligator:1 may:8 meet:1 enthusiastic:1 approval:1 june:9 trio:1 specially:1 modify:1 weight:1 sea:2 leaf:1 trim:1 inaugural:1 minute:2 long:3 station:2 jacksonville:2 snj:3 texan:1 configure:1 simulate:2 japanese:1 zero:1 later:6 dub:1 beetle:2 bomb:2 thrill:1 keep:2 something:1 crowd:3 objective:1 beat:1 army:1 get:1 side:1 felt:1 best:1 net:1 trophy:1 sit:3 august:5 switch:1 famous:1 carnival:1 birmingham:1 alabama:1 soon:1 become:4 known:1 spectacular:1 upgrade:3 acquire:1 douglas:9 sky:3 replace:2 straight:2 wherein:1 relegate:1 aerobatics:1 crash:14 takeoff:4 nationwide:1 start:2 korean:1 shortage:1 disband:1 duty:3 aboard:1 carrier:5 uss:2 princeton:1 core:1 vf:1 satan:1 kitten:1 recommissioned:1 october:8 report:2 corpus:4 christi:4 texas:2 task:1 command:2 twice:1 trade:1 curtiss:2 commando:2 remain:1 relocate:2 progress:1 swept:2 cougar:3 chuck:2 hiett:1 ray:1 hawkins:1 survive:3 ejection:1 supersonic:3 uncontrollable:1 cross:5 sept:1 add:3 sixth:1 outside:2 exposition:1 toronto:2 canada:2 skymaster:3 tiger:8 facility:3 california:3 ten:2 period:3 next:2 key:2 west:1 nosed:1 version:1 participate:1 aeronaves:1 de:2 mexico:3 anniversary:2 estimate:1 people:1 caribbean:1 island:2 tour:8 embark:1 european:3 dozen:2 paris:1 receive:2 standing:1 ovation:1 europe:1 transport:1 constellation:3 mary:1 russell:1 woman:2 assign:1 mcdonnell:6 phantom:7 empty:1 thunderbird:3 lockheed:4 super:2 iis:1 kc:1 bureau:1 man:2 go:1 south:3 american:4 far:3 east:1 korea:2 japan:1 taiwan:1 guam:1 philippine:1 award:1 meritorious:1 commendation:1 follow:2 tehran:1 iran:1 england:1 france:1 spain:2 turkey:1 greece:1 italy:2 downsize:1 subsonic:1 skyhawk:7 reorganize:1 reorganization:1 establishment:1 redefine:1 emphasize:1 recruit:1 effort:1 tony:1 le:1 skyhawks:3 smoke:1 complete:3 ceremony:1 unveil:1 multi:2 role:1 attack:2 aerodynamics:1 allow:1 angle:1 tail:2 dirty:4 land:7 gear:1 last:3 duplicate:1 donnie:2 cochran:2 african:2 deploy:1 sweden:1 finland:1 russia:1 foreign:1 romania:1 bulgaria:1 kingdom:1 patrick:2 driscoll:1 landing:1 haze:1 gray:1 underway:1 harry:1 truman:1 cvn:1 monumental:1 moment:1 spokesman:2 announce:1 organization:1 remove:2 engage:1 inappropriate:1 relationship:1 guadagnini:1 review:1 situation:1 lackland:1 announcement:1 absent:1 confirm:1 identity:1 find:3 guilty:2 mast:1 unspecified:1 resulting:1 punishment:2 disclose:1 scutro:1 andrew:1 await:1 timeline:2 nine:1 model:1 mid:5 b:1 miscellaneous:1 texanlockheed:1 shoot:2 star:2 cutlas:1 knife:2 edge:2 pas:9 actually:1 slightly:1 line:4 audience:1 section:2 alpha:2 pitch:4 degree:1 seven:1 roar:1 past:1 bay:2 parade:2 photo:4 bank:1 around:1 field:1 assault:1 engine:3 taxi:1 either:1 half:4 cuban:3 squirrel:1 cage:1 signature:1 canopy:1 whole:1 entity:1 aileron:2 simultaneous:1 fortus:1 establish:1 image:1 effect:1 minimum:2 radius:2 double:2 farvel:1 echelon:3 horizontal:1 somewhat:1 difficult:2 sneak:1 mph:1 mach:1 video:6 abreast:1 four:1 point:2 hesitation:1 vertical:1 break:9 faq:2 tuck:2 fleur:1 li:1 rejoin:1 separate:1 direction:1 eight:1 center:1 area:1 breakout:1 source:1 accident:2 kill:17 investigator:1 probe:1 msnbc:1 squad:1 alumni:3 update:1 job:1 fatality:1 rate:1 september:4 robby:1 send:1 unrecoverable:1 spin:1 collide:2 resume:1 nicholls:1 glasgow:1 die:2 artifact:1 associated:1 dick:1 oliver:1 canadian:1 gallagher:1 stall:1 spun:1 ground:7 ronald:1 thompson:1 strike:7 bill:1 worley:1 immelman:1 harley:2 hall:2 safely:2 eject:7 catch:1 fire:2 narragansett:1 ex:1 quonset:1 rhode:1 larry:1 watters:1 john:3 fogg:1 wiita:1 bentley:1 superstition:1 mountain:1 lakehurst:1 nj:1 skip:1 umstead:1 mike:2 murphy:1 ron:1 thomas:2 perish:1 rest:1 cancel:1 incident:2 nile:1 kraft:1 miramar:4 michael:1 curtain:1 jim:1 ross:1 unhurt:1 suffer:4 ns:1 roosevelt:1 road:1 puerto:1 rico:1 swamp:1 stu:1 powrie:1 niagara:1 fall:2 gershon:1 andy:1 caputi:1 parachute:1 access:7 dave:1 anderson:1 dual:1 flameout:1 maj:1 charles:1 moseley:1 pat:1 moneymaker:3 airplane:1 never:1 blame:1 news:2 journal:1 archive:1 family:1 tree:1 kieron:1 connor:1 recently:1 kevin:2 colling:1 valdosta:1 georgia:1 neither:1 victim:1 identify:1 cnn:1 ted:1 steelman:1 approximately:1 mile:1 perdido:1 catastrophic:1 structural:1 damage:1 minor:1 injury:1 ejects:1 fox:1 davis:1 beaufort:3 carolina:2 fascinate:1 involve:1 johnny:2 magda:1 vietnam:1 list:5 miss:1 action:1 medium:1 travolta:1 olivia:1 newton:1 dramatic:1 dennis:1 gordon:1 inspire:1 exploit:1 film:5 cooperation:1 syndication:1 subject:1 pop:1 song:1 record:1 george:1 coed:1 co:2 debut:1 billboard:1 bubble:1 hot:1 chart:1 threshold:2 documentary:2 write:2 dune:1 author:1 herbert:1 feature:3 photography:1 pioneer:1 discovery:1 channel:1 miniseries:1 life:3 focus:1 intricate:1 detail:2 schedule:3 rock:1 band:1 van:1 halen:1 release:1 dream:1 consist:1 footage:1 shot:1 reshot:1 episode:1 tim:1 allen:1 sitcom:1 improvement:1 max:1 magic:1 creed:1 cathy:1 konn:1 notable:1 alumnus:1 brady:1 astronaut:1 artist:1 raleigh:1 third:1 walsh:1 wingman:1 vice:1 marchnaf:1 mar:3 punta:1 gorda:1 fl:5 tyndall:1 afb:4 apr:3 tx:4 seymour:1 johnson:1 nc:1 orleans:1 la:2 barksdale:1 mcas:1 sc:1 usna:1 annapolis:1 md:2 pax:1 river:1 janesville:1 wi:1 denver:1 davenport:1 ia:1 north:1 kingstown:1 ri:1 ny:1 beach:2 ypsilanti:1 mi:1 sioux:1 sd:1 wa:1 aug:4 salina:1 fargo:1 nd:1 offutt:1 ne:1 sep:4 fallon:1 nv:2 reno:1 race:1 redding:1 oct:5 oceana:1 va:1 fort:1 worth:1 houston:2 nov:3 date:1 information:3 visit:1 association:2 usaf:1 modern:1 reference:1 reading:1 special:2 commemorative:2 program:2 monterey:2 resident:1 nation:1 love:1 article:2 brett:1 wilbur:1 edition:1 county:1 william:1 barto:1 memorial:1 park:1 story:2 creation:2 k:1 wilcox:1 dunne:1 book:1 st:1 martin:1 www:1 robertkwilcox:1 com:2 http:1 rootsweb:1 newspaper:1 htm:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 fan:2 memorabilia:1 picture:1 rtp:1 aerospace:1 online:1 friend:2 network:1 videos:1 full:1 document:1 vip:1 ride:1 museum:1 |@bigram f_hornet:3 marine_corp:4 blue_angels:6 san_francisco:4 omaha_nebraska:1 lt_cmdr:7 dusty_rhodes:1 naval_aviator:5 marine_corps:4 butch_voris:5 commanding_officer:2 grumman_panther:4 el_centro:6 hone_skill:1 pensacola_florida:1 nas_pensacola:5 tuesday_wednesday:1 invited_guest:1 saturday_sunday:1 admiral_chester:1 rear_admiral:2 grumman_hellcat:2 birmingham_alabama:1 crash_takeoff:1 corpus_christi:4 christi_texas:2 swept_wing:2 mcdonnell_douglas:4 tehran_iran:1 romania_bulgaria:1 harry_truman:1 fleur_de:1 narragansett_bay:1 rhode_island:1 nas_miramar:1 puerto_rico:1 niagara_fall:1 eject_safely:1 john_travolta:1 olivia_newton:1 frank_herbert:1 aerial_photography:1 van_halen:1 annapolis_md:1 fort_worth:1 worth_tx:1 houston_tx:2 thomas_dunne:1 external_link:1 |
3,214 | If_and_only_if | ↔ ⇔ ≡ logical symbolsrepresenting iff. If and only if, in logic and fields that rely on it such as mathematics and philosophy, is a biconditional logical connective between statements. In that it is biconditional, the connective can be likened to the standard material conditional ("if") combined with its reverse ("only if"); hence the name. The result is that the truth of either one of the connected statements requires the truth of the other, i.e., either both statements are true, or both are false. The connective is thus an "if" that works both ways. In writing, common alternative phrases to "if and only if" include iff, Q is necessary and sufficient for P, P is equivalent (or materially equivalent) to Q (compare material implication), P precisely if Q, P precisely (or exactly) when Q, P exactly in case Q, and P just in case Q. Many authors regard "iff" as unsuitable in formal writing; others use it freely. In logic formulas, logical symbols are used instead of these phrases; see the discussion of notation. Definition The truth table of p iff q (also written as p ↔ q) is as follows: + Iff p q p ↔ q T T T T F F F T F F F T Usage Notation The corresponding logical symbols are "↔", "⇔" and "≡", and sometimes "iff". These are usually treated as equivalent. However, some texts of mathematical logic (particularly those on first-order logic, rather than propositional logic) make a distinction between these, in which the first, ↔, is used as a symbol in logic formulas, while ⇔ is used in reasoning about those logic formulas (e.g., in metalogic). Another term for this logical connective is exclusive nor. Proofs In most logical systems, one proves a statement of the form "P iff Q" by proving "if P, then Q" and "if Q, then P" (or the inverse of "if P, then Q", i.e. "if not P, then not Q"). Proving this pair of statements sometimes leads to a more natural proof, since there are not obvious conditions in which one would infer a biconditional directly. An alternative is to prove the disjunction "(P and Q) or (not-P and not-Q)", which itself can be inferred directly from either of its disjuncts — that is, because "iff" is truth-functional, "P iff Q" follows if P and Q have both been shown true, or both false. Origin of the abbreviation Usage of the abbreviation "iff" first appeared in print in John L. Kelley's 1955 book General Topology. Its invention is often credited to the mathematician Paul Halmos. The difference between if, only if, and iff "If the pudding is a custard, then Madison will eat it." or "Madison will eat the pudding if it is a custard." This states only that Madison will eat custard pudding. It does not, however, preclude the possibility that Madison might also have occasion to eat bread pudding. Maybe she will, maybe she will not—the sentence does not tell us. All we know for certain is that she will eat any and all custard pudding that she happens upon. That the pudding is a custard is a sufficient condition for Madison to eat the pudding. "Only if the pudding is a custard, will Madison eat it." or "Madison will eat the pudding only if it is a custard." This states that the only pudding Madison will eat is a custard. It does not, however, preclude the possibility that Madison will refuse a custard if it is made available, in contrast with (1), which requires Madison to eat any available custard. In this case, that a given pudding is a custard is a necessary condition for Madison to be eating it. It is not a sufficient condition since Madison might not eat any and all custard puddings she is given. "If and only if the pudding is a custard, will Madison eat it." or "Madison will eat the pudding if and only if it is a custard." This, however, makes it quite clear that Madison will eat all and only those puddings that are custard. She will not leave any such pudding uneaten, and she will not eat any other type of pudding. That a given pudding is custard is both a necessary and a sufficient condition for Madison eating the pudding. Sufficiency is the inverse of necessity. That is to say, given P→Q (i.e. if P then Q), P would be a sufficient condition for Q, and Q would be a necessary condition for P. Also, given P→Q, it is true that ¬Q→¬P (where ¬ is the negation operator, i.e. "not"). This means that the relationship between P and Q, established by P→Q, can be expressed in the following, all equivalent, ways: P is sufficient for Q Q is necessary for P ¬Q is sufficient for ¬P ¬P is necessary for ¬Q As an example, take (1), above, which states P→Q, where P is "the pudding in question is a custard" and Q is "Madison eats the pudding in question". The following are four equivalent ways of expressing this very relationship: If the pudding in question is a custard, then Madison will eat it. Only if Madison will eat the pudding in question, is it a custard. If Madison will not eat the pudding in question, then it is not a custard. Only if the pudding in question is not a custard, will Madison not eat it. So we see that (2), above, can be restated in the form of if...then as "If Madison will eat the pudding in question, then it is a custard"; taking this in conjunction with (1), we find that (3) can be stated as "If the pudding in question is a custard, then Madison will eat it; AND if Madison will eat the pudding, then it is a custard". Advanced considerations Philosophical interpretation A sentence that is composed of two other sentences joined by "iff" is called a biconditional. "Iff" joins two sentences to form a new sentence. It should not be confused with logical equivalence which is a description of a relation between two sentences. The biconditional "A iff B" uses the sentences A and B, describing a relation between the states of affairs A and B describe. By contrast "A is logically equivalent to B" mentions both sentences: it describes a relation between those two sentences, and not between whatever matters they describe. The distinction is a very confusing one, and has led many a philosopher astray. Certainly it is the case that when A is logically equivalent to B, "A iff B" is true. But the converse does not hold. Reconsidering the sentence: If and only if the pudding is a custard, will Madison eat it. There is clearly no logical equivalence between the two halves of this particular biconditional. For more on the distinction, see W. V. Quine's Mathematical Logic, Section 5. One way of looking at "A if and only if B" is that it means "A if B" (B implies A) and "A only when B" (not B implies not A). "Not B implies not A" means A implies B, so then we get two way implication. Definitions In philosophy and logic, "iff" is used to indicate definitions, since definitions are supposed to be universally quantified biconditionals. In mathematics and elsewhere, however, the word "if" is normally used in definitions, rather than "iff". This is due to the observation that "if" in the English language has a definitional meaning, separate from its meaning as a propositional conjunction. This separate meaning can be explained by noting that a definition (for instance: A group is "abelian" if it satisfies the commutative law; or: A grape is a "raisin" if it is well dried) is not an equivalence to be proved, but a rule for interpreting the term defined. (Some authors, Such as . nevertheless, explicitly indicate that the "if" of a definition means "iff"!) Examples Here are some examples of true statements that use "iff" - true biconditionals (the first is an example of a definition, so it should normally have been written with "if"): A person is a bachelor iff that person is a marriageable man who has never married. "Snow is white" (in English) is true iff "Schnee ist weiß" (in German) is true. For any p, q, and r: (p & q) & r iff p & (q & r). (Since this is written using variables and "&", the statement would usually be written using "↔", or one of the other symbols used to write biconditionals, in place of "iff"). For any real numbers x and y, x=y+1 iff y=x−1. Analogs Other words are also sometimes emphasized in the same way by repeating the last letter; for example orr for "Or and only Or" (the exclusive disjunction). The statement "(A iff B)" is equivalent to the statement "(not A or B) and (not B or A)," and is also equivalent to the statement "(not A and not B) or (A and B)". It is also equivalent to: not[(A or B) and (not A or not B)], or more simply: ¬ [ ( ¬A ∨ ¬B ) ∧ ( A ∨ B ) ] which converts into [ ( ¬A ∧ ¬B) ∨ (A ∧ B) ] and [ ( ¬A ∨ B) ∧ (A ∨ ¬B) ] which were given in verbal interpretations above. More general usage Iff is used outside the field of logic, wherever logic is applied, especially in mathematical discussions. It has the same meaning as above: it is an abbreviation for if and only if, indicating that one statement is both necessary and sufficient for the other. This is an example of mathematical jargon. (However, as noted above, if, rather than iff, is more often used in statements of definition.) The elements of X are all and only the elements of Y is used to mean: "for any z in the domain of discourse, z is in X if and only if z is in Y." Notes See also Logical equality Logical biconditional Necessary and sufficient condition | If_and_only_if |@lemmatized logical:10 symbolsrepresenting:1 iff:27 logic:11 field:2 rely:1 mathematics:2 philosophy:2 biconditional:7 connective:4 statement:12 liken:1 standard:1 material:2 conditional:1 combine:1 reverse:1 hence:1 name:1 result:1 truth:4 either:3 one:7 connected:1 require:2 e:5 true:8 false:2 thus:1 work:1 way:6 writing:2 common:1 alternative:2 phrase:2 include:1 q:36 necessary:8 sufficient:9 p:36 equivalent:10 materially:1 compare:1 implication:2 precisely:2 exactly:2 case:4 many:2 author:2 regard:1 unsuitable:1 formal:1 others:1 use:14 freely:1 formula:3 symbol:4 instead:1 see:4 discussion:2 notation:2 definition:9 table:1 also:7 write:5 follow:3 f:6 usage:3 corresponding:1 sometimes:3 usually:2 treat:1 however:6 text:1 mathematical:4 particularly:1 first:4 order:1 rather:3 propositional:2 make:3 distinction:3 reason:1 g:1 metalogic:1 another:1 term:2 exclusive:2 proof:2 system:1 prove:5 form:3 inverse:2 pair:1 lead:2 natural:1 since:4 obvious:1 condition:8 would:4 infer:2 directly:2 disjunction:2 disjuncts:1 functional:1 show:1 origin:1 abbreviation:3 appear:1 print:1 john:1 l:1 kelley:1 book:1 general:2 topology:1 invention:1 often:2 credit:1 mathematician:1 paul:1 halmos:1 difference:1 pudding:29 custard:25 madison:25 eat:26 state:5 preclude:2 possibility:2 might:2 occasion:1 bread:1 maybe:2 sentence:10 tell:1 u:1 know:1 certain:1 happen:1 upon:1 refuse:1 available:2 contrast:2 give:6 quite:1 clear:1 leave:1 uneaten:1 type:1 sufficiency:1 necessity:1 say:1 negation:1 operator:1 mean:5 relationship:2 establish:1 express:2 following:1 example:6 take:2 question:8 four:1 restate:1 conjunction:2 find:1 advance:1 consideration:1 philosophical:1 interpretation:2 compose:1 two:6 join:2 call:1 new:1 confuse:2 equivalence:3 description:1 relation:3 b:26 describe:4 affair:1 logically:2 mention:1 whatever:1 matter:1 philosopher:1 astray:1 certainly:1 converse:1 hold:1 reconsider:1 clearly:1 half:1 particular:1 w:1 v:1 quine:1 section:1 look:1 imply:1 implies:3 get:1 indicate:3 suppose:1 universally:1 quantified:1 biconditionals:3 elsewhere:1 word:2 normally:2 due:1 observation:1 english:2 language:1 definitional:1 meaning:4 separate:2 explain:1 note:3 instance:1 group:1 abelian:1 satisfy:1 commutative:1 law:1 grape:1 raisin:1 well:1 dry:1 rule:1 interpret:1 define:1 nevertheless:1 explicitly:1 person:2 bachelor:1 marriageable:1 man:1 never:1 marry:1 snow:1 white:1 schnee:1 ist:1 weiß:1 german:1 r:3 variable:1 place:1 real:1 number:1 x:5 analogs:1 emphasize:1 repeat:1 last:1 letter:1 orr:1 simply:1 convert:1 verbal:1 outside:1 wherever:1 apply:1 especially:1 jargon:1 element:2 z:3 domain:1 discourse:1 equality:1 |@bigram logical_connective:2 propositional_logic:1 paul_halmos:1 pudding_custard:12 custard_madison:8 eat_pudding:11 preclude_possibility:2 v_quine:1 exclusive_disjunction:1 |
3,215 | Ajax_(mythology) | Achilles and Ajax play a board game with knucklebones on this late 6th-century lekythos, a type of oil-storing vessel associated with funeral rites "Aias" redirects here. For other uses of this name, see AIAS and Ajax. Ajax or Aias (Greek: ) was a mythological Greek hero, the son of Telamon and Periboea and king of Salamis "Salamis The Island" Salamis The Island -- Salamina Municipality - Greek Island . He plays an important role in Homer's Iliad and in the Epic Cycle, a series of epic poems about the Trojan War. To distinguish him from Ajax, son of Oileus, he is called "Telamonian Ajax," "Greater Ajax," or "Ajax the Great". In Etruscan mythology, he is known as Aivas Tlamunus. Ajax the Great In Homer's Iliad he is described as of great stature and colossal frame, the tallest and strongest of all the Achaeans, but for his cousin Achilles in skill-at-arms, and Diomedes to whom he lost a sparring competition as well as the 'bulwark of the Achaeans'. He was trained by the centaur Chiron (who had also trained his father, Telamon, and Achilles' father Peleus), at the same time as Achilles. Apart from Achilles, Ajax is the most valuable warrior in Agamemnon's army (along with Diomedes), though he is not as cunning as Nestor, Diomedes, Idomeneus, or Odysseus. He commands his army wielding a huge shield made of seven ox-hides with a layer of bronze. He is not wounded in any of the battles described in the Iliad. Trojan War In the Iliad, Ajax is notable for his abundant strength and courage, seen particularly in two fights with Hector. In Book 7, Ajax is chosen by lot to meet Hector in a duel which lasts most of a whole day. Ajax at first gets the better of the encounter, wounding Hector with his spear and knocking him down with a large stone, but Hector fights on until the heralds, acting at the direction of Zeus, call a draw: the action ends without a winner and with the two combatants exchanging gifts. The second fight between Ajax and Hector occurs when the latter breaks into the Achaean camp, and fights with the Greeks among the ships. In Book 14, Ajax throws a giant rock at Hector which almost kills him. In Book 15, Hector is restored to his strength by Apollo and returns to attack the ships. Ajax, wielding an enormous spear as a weapon and leaping from ship to ship, holds off the Trojan armies virtually single-handedly. In Book 16, Hector is able to disarm Ajax (although Ajax is not hurt) and Ajax is forced to retreat, seeing that Zeus is clearly favoring Hector. Hector and the Trojans succeed in burning one Greek ship, the culmination of an assault that almost finishes the war. Ajax manages to kill many of the other Trojan lords, including Phorkys. Achilles was absent during these encounters because of his feud with Agamemnon. In Book 9, Agamemnon and the other Greek chiefs send Ajax, Odysseus and Phoenix to the tent of Achilles in an attempt to reconcile with the great warrior and induce him to return to the fight. Although Ajax speaks earnestly and is well received, he does not succeed in convincing Achilles. When Patroclus is killed, Hector tries to steal his body. Ajax is the man who fights to protect the body, and he takes it back safely to Achilles at the camp. Ajax, assisted by Menelaus, succeeds in fighting off the Trojans and taking the body back with his chariot; of course, the Trojans had already stolen the armor and left the body naked. Ajax's prayer to Zeus to remove the fog that has descended on the battle to allow them to fight or die in the light of day has become proverbial. Like most of the other Greek leaders, Ajax is alive and well as the Iliad comes to a close. Later, when Achilles dies, killed by Paris (with help from Apollo), Ajax and Odysseus are the heroes that fight against the Trojans to get the body and bury it next to his friend, Patroclus. Ajax, with his great shield and spear, manages to drive off the Trojans, while Odysseus pulls the body to his chariot, and rides away with it to safety. After the burial, both claim the armor for themselves, as recognition for their efforts. After several days of competition, Odysseus and Ajax are tied for the ownership of the magical armor which was forged in Mount Olympus by the god Hephaestus. It is then that a competition is derived to see who is a more elegant speaker. Odysseus proves the better, and is given the armor. Ajax is furious about it, and falls to the ground, exhausted. When he wakes up, he is under the influence of a spell from Athena. He goes to a flock of sheep and slaughters them, imagining they are the Achaean leaders, including Odysseus and Agamemnon. When he comes to his senses, covered in blood, and realizes what he did, with diminished honor he decides that he prefers to kill himself rather than to live in shame. He did it with the same sword Hector had given him when they exchanged presents. (Iliad, 7.303). From his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of Hyacinthus, which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name Ai, also expressive of lament (Pausanias 1.35.4). His ashes were deposited in a golden urn on the Rhoetean promontory at the entrance of the Hellespont. This account of his death is from the play, Ajax (Sophocles); in Pindar's Nemeans, 7, 8; Isthmian 4; and in Ovid's Metamorphoses, 13.1. Homer is somewhat vague about the precise manner of Ajax's death but does ascribe it to his loss in the dispute over Achilles's shield: when Odysseus visits Hades, he begs the soul of Ajax to speak to him, but Ajax, still resentful over the old quarrel, refuses and descends silently back into Erebus. Like Achilles, he is represented (although not by Homer) as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the Danube (Pausanias 3.19.11). Ajax, who in the post-Homeric legend is described as the grandson of Aeacus and the great-grandson of Zeus, was the tutelary hero of the island of Salamis, where he had a temple and an image, and where a festival called Aianteia was celebrated in his honour (Pausanias 1.35). At this festival a couch was set up, on which the panoply of the hero was placed, a practice which recalls the Roman Lectisternium. The identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a matter which concerned the Athenians, after Salamis had come into their possession, on which occasion Solon is said to have inserted a line in the Iliad (2.557-558), for the purpose of supporting the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic hero; he was worshipped at Athens, where he had a statue in the market-place, and the tribe Aiantis was named after him. Pausanias also relates that a gigantic skeleton, its kneecap in diameter, appeared on the beach near Sigeum, on the Trojan coast; these bones were identified as those of Ajax. Family Ajax is the son of Telamon, who was the son of Aeacus and grandson of Zeus, and his first wife Periboea. He is the cousin of Achilles, the most remembered Greek warrior, and elder half-brother of Teucer. Many illustrious Athenians, including Cimon, Miltiades, Alcibiades and the historian Thucydides, traced their descent from Ajax. The Italian Scholar Maggiani recently showed as on an Etruscan tomb, dedicated to Racvi Satlnei in Bologna (V century A.C.), there is the writing: " aivastelmunsl = family of Ajax Télamon". Palace In 2001, Yannos Lolos began excavating a Mycenaean palace on the island of Salamis which he supposed to be the home of the mythological Aiacid dynasty. The ruins have been excavated at a site near the village of Kanakia of Salamis, a few miles off the coast of Athens. The multi-story structure covers 750 m² (8,000 sq ft) and had perhaps 30 rooms. The Trojan War is supposed by many to have occurred at the height of the Mycenaean civilization (see discussion of Troy VII), roughly the point at which this palace appears to have been abandoned. John Carr - "Palace of Homer's hero rises out of the myths" Times Online (28 March 2006) The Philoctetes Project The Philoctetes Project dramatizes the interaction of the suffering soldier and the conflicted caregiver with readings from adaptations of Sophocles' plays about Ajax and Philoctetes. In the 2004 film Troy he is portrayed by Canadian actor Tyler Mane as a vicious giant, whose weapon of choice is an enormous mallet. He is killed by Hector in battle. References Sources Homer. Iliad, 7.181-312. Homer. Odyssey 11.543-67. Apollodorus. Epitome III, 11-V, 7. Ovid. Metamorphoses 12.620-13.398. Friedrich Schiller, Das Siegerfest. External links | Ajax_(mythology) |@lemmatized achilles:13 ajax:41 play:4 board:1 game:1 knucklebones:1 late:1 century:2 lekythos:1 type:1 oil:1 storing:1 vessel:1 associate:1 funeral:1 rite:1 aias:3 redirects:1 us:1 name:3 see:5 greek:8 mythological:2 hero:6 son:4 telamon:3 periboea:2 king:1 salamis:3 island:7 salamina:1 municipality:1 important:1 role:1 homer:7 iliad:8 epic:2 cycle:1 series:1 poem:1 trojan:11 war:4 distinguish:1 oileus:1 call:3 telamonian:1 great:7 etruscan:2 mythology:1 know:1 aivas:1 tlamunus:1 describe:3 stature:1 colossal:1 frame:1 tall:1 strong:1 achaean:4 cousin:2 skill:1 arm:1 diomedes:3 lose:1 spar:1 competition:3 well:3 bulwark:1 train:2 centaur:1 chiron:1 also:3 father:2 peleus:1 time:2 apart:1 valuable:1 warrior:3 agamemnon:4 army:2 along:1 though:1 cunning:1 nestor:1 idomeneus:1 odysseus:8 command:1 wield:2 huge:1 shield:3 make:1 seven:1 ox:1 hide:1 layer:1 bronze:1 wound:2 battle:3 notable:1 abundant:1 strength:2 courage:1 particularly:1 two:2 fight:9 hector:13 book:5 choose:1 lot:1 meet:1 duel:1 last:1 whole:1 day:3 first:2 get:2 good:2 encounter:2 spear:3 knock:1 large:1 stone:1 herald:1 act:1 direction:1 zeus:5 draw:1 action:1 end:1 without:1 winner:1 combatant:1 exchange:2 gift:1 second:1 occurs:1 latter:1 break:1 camp:2 among:1 ship:5 throw:1 giant:2 rock:1 almost:2 kill:6 restore:1 apollo:2 return:2 attack:1 enormous:2 weapon:2 leap:1 hold:1 armies:1 virtually:1 single:1 handedly:1 able:1 disarm:1 although:3 hurt:1 force:1 retreat:1 clearly:1 favoring:1 succeed:3 burn:1 one:1 culmination:1 assault:1 finish:1 manage:2 many:3 lord:1 include:3 phorkys:1 absent:1 feud:1 chief:1 send:1 phoenix:1 tent:1 attempt:1 reconcile:1 induce:1 speaks:1 earnestly:1 receive:1 convince:1 patroclus:2 try:1 steal:2 body:6 man:1 protect:1 take:2 back:3 safely:1 assist:1 menelaus:1 chariot:2 course:1 already:1 armor:4 leave:1 naked:1 prayer:1 remove:1 fog:1 descend:2 allow:1 die:1 light:1 become:2 proverbial:1 like:2 leader:2 alive:1 come:3 close:1 later:1 dy:1 paris:1 help:1 bury:1 next:1 friend:1 drive:1 pull:1 rid:1 away:1 safety:1 burial:1 claim:2 recognition:1 effort:1 several:1 tie:1 ownership:1 magical:1 forge:1 mount:1 olympus:1 god:1 hephaestus:1 derive:1 elegant:1 speaker:1 prove:1 give:2 furious:1 fall:1 ground:1 exhaust:1 wake:1 influence:1 spell:1 athena:1 go:1 flock:1 sheep:1 slaughter:1 imagine:1 sens:1 cover:2 blood:2 realize:1 diminished:1 honor:1 decide:1 prefer:1 rather:1 live:1 shame:1 sword:1 present:1 spring:1 red:1 flower:1 death:4 hyacinthus:1 bore:1 leaf:1 initial:1 letter:1 ai:1 expressive:1 lament:1 pausanias:4 ash:1 deposit:1 golden:1 urn:1 rhoetean:1 promontory:1 entrance:1 hellespont:1 account:1 sophocles:2 pindar:1 nemeans:1 isthmian:1 ovid:2 metamorphosis:1 somewhat:1 vague:1 precise:1 manner:1 ascribe:1 loss:1 dispute:1 visit:1 hades:1 beg:1 soul:1 speak:1 still:1 resentful:1 old:1 quarrel:1 refuse:1 silently:1 erebus:1 represent:1 living:1 leuke:1 mouth:1 danube:1 post:1 homeric:1 legend:1 grandson:3 aeacus:3 tutelary:1 salami:4 temple:1 image:1 festival:2 aianteia:1 celebrate:1 honour:1 couch:1 set:1 panoply:1 place:2 practice:1 recall:1 roman:1 lectisternium:1 identification:1 family:3 chiefly:1 matter:1 concern:1 athenian:3 possession:1 occasion:1 solon:1 say:1 insert:1 line:1 purpose:1 support:1 attic:1 worship:1 athens:2 statue:1 market:1 tribe:1 aiantis:1 relate:1 gigantic:1 skeleton:1 kneecap:1 diameter:1 appear:2 beach:1 near:2 sigeum:1 coast:2 bone:1 identify:1 wife:1 remembered:1 elder:1 half:1 brother:1 teucer:1 illustrious:1 cimon:1 miltiades:1 alcibiades:1 historian:1 thucydides:1 trace:1 descent:1 italian:1 scholar:1 maggiani:1 recently:1 show:1 tomb:1 dedicate:1 racvi:1 satlnei:1 bologna:1 v:2 c:1 writing:1 aivastelmunsl:1 télamon:1 palace:4 yannos:1 lolo:1 begin:1 excavate:2 mycenaean:2 suppose:2 home:1 aiacid:1 dynasty:1 ruin:1 site:1 village:1 kanakia:1 mile:1 multi:1 story:1 structure:1 sq:1 ft:1 perhaps:1 room:1 occur:1 height:1 civilization:1 discussion:1 troy:2 vii:1 roughly:1 point:1 abandon:1 john:1 carr:1 rise:1 myth:1 online:1 march:1 philoctetes:3 project:2 dramatize:1 interaction:1 suffering:1 soldier:1 conflict:1 caregiver:1 reading:1 adaptation:1 film:1 portray:1 canadian:1 actor:1 tyler:1 mane:1 vicious:1 whose:1 choice:1 mallet:1 reference:1 source:1 odyssey:1 apollodorus:1 epitome:1 iii:1 metamorphose:1 friedrich:1 schiller:1 das:1 siegerfest:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram ajax_ajax:2 homer_iliad:3 telamonian_ajax:1 centaur_chiron:1 single_handedly:1 mount_olympus:1 ovid_metamorphosis:1 sq_ft:1 mycenaean_civilization:1 iliad_homer:1 homer_odyssey:1 apollodorus_epitome:1 ovid_metamorphose:1 friedrich_schiller:1 external_link:1 |
3,216 | Beta_decay | In nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle (an electron or a positron) is emitted. In the case of electron emission, it is referred to as beta minus (), while in the case of a positron emission as beta plus (). Kinetic energy of beta particles has continuous spectrum ranging from 0 to maximal available energy (Q), which depends on parent and daughter nuclear states participating in the decay. Typical Q is of order of 1 MeV, but it can range from a few keV to a few tens of MeV. The most energetic beta particles are ultrarelativistic, with speeds very close to the speed of light. decay Beta-minus () decay. The intermediate emission of a virtual boson is omitted. The Feynman diagram for beta minus decay of a neutron into a proton, electron, and electron antineutrino via an intermediate heavy boson In decay, the weak interaction converts a neutron () into a proton () while emitting an electron () and an antineutrino (): :{| border="0" |- style="height:2em;" | ||→ || ||+ || ||+ || |} At the fundamental level (as depicted in the Feynman diagram below), this is due to the conversion of a down quark to an up quark by emission of a boson; the boson subsequently decays into an electron and an antineutrino. decay In decay, energy is used to convert a proton into a neutron, a positron () and a neutrino (): :{| border="0" |- style="height:2em;" |energy ||+ || ||→ || ||+ || ||+ || |} So, unlike , decay cannot occur in isolation, because it requires energy, the mass of the neutron being greater than the mass of the proton. decay can only happen inside nuclei when the value of the binding energy of the mother nucleus is greater than that of the daughter nucleus. The difference between these energies goes into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino and into the kinetic energy of these particles. Electron capture (K-capture) In all the cases where decay is allowed energetically (and the proton is a part of a nucleus with electron shells), it is accompanied by the electron capture process, when an atomic electron is captured by a nucleus with the emission of a neutrino: :{| border="0" |- style="height:2em;" |energy ||+ || ||+ || ||→ || ||+ || |} But if the energy difference between initial and final states is low (less than 2mec2), then decay is not energetically possible, and electron capture is the sole decay mode. Nuclear transmutation If the proton and neutron are part of an atomic nucleus, these decay processes transmute one chemical element into another. For example: :{| border="0" |- style="height:2em;" | || || ||→ || ||+ || ||+ || ||(beta minus decay) |- style="height:2em;" | || || ||→ || ||+ || ||+ || ||(beta plus decay) |- style="height:2em;" | ||+ || ||→ || ||+ || || || ||(electron capture) |} Beta decay does not change the number of nucleons, A, in the nucleus but changes only its charge, Z. Thus the set of all nuclides with the same A can be introduced; these isobaric nuclides may turn into each other via beta decay. Among them, several nuclides (at least one) are beta stable, because they present local minima of the mass excess: if such a nucleus has (A, Z) numbers, the neighbour nuclei (A, Z−1) and (A, Z+1) have higher mass excess and can beta decay into (A, Z), but not vice versa. A beta-stable nucleus may undergo other kinds of radioactive decay (alpha decay, for example). In nature, most isotopes are beta stable, but a few exceptions exist with half-lives so long that they have not had enough time to decay since the moment of their nucleosynthesis. One example is , which undergoes all three types of beta decay (, and electron capture) with a half life of years. Double beta decay Some nuclei can undergo double beta decay (ββ decay) where the charge of the nucleus changes by two units. In most practically interesting cases, single beta decay is energetically forbidden for such nuclei, because when β and ββ decays are both allowed, the probability of β decay is (usually) much higher, preventing investigations of very rare ββ decays. Thus, ββ decay is usually studied only for beta stable nuclei. Like single beta decay, double beta decay does not change A; thus, at least one of the nuclides with some given A has to be stable with regard to both single and double beta decay. Beta decay can be considered as a perturbation as described in quantum mechanics, and thus follows Fermi's Golden Rule. Kurie plot A Kurie plot (also known as a Fermi-Kurie plot) is a graph used in studying beta decay, in which the square root of the number of beta particles whose momenta (or energy) lie within a certain narrow range, divided by a function worked out by Fermi, is plotted against beta-particle energy; it is a straight line for allowed transitions and some forbidden transitions, in accord with the Fermi beta-decay theory. History Historically, the study of beta decay provided the first physical evidence of the neutrino. In 1911 Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn performed an experiment that showed that the energies of electrons emitted by beta decay had a continuous rather than discrete spectrum. This was in apparent contradiction to the law of conservation of energy, as it appeared that energy was lost in the beta decay process. A second problem was that the spin of the Nitrogen-14 atom was 1, in contradiction to the Rutherford prediction of ½. In 1920-1927, Charles Drummond Ellis (along with James Chadwick and colleagues) established clearly that the beta decay spectrum is really continuous, ending all controversies. In a famous letter written in 1930 Wolfgang Pauli suggested that in addition to electrons and protons atoms also contained an extremely light neutral particle which he called the neutron. He suggested that this "neutron" was also emitted during beta decay and had simply not yet been observed. In 1931 Enrico Fermi renamed Pauli's "neutron" to neutrino, and in 1934 Fermi published a very successful model of beta decay in which neutrinos were produced. See also Double beta decay Electron capture Neutrino Alpha decay Betavoltaics Particle radiation Radioactive isotope References | Beta_decay |@lemmatized nuclear:3 physic:1 beta:36 decay:47 type:2 radioactive:3 particle:8 electron:16 positron:4 emit:4 case:4 emission:5 refer:1 minus:4 plus:2 kinetic:2 energy:15 continuous:3 spectrum:3 range:3 maximal:1 available:1 q:2 depend:1 parent:1 daughter:2 state:2 participate:1 typical:1 order:1 mev:2 kev:1 ten:1 energetic:1 ultrarelativistic:1 speed:2 close:1 light:2 intermediate:2 virtual:1 boson:4 omit:1 feynman:2 diagram:2 neutron:9 proton:8 antineutrino:3 via:2 heavy:1 weak:1 interaction:1 convert:3 border:4 style:6 height:6 fundamental:1 level:1 depict:1 due:1 conversion:1 quark:2 subsequently:1 use:2 neutrino:7 unlike:1 cannot:1 occur:1 isolation:1 require:1 mass:4 great:2 happen:1 inside:1 nuclei:2 value:1 bind:1 mother:1 nucleus:12 difference:2 go:1 reaction:1 capture:8 k:1 allow:3 energetically:3 part:2 shell:1 accompany:1 process:3 atomic:2 initial:1 final:1 low:1 less:1 possible:1 sole:1 mode:1 transmutation:1 transmute:1 one:4 chemical:1 element:1 another:1 example:3 change:4 number:3 nucleon:1 charge:2 z:5 thus:4 set:1 nuclides:4 introduce:1 isobaric:1 may:2 turn:1 among:1 several:1 least:2 stable:5 present:1 local:1 minimum:1 excess:2 neighbour:1 high:2 vice:1 versa:1 undergo:3 kind:1 alpha:2 nature:1 isotope:2 exception:1 exist:1 half:2 life:2 long:1 enough:1 time:1 since:1 moment:1 nucleosynthesis:1 three:1 year:1 double:5 ββ:4 two:1 unit:1 practically:1 interesting:1 single:3 forbidden:2 β:2 probability:1 usually:2 much:1 prevent:1 investigation:1 rare:1 study:3 like:1 give:1 regard:1 consider:1 perturbation:1 describe:1 quantum:1 mechanic:1 follow:1 fermi:6 golden:1 rule:1 kurie:3 plot:4 also:4 know:1 graph:1 square:1 root:1 whose:1 momentum:1 lie:1 within:1 certain:1 narrow:1 divide:1 function:1 work:1 straight:1 line:1 transition:2 accord:1 theory:1 history:1 historically:1 provide:1 first:1 physical:1 evidence:1 lise:1 meitner:1 otto:1 hahn:1 perform:1 experiment:1 show:1 rather:1 discrete:1 apparent:1 contradiction:2 law:1 conservation:1 appear:1 lose:1 second:1 problem:1 spin:1 nitrogen:1 atom:2 rutherford:1 prediction:1 charles:1 drummond:1 elli:1 along:1 james:1 chadwick:1 colleague:1 establish:1 clearly:1 really:1 end:1 controversy:1 famous:1 letter:1 write:1 wolfgang:1 pauli:2 suggest:2 addition:1 contain:1 extremely:1 neutral:1 call:1 simply:1 yet:1 observe:1 enrico:1 rename:1 publish:1 successful:1 model:1 produce:1 see:1 betavoltaics:1 radiation:1 reference:1 |@bigram beta_decay:21 radioactive_decay:2 electron_positron:1 beta_minus:4 positron_emission:1 kinetic_energy:2 feynman_diagram:2 electron_antineutrino:3 quark_quark:1 proton_neutron:3 atomic_nucleus:1 vice_versa:1 alpha_decay:2 quantum_mechanic:1 lise_meitner:1 meitner_otto:1 otto_hahn:1 wolfgang_pauli:1 enrico_fermi:1 radioactive_isotope:1 |
3,217 | Geography_of_French_Guiana | Geographic map of French Guiana Geography of French Guiana. Location Northern South America and part of Caribbean South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Brazil and Suriname Geographic coordinates Map references South America Area total: 91,000 km² land: 89,150 km² water: 1,850 km² Land boundaries total: 1,183 km border countries: Brazil 673 km, Suriname 510 km (disputed) Coastline: 378 km Maritime claims exclusive economic zone: 370 km territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) Climate tropical; hot, humid; little seasonal temperature variation, dry summers, rainy winters Terrain low-lying coastal plains rising to hills and small mountains, see Guiana Shield Elevation extremes lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Bellevue de l'Inini 851 m other mountains: Montaigne d'Argent, on the edge of Oiapoque river regions: 432 m Natural resources bauxite, timber, gold (widely scattered), cinnabar, kaolin, fish, shrimp Land use arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 10% (1996 est.) irrigated land: 20 km² (1993 est.) natural hazards: high frequency of heavy showers and severe thunderstorms; flooding environment - current issues: NA geography - note: mostly an unsettled wilderness | Geography_of_French_Guiana |@lemmatized geographic:2 map:2 french:2 guiana:3 geography:2 location:1 northern:1 south:3 america:3 part:1 caribbean:1 border:2 north:1 atlantic:2 ocean:2 brazil:2 suriname:2 coordinate:1 reference:1 area:1 total:2 land:5 water:1 boundary:1 km:6 country:1 dispute:1 coastline:1 maritime:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:1 territorial:1 sea:1 nautical:1 mile:1 climate:1 tropical:1 hot:1 humid:1 little:1 seasonal:1 temperature:1 variation:1 dry:1 summer:1 rainy:1 winter:1 terrain:1 low:2 lie:1 coastal:1 plain:1 rise:1 hill:1 small:1 mountain:2 see:1 shield:1 elevation:1 extremes:1 point:2 high:2 bellevue:1 de:1 l:1 inini:1 montaigne:1 argent:1 edge:1 oiapoque:1 river:1 region:1 natural:2 resource:1 bauxite:1 timber:1 gold:1 widely:1 scatter:1 cinnabar:1 kaolin:1 fish:1 shrimp:1 use:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:2 irrigated:1 hazard:1 frequency:1 heavy:1 shower:1 severe:1 thunderstorm:1 flood:1 environment:1 current:1 issue:1 na:1 note:1 mostly:1 unsettled:1 wilderness:1 |@bigram french_guiana:2 atlantic_ocean:2 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 nautical_mile:1 mile_km:1 hot_humid:1 coastal_plain:1 elevation_extremes:1 extremes_low:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 severe_thunderstorm:1 |
3,218 | Gross_domestic_product | CIA World Factbook 2007 figures of total nominal GDP (top) compared to PPP-adjusted GDP (bottom) GDP (PPP) per capita The gross domestic product (GDP) or gross domestic income (GDI), a basic measure of an economy's economic performance, is the market value of all final goods and services produced within the borders of a nation in a year. GDP can be defined in three ways, all of which are conceptually identical. First, it is equal to the total expenditures for all final goods and services produced within the country in a stipulated period of time (usually a 365-day year). Second, it is equal to the sum of the value added at every stage of production (the intermediate stages) by all the industries within a country, plus taxes less subsidies on products, in the period. Third, it is equal to the sum of the income generated by production in the country in the period—that is, compensation of employees, taxes on production and imports less subsidies, and gross operating surplus (or profits). The most common approach to measuring and quantifying GDP is the expenditure method: GDP = consumption + gross investment + government spending + (exports − imports), or, GDP = C + I + G + (X − M). "Gross" means that depreciation of capital stock is not subtracted out of GDP. If net investment (which is gross investment minus depreciation) is substituted for gross investment in the equation above, then the formula for net domestic product is obtained. Consumption and investment in this equation are expenditure on final goods and services. The exports-minus-imports part of the equation (often called net exports) adjusts this by subtracting the part of this expenditure not produced domestically (the imports), and adding back in domestic area (the exports). Economists (since Keynes) have preferred to split the general consumption term into two parts; private consumption, and public sector (or government) spending. Two advantages of dividing total consumption this way in theoretical macroeconomics are: Private consumption is a central concern of welfare economics. The private investment and trade portions of the economy are ultimately directed (in mainstream economic models) to increases in long-term private consumption. If separated from endogenous private consumption, government consumption can be treated as exogenous, so that different government spending levels can be considered within a meaningful macroeconomic framework. Measuring GDP Components of GDP Each of the variables C (Consumption), I (Investment), G (Government spending) and X − M (Net Exports) (where GDP = C + I + G + (X − M) as above) (Note: * GDP is sometimes also referred to as Y in reference to a GDP graph) C (Consumption) is private consumption in the economy. This includes most personal expenditures of households such as food, rent, medical expenses and so on but does not include new housing. I (Investment) is defined as investments by business or households in capital. Examples of investment by a business include construction of a new mine, purchase of software, or purchase of machinery and equipment for a factory. Spending by households (not government) on new houses is also included in Investment. In contrast to its colloquial meaning, 'Investment' in GDP does not mean purchases of financial products. Buying financial products is classed as 'saving', as opposed to investment. The distinction is (in theory) clear: if money is converted into goods or services, it is investment; but, if you buy a bond or a share of stock, this transfer payment is excluded from the GDP sum. That is because the stocks and bonds affect the financial capital which in turn affects the production and sales which in turn affects the investments. So stocks and bonds indirectly affect the GDP. Although such purchases would be called investments in normal speech, from the total-economy point of view, this is simply swapping of deeds, and not part of real production or the GDP formula. G (Government spending) is the sum of government expenditures on final goods and services. It includes salaries of public servants, purchase of weapons for the military, and any investment expenditure by a government. It does not include any transfer payments, such as social security or unemployment benefits. X (Exports) is gross exports. GDP captures the amount a country produces, including goods and services produced for other nations' consumption, therefore exports are added. M (Imports) is gross imports. Imports are subtracted since imported goods will be included in the terms G, I, or C, and must be deducted to avoid counting foreign supply as domestic. Examples of GDP component variables Examples of C, I, G, and NX(net exports): If you spend money to renovate your hotel so that occupancy rates increase, that is private investment, but if you buy shares in a consortium to do the same thing it is saving. The former is included when measuring GDP (in I), the latter is not. However, when the consortium conducted its own expenditure on renovation, that expenditure would be included in GDP. For example, if a hotel is a private home then renovation spending would be measured as Consumption, but if a government agency is converting the hotel into an office for civil servants the renovation spending would be measured as part of public sector spending (G). If the renovation involves the purchase of a chandelier from abroad, that spending would also be counted as an increase in imports, so that NX would fall and the total GDP is affected by the purchase. (This highlights the fact that GDP is intended to measure domestic production rather than total consumption or spending. Spending is really a convenient means of estimating production.) If a domestic producer is paid to make the chandelier for a foreign hotel, the situation would be reversed, and the payment would be counted in NX (positively, as an export). Again, GDP is attempting to measure production through the means of expenditure; if the chandelier produced had been bought domestically it would have been included in the GDP figures (in C or I) when purchased by a consumer or a business, but because it was exported it is necessary to 'correct' the amount consumed domestically to give the amount produced domestically. (As in Gross Domestic Product.) Types of GDP and GDP growth GDP real growth rates for 2008 Current GDP is GDP expressed in the current prices of the period being measured Nominal GDP growth is GDP growth in nominal prices (unadjusted for price changes). Real GDP growth is GDP growth adjusted for price changes. Calculating the real GDP growth allows economists to determine if production increased or decreased, regardless of changes in the purchasing power of the currency. GDP income account Another way of measuring GDP is to measure the total income payable in the GDP income accounts. In this situation, Gross Domestic Income (GDI) is sometimes used rather than Gross Domestic Product. This should provide the same figure as the expenditure method described above. (By definition, GDI=GDP. In practice, however, measurement errors will make the two figures slightly off when reported by national statistical agencies.) The formula for GDP measured using the income approach, called GDP(I), is: GDP = Compensation of employees + Gross operating surplus + Gross mixed income + Taxes less subsidies on production and imports Compensation of employees (COE) measures the total remuneration to employees for work done. It includes wages and salaries, as well as employer contributions to social security and other such programs. Gross operating surplus (GOS) is the surplus due to owners of incorporated businesses. Often called profits, although only a subset of total costs are subtracted from gross output to calculate GOS. Gross mixed income (GMI) is the same measure as GOS, but for unincorporated businesses. This often includes most small businesses. The sum of COE, GOS and GMI is called total factor income, and measures the value of GDP at factor (basic) prices.The difference between basic prices and final prices (those used in the expenditure calculation) is the total taxes and subsidies that the Government has levied or paid on that production. So adding taxes less subsidies on production and imports converts GDP at factor cost to GDP(I). Another formula can be written as this: GDP = R + I + P + SA + W where R = rents I = interests P = profits SA = statistical adjustments (corporate income taxes, dividends, undistributed corporate profits) W = wages GDP vs GNP GDP can be contrasted with gross national product (GNP, or gross national income, GNI), which the United States used in its national accounts until 1992. The difference is that GNP includes net foreign income (the current account) rather than net exports and imports (the balance of trade). Put simply, GNP adds net foreign investment income compared to GDP. United States GDP, GNP and GNI (Gross National Income) can be compared at EconStats . GDP is concerned with the region in which income is generated. It is the market value of all the output produced in a nation in one year. GDP focuses on where the output is produced rather than who produced it. GDP measures all domestic production, disregarding the producing entities' nationalities. In contrast, GNP is a measure of the value of the output produced by the "nationals" of a region. GNP focuses on who owns the production. For example, in the United States, GNP measures the value of output produced by American firms, regardless of where the firms are located. Year-over-year real GNP growth in the year 2007 was 3.2%. Measurement International standards The international standard for measuring GDP is contained in the book System of National Accounts (1993), which was prepared by representatives of the International Monetary Fund, European Union, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nations and World Bank. The publication is normally referred to as SNA93 to distinguish it from the previous edition published in 1968 (called SNA68) . SNA93 provides a set of rules and procedures for the measurement of national accounts. The standards are designed to be flexible, to allow for differences in local statistical needs and conditions. National measurement Within each country GDP is normally measured by a national government statistical agency, as private sector organizations normally do not have access to the information required (especially information on expenditure and production by governments). Interest rates Net interest expense is a transfer payment in all sectors except the financial sector. Net interest expenses in the financial sector are seen as production and value added and are added to GDP. Cross-border comparison The level of GDP in different countries may be compared by converting their value in national currency according to either current currency exchange rate: GDP calculated by exchange rates prevailing on international currency markets purchasing power parity exchange rate: GDP calculated by purchasing power parity (PPP) of each currency relative to a selected standard (usually the United States dollar). The relative ranking of countries may differ dramatically between the two approaches. The current exchange rate method converts the value of goods and services using global currency exchange rates. This can offer better indications of a country's international purchasing power and relative economic strength. For instance, if 10% of GDP is being spent on buying hi-tech foreign arms, the number of weapons purchased is entirely governed by current exchange rates, since arms are a traded product bought on the international market (there is no meaningful 'local' price distinct from the international price for high technology goods). The purchasing power parity method accounts for the relative effective domestic purchasing power of the average producer or consumer within an economy. This can be a better indicator of the living standards of less-developed countries because it compensates for the weakness of local currencies in world markets. (For example, India ranks 12th by nominal GDP but 4th by PPP). The PPP method of GDP conversion is most relevant to non-traded goods and services. There is a clear pattern of the purchasing power parity method decreasing the disparity in GDP between high and low income (GDP) countries, as compared to the current exchange rate method. This finding is called the Penn effect. For more information see Measures of national income and output. Standard of living and GDP World GDP per capita (in 1990 international dollars) changed very little for most of human history before the industrial revolution. (Note the empty areas mean no data, not very low levels. There are data for the years 1, 1000, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1820, 1900, and 2003.) GDP per capita is not a measurement of a standard of living in an economy. However, it often used as such an indicator with the rationale being that all citizens would benefit from their country's increased economic production. Similarly, GDP per capita is not a measurment of personal income. GDP may increase while incomes for the majority of a country's citizens may even decrease or change disproportionally. For example, in the US from 1990 to 2006 the earnings (adjusted for inflation) of individual workers, in private industry and services, increased by less than 0.5% per year while GDP (adjusted for inflation)increased about 3.6% per year over the same period. Statistical Abstract of the United States 2008. Tables 623 and 647 The major advantages to using GDP per capita as an indicator of standard of living are that it is measured frequently, widely and consistently; frequently in that most countries provide information on GDP on a quarterly basis (which allows a user to spot trends more quickly), widely in that some measure of GDP is available for practically every country in the world (allowing crude comparisons between the standard of living in different countries), and consistently in that the technical definitions used within GDP are relatively consistent between countries, and so there can be confidence that the same thing is being measured in each country. The major disadvantage of using GDP as an indicator of standard of living is that it is not, strictly speaking, a measure of standard of living. GDP is intended to be a measure of particular types of economic activity within a country. Nothing about the definition of GDP suggests that it is necessarily a measure of standard of living. For instance, in an extreme example, a country which exported 100 per cent of its production and imported nothing would still have a high GDP, but a very poor standard of living. The argument in favour of using GDP is not that it is a good indicator of standard of living, but rather that (all other things being equal) standard of living tends to increase when GDP per capita increases. This makes GDP a proxy for standard of living, rather than a direct measure of it. GDP per capita can also be seen as a proxy of labour productivity. As the productivity of the workers increases, employers must compete for them by paying higher wages. Conversely, if productivity is low, then wages must be low or the businesses will not be able to make a profit. There are a number of controversies about this use of GDP. Limitations of GDP to judge the health of an economy GDP is widely used by economists to gauge the health of an economy, as its variations are relatively quickly identified. However, its value as an indicator for the standard of living is considered to be limited. Criticisms of how the GDP is used include: Wealth distribution – GDP does not take disparity in incomes between the rich and poor into account. However, numerous Nobel-prize winning economists have disputed the importance of income inequality as a factor in improving long-term economic growth. In fact, short term increases in income inequality may even lead to long term decreases in income inequality. See income inequality metrics for discussion of a variety of inequality-based economic measures. Non-market transactions – GDP excludes activities that are not provided through the market, such as household production and volunteer or unpaid services. As a result, GDP is understated. Unpaid work conducted on Free and Open Source Software (such as Linux) contribute nothing to GDP, but it was estimated that it would have cost more than a billion US dollars for a commercial company to develop. Also, if Free and Open Source Software became identical to its proprietary software counterparts, and the nation producing the propriety software stops buying proprietary software and switches to Free and Open Source Software, then the GDP of this nation would reduce, however there would be no reduction in economic production or standard of living. The work of New Zealand economist Marilyn Waring has highlighted that if a concerted attempt to factor in unpaid work were made, then it would in part undo the injustices of unpaid (and in some cases, slave) labour, and also provide the political transparency and accountability necessary for democracy. Shedding some doubt on this claim, however, is the theory that won economist Douglass North the Nobel Prize in 1993. North argued that the creation and strengthening of the patent system, by encouraging private invention and enterprise, became the fundamental catalyst behind the Industrial Revolution in England. Underground economy – Official GDP estimates may not take into account the underground economy, in which transactions contributing to production, such as illegal trade and tax-avoiding activities, are unreported, causing GDP to be underestimated. Non-monetary economy – GDP omits economies where no money comes into play at all, resulting in inaccurate or abnormally low GDP figures. For example, in countries with major business transactions occurring informally, portions of local economy are not easily registered. Bartering may be more prominent than the use of money, even extending to services (I helped you build your house ten years ago, so now you help me). GDP also ignores subsistence production. Quality of goods – People may buy cheap, low-durability goods over and over again, or they may buy high-durability goods less often. It is possible that the monetary value of the items sold in the first case is higher than that in the second case, in which case a higher GDP is simply the result of greater inefficiency and waste. (This is not always the case; durable goods are often more difficult to produce than flimsy goods, and consumers have a financial incentive to find the cheapest long-term option. With goods that are undergoing rapid change, such as in fashion or high technology, the short lifespan may increase customer satisfaction by allowing them to have newer products.) Quality improvements and inclusion of new products – By not adjusting for quality improvements and new products, GDP understates true economic growth. For instance, although computers today are less expensive and more powerful than computers from the past, GDP treats them as the same products by only accounting for the monetary value. The introduction of new products is also difficult to measure accurately and is not reflected in GDP despite the fact that it may increase the standard of living. For example, even the richest person from 1900 could not purchase standard products, such as antibiotics and cell phones, that an average consumer can buy today, since such modern conveniences did not exist back then. What is being produced – GDP counts work that produces no net change or that results from repairing harm. For example, rebuilding after a natural disaster or war may produce a considerable amount of economic activity and thus boost GDP. The economic value of health care is another classic example—it may raise GDP if many people are sick and they are receiving expensive treatment, but it is not a desirable situation. Alternative economic measures, such as the standard of living or discretionary income per capita better measure the human utility of economic activity. See uneconomic growth. Externalities – GDP ignores externalities or economic bads such as damage to the environment. By counting goods which increase utility but not deducting bads or accounting for the negative effects of higher production, such as more pollution, GDP is overstating economic welfare. The Genuine Progress Indicator is thus proposed by ecological economists and green economists as a substitute for GDP. In countries highly dependent on resource extraction or with high ecological footprints the disparities between GDP and GPI can be very large, indicating ecological overshoot. Some environmental costs, such as cleaning up oil spills are included in GDP. Sustainability of growth – GDP does not measure the sustainability of growth. A country may achieve a temporarily high GDP by over-exploiting natural resources or by misallocating investment. For example, the large deposits of phosphates gave the people of Nauru one of the highest per capita incomes on earth, but since 1989 their standard of living has declined sharply as the supply has run out. Oil-rich states can sustain high GDPs without industrializing, but this high level would no longer be sustainable if the oil runs out. Economies experiencing an economic bubble, such as a housing bubble or stock bubble, or a low private-saving rate tend to appear to grow faster owing to higher consumption, mortgaging their futures for present growth. Economic growth at the expense of environmental degradation can end up costing dearly to clean up; GDP does not account for this. One main problem in estimating GDP growth over time is that the purchasing power of money varies in different proportion for different goods, so when the GDP figure is deflated over time, GDP growth can vary greatly depending on the basket of goods used and the relative proportions used to deflate the GDP figure. For example, in the past 80 years the GDP per capita of the United States if measured by purchasing power of potatoes, did not grow significantly. But if it is measured by the purchasing power of eggs, it grew several times. For this reason, economists comparing multiple countries usually use a varied basket of goods. Cross-border comparisons of GDP can be inaccurate as they do not take into account local differences in the quality of goods, even when adjusted for purchasing power parity. This type of adjustment to an exchange rate is controversial because of the difficulties of finding comparable baskets of goods to compare purchasing power across countries. For instance, people in country A may consume the same number of locally produced apples as in country B, but apples in country A are of a more tasty variety. This difference in material well being will not show up in GDP statistics. This is especially true for goods that are not traded globally, such as housing. Transfer pricing on cross-border trades between associated companies may distort import and export measures. As a measure of actual sale prices, GDP does not capture the economic surplus between the price paid and subjective value received, and can therefore underestimate aggregate utility. Austrian economist critique – Criticisms of GDP figures were expressed by Austrian economist Frank Shostak. http://mises.org/story/770 Among other criticisms, he stated the following:The GDP framework cannot tell us whether final goods and services that were produced during a particular period of time are a reflection of real wealth expansion, or a reflection of capital consumption.He goes on:For instance, if a government embarks on the building of a pyramid, which adds absolutely nothing to the well-being of individuals, the GDP framework will regard this as economic growth. In reality, however, the building of the pyramid will divert real funding from wealth-generating activities, thereby stifling the production of wealth.Austrian economists are critical of the basic idea of attempting to quantify national output. Shostak quotes Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises:The attempt to determine in money the wealth of a nation or the whole mankind are as childish as the mystic efforts to solve the riddles of the universe by worrying about the dimension of the pyramid of Cheops. Simon Kuznets in his very first report to the US Congress in 1934 said: Simon Kuznets, 1934. "National Income, 1929-1932". 73rd US Congress, 2d session, Senate document no. 124, page 7. http://library.bea.gov/u?/SOD,888 ...the welfare of a nation [can] scarcely be inferred from a measure of national income... In 1962, Kuznets stated: Simon Kuznets. "How To Judge Quality". The New Republic, October 20, 1962 Distinctions must be kept in mind between quantity and quality of growth, between costs and returns, and between the short and long run. Goals for more growth should specify more growth of what and for what. Alternatives to GDP Human Development Index (HDI) HDI uses GDP as a part of its calculation and then factors in indicators of life expectancy and education levels. Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) or Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW) The GPI and the similar ISEW attempt to address many of the above criticisms by taking the same raw information supplied for GDP and then adjust for income distribution, add for the value of household and volunteer work, and subtract for crime and pollution. Wealth Estimates The World Bank has developed a system for combining monetary wealth with intangible wealth (institutions and human capital) and environmental capital. Some people have looked beyond standard of living at a broader sense of quality of life or well-being. It also states that GDP is a statistic crucial to the success of a specified country Private Product Remaining Murray Newton Rothbard and other Austrian economists argue that because government spending is taken from productive sectors and produces goods that consumers do not want, it is a burden on the economy and thus should be deducted. In his book America's Great Depression, Rothbard argues that even government supluses from taxation should be deducted to create an estimate of PPR. European Quality of Life Survey This survey, the first wave of which was published in 2005, assessed quality of life across European countries through a series of questions on overall subjective life satisfaction, satisfaction with different aspects of life, and sets of questions used to calculate deficits of time, loving, being and having. Gini Coefficient Considers the disparity of income within a nation. Gross National Happiness The Centre for Bhutanese Studies in Bhutan is currently working on a complex set of subjective and objective indicators to measure 'national happiness' in various domains (living standards, health, education, eco-system diversity and resilience, cultural vitality and diversity, time use and balance, good governance, community vitality and psychological well-being). This set of indicators would be used to assess progress towards Gross National Happiness, which they have already identified as being the nation's priority, above GDP. Happy Planet Index The Happy Planet Index (HPI) is an index of human well-being and environmental impact, introduced by the New Economics Foundation (NEF), in July 2006. It measures the environmental efficiency with which human well-being is achieved within a given country or group. Human well-being is defined in terms of subjective life satisfaction and life expectancy. Lists of countries by their GDP List of countries by GDP (nominal), (per capita) List of countries by GDP (PPP), (per capita), (per hour) List of countries by GDP growth List of countries by GDP (real) growth rate, (per capita) List of countries by GDP sector composition List of countries by future GDP estimates (PPP), (per capita), (nominal) List of countries by past GDP (PPP), (nominal) See also Compensation of Employees (per hour) Eco-sufficiency Economic growth Economic reports GDP deflator Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) Gini Coefficient GNP Green Gross Domestic Product Gross national happiness Gross National Income Gross Output Gross regional domestic product Gross value added Gross world product Human Development Index Happy Planet Index (HPI) Income inequality metrics Intermediate consumption Measures of national income and output National accounts National average salary National Income and Product Accounts Natural gross domestic product Purchasing Power Parity Value added References External links Global Australian Bureau of Statistics Manual on GDP measurement GDP-indexed bonds GDP scaled maps Euro area GDP growth rate (since 1996) as compared to the Bank Rate (since 2000) World Development Indicators (WDI) Economist Country Briefings UN Statistical Databases Data Bureau of Economic Analysis: Official United States GDP data Graphs of Historical Real U.S. GDP Historicalstatistics.org: Links to historical statistics on GDP for different countries and regions Complete listing of countries by GDP: Current Exchange Rate Method Purchasing Power Parity Method Historical US GDP (yearly data), 1790 - present Historical US GDP (quarterly data), 1947 - present OECD Statistics Articles and books What's wrong with the GDP? Limitations of GDP Statistics by Schenk, Robert. whether output and CPI inflation are mismeasured, by Nouriel Roubini and David Backus, in Lectures in Macroeconomics "Measurement of the Aggregate Economy", chapter 22 of Dr. Roger A. McCain's Essential Principles of Economics: A Hypermedia Text Growth, Accumulation, Crisis: With New Macroeconomic Data for Sweden 1800-2000 by Rodney Edvinsson Clifford Cobb, Ted Halstead and Jonathan Rowe. "If the GDP is up, why is America down?" The Atlantic Monthly, vol. 276, no. 4, October 1995, pages 59–78. be-x-old:Сукупны ўнутраны прадукт | Gross_domestic_product |@lemmatized cia:1 world:8 factbook:1 figure:8 total:11 nominal:7 gdp:151 top:1 compare:8 ppp:8 adjust:8 bottom:1 per:19 caput:14 gross:30 domestic:15 product:21 income:35 gdi:3 basic:4 measure:41 economy:16 economic:24 performance:1 market:7 value:17 final:6 good:29 service:12 produce:21 within:10 border:4 nation:10 year:11 define:3 three:1 way:3 conceptually:1 identical:2 first:4 equal:4 expenditure:13 country:41 stipulated:1 period:6 time:7 usually:3 day:1 second:2 sum:5 add:11 every:2 stage:2 production:24 intermediate:2 industry:2 plus:1 tax:7 le:3 subsidy:5 third:1 generate:2 compensation:4 employee:5 import:14 less:5 operating:3 surplus:5 profit:5 common:1 approach:3 quantify:2 method:9 consumption:18 investment:20 government:16 spending:13 export:14 c:7 g:7 x:5 mean:5 depreciation:2 capital:6 stock:5 subtract:5 net:11 minus:2 substitute:2 equation:3 formula:4 obtain:1 part:7 often:6 call:7 domestically:4 back:2 area:3 economist:15 since:7 keynes:1 prefer:1 split:1 general:1 term:8 two:4 private:13 public:3 sector:8 advantage:2 divide:1 theoretical:1 macroeconomics:2 central:1 concern:2 welfare:4 economics:3 trade:6 portion:2 ultimately:1 direct:2 mainstream:1 model:1 increase:15 long:5 separate:1 endogenous:1 treat:2 exogenous:1 different:7 level:5 consider:3 meaningful:2 macroeconomic:2 framework:3 component:2 variable:2 note:2 sometimes:2 also:10 refer:2 reference:2 graph:2 include:16 personal:2 household:5 food:1 rent:2 medical:1 expense:4 new:11 housing:3 business:8 example:14 construction:1 mine:1 purchase:23 software:7 machinery:1 equipment:1 factory:1 house:2 contrast:3 colloquial:1 meaning:1 financial:6 buy:10 class:1 save:3 oppose:1 distinction:2 theory:2 clear:2 money:6 convert:5 bond:4 share:2 transfer:4 payment:4 exclude:1 affect:5 turn:2 sale:2 indirectly:1 although:3 would:17 normal:1 speech:1 point:1 view:1 simply:3 swap:1 deed:1 real:9 salary:3 servant:2 weapon:2 military:1 social:2 security:2 unemployment:1 benefit:2 capture:2 amount:4 therefore:2 must:4 deduct:4 avoid:1 count:5 foreign:5 supply:3 nx:3 spend:2 renovate:1 hotel:4 occupancy:1 rate:16 consortium:2 thing:3 former:1 latter:1 however:8 conduct:2 renovation:4 home:1 agency:3 office:1 civil:1 involve:1 chandelier:3 abroad:1 fall:1 highlight:2 fact:3 intend:2 rather:6 really:1 convenient:1 estimate:7 producer:2 pay:4 make:5 situation:3 reverse:1 positively:1 attempt:5 consumer:5 necessary:2 correct:1 consume:2 give:3 type:3 growth:26 current:8 express:2 price:11 unadjusted:1 change:7 calculate:5 allow:5 determine:2 decrease:4 regardless:2 power:14 currency:7 account:13 another:3 payable:1 used:1 provide:5 describe:1 definition:3 practice:1 measurement:7 error:1 slightly:1 report:3 national:24 statistical:6 use:20 mixed:2 coe:2 remuneration:1 work:7 wage:3 well:9 employer:2 contribution:1 program:1 go:5 due:1 owner:1 incorporated:1 subset:1 cost:6 output:10 gmi:2 unincorporated:1 small:1 factor:6 difference:5 calculation:2 levy:1 write:1 r:2 p:2 sa:2 w:2 interest:4 adjustment:2 corporate:2 dividend:1 undistributed:1 vs:1 gnp:10 gni:2 united:8 state:11 balance:2 put:1 econstats:1 region:3 one:3 focus:2 disregard:1 entity:1 nationality:1 american:1 firm:2 locate:1 international:8 standard:24 contain:1 book:3 system:4 prepare:1 representative:1 monetary:5 fund:1 european:3 union:1 organization:2 co:1 operation:1 development:4 bank:3 publication:1 normally:3 distinguish:1 previous:1 edition:1 publish:2 set:4 rule:1 procedure:1 design:1 flexible:1 local:5 need:1 condition:1 access:1 information:5 require:1 especially:2 except:1 see:6 cross:3 comparison:3 may:16 accord:1 either:1 exchange:9 prevail:1 parity:7 relative:5 select:1 dollar:3 ranking:1 differ:1 dramatically:1 global:2 offer:1 indication:1 purchasing:1 strength:1 instance:5 hi:1 tech:1 arm:2 number:3 entirely:1 govern:1 traded:1 distinct:1 high:15 technology:2 effective:1 average:3 indicator:13 living:19 developed:1 compensate:1 weakness:1 india:1 rank:1 conversion:1 relevant:1 non:3 pattern:1 disparity:4 low:7 finding:1 penn:1 effect:2 little:1 human:8 history:1 industrial:2 revolution:2 empty:1 data:7 rationale:1 citizen:2 similarly:1 measurment:1 majority:1 even:6 disproportionally:1 u:9 earnings:1 inflation:3 individual:2 worker:2 abstract:1 table:1 major:3 frequently:2 widely:3 consistently:2 quarterly:2 basis:1 user:1 spot:1 trend:1 quickly:2 available:1 practically:1 crude:1 technical:1 relatively:2 consistent:1 confidence:1 disadvantage:1 strictly:1 speak:1 particular:2 activity:6 nothing:4 suggest:1 necessarily:1 extreme:1 cent:1 still:1 poor:2 argument:1 favour:1 tends:1 proxy:2 labour:2 productivity:3 compete:1 conversely:1 wag:1 able:1 controversy:1 limitation:2 judge:2 health:4 gauge:1 variation:1 identify:2 limit:1 criticism:4 wealth:8 distribution:2 take:5 rich:3 numerous:1 nobel:2 prize:2 win:2 dispute:1 importance:1 inequality:6 improve:1 short:3 lead:1 metric:2 discussion:1 variety:2 base:1 transaction:3 excludes:1 volunteer:2 unpaid:4 result:4 understate:1 free:3 open:3 source:3 linux:1 contribute:2 billion:1 commercial:1 company:2 develop:2 become:2 proprietary:2 counterpart:1 propriety:1 stop:1 switch:1 reduce:1 reduction:1 zealand:1 marilyn:1 waring:1 concerted:1 undo:1 injustice:1 case:5 slave:1 political:1 transparency:1 accountability:1 democracy:1 shed:1 doubt:1 claim:1 douglas:1 north:2 argue:3 creation:1 strengthening:1 patent:1 encourage:1 invention:1 enterprise:1 fundamental:1 catalyst:1 behind:1 england:1 underground:2 official:2 illegal:1 avoiding:1 unreported:1 cause:1 underestimate:2 omits:1 come:1 play:1 inaccurate:2 abnormally:1 occur:1 informally:1 easily:1 register:1 bartering:1 prominent:1 extend:1 help:2 build:1 ten:1 ago:1 ignore:1 subsistence:1 quality:9 people:5 cheap:2 durability:2 possible:1 item:1 sell:1 great:2 inefficiency:1 waste:1 always:1 durable:1 difficult:2 flimsy:1 incentive:1 find:2 option:1 undergoing:1 rapid:1 fashion:1 lifespan:1 customer:1 satisfaction:4 improvement:2 inclusion:1 understates:1 true:2 computer:2 today:2 expensive:2 powerful:1 past:3 accounting:2 introduction:1 accurately:1 reflect:1 despite:1 person:1 could:1 antibiotic:1 cell:1 phone:1 modern:1 convenience:1 exist:1 repair:1 harm:1 rebuild:1 natural:3 disaster:1 war:1 considerable:1 thus:3 boost:1 care:1 classic:1 raise:1 many:2 sick:1 receive:2 treatment:1 desirable:1 alternative:2 discretionary:1 utility:3 uneconomic:1 externality:2 ignores:1 bad:2 damage:1 environment:1 negative:1 pollution:2 overstate:1 genuine:3 progress:4 propose:1 ecological:3 green:2 highly:1 dependent:1 resource:2 extraction:1 footprint:1 gpi:4 large:2 indicate:1 overshoot:1 environmental:5 clean:2 oil:3 spill:1 sustainability:2 achieve:2 temporarily:1 exploit:1 misallocating:1 deposit:1 phosphate:1 nauru:1 earth:1 decline:1 sharply:1 run:3 sustain:1 without:1 industrialize:1 longer:1 sustainable:2 experience:1 bubble:3 tend:1 appear:1 grow:3 faster:1 owe:1 mortgage:1 future:2 present:3 degradation:1 end:1 dearly:1 main:1 problem:1 varies:1 proportion:2 deflate:2 vary:1 greatly:1 depend:1 basket:3 potato:1 significantly:1 egg:1 several:1 reason:1 multiple:1 varied:1 controversial:1 difficulty:1 comparable:1 across:2 locally:1 apple:2 b:1 tasty:1 material:1 show:1 statistic:6 globally:1 pricing:1 associate:1 distort:1 actual:1 subjective:4 aggregate:2 austrian:5 critique:1 frank:1 shostak:2 http:2 mi:2 org:2 story:1 among:1 following:1 cannot:1 tell:1 whether:2 reflection:2 expansion:1 embark:1 building:2 pyramid:3 absolutely:1 regard:1 reality:1 divert:1 funding:1 generating:1 thereby:1 stifle:1 critical:1 idea:1 quote:1 ludwig:1 von:1 whole:1 mankind:1 childish:1 mystic:1 effort:1 solve:1 riddle:1 universe:1 worry:1 dimension:1 cheops:1 simon:3 kuznets:4 congress:2 say:1 session:1 senate:1 document:1 page:2 library:1 bea:1 gov:1 sod:1 scarcely:1 infer:1 republic:1 october:2 keep:1 mind:1 quantity:1 return:1 goal:1 specify:1 index:7 hdi:2 life:8 expectancy:2 education:2 isew:2 similar:1 address:1 raw:1 crime:1 combine:1 intangible:1 institution:1 look:1 beyond:1 broad:1 sense:1 crucial:1 success:1 specified:1 remain:1 murray:1 newton:1 rothbard:2 productive:1 want:1 burden:1 america:2 depression:1 supluses:1 taxation:1 create:1 ppr:1 survey:2 wave:1 assess:2 series:1 question:2 overall:1 aspect:1 deficit:1 loving:1 gini:2 coefficient:2 happiness:4 centre:1 bhutanese:1 study:1 bhutan:1 currently:1 complex:1 objective:1 various:1 domain:1 eco:2 diversity:2 resilience:1 cultural:1 vitality:2 governance:1 community:1 psychological:1 towards:1 already:1 priority:1 happy:3 planet:3 hpi:2 impact:1 introduce:1 foundation:1 nef:1 july:1 efficiency:1 group:1 list:8 hour:2 composition:1 sufficiency:1 deflator:1 regional:1 external:1 link:2 australian:1 bureau:2 manual:1 indexed:1 scale:1 map:1 euro:1 wdi:1 briefing:1 un:1 database:1 analysis:1 historical:4 historicalstatistics:1 complete:1 listing:1 yearly:1 oecd:1 article:1 wrong:1 schenk:1 robert:1 cpi:1 mismeasured:1 nouriel:1 roubini:1 david:1 backus:1 lecture:1 chapter:1 dr:1 roger:1 mccain:1 essential:1 principle:1 hypermedia:1 text:1 accumulation:1 crisis:1 sweden:1 rodney:1 edvinsson:1 clifford:1 cobb:1 ted:1 halstead:1 jonathan:1 rowe:1 atlantic:1 monthly:1 vol:1 old:1 сукупны:1 ўнутраны:1 прадукт:1 |@bigram nominal_gdp:3 gdp_ppp:4 per_caput:14 gross_domestic:7 income_tax:2 monetary_fund:1 parity_ppp:1 purchasing_power:1 hi_tech:1 adjust_inflation:2 per_cent:1 nobel_prize:2 customer_satisfaction:1 health_care:1 oil_spill:1 environmental_degradation:1 austrian_economist:5 ludwig_von:1 bea_gov:1 index_hdi:1 life_expectancy:2 gini_coefficient:2 external_link:1 |
3,219 | Neo-Druidism | A group of Neo-druids in England, dressed in ceremonial garb Neo-druidism or neo-druidry (referred to simply as Druidry by some adherents) is a form of modern spirituality or religion that generally promotes harmony and worship of nature, and respect for all beings, including the environment. It is considered to be a Neopagan faith by some adherents, along with such religions as Wicca and Germanic neopaganism. By other modern druids it is considered to be a philosophical movement that includes religious tolerance, allowing its followers to be adherents of other religions, or to be atheists. Originally inspired by 17th, 18th and 19th century Romantic movements, modern Druidism was based upon theories about the Iron Age Celtic druids which are no longer considered to be historically accurate. Modern Druidism has no demonstrable historical link to the ancient Celts or their culture. "Modern Druids have no direct connection to the Druids of the Iron Age. Many of our popular ideas about the Druids are based on the misunderstandings and misconceptions of scholars 200 years ago. These ideas have been superseded by later study and discoveries." In the first half of the twentieth century, modern druids developed fraternal organizations based on Freemasonry that employed the romantic figure of the British Druids and Bards as symbols of indigenous British spirituality. Some of these groups were purely fraternal and cultural, creating traditions from the national imagination of Britain. Others merged with contemporary movements such as the physical culture movement and naturism. Since the 1980s some modern druid groups have adopted similar methodologies to those of Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, in an effort to create a more historically accurate practice. However, there is still controversy over how much resemblance modern druidism may or may not have to Iron Age or earlier druidism. Bonewits, Isaac (2006) Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism. New York, Kensington Publishing Group ISBN 0-8065-2710-2. Chapter 9, "Solitary Druids and Celtic Reconstructionists" pp.128-140. There are roughly 24,000 neo-druids in the United States. American Religious Identification Survey, 2001. Beliefs and Practices Beliefs vary widely, and there is no set dogma or belief system by which all adherents follow. Indeed, it is a central tenet of many druidic groups that there should not be strict dogmas. There is no central authority over the entire movement, nor any central religious text or religious leader. In most cases, the ideas and inspiration of all Druids is respected. Nature Centered Spirituality Many Druids are animists, which is sometimes mischaracterized by modern commentators as "nature worship." Like the Native Americans, most Druids see all aspects of nature as imbued with spirit, a soul if you will, whether or not they interpret that literally or metaphorically. Like the deities of the Celts, the animals and plants are seen as members of a Tuatha, or tribe. The spirits of nature are seen as relatives of an extended family and are therefore honored as kin. The whole of nature along with the other spirits of the unseen realm are seen as a large tribe of tribes, a familial way of describing the interconnectedness of the ecosystem that is the earth. The mother Goddess Danu gives her name to both the tribe of the deities, and the overall tribe of tribes, which in the Gaelic is the "Tuatha De Danaan," the tribe of Danu. The hierarchical concept of worship involving submission and obedience by us as lesser beings is not a concept compatible with Druidry, despite the frequent misunderstanding base on the Judeo-Christian hierarchical concept of worship. Ancestor Veneration Respect for the ancestors is another core belief. This idea of great ancestor respect or ancestor worship is common in pagan folk and ethnic religions. Revivalists and Reconstructionist alike agree that knowing as much as possible about the lives of our ancestors and preserving national or tribal heritage is important and good. Archaeological evidence does suggest that the ancient peoples of Britain, Ireland, and other parts of Europe practiced burial customs that we assume imply particular respect for ancestors and probably a belief in life after death in some form. Ceremonies Most modern Druids perform ceremonies within a circle. The circle is commonly made around an altar or central fire. Neo-druids often meet and practice in groups called variously "groves" or "henges." Sometimes they meet at stone circles and other megaliths which are pre-Celtic, but which were traditionally associated with the ancient druids. At the Summer solstice, a druidic ritual is notably held at Stonehenge in England. Another particularly sacred place is Glastonbury in southern England. In parts of the world beyond the range of the original Celtic tribes in Europe and the pre-Celtic megalithic cultures, modern druids seek an understanding of the sacred qualities of landscape and place. This practice is one drawn from existing tribal cultures using the assumption that the ancient druids likely shared such attitudes towards the landscape. When performing rituals, some modern druids wear ceremonial cloaks and robes, which in some cases imitate the Iron Age style of the Celts. In some orders, robes or tabards of different colors are used to indicate the grade of the druid within the order. In the case of the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids, the colors blue, green, and white are respectively assigned to these grades. Some modern Druids also use ritual staffs, a symbolic magical instrument long associated with both Druids and wizards generally. Many modern druids do not adopt any ceremonial garb. Meditation Some modern druids practice meditation and visualization as a method of self-transformation, particularly engaging the imagery of the four elements of the classical philosophers and the medieval alchemists. Earth, Air, Fire, and Water are considered symbolic of aspects of nature and are sometimes linked symbolically to the four cardinal directions, the four seasons, and the four stages of human life -- that is birth, maturation, old age, and death. Elemental symbolism is fluid and varies from group to group. Some modern druids believe that the ancient Celts did not adopt the Greek system of four elements and prefer to use only a symbolic division of the cosmos into three realms -- Sea (the lower realm), Land (the middle realm), and Sky (the upper realm). History Neo-druidism in Britain The origins of the modern Druid Revival lie in speculation about the historical druids in Early Modern 17th century Britain. William Blake, the artist and poet, was among those who used the image of bards and druids symbolically in his poetry. In Blake's mythos, bards are cast as the noble and admirable advocates for imagination (Divine Imagination as Blake characterized it). Druids, on the other hand, were used most often by Blake in a negative way to symbolize priesthoods of Literalism without imagination. In this poetical symbolism, Blake was inspired by current theories of certain scholars of his day which speculated that the British druids were in fact a remnant of the antediluvian religion of Noah and Adam in the Biblical mythos. Some saw them as the martyred exponents of the true religion taught by God in the Garden of Eden, as distinct from Christian religion as it later developed, which was seen by Nonconformists such as Blake to be corrupt. The theory that ancient druids were the true inheritors of the ancient Patriarchal religion was a move intended to make "True Religion" something British rather than foreign. Such a theory turned on its head the previous view of churchmen that druids had been bloodthirsty pagan priests who worshiped "devils" and were quite rightly stamped out by the superior culture of the Romans. A more positive view of the druids, portraying them as wise old men arose with the northern European Romantic movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth century. One of the key proponents of the idea that the bards preserved a purer and more universal religion that transcended sectarianism was the Welsh Iolo Morganwg. His writings, though now acknowledged to be partly his own invention claimed to be based on manuscript sources and oral traditions in Wales. His work led to the establishment of the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards and influenced the forms of the Welsh National Eisteddfod, celebrations of British culture as distinct from that of the conquering English. The romantic positive figure of the druid and the bard became powerful images within the Welsh and Irish nationalist movements. Among the ideas and symbols that came out of Iolo's work is the Awen symbol of three rays of light (see above). This symbol serves as a mystic glyph for Revivalist druids who give it varying interpretations. One interpretation is that the three points and three rays represent the Sun at the points of its rising at the solstices and the equinoxes. More mystically, the symbol may be taken as a sign of the Divine Light entering the minds and hearts of the poet as Awen, Welsh for inspiration. The cultivation of personal inspiration is central to the practices of many druid organizations. Several of the eighteenth century voluntary societies in Britain had a particularly "druidic" flavor, such as the Ancient Order of Druids (founded in 1781), Ancient and Archaeological Order of Druids (founded in 1874) and the Ancient Druid Order (founded in 1909-10). These organisations often drew upon Iolo Morganwg for their philosophy and symbolism, including the use of the Druid's Prayer. These organizations were modeled loosely upon Freemasonry and seem to have operated as fraternal societies of a nationalistic character. The substitution of British mythology and bardic or pseudo-bardic terms for the Biblical legends that form the basis for Freemasonry, seems to be a part of this desire to find an indigenous British tradition. Many of Iolo's ideas have since been rejected by both historical and literary scholars as fabrications. Twentieth-century druidic Revivalists nonetheless consider some of Iolo's ideas as visionary, rather than scholarly, insights. In 1909-10 the colourful figure George Watson MacGregor Reid founded a society called the Brotherhood of the Universal Bond, which despite its name admitted women along with men. Based on Reid's ideas of physical culture and vegetarianism, his interest in Hermeticism, Egyptian religion, and the search for a Universalist religion, this organization also adopted the white robes and accouterments of the Druid Revival. It differed from earlier groups in that it was the first to actually pursue Druidry as a new form of spirituality. Upon the founder's death in 1946, his son Robert assumed leadership of the Universal Bond, which now called itself the Ancient Druid Order-British Circle of the Universal Bond. George Watson MacGregor Reid 1949-1953 fought a highly public battle with Ancient Order of Druid Hermeticists for the right to conduct druidic ceremonies at Stonehenge. In 1964 when Robert MacGregor Reid, Chief of the Ancient Druid Order, died, a dispute between a group of senior neo-druids broke out over the election of Dr Thomas Maughan as the new chief. Consequently the order split into two branches one of which had Ross Nichols as its Chosen Chief. This new order -- the Order of Bards, Ovates, and Druids -- was organized to include the three grades of Bard, Ovate and Druid fully recognized in a way that had not previously been done in the Order's modern cycle. The Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids now represents the largest body of organized Druidry in the world, with over ten thousand members. Recent decades have seen an explosion of druidic orders and groups in Britain, including the Loyal Arthurian Warband, the British Druid Order, the Secular Order of Druids, the Glastonbury Order of Druids and so on, with the Council of British Druid Orders set up in 1989 to enable meetings and discussions between different Orders to take place. In February 2003, The Druid Network was launched; its aim is to be a source of information and inspiration about the modern druid tradition, its practice and its history. Neo-druidism in America The Reformed Druids of North America While modern Druidism came to North America first in the form of fraternal druidic organizations in the nineteenth century and orders such as the Ancient Order of Druids in America were founded as distinct American groups as early as 1912, the Neopagan branch of Druidism can be traced to one particular root in the Reformed Druids of North America, which was founded by protesting college students. The history of this organization is interesting and one of the best documented histories of any druidic organization. The founding of the first congregation of the Reformed Druids of North America, or RDNA, at Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota, in 1963, though not itself Neopagan proved influential in the birth of other Neopagan organizations. Carleton College's requirement that each student participate regularly in religious services (of the students' choice) caused a minor rebellion among several students who started calling themselves "druids." This tongue-in-cheek religion was designed mainly to challenge the college administration and its attempt to enforce religious attendance. It developed its own religious practices (to conform to the college's definition of "regular religious services"), which to the astonishment of the founders began to draw increasing numbers who saw them as a legitimate spiritual outlet. This tiny movement came to be called The Reformed Druids of North America (RDNA), a pun on the genetic molecule, or just "the Reform". It melded references to Celtic mythology, spiritual eclecticism, more general counter-cultural agitation, and easy-going self-irony. Although the religious attendance requirement was rescinded in 1964, the group persisted and still exists today. Students from Carleton carried RDNA across the United States. The Berkeley Grove became associated with wiccan groups and generally introduced Neopaganism to the movement. The original RDNA services involved periodically gathering in a wooded area, generally referred to as a "Grove". These gatherings were usually weekly, but some groups used astrology to calculate meeting times. Meetings involved several possible components. the ritual consumption of "spirits" (Scotch whisky or Irish whiskey blended with water) called "the water of life" (uisce beatha, or whisky), the singing of religious songs, the performance of ceremonial chanting, and, a meditation, occasionally a sermon, typically exploring other religious traditions. The written RDNA liturgy calls for a "sacrifice of life", reflecting the core of the Reform, namely plant rather than animal sacrifices, and (for the ordination of a priest) an outdoor vigil. RDNA celebrated the solstices and the High Celtic days of Beltane, Lughnasadh, Samhain and Imbolc). Later Reformed Druids groups added the equinoxes. These are celebrated with (usually outdoor) parties, religious songs, dancing in circles, etc. Various individuals will also have their own private ceremonies. Often, small groups will break off, and perform their own separated ceremonies before rejoining the general group — these groups are often split along initiatory lines as those of higher degree work their own ceremonies. Individual choice is a major theme of Reformed Druidism. So is ecology, particularly in the sense of living lightly on the land. The major gods are, in RDNA liturgy, the Earth-Mother (addressed as "our Mother"), seen as the personification of all material reality, Béal, the personification of nonmaterial essence, and Dalon Ap Landu, the Lord of Groves. Some individuals prefer to devote most of their praise, however, to other gods, like Health or Music (usually also named in Gaelic). And "A Druid Fellowship" has various scholastic posts and honors, though usually in the arts as devoted to religious praise rather than as formal studies. Ár nDraíocht Féin The triskelion, an ancient Celtic symbol often used by Neo-druids Robert Larson, a priest ordained in the Carleton Grove in 1963 or 1964, relocated to Berkeley, California about 1966, and eventually encountered Isaac Bonewits there. Together they founded a small congregation with affinities to various Wicca groups and to various practitioners of ceremonial magic (or Magick if they were Crowleans). Since then it has had several periods of greater or lesser activity. Currently the most visible offshoot of the RDNA is Ár nDraíocht Féin ("ADF" or "our own druidism" in Irish), with branches present across the United States, in Canada, and some other countries. The druids or members of ADF often adopt the taxonomy of the organization's founder which distinguishes their Druidry from the earlier Revivalist movement claiming that its is "Neo-Pagan" while such other groups are "Meso-Pagan" on the analogy of archaeological terminology (i.e., Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic). The distinction seems mainly political and is significant as an attempt of some American druids to separate themselves from the traditional Druidism of Britain and Europe. ADF's liturgy is considerably more complex than that of the RDNA, though its roots in the older group are obvious, based on Bonewits's theories of a common pattern to Indo-European worship. Neo-druidism is often considered a Neopagan religion, though some orders consider Druidry to be a philosophical and spiritual movement rather than a religion along the lines of the major religions with centralized authority structures. It is important, however, to realize that the founders of RDNA intended it to complement or supplement "organized" religion, not to supplant it; most of the founders were practicing Christians. They were very surprised when RDNA continued after the college repealed the religious attendance requirement. As someone put it, "Apparently our disorganized religion appealed to those who couldn't stomach organized religion!" Present-day adherents range from those who are exclusively neo-druids to those for whom it is, indeed, a complement to another faith. Neo-Druidry today Three druidesses at Stonehenge on the morning of summer solstice 2005. Neo-druids in Ireland In Ireland, neo-druids staged public gatherings for the Midsummer Solstice on the Hill of Tara, intermittently from 1996 to 2005. Currently, a number of Irish neo-druids are working with the various Save Tara heritage campaigns to preserve the Tara-Skryne Valley from the potential environmental impact if the M3 motorway that is planned for the area goes through. The proposed construction would place a large, 38 acre, eight-lane motorway interchange within a mile (1.6 km) of the Hill, making it clearly visible from one of Ireland's most sacred and historic sites, and irreparably damaging important archaeological evidence of Celtic and pre-Celtic history. A number of small orders and groves exist in Ireland, with varying practices and beliefs; most of these have come into existence in the 1990s or later. Druidism in Ireland is still relatively young, is still in the process of establishing links between groves and orders, and so a stable neo-druidic community does not yet exist. Other European Druid Organizations In 2002 The Order of Bards Ovates and Druids, which already had considerable numbers of members in the Netherlands, began offering their distance learning courses in Dutch, French and German, with local groups soon forming. The New Order of Druids was opened by David Dom in Belgium in January 2003. It is an online organisation, offering a free alternative for people to learn through the means of the Internet, with three main goals: to learn, to grow, to exchange. The New Order of Druids opened the first of its local groves, the Mother Grove called Nervii Nemeton, on September 2, 2005 in Antwerp, Belgium. It may possibly be the first Dutch druid organisation of modern Belgium. Another Belgian druid organisation is the Druidic Seat Glastoratin, founded on November 30, 2003, and the Albidatla Druidion Arduina or Assemblée Universelle des Druides d'Arduina, a French druid organisation in Belgium founded by Raphaël Zander in 1998. On November 1, 1980, Gwenc’hlan Le Scouëzec became the "Grand Druid of Brittany In France", of the "Fraternité des druides, bardes et ovates de Bretagne" (Fraternity of Druids, Bards and Ovates of Brittany). Gwenc'hlan is sometimes also considered the "Grand Druid" of France. Other European druid organisations are: Le Cercle de l'Ambre (France) La Taverne du Sidh (Switzerland) The Kengerzhouriezh Drouizel an Dreist-Hanternoz (Compagnonnage Druidique d'Hyperborée) founded in 1982 (France) The Kredenn Geltiek Hollvedel (Worldwide Celtic Creed)or Kevanvod Tud Donn (Assembly of the people of the Goddess Ana), founded in 1936 by Raffig Tullou (France) The Order of Clochsliaph — Nemeton Clochsliaph in Hamm, Germany, founded by Uwe Eckert in 2002. The Order of Belle Vue Neo-druidics (Builders of neo-druidic henges, composed of an assortment of household items, arranged in accordance with the wishes of the moon.) Popular Neo-druidic Organizations Since the 1960s, a number of modern druidic organizations have been founded, including Ár nDraíocht Féin (ADF), the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids (OBOD), British Druid Order, The Druid Network (TDN), and Keltria. They all have similar, but distinct beliefs and practices. OBOD is based in the UK, while ADF and Keltria are based in the US, though all three have international reach. ADF is a descendant of the RDNA since its founder, Isaac Bonewits was a member of the RDNA before founding ADF. Keltria (see below) came about as the result of disagreements between several ADF members and Mr. Bonewits on the focus of druidry. The Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids, organizes its postal study course into three "grades", with acceptance into each grade requiring completion of the previous grade under direction of a tutor. Initiation ceremonies are sometimes conducted in person within a grove but often individually as a personal ritual. The study course consists of meditations on the four elements and the cycle of life and death, Celtic mythology, and the arts of herbalism, treelore, stonelore, and self-transformation. It includes the Arthurian legends as they come down from Welsh myth, and it is notable for not excluding Christianity or any other religious practice. OBOD's study course is easily compatible with the practice of other religions and does not require that order members "convert" in any way. Each grade alludes to one of the historical subdivisions of the ancient druids. Bard - The bards cultivated the arts of imagination and language, which is to say the art of symbolism. They learned the complexities of poetry and the arts of memory. Bards were the keepers of lore and were expected to know by heart all the myths, legends, history and even bloodlines of the people. Ovates - Ovates are thought to have been principally seers and ritualists but within OBOD the student devotes time to the study of herb-lore, walking between worlds, meditative work with one's ancestors, and with trees and the ancient Irish writing system the ogham. Druid - Druids within OBOD focus more upon the lore of gods and goddesses, of stones and alignments, and seeking a call or vocation to some form of further practice, either as a teacher, grove leader, or in solitary ways as a contemplative. Members of OBOD in any of the three grades are considered equals and may pursue a broad range of specialized fields of study and practice within the scope of their grade. There are few formalities about grove organization except that there is a distinction made between OBOD groves, which must have at least two members in the Druid grade, and OBOD seed-groups which have no restrictions. The groves and seed groups are completely autonomous and the study program is administered only through the central office in England by post. Members worldwide maintain contact through an extensive web forum and via e-mail. The Ancient Order of Druids in America (AODA) is another major new group that is a revival of one of the branches of fraternal Druidism that came to North America with European settlers. Descended from Freemasonry and the Ancient Order of Druids, the AODA was revived in the 1990s by John Michael Greer who serves as Grand Archdruid and has been instrumental in bringing the order's teachings up to date. His book The Druidry Handbook lays out the first degree teachings of the order. Like the OBOD and many other esoteric orders descended from Freemasonry, there are three degrees. In addition to ideas inspired from the Druid Revival of the 18th and 19th Centuries, members study natural history, conservationist ecology, ethics, and magical arts. The AODA maintains slightly more connection to the Hermetic traditions of ceremonial magic than does the OBOD. Ár nDraíocht Féin (ADF) teaches s a spiritual practice based on the study of comparative Indo-European religion and linguistics. This is presented as a religion and the act of joining ADF implies that one is a polytheist in some interpretation of that form of religion. Instead of "grades", new ADF members study basic Druidry as "Dedicants" and then move on to the ADF Study Program by joining various Guilds, e.g., Liturgists Guild, Healers Guild, etc., to specialize. These study programs are essentially independent study with some monitoring by a Preceptor who decides when student work is acceptable. Advancement within the Guilds and Special Interest Groups is awarded through passing various "circles" of study culminating in the equivalent of a Master status in a particular pursuit. This guild system attempts to emulate the social structure of ancient and medieval pagan Europe. ADF also has a clergy training program for those who aspire to priesthood. Completion of the Dedicant Program is a prerequisite for both guild and priest work. ADF differs from other neo-druidic groups in that it aims to provide structure and services similar to major organized religion -- for example, paid clergy, formalized religious education, and permanent places of worship. Although it has a great deal of structure under development, it is actually still a fairly loose association of local groves sharing a common liturgy and reporting to the Mother Grove, which is the organization's elected board of directors. Its members can maintain contact with each other through specialized Internet discussion groups and an annual meeting. Keltrian Druidism is a Celtic Neopagan tradition dedicated to honoring its ancestors, revering the spirits of nature, and worshiping the gods and goddesses of its members' Gaelic heritage. Focus is placed on personal growth through the development of mind, body, and spirit. The group is an initiatory tradition that places special emphasis on the development of spiritual relationships through study and practice of the druidic arts or draíocht. Their national organization, The Henge of Keltria, publishes various resources and acts as a registry for members. It originally broke off as a branch from ADF through disagreements over the pursuit of a pan-Indo-European paganism that went beyond the specifically Celtic cultures associated with the ancient druids. There are also many other druid groups in Britain, Europe and America, which may all be considered part of the modern Druidic Movement. See also Animism Celtic neopaganism Celtic polytheism Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism Druid List of druids and neo-druids References Additional readings - see essay The New Druidry. - contains chapters on modern druidry. External links American ADF - Ár nDraíocht Féin: A Druid Fellowship Avalon Druid Order-ADO Druid Gorsedd of the First Circle The Henge of Keltria Reformed Druids of North America - Carleton grove Reformed Druids of North America - main website Reformed Druid Grove Locations Ancient Order of Druids in America British OBOD - The Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids TDN - The Druid Network BDO - The British Druid Order Council Of British Druid Orders - (CoBDO) WOODs - The Western Order of Druids The Glastonbury Order of Druids The Loyal Arthurian Warband Canadian Celtic Faith of Greater Ireland (in French) Canadian Druid Confederation - La Confédération Canadienne de Druide Irish The Irish College of Druids Irish Druid Network Directory Hibernian Order of Druids Scottish Caer Clud The Order of the Druids of Albion General Isaac Bonewits's website Philip Carr-Gomm's website Druidcast - a druid podcast The Druid Network A Reformed Druid Anthology Andy Worthington's website | Neo-Druidism |@lemmatized group:31 neo:22 druid:119 england:4 dress:1 ceremonial:6 garb:2 druidism:17 druidry:13 refer:2 simply:1 adherent:5 form:9 modern:25 spirituality:4 religion:24 generally:4 promote:1 harmony:1 worship:9 nature:8 respect:5 include:7 environment:1 consider:10 neopagan:6 faith:3 along:5 wicca:2 germanic:1 neopaganism:3 philosophical:2 movement:12 religious:16 tolerance:1 allow:1 follower:1 atheist:1 originally:2 inspire:3 century:8 romantic:4 base:10 upon:5 theory:5 iron:4 age:5 celtic:19 longer:1 historically:2 accurate:2 demonstrable:1 historical:4 link:4 ancient:22 celt:4 culture:8 direct:1 connection:2 many:8 popular:2 idea:10 misunderstanding:2 misconception:1 scholar:3 year:1 ago:1 supersede:1 late:1 study:16 discovery:1 first:8 half:1 twentieth:2 develop:3 fraternal:5 organization:15 freemasonry:5 employ:1 figure:3 british:14 bard:18 symbol:6 indigenous:2 purely:1 cultural:2 create:2 tradition:8 national:4 imagination:5 britain:8 others:1 merge:1 contemporary:1 physical:2 naturism:1 since:5 adopt:5 similar:3 methodology:1 reconstructionist:3 paganism:3 effort:1 practice:18 however:3 still:5 controversy:1 much:2 resemblance:1 may:6 early:5 bonewits:7 isaac:4 essential:1 guide:1 new:9 york:1 kensington:1 publish:1 isbn:1 chapter:2 solitary:2 reconstructionists:1 pp:1 roughly:1 united:3 state:3 american:5 identification:1 survey:1 belief:6 beliefs:1 vary:2 widely:1 set:2 dogma:2 system:4 follow:1 indeed:2 central:6 tenet:1 druidic:16 strict:1 authority:2 entire:1 text:1 leader:2 case:3 inspiration:4 center:1 animist:1 sometimes:5 mischaracterized:1 commentator:1 like:4 native:1 see:11 aspect:2 imbue:1 spirit:6 soul:1 whether:1 interpret:1 literally:1 metaphorically:1 deity:2 animal:2 plant:2 member:15 tuatha:2 tribe:8 relative:1 extended:1 family:1 therefore:1 honor:3 kin:1 whole:1 unseen:1 realm:5 large:3 familial:1 way:5 describe:1 interconnectedness:1 ecosystem:1 earth:3 mother:5 goddess:4 danu:2 give:2 name:3 overall:1 gaelic:3 de:6 danaan:1 hierarchical:2 concept:3 involve:3 submission:1 obedience:1 u:2 less:2 compatible:2 despite:2 frequent:1 judeo:1 christian:3 ancestor:8 veneration:1 another:5 core:2 great:4 common:3 pagan:5 folk:1 ethnic:1 revivalist:3 alike:1 agree:1 know:2 possible:2 life:6 preserve:3 tribal:2 heritage:3 important:3 good:1 archaeological:4 evidence:2 suggest:1 people:4 ireland:7 part:4 europe:5 burial:1 custom:1 assume:2 imply:1 particular:3 probably:1 death:4 ceremony:7 perform:3 within:9 circle:7 commonly:1 make:4 around:1 altar:1 fire:2 often:9 meet:2 call:9 variously:1 grove:18 henges:2 stone:2 megalith:1 pre:3 traditionally:1 associate:4 summer:2 solstice:5 ritual:5 notably:1 hold:1 stonehenge:3 particularly:4 sacred:3 place:7 glastonbury:3 southern:1 world:3 beyond:2 range:3 original:2 megalithic:1 seek:2 understanding:1 quality:1 landscape:2 one:11 drawn:1 exist:4 use:9 assumption:1 likely:1 share:2 attitude:1 towards:1 wear:1 cloak:1 robe:3 imitate:1 style:1 order:48 tabard:1 different:2 color:2 indicate:1 grade:11 ovates:11 blue:1 green:1 white:2 respectively:1 assign:1 also:8 staff:1 symbolic:3 magical:2 instrument:1 long:1 wizard:1 meditation:4 visualization:1 method:1 self:3 transformation:2 engage:1 imagery:1 four:6 element:3 classical:1 philosopher:1 medieval:2 alchemist:1 air:1 water:3 symbolically:2 cardinal:1 direction:2 season:1 stage:1 human:1 birth:2 maturation:1 old:3 elemental:1 symbolism:4 fluid:1 varies:1 believe:1 greek:1 prefer:2 division:1 cosmos:1 three:11 sea:1 low:1 land:2 middle:1 sky:1 upper:1 history:7 origin:1 revival:4 lie:1 speculation:1 william:1 blake:6 artist:1 poet:2 among:3 image:2 poetry:2 mythos:2 cast:1 noble:1 admirable:1 advocate:1 divine:2 characterize:1 hand:1 negative:1 symbolize:1 priesthood:2 literalism:1 without:1 poetical:1 current:1 certain:1 day:3 speculate:1 fact:1 remnant:1 antediluvian:1 noah:1 adam:1 biblical:2 saw:2 martyred:1 exponent:1 true:3 taught:1 god:5 garden:1 eden:1 distinct:4 later:3 nonconformist:1 corrupt:1 inheritor:1 patriarchal:1 move:2 intend:2 something:1 rather:5 foreign:1 turn:1 head:1 previous:2 view:2 churchman:1 bloodthirsty:1 priest:4 devil:1 quite:1 rightly:1 stamp:1 superior:1 roman:1 positive:2 portray:1 wise:1 men:2 arise:1 northern:1 european:7 eighteenth:2 nineteenth:2 key:1 proponent:1 purer:1 universal:4 transcend:1 sectarianism:1 welsh:6 iolo:5 morganwg:2 writing:2 though:6 acknowledge:1 partly:1 invention:1 claim:2 manuscript:1 source:2 oral:1 wale:1 work:7 lead:1 establishment:1 gorsedd:2 influence:1 eisteddfod:1 celebration:1 conquer:1 english:1 become:3 powerful:1 irish:8 nationalist:1 come:7 awen:2 ray:2 light:2 serve:2 mystic:1 glyph:1 interpretation:3 point:2 represent:2 sun:1 rising:1 equinox:2 mystically:1 take:2 sign:1 enter:1 mind:2 heart:2 cultivation:1 personal:3 several:5 voluntary:1 society:3 flavor:1 found:14 organisation:6 draw:2 philosophy:1 prayer:1 model:1 loosely:1 seem:3 operate:1 nationalistic:1 character:1 substitution:1 mythology:3 bardic:2 pseudo:1 term:1 legend:3 basis:1 desire:1 find:1 reject:1 literary:1 fabrication:1 revivalists:1 nonetheless:1 visionary:1 scholarly:1 insight:1 colourful:1 george:2 watson:2 macgregor:3 reid:4 brotherhood:1 bond:3 admit:1 woman:1 vegetarianism:1 interest:2 hermeticism:1 egyptian:1 search:1 universalist:1 accouterment:1 differ:1 actually:2 pursue:2 founder:6 son:1 robert:3 leadership:1 fight:1 highly:1 public:2 battle:1 hermeticists:1 right:1 conduct:2 chief:3 die:1 dispute:1 senior:1 break:3 election:1 dr:1 thomas:1 maughan:1 consequently:1 split:2 two:2 branch:5 ross:1 nichols:1 chosen:1 organize:6 ovate:1 fully:1 recognize:1 previously:1 cycle:2 body:2 ten:1 thousand:1 recent:1 decade:1 explosion:1 loyal:2 arthurian:3 warband:2 secular:1 council:2 enable:1 meeting:4 discussion:2 february:1 network:5 launch:1 aim:2 information:1 america:13 reformed:5 north:8 trace:1 root:2 protest:1 college:7 student:7 interesting:1 best:1 documented:1 founding:1 congregation:2 rdna:13 carleton:5 northfield:1 minnesota:1 prove:1 influential:1 requirement:3 participate:1 regularly:1 service:4 choice:2 cause:1 minor:1 rebellion:1 start:1 tongue:1 cheek:1 design:1 mainly:2 challenge:1 administration:1 attempt:3 enforce:1 attendance:3 conform:1 definition:1 regular:1 astonishment:1 begin:2 increase:1 number:5 legitimate:1 spiritual:5 outlet:1 tiny:1 pun:1 genetic:1 molecule:1 reform:7 meld:1 reference:2 eclecticism:1 general:3 counter:1 agitation:1 easy:1 go:3 irony:1 although:2 rescind:1 persist:1 today:2 carry:1 across:2 berkeley:2 wiccan:1 introduce:1 periodically:1 gather:1 wooded:1 area:2 gathering:2 usually:4 weekly:1 astrology:1 calculate:1 time:2 component:1 consumption:1 scotch:1 whisky:2 whiskey:1 blend:1 uisce:1 beatha:1 singing:1 song:2 performance:1 chanting:1 occasionally:1 sermon:1 typically:1 explore:1 write:1 liturgy:4 sacrifice:2 reflect:1 namely:1 ordination:1 outdoor:2 vigil:1 celebrate:2 high:2 beltane:1 lughnasadh:1 samhain:1 imbolc:1 add:1 party:1 dance:1 etc:2 various:8 individual:3 private:1 small:3 separate:2 rejoin:1 initiatory:2 line:2 degree:3 major:5 theme:1 ecology:2 sense:1 live:1 lightly:1 address:1 personification:2 material:1 reality:1 béal:1 nonmaterial:1 essence:1 dalon:1 ap:1 landu:1 lord:1 devote:3 praise:2 health:1 music:1 fellowship:2 scholastic:1 post:2 art:7 formal:1 ár:5 ndraíocht:5 féin:5 triskelion:1 larson:1 ordain:1 relocate:1 california:1 eventually:1 encounter:1 together:1 affinity:1 practitioner:1 magic:2 magick:1 crowleans:1 period:1 activity:1 currently:2 visible:2 offshoot:1 adf:16 present:3 canada:1 country:1 taxonomy:1 distinguish:1 meso:1 analogy:1 terminology:1 e:3 paleolithic:1 mesolithic:1 neolithic:1 distinction:2 political:1 significant:1 traditional:1 considerably:1 complex:1 obvious:1 pattern:1 indo:3 centralized:1 structure:4 realize:1 complement:2 supplement:1 supplant:1 surprised:1 continue:1 repeal:1 someone:1 put:1 apparently:1 disorganized:1 appeal:1 stomach:1 exclusively:1 druidesses:1 morning:1 stag:1 midsummer:1 hill:2 tara:3 intermittently:1 save:1 campaign:1 skryne:1 valley:1 potential:1 environmental:1 impact:1 motorway:2 plan:1 propose:1 construction:1 would:1 acre:1 eight:1 lane:1 interchange:1 mile:1 km:1 clearly:1 historic:1 site:1 irreparably:1 damaging:1 varying:1 existence:1 relatively:1 young:1 process:1 establish:1 stable:1 community:1 yet:1 already:1 considerable:1 netherlands:1 offer:2 distance:1 learning:1 course:4 dutch:2 french:3 german:1 local:3 soon:1 open:2 david:1 dom:1 belgium:4 january:1 online:1 free:1 alternative:1 learn:3 mean:1 internet:2 main:2 goal:1 grow:1 exchange:1 nervii:1 nemeton:2 september:1 antwerp:1 possibly:1 belgian:1 seat:1 glastoratin:1 november:2 albidatla:1 druidion:1 arduina:2 assemblée:1 universelle:1 druides:2 raphaël:1 zander:1 gwenc:2 hlan:2 le:2 scouëzec:1 grand:3 brittany:2 france:5 fraternité:1 bardes:1 et:1 bretagne:1 fraternity:1 cercle:1 l:1 ambre:1 la:2 taverne:1 du:1 sidh:1 switzerland:1 kengerzhouriezh:1 drouizel:1 dreist:1 hanternoz:1 compagnonnage:1 druidique:1 hyperborée:1 kredenn:1 geltiek:1 hollvedel:1 worldwide:2 creed:1 kevanvod:1 tud:1 donn:1 assembly:1 ana:1 raffig:1 tullou:1 clochsliaph:2 hamm:1 germany:1 uwe:1 eckert:1 belle:1 vue:1 druidics:1 builder:1 compose:1 assortment:1 household:1 item:1 arrange:1 accordance:1 wish:1 moon:1 obod:11 tdn:2 keltria:5 uk:1 international:1 reach:1 descendant:1 result:1 disagreement:2 mr:1 focus:3 postal:1 acceptance:1 require:2 completion:2 tutor:1 initiation:1 person:1 individually:1 consist:1 herbalism:1 treelore:1 stonelore:1 myth:2 notable:1 exclude:1 christianity:1 easily:1 convert:1 allude:1 subdivision:1 cultivate:1 language:1 say:1 complexity:1 memory:1 keeper:1 lore:3 expect:1 even:1 bloodline:1 think:1 principally:1 seer:1 ritualist:1 herb:1 walk:1 meditative:1 tree:1 ogham:1 alignment:1 vocation:1 either:1 teacher:1 contemplative:1 equal:1 broad:1 specialized:2 field:1 scope:1 formality:1 except:1 must:1 least:1 seed:2 restriction:1 completely:1 autonomous:1 program:5 administer:1 office:1 maintain:3 contact:2 extensive:1 web:1 forum:1 via:1 mail:1 aoda:3 settler:1 descend:2 revive:1 john:1 michael:1 greer:1 archdruid:1 instrumental:1 bring:1 teaching:2 date:1 book:1 handbook:1 lay:1 esoteric:1 addition:1 natural:1 conservationist:1 ethic:1 slightly:1 hermetic:1 teach:1 comparative:1 linguistics:1 act:2 join:2 implies:1 polytheist:1 instead:1 basic:1 dedicants:1 guild:6 g:1 liturgists:1 healer:1 specialize:1 essentially:1 independent:1 monitoring:1 preceptor:1 decide:1 acceptable:1 advancement:1 special:2 award:1 pass:1 culminate:1 equivalent:1 master:1 status:1 pursuit:2 emulate:1 social:1 clergy:2 training:1 aspire:1 dedicant:1 prerequisite:1 differs:1 provide:1 example:1 pay:1 formalize:1 education:1 permanent:1 deal:1 development:3 fairly:1 loose:1 association:1 reporting:1 elect:1 board:1 director:1 annual:1 keltrian:1 dedicate:1 revere:1 growth:1 emphasis:1 relationship:1 draíocht:1 henge:2 publishes:1 resource:1 registry:1 pan:1 specifically:1 animism:1 polytheism:1 list:1 additional:1 reading:1 essay:1 contain:1 external:1 avalon:1 ado:1 website:4 location:1 bdo:1 cobdo:1 wood:1 western:1 canadian:2 confederation:1 confédération:1 canadienne:1 druide:1 directory:1 hibernian:1 scottish:1 caer:1 clud:1 albion:1 philip:1 carr:1 gomm:1 druidcast:1 podcast:1 anthology:1 andy:1 worthington:1 |@bigram neo_druid:10 neo_druidism:4 germanic_neopaganism:1 twentieth_century:2 fraternal_organization:1 celtic_reconstructionist:2 isaac_bonewits:4 bonewits_essential:1 guide_druidism:1 judeo_christian:1 archaeological_evidence:2 summer_solstice:2 bard_ovates:8 ovates_druid:7 garden_eden:1 eighteenth_nineteenth:1 nineteenth_century:2 solstice_equinox:1 reformed_druid:4 tongue_cheek:1 scotch_whisky:1 ár_ndraíocht:5 ndraíocht_féin:5 paleolithic_mesolithic:1 mesolithic_neolithic:1 indo_european:3 lane_motorway:1 mile_km:1 neo_druidic:4 antwerp_belgium:1 initiation_ceremony:1 arthurian_legend:1 celtic_polytheism:1 external_link:1 |
3,220 | Messerschmitt_Me_262 | The Messerschmitt Me 262 Schwalbe ("Swallow") was the world's first operational jet-powered fighter aircraft. Hecht, Heinrich. The World's First Turbojet Fighter - Messerschmitt Me 262. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 1990. ISBN 0-88740-234-8. It was produced in World War II and saw action starting in 1944 as a multi-role fighter/bomber/reconnaissance/interceptor warplane for the Luftwaffe. German pilots nicknamed this revolutionary aircraft the Sturmvogel ("Stormbird"), while Allied pilots referred to it in more droll terms as the "Blow Job". MacDonald, Duncan. "Chuck Yeager's Air Combat Review." Zero magazine, Issue 22, August 1991. The Me 262 had a negligible impact on the course of the war due to its late introduction, with 509 claimed Allied kills Green, William. Warplanes of the Third Reich. New York: Galahad Books, 1970. ISBN 0-88365-666-3. (although higher claims are sometimes made Morgan and Weal 1998, pp. 78, Appendix. This source estimates that jet fighters of all types produced 745 victories. ) against the loss of more than 100 Me 262s. Design and development Hans Guido Mutke's Me 262A on display at the Deutsches Museum The Me 262 was already being developed as Projekt P.1065 before the start of World War II. Plans were first drawn up in April 1939, and the original design was very similar to the plane that eventually entered service. The progression of the original design into service was delayed greatly by technical issues involving the new jet engines. Funding for the jet program was also initially lacking, as many high-ranking officials thought the war could easily be won with conventional aircraft. Among those was Hermann Göring, head of the Luftwaffe, who cut back the engine development program to just 35 engineers in February 1940; Willy Messerschmitt, who desired to maintain mass production of the Bf 109 and the projected Me 209; and Major General Adolf Galland, who supported Messerschmitt through the early development years, until flying the Me 262 himself on 22 April 1943. By that time, problems with engine development had slowed production of the aircraft considerably. Boyne 2008, pp. 58–61. In mid-1943, Adolf Hitler envisioned the Me 262 not as a defensive interceptor, but as an offensive ground-attack/bomber, almost as a very high speed, light payload Schnellbomber ("Fast Bomber"), to penetrate Allied air superiority during the expected invasion of France. His edict resulted in the development of (and concentration on) the Sturmvogel variant. It is debatable to what extent Hitler's interference extended the delay in bringing the Schwalbe into operation. Stormbirds history Price 1993, p. 176. Albert Speer, then Minister of Armaments and War Production, claims in his memoirs, that Hitler originally blocked mass production of the Me 262, before ageeing to their production in early 1944. However he rejected arguments that the plane would be more effective as a fighter against Allied bombers which were then destroying large parts of Germany and wanted it as a bomber with which to use for revenge attacks. The aircraft was originally designed with a tailwheel undercarriage and the first four prototypes (Me 262 V1-V4) were built with this configuration, but it was discovered on an early test run that the engines and wings "blanked" the stabilizers, giving almost no control on the ground, as well as serious runway surface damage from the hot jet exhaust. Changing to a tricycle undercarriage arrangement, initially a fixed undercarriage on the "V5" fifth prototype, then fully retractable on the sixth (V6, with code VI+AA) and succeeding aircraft, corrected this problem. Although it is often stated the Me 262 is a "swept wing" design, the production Me 262 had a leading edge sweep of only 18.5°. This was done primarily to properly position the center of lift relative to the centre of mass and not for the aerodynamic benefit of increasing the critical Mach number of the wing. The sweep was too slight to achieve any significant advantage. Loftin, L.K. Jr. Quest for Performance: The Evolution of Modern Aircraft. NASA SP-468. Retrieved: 22 April 2006. This happened after the initial design of the aircraft, when the engines proved to be heavier than originally expected. On 1 March 1940, instead of moving the wing forward on its mount, the outer wing was positioned slightly backwards to the same end. The middle section of the wing remained unswept. Radinger and Schick 1996, p. 18. . Based on data from the AVA Göttingen and windtunnel results, the middle section was later swept. Radinger and Schick 1996, pp. 12–13. The first test flights began on 18 April 1941, with the Me 262 V1 example, bearing its Stammkennzeichen radio code letters of PC+UA, but since its intended BMW 003 turbojets were not ready for fitting, a conventional Junkers Jumo 210 engine was mounted in the V1 prototype's nose, driving a propeller, to test the Me 262 V1 airframe. When the BMW 003 engines were finally installed, the Jumo was retained for safety, which proved wise as both 003s failed during the first flight and the pilot had to land using the nose mounted engine alone. Messerschmitt Me 262 Schwalbe The V3 third prototype airframe, with the code PC+UC, became a true "jet" when it flew on 18 July 1942 in Leipheim near Günzburg, Germany, piloted by Fritz Wendel. This was almost nine months ahead of the British Gloster Meteor's first flight on 5 March 1943. The tail-heavy attitude of the Me 262 caused its jet exhaust to deflect off the runway, negating the effects of the elevators, and the first attempt was cut short. On the second attempt, Wendel solved the problem by tapping the aircraft's brakes at takeoff speed, lowering the nose and lifting the tail. Boyne 2008, p. 60. The 003 engines, which were proving unreliable, were replaced by the newly available Junkers Jumo 004. Test flights continued over the next year, but the engines continued to be unreliable. Airframe modifications were complete by 1942, but hampered by the lack of engines, serial production did not begin until 1944. This delay in engine availability was in part due to the shortage of strategic materials, especially metals and alloys able to handle the extreme temperatures produced by the jet engine. Even when the engines were completed, they had an expected operational lifetime of approximately 50 continuous flight hours; in fact, most 004s lasted just 12 hours, even with adequate maintenance. A pilot familiar with the Me 262 and its engines could expect approximately 20-25 hours of life from the 004s. Changing a 004 engine was intended to require three hours, but this typically took eight to nine due to poorly made parts and inadequate training of ground crews. Turbojet engines have less thrust at low speed than propellers, and as a result, low-speed acceleration is relatively poor. It was more noticeable for the Me 262 as early jet engines (before the invention of afterburners) responded slowly to throttle changes. The introduction of a primitive autothrottle late in the war only helped slightly. Conversely, the higher power of jet engines at higher speeds meant the Me 262 enjoyed a much higher rate of climb. Used tactically, this gave the jet fighter an even greater speed advantage in climb rate than level flight at top speed. With one engine out, the Me 262 still flew well, with speeds of 450-500 km/h (280-310 mph), but pilots were warned never to fly slower than 300 km/h (190 mph) on one engine, as the asymmetrical thrust would cause serious problems. Operationally, the Me 262 had an endurance of 60 to 90 minutes. Operational history Me 262 A-1a In April 1944, Erprobungskommando 262 was formed at Lechfeld in Bavaria as a test unit (Jäger Erprobungskommando Thierfelder) to introduce the 262 into service and train a core of pilots to fly it. On 25 July 1944, Leutnant Alfred Schreiber with the 262 A-1a W.Nr. 130 017 damaged a Mosquito reconnaissance aircraft of No. 544 PR Squadron, which was lost in a crash landing upon landing at an air base in Italy. Morgan and Weal 1998, pp. 16–17. It was the first victory for a turbojet fighter aircraft in aviation history. Radinger and Schick 1996, p. 51. Major Walter Nowotny was assigned as commander after the death of Werner Thierfelder in July 1944, and the unit redesignated Kommando Nowotny. Essentially a trials and development unit, it holds the distinction of having mounted the world's first jet fighter operations. Trials continued slowly, with initial operational missions against the Allies in August 1944 allegedly downing 19 Allied aircraft for six Me 262s lost, although these claims have never been verified by cross-checking with USAAF records. The RAF Museum holds no intelligence reports of RAF aircraft engaging in combat with Me 262s in August, although there is a report of an unarmed encounter between an Me 262 and a Mosquito. Smith 1971, p. 103. Despite orders to stay grounded, Nowotny chose to fly a mission against an enemy formation. After an engine failure, he was shot down and killed on 8 November 1944 by First Lieutenant Edward "Buddy" Haydon of the 357th Fighter Group, USAAF and Captain Ernest "Feeb" Fiebelkorn of the 20th Fighter Group, USAAF. The Kommando was then withdrawn for further training and a revision of combat tactics to optimise the 262's strengths. By January 1945, Jagdgeschwader 7 (JG 7) had been formed as a pure jet fighter unit, although it would be several weeks before it was operational. In the meantime, a bomber unit — I Gruppe, Kampfgeschwader 54 (KG 54) — had re-equipped with the Me 262 A-2a fighter-bomber for use in a ground-attack role. However, the unit lost 12 jets in action in two weeks for minimal returns. Jagdverband 44 (JV 44) was another Me 262 fighter unit formed in February, by Lieutenant General Adolf Galland, who had recently been dismissed as Inspector of Fighters. Galland was able to draw into the unit many of the most experienced and decorated Luftwaffe fighter pilots from other units grounded by lack of fuel. During March, Me 262 fighter units were able, for the first time, to mount large scale attacks on Allied bomber formations. On 18 March 1945, 37 Me 262s of JG 7 intercepted a force of 1,221 bombers and 632 escorting fighters. They shot down 12 bombers and one fighter for the loss of three Me 262s. Although a 4:1 ratio was exactly what the Luftwaffe would have needed to make an impact on the war, the absolute scale of their success was minor, as it represented only one per cent of the attacking force. In 1943 and early 1944, the USAAF had been able to keep up offensive operations despite loss ratios of 5% and more, and the few available Me 262s could not inflict sufficient losses to hamper their operations. Side view of a Me 262 night fighter, note the radar antenna on the nose and second seat for a radar operator. Several two-seat trainer variants of the Me 262, the Me 262 B-1a, had been adapted as night fighters, complete with on-board FuG 218 Neptun radar and Hirschgeweih ("stag's antlers") antenna, as the B-1a/U1 version. Serving with 10 Staffel, Nachtjagdgeschwader 11, near Berlin, these few aircraft (alongside several single-seat examples) accounted for most of the 13 Mosquitoes lost over Berlin in the first three months of 1945. However, actual intercepts were generally or entirely made using Wilde Sau methods, rather than AI radar-controlled interception. As the two-seat trainer was largely unavailable, many pilots had to make their first flight in a jet in a single-seater without an instructor. Despite its deficiencies, the Me 262 clearly signaled the beginning of the end of piston-engined aircraft as effective fighting machines. Once airborne, it could accelerate to speeds well over 800 km/h (500 mph), over 150 km/h (90 mph) faster than any Allied fighter operational in the European Theater of Operations. The Me 262's top ace For a list of Luftwaffe jet aces see List of German World War II Jet aces was probably Hauptmann Franz Schall with 17 kills which included six four-engine bombers and ten P-51 Mustang fighters, although night fighter ace Oberleutnant Kurt Welter claimed 25 Mosquitos and two four-engine bombers shot down by night and two further Mosquitos by day flying the Me 262. Most of Welter's claimed night kills were achieved in standard radar-less aircraft, even though Welter had tested a prototype Me 262 fitted with FuG 218 Neptun radar. Another candidate for top ace on the aircraft was Oberstleutnant Heinrich Bär, who claimed 16 enemy aircraft while flying the Me 262. Anti-bomber tactics The standard approach against bomber formations, which were travelling at cruise speed, called for the Me 262 to approach the bombers from the rear at a higher altitude, diving in below the bomber's flight level to get additional speed before gaining altitude again and, on reaching the bomber's level, opening fire with its four 30 mm cannon at 600 m (656 yd) range. Allied bomber gunners found that their electric gun turrets had problems tracking the jets. Target acquisition was difficult because the jets closed into firing range quickly and had to remain in firing position only briefly using their standard attack profile. Eventually, new combat tactics were developed to counter the Allied bombers' defences. Me 262s equipped with R4M rockets would approach from the side of a bomber formation, where their silhouettes were widest, and while still out of range of the 12.7 mm (.50 in) guns, fire a salvo of these explosive rockets. The explosive power of only one or two of these rockets was capable of downing even the famously rugged B-17; a strike on an enemy aircraft meant its total annihilation. Brown 2006, p. 101. Although this tactic was effective, it came too late to have a real effect on the war. This method of attacking bombers became the standard until the invention and mass deployment of guided missiles. Some nicknamed this tactic the "Luftwaffes Wolf Pack", as the fighters would often make runs in groups of two or three, fire their rockets, then return to base. On 1 September 1944, USAAF General Carl Spaatz expressed the fear that if greater numbers of German jets appeared, they could inflict losses heavy enough to force cancellation of the Allied daylight bombing offensive. Counter-jet tactics Tactics against the Me 262 developed quickly despite its great speed advantage. Allied escort fighters would fly high above the bombers — diving from this height gave them extra speed, thus reducing the speed difference. The Me 262 was less maneuverable than the Mustang and trained Allied pilots could catch up to a turning Me 262, though the only reliable way of dealing with the jets, as with the even faster Me 163 Komet rocket fighters, was to attack them on the ground and during take off and landing. Luftwaffe airfields that were identified as jet bases were frequently bombed by medium bombers, and Allied fighters patrolled over the fields to attack jets trying to land. The Luftwaffe countered by installing flak alleys along the approach lines in order to protect the Me 262s from the ground and providing top cover with conventional fighters during takeoff and landing. Nevertheless, in March-April 1945, Allied fighter patrol patterns over Me 262 airfields resulted in numerous losses of jets and serious attrition of the force. Another experimental tactic was installing nitrous oxide injection, much like the Germans' own GM-1 system, into Mustangs. When chasing an Me 262, the pilot could press a button injecting nitrous oxide into the engine, producing a quick burst of speed. Other Allied fighters that encountered the Me 262 included the British Supermarine Spitfire, Hawker Tempest and the Soviet Lavochkin La-7. The first recorded Allied destruction of a Me 262, belonging to the unit known as Kommando Schenk, was on 28 August 1944, claimed as destroyed by 78th FG pilots Major Joseph Myers and Second Lieutenant Manford O. Croy flying P-47 Thunderbolts. Oberfeldwebel Hieronymus "Ronny" Lauer of I KG(J) 51, on a landing pattern crash landed his 262 to get away from the Allied fighters, which then destroyed the Me 262 in strafing attacks. Foreman and Harvey 1990 Ethell and Price 1979 The first Me 262 , belonging to 3. Staffel/Kampfgeschwader 51, with unit code letters "9K+BL", was shot down in combat on 5 October 1944 by Spitfire IXs of 401 RCAF. The 262 pilot was H.C. Butmann in WNr 170093 of 3./KG51. The Lavochkin was the only Soviet fighter to shoot down a German jet, with La-7 ace Ivan Nikitovich Kozhedub, downing an Me 262 on 15 February 1945 over eastern Germany. High speed research Me 262 interior Willy Messerschmitt regarded the Me 262 as only an interim type when it went into production. Swept wings had been proposed as early as 1935 by Adolf Busemann, and Messerschmitt had researched the topic from 1940. In April 1941, he proposed fitting a 35° swept wing (Pfeilflügel II, literally "arrow wing II") to the Me 262, Radinger and Schick 1996, p. 75. the same wing sweep angle that would later be used on both the American F-86 Sabre and Soviet MiG-15 fighter jets. Though this was not implemented, he continued with the projected HG II and HG III (Hochgeschwindigkeit, "high speed") derivatives in 1944, which were designed with a 35° and 45° wing sweep, respectively. Radinger and Schick 1996, pp. 75, 79. Note: Willy Messerschmitt July 1943. Interest in high-speed flight, which led him to initiate work on swept wings starting in 1940, is evident from the advanced developments Messerschmitt had on his drawing board in 1944. While the Me 262 HG I actually flight tested in 1944 had only small changes compared to combat aircraft, most notably a low-profile canopy (tried as the Rennkabine (literally "racing cabin") on the Me 262 V9 prototype for a short time) to reduce drag, the HG II and HG III designs were far more radical. The projected HG II combined the low-drag canopy with a 35° wing sweep and a butterfly tail. The HG III had a conventional tail, but a 45° wing sweep and turbines embedded in the wing roots. Radinger and Schick 1996, p. 79. Messerschmitt also conducted a series of flight tests with the series production Me 262. In dive tests, it was determined that the Me 262 went out of control in a dive at Mach 0.86, and that higher Mach numbers would lead to a nose-down trim that could not be countered by the pilot. The resulting steepening of the dive would lead to even higher speeds and disintegration of the airframe due to excessive negative g loads. The HG series of Me 262 derivatives was estimated to be capable of reaching transonic Mach numbers in level flight, with the top speed of the HG III being projected as Mach 0.96 at 6,000 m (19,690 ft) altitude. Despite the necessity to gain experience in high-speed flight for the HG II and III designs, Messerschmitt undertook no attempts to exceed the Mach 0.86 limit for the Me 262. After the war, the Royal Aircraft Establishment, at that time one of the leading institutions in high-speed research, re-tested the Me 262 to help with British attempts at exceeding Mach 1. The RAE achieved speeds of up to Mach 0.84 and confirmed the results from the Messerschmitt dive tests. Similar tests were run by the Soviets. No attempts were made to exceed the Mach limit established by Messerschmitt. After Willy Messerschmitt's death, the former Me 262 pilot Hans Guido Mutke claimed to be the first person to exceed Mach 1, on 9 April 1945 in a Me 262 in a "straight-down" 90° dive. This claim is disputed because it is only based on Mutke's memory of the incident, which recalls effects other Me 262 pilots observed below the speed of sound at high indicated airspeed, but with no altitude reading required to determine the actual speed. Furthermore, the pitot tube used to measure airspeed in aircraft can give falsely elevated readings as the pressure builds up inside the tube at high speeds. Finally, the Me 262 wing had only a slight sweep incorporated for trim (center of gravity) reasons and likely would have suffered structural failure due to divergence at high transonic speeds. One airframe (Me 262 HG1 V9 WNr130 004 VI+AD Radinger and Schick 1996 ) was prepared with the low-profile Rennkabine racing canopy and may have achieved an unofficial record speed of 975 km/h (606 mph), altitude unspecified. Flying Review, 1960s, date unknown Production Underground manufacture of Me 262s While Germany was bombed intensively, production of the Me 262 was dispersed into low-profile production facilities, sometimes little more than clearings in the forests of Germany and occupied nations. Through the end of February to the end of March 1945, approximately 60 Me 262s were destroyed in attacks on Obertraubling and 30 at Leipheim (the Neuberg jet plant was bombed on 19 March.) Large, heavily protected underground factories were constructed to take up production of the Me 262, safe from bomb attacks, but the war ended before they could be completed. At B8 Bergkristall-Esche II at St. Georgen/Gusen, Austria, forced labourers of Concentration Camp Gusen II produced fully equipped fuselages for the Me 262 at a monthly rate of 450 units on large assembly lines from early 1945. Haunschmied et al. 2008, p. 127. Wings for the Me 262 were produced in Germany's oldest motorway tunnel at Engelberg to the west of Stuttgart. In the end, slightly over 1,400 Me 262s of all versions were produced. As few as 200 Me 262s made it to combat units due to fuel shortages, pilot shortages, and the lack of airfields that could support the Me 262. Postwar history and flyable reproductions Reproduction of a Messerschmitt Me 262 at the Berlin Air Show 2006 After the end of the war, the Me 262 and other advanced German technologies were quickly swept up by the Americans (as part of the USAAF's Operation Lusty), British, and Soviets. Many Me 262s were found in readily-repairable condition and were confiscated. During testing, the Me 262 was found to have advantages over the early models of the Gloster Meteor. It was faster, had better cockpit visibility to the sides and rear (mostly due to the canopy frame and the discoloration caused by the plastics used in the Meteor's construction), and was a superior gun platform, as the early Meteors had a tendency to snake at high speed and exhibited "weak" aileron response. Ethell and Price 1994, pp. 97–99. The Me 262 did have a shorter combat range than the Meteor. The USAAF compared the P-80 Shooting Star and Me 262 concluding, "Despite a difference in gross weight of nearly 907 kg (2,000 lb), the Me 262 was superior to the P-80 in acceleration, speed and approximately the same in climb performance. The Me 262 apparently has a higher critical Mach number, from a drag standpoint, than any current Army Air Force fighter." Ethell and Price 1994, p. 180. The Army Air Force also tested an example of the Me 262A-1a/U3 (US flight evaluation serial FE-4012), an unarmed photoreconnaissance version, which was fitted with a fighter nose and given an overall smooth finish. It was used for performance comparisons against the P-80. During testing between May and August 1946, the aircraft completed eight flights, lasting four hours and 40 minutes. Testing was discontinued after four engine changes were required during the course of the tests, culminating in two single-engine landings. Butler 1994 These aircraft were extensively studied, aiding development of early U.S. and Soviet jet fighters. The F-86 Sabre, designed by the engineer Edgar Schmued, used the Me 262 airfoil (Messerschmitt Wing A) and a slat design similar to that of the Me 262. Radinger and Schick 1996, p. 15. The Czechoslovak aircraft industry continued to produce single-seater (designated Avia S-92) and two-seater (designated Avia CS-92) variants of the Me 262 after World War II. From August 1946, a total of nine single-seater S-92 and three two-seater CS-92 planes were completed and test flown. They were introduced in 1947 and in 1950 they were supplied to the 5th Fighter Squadron. These were kept flying as late as 1957. They were the first jet fighters to serve in the Czechoslovak Air Force. Both versions are on display at the Prague Aero museum in Kbely. In January 2003, the American Me 262 Project completed flight testing to allow for delivery of near-exact reproductions of several versions of the Me 262 including at least two B-1c two-seater variants, one A-1c single seater and two "convertibles" that could be switched between the A-1c and B-1c configurations. All are powered by General Electric J85 engines and feature additional safety features, such as upgraded brakes and strengthened landing gear. The "c" suffix refers to the new J-85 powerplant and has been informally assigned with the approval of the Messerschmitt Foundation in Germany (the Werk Number of the reproductions picked up where the last wartime produced Me-262 left off - a coninuous airframe serial number run with a 50 year production break). Flight testing of the first newly manufactured Me 262 A-1c (single-seat) variant was completed in August 2005. The first of these machines went to a private owner in the southwestern United States, while the second was delivered to the Messerschmitt Foundation at Manching, Germany. This aircraft conducted a private test flight in late April 2006, and made its public debut in May at the ILA 2006. The new Me 262 flew during the public flight demonstrations. Me 262 Flies again Me 262 Werk Number 501241 was delivered to the Collings Foundation as White 1 of JG 7. This aircraft will be offering ride-along flights starting in 2008. Messerschmitt Me 262 Flight Program Variants Me 262 A-1a/U4, postwar image Me 262 A-0 Pre-production aircraft fitted with two Jumo 004B turbojet engines, 23 built. Me 262 A-1a "Schwalbe" Production version, fighter and fighter/bomber. Me 262 A-1a/R-1 Equipped with provisions for R4M air-to-air rockets Me 262 A-1a/U1 Single prototype with a total of six nose mounted guns, two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons, two 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 103 cannons, and two 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons. Me 262 A-1a/U2 Single prototype with FuG 220 Lichtenstein SN-2 90 MHz radar transceiver and Hirschgeweih antenna array, for trials as a night-fighter. Me 262 A-1a/U3 Reconnaissance version modified in small numbers, with Reihenbilder RB 20/30 cameras mounted in the nose (sometimes one RB 20/20 and one RB 75/30). Some retained one 30 mm (1.18 in) cannon, but most were unarmed. Me 262 A-1a/U4 Bomber destroyer version, two prototypes with an adapted 50 mm (2 in) MK 214 (or Bordkanone BK 5) anti-tank gun in nose. Me 262 A-1a/U5 Heavy jet fighter with six 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108s in the nose Me 262 A-1b As A-1a but powered with BMW 003 engines. Few were built, two are known to have existed at experimental establishments; maximum speed of 800 km/h (500 mph). Me 262 A-2a "Sturmvogel" Definitive bomber version retaining only the two lower 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108s. Me 262 A-2a/U1 Single prototype with advanced bombsight. Me 262 A-2a/U2 Two prototypes with glazed nose for accommodating a bombardier. Me 262 A-3a Proposed ground-attack version. Me 262 A-4a Reconnaissance version. Me 262 A-5a Definitive reconnaissance version used in small numbers at end of the war. Me 262 B-1a Two-seat trainer. Me 262 B-1a/U1 Me 262 B-1a trainers converted into provisional night fighters, FuG 218 Neptun radar (Radar) Me 262 B-2 Proposed night fighter version with stretched fuselage. Me 262 C-1a Single prototype [made from Me 262A Werknummer 130 186] of rocket-boosted interceptor (Heimatschützer I) with Walter HWK 109-509 rocket in tail, first flown with combined jet/rocket power on 27 February 1945. Description of rocket propulsion sytem on the Me 262 C-1a Me 262 C-2b Single prototype [made from Me 262A Werknummer 170 074] of rocket-boosted interceptor (Heimatschützer II) with two BMW 003R "combined" powerplants (BMW 003 jet, with one BMW 718 rocket engine mounted atop the rear of each jet exhaust) for boosted thrust, only flown once with combined jet/rocket power on 26 March 1945. Video of BMW 718 rocket engine test firing on this aircraft Me 262 C-3a Never-completed. possible Heimatschützer III prototype of rocket-boosted interceptor with Walter rocket motor in belly pack. Description of rocket propulsion system on the Me 262 C-3a Me 262 D-1 Proposed variant to carry Jagdfaust mortars. Me 262 E-1 Proposed cannon-armed variant based on A-1a/U4. Me 262 E-2 Proposed rocket-armed variant carrying up to 48 × R4M rockets. Me 262 S Zero-series model for Me 262 A-1a Me 262 V Test model for Me 262 Me 262 W Provisional designation for Me262 with pulse-jet engines Postwar variants Avia S-92, the Czechoslovak-built Me 262A Avia S-92 Czech-built Me 262 A-1a. Avia CS-92 Czech-built Me 262 B-1a. Reproductions These reproductions are constructed by Legend Flyers of Everett, Washington. The Jumo-004 engines of the original are replaced by more reliable General Electric J85 engines. The first Me 262 reproduction (a two-seater) took off for the first time in December 2002 and the second one in August 2005. This one was delivered to the Messerschmitt Foundation and was presented at the ILA airshow in 2006. Stormbirds A-1c American privately built, based on A-1a configuration. B-1c American privately built, based on B-1a configuration. A/B-1c American privately built, convertible between A-1a and B-1a configuration. Operators Luftwaffe Czechoslovak Air Force (Postwar, nine S-92 and three CS-92) Survivors Me 262B-1a/U1 (Red 8) Me 262 B-1a (White 35) Me 262A and its Junkers Jumo 004 turbojet engine (Yellow 5) Me 262A, W.Nr.500071 "White 3", III./JG 7 Deutsches Museum Deutsches Museum about Inv.-No.: 73736 , Munich, Germany. This aircraft, flown by Hans Guido Mutke while a pilot of 9. Staffel/JG 7, was confiscated by Swiss authorities on 25 April 1945 after Mutke made an emergency landing in Switzerland due to lack of fuel (80 litres were remaining, 35 litres were usually burnt in one minute). Me 262 A-1a Reconstructed from parts of crashed and uncompleted Me 262. Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr, Germany. Me 262 A-1a W.Nr.501232 "Yellow 5", 3./KG(J)6 National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, USA. Me 262 A-1a/U3 W.Nr.500453 Flying Heritage Collection, Arlington, Washington, USA, scheduled reopen in Everett, Washington in Summer 2008, currently under restoration in England. Me 262 A-1a W.Nr.500491 "Yellow 7", II./JG 7 Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA. Me 262 A-2a W.Nr.112372 RAF Museum Hendon, United Kingdom. Me 262 A-2a W.Nr.500200 "Black X 9K+XK", II./KG 51 Australian War Memorial, Canberra, Australia. Me 262 B-1a/U1, W.Nr.110305 "Red 8" South African National Museum of Military History, Johannesburg, South Africa. Me 262 B-1a, W.Nr.110639 "White 35" NAS Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, USA. Avia S-92 Aviation Museum Kbely, Prague, Czech Republic. Avia CS-92 Aviation Museum Kbely, Prague, Czech Republic. Popular culture The American hard rock band Blue Öyster Cult portrayed an Me 262 on the cover of their third album Secret Treaties (1974). The album also contains a song, Me 262, written from the point of view of a Luftwaffe pilot on a bomber interception mission in April 1945. Miller, Jim. "Secret Treaties Review". Rolling Stone, 20 June 1974. Retrieved: 24 July 2008. Clive Cussler's famous fictional character Dirk Pitt owns an Me 262, which he acquired when he helped excavate a hidden airfield that held a number of the aircraft. Hooser, Chris Van. Chris Van Hooser's Guide to Dirk Pitt. Retrieved: 24 July 2008. In the PC flight-simulator Chuck Yeager's Air Combat, a virtual Chuck Yeager voiced by himself, accurately states that Allied pilots used the term Blow Job as a nickname for the Me 262s. MacDonald, Duncan. "Chuck Yeager's Air Combat Review." Zero magazine, Issue 22, August 1991. Specifications (Messerschmitt Me 262 A-1a) Orthographically projected diagram of the Messerschmitt Me 262. {{aircraft specifications |plane or copter?=plane |jet or prop?=jet |ref=Quest for Performance Original Messerschmitt documents Radinger and Schick 1996, p.110 based on original Messerschmitt data |crew=1 |length main=10.60 m |length alt=34 ft 9 in |span main=12.60 m |span alt=41 ft 6 in |height main=3.50 m |height alt=11 ft 6 in |area main=21.7 m² |area alt=234 ft² |empty weight main=4,404 kg |empty weight alt=9,709 lb |loaded weight main= 7,130 kg |loaded weight alt= 15,720 lb |max takeoff weight main=6977 kg |max takeoff weight alt=15,381 lb |more general= Aspect ratio: 7.32 |engine (jet)=Junkers Jumo 004 B-1 |type of jet=turbojets |number of jets=2 |thrust main=8.8 kN |thrust alt=1,980 lbf |max speed main=900 km/h |max speed alt=559 mph |range main=1,050 km |range alt=652 mi |ceiling main=11,450 m |ceiling alt=37,565 ft |climb rate main=1,200 m/min |climb rate alt=3,900 ft/min |loading main= |loading alt= |thrust/weight=0.28 |guns=4 × 30 mm MK 108 cannons (A-2a: two cannons) |bombs=2 × 250 kg (551 lb) bombs or 2 × 500 kg (1,102 lb) bombs (A-2a only) |rockets=24 × 55 mm (2.2 in) R4M rockets }} See also Notes References Citations Bibliography Boyne, Walter J. "Goering's Big Bungle". Air Force Magazine, November 2008, Vol. 91, No. 11. Brown, Eric. Wings on My Sleeve. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006. ISBN 0-29784-565-9. Butler, Phil. War prizes: An Illustrated Survey of German, Italian and Japanese Aircraft brought to Allied Countries During and After the Second World War. Leicestershire, UK: Midland, 1994. ISBN 0-90459-786-5. Ethell, Jeffrey and Alfred Price. The German Jets in Combat. London: Jane's Publishing Company, 1979. ISBN 0-35401-252-5. Ethell, Jeffrey and Alfred Price. World War II Fighting Jets. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1994. ISBN 1-55750-940-9. Foreman, John and S.E. Harvey. The Messerschmitt Me 262 Combat Diary. Surrey, UK: Air Research Publications; England, 1990. ISBN 1-871187-30-3. Haunschmied, Rudolf A., Jan-Ruth Mills and Siegi Witzany-Durda. St. Georgen-Gusen-Mauthausen - Concentration Camp Mauthausen Reconsidered. Norderstedt, Germany: BoD, 2008. ISBN 978-3-8334-7610-5. Morgan, Hugh and John Weal. German Jet Aces of World War 2 (Osprey Aircraft of the Aces No 17). London: Osprey, 1998. ISBN 1-85532-634-5. O'Connell, Dan. Messerschmitt Me 262: The Production Log 1941-1945. Leicestershire, UK: Classic Publications, 2006. ISBN 1-903223-59-8. Price, Alfred. "Sleek and Deadly: The Messerschmitt Me 262." Flight Journal, February 2007. Price, Alfred. The Last Year of the Luftwaffe: May 1944 to May 1945. London: Greenhill Books, 1993. ISBN 1-85367-440-0. Radinger, Will and Walter Schick. Me262 (in German). Berlin: Avantic Verlag GmbH, 1996. ISBN 3-925505-21-0. Smith, J. Richard. Messerschmitt: An Aircraft Album. New York: Arco Publishing, 1971. ISBN 0-668-02505-5. Smith, J. Richard and Edward J. Creek. Jet Planes of the Third Reich. Boylston, Massachusetts: Monogram Aviation Publications, 1982. ISBN 0-914144-27-8. External links The archive about the assignment of persons and material of the German Air Force in the Second World War German Me262 combat footage of Me262s Jet Aces of the Luftwaffe Warbird Alley: Me 262 page- History, specs, photos and links ME 262 page at Aviation enthusiast Corner Messerschmitt Me 262B Stormbirds - Official home of the Me 262 Project, and several Me 262 related features The Messerschmitt Me 262 at Air Vectors | Messerschmitt_Me_262 |@lemmatized messerschmitt:30 schwalbe:4 swallow:1 world:11 first:23 operational:6 jet:46 power:7 fighter:44 aircraft:35 hecht:1 heinrich:2 turbojet:6 atglen:1 pennsylvania:2 schiffer:1 publishing:3 isbn:14 produce:9 war:20 ii:16 saw:1 action:2 start:4 multi:1 role:2 bomber:27 reconnaissance:5 interceptor:5 warplane:2 luftwaffe:12 german:12 pilot:20 nickname:3 revolutionary:1 sturmvogel:3 stormbird:1 allied:17 refer:1 droll:1 term:2 blow:2 job:2 macdonald:2 duncan:2 chuck:4 yeager:4 air:18 combat:13 review:4 zero:3 magazine:3 issue:3 august:9 negligible:1 impact:2 course:2 due:8 late:5 introduction:2 claim:10 kill:4 green:1 william:1 third:4 reich:2 new:6 york:2 galahad:1 book:2 although:8 high:20 sometimes:3 make:12 morgan:3 weal:3 pp:6 appendix:1 source:1 estimate:2 type:3 victory:2 loss:6 design:11 development:8 han:3 guido:3 mutke:5 display:2 deutsches:3 museum:10 already:1 develop:3 projekt:1 p:18 plan:1 draw:3 april:11 original:5 similar:3 plane:6 eventually:2 enter:1 service:3 progression:1 delay:3 greatly:1 technical:1 involve:1 engine:37 funding:1 program:3 also:5 initially:2 lack:5 many:4 ranking:1 official:2 think:1 could:11 easily:1 win:1 conventional:4 among:1 hermann:1 göring:1 head:1 cut:2 back:1 engineer:2 february:6 willy:4 desire:1 maintain:1 mass:4 production:17 bf:1 project:7 major:3 general:6 adolf:4 galland:3 support:2 early:10 year:4 fly:17 time:5 problem:5 slow:2 considerably:1 boyne:3 mid:1 hitler:3 envision:1 defensive:1 offensive:3 ground:9 attack:13 almost:3 speed:33 light:1 payload:1 schnellbomber:1 fast:1 penetrate:1 superiority:1 expected:1 invasion:1 france:1 edict:1 result:6 concentration:3 variant:10 debatable:1 extent:1 interference:1 extend:1 bring:2 operation:6 stormbirds:3 history:6 price:8 albert:1 speer:1 minister:1 armament:1 memoir:1 originally:3 block:1 ageeing:1 however:3 reject:1 argument:1 would:11 effective:3 destroy:4 large:4 part:5 germany:11 want:1 use:13 revenge:1 tailwheel:1 undercarriage:3 four:6 prototype:14 build:9 configuration:5 discover:1 test:22 run:4 wing:19 blank:1 stabilizer:1 give:5 control:3 well:4 serious:3 runway:2 surface:1 damage:2 hot:1 exhaust:3 change:5 tricycle:1 arrangement:1 fixed:1 fifth:1 fully:2 retractable:1 sixth:1 code:4 vi:2 aa:1 succeed:1 correct:1 often:2 state:4 swept:3 lead:5 edge:1 sweep:10 primarily:1 properly:1 position:3 center:2 lift:2 relative:1 centre:1 aerodynamic:1 benefit:1 increase:1 critical:2 mach:11 number:12 slight:2 achieve:4 significant:1 advantage:4 loftin:1 l:1 k:1 jr:1 quest:2 performance:4 evolution:1 modern:1 nasa:1 sp:1 retrieve:3 happen:1 initial:2 prove:3 heavy:4 expect:3 march:8 instead:1 move:1 forward:1 mount:7 outer:1 slightly:3 backwards:1 end:8 middle:2 section:2 remain:3 unswept:1 radinger:10 schick:10 base:10 data:2 ava:1 göttingen:1 windtunnel:1 later:2 flight:23 begin:2 example:3 bear:1 stammkennzeichen:1 radio:1 letter:2 pc:3 ua:1 since:1 intend:2 bmw:7 ready:1 fit:5 junker:4 jumo:7 nose:11 drive:1 propeller:2 airframe:6 finally:2 instal:3 retain:3 safety:2 wise:1 fail:1 land:7 mounted:1 alone:1 uc:1 become:2 true:1 july:6 leipheim:2 near:3 günzburg:1 fritz:1 wendel:2 nine:4 month:2 ahead:1 british:4 gloster:2 meteor:5 tail:5 attitude:1 cause:3 deflect:1 negate:1 effect:3 elevator:1 attempt:5 short:3 second:7 solve:1 tap:1 brake:2 takeoff:4 lower:1 unreliable:2 replace:2 newly:2 available:2 continue:5 next:1 modification:1 complete:9 hamper:2 serial:3 availability:1 shortage:3 strategic:1 material:2 especially:1 metal:1 alloy:1 able:4 handle:1 extreme:1 temperature:1 even:7 lifetime:1 approximately:4 continuous:1 hour:5 fact:1 last:4 adequate:1 maintenance:1 familiar:1 life:1 require:3 three:6 typically:1 take:4 eight:2 poorly:1 inadequate:1 training:2 crew:2 less:2 thrust:6 low:7 acceleration:2 relatively:1 poor:1 noticeable:1 invention:2 afterburner:1 respond:1 slowly:2 throttle:1 primitive:1 autothrottle:1 help:3 conversely:1 mean:2 enjoy:1 much:2 rate:5 climb:5 tactically:1 great:3 level:4 top:5 one:15 still:2 flew:1 km:8 h:8 mph:7 warn:1 never:3 asymmetrical:1 operationally:1 endurance:1 minute:3 erprobungskommando:2 form:3 lechfeld:1 bavaria:1 unit:14 jäger:1 thierfelder:2 introduce:2 train:2 core:1 leutnant:1 alfred:5 schreiber:1 w:10 nr:9 mosquito:5 pr:1 squadron:2 lose:4 crash:2 upon:1 italy:1 aviation:5 walter:5 nowotny:3 assign:2 commander:1 death:2 werner:1 redesignated:1 kommando:3 essentially:1 trial:3 hold:3 distinction:1 mission:3 ally:3 allegedly:1 six:4 verify:1 cross:1 checking:1 usaaf:7 record:3 raf:3 intelligence:1 report:2 engage:1 unarmed:3 encounter:2 smith:3 despite:6 order:2 stay:1 choose:1 enemy:3 formation:4 failure:2 shoot:6 november:2 lieutenant:3 edward:2 buddy:1 haydon:1 group:3 captain:1 ernest:1 feeb:1 fiebelkorn:1 withdraw:1 revision:1 tactic:8 optimise:1 strength:1 january:2 jagdgeschwader:1 jg:6 pure:1 several:5 week:2 meantime:1 gruppe:1 kampfgeschwader:2 kg:10 equip:4 two:25 minimal:1 return:2 jagdverband:1 jv:1 another:3 recently:1 dismiss:1 inspector:1 experienced:1 decorated:1 fuel:3 scale:2 intercept:2 force:13 escort:2 ratio:3 exactly:1 need:1 absolute:1 success:1 minor:1 represent:1 per:1 cent:1 keep:1 inflict:2 sufficient:1 side:3 view:2 night:8 note:3 radar:9 antenna:3 seat:6 operator:2 trainer:4 b:18 adapt:1 board:2 fug:4 neptun:3 hirschgeweih:2 stag:1 antler:1 version:13 serve:2 staffel:3 nachtjagdgeschwader:1 berlin:4 alongside:1 single:12 account:1 actual:2 generally:1 entirely:1 wilde:1 sau:1 method:2 rather:1 ai:1 interception:2 largely:1 unavailable:1 seater:8 without:1 instructor:1 deficiency:1 clearly:1 signal:1 beginning:1 piston:1 engined:1 fight:2 machine:2 airborne:1 accelerate:1 faster:3 european:1 theater:1 ace:9 list:2 see:2 probably:1 hauptmann:1 franz:1 schall:1 include:3 ten:1 mustang:3 oberleutnant:1 kurt:1 welter:3 day:1 standard:4 le:1 though:3 candidate:1 oberstleutnant:1 bär:1 anti:2 approach:4 travel:1 cruise:1 call:1 rear:3 altitude:5 dive:7 get:2 additional:2 gain:2 reach:2 open:1 fire:6 mm:11 cannon:8 yd:1 range:6 gunner:1 find:3 electric:3 gun:6 turret:1 track:1 target:1 acquisition:1 difficult:1 close:1 quickly:3 briefly:1 profile:4 counter:4 defence:1 rocket:21 silhouette:1 wide:1 salvo:1 explosive:2 capable:2 famously:1 rugged:1 strike:1 total:3 annihilation:1 brown:2 come:1 real:1 deployment:1 guided:1 missile:1 wolf:1 pack:2 september:1 carl:1 spaatz:1 express:1 fear:1 appear:1 enough:1 cancellation:1 daylight:1 bomb:7 height:3 extra:1 thus:1 reduce:2 difference:2 maneuverable:1 catch:1 turn:1 reliable:2 way:1 deal:1 komet:1 airfield:4 identify:1 frequently:1 medium:1 patrol:2 field:1 try:2 flak:1 alley:2 along:2 line:2 protect:2 provide:1 cover:2 landing:4 nevertheless:1 pattern:2 numerous:1 attrition:1 experimental:2 nitrous:2 oxide:2 injection:1 like:1 gm:1 system:2 chase:1 press:1 button:1 inject:1 quick:1 burst:1 supermarine:1 spitfire:2 hawker:1 tempest:1 soviet:6 lavochkin:2 la:2 destruction:1 belong:2 know:2 schenk:1 fg:1 joseph:1 myers:1 manford:1 croy:1 thunderbolt:1 oberfeldwebel:1 hieronymus:1 ronny:1 lauer:1 j:7 away:1 strafe:1 foreman:2 harvey:2 ethell:5 bl:1 october:1 ix:1 rcaf:1 c:9 butmann:1 wnr:1 ivan:1 nikitovich:1 kozhedub:1 eastern:1 research:4 interior:1 regard:1 interim:1 go:3 propose:7 busemann:1 topic:1 pfeilflügel:1 literally:2 arrow:1 angle:1 american:7 f:2 sabre:2 mig:1 implement:1 hg:10 iii:7 hochgeschwindigkeit:1 derivative:2 respectively:1 interest:1 initiate:1 work:1 evident:1 advanced:3 actually:1 small:3 compare:2 notably:1 canopy:4 rennkabine:2 race:2 cabin:1 drag:3 far:1 radical:1 combine:3 butterfly:1 turbine:1 embed:1 root:1 conduct:2 series:4 determine:2 trim:2 steepening:1 disintegration:1 excessive:1 negative:1 g:1 load:5 transonic:2 ft:6 necessity:1 experience:1 undertake:1 exceed:4 limit:2 royal:1 establishment:2 institution:2 rae:1 confirm:1 establish:1 former:1 person:2 straight:1 dispute:1 memory:1 incident:1 recall:1 observe:1 sound:1 indicated:1 airspeed:2 reading:2 furthermore:1 pitot:1 tube:2 measure:1 falsely:1 elevated:1 pressure:1 inside:1 incorporate:1 gravity:1 reason:1 likely:1 suffer:1 structural:1 divergence:1 ad:1 prepare:1 may:5 unofficial:1 unspecified:1 date:1 unknown:1 underground:2 manufacture:2 intensively:1 disperse:1 facility:1 little:1 clearing:1 forest:1 occupied:1 nation:1 obertraubling:1 neuberg:1 plant:1 heavily:1 factory:1 construct:2 safe:1 bergkristall:1 esche:1 st:3 georgen:2 gusen:3 austria:1 labourer:1 camp:2 fuselage:2 monthly:1 assembly:1 haunschmied:2 et:1 al:1 old:1 motorway:1 tunnel:1 engelberg:1 west:1 stuttgart:1 postwar:4 flyable:1 reproduction:7 show:1 technology:1 lusty:1 readily:1 repairable:1 condition:1 confiscate:2 model:3 cockpit:1 visibility:1 mostly:1 frame:1 discoloration:1 plastic:1 construction:1 superior:2 platform:1 tendency:1 snake:1 exhibit:1 weak:1 aileron:1 response:1 star:1 concluding:1 gross:1 weight:8 nearly:1 lb:6 apparently:1 standpoint:1 current:1 army:2 u:2 evaluation:1 fe:1 photoreconnaissance:1 overall:1 smooth:1 finish:1 comparison:1 discontinue:1 culminate:1 butler:2 extensively:1 study:1 aid:1 edgar:1 schmued:1 airfoil:1 slat:1 czechoslovak:4 industry:1 designate:2 avia:7 cs:3 supply:1 kept:1 prague:3 aero:1 kbely:3 allow:1 delivery:1 exact:1 least:1 convertible:2 switch:1 feature:3 upgraded:1 strengthen:1 gear:1 suffix:1 refers:1 powerplant:1 informally:1 approval:1 foundation:4 werk:2 pick:1 wartime:1 leave:1 coninuous:1 break:1 testing:1 private:2 owner:1 southwestern:1 united:3 deliver:3 manching:1 public:2 debut:1 ila:2 demonstration:1 collings:1 white:4 offer:1 ride:1 image:1 pre:1 built:1 r:1 provision:1 mg:1 mk:6 lichtenstein:1 sn:1 mhz:1 transceiver:1 array:1 modify:1 reihenbilder:1 rb:3 camera:1 destroyer:1 adapted:1 bordkanone:1 bk:1 tank:1 exist:1 maximum:1 definitive:2 bombsight:1 glazed:1 accommodate:1 bombardier:1 convert:1 provisional:2 stretched:1 werknummer:2 boost:4 heimatschützer:3 hwk:1 combined:1 description:2 propulsion:2 sytem:1 powerplants:1 atop:1 flown:1 video:1 possible:1 motor:1 belly:1 carry:2 jagdfaust:1 mortar:1 e:3 arm:2 v:1 designation:1 pulse:1 czech:4 legend:1 flyer:1 everett:2 washington:4 december:1 present:1 airshow:1 privately:3 survivor:1 red:2 yellow:3 inv:1 munich:1 swiss:1 authority:1 emergency:1 switzerland:1 litre:2 usually:1 burn:1 reconstruct:1 crashed:1 uncompleted:1 luftwaffenmuseum:1 der:1 bundeswehr:1 national:2 wright:1 patterson:1 dayton:1 ohio:1 usa:4 heritage:1 collection:1 arlington:1 schedule:1 reopen:1 summer:1 currently:1 restoration:1 england:2 smithsonian:1 dc:1 hendon:1 kingdom:1 black:1 x:1 xk:1 australian:1 memorial:1 canberra:1 australia:1 south:2 african:1 military:1 johannesburg:1 africa:1 na:1 willow:1 grove:1 republic:2 popular:1 culture:1 hard:1 rock:1 band:1 blue:1 öyster:1 cult:1 portray:1 album:3 secret:2 treaty:2 contain:1 song:1 write:1 point:1 miller:1 jim:1 roll:1 stone:1 june:1 clive:1 cussler:1 famous:1 fictional:1 character:1 dirk:2 pitt:2 acquire:1 excavate:1 hidden:1 hooser:2 chris:2 van:2 guide:1 simulator:1 virtual:1 voice:1 accurately:1 specification:2 orthographically:1 diagram:1 copter:1 prop:1 ref:1 document:1 length:2 main:13 alt:13 span:2 area:2 empty:2 max:4 aspect:1 turbojets:1 kn:1 lbf:1 mi:1 ceiling:2 min:2 bombs:1 reference:1 citation:1 bibliography:1 goering:1 big:1 bungle:1 vol:1 eric:1 sleeve:1 london:4 weidenfeld:1 nicolson:1 phil:1 prize:1 illustrated:1 survey:1 italian:1 japanese:1 country:1 leicestershire:2 uk:3 midland:1 jeffrey:2 jane:1 company:1 paul:1 minnesota:1 motorbooks:1 international:1 john:2 diary:1 surrey:1 publication:3 rudolf:1 jan:1 ruth:1 mill:1 siegi:1 witzany:1 durda:1 mauthausen:2 reconsider:1 norderstedt:1 bod:1 hugh:1 osprey:2 connell:1 dan:1 log:1 classic:1 sleek:1 deadly:1 journal:1 greenhill:1 avantic:1 verlag:1 gmbh:1 richard:2 arco:1 creek:1 boylston:1 massachusetts:1 monogram:1 external:1 link:2 archive:1 assignment:1 footage:1 warbird:1 page:2 spec:1 photo:1 enthusiast:1 corner:1 home:1 related:1 vector:1 |@bigram atglen_pennsylvania:1 pennsylvania_schiffer:1 schiffer_publishing:1 fighter_bomber:3 chuck_yeager:4 third_reich:2 deutsches_museum:3 hermann_göring:1 willy_messerschmitt:4 adolf_hitler:1 albert_speer:1 swept_wing:3 radinger_schick:9 junker_jumo:4 gloster_meteor:2 turbojet_engine:3 h_mph:6 per_cent:1 radar_antenna:1 piston_engined:1 mph_km:1 dive_bomber:1 gun_turret:1 guided_missile:1 takeoff_landing:1 nitrous_oxide:2 supermarine_spitfire:1 lavochkin_la:1 mig_fighter:1 concentration_camp:2 et_al:1 kg_lb:3 collings_foundation:1 rocket_propulsion:2 wright_patterson:1 dayton_ohio:1 smithsonian_institution:1 washington_dc:1 canberra_australia:1 prague_czech:2 czech_republic:2 blue_öyster:1 öyster_cult:1 roll_stone:1 flight_simulator:1 orthographically_project:1 alt_ft:5 takeoff_weight:2 kn_thrust:1 boyne_walter:1 london_weidenfeld:1 weidenfeld_nicolson:1 ethell_jeffrey:2 minnesota_motorbooks:1 motorbooks_international:1 london_greenhill:1 greenhill_book:1 verlag_gmbh:1 arco_publishing:1 external_link:1 warbird_alley:1 |
3,221 | German_cuisine | |A German style buffet German cuisine is a style of cooking derived from the nation of Germany. It has evolved as a national cuisine through centuries of social and political change with variations from region to region. The southern regions of Germany, Bavaria and Swabia share many dishes. Ingredients and dishes vary by province. There are many significant regional dishes that have become both national and regional. Many dishes that were once regional, however, have proliferated in different variations across the country in the present day. Regional cuisine Thuringia Thüringer rostbratwurst Agriculture figures highly into the diet of Thuringia with about half of the state being used for agriculture. Wheat, rapeseed, sugarbeet, and barley grow well, along with a variety of vegetables which grow near Erfurt, the state's capital. Cauliflower (740 acres), cabbage (savoy, red, white) (25 acres), kohlrabi (37 acres), broccoli (37 acres) grow by traditional means near Erfurt. Tomatoes, lettuce, broad beans, onions, and cucumbers are grown in the eastern portion of the region near Jena under glass centers on about of land. Thuringia is the second largest herb-growing region in Germany; the town of Kolleda was once considered the "peppermint town", where herb growers used to congregate to study herb cultivation. Metzger, 13,19. One-third of Thuringia is covered in forest, and is considered to be one of the best game hunting regions in Germany. Until the unification of East and West Germany, the game meats were reserved for those privileged enough to obtain it in luxury hotels, or it was exported. Today anyone with a proper permit may hunt for game such as red deer, roe deer, wild boar, rabbit, duck, and moufflon (mountain sheep). Pheasant, capercaille, and black cock are all protected game species that may not be hunted. The wooded areas also contain a wide variety of edible mushrooms such as chestnut mushrooms, porcini, and chanterelle, along with wild berries such as blueberries, cranberries, raspberries, and blackberries which are all traditional accompaniments to game dishes. Metzger, 20. The most famous foods from Thuringia are Thuringian sausages and Thuringian dumplings. The state is also known for its sausages; steamed, scaled, and cured varieties are all prepared. Popular varieties include Thüringer mettwurst (a spreadable cured sausage), Feldkieker (a cured, air-dried sausage dried up to eight months), Thüringer leberwurst (a steamed pork and liver sausage), Thüringer rotwurst (a steamed blood sausage packed in a bladder or other natural casing). Metzger, 22-25. Saxony-Anhalt Cereal grain cultivation occupies 62% of the cultivated land in Saxony-Anhalt. Wheat, barley, oats, and rye are grown, with the rye being grown near Borde, where the rye is used to make Burger Knackebrot, a flatbread produced there since 1931. Another ten percent of the cultivated area is planted in sugar beets for conversion to sugar, popularized after the 19th century when the region had an economic boom. Metzger, 49. Whitefish have figured into the regional diet after a fisherman introduced them to the Arendsee over 110 years ago. Fishing was once prominent in the Elbe river, which contains 33 of the 40 species of fish caught in the region. Mercury, hexachlorobenzene, DDT, musk compounds and heptachlor have caused the Elbe to become contaminated, so commercial fishing has been banned since 1989. Metzger, 50. Würchwitzer Spinnenkäse (Milbenkäse) is a cheese produced in Würchwitz made by allowing quark to sit amongst thousands of dust mites that transforms the cheese into a highly desired delicacy. The mites excrete an enzyme that ripens the cheese; after one month the cheese turns to a yellowish color, after three months it turns reddish brown, and after a year the cheese turns to a blackish lump, which is desirable to some aficionados. The flavor is characterized as being bitter; it is also suggested that the cheese may have curative effects that keep the people who consume it non-allergic to house dust. The mites are consumed along with the cheese. This also the case in Scotland. Metzger, 60. Staple foods Meat Pork, beef, and poultry are the main varieties of meat consumed in Germany, with pork being the most popular. The average person in Germany will consume up to 33 kg. (72 lbs.) meat in a year. Among poultry, chicken is most common, although duck, goose, and turkey are also enjoyed. Game meats, especially boar, rabbit, and venison are also widely available all year round. Lamb and goat are also available, but are not as popular. Meat is usually pot-roasted; pan-fried dishes also exist, but these recipes usually originate from France. Throughout Germany, meat is very often eaten as sausages. There are more than 1500 different types of sausage (Wurst) Guide to German Sausages & Meat Products in Germany. Fish Trout is the most common freshwater fish on the German menu; pike, carp, and European perch also are listed frequently. Seafood traditionally was restricted to the northern coastal areas, except for pickled herring, often served as Rollmops (a pickled herring fillet rolled into a cylindrical shape around a piece of pickled gherkin or onion). Today many sea fish, like fresh herring, tuna, mackerel, salmon and sardines are well established throughout the country. Prior to the industrial revolution and the ensuing pollution of the rivers, salmon were common in the rivers of Rhine, Elbe, and Oder. Vegetables Typical serving of Spargel with Hollandaise sauce and potatoes. Vegetables are often used in stews or vegetable soups, but are also served as a side dish. Carrots, turnips, spinach, peas, beans, broccoli and many types of cabbage are very common. Fried onions are a common addition to many meat dishes throughout the country. Asparagus, especially white asparagus known in English as spargel (the German name for asparagus), is a common side dish or may be prepared as a main dish. Restaurants will sometimes devote an entire menu to nothing but white asparagus when it is in season. Spargel season ( or Spargelsaison) traditionally begins in mid-May and ends on St. John's Day (24 June). Potatoes, while a major part of the German cuisine, are usually not counted among vegetables by Germans. Side dishes Noodles, made from wheat flour and egg, are usually thicker than the Italian flat pasta. Especially in the southwestern part of the country, the predominant variety of noodles are Spätzle, made with large amounts of egg yolk, and Maultaschen, traditional stuffed noodles reminiscent of ravioli. Besides noodles, potatoes and dumplings (Klöße or Knödel) are very common, especially in the south. Potatoes entered the German cuisine in the late 18th century, and were almost ubiquitous in the 19th century and since. Potatoes most often are boiled (in salt water), but mashed and fried potatoes also are traditional. Pommes Frites, often shortened to Pommes, are a common style of fried potatoes. American style "french fries" are uncommon, except in American fastfood outlets such as McDonalds or Burger King; the more preferred variety is Dutch or Danish style fries, traditionally offered either with ketchup or mayonnaise, or, as "Pommes rot-weiß", with both. Spices and condiments Löwensenf: a jar of spicy Düsseldorfer mustard. Generally, with the exception of mustard for sausages, German dishes are rarely hot and spicy; the most popular herbs are traditionally parsley, thyme, laurel, chives, black pepper (used in small amounts), juniper berries and caraway. Cardamom, aniseed, and cinnamon are often used in sweet cakes or beverages associated with Christmas time, and sometimes in the preparation of sausages, but are otherwise rare in German meals. Other herbs and spices like basil, sage, oregano, and hot chili peppers have become more popular in recent times. Mustard ("Senf") is a very common accompaniment to sausages and can vary in strength, the most common version being "Mittelscharf", which is somewhere between traditional English and French mustards in strength. Düsseldorf and the surrounding area is known for its particularly spicy mustard, which is used both as a table condiment and in local dishes such as Senfrostbraten (roasted steak with mustard). In the southern parts of the country, a sweet variety of mustard is made which is almost exclusively served with the Bavarian speciality Weißwurst. German mustard is usually considerably less acidic than American varieties. Horseradish is commonly used as a condiment either on its own served as a paste, enriched with cream ("Sahnemeerettich"), or combined with mustard. In some regions of Germany it is used with meats and sausages where mustard would otherwise be used. Garlic was long frowned upon as "making one's breath smell bad and ghastly" and thus has never played a large role in traditional German cuisine, but has risen in popularity in recent decades due to the influence of French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, and Turkish cuisine. Bear's garlic, a rediscovered spice from earlier centuries, has become quite popular again since the 1990s. Desserts Frankfurter Kranz A wide variety of cakes and tarts are served throughout the country, most commonly made with fresh fruit. Apples, plums, strawberries, and cherries are used regularly in cakes. Cheesecake is also very popular, often made with quark. Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte is another very well-known cake, made with cherries. German doughnuts (which have no hole) are usually balls of yeast dough with jam or other fillings, and are known as Berliner, Pfannkuchen, Kreppel or Krapfen depending on the region. Eierkuchen are large, and relatively thin pancakes, comparable to the French Crèpes. They are served covered with sugar, jam or syrup. Salty variants with cheese, ground meat or bacon exist as well (but aren't usually considered desserts, but main dishes). In some regions Eierkuchen are filled and then wrapped, in others they're cut into small pieces and arranged in a heap. The word Pfannkuchen can either mean German doughnuts (see Berliner) or pancakes (see Eierkuchen), depending on the region. A popular dessert in northern Germany is "Rote Grütze", red fruit pudding, which is made with black and red currants, raspberries and sometimes strawberries or cherries cooked in juice with corn starch as a thickener. It is traditionally served with cream, but also is served with vanilla sauce, milk or whipped cream. "Rhabarbergrütze" (rhubarb pudding) and "Grüne Grütze" (gooseberry fruit pudding) are variations of the "Rote Grütze". A similar dish, Obstkaltschale, may also be found all around Germany. In the northern regions of Germany, strawberries are often served with vanilla ice cream and black pepper. This northern specialty was brought to Germany by the Hanseatic League in the late 17th century. Ice cream and sorbets are also very popular. Italian-run ice cream parlours were the first large wave of foreign-run eateries in Germany, becoming widespread in the 1920s. A popular ice cream treat is called Spaghettieis. Bread Pumpernickel Bread is a significant part of German cuisine and is considered necessary for a healthy diet. About 600 main types of breads and 1,200 different types of pastries and rolls are produced in about 17,000 bakeries and another 10,000 in-shop bakeries. Bread is served usually for breakfast and in the evening as sandwiches, but rarely as a side dish for the main meal. The importance of bread (Brot) in German cuisine is also illustrated by words such as Abendbrot (meaning supper, literally Evening Bread) and Brotzeit (snack, literally Bread Time). In fact, one of the major complaints of the German expatriates in many parts of the world is their inability to find acceptable local breads. Regarding bread, German cuisine is more akin to Eastern than to Western Europe. Bread types range from white wheat bread to grey (Graubrot) to black (Schwarzbrot), actually dark brown rye bread. Most breads contain both wheat and rye flour (hence Mischbrot, mixed bread), and often wholemeal and whole seeds (such as linseed, sunflower seed, or pumpkin seed) as well. Darker, rye-dominated breads such as Vollkornbrot or Schwarzbrot are typical of German cuisine. Pumpernickel, a steamed, sweet-tasting bread, is internationally well-known, although not representative of German black bread as a whole. Most German breads are made with sourdough. Whole grain is preferred for high fibre. Germans use almost all available types of grain for their breads: wheat, rye, barley, spelt, oats, millet, corn and rice. Some breads are made with potato flour. Germany's most popular breads are: Rye-wheat ("Roggenmischbrot") Toast bread ("Toastbrot") Whole-grain ("Vollkornbrot") Wheat-rye ("Weizenmischbrot") White bread ("Weißbrot") Multi-grain ("Mehrkornbrot") Rye ("Roggenbrot") Sunflower seed ("Sonnenblumenkernbrot") Pumpkin seed ("Kürbiskernbrot") Onion bread ("Zwiebelbrot") Bread rolls Bread rolls in a basket Bread rolls, known in Germany as Brötchen, Semmel, Schrippe, Rundstück or Weck / Weckle / Weckli, depending on the region, are common in German cuisine. A typical serving is a roll cut in half, and spread with butter or margarine. Cheese, honey, meat, fish, or preserves are then placed between the two halves, or on each half separately, known as an open sandwich. Rolls are also used for snacks like Bratwurst or Brätel in a hot-dog style. A sweet roll only found in the area of Hamburg is the Franzbrötchen, small, sweet pastry, baked with butter and cinnamon. Structure of meals Dry muesli mix, served with milk and banana Breakfast (Frühstück) commonly consists of bread, toast, and/or bread rolls with jam ("Konfitüre" or more commonly called "Marmelade"), marmalade or honey, eggs, and strong coffee or tea (milk, cocoa or juice for children). Deli meats, such as ham, salted meats and salami, are also commonly eaten on bread in the morning, as are various cheeses. A variety of meat-based spreads such as Leberwurst (liver sausage) are eaten during breakfast as well. Traditionally, the main meal of the day has been lunch (Mittagessen), eaten around noon. Dinner (Abendessen or Abendbrot) was always a smaller meal, often consisting only of a variety of breads, meat or sausages, cheese and some kind of vegetables, similar to breakfast, or possibly sandwiches. However, in Germany, as in other parts of Europe, dining habits have changed over the last 50 years. Today, many people eat only a small meal in the middle of the day at work, and enjoy a hot dinner in the evening at home with the whole family. This is also the reason why the availability of cheap restaurants close to the office or the existence of a factory canteen cannot be assumed automatically. For others, the traditional way of eating is still rather common, and not only in rural areas. Breakfast is still very popular and may be elaborated and extended on weekends, with friends invited as guests. Since the 1990s the Sunday brunch has also become common, especially in city cafes. Drinks The various kinds of bottled Kölsch beer Beer is very common throughout all parts of Germany, with many local and regional breweries producing a wide variety of superb beers. Beer is generally not as expensive as in other countries and is of excellent quality. The pale lager pilsener is predominant in most parts of the country today, whereas wheat beer (Weissbier) and other types of lager are common, especially in Bavaria. A number of regions have local specialties, many of which, like Weissbier, are more traditionally-brewed ales. Among these are Altbier, a dark beer available around the lower Rhine, Kölsch, a similar style in the Cologne area, and the low-alcohol Berliner Weiße, a sour beer made in Berlin that is often mixed with raspberry syrup. Since the reunification of 1990, Schwarzbier, which was common in East Germany but could hardly be found in West Germany, has become increasingly popular in Germany as a whole. Beer may also be mixed with other beverages: pils or lager and lemonade: Radler pils or lager and cola: Diesel, Schmutziges or simply Colabier Altbier and cola: Krefelder wheat beer and lemonade: Russ wheat beer and cola: Colaweizen In the few last years, many breweries served this trend of mixing beer with other drinks by selling bottles of already-mixed beverages. Examples are Bibob (from Köstritzer), Veltins V+, Mixery (from Karlsberg) and Cab (from Krombacher). Beer is generally sold in bottles or from draught. Canned beer is available, but cans almost vanished after the introduction of a deposit fee. Wine is also popular throughout the country. German wine comes predominantly from the areas along the upper and middle Rhine and its tributaries. Riesling and Silvaner are among the best-known varieties of white wine, while Spätburgunder and Dornfelder are important German red wines. The sweet German wines sold in English speaking countries seem mostly to cater to the foreign market, as they are rare in Germany. Korn is a German spirit made from malt (wheat, rye and/or barley), that is consumed predominantly in the middle and northern parts of Germany. Obstler on the other hand, distilled from apples and pears ("Obstler"), plums, cherries (Kirschwasser), or mirabelle plums, is preferred in the southern parts. The term Schnaps refers to both kinds of hard liquors. Coffee is also very common, not only for breakfast, but also accompanying a piece of cake in the afternoon, usually on Sundays or special occasions and birthdays. It is generally filter coffee, somewhat stronger than usual in the UK though weaker than espresso. Tea is more common in the Northwest. East Frisians traditionally have their tea with cream and rock candy ("Kluntje"). Popular soft drinks include Apfelschorle, apple juice mixed with sparkling mineral water, and Spezi, made with cola and an orange-flavored drink such as Fanta. Germans are unique among their neighbors in preferring strongly carbonated bottled waters ("Sprudel") to non-carbonated ones. Drinking water of excellent quality is available everywhere and at any time in Germany. Water provided by the public water industry can be had without hesitation directly from the tap. No chlorine is added. Drinking water is controlled by state authority to ensure it is potable. Regulations are even stricter than those for bottled water (see Trinkwasserverordnung). There is no need at all to buy water in bottles in Germany for health reasons, though the taste of the tap water varies widely, usually being better in rural areas. The Eichstrich The Eichamt is a public authority controlling all measurements in sales, i.e., each scale in a German butcher shop carries a stamp from the Eichamt (~ Bureau of Weights and Measures), including a date of expiration, to show the weight is correct. All cold drinks in bars and restaurants are sold in glasses with a calibration mark (Eichstrich) that is frequently checked by the Eichamt to ensure that the guest is getting as much as is offered in the menu. If the liquid of a served drink is below that line, the guest may refuse the drink or require a correctly filled one. A common rule for beer — with foam — is that the liquid-foam-line must not be more than one centimeter below the Eichstrich, otherwise a Munich resident would refuse the Maß at the Oktoberfest. Specialities from the former German Democratic Republic The cuisine of the former German Democratic Republic (GDR or East Germany) differed in several ways from the cuisine of West Germany and today's united Germany. East German cuisine was strongly influenced by Russian, Hungarian, Bulgarian and other Eastern European countries from the 1960s on. East Germans travelled abroad to these countries on holiday and immigrants to East Germany from these countries brought their dishes with them. A typical dish that came to the East German kitchen this way is Soljanka. Another dissimilarity was the lack of certain spices in the GDR. Oregano, for example, was totally unknown and the value of garlic and Worcestershire sauce reached extremes. Lemon juice had to be replaced with vinegar and instead of capers, peas soaked in brine were used. While cooking with wine (as is typical in the wine-growing regions of Franconia and Hesse) was known, the lack of good wine on the East German market reserved this for special occasions. For these reasons Ragout fin (commonly known as Würzfleisch) became a highly sought-after delicacy. East German cafeterias had a unified cuisine. Over the entire country cafeterias in companies and schools served the same food. The cafeterias were commonly run by the national trading organisation (Handelsorganisation - HO) . The menu listed about 300 dishes that tasted almost the same everywhere, since the recipes were standardised. The lack of supplies and the pressure of cooking for large numbers of people gave rise to several typical East German inventions, such as Jägerschnitzel - large and thin slices of Jagdwurst, covered with bread crumbs, pan-fried and served with tomato sauce and noodles. An effort has been made to preserve this cultural East German heritage, and a collection of East German HO recipes is available online in German . Foreign influences With the influx of foreign workers after World War II, many foreign dishes have been adopted into German cuisine — Italian dishes like spaghetti and pizza have become a staple of the German diet. Turkish immigrants also have had a considerable influence on German eating habits; Döner kebab, a meat sandwich invented by Berlin Turkish immigrants, is Germany's favourite fast food, selling twice as much as the major burger chains put together (namely Mc Donald's and Burger King, being the only widespread burger chains in Germany). Chinese and Greek food also are widespread and popular. Indian, Thai and other Asian cuisines are rapidly gaining in popularity. Austrian cuisine has recently become popular, especially in Berlin, where several restaurants offer Austrian specialties like Wiener schnitzel. Many of the more expensive restaurants served mostly French dishes for many decades, but since the 1990s, they have been shifting to a more refined form of German cuisine . Notes References Metzger, Christine (ed.) Culinaria Germany. Cambridge: Ullmann, 2008. See also List of German dishes | German_cuisine |@lemmatized german:45 style:7 buffet:1 cuisine:20 cook:4 derive:1 nation:1 germany:33 evolve:1 national:3 century:6 social:1 political:1 change:2 variation:3 region:16 southern:3 bavaria:2 swabia:1 share:1 many:14 dish:23 ingredient:1 vary:2 province:1 significant:2 regional:6 become:10 however:2 proliferate:1 different:3 across:1 country:14 present:1 day:4 thuringia:5 thüringer:4 rostbratwurst:1 agriculture:2 figure:2 highly:3 diet:4 half:4 state:4 use:14 wheat:12 rapeseed:1 sugarbeet:1 barley:4 grow:8 well:8 along:4 variety:14 vegetable:6 near:4 erfurt:2 capital:1 cauliflower:1 acre:4 cabbage:2 savoy:1 red:5 white:6 kohlrabi:1 broccoli:2 traditional:7 mean:3 tomato:2 lettuce:1 broad:1 bean:2 onion:4 cucumber:1 eastern:3 portion:1 jena:1 glass:2 center:1 land:2 second:1 large:7 herb:5 town:2 kolleda:1 consider:4 peppermint:1 grower:1 congregate:1 study:1 cultivation:2 metzger:7 one:8 third:1 cover:2 forest:1 best:2 game:6 hunt:3 unification:1 east:13 west:3 meat:17 reserve:2 privileged:1 enough:1 obtain:1 luxury:1 hotel:1 export:1 today:5 anyone:1 proper:1 permit:1 may:9 deer:2 roe:1 wild:2 boar:2 rabbit:2 duck:2 moufflon:1 mountain:1 sheep:1 pheasant:1 capercaille:1 black:6 cock:1 protected:1 specie:2 wooded:1 area:9 also:27 contain:3 wide:3 edible:1 mushroom:2 chestnut:1 porcini:1 chanterelle:1 berry:2 blueberry:1 cranberry:1 raspberry:3 blackberry:1 accompaniment:2 famous:1 food:5 thuringian:2 sausage:15 dumpling:2 know:11 steam:4 scale:2 cured:1 prepared:1 popular:17 include:3 mettwurst:1 spreadable:1 cure:2 feldkieker:1 air:1 dry:3 eight:1 month:3 leberwurst:2 pork:3 liver:2 rotwurst:1 blood:1 pack:1 bladder:1 natural:1 case:2 saxony:2 anhalt:2 cereal:1 grain:5 occupy:1 cultivated:2 oat:2 rye:11 borde:1 make:16 burger:5 knackebrot:1 flatbread:1 produce:4 since:8 another:4 ten:1 percent:1 plant:1 sugar:3 beet:1 conversion:1 popularize:1 economic:1 boom:1 whitefish:1 fisherman:1 introduce:1 arendsee:1 year:6 ago:1 fishing:2 prominent:1 elbe:3 river:3 fish:5 caught:1 mercury:1 hexachlorobenzene:1 ddt:1 musk:1 compound:1 heptachlor:1 cause:1 contaminated:1 commercial:1 ban:1 würchwitzer:1 spinnenkäse:1 milbenkäse:1 cheese:11 würchwitz:1 allow:1 quark:2 sit:1 amongst:1 thousand:1 dust:2 mite:3 transform:1 desired:1 delicacy:2 excrete:1 enzyme:1 ripen:1 turn:3 yellowish:1 color:1 three:1 reddish:1 brown:2 blackish:1 lump:1 desirable:1 aficionado:1 flavor:2 characterize:1 bitter:1 suggest:1 curative:1 effect:1 keep:1 people:3 consume:5 non:2 allergic:1 house:1 scotland:1 staple:2 beef:1 poultry:2 main:6 average:1 person:1 kg:1 lb:1 among:5 chicken:1 common:19 although:2 goose:1 turkey:1 enjoy:2 especially:7 venison:1 widely:2 available:7 round:1 lamb:1 goat:1 usually:10 pot:1 roast:2 pan:2 fried:3 exist:2 recipe:3 originate:1 france:1 throughout:6 often:11 eat:6 type:7 wurst:1 guide:1 product:1 trout:1 freshwater:1 menu:4 pike:1 carp:1 european:2 perch:1 list:3 frequently:2 seafood:1 traditionally:8 restrict:1 northern:5 coastal:1 except:2 pickled:2 herring:3 serve:15 rollmops:1 pickle:1 fillet:1 roll:9 cylindrical:1 shape:1 around:4 piece:3 gherkin:1 sea:1 like:6 fresh:2 tuna:1 mackerel:1 salmon:2 sardine:1 establish:1 prior:1 industrial:1 revolution:1 ensue:1 pollution:1 rhine:3 oder:1 typical:6 serving:2 spargel:3 hollandaise:1 sauce:4 potato:8 stew:1 soup:1 side:4 carrot:1 turnip:1 spinach:1 pea:2 addition:1 asparagus:4 english:3 name:1 prepare:1 restaurant:5 sometimes:3 devote:1 entire:2 nothing:1 season:2 spargelsaison:1 begin:1 mid:1 end:1 st:1 john:1 june:1 major:3 part:10 count:1 noodle:5 flour:3 egg:3 thick:1 italian:4 flat:1 pasta:1 southwestern:1 predominant:2 spätzle:1 amount:2 yolk:1 maultaschen:1 stuffed:1 reminiscent:1 ravioli:1 besides:1 klöße:1 knödel:1 south:1 enter:1 late:2 almost:5 ubiquitous:1 boil:1 salt:2 water:10 mash:1 fry:4 pommes:3 frites:1 shorten:1 american:3 french:5 uncommon:1 fastfood:1 outlet:1 mcdonalds:1 king:2 preferred:1 dutch:1 danish:1 offer:3 either:3 ketchup:1 mayonnaise:1 rot:1 weiß:1 spice:4 condiment:3 löwensenf:1 jar:1 spicy:3 düsseldorfer:1 mustard:10 generally:4 exception:1 rarely:2 hot:4 parsley:1 thyme:1 laurel:1 chive:1 pepper:3 small:5 juniper:1 caraway:1 cardamom:1 aniseed:1 cinnamon:2 sweet:6 cake:5 beverage:3 associate:1 christmas:1 time:4 preparation:1 otherwise:3 rare:2 meal:6 basil:1 sage:1 oregano:2 chili:1 recent:2 senf:1 strength:2 version:1 mittelscharf:1 somewhere:1 düsseldorf:1 surround:1 particularly:1 table:1 local:4 senfrostbraten:1 steak:1 exclusively:1 bavarian:1 speciality:2 weißwurst:1 considerably:1 less:1 acidic:1 horseradish:1 commonly:7 paste:1 enrich:1 cream:8 sahnemeerettich:1 combine:1 would:2 garlic:3 long:1 frowned:1 upon:1 breath:1 smell:1 bad:1 ghastly:1 thus:1 never:1 play:1 role:1 rise:2 popularity:2 decade:2 due:1 influence:4 spanish:1 portuguese:1 greek:2 turkish:3 bear:1 rediscovered:1 early:1 quite:1 dessert:3 frankfurter:1 kranz:1 tart:1 fruit:3 apple:3 plum:3 strawberry:3 cherry:4 regularly:1 cheesecake:1 schwarzwälder:1 kirschtorte:1 doughnut:2 hole:1 ball:1 yeast:1 dough:1 jam:3 filling:1 berliner:3 pfannkuchen:2 kreppel:1 krapfen:1 depend:3 eierkuchen:3 relatively:1 thin:2 pancake:2 comparable:1 crèpes:1 covered:1 syrup:2 salty:1 variant:1 ground:1 bacon:1 fill:2 wrap:1 others:2 cut:2 arrange:1 heap:1 word:2 see:4 rote:2 grütze:3 pudding:3 currant:1 juice:4 corn:2 starch:1 thickener:1 vanilla:2 milk:3 whip:1 rhabarbergrütze:1 rhubarb:1 grüne:1 gooseberry:1 similar:3 obstkaltschale:1 find:4 ice:4 specialty:3 bring:2 hanseatic:1 league:1 sorbet:1 run:3 parlour:1 first:1 wave:1 foreign:5 eatery:1 widespread:3 treat:1 call:2 spaghettieis:1 bread:32 pumpernickel:2 necessary:1 healthy:1 pastry:2 bakery:2 shop:2 breakfast:6 evening:2 sandwich:4 importance:1 brot:1 illustrate:1 abendbrot:2 supper:1 literally:2 even:2 brotzeit:1 snack:2 fact:1 complaint:1 expatriate:1 world:2 inability:1 acceptable:1 regard:1 akin:1 western:1 europe:2 range:1 grey:1 graubrot:1 schwarzbrot:2 actually:1 dark:2 hence:1 mischbrot:1 mixed:4 wholemeal:1 whole:6 seed:5 linseed:1 sunflower:2 pumpkin:2 darker:1 dominate:1 vollkornbrot:2 taste:3 internationally:1 representative:1 sourdough:1 prefer:3 high:1 fibre:1 spelt:1 millet:1 rice:1 roggenmischbrot:1 toast:2 toastbrot:1 weizenmischbrot:1 weißbrot:1 multi:1 mehrkornbrot:1 roggenbrot:1 sonnenblumenkernbrot:1 kürbiskernbrot:1 zwiebelbrot:1 basket:1 brötchen:1 semmel:1 schrippe:1 rundstück:1 weck:1 weckle:1 weckli:1 spread:2 butter:2 margarine:1 honey:2 preserve:2 place:1 two:1 separately:1 open:1 bratwurst:1 brätel:1 dog:1 hamburg:1 franzbrötchen:1 bake:1 structure:1 muesli:1 mix:3 banana:1 frühstück:1 consist:2 konfitüre:1 marmelade:1 marmalade:1 strong:2 coffee:3 tea:3 cocoa:1 child:1 deli:1 ham:1 salami:1 morning:1 various:2 base:1 lunch:1 mittagessen:1 noon:1 dinner:2 abendessen:1 always:1 kind:3 possibly:1 din:1 habit:2 last:2 middle:3 work:1 home:1 family:1 reason:3 availability:1 cheap:1 close:1 office:1 existence:1 factory:1 canteen:1 cannot:1 assume:1 automatically:1 way:3 eating:1 still:2 rather:1 rural:2 elaborate:1 extend:1 weekend:1 friend:1 invite:1 guest:3 sunday:2 brunch:1 city:1 cafe:1 drink:8 bottled:3 kölsch:2 beer:14 brewery:2 superb:1 expensive:2 excellent:2 quality:2 pale:1 lager:4 pilsener:1 whereas:1 weissbier:2 number:2 brew:1 ale:1 altbier:2 low:2 cologne:1 alcohol:1 weiße:1 sour:1 berlin:3 reunification:1 schwarzbier:1 could:1 hardly:1 increasingly:1 pils:2 lemonade:2 radler:1 cola:4 diesel:1 schmutziges:1 simply:1 colabier:1 krefelder:1 rus:1 colaweizen:1 trend:1 sell:5 bottle:3 already:1 example:2 bibob:1 köstritzer:1 veltins:1 v:1 mixery:1 karlsberg:1 cab:1 krombacher:1 draught:1 vanish:1 introduction:1 deposit:1 fee:1 wine:8 come:2 predominantly:2 upper:1 tributary:1 riesling:1 silvaner:1 spätburgunder:1 dornfelder:1 important:1 speaking:1 seem:1 mostly:2 cater:1 market:2 korn:1 spirit:1 malt:1 obstler:2 hand:1 distil:1 pear:1 kirschwasser:1 mirabelle:1 term:1 schnaps:1 refers:1 hard:1 liquor:1 accompany:1 afternoon:1 special:2 occasion:2 birthday:1 filter:1 somewhat:1 usual:1 uk:1 though:2 weak:1 espresso:1 northwest:1 frisian:1 rock:1 candy:1 kluntje:1 soft:1 apfelschorle:1 sparkling:1 mineral:1 spezi:1 orange:1 fanta:1 unique:1 neighbor:1 strongly:2 carbonate:2 sprudel:1 everywhere:2 provide:1 public:2 industry:1 without:1 hesitation:1 directly:1 tap:2 chlorine:1 add:1 drinking:1 control:2 authority:2 ensure:2 potable:1 regulation:1 strict:1 trinkwasserverordnung:1 need:1 buy:1 health:1 varies:1 eichstrich:3 eichamt:3 measurement:1 sale:1 e:1 butcher:1 carry:1 stamp:1 bureau:1 weight:2 measure:1 date:1 expiration:1 show:1 correct:1 cold:1 bar:1 calibration:1 mark:1 check:1 get:1 much:2 liquid:2 served:1 line:2 refuse:2 require:1 correctly:1 rule:1 foam:2 must:1 centimeter:1 munich:1 resident:1 maß:1 oktoberfest:1 former:2 democratic:2 republic:2 gdr:2 differ:1 several:3 unite:1 russian:1 hungarian:1 bulgarian:1 travel:1 abroad:1 holiday:1 immigrant:3 kitchen:1 soljanka:1 dissimilarity:1 lack:3 certain:1 totally:1 unknown:1 value:1 worcestershire:1 reach:1 extremes:1 lemon:1 replace:1 vinegar:1 instead:1 caper:1 soak:1 brine:1 franconia:1 hesse:1 good:1 ragout:1 fin:1 würzfleisch:1 seek:1 cafeteria:3 unified:1 company:1 school:1 trading:1 organisation:1 handelsorganisation:1 ho:2 standardise:1 supply:1 pressure:1 give:1 invention:1 jägerschnitzel:1 slice:1 jagdwurst:1 crumb:1 effort:1 cultural:1 heritage:1 collection:1 online:1 influx:1 worker:1 war:1 ii:1 adopt:1 spaghetti:1 pizza:1 considerable:1 döner:1 kebab:1 invent:1 favourite:1 fast:1 twice:1 chain:2 put:1 together:1 namely:1 mc:1 donald:1 chinese:1 indian:1 thai:1 asian:1 rapidly:1 gain:1 austrian:2 recently:1 wiener:1 schnitzel:1 shift:1 refined:1 form:1 note:1 reference:1 christine:1 ed:1 culinaria:1 cambridge:1 ullmann:1 |@bigram luxury_hotel:1 roe_deer:1 wild_boar:1 edible_mushroom:1 pork_liver:1 saxony_anhalt:2 cereal_grain:1 wheat_barley:1 barley_oat:1 sugar_beet:1 reddish_brown:1 pork_beef:1 kg_lb:1 pan_fried:1 fried_dish:1 freshwater_fish:1 pea_bean:1 wheat_flour:1 egg_yolk:1 fry_potato:1 pommes_frites:1 fried_potato:1 juniper_berry:1 herb_spice:1 hot_chili:1 chili_pepper:1 almost_exclusively:1 thin_pancake:1 corn_starch:1 whip_cream:1 ice_cream:4 hanseatic_league:1 wheat_rye:4 sunflower_seed:2 sweet_taste:1 rye_barley:2 butter_margarine:1 pale_lager:1 draught_beer:1 apple_pear:1 soft_drink:1 bottled_water:2 worcestershire_sauce:1 lemon_juice:1 thin_slice:1 tomato_sauce:1 döner_kebab:1 |
3,222 | Gallipoli | Satellite image of the Gallipoli peninsula and surrounding area The Gallipoli peninsula () is located in Turkish Thrace, the European part of Turkey, with the Aegean Sea to the west and the Dardanelles straits to the east. Gallipoli derives its name from the Greek Kallipolis (Καλλίπολις), meaning "Beautiful City." Ottoman era After the devastating 1354 earthquake, the Greek city was almost abandoned, but swiftly reoccupied by Turks from Anatolia, the Asiatic side of the straits, making Gallipoli the first Ottoman position in Europe, and the staging area for their expansion across the Balkans. Crowley, Roger. 1453: The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West. New York: Hyperion, 2005. p 31 ISBN 1-4013-0850-3. The peninsula, which was inhabited by the Byzantine Empire, was gradually conquered by the Ottoman Empire starting from 13th century onwards until the 15th. The Greeks living there were allowed to continue their everyday life. Gallipoli (in Turkish, Gelibolu) was made the chief town of a Kaymakamlik (district) in the vilayet (a Wali's province) of Adrianople, with about 30,000 inhabitants, Greeks, Turks, Armenians and Jews. Gallipoli became a major encampment for British and French forces in 1854 during the Crimean War, and the harbour was also a stopping-off point on the way to Constantinople. Crimea. Crimea, Victorian Web. The peninsula did not see any more wars up until World War I when the British Empire allies trying to find a way to reach its troubled ally in the east, Imperial Russia, decided to try to obtain passage to the east. The Ottomans set up defensive fortifications along the peninsula with German help. In 1920 after the defeat of the Russian White army of General Pyotr Wrangel, a significant number of emigre soldiers and their families evacuated to Gallipoli from the Crimea. From there many went to European countries where they found refuge, such as Yugoslavia. A stone monument was erected and a special "Gallipoli cross" was created to commemorate the soldiers who stayed in Gallipoli. The stone monument was destroyed during an earthquake, but in January 2008 reconstruction of the monument had begun with the consent of the Turkish government. Gallipoli Campaign The Allied landing and subsequent campaign on the peninsula during World War I is usually known in Britain as the Dardanelles Campaign and in Turkey as the Battle of Çanakkale. In Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Newfoundland, the terms Gallipoli Campaign or just Gallipoli alone are used to describe the eight month campaign. In early 1915, in an attempt to seize the strategic advantage in the War, the British authorized an attack on the peninsula in an attempt to seize Constantinople. The first phase was purely naval on the Allied side, as Lord Kitchener would not authorize troops to be shifted from the Western Front. The lead British Admiral had a crisis of nerves, and his second-in-command withdrew after one day with moderate casualties. Kitchener then authorized a combined naval-army operation, but the element of surprise was long gone. On April 25, 1915, a force of British Empire and French troops landed at multiple places along the peninsula. The battles over the next eight months saw high casualties on both sides due to the exposed terrain, weather and closeness of the front lines. In addition, many casualties resulted from an epidemic of dysentery, caused by poor sanitary conditions. The New Zealand Wellington Battalion reached, and briefly occupied, the high point of Chunuk Bair, before being beaten back by Turkish troops who were never again dislodged from the summit. The subsequent Allied withdrawal meant an end to the idea of defeating the Ottoman Empire quickly, as well as the possibility of gaining a victory over the major Central Powers enemy—Germany—through an attack on the "soft underbelly" of its power. The campaign is often referred to for its successful stealthy retreat which was completed with minimal casualties, the ANZAC forces completely retreating by December 19, 1915 and the remaining British elements by January 9, 1916. Total Allied deaths were around 21,000 British, 10,000 French, 8,700 Australians, 2,700 New Zealanders and 1,370 Indians. Total Turkish deaths were around 86,700 - nearly twice as many as all the Allies combined. New Zealanders suffered the highest percentage of Allied deaths when compared with population size, but the percentage of Turkish deaths was almost twice theirs. This campaign has become a "founding myth" for both Australia and New Zealand, and Anzac Day is still commemorated as a holiday in both countries. In fact, it is one of those rare battles that both sides seem to remember proudly. The Turks consider it a great turning point for their (future) nation and Australians and New Zealanders see it as the beginnings of the ANZAC spirit. Many mementos of the Gallipoli campaign can be seen in the museum at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, Australia, and at the Auckland War Memorial Museum in Auckland, New Zealand. This campaign also put a dent in the armour of Winston Churchill, then the First Lord of the Admiralty, who had commissioned the plans to invade the Dardanelles. He talks about this campaign vividly in his memoirs. The Gallipoli campaign gave an important boost to the career of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a little-known army commander who became a national hero, was promoted to Pasha, and became the founder of the modern Turkish state with the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, at the end of World War I. Kemal halted and eventually repelled the Allied advance, exceeding his authority and contravening orders to do so. His famous speech "I do not command you to fight, I command you to die. In the time it will take us to die we can be replenished by new forces" (as in Turkish: "Ben size taaruzu değil, ölmeyi emrediyorum. Biz ölünceye kadar geçecek zaman zarfında yerimize başka kuvvetler ve kumandanlar geçebilir") shows his courageous and determined personality. Following Mustafa Kemal's command to die; the 57th Regiment led by lieutenant colonel Hüseyin Avni had fulfilled the order where the entire regiment had fallen. Years after the war, mass graves of the deceased were being re-opened for identity determination and for carrying the soldiers to their final resting places. During this relocation for cemeteries, bodies of two men were found bayoneting each other and locked together. They were identified as 1st lieutenant Mustafa Asım from 6th Company of the 57th regiment and Captain J. L. Woiters from British Corps. They had fallen in a position where Mustafa Asım was holding the cross on Woiters’ neck and Woiters was holding an amulet of Quran on Asım’s neck. They were re-buried together. Their name tags and weapons were handed to authorities. Anzac Day Attendance at the ANZAC Day dawn service at Gallipoli has become popular since the 75th anniversary. Upwards of 10,000 people have attended services in Gallipoli. Until 1999 the Gallipoli dawn service was held at the Ari Burnu war cemetery at Anzac Cove, but the growing numbers of people attending resulted in the construction of a more spacious site on North Beach, known as the "Anzac Commemorative Site." On April 25, 2005, to mark the 90th anniversary of the Gallipoli landing, government officials from Australia and New Zealand, most of the last surviving Gallipoli veterans, and many Australian and New Zealand tourists travelled to Turkey for a special dawn service at Gallipoli. ANZAC Day is the most important national day of commemoration for Australians. The previous Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard, and the then Prime Minister of New Zealand, Helen Clark were also in attendance, and Clark was accompanied by the official NZ defence force party, veterans of several past wars and 10 New Zealand college students who won the New Zealand 'Prime Minister's Essay Competition' with their work on Gallipoli. In the Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, an 11,000 people capacity portable tribune has been built in the Anzac Cove and Lone Pine Memorial region. Influence on the arts The Gallipoli Campaign is the subject of a 1981 movie, entitled Gallipoli, directed by Peter Weir and starring Mel Gibson. New Zealand writer Maurice Shadbolt produced a play Once on Chunuk Bair in 1982. A film version Chunuk Bair (Daybreak Pictures) was released in 1991. Eric Bogle wrote a popular song And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda (1972) after watching, in Australia, a parade of elderly veterans of the Gallipoli campaign. Versions of this song were recorded by June Tabor, The Skids and The Pogues, as well as Tommy Makem, Liam Clancy and John Williamson. "Cliffs of Gallipoli," a song by Sabaton (band), was inspired by the battle. The BBC produced a feature-length television drama, All the King's Men, (not to be confused with the novel of the same name by Robert Penn Warren), that focused attention on a unit (the "Sandringham Company") that was decimated at Gallipoli and included men from King George V's estate at Sandringham House. The campaign is the subject of a 2005 documentary, also named Gallipoli, by the Turkish filmmaker Tolga Örnek, showing the bravery and the suffering on both sides through the use of surviving diaries and letters of the soldiers. For this film he has been awarded an honorary medal in the general division of the Order of Australia. Turkish filmmaker honoured | The Australian Gallipoli is the basis for the 1999 novel "Solomons Song" by Bryce Courtenay. hi people Ecclesiastical history Callipolis remains a Roman Catholic titular bishopric in the former Roman province of Thrace. Callipolis was a suffragan of Heraclea. Lequien (I, 1123) mentions only six Greek bishops, the first as being present at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, when the See was united to that of Coela (Coelia or Coele), the last about 1500. His list could easily be increased, for the Greek Orthodox See still exists; it was raised in 1904 to the rank of a metropolis without suffragans, after the manner of most Greek metropolitan Sees. Lequien (III, 971) also gives the names of eight Latin bishops, from 1208 to 1518. (See Eubel, I, 269, note.) There are numerous schools and a small museum; a large cemetery is the resting place of many French soldiers who died of disease (chiefly cholera) during the Crimean War. The port is poor and trade unimportant, for want of roads. A Catholic mission was conducted in the Ottoman days by Assumpionist Fathers; there are also a number of Armenian and Greek Catholics, with priests of their respective rites. Personages Famous persons from Gallipoli Salih Yazıcı, 14th c. scribe; writer of the masnavi Shemsiyye, a work of divinations in the Turkish language Ahmed Bican writer Mehmed Yazıcıoğlu, writer of the Muhammediyye, one of the key works of islamic Ottoman Literature Mustafa Ali (*1541–1600) Ottoman historian, politician and writer See also Gallipoli Star Sources and references External links Gallipoli The New Zealanders at Gallipoli (1919) eText The Spirits of Gallipoli A database of original sources for over 80% of the 7,249 men either buried or commemorated at Gallipoli. | Gallipoli |@lemmatized satellite:1 image:1 gallipoli:35 peninsula:9 surround:1 area:2 locate:1 turkish:11 thrace:2 european:2 part:1 turkey:3 aegean:1 sea:1 west:2 dardanelles:3 strait:2 east:3 derive:1 name:5 greek:8 kallipolis:1 καλλίπολις:1 meaning:1 beautiful:1 city:2 ottoman:9 era:1 devastating:1 earthquake:2 almost:2 abandon:1 swiftly:1 reoccupied:1 turk:3 anatolia:1 asiatic:1 side:5 make:2 first:5 position:2 europe:1 staging:1 expansion:1 across:1 balkan:1 crowley:1 roger:1 holy:1 war:13 constantinople:3 clash:1 islam:1 new:16 york:1 hyperion:1 p:1 isbn:1 inhabit:1 byzantine:1 empire:6 gradually:1 conquer:1 start:1 century:1 onwards:1 living:1 allow:1 continue:1 everyday:1 life:1 gelibolu:1 chief:1 town:1 kaymakamlik:1 district:1 vilayet:1 wali:1 province:2 adrianople:1 inhabitant:1 armenian:2 jew:1 become:5 major:2 encampment:1 british:8 french:4 force:5 crimean:2 harbour:1 also:7 stop:1 point:3 way:2 crimea:3 victorian:1 web:1 see:8 world:3 ally:4 try:2 find:3 reach:2 troubled:1 imperial:1 russia:1 decide:1 obtain:1 passage:1 set:1 defensive:1 fortification:1 along:2 german:1 help:1 defeat:2 russian:1 white:1 army:3 general:2 pyotr:1 wrangel:1 significant:1 number:3 emigre:1 soldier:5 family:1 evacuate:1 many:6 go:2 country:2 refuge:1 yugoslavia:1 stone:2 monument:3 erect:1 special:2 cross:2 create:1 commemorate:3 stay:1 destroy:1 january:2 reconstruction:1 begin:1 consent:1 government:2 campaign:14 allied:5 landing:2 subsequent:2 usually:1 know:3 britain:1 battle:4 çanakkale:1 australia:7 zealand:10 south:1 africa:1 newfoundland:1 term:1 alone:1 use:2 describe:1 eight:3 month:2 early:1 attempt:2 seize:2 strategic:1 advantage:1 authorize:3 attack:2 phase:1 purely:1 naval:2 lord:2 kitchener:2 would:1 troop:3 shift:1 western:1 front:2 lead:2 admiral:1 crisis:1 nerve:1 second:1 command:4 withdrew:1 one:3 day:7 moderate:1 casualty:4 combined:1 operation:1 element:2 surprise:1 long:1 april:2 land:1 multiple:1 place:3 next:1 saw:1 high:3 due:1 expose:1 terrain:1 weather:1 closeness:1 line:1 addition:1 result:2 epidemic:1 dysentery:1 cause:1 poor:2 sanitary:1 condition:1 wellington:1 battalion:1 briefly:1 occupy:1 chunuk:3 bair:3 beat:1 back:1 never:1 dislodge:1 summit:1 withdrawal:1 mean:1 end:2 idea:1 quickly:1 well:2 possibility:1 gain:1 victory:1 central:1 power:2 enemy:1 germany:1 soft:1 underbelly:1 often:1 refer:1 successful:1 stealthy:1 retreat:2 complete:1 minimal:1 anzac:9 completely:1 december:1 remain:2 total:2 death:4 around:2 australian:6 zealander:4 indian:1 nearly:1 twice:2 combine:1 suffer:1 percentage:2 compare:1 population:1 size:2 founding:1 myth:1 still:2 holiday:1 fact:1 rare:1 seem:1 remember:1 proudly:1 consider:1 great:1 turning:1 future:1 nation:1 beginning:1 spirit:2 memento:1 museum:3 memorial:3 canberra:1 auckland:2 put:1 dent:1 armour:1 winston:1 churchill:1 admiralty:1 commission:1 plan:1 invade:1 talk:1 vividly:1 memoir:1 give:2 important:2 boost:1 career:1 mustafa:5 kemal:3 atatürk:1 little:1 commander:1 national:3 hero:1 promote:1 pasha:1 founder:1 modern:1 state:1 collapse:1 halt:1 eventually:1 repel:1 advance:1 exceed:1 authority:2 contravene:1 order:3 famous:2 speech:1 fight:1 die:4 time:1 take:1 u:1 replenish:1 ben:1 taaruzu:1 değil:1 ölmeyi:1 emrediyorum:1 biz:1 ölünceye:1 kadar:1 geçecek:1 zaman:1 zarfında:1 yerimize:1 başka:1 kuvvetler:1 kumandanlar:1 geçebilir:1 show:2 courageous:1 determined:1 personality:1 follow:1 regiment:3 lieutenant:2 colonel:1 hüseyin:1 avni:1 fulfil:1 entire:1 fall:2 year:1 mass:1 graf:1 decease:1 open:1 identity:1 determination:1 carry:1 final:1 resting:1 relocation:1 cemetery:3 body:1 two:1 men:4 bayonet:1 lock:1 together:2 identify:1 asım:3 company:2 captain:1 j:1 l:1 woiters:3 corp:1 hold:3 neck:2 amulet:1 quran:1 bury:2 tag:1 weapon:1 hand:1 attendance:2 dawn:3 service:4 popular:2 since:1 anniversary:2 upwards:1 people:4 attend:2 ari:1 burnu:1 cove:2 grow:1 construction:1 spacious:1 site:2 north:1 beach:1 commemorative:1 mark:1 official:2 last:2 surviving:1 veteran:3 tourist:1 travel:1 commemoration:1 previous:1 prime:3 minister:3 john:2 howard:1 helen:1 clark:2 accompany:1 nz:1 defence:1 party:1 several:1 past:1 college:1 student:1 win:1 essay:1 competition:1 work:3 historical:1 park:1 capacity:1 portable:1 tribune:1 build:1 lone:1 pine:1 region:1 influence:1 art:1 subject:2 movie:1 entitle:1 direct:1 peter:1 weir:1 star:2 mel:1 gibson:1 writer:5 maurice:1 shadbolt:1 produce:2 play:2 film:2 version:2 daybreak:1 picture:1 release:1 eric:1 bogle:1 write:1 song:4 band:2 waltz:1 matilda:1 watch:1 parade:1 elderly:1 record:1 june:1 tabor:1 skid:1 pogues:1 tommy:1 makem:1 liam:1 clancy:1 williamson:1 cliff:1 sabaton:1 inspire:1 bbc:1 feature:1 length:1 television:1 drama:1 king:2 confuse:1 novel:2 robert:1 penn:1 warren:1 focused:1 attention:1 unit:1 sandringham:2 decimate:1 include:1 george:1 v:1 estate:1 house:1 documentary:1 filmmaker:2 tolga:1 örnek:1 bravery:1 suffering:1 survive:1 diary:1 letter:1 award:1 honorary:1 medal:1 division:1 honour:1 basis:1 solomon:1 bryce:1 courtenay:1 hi:1 ecclesiastical:1 history:1 callipolis:2 roman:2 catholic:3 titular:1 bishopric:1 former:1 suffragan:2 heraclea:1 lequien:2 mention:1 six:1 bishop:2 present:1 council:1 ephesus:1 unite:1 coela:1 coelia:1 coele:1 list:1 could:1 easily:1 increase:1 orthodox:1 exist:1 raise:1 rank:1 metropolis:1 without:1 manner:1 metropolitan:1 iii:1 latin:1 eubel:1 note:1 numerous:1 school:1 small:1 large:1 rest:1 disease:1 chiefly:1 cholera:1 port:1 trade:1 unimportant:1 want:1 road:1 mission:1 conduct:1 assumpionist:1 father:1 priest:1 respective:1 rite:1 personage:1 person:1 salih:1 yazıcı:1 c:1 scribe:1 masnavi:1 shemsiyye:1 divination:1 language:1 ahmed:1 bican:1 mehmed:1 yazıcıoğlu:1 muhammediyye:1 key:1 islamic:1 literature:1 ali:1 historian:1 politician:1 source:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 etext:1 database:1 original:1 either:1 |@bigram gallipoli_peninsula:3 aegean_sea:1 ottoman_empire:3 monument_erect:1 gallipoli_campaign:6 lord_kitchener:1 turning_point:1 canberra_australia:1 winston_churchill:1 lord_admiralty:1 mustafa_kemal:2 kemal_atatürk:1 lieutenant_colonel:1 final_resting:1 resting_place:1 prime_minister:3 lone_pine:1 mel_gibson:1 tommy_makem:1 external_link:1 |
3,223 | Kaleidoscope | Giant kaleidoscope, San Diego harbor A kaleidoscope is a tube of mirrors containing loose colored beads, pebbles or other small colored objects. The viewer looks in one end and light enters the other end, reflecting off the mirrors. Typically there are two rectangular lengthwise mirrors. Setting of the mirrors at 45° creates eight duplicate images of the objects, four at 60°, and four at 90°. As the tube is rotated, the tumbling of the colored objects presents the viewer with varying colors and patterns. Any arbitrary pattern of objects shows up as a beautiful symmetric pattern because of the reflections in the mirrors. A two-mirror model yields a pattern or patterns isolated against a solid black background, while a three-mirror (closed triangle) model yields a pattern that fills the entire field. For a 2D symmetry group, a kaleidoscopic point is a point of intersection of two or more lines of reflection symmetry. In the case of a discrete group the angle between consecutive lines is 180°/n for an integer n≥2. At this point there are n lines of reflection symmetry, and the point is a center of n-fold rotational symmetry. See also symmetry combinations. Modern kaleidoscopes are made of brass tubes, stained glass, wood, steel, gourds and most any other material an artist can sculpt or manipulate. The part of the kaleidoscope which holds objects to be viewed is called an object chamber or cell. Object cells may contain almost any material. Sometimes the object cell is filled with liquid so the items float and move through the object cell with slight movement from the person viewing. Etymology A toy kaleidoscope tube First attested 1817 in English, the word "kaleidoscope" derives from the Greek καλός (kalos), "beautiful" Kalos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus + είδος (eidos), "shape" Eidos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus + σκοπέω (scopeο), "to look at, to examine" Skopeo, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus Online Etymology Dictionary . More informatively: "looking at beautiful forms" (PB May 2009) History Patterns as seen through a kaleidoscope tube Known to the ancient Greeks, it was reinvented by Sir David Brewster in 1816 while conducting experiments on light polarization; Brewster patented it in 1817. His initial design was a tube with pairs of mirrors at one end, and pairs of translucent disks at the other, and beads between the two. Initially intended as a science tool, the kaleidoscope was quickly copied as a toy. Brewster believed he would make money from his popular invention; however, a fault in the wording of his patent allowed others to copy his invention. In America, Charles Bush popularized the kaleidoscope. Today, these early products often sell for over $1,000. Cozy Baker collected kaleidoscopes and wrote books about a few of the artists who were making them in the 1970s through 2000. Baker is credited with energizing a renaissance in kaleidoscope-making in America. In 1999 a short lived magazine dedicated to kaleidoscopes called Kaleidoscope Review was published covering artists, collectors, dealers, events, and how-to articles. This magazine was created and edited by Brett Bensley, at that time a well known kaleidoscope artist and resource on kaleidoscope information. Craft galleries often carry a few, while others specialize in them and carry dozens of different types from different artists and craftspeople. Kaleidoscopes are related to hyperbolic geometry. Background For some background on the geometry of the kaleidoscope, see Reflection group. See also Teleidoscope Kaleidoplex Fractals References External links spectacular kaleidoscope on youtube another spectacular kaleidoscope on youtube (links to more) 12 in HU, moving interactive kaleidoscope Literary and Philosophical Remarks. Kaleidoscope History How to make a Kaleidoscope Kaleidoscope Mirror Designs Infography about Kaleidoscopes Digital kaleidoscope gallery | Kaleidoscope |@lemmatized giant:1 kaleidoscope:25 san:1 diego:1 harbor:1 tube:6 mirror:9 contain:2 loose:1 color:2 bead:2 pebble:1 small:1 colored:2 object:9 viewer:2 look:3 one:2 end:3 light:2 enters:1 reflect:1 typically:1 two:4 rectangular:1 lengthwise:1 setting:1 creates:1 eight:1 duplicate:1 image:1 four:2 rotate:1 tumbling:1 present:1 vary:1 pattern:7 arbitrary:1 show:1 beautiful:3 symmetric:1 reflection:4 model:2 yield:2 isolate:1 solid:1 black:1 background:3 three:1 closed:1 triangle:1 fill:2 entire:1 field:1 symmetry:5 group:3 kaleidoscopic:1 point:4 intersection:1 line:3 case:1 discrete:1 angle:1 consecutive:1 n:4 integer:1 center:1 fold:1 rotational:1 see:4 also:2 combination:1 modern:1 make:4 brass:1 stain:1 glass:1 wood:1 steel:1 gourd:1 material:2 artist:5 sculpt:1 manipulate:1 part:1 hold:1 view:2 call:2 chamber:1 cell:4 may:2 almost:1 sometimes:1 liquid:1 item:1 float:1 move:2 slight:1 movement:1 person:1 etymology:2 toy:2 first:1 attested:1 english:4 word:1 derive:1 greek:5 καλός:1 kalos:2 henry:3 george:3 liddell:3 robert:3 scott:3 lexicon:3 perseus:3 είδος:1 eidos:2 shape:1 σκοπέω:1 scopeο:1 examine:1 skopeo:1 online:1 dictionary:1 informatively:1 form:1 pb:1 history:2 know:2 ancient:1 reinvent:1 sir:1 david:1 brewster:3 conduct:1 experiment:1 polarization:1 patent:2 initial:1 design:2 pair:2 translucent:1 disk:1 initially:1 intend:1 science:1 tool:1 quickly:1 copy:2 believe:1 would:1 money:1 popular:1 invention:2 however:1 fault:1 wording:1 allow:1 others:2 america:2 charles:1 bush:1 popularize:1 today:1 early:1 product:1 often:2 sell:1 cozy:1 baker:2 collect:1 write:1 book:1 credit:1 energize:1 renaissance:1 making:1 short:1 lived:1 magazine:2 dedicate:1 review:1 publish:1 cover:1 collector:1 dealer:1 event:1 article:1 create:1 edit:1 brett:1 bensley:1 time:1 well:1 resource:1 information:1 craft:1 gallery:2 carry:2 specialize:1 dozen:1 different:2 type:1 craftspeople:1 relate:1 hyperbolic:1 geometry:2 teleidoscope:1 kaleidoplex:1 fractal:1 reference:1 external:1 link:2 spectacular:2 youtube:2 another:1 hu:1 interactive:1 literary:1 philosophical:1 remark:1 infography:1 digital:1 |@bigram san_diego:1 rotational_symmetry:1 george_liddell:3 liddell_robert:3 lexicon_perseus:3 short_lived:1 hyperbolic_geometry:1 external_link:1 |
3,224 | Epistle_to_Philemon | The Epistle to Philemon is a prison letter from Paul of Tarsus to Philemon, a leader in the Colossian church. It is one of the books of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is the most important early Christian writing dealing with forgiveness. It is now generally regarded as one of the undisputed works of Paul. It is the shortest of Paul's extant letters, consisting of only 335 words in the original Greek text, and twenty-five verses in modern English translations. Content and reconstruction Paul, who is apparently in prison (probably in either Rome or Ephesus), writes to a fellow Christian named Philemon and two of his associates: a woman named Apphia, sometimes assumed to be his wife, and a minister named Archippus (see Colossians 4:17). If the letter to the Colossians is authentically Pauline, then Philemon must live in Colossae. As a slave-owner he would have been wealthy by the standards of the early church and this explains why his house was large enough to accommodate church meetings (v. 2). Paul writes on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon's slave. Beyond that, it is not self-evident as to what has transpired. Onesimus is described as having been "separated" from Philemon, once having been "useless" to him (a pun on Onesimus's name, which means "useful"), and having done him wrong. The dominant scholarly consensus is that Onesimus is a runaway slave who became a Christian believer. Paul now sends him back to face his aggrieved master, and strives in his letter to effect reconciliation between these two Christians. What is more contentious is how Onesimus came to be with Paul. Various suggestions have been given: Onesimus being imprisoned with Paul; Onesimus being brought to Paul by others; Onesimus coming to Paul by chance (or in the Christian view, by divine providence); or Onesimus deliberately seeking Paul out, as a friend of his master's, in order to be reconciled. There is no extant information about Onesimus apart from the letter. Ignatius of Antioch mentions an Onesimus as Bishop of Ephesus in the early second century. It was suggested by some Bible scholars in the 1950s that these this Onesimus is the same as the Onesimus in Paul's letter. Furthermore, it was suggested that Onesimus could have been the first to compile the letters of Paul, including the letter that gave him his own freedom as an expression of gratitude. This hypothesis could explain why the letter to Philemon (a letter written to an individual) is included alongside letters written to Christian communities. Significance Paul's letter is a personal one and can appear cryptic to outsiders. His tactful address to Philemon was labelled "holy flattery" by Martin Luther. Commending Philemon's Christian compassion, but at the same time subtly reminding Philemon of his apostolic authority over him, and the spiritual debt Philemon owes to him, Paul pleads with Philemon to take Onesimus back. Paul notes that because of his conversion, Onesimus is returned "no longer as a slave but more than a slave, a beloved brother" (v. 16). Several issues remain unclear about Paul's expectations for Philemon. Is he expected to forgive Onesimus or Manumit him? Is he to consider Onesimus to be Philemon's "brother" as well as his "slave"? Does this new brotherhood supplants his servitude? Some fascets of Paul's societal expectations can be seen in these verses. The German Protestant theologian Martin Luther saw a parallel between Paul and Christ in their work of reconciliation. However, Luther insisted that the letter upheld the social status quo: Paul did nothing to change Onesimus's legal position as a slave—and he complied with the law in returning him. The letter was a cause of debate during the British and later American struggles over the abolition of slavery. Both sides cited Philemon for support. See also Textual variants in the Epistle to Philemon References J. M. G. Barclay, Colossians and Philemon, Sheffield Academic Press, 1997 (ISBN 1-85075-818-2) N. T. Wright, Colossians and Philemon, Tyndale IVP, 1986 (ISBN 0-8028-0309-1) | Epistle_to_Philemon |@lemmatized epistle:3 philemon:18 prison:2 letter:14 paul:20 tarsus:1 leader:1 colossian:5 church:3 one:3 book:1 new:2 testament:1 christian:8 bible:2 important:1 early:3 write:4 deal:1 forgiveness:1 generally:1 regard:1 undisputed:1 work:2 shortest:1 extant:2 consist:1 word:1 original:1 greek:1 text:1 twenty:1 five:1 verse:2 modern:1 english:1 translation:1 content:1 reconstruction:1 apparently:1 probably:1 either:1 rome:1 ephesus:2 writes:1 fellow:1 name:4 two:2 associate:1 woman:1 apphia:1 sometimes:1 assume:1 wife:1 minister:1 archippus:1 see:3 authentically:1 pauline:1 must:1 live:1 colossae:1 slave:7 owner:1 would:1 wealthy:1 standard:1 explain:2 house:1 large:1 enough:1 accommodate:1 meeting:1 v:2 behalf:1 onesimus:19 beyond:1 self:1 evident:1 transpire:1 describe:1 separate:1 useless:1 pun:1 mean:1 useful:1 wrong:1 dominant:1 scholarly:1 consensus:1 runaway:1 become:1 believer:1 send:1 back:2 face:1 aggrieved:1 master:2 strives:1 effect:1 reconciliation:2 contentious:1 come:2 various:1 suggestion:1 give:2 imprison:1 bring:1 others:1 chance:1 view:1 divine:1 providence:1 deliberately:1 seek:1 friend:1 order:1 reconcile:1 information:1 apart:1 ignatius:1 antioch:1 mention:1 bishop:1 second:1 century:1 suggest:2 scholar:1 furthermore:1 could:2 first:1 compile:1 include:2 freedom:1 expression:1 gratitude:1 hypothesis:1 individual:1 alongside:1 community:1 significance:1 personal:1 appear:1 cryptic:1 outsider:1 tactful:1 address:1 label:1 holy:1 flattery:1 martin:2 luther:3 commend:1 compassion:1 time:1 subtly:1 remind:1 apostolic:1 authority:1 spiritual:1 debt:1 owe:1 pleads:1 take:1 note:1 conversion:1 return:2 longer:1 beloved:1 brother:2 several:1 issue:1 remain:1 unclear:1 expectation:2 expect:1 forgive:1 manumit:1 consider:1 well:1 brotherhood:1 supplants:1 servitude:1 fascets:1 societal:1 german:1 protestant:1 theologian:1 saw:1 parallel:1 christ:1 however:1 insist:1 uphold:1 social:1 status:1 quo:1 nothing:1 change:1 legal:1 position:1 comply:1 law:1 cause:1 debate:1 british:1 late:1 american:1 struggle:1 abolition:1 slavery:1 side:1 cite:1 support:1 also:1 textual:1 variant:1 reference:1 j:1 g:1 barclay:1 sheffield:1 academic:1 press:1 isbn:2 n:1 wright:1 tyndale:1 ivp:1 |@bigram epistle_philemon:2 paul_tarsus:1 scholarly_consensus:1 runaway_slave:1 divine_providence:1 ignatius_antioch:1 martin_luther:2 status_quo:1 abolition_slavery:1 textual_variant:1 sheffield_academic:1 |
3,225 | Mary_Tyler_Moore | Mary Tyler Moore (born December 29, 1936) is an American actress, primarily known for her roles in television sitcoms. Moore is best known for The Mary Tyler Moore Show (1970–1977), in which she starred as Mary Richards, a 30-something single woman who worked as a local news producer in Minneapolis, and for her earlier role as Dick Van Dyke's wife on The Dick Van Dyke Show (1961–1966). She also appeared in a number of films, most notably 1980's Ordinary People, in which she played a role that was the polar opposite of the television characters she had portrayed, and for which she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress. Moore has also been active in charity work and various political causes, particularly on behalf of animal rights and juvenile diabetes. Life and career Early life Moore, eldest of three siblings, was born in the Brooklyn Heights section of Brooklyn, New York, the daughter of Marjorie (née Hackett) and George Tyler Moore, a clerk. Both of her parents were Irish Americans. Her family moved to Los Angeles, California when she was eight years old (some sources say 10). She attended Saint Rose of Lima Roman Catholic school in Brooklyn; St. Ambrose School in Los Angeles on Fairfax; and the Immaculate Heart High School on Los Feliz Boulevard in Hollywood, California. "Shapely Legs An Asset",The Brooklyn Eagle, December 29, 2008 Biography, move to California and High Schooltcm.com, accesed April 9, 2009 Career Television At the age of 17, Moore aspired to be a dancer. She started her career as "Happy Hotpoint", a tiny elf dancing on Hotpoint appliances in TV commercials during the 1950s series Ozzie and Harriet. She filmed 39 TV spots in five days, ultimately earning about $6,000 from the first job of her career. Her time as "Happy Hotpoint" ended when it became difficult to conceal her pregnancy in the dancing elf costume. After All (1995 autobiography of Mary Tyler Moore). Putnam, ISBN 0-399-14091-3, p. 61-65 Moore anonymously modelled on the covers of a number of record albums and auditioned for the role of the older daughter of Danny Thomas for his long-running hit TV show, but was turned down. Much later, Thomas explained that "no daughter of mine could have that [little] nose." Moore's first regular television role was as a telephone receptionist on the show Richard Diamond, Private Detective; in that series, only her legs were shown and voice heard. Rudolph, Ileane."Mary Tyler Moore's Big Break",tvguide.com, May 6, 2004 About this time, she guest starred on John Cassavetes's NBC detective series Johnny Staccato. In 1960, she guest starred in two episodes, "The O'Mara's Ladies" and "All The O'Mara's Horses", of the William Bendix-Doug McClure NBC western series, Overland Trail. Several months later, she appeared in the first episode, entitled "One Blonde Too Many", of NBC one-season The Tab Hunter Show, a sitcom starring the former teen idol as a bachelor cartoonist. In 1961, Moore appeared in several bit parts in movies and on television, including Bourbon Street Beat, 77 Sunset Strip, Surfside Six, Wanted: Dead or Alive, Steve Canyon, Hawaiian Eye, and Lock Up in 1961 where a woman named Laura helped save her from prison. In 1961, Carl Reiner cast her in The Dick Van Dyke Show, an acclaimed weekly series based on Reiner's own life and career as a writer for Sid Caesar's television variety show, telling the cast from the outset that it would run no more than five years. The show was produced by Danny Thomas's company, and Thomas himself recommended her. He remembered Mary as "the girl with three names" whom he had turned down earlier. ProfileThe Paley Center for Media, accessed April 3, 2009 Moore's energetic comic performances as Van Dyke's character's wife, begun at age 24 (hence she was 11 years Van Dyke's junior), made both the actress and her signature tight capri pants extremely popular, and she became internationally famous. When she won an Emmy After All, p. 114 award for her portrayal of Laura Petrie, she said, through her tears, quite incorrectly, "I know this will never happen again!" In 1970, after having appeared earlier in a pivotal one-hour musical special called "Dick Van Dyke and the Other Woman", Moore and husband Grant Tinker successfully pitched a sitcom centered on Moore to CBS. The Mary Tyler Moore Show was a half-hour newsroom sitcom featuring Ed Asner as her gruff boss Lou Grant, a character that would later be spun off into an hour-long dramatic series. The premise of the single working woman's life, alternating during the program between work and home, became a television staple that would often be used in the future. "Mary Tyler Moore Biography",biography.com, accessed April 3, 2009 After six years of ratings in the top 20, "The Mary Tyler Moore Show"museum.tv, accessed April 3, 2009 the show slipped to number #39 during its seventh season. Producers argued for its cancellation due to its falling ratings, afraid that the show's legacy might be damaged if it were renewed for another season. This was to the surprise of the entire cast including Mary Tyler Moore herself when they were all told they would soon be filming their final episode. After the announcement, the series finished strongly and the final show was by far the most watched show during the week it aired. The series had become a touchpoint of the Women's Movement because it was one of the first to show, in a serious way, an independent working woman. After a brief respite, Moore threw herself into a completely different genre. She attempted two failed variety series in a row: Mary, which featured David Letterman, Michael Keaton, Swoosie Kurtz and Dick Shawn in the supporting cast and lasted three episodes, which was re-tooled as The Mary Tyler Moore Hour, a backstage show within a show, with Mary portraying a TV star putting on a variety show. To arouse curiosity and nostalgic feelings, Dick Van Dyke appeared as her guest, but the program was canceled within three months. About this time, she also made a one-off musical/variety special for CBS, titled Mary's Incredible Dream, After All, p. 190-192 which featured John Ritter, among others. It did poorly in the ratings and, according to Moore, was never repeated and will likely never see the light of day again because of legal problems surrounding the show. In the 1985-86 season, she returned to CBS in a series titled "Mary", which suffered from poor reviews, sagging ratings, and internal strife within the production crew. According to Moore, she asked CBS to pull the show, as she was unhappy with the direction of the program and the producers. After All, p. 266-267 She also starred in the short-lived "warmedy", Annie McGuire, in 1988. After All, p. 271-272 In the mid-1990s, she had a cameo and a guest starring role as herself on two episodes of Ellen. She subsequently also guest starred on Ellen DeGeneres's next TV show, The Ellen Show, in 2001. In 2004, Moore reunited with her Dick Van Dyke Show castmates for a reunion "episode" called The Dick Van Dyke Show Revisited. Tucker, Ken."Review:The Dick Van Dyke Show Revisited",ew.com, May 14, 2004 In August 2005, Moore guest-starred as Christine St. George, a high-strung host of a fictional TV show on three episodes of Fox sitcom That '70s Show. Moore's scenes were shot on the same soundstage where The Mary Tyler Moore Show was filmed in the 1970s. Theatre Moore appeared in several Broadway plays. She starred in Whose Life Is It Anyway with James Naughton, which opened on Broadway at the Royale Theatre on February 24, 1980 and ran for 96 performances, and in Sweet Sue, which opened at the Music Box Theatre (transferred to the Royale Theatre) on Jan. 8, 1988 and ran for 164 performances. She was the star of a new musical version of Breakfast at Tiffany's in December 1966, but the show, titled Holly Golightly, was a notorious flop that closed out-of-town before reaching Broadway. An urban legend has it that when Mary, as Holly, announced that she miscarried her baby, the audience applauded. She appeared in previews of the Neil Simon play Rose's Dilemma at the off-Broadway Manhattan Theatre Club in December 2003 but quit before the show opened. During the 1980s, Moore and her production company produced five plays: Noises Off, The Octette Bridge Club, Joe Egg, Benefactors, and Safe Sex. Movies Moore made her film debut in 1961's X-15. She subsequently appeared in a string of 1960s films, including 1967's Thoroughly Modern Millie with Julie Andrews and 1968's What's So Bad About Feeling Good? and Don't Just Stand There!. In 1969 she starred opposite Elvis Presley as a nun in Change of Habit. Moore's future television castmate Ed Asner also appeared in that film (as a cop). Moore was nominated for the Best Actress for 1980's Ordinary People. Other feature film credits include Six Weeks, Just Between Friends, Flirting with Disaster, Keys to Tulsa, Labor Pains and Cheats. Moore has appeared in a number of telefilms, such as Like Mother, Like Son: The Strange Story of Sante and Kenny Kimes, Run a Crooked Mile, Heartsounds, The Gin Game (based on the Broadway play; it reunited her with Dick Van Dyke again), Mary and Rhoda, Lincoln (as Mary Todd Lincoln), Finnegan Begin Again, The Best Year, Miss Lettie and Me, Stolen Babies and Payback. Author Moore has written two memoirs. The first, "After All", released in 1995, in which she acknowledged that she is a recovering alcoholic (ISBN 10: 0440223032). After All, p. 278-289 The next, "Growing Up Again: Life, Loves, and Oh Yeah, Diabetes", was released on April 1, 2009, and focuses on living with type 1 diabetes (St. Martin's Press, ISBN 10: 0312376316). Sessums, Kevin."Mary Tyler Moore's Lifetime of Challenges",parade.com, March 22, 2009 Personal life In 1955, aged 18, she married Richard Carlton Meeker, After All, p. 55-65 whom she described as "the boy next door," and within six weeks was pregnant with her only child, Richard Jr. (born July 3, 1956) (who coincidentally, was known as "Richie", also the name of her TV son on The Dick Van Dyke Show). After All, p. 65 Meeker and Moore divorced in 1961. After All, p. 59-95 Moore married Grant Tinker, an NBC executive in 1962, and in 1970 they formed the television production company MTM Enterprises, After All, p. 141-144 which created and produced the company's first television series, The Mary Tyler Moore Show. MTM Enterprises would later produce popular American sitcoms and drama television series such as Rhoda and Phyllis (both spin-offs from The Mary Tyler Moore Show), The Bob Newhart Show, WKRP in Cincinnati, Hill Street Blues, and Newhart. It was later sold to Television South, an ITV Franchise holder during the 1980s. Moore and Tinker divorced in 1981. 'Museum of Broadcast Communications (MBC)' Moore's son Richie died of an accidental self-inflicted gunshot in 1980. The gun was later taken off the market due to its "hair trigger". After All, p. 237-240 Just prior to his death, Moore had secured a job for him in the CBS mailroom. She married Dr. Robert Levine on November 23, 1983 at the Pierre Hotel in New York City. The New York Times, "Mary Tyler Moore Is Wed", November 24, 1983, p. C 12 They met when her mother was treated by him in New York; Levine was Mrs. Moore's cardiologist. Moore, Mary Tyler. Growing Up Again (2009), St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0312376316, pp. 47-49 Charity work Mary Tyler Moore presents the JDRF's Hero's Award to U.S. Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert, for his role in securing federal funding for type 1 diabetes research, 2003 In addition to her acting work, Moore is the International Chairman of the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International. Board of Directors, JDRFjdrf.org, accessed April 3, 2009 In this role, she has used her fame to help raise funds and raise awareness of diabetes mellitus type 1, which she has, almost losing her vision and at least one limb to the disease. In 2007, in honor of Moore's dedication to the Foundation, JDRF created the "Forever Moore" research initiative which will support JDRF's Academic Research and Development and JDRF's Clinical Development Program. The program works on translating basic research advances into new treatments and technologies for those living with type 1 diabetes. "Forevermoorejdrf.org, Accessed April 3, 2009 Mary also adopted a Golden Retriever puppy from Yankee Golden Retriever Rescue in Hudson, Massachusetts. News itemlandofpuregold.com, accessed April 3, 2009 She also is a lobster rights activist and promoted her cause on the Ellen DeGeneris sitcom "Ellen." "Return to Deep Blue Sea Will Be Heaven for Lolly",peta.org, June 20, 2003 Moore is a pesco-vegetarian (pescetarian) and has worked for animal rights for many years. On the subject of fur, she has said, "Behind every beautiful fur, there is a story. It is a bloody, barbaric story." She is also a co-founder of Broadway Barks, an annual animal adopt-a-thon held in New York City. Moore and friend Bernadette Peters work to make New York City a no-kill city and to promote adopting animals from shelters. Gans, Andrew."Bernadette Peters and Mary Tyler Moore's Broadway Barks 10 Sets Summer Date",playbill.com, January 31, 2008 In honor of her father, George Tyler Moore, who was a life-long Civil War enthusiast, in 1995 Moore donated funds to acquire an historic structure in Shepherdstown, West Virginia, for Shepherd College (now Shepherd University) to be used as a center for Civil War studies. The center, named the George Tyler Moore Center for the Study of the Civil War is housed in the historic Conrad Shindler house (ca. 1795), which is named in honor of her great, great, great-grandfather, who owned the structure from 1815-52. "The George TYler Moore Center for the Study of the Civil War"shepherd.edu, accessed April 3, 2009 Moore is a supporter of embryonic stem cell research and said of President George W. Bush's announcement to veto the Senate's bill supporting the research, "This is an intelligent human being with a heart, and I don't see how much longer he can deny those aspects of himself." Honors In early May 2002, Moore was present as cable TV network TV Land dedicated a statue in downtown Minneapolis to the television character she made famous on Mary Tyler Moore. The statue is in front of the Dayton's (now Macy's) department store, near the corner of 7th Street and Nicollet Mall. It depicts the well-known moment in the show's opening credits where Mary throws her tam o'shanter cap in the air, in a freeze-frame at the end of the montage. "TV LAND HONORS MARY TYLER MOORE",prnewswire.comprnewswire.com, March 19, 2002 In popular culture Moore is featured in the Weezer song "Buddy Holly". To show her gratitude, Moore signed a copy of the song's single release and sent it to the band. She is also mentioned in the song "Stevie Nix" by The Hold Steady, a Brooklyn-based band with members originating from the Twin Cities. Filmography Television Richard Diamond, Private Detective The Tab Hunter Show (1960), guest star in first episode The Dick Van Dyke Show (1961-1966) The Mary Tyler Moore Show (1970-1977) Rhoda (1974-1978) Phyllis (1976-1977) How To Survive the '70s (special) (1978) Mary (1978) First, You Cry (1978) The Mary Tyler Moore Hour (1979) Heartsounds (1984) Finnegan Begin Again (1985) Mary (1985-1986) Lincoln (1988) Annie McGuire (1988) The Last Best Year (1990) Thanksgiving Day (TV series) (1990) Stolen Babies (1993) New York News (1995) Stolen Memories: Secrets from the Rose Garden (1996) Ellen (1996) Payback (1997) Good as Gold (2000) Mary and Rhoda (2000) Like Mother, Like Son: The Strange Story of Sante and Kenny Kimes (2001) The Ellen Show (2001) Miss Lettie and Me (2002) The Gin Game (2003) Blessings (TV movie) (2003) The Dick Van Dyke Show Revisited (2004) Snow Wonder (2005) That '70s Show (2006) Lipstick Jungle (2008) Oprah (May 19, 2008) "Good Morning America" )March 31, 2009) Film Year Film Role Notes1958Once Upon a Horse...Dance Hall Girl(uncredited)1961X-15Pamela Stewart 1967Thoroughly Modern MillieMiss Dorothy Brown1968What's So Bad About Feeling Good?LizDon't Just Stand There!Martine Randall1969Run a Crooked MileElizabeth Sutton(TV)Change of HabitSister Michelle Gallagher1980Ordinary PeopleBeth Jarrett Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture DramaNominated — Academy Award for Best ActressNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role1982Six WeeksCharlotte Dreyfus1986Just Between FriendsHolly Davis1996Flirting with DisasterPearl CoplinChlotrudis Award for Best Supporting ActressThe Blue ArrowGranny Rose (voice)1997Keys to TulsaCynthia Boudreau1998Reno Finds Her MomHerself2000Labor PainsEsther Raymond 2002CheatsMrs. Stark 2009Against The CurrentMom References External links Mary Tyler Moore at TVGuide.com The Museum of Broadcast Communications biography of Moore The Mary Tyler Moore Show Online "Remembering the Dick Van Dyke Show" (Mary Tyler Moore) Signature of Mary Tyler Moore on her Book - After All Growing Up Again: Life, Loves, and Oh Yeah, Diabetes | Mary_Tyler_Moore |@lemmatized mary:39 tyler:29 moore:69 born:1 december:4 american:3 actress:6 primarily:1 know:5 role:9 television:14 sitcom:7 best:9 show:45 star:13 richards:1 something:1 single:3 woman:6 work:10 local:1 news:3 producer:3 minneapolis:2 early:3 dick:14 van:15 dyke:15 wife:2 also:11 appear:10 number:4 film:10 notably:1 ordinary:2 people:2 play:5 polar:1 opposite:2 character:4 portray:2 nominate:2 academy:2 award:7 active:1 charity:2 various:1 political:1 cause:2 particularly:1 behalf:1 animal:4 right:3 juvenile:2 diabetes:8 life:9 career:5 eldest:1 three:5 sibling:1 bear:2 brooklyn:5 height:1 section:1 new:9 york:7 daughter:3 marjorie:1 née:1 hackett:1 george:6 clerk:1 parent:1 irish:1 family:1 move:2 los:3 angeles:2 california:3 eight:1 year:8 old:2 source:1 say:4 attend:1 saint:1 rise:4 lima:1 roman:1 catholic:1 school:3 st:4 ambrose:1 fairfax:1 immaculate:1 heart:2 high:3 feliz:1 boulevard:1 hollywood:1 shapely:1 legs:1 asset:1 eagle:1 biography:4 schooltcm:1 com:9 accesed:1 april:9 age:3 aspire:1 dancer:1 start:1 happy:2 hotpoint:3 tiny:1 elf:2 dance:3 appliance:1 tv:14 commercial:1 series:13 ozzie:1 harriet:1 spot:1 five:3 day:3 ultimately:1 earn:1 first:8 job:2 time:4 end:2 become:4 difficult:1 conceal:1 pregnancy:1 costume:1 autobiography:1 putnam:1 isbn:4 p:12 anonymously:1 model:1 cover:1 record:1 album:1 audition:1 danny:2 thomas:4 long:3 running:1 hit:1 turn:2 much:2 later:6 explain:1 mine:1 could:1 little:1 nose:1 regular:1 telephone:1 receptionist:1 richard:4 diamond:2 private:2 detective:3 leg:1 voice:2 heard:1 rudolph:1 ileane:1 big:1 break:1 tvguide:2 may:4 guest:7 john:2 cassavetes:1 nbc:4 johnny:1 staccato:1 two:4 episode:8 mara:2 lady:1 horse:2 william:1 bendix:1 doug:1 mcclure:1 western:1 overland:1 trail:1 several:3 month:2 entitle:1 one:6 blonde:1 many:2 season:4 tab:2 hunter:2 former:1 teen:1 idol:1 bachelor:1 cartoonist:1 bit:1 part:1 movie:3 include:4 bourbon:1 street:3 beat:1 sunset:1 strip:1 surfside:1 six:4 want:1 dead:1 alive:1 steve:1 canyon:1 hawaiian:1 eye:1 lock:1 name:5 laura:2 help:2 save:1 prison:1 carl:1 reiner:2 cast:4 acclaimed:1 weekly:1 base:3 writer:1 sid:1 caesar:1 variety:4 tell:2 outset:1 would:5 run:4 produce:4 company:4 recommend:1 remember:2 girl:2 earlier:2 profilethe:1 paley:1 center:6 medium:1 access:7 energetic:1 comic:1 performance:3 begin:3 hence:1 junior:1 make:5 signature:2 tight:1 capri:1 pant:1 extremely:1 popular:3 internationally:1 famous:2 win:1 emmy:1 portrayal:1 petrie:1 tear:1 quite:1 incorrectly:1 never:3 happen:1 pivotal:1 hour:5 musical:3 special:3 call:2 husband:1 grant:3 tinker:3 successfully:1 pitch:1 cbs:5 half:1 newsroom:1 feature:5 ed:2 asner:2 gruff:1 bos:1 lou:1 spin:2 dramatic:1 premise:1 alternate:1 program:5 home:1 staple:1 often:1 use:3 future:2 rating:4 top:1 museum:3 slip:1 seventh:1 argue:1 cancellation:1 due:2 fall:1 afraid:1 legacy:1 might:1 damage:1 renew:1 another:1 surprise:1 entire:1 soon:1 final:2 announcement:2 finish:1 strongly:1 far:1 watched:1 week:3 air:2 touchpoint:1 movement:1 serious:1 way:1 independent:1 brief:1 respite:1 throw:2 completely:1 different:1 genre:1 attempt:1 fail:1 row:1 david:1 letterman:1 michael:1 keaton:1 swoosie:1 kurtz:1 shawn:1 support:4 last:2 tool:1 backstage:1 within:4 put:1 arouse:1 curiosity:1 nostalgic:1 feeling:1 cancel:1 title:3 incredible:1 dream:1 ritter:1 among:1 others:1 poorly:1 accord:2 repeat:1 likely:1 see:2 light:1 legal:1 problem:1 surround:1 return:2 suffer:1 poor:1 review:2 sag:1 internal:1 strife:1 production:3 crew:1 ask:1 pull:1 unhappy:1 direction:1 short:1 live:2 warmedy:1 annie:2 mcguire:2 mid:1 cameo:1 ellen:7 subsequently:2 degeneres:1 next:3 reunited:1 castmates:1 reunion:1 revisit:3 tucker:1 ken:1 ew:1 august:1 christine:1 strung:1 host:1 fictional:1 fox:1 scene:1 shoot:1 soundstage:1 theatre:5 broadway:7 whose:1 anyway:1 james:1 naughton:1 open:3 royale:2 february:1 sweet:1 sue:1 music:1 box:1 transfer:1 jan:1 version:1 breakfast:1 tiffany:1 holly:3 golightly:1 notorious:1 flop:1 close:1 town:1 reach:1 urban:1 legend:1 announce:1 miscarry:1 baby:3 audience:1 applaud:1 preview:1 neil:1 simon:1 dilemma:1 manhattan:1 club:2 quit:1 noise:1 octette:1 bridge:1 joe:1 egg:1 benefactor:1 safe:1 sex:1 debut:1 x:1 string:1 thoroughly:1 modern:2 millie:1 julie:1 andrew:2 bad:2 feel:2 good:4 stand:2 elvis:1 presley:1 nun:1 change:2 habit:1 castmate:1 cop:1 credit:2 friend:2 flirt:1 disaster:1 key:1 tulsa:1 labor:1 pain:1 cheat:1 telefilm:1 like:4 mother:3 son:4 strange:2 story:4 sante:2 kenny:2 kimes:2 crooked:2 mile:1 heartsounds:2 gin:2 game:2 reunite:1 rhoda:4 lincoln:3 todd:1 finnegan:2 miss:2 lettie:2 steal:3 payback:2 author:1 write:1 memoir:1 release:3 acknowledge:1 recover:1 alcoholic:1 grow:3 love:2 oh:2 yeah:2 focus:1 living:1 type:4 martin:2 press:2 sessums:1 kevin:1 lifetime:1 challenge:1 parade:1 march:3 personal:1 marry:3 carlton:1 meeker:2 describe:1 boy:1 door:1 pregnant:1 child:1 jr:1 july:1 coincidentally:1 richie:2 divorce:2 executive:1 form:1 mtm:2 enterprise:2 create:2 drama:1 phyllis:2 offs:1 bob:1 newhart:2 wkrp:1 cincinnati:1 hill:1 blue:3 sell:1 south:1 itv:1 franchise:1 holder:1 broadcast:2 communication:2 mbc:1 die:1 accidental:1 self:1 inflict:1 gunshot:1 gun:1 take:1 market:1 hair:1 trigger:1 prior:1 death:1 secure:2 mailroom:1 dr:1 robert:1 levine:2 november:2 pierre:1 hotel:1 city:5 wed:1 c:1 meet:1 treat:1 mrs:1 cardiologist:1 pp:1 present:2 jdrf:4 hero:1 u:1 speaker:1 house:3 dennis:1 hastert:1 federal:1 funding:1 research:7 addition:1 acting:1 international:2 chairman:1 foundation:2 board:1 director:1 jdrfjdrf:1 org:3 fame:1 raise:2 fund:2 awareness:1 mellitus:1 almost:1 lose:1 vision:1 least:1 limb:1 disease:1 honor:5 dedication:1 forever:1 initiative:1 academic:1 development:2 clinical:1 translate:1 basic:1 advance:1 treatment:1 technology:1 forevermoorejdrf:1 adopt:3 golden:3 retriever:2 puppy:1 yankee:1 rescue:1 hudson:1 massachusetts:1 itemlandofpuregold:1 lobster:1 activist:1 promote:2 degeneris:1 deep:1 sea:1 heaven:1 lolly:1 peta:1 june:1 pesco:1 vegetarian:1 pescetarian:1 subject:1 fur:2 behind:1 every:1 beautiful:1 bloody:1 barbaric:1 co:1 founder:1 bark:2 annual:1 thon:1 hold:2 bernadette:2 peter:2 kill:1 shelter:1 gans:1 set:1 summer:1 date:1 playbill:1 january:1 father:1 civil:4 war:4 enthusiast:1 donate:1 acquire:1 historic:2 structure:2 shepherdstown:1 west:1 virginia:1 shepherd:3 college:1 university:1 study:3 conrad:1 shindler:1 ca:1 great:3 grandfather:1 edu:1 supporter:1 embryonic:1 stem:1 cell:1 president:1 w:1 bush:1 veto:1 senate:1 bill:1 intelligent:1 human:1 longer:1 deny:1 aspect:1 cable:1 network:1 land:2 dedicate:1 statue:2 downtown:1 front:1 dayton:1 macy:1 department:1 store:1 near:1 corner:1 nicollet:1 mall:1 depict:1 well:1 moment:1 opening:1 tam:1 shanter:1 cap:1 freeze:1 frame:1 montage:1 prnewswire:1 comprnewswire:1 culture:1 weezer:1 song:3 buddy:1 gratitude:1 sign:1 copy:1 send:1 band:2 mention:1 stevie:1 nix:1 steady:1 member:1 originate:1 twin:1 filmography:1 survive:1 cry:1 thanksgiving:1 memory:1 secret:1 garden:1 gold:1 blessing:1 snow:1 wonder:1 lipstick:1 jungle:1 oprah:1 morning:1 america:1 upon:1 hall:1 uncredited:1 stewart:1 milliemiss:1 dorothy:1 lizdon:1 martine:1 mileelizabeth:1 sutton:1 habitsister:1 michelle:1 peoplebeth:1 jarrett:1 globe:1 motion:1 picture:1 dramanominated:1 actressnominated:1 bafta:1 leading:1 weekscharlotte:1 friendsholly:1 disasterpearl:1 coplinchlotrudis:1 actressthe:1 arrowgranny:1 tulsacynthia:1 find:1 painsesther:1 raymond:1 stark:1 currentmom:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 book:1 |@bigram mary_tyler:25 tyler_moore:28 van_dyke:15 juvenile_diabetes:2 los_angeles:2 tvguide_com:2 john_cassavetes:1 teen_idol:1 carl_reiner:1 grant_tinker:2 ed_asner:2 brief_respite:1 david_letterman:1 michael_keaton:1 ellen_degeneres:1 breakfast_tiffany:1 elvis_presley:1 spin_offs:1 diabetes_mellitus:1 bernadette_peter:2 gans_andrew:1 playbill_com:1 embryonic_stem:1 w_bush:1 buddy_holly:1 golden_globe:1 motion_picture:1 picture_dramanominated:1 best_actressnominated:1 actressnominated_bafta:1 bafta_award:1 external_link:1 |
3,226 | Cyclone_(programming_language) | The Cyclone programming language is intended to be a safe dialect of the C programming language. Cyclone is designed to avoid buffer overflows and other vulnerabilities that are endemic in C programs, without losing the power and convenience of C as a tool for systems programming. Cyclone development was started as a joint project of AT&T Labs Research and Greg Morrisett's group at Cornell in 2001. Version 1.0 was released on May 8, 2006. Language features Cyclone attempts to avoid some of the common pitfalls of the C programming language, while still maintaining the look and performance of C. To this end, Cyclone places the following restrictions upon programs: NULL checks are inserted to prevent segmentation faults Pointer arithmetic is restricted Pointers must be initialized before use (this is enforced by definite assignment analysis) Dangling pointers are prevented through region analysis and limitations on free() Only "safe" casts and unions are allowed goto into scopes is disallowed switch labels in different scopes are disallowed Pointer-returning functions must execute return setjmp and longjmp are not supported In order to maintain the tool set that C programmers are used to, Cyclone provides the following extensions: Never-NULL pointers do not require NULL checks "Fat" pointers support pointer arithmetic with run-time bounds checking Growable regions support a form of safe manual memory management Garbage collection for heap-allocated values Tagged unions support type-varying arguments Injections help automate the use of tagged unions for programmers Polymorphism replaces some uses of void * varargs are implemented as fat pointers Exceptions replace some uses of setjmp and longjmp For a better high-level introduction to Cyclone, the reasoning behind Cyclone and the source of these lists, please see . Although Cyclone looks, in general, much like C, it should be thought of as a C-like language. Pointer/reference types Cyclone implements three kinds of reference (following C terminology these are called pointers): * (the normal type) @ (the never-NULL pointer), and ? (the only type with pointer arithmetic allowed, "fat" pointers). The purpose of introducing these new pointer types is to avoid common problems when using pointers. Take for instance a function, called foo that takes a pointer to an int: int foo(int *); Although the person who wrote the function foo could have inserted NULL checks, let us assume that for performance reasons they did not. Calling foo(NULL); will result in undefined behavior (typically, although not necessarily, a SIGSEGV being sent to the application). To avoid such problems, Cyclone introduces the @ pointer type, which can never be NULL. Thus, the "safe" version of foo would be: int foo(int @); This tells the Cyclone compiler that the argument to foo should never be NULL, avoiding the aforementioned undefined behavior. The simple change of * to @ saves the programmer from having to write NULL checks and the operating system from having to trap NULL pointer dereferences. This extra restriction, however, can be a rather large stumbling block for most C programmers, who are used to being able to manipulate their pointers directly with arithmetic. Although this is desirable, it can lead to buffer overflows and other "off-by-one"-style mistakes. To avoid this, the ? pointer type is delimited by a known bound, the size of the array. Although this adds overhead due to the extra information stored about the pointer, it improves safety and security. Take for instance a simple (and naïve) strlen function, written in C: int strlen(const char *s) { int iter = 0; if (s == NULL) return 0; while (s[iter] != '\0') { iter++; } return iter; } This function assumes that the string being passed in is terminated by NUL ('\0'). However, what would happen if char buf[] = {'h','e','l','l','o','!'}; were passed to this string? This is perfectly legal in C, yet would cause strlen to iterate through memory not necessarily associated with the string s. There are functions, such as strnlen which can be used to avoid such problems, but these functions are not standard with every implementation of ANSI C. The Cyclone version of strlen is not so different from the C version: int strlen(const char ? s) { int iter, n = s.size; if (s == NULL) return 0; for (iter = 0; iter < n; iter++, s++) { if (*s == '\0') return iter; } return n; } Here, strlen bounds itself by the length of the array passed to it, thus not going over the actual length. Each of the kinds of pointer type can be safely cast to each of the others, and arrays and strings are automatically cast to ? by the compiler. (Casting from ? to * invokes a bounds check, and casting from ? to @ invokes both a NULL check and a bounds check. Casting from * or @ results in no checks whatsoever; the resulting ? pointer has a size of 1.) Dangling pointers and region analysis Consider the following code, in C: char *itoa(int i) { char buf[20]; sprintf(buf,"%d",i); return buf; } This returns an object that is allocated on the stack of the function itoa, which is not available after the function returns. While gcc and other compilers will warn about such code, the following will typically compile without warnings: char *itoa(int i) { char buf[20], *z; sprintf(buf,"%d",i); z = buf; return z; } Cyclone does regional analysis of each segment of code, preventing dangling pointers, such as the one returned from this version of itoa. All of the local variables in a given scope are considered to be part of the same region, separate from the heap or any other local region. Thus, when analyzing itoa, the compiler would see that z is a pointer into the local stack, and would report an error. Manual memory management Examples The best example to start with is the classic Hello world program: #include <stdio.h> #include <core.h> using Core; int main(int argc, string_t ? args) { if (argc <= 1) { printf("Usage: hello-cyclone <name>\n"); return 1; } printf("Hello from Cyclone, %s\n", args[1]); return 0; } References Cyclone User Manual Cyclone: a Type-safe Dialect of C by Dan Grossman, Michael Hicks, Trevor Jim, and Greg Morrisett - published January 2005 See also C ML AuroraUX an operating system based on OpenSolaris, using Cyclone External links Cyclone Homepage Cyclone 1.0 source code RPM Cyclone - Source code repositories Cyclone - FAQ Cyclone for C programmers Presentations: Cyclone: A Type-Safe Dialect of C Cyclone: A Memory-Safe C-Level Programming Language | Cyclone_(programming_language) |@lemmatized cyclone:26 programming:4 language:6 intend:1 safe:7 dialect:3 c:20 design:1 avoid:7 buffer:2 overflow:2 vulnerability:1 endemic:1 program:4 without:2 lose:1 power:1 convenience:1 tool:2 system:3 development:1 start:2 joint:1 project:1 lab:1 research:1 greg:2 morrisett:2 group:1 cornell:1 version:5 release:1 may:1 feature:1 attempt:1 common:2 pitfall:1 still:1 maintain:2 look:2 performance:2 end:1 place:1 following:4 restriction:2 upon:1 null:13 check:9 insert:2 prevent:3 segmentation:1 fault:1 pointer:26 arithmetic:4 restricted:1 must:2 initialize:1 use:8 enforce:1 definite:1 assignment:1 analysis:4 dangling:1 region:5 limitation:1 free:1 cast:6 union:3 allow:2 goto:1 scope:3 disallow:2 switch:1 label:1 different:2 return:14 function:9 execute:1 setjmp:2 longjmp:2 support:4 order:1 set:1 programmer:5 provide:1 extension:1 never:4 require:1 fat:3 run:1 time:1 bound:5 growable:1 form:1 manual:3 memory:4 management:2 garbage:1 collection:1 heap:2 allocate:2 value:1 tag:1 type:10 vary:1 argument:2 injection:1 help:1 automate:1 tagged:1 polymorphism:1 replace:2 us:2 void:1 varargs:1 implement:2 exception:1 good:1 high:1 level:2 introduction:1 reason:2 behind:1 source:3 list:1 please:1 see:3 although:5 general:1 much:1 like:2 think:1 reference:3 three:1 kind:2 follow:1 terminology:1 call:3 normal:1 purpose:1 introduce:2 new:1 problem:3 take:3 instance:2 foo:7 int:13 person:1 write:3 could:1 let:1 u:1 assume:2 result:3 undefined:2 behavior:2 typically:2 necessarily:2 sigsegv:1 send:1 application:1 thus:3 would:5 tell:1 compiler:4 aforementioned:1 simple:2 change:1 save:1 operating:2 trap:1 dereferences:1 extra:2 however:2 rather:1 large:1 stumble:1 block:1 able:1 manipulate:1 directly:1 desirable:1 lead:1 one:2 style:1 mistake:1 delimit:1 know:1 size:3 array:3 add:1 overhead:1 due:1 information:1 store:1 improve:1 safety:1 security:1 naïve:1 strlen:6 const:2 char:7 iter:9 string:4 pass:3 terminate:1 nul:1 happen:1 buf:7 h:3 e:1 l:2 perfectly:1 legal:1 yet:1 cause:1 iterate:1 associate:1 strnlen:1 standard:1 every:1 implementation:1 ansi:1 n:5 length:2 go:1 actual:1 safely:1 others:1 automatically:1 invokes:2 whatsoever:1 dangle:2 consider:2 code:5 itoa:5 sprintf:2 object:1 stack:2 available:1 gcc:1 warn:1 compile:1 warning:1 z:4 regional:1 segment:1 local:3 variable:1 give:1 part:1 separate:1 analyze:1 report:1 error:1 examples:1 best:1 example:1 classic:1 hello:3 world:1 include:2 stdio:1 core:2 main:1 argc:2 args:2 printf:2 usage:1 name:1 user:1 dan:1 grossman:1 michael:1 hick:1 trevor:1 jim:1 publish:1 january:1 also:1 ml:1 auroraux:1 base:1 opensolaris:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 rpm:1 repositories:1 faq:1 presentation:1 |@bigram buffer_overflow:2 segmentation_fault:1 pointer_arithmetic:3 null_pointer:3 garbage_collection:1 int_int:1 undefined_behavior:2 const_char:2 dangle_pointer:2 gcc_compiler:1 stdio_h:1 external_link:1 |
3,227 | Alfonso_Cuarón | Alfonso Cuarón Orozco () (born 28 November 1961) is an Academy Award-nominated Mexican filmmaker, screenwriter and film producer. Some of his works include Y tu mamá también, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, A Little Princess and Children of Men. Childhood & early career Cuarón was born in México City. He is the son of Alfredo Cuaron, a nuclear physicist who worked for the United Nations' International Atomic Energy Agency sector for many years. He studied Philosophy at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and filmmaking at CUEC (Centro Universitario de Estudios Cinematográficos), a faculty of the same University. There, he met director Carlos Marcovich and cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki, and they made what would be his first short film, Vengeance is mine. The controversy caused by the fact that the film was shot in English was the reason he was expelled from the Film School. He began working in television in Mexico, first as a technician and then as a director. Cuarón's television work led to assignments as an assistant director for several Latin American film productions including Gaby: A True Story and Romero, and in 1991, he landed his first big-screen directorial assignment. Sólo con tu pareja Sólo con tu pareja was a sex comedy about a womanizing businessman (played by Daniel Giménez Cacho), who after spurning a hot nurse, is fooled into believing he's contracted HIV. In addition to writing, producing, and directing, Cuarón co-edited the film with Luis Patlán. It is somewhat unusual for directors to be credited co-editors, although the Coen Brothers and Robert Rodriguez have both directed and edited nearly all of their films. Cuarón continued this close involvement in editing on several of his later films. The film, which also starred cabaret singer Astrid Hadad and model/actress Claudia Ramírez — with whom Cuarón was linked between 1989 and 1993 — was a big hit in Mexico, and was enthusiastically received around the world. Director Sydney Pollack was so impressed with Sólo con tu pareja that he hired Cuarón to direct an episode of Fallen Angels, a series of neo-noir stories produced for the Showtime premium cable network in 1993; other directors who worked on the series included Steven Soderbergh, Jonathan Kaplan, Peter Bogdanovich, and Tom Hanks. International success In 1995, Cuarón released his first feature film produced in the United States, A Little Princess, an adaptation of Frances Hodgson Burnett's classic novel. Cuarón's next feature was also a literary adaptation, a modernized version of Charles Dickens's Great Expectations starring Ethan Hawke, Gwyneth Paltrow, and Robert De Niro. Cuarón's next project found him returning to Mexico with a Spanish-speaking cast to film Y tu mamá también, starring Gael Garcia Bernal and Diego Luna. It was a provocative and controversial road comedy about two sexually obsessed teenagers who take an extended road trip with an attractive married woman in her late twenties. The film's open portrayal of sexuality and frequent rude humor, as well as the politically and socially relevant asides, made the film an international hit and a major success with critics. Cuarón shared an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Screenplay with co-writer and brother Carlos Cuarón. In 2003, Cuarón directed the third film in the successful Harry Potter series, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Cuarón faced criticism from some of the more purist Potter fans for his approach to the film. At the time of the movie's release, however, author J. K. Rowling said that it was her personal favorite from the series so far. J.K. Rowling Accessed 17 January 2007. Critically, the film was also better received than the first two installments, with some critics remarking that it was the first Potter film to truly capture the essence of the novels. Cuarón's feature, Children of Men, an adaptation of the P. D. James novel starring Clive Owen, Julianne Moore and Michael Caine, received wide critical acclaim, including three Academy Award nominations. Cuarón himself received two nominations for his work on the film in both Editing (with Alex Rodríguez) and Adapted Screenplay (with several collaborators). He created the production and distribution company Esperanto Films, which has credits on the films Duck Season and Pan's Labyrinth. Awards and nominations Y tu mamá también (2001) Cannes Film Festival Best Screenplay Winner Academy Award Best Original Screenplay nominee Children of Men (2006) Venice Film Festival Lanterna Magica Prize Winner Academy Award Best Film Editing nominee Academy Award Best Adapted Screenplay nominee Filmography YearFilmCredited as DirectorWriterProducerEditorAssistant director 1986 Les Pyramides Bleues 1991 Sólo con tu pareja 1995 A Little Princess 1998 Great Expectations 2001 Y tu mamá también 2004 Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban Crónicas The Assassination of Richard Nixon 2005 Black Sun 2006 Children of Men Pan's Labyrinth 2007 Year of the Nail 2008 Rudo y Cursi 20-- A Boy And His Shoe Short films Who's He Anyway (1983) Vengeance Is Mine (1983) Co-director Cuarteto para el fin del tiempo (1983) Paris, je t'aime (2006) (segment "Parc Monceau") The Shock Doctrine (2007) Co-writer (directed by his son Jonás Cuarón) and Producer The Shock Doctrine Short Film | Naomi Klein Documentary films The Possibility of Hope (2007) Short TV Hora Marcada (1986) (episodes "Ángel Pérez", "El taxi", "Zangamanga", "No estoy jugando", "A veces regresa") Fallen Angels (1993) (episode "Murder, Obliquely") References See also Cha Cha Cha Films External links Alfonso Cuarón: A Life in Pictures, BAFTA webcast, 27 July 2007 | Alfonso_Cuarón |@lemmatized alfonso:2 cuarón:18 orozco:1 born:1 november:1 academy:6 award:7 nominated:1 mexican:1 filmmaker:1 screenwriter:1 film:27 producer:2 work:6 include:4 tu:8 mamá:4 también:4 harry:4 potter:6 prisoner:3 azkaban:3 little:3 princess:3 child:4 men:4 childhood:1 early:1 career:1 bear:1 méxico:1 city:1 son:2 alfredo:1 cuaron:1 nuclear:1 physicist:1 united:2 nation:1 international:3 atomic:1 energy:1 agency:1 sector:1 many:1 year:2 study:1 philosophy:1 national:1 autonomous:1 university:2 mexico:4 unam:1 filmmaking:1 cuec:1 centro:1 universitario:1 de:2 estudios:1 cinematográficos:1 faculty:1 meet:1 director:8 carlos:2 marcovich:1 cinematographer:1 emmanuel:1 lubezki:1 make:2 would:1 first:6 short:4 vengeance:2 mine:2 controversy:1 cause:1 fact:1 shoot:1 english:1 reason:1 expel:1 school:1 begin:1 television:2 technician:1 lead:1 assignment:2 assistant:1 several:3 latin:1 american:1 production:2 gaby:1 true:1 story:2 romero:1 land:1 big:2 screen:1 directorial:1 sólo:4 con:4 pareja:4 sex:1 comedy:2 womanizing:1 businessman:1 play:1 daniel:1 giménez:1 cacho:1 spurn:1 hot:1 nurse:1 fool:1 believe:1 contract:1 hiv:1 addition:1 writing:1 produce:3 directing:1 co:5 edit:5 luis:1 patlán:1 somewhat:1 unusual:1 credit:2 editor:1 although:1 coen:1 brother:2 robert:2 rodriguez:1 direct:4 nearly:1 continue:1 close:1 involvement:1 late:2 also:4 star:4 cabaret:1 singer:1 astrid:1 hadad:1 model:1 actress:1 claudia:1 ramírez:1 link:2 hit:2 enthusiastically:1 receive:4 around:1 world:1 sydney:1 pollack:1 impressed:1 hire:1 episode:2 fall:2 angel:2 series:4 neo:1 noir:1 showtime:1 premium:1 cable:1 network:1 steven:1 soderbergh:1 jonathan:1 kaplan:1 peter:1 bogdanovich:1 tom:1 hank:1 success:2 release:2 feature:3 state:1 adaptation:3 france:1 hodgson:1 burnett:1 classic:1 novel:3 next:2 literary:1 modernized:1 version:1 charles:1 dickens:1 great:2 expectation:2 ethan:1 hawke:1 gwyneth:1 paltrow:1 niro:1 project:1 find:1 return:1 spanish:1 speak:1 cast:1 gael:1 garcia:1 bernal:1 diego:1 luna:1 provocative:1 controversial:1 road:2 two:3 sexually:1 obsessed:1 teenager:1 take:1 extended:1 trip:1 attractive:1 married:1 woman:1 twenty:1 open:1 portrayal:1 sexuality:1 frequent:1 rude:1 humor:1 well:2 politically:1 socially:1 relevant:1 aside:1 major:1 critic:2 share:1 nomination:4 best:5 original:2 screenplay:5 writer:2 third:1 successful:1 face:1 criticism:1 purist:1 fan:1 approach:1 time:1 movie:1 however:1 author:1 j:2 k:2 rowling:2 say:1 personal:1 favorite:1 far:1 access:1 january:1 critically:1 installment:1 remark:1 truly:1 capture:1 essence:1 p:1 james:1 clive:1 owen:1 julianne:1 moore:1 michael:1 caine:1 wide:1 critical:1 acclaim:1 three:1 alex:1 rodríguez:1 adapt:1 collaborator:1 create:1 distribution:1 company:1 esperanto:1 duck:1 season:1 pan:2 labyrinth:2 cannes:1 festival:2 winner:2 nominee:3 venice:1 lanterna:1 magica:1 prize:1 adapted:1 filmography:1 yearfilmcredited:1 directorwriterproducereditorassistant:1 les:1 pyramides:1 bleues:1 crónicas:1 assassination:1 richard:1 nixon:1 black:1 sun:1 nail:1 rudo:1 cursi:1 boy:1 shoe:1 anyway:1 cuarteto:1 para:1 el:2 fin:1 del:1 tiempo:1 paris:1 je:1 aime:1 segment:1 parc:1 monceau:1 shock:2 doctrine:2 jonás:1 naomi:1 klein:1 documentary:1 possibility:1 hope:1 tv:1 hora:1 marcada:1 episodes:1 ángel:1 pérez:1 taxi:1 zangamanga:1 estoy:1 jugando:1 veces:1 regresa:1 murder:1 obliquely:1 reference:1 see:1 cha:3 external:1 life:1 picture:1 bafta:1 webcast:1 july:1 |@bigram alfonso_cuarón:2 tu_mamá:4 mamá_también:4 harry_potter:4 prisoner_azkaban:3 de_estudios:1 con_tu:4 coen_brother:1 sydney_pollack:1 neo_noir:1 steven_soderbergh:1 peter_bogdanovich:1 tom_hank:1 charles_dickens:1 gwyneth_paltrow:1 de_niro:1 award_nomination:3 k_rowling:2 michael_caine:1 critical_acclaim:1 adapt_screenplay:1 cannes_film:1 adapted_screenplay:1 richard_nixon:1 je_aime:1 naomi_klein:1 cha_cha:2 external_link:1 |
3,228 | Andrei_Sakharov | Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov () (May 21, 1921 – December 14, 1989) was an eminent Soviet nuclear physicist, dissident and human rights activist. Sakharov was an advocate of civil liberties and reforms in the Soviet Union. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. Life and career Sakharov was born in Moscow on May 21, 1921. His father was Dmitri Ivanovich Sakharov, a private school physics teacher and an amateur pianist. Dmitri's grandfather Ivan had been a prominent lawyer in Tsarist Russia who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanist principles (including advocating the abolition of capital punishment) that would later influence his grandson. Sakharov's mother was Ëkaterina Alekseyevna Sakharova (née Sofiano and of Greek ancestry). His parents and his paternal grandmother, Maria Petrovna, largely shaped Sakharov's personality. Although his paternal great-grandfather had been a priest in the Russian Orthodox Church, and his pious mother did have him baptised, his father was an atheist and religion did not play an important role in his life, though he did believe that a non-scientific "guiding principle" governed the universe and human life. Drell, Sidney D., and Sergei P. Kapitsa (eds.), Sakharov Remembered, pp. 3, 92. New York: Springer, 1991. Sakharov entered Moscow State University in 1938. Following evacuation in 1941 during the Great Patriotic War, he graduated in Aşgabat, in today's Turkmenistan. He was then assigned laboratory work in Ulyanovsk. During this period, in 1943, he married Klavdia Alekseyevna Vikhireva, with whom he raised two daughters and a son before she died in 1969. He returned to Moscow in 1945 to study at the Theoretical Department of FIAN (the Physical Institute of the Soviet Academy of Sciences). He received his Ph.D. in 1947. Andrei Sakharov (left) and Igor Kurchatov, 1958 On World War II's end, Sakharov researched cosmic rays. In mid-1948 he participated in the Soviet atomic bomb project under Igor Kurchatov. The first Soviet atomic device was tested on August 29, 1949. After moving to Sarov in 1950, Sakharov played a key role in the next stage, the development of the hydrogen bomb. The first Soviet fusion device was tested on August 12, 1953, using what was called the Sloika design. In 1953, he received his D.Sc. degree, was elected a full member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, and was awarded the first of his three Hero of Socialist Labor titles. Sakharov continued to work at Sarov, playing a key role in the development of the first megaton-range Soviet hydrogen bomb using a design known as "Sakharov's Third Idea" in Russia and the Teller-Ulam design in the United States. It was first tested as RDS-37 in 1955. A larger variation of the same design which Sakharov worked on was the 50MT Tsar Bomba of October 1961, which was the most powerful device ever exploded. In 1950 he also proposed an idea for a controlled nuclear fusion reactor, the tokamak, which is still the basis for the majority of work in the area. Sakharov, in association with Igor Tamm, proposed confining extremely hot ionized plasma by torus shaped magnetic fields for controlling thermonuclear fusion that led to the development of the tokamak device. In 1951 he invented and tested the first explosively pumped flux compression generators, A.D. Sakharov: "Magnetoimplosive generators", UFN 88:4, 725-734 (1966); Sov. Phys. Uspekhi 9: 294-299 (1966). compressing magnetic fields by explosives. He called these devices MC or MK (for magnetocumulative) generators. The radial MK-1 produced a pulsed magnetic field of 25 megagauss (2500 teslas). The following helical MK-2 generated 100 million amperes in 1953. Sakharov then tested a MK-driven "plasma cannon" where a little aluminium ring was vaporized due to the huge eddy currents into a stable, self-confined toroidal plasmoid shot to 100 km/s. Sakharov later suggested to replace the copper coil in MK generators by a big superconductor solenoid to magnetically compress and focus underground nuclear explosions into a shaped charge effect. He theorized this could focus 1023 protons per second on a 1 mm2 surface, then envisaged to make two such beams collide. But it is not known if any experiment based on this idea has been ever achieved. After 1965 Sakharov returned to fundamental science and began working on particle physics and cosmology. A.D. Sakharov: "Expanding Universe and the Appearance of a Nonuniform Distribution of Matter", ZhETF 49: 345-358 (1965); translation in JETP Lett. 22: 241-249 (1966) A.D. Sakharov: Violation of CP Symmetry, C-Asymmetry and Baryon Asymmetry of the Universe, Pisma Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 5: 32-35 (1967); translation in JETP Lett. 5: 24-27 (1967) A.D. Sakharov: Quark-Muonic Currents and Violation of CP Invariance, Pisma Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 5: 36-39 (1967); translation in JETP Lett. 5: 27-30 (1967) A.D. Sakharov: "Antiquarks in the Universe" in "Problems in theoretical physics", dedicated to the 30th anniversary of N.N. Bogolynbov, Nauka, Moscou, pp.35-44, 1969 A.D. Sakharov and I.D. Novikov: "A multisheet Cosmological model" Preprint Institute of Applied Mathematics, Moscow, 1970 A.D. Sakharov: "Topological structure of elementary particles and CPT asymmetry" in "Problems in theoretical physics", dedicated to the memory of I.E. Tamm, Nauka, Moscow, pp.243-247, 1972 A.D. Sakharov: "Baryonic asymmetry of the Universe", ZhETF 76: 1172-1181 (1979); translation in JETP Lett. 49: 594-599 (1979) A.D. Sakharov: "Cosmological model of the Universe with a time vector inversion". ZhETF 79: 689-693 (1980); translation in JETP Lett. 52: 349-351 (1980) He especially tried to explain the baryon asymmetry of the universe, being the first scientist to introduce two universes called "sheets", linked by the Big Bang. Sakharov achieved there a complete CPT symmetry since the second sheet is enantiomorph (P-symmetry), has an opposite arrow of time (T-symmetry) and is mainly populated by antimatter (C-symmetry) because of an opposite CP-violation. In this model the two universes do not interact, except via local matter accumulation whose density and pressure would become high enough to connect the two sheets through a bridge without spacetime between them, but with geodesics continuity beyond the radius limit allowing an exchange of matter. Sakharov called such singularities a collapse and an anticollapse, which are an alternative to the couple black hole and white hole in the wormhole theory. Sakharov also proposed the idea of induced gravity as an alternative theory of quantum gravity. Turn to activism From the late 1950s Sakharov had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work. Politically active during the 1960s, Sakharov was against nuclear proliferation. Pushing for the end of atmospheric tests, he played a role in the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in Moscow. In 1965 he returned to fundamental science and began working on cosmology but continued to oppose political discrimination. The major turn in Sakharov’s political evolution started in 1967, when anti-ballistic missile defense became a key issue in US–Soviet relations. In a secret detailed letter to the Soviet leadership of July 21, 1967, Sakharov explains the need to "take the Americans at their word" and accept their proposal "for a bilateral rejection by the USA and the Soviet Union of the development of antiballistic missile defense", because otherwise an arms race in this new technology would increase the likelihood of nuclear war. He also asked permission to publish his manuscript (which accompanied the letter) in a newspaper to explain the dangers posed by this kind of defense. The government ignored his letter and refused to let him initiate a public discussion of ABM in the Soviet press. The apartment building in the Scherbinki microdistrict of Nizhny Novgorod where A.D. Sakharov lived in exile 1980-85. His apartment is now a museum. In May 1968 he completed an essay, Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom, where the anti-ballistic missile defense is featured as a major threat of world nuclear war. After this essay was circulated in samizdat and then published outside the Soviet Union, Sakharov was banned from all military-related research and Sakharov returned to FIAN to study fundamental theoretical physics. In 1970 he, along with Valery Chalidze and Andrei Tverdokhlebov, was one of the founders of the Moscow Human Rights Committee and came under increasing pressure from the regime. He married a fellow human rights activist, Yelena Bonner, in 1972. In 1973 he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize and in 1974 was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975, although he was not allowed to leave the Soviet Union to collect it. His wife read his speech at the ceremony in Oslo, Norway. Y.B. Sakharov: Acceptance Speech, Nobel Peace Prize, Oslo, Norway, December 10, 1975. Y.B. Sakharov: Peace, Progress, Human Rights, Sakharov's Nobel Lecture, Nobel Peace Prize, Oslo, Norway, December 11, 1975. Sakharov's ideas on social development led him to put forward the principle of human rights as a new basis of all politics. In his works he declared that "the principle 'what is not prohibited is allowed' should be understood literally", denying the importance and validity of all rules and regulations not codified in the laws. He was arrested on January 22, 1980, following his public protests against the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and was sent to internal exile in the city of Gorky, now Nizhny Novgorod, a closed city that was inaccessible to foreign observers. Between 1980 to 1986, Sakharov was kept under tight Soviet police surveillance. In his memoirs he mentions that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists. He remained isolated but unrepentant until December 1986 when he was allowed to return to Moscow as Mikhail Gorbachev initiated the policies of perestroika and glasnost. There, in secret, he met and worked with Western scientists such as Eric Fawcett. Sakharov was named the 1980 Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association.L-to-R: E.Bonner, A.Sakharov, S.Kalistratova, 1986 Later, in 1988, Sakharov was given the International Humanist Award by the International Humanist and Ethical Union. He helped to initiate the first independent legal political organizations and became prominent in the Soviet Union's growing political opposition. In March 1989, Sakharov was elected to the new parliament, the All-Union Congress of People's Deputies and co-led the democratic opposition. Soon after 9:00 pm on December 14, 1989, Sakharov went to his study to take a nap before preparing an important speech he was to deliver the next day in the Congress. His wife went to wake him at 11:00 pm as he had requested but she found Sakharov dead on the floor. A sudden heart attack had taken his life at the age of 68. Coleman, Fred, The Decline and Fall of the Soviet Empire: Forty Years That Shook the World, from Stalin to Yeltsin, p. 116. New York: St. Martin's, 1997. He was interred in the Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in Moscow. Influence The Sakharov Prize, established in 1988 and awarded annually by the European Parliament for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms, was named in his honor. An Andrei Sakharov prize is also to be awarded by the American Physical Society every second year from 2006, "to recognize outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights". The Andrei Sakharov Prize For Writer's Civic Courage was established in October 1990. "For Writer's Civic Courage", Literaturnaya Gazeta, October 31, 1990 Andrei Sakharov Archives The Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center, established at Brandeis University in 1993, are now housed at Harvard University. Harvard University. KGB file of Sakharov The documents from that archive were published by the Yale University Press in 2005. The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov. (edited by Joshua Rubenstein and Alexander Gribanov), New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005; ISBN 0300106815 These documents are available online. The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov, online version with original texts and the English translations in English and in Russian (text version in Windows-1251 character encoding and the pictures of the original pages). Most of documents of the archive are letters from the head of the KGB to the Central Committee about activities of Soviet dissidents and recommendations about the interpretation in newspapers. The letters cover the period from 1968 to 1991 (Brezhnev stagnation). The documents characterize not only the Sakharov's activity, but that of other dissidents, as well as that of highest-position apparatchiks, and the KGB. No Russian equivalent of the KGB archive is available. Legacy and remembrance Places In Moscow, there is Sakharov Boulevard, Sakharov Museum, and Sakharov Center. During the 1980s, the block of 16th Street NW between L and M streets, in front of the Soviet embassy, in Washington, D.C. was renamed "Andrei Sakharov Place" as a form of protest against his 1980 arrest and detention. Statue of Andrei Sakharov in Sakharov Square in Yerevan, Armenia. In Yerevan, the capital of former-Soviet Armenia, Sakharov Square, located in the heart of the city, is named after him. The Sakharov Gardens (est. 1990) are located at the entrance to Jerusalem, Israel, off the Jerusalem–Tel Aviv Highway. . Photo exhibition "Sakharov Gardens" (sakharov-center.ru) There is also a street named after him in Rishon Le-zion, Israel. In Nizhny Novgorod, there is a Sakharov Museum in the apartment on the first floor of the 12-storeyed house where the Sakharov family lived for seven years. In St. Petersburg, his monument stands in Sakharov Square, and there is a Sakharov Park. In 1979, an asteroid —1979 Sakharov—was named after him. A public square in Vilnius in front of the Press House is named after Sakharov. The square was named in March 16, 1991, as the Press House was still occupied by the Soviet Army. In fiction Sakharov was mentioned in one of Tom Clancy: Splinter Cell Books Sakharov and the "Sakharov Drive" were mentioned in Arthur C. Clarke's novel 2010: Odyssey Two. The drive is not described in detail and the principles on which it is based (presumably imagined by Sakharov) are not given. Sakharov is mentioned briefly in Kurt Vonnegut's Timequake. One of the Enterprise-D shuttlecraft in Star Trek: The Next Generation is named for him. The game S.T.A.L.K.E.R. has a minor character named after him who is also a scientist. The game Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri has a Russian character named Prokhor Zakharov who is the faction leader of the technocratic University of Planet. Quotes "In this pamphlet, advanced for discussion by its readers, the author has set himself the goal to present, with the greatest conviction and frankness, two theses that are supported by many people in the world. These are: The division of mankind threatens it with destruction... Only universal cooperation under conditions of intellectual freedom and the lofty moral ideals of socialism and labor, accompanied by the elimination of dogmatism and pressure of the concealed interests of ruling classes, will preserve civilization... The second basic thesis is that intellectual freedom is essential to human society — freedom to obtain and distribute information, freedom for open-minded and unfearing debate and freedom from pressure by officialdom and prejudices. Such a trinity of freedom of thought is the only guarantee against an infection of people by mass myths, which, in the hands of treacherous hypocrites and demagogues, can be transformed into bloody dictatorship. Freedom of thought is the only guarantee of the feasibility of a scientific democratic approach to politics, economics and culture." (Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom, in The New York Times, July 22, 1968) The opening paragraphs of Sakharov's Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom "I foresee a universal information system (UIS), which will give everyone access at any given moment to the contents of any book that has ever been published or any magazine or any fact. The UIS will have individual miniature-computer terminals, central control points for the flood of information, and communication channels incorporating thousands of artificial communications from satellites, cables, and laser lines. Even the partial realization of the UIS will profoundly affect every person, his leisure activities, and his intellectual and artistic development. ...But the true historic role of the UIS will be to break down the barriers to the exchange of information among countries and people." (Saturday Review/World, August 24, 1974) The human rights movement, 1969-1979. "Thousands of years ago, tribes of human beings suffered great privations in the struggle to survive. In this struggle it was important not only to be able to handle a club, but also to possess the ability to think reasonably, to take care of the knowledge and experience garnered by the tribe, and to develop the links that would provide cooperation with other tribes. Today the entire human race is faced with a similar test. In infinite space many civilizations are bound to exist, among them civilizations that are also wiser and more "successful" than ours. I support the cosmological hypothesis which states that the development of the universe is repeated in its basic features an infinite number of times. In accordance with this, other civilizations, including more "successful" ones, should exist an infinite number of times on the "preceding" and the "following" pages of the Book of the Universe. Yet this should not minimize our sacred endeavors in this world of ours, where, like faint glimmers of light in the dark, we have emerged for a moment from the nothingness of dark unconsciousness of material existence. We must make good the demands of reason and create a life worthy of ourselves and of the goals we only dimly perceive." (Last paragraph of Sakharov's Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1975) See also Sakharov Prize Sergei Kovalev Natan Sharansky Edward Teller Stanisław Marcin Ulam References Bibliography Sakharov, Andrei, Facets of a Life, Frontieres, 1991. ISBN 2863320963 Babyonyshev, Alexander, On Sakharov, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1982. ISBN 0394710045 Sakharov, Andrei, Collected Scientific Works, Marcel Dekker Inc., 1982. ISBN 0824717147 Lozansky, Edward D., Andrei Sakharov and Peace, Avon, 1985. ISBN 0380898195 Drell, Sidney D., and Sergei P. Kapitsa (eds.), Sahkarov Remembered, Springer, 1991. ISBN 088318852X Gorelik, Gennady, with Antonina W. Bouis, The World of Andrei Sakharov: A Russian Physicist's Path to Freedom. Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 019515620X External links The Andrei Sakharov Archives and Human Rights Center, established at Brandeis University in 1993, will soon cease to exist unless Congress and university officials act to save it. Commemoration of the Sakharov Archives transfer to Harvard. Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights. Web exhibit at the American Institute of Physics. Andrei Sakharov: Photo-chronology "Andrey Dmitriyevich Sakharov''". Timeline of Nobel Winners. David Holloway on: Andrei Sakharov. Andrei Sakharov Museum in Moscow Virtual Tour. Annotated bibliography of Andrei Sakharov from the Alsos Digital Library. Sakharov and SETI. Sakharov Archive (Russian) Sakharov Museum and Public Center: Peace, Progress and Human Rights (Russian) be-x-old:Андрэй Сахараў | Andrei_Sakharov |@lemmatized andrei:21 dmitrievich:1 sakharov:97 may:3 december:6 eminent:1 soviet:23 nuclear:7 physicist:2 dissident:3 human:16 right:12 activist:2 advocate:2 civil:1 liberty:1 reform:1 union:7 award:7 nobel:8 peace:8 prize:9 life:6 career:1 bear:1 moscow:11 father:2 dmitri:2 ivanovich:1 private:1 school:1 physic:7 teacher:1 amateur:1 pianist:1 grandfather:2 ivan:1 prominent:2 lawyer:1 tsarist:1 russia:2 display:1 respect:1 social:2 awareness:1 humanist:5 principle:5 include:2 abolition:1 capital:2 punishment:1 would:4 later:3 influence:2 grandson:1 mother:2 ëkaterina:1 alekseyevna:2 sakharova:1 née:1 sofiano:1 greek:1 ancestry:1 parent:1 paternal:2 grandmother:1 maria:1 petrovna:1 largely:1 shaped:2 personality:1 although:2 great:4 priest:1 russian:7 orthodox:1 church:1 pious:1 baptise:1 atheist:1 religion:1 play:4 important:3 role:5 though:1 believe:1 non:1 scientific:3 guide:1 govern:1 universe:11 drell:2 sidney:2 sergei:3 p:4 kapitsa:2 eds:2 remember:2 pp:3 new:8 york:4 springer:2 enter:1 state:3 university:10 follow:3 evacuation:1 patriotic:1 war:4 graduate:1 aşgabat:1 today:2 turkmenistan:1 assigned:1 laboratory:1 work:10 ulyanovsk:1 period:2 marry:2 klavdia:1 vikhireva:1 raise:1 two:7 daughter:1 son:1 die:1 return:5 study:3 theoretical:4 department:1 fian:2 physical:2 institute:3 academy:2 science:4 receive:2 ph:1 leave:2 igor:3 kurchatov:2 world:7 ii:1 end:2 research:2 cosmic:1 ray:1 mid:1 participate:1 atomic:2 bomb:3 project:1 first:9 device:5 test:8 august:3 move:1 sarov:2 key:3 next:3 stage:1 development:7 hydrogen:2 fusion:3 use:2 call:4 sloika:1 design:4 sc:1 degree:1 elect:2 full:1 member:1 three:1 hero:1 socialist:1 labor:2 title:1 continue:2 megaton:1 range:1 know:2 third:1 idea:5 teller:2 ulam:2 united:1 rds:1 large:1 variation:1 tsar:1 bomba:1 october:3 powerful:1 ever:3 explode:1 also:9 propose:3 controlled:1 reactor:1 tokamak:2 still:2 basis:2 majority:1 area:1 association:2 tamm:2 confine:2 extremely:1 hot:1 ionize:1 plasma:2 torus:1 shape:1 magnetic:3 field:3 control:2 thermonuclear:1 lead:3 invent:1 explosively:1 pump:1 flux:1 compression:1 generator:4 magnetoimplosive:1 ufn:1 sov:1 phys:1 uspekhi:1 compress:2 explosive:1 mc:1 mk:5 magnetocumulative:1 radial:1 produce:1 pulsed:1 megagauss:1 tesla:1 following:1 helical:1 generate:1 million:1 ampere:1 driven:1 cannon:1 little:1 aluminium:1 ring:1 vaporize:1 due:1 huge:1 eddy:1 current:2 stable:1 self:1 toroidal:1 plasmoid:1 shot:1 km:1 suggest:1 replace:1 copper:1 coil:1 big:2 superconductor:1 solenoid:1 magnetically:1 focus:2 underground:1 explosion:1 charge:1 effect:1 theorize:1 could:1 proton:1 per:1 second:4 surface:1 envisage:1 make:2 beam:1 collide:1 experiment:1 base:2 achieve:2 fundamental:3 begin:2 particle:2 cosmology:2 expand:1 appearance:1 nonuniform:1 distribution:1 matter:3 zhetf:3 translation:6 jetp:5 lett:5 violation:3 cp:3 symmetry:5 c:4 asymmetry:5 baryon:2 pisma:2 zh:2 eksp:2 teor:2 fiz:2 quark:1 muonic:1 invariance:1 antiquark:1 problem:2 dedicate:3 anniversary:1 n:2 bogolynbov:1 nauka:2 moscou:1 novikov:1 multisheet:1 cosmological:3 model:3 preprint:1 applied:1 mathematics:1 topological:1 structure:1 elementary:1 cpt:2 memory:1 e:3 baryonic:1 time:5 vector:1 inversion:1 especially:1 try:1 explain:3 scientist:4 introduce:1 sheet:3 link:3 bang:1 complete:2 since:1 enantiomorph:1 opposite:2 arrow:1 mainly:1 populate:1 antimatter:1 interact:1 except:1 via:1 local:1 accumulation:1 whose:1 density:1 pressure:4 become:4 high:2 enough:1 connect:1 bridge:1 without:1 spacetime:1 geodesic:1 continuity:1 beyond:1 radius:1 limit:1 allow:4 exchange:2 singularity:1 collapse:1 anticollapse:1 alternative:2 couple:1 black:1 hole:2 white:1 wormhole:1 theory:2 induced:1 gravity:2 quantum:1 turn:2 activism:1 late:1 concern:1 moral:2 political:5 implication:1 politically:1 active:1 proliferation:1 push:1 atmospheric:1 partial:2 ban:2 treaty:1 sign:1 oppose:1 discrimination:1 major:2 evolution:1 start:1 anti:2 ballistic:2 missile:3 defense:4 issue:1 u:1 relation:1 secret:2 detailed:1 letter:5 leadership:2 july:2 need:1 take:4 american:4 word:1 accept:1 proposal:1 bilateral:1 rejection:1 usa:1 antiballistic:1 otherwise:1 arm:1 race:2 technology:1 increase:2 likelihood:1 ask:1 permission:1 publish:4 manuscript:1 accompany:2 newspaper:2 danger:1 pose:1 kind:1 government:1 ignore:1 refuse:1 let:1 initiate:3 public:4 discussion:2 abm:1 press:6 apartment:4 building:1 scherbinki:1 microdistrict:1 nizhny:3 novgorod:3 live:2 exile:2 museum:5 essay:2 reflection:3 progress:5 peaceful:3 coexistence:3 intellectual:6 freedom:12 feature:2 threat:1 circulate:1 samizdat:1 outside:1 military:1 relate:1 along:1 valery:1 chalidze:1 tverdokhlebov:1 one:4 founder:1 committee:2 come:1 regime:1 fellow:1 yelena:1 bonner:2 nominate:1 prix:1 mondial:1 cino:1 del:1 duca:1 collect:2 wife:2 read:1 speech:3 ceremony:1 oslo:3 norway:3 b:2 acceptance:1 lecture:2 put:1 forward:1 politics:2 declare:1 prohibit:1 understand:1 literally:1 deny:1 importance:1 validity:1 rule:1 regulation:1 codify:1 law:1 arrest:2 january:1 protest:2 invasion:1 afghanistan:1 send:1 internal:1 city:3 gorky:2 closed:1 inaccessible:1 foreign:1 observer:1 keep:1 tight:1 police:1 surveillance:1 memoir:1 mention:4 repeatedly:1 subject:1 search:1 heist:1 remain:1 isolated:1 unrepentant:1 mikhail:1 gorbachev:1 policy:1 perestroika:1 glasnost:1 meet:1 western:1 eric:1 fawcett:1 name:10 year:5 l:3 r:2 kalistratova:1 give:4 international:2 ethical:1 help:1 independent:1 legal:1 organization:2 grow:1 opposition:2 march:2 parliament:2 congress:3 people:5 deputy:1 co:1 democratic:2 soon:2 pm:2 go:2 nap:1 prepare:1 deliver:1 day:1 wake:1 request:1 find:1 dead:1 floor:2 sudden:1 heart:2 attack:1 age:1 coleman:1 fred:1 decline:1 fall:1 empire:1 forty:1 shake:1 stalin:1 yeltsin:1 st:2 martin:1 inter:1 vostryakovskoye:1 cemetery:1 establish:4 annually:1 european:1 honor:1 society:2 every:2 recognize:1 outstanding:1 achievement:1 uphold:1 writer:2 civic:2 courage:2 literaturnaya:1 gazeta:1 archive:8 center:5 brandeis:2 house:4 harvard:3 kgb:6 file:3 document:4 yale:2 edit:1 joshua:1 rubenstein:1 alexander:2 gribanov:1 isbn:7 available:2 online:2 version:2 original:2 text:2 english:2 window:1 character:3 encode:1 picture:1 page:2 head:1 central:2 activity:3 recommendation:1 interpretation:1 cover:1 brezhnev:1 stagnation:1 characterize:1 well:1 position:1 apparatchik:1 equivalent:1 legacy:1 remembrance:1 place:2 boulevard:1 block:1 street:3 nw:1 front:2 embassy:1 washington:1 rename:1 form:1 detention:1 statue:1 square:5 yerevan:2 armenia:2 former:1 locate:2 garden:2 est:1 entrance:1 jerusalem:2 israel:2 tel:1 aviv:1 highway:1 photo:2 exhibition:1 ru:1 rishon:1 le:1 zion:1 storeyed:1 family:1 seven:1 petersburg:1 monument:1 stand:1 park:1 asteroid:1 vilnius:1 occupy:1 army:1 fiction:1 tom:1 clancy:1 splinter:1 cell:1 book:3 drive:2 arthur:1 clarke:1 novel:1 odyssey:1 describe:1 detail:1 presumably:1 imagine:1 briefly:1 kurt:1 vonnegut:1 timequake:1 enterprise:1 shuttlecraft:1 star:1 trek:1 generation:1 game:2 k:1 minor:1 sid:1 meier:1 alpha:1 centauri:1 prokhor:1 zakharov:1 faction:1 leader:1 technocratic:1 planet:1 quote:1 pamphlet:1 advance:1 reader:1 author:1 set:1 goal:2 present:1 conviction:1 frankness:1 thesis:2 support:2 many:2 division:1 mankind:1 threaten:1 destruction:1 universal:2 cooperation:2 condition:1 lofty:1 ideal:1 socialism:1 elimination:1 dogmatism:1 concealed:1 interest:1 ruling:1 class:1 preserve:1 civilization:4 basic:2 essential:1 obtain:1 distribute:1 information:4 open:1 mind:1 unfearing:1 debate:1 officialdom:1 prejudice:1 trinity:1 thought:2 guarantee:2 infection:1 mass:1 myth:1 hand:1 treacherous:1 hypocrite:1 demagogue:1 transform:1 bloody:1 dictatorship:1 feasibility:1 approach:1 economics:1 culture:1 opening:1 paragraph:2 foresee:1 system:1 uis:4 everyone:1 access:1 moment:2 content:1 magazine:1 fact:1 individual:1 miniature:1 computer:1 terminal:1 point:1 flood:1 communication:2 channel:1 incorporate:1 thousand:2 artificial:1 satellite:1 cable:1 laser:1 line:1 even:1 realization:1 profoundly:1 affect:1 person:1 leisure:1 artistic:1 true:1 historic:1 break:1 barrier:1 among:2 country:1 saturday:1 review:1 movement:1 ago:1 tribe:3 suffer:1 privation:1 struggle:2 survive:1 able:1 handle:1 club:1 possess:1 ability:1 think:1 reasonably:1 care:1 knowledge:1 experience:1 garner:1 develop:1 provide:1 entire:1 face:1 similar:1 infinite:3 space:1 bind:1 exist:3 wise:1 successful:2 hypothesis:1 repeat:1 number:2 accordance:1 precede:1 yet:1 minimize:1 sacred:1 endeavor:1 like:1 faint:1 glimmer:1 light:1 dark:2 emerge:1 nothingness:1 unconsciousness:1 material:1 existence:1 must:1 good:1 demand:1 reason:1 create:1 worthy:1 dimly:1 perceive:1 last:1 see:1 kovalev:1 natan:1 sharansky:1 edward:2 stanisław:1 marcin:1 reference:1 bibliography:2 facet:1 frontieres:1 babyonyshev:1 alfred:1 knopf:1 marcel:1 dekker:1 inc:1 lozansky:1 avon:1 sahkarov:1 gorelik:1 gennady:1 antonina:1 w:1 bouis:1 path:1 oxford:1 external:1 cease:1 unless:1 official:1 act:1 save:1 commemoration:1 transfer:1 weapon:1 web:1 exhibit:1 chronology:1 andrey:1 dmitriyevich:1 timeline:1 winner:1 david:1 holloway:1 virtual:1 tour:1 annotate:1 alsos:1 digital:1 library:1 seti:1 x:1 old:1 андрэй:1 сахараў:1 |@bigram soviet_union:5 tsarist_russia:1 paternal_grandmother:1 andrei_sakharov:17 cosmic_ray:1 atomic_bomb:1 magnetic_field:3 thermonuclear_fusion:1 translation_jetp:5 jetp_lett:5 baryon_asymmetry:2 applied_mathematics:1 elementary_particle:1 big_bang:1 black_hole:1 quantum_gravity:1 ballistic_missile:2 nizhny_novgorod:3 peaceful_coexistence:3 oslo_norway:3 mikhail_gorbachev:1 yerevan_armenia:1 tel_aviv:1 st_petersburg:1 tom_clancy:1 kurt_vonnegut:1 star_trek:1 sid_meier:1 meier_alpha:1 alpha_centauri:1 profoundly_affect:1 edward_teller:1 alfred_knopf:1 marcel_dekker:1 external_link:1 nuclear_weapon:1 annotate_bibliography:1 alsos_digital:1 |
3,229 | Heracles | Heracles, a Roman bronze (Louvre Museum) In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles ( ) meaning "glory of Hera", or "Glorious through Hera" Alcides Apollodorus, ii. 4. § 12 or Alcaeus (original name) (" + , )" was a divine hero, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, foster son of Amphitryon By his adoptive descent through Ampitryon, Heracles receives the epithet Alcides, as "of the line of Alcaeus", father of Amphitryon. Amphitryon's own, mortal son was Iphicles. and great-grandson (and half-brother) of Perseus. He was the greatest of the Greek heroes, a paragon of masculinity, the ancestor of royal clans who claimed to be Heracleidae and a champion of the Olympian order against chthonic monsters. In Rome and the modern West, he is known as Hercules, with whom the later Roman Emperors, in particular Commodus and Maximian, often identified themselves. The Romans adopted the Greek version of his life and works essentially unchanged, but added anecdotal detail of their own, some of it linking the hero with the geography of the Central Mediterranean. Details of his cult were adapted to Rome as well. Extraordinary strength, courage, ingenuity, and sexual prowess with both males and females were among his characteristic attributes. Although he was not as clever as the likes of Odysseus or Nestor, Heracles used his wits on several occasions when his strength did not suffice, such as when laboring for the king Augeas of Elis, wrestling the giant Antaeus, or tricking Atlas into taking the sky back onto his shoulders. Together with Hermes he was the patron and protector of gymnasia and palaestrae. Pausanias, Guide to Greece, 4.32.1 His iconographic attributes are the lion skin and the club. These qualities did not prevent him from being regarded as a playful figure who used games to relax from his labors and played a great deal with children. Aelian, Varia Historia, 12.15 By conquering dangerous archaic forces he is said to have "made the world safe for mankind" and to be its benefactor. Aelian, Varia Historia, 5.3 Heracles was an extremely passionate and emotional individual, capable of doing both great deeds for his friends (such as wrestling with Thanatos on behalf of Prince Admetus, who had regaled Heracles with his hospitality, or restoring his friend Tyndareus to the throne of Sparta after he was overthrown) and being a terrible enemy who would wreak horrible vengeance on those who crossed him, as Augeas, Neleus and Laomedon all found out to their cost. Origin and character Many popular stories were told of his life, the most famous being The Twelve Labours of Heracles; Alexandrian poets of the Hellenistic age drew his mythology into a high poetic and tragic atmosphere. Burkert 1985, pp. 208-9 His figure, which initially drew on Near Eastern motifs such as the lion-fight, was known everywhere: his Etruscan equivalent was Hercle, a son of Tinia and Uni. Heracles was the greatest of Hellenic chthonic heroes, but unlike other Greek heroes, no tomb was identified as his. Heracles was both hero and god, as Pindar says heroes theos; at the same festival sacrifice was made to him, first as a hero, with a chthonic libation, and then as a god, upon an altar: thus he embodies the closest Greek approach to a "demi-god". The core of the story of Heracles has been identified by Walter Burkert as originating in Neolithic hunter culture and traditions of shamanistic crossings into the netherworld. Burkert 1985, pp. 208-212. Hero or god? Heracles' role as a culture hero, whose death could be a subject of mythic telling (see below), was accepted into the Olympian Pantheon during Classical times. This created an awkwardness in the encounter with Odysseus in the episode of Odyssey XI, called the Nekuia, where Odysseus encounters Heracles in Hades: Ruins in Kos of the temple to Heracles, the Herakleion And next I caught a glimpse of powerful Heracles—His ghost I mean: the man himself delights in the grand feasts of the deathless gods on high...Around him cries of the dead rang out like cries of birds scattering left and right in horror as on he came like night..." Robert Fagles' translation, 1996:269. Ancient critics were aware of the problem of the aside that interrupts the vivid and complete description, in which Heracles recognizes Odysseus and hails him, and modern critics find very good reasons for denying that the verses beginning, in Fagles' translation His ghost I mean... were part of the original composition: "once people knew of Heracles' admission to Olympus, they would not tolerate his presence in the underworld," remarks Friedrich Solmsen, Friedrich Solmsen, "The Sacrifice of Agamemnon's Daughter in Hesiod's' Ehoeae" The American Journal of Philology 102.4 (Winter 1981, pp. 353-358), p. 355. noting that the interpolated verses represent a compromise between conflicting representations of Heracles. It is also said that when Heracles died he shed his mortal skin, which went down to the underworld and he went up to join the gods for being the greatest hero ever known. Christian dating In Christian circles a Euhemerist reading of the widespread Heracles/Hercules cult was attributed to a historical figure who had been offered cult status after his death. Thus Eusebius, Preparation of the Gospel (10.12), reported that Clement could offer historical dates for Hercules as a king in Argos: "from the reign of Hercules in Argos to the deification of Hercules himself and of Asclepius there are comprised thirty-eight years, according to Apollodorus the chronicler: and from that point to the deification of Castor and Pollux fifty-three years: and somewhere about this time was the capture of Troy." Readers with a literalist bent, following Clement's reasoning, have asserted from this remark that, since Heracles ruled over Tiryns in Argos at the same time that Eurystheus ruled over Mycenae, and since at about this time Linus was Heracles' teacher, one can conclude, based on Jerome's date—in his universal history, his Chronicon—given to Linus' notoriety in teaching Heracles in 1264 BC, that Heracles' death and deification occurred 38 years later, in approximately 1226 BC. Cult of Heracles The ancient Greeks celebrated the festival of the Herakleia, which commemorated the death of Heracles, on the second day of the month of Metageitnion (which would fall in late July or early August). What is believed to be an Egyptian Temple of Heracles in the Bahariya Oasis dates to 21 BC. Myths of Heracles Birth and childhood A major factor in the well-known tragedies surrounding Heracles is the hatred that the goddess Hera, wife of Zeus, had for him. A full account of Heracles must render it clear why Heracles was so tormented by Hera, when there are many illegitimate offspring sired by Zeus. Heracles was the son of the affair Zeus had with the mortal woman Alcmene. Zeus made love to her after disguising himself as her husband, Amphitryon, home early from war (Amphitryon did return later the same night, and Alcmene became pregnant with his son at the same time, a case of heteropaternal superfecundation, where a woman carries twins sired by different fathers). Compare the two pairs of twins born to Leda and the "double" parentage of Theseus. Thus, Heracles' very existence proved at least one of Zeus' many illicit affairs, and Hera often conspired against Zeus' mortal offspring, as revenge for her husband's infidelities. His twin mortal brother, son of Amphitryon was Iphicles, father of Heracles' charioteer Iolaus. On the night the twins Heracles and Iphicles were to be born, Hera, knowing of her husband Zeus' adultery, persuaded Zeus to swear an oath that the child born that night to a member of the House of Perseus would be High King. Hera did this knowing that while Heracles was to be born a descendant of Perseus, so too was Eurystheus. Once the oath was sworn, Hera hurried to Alcmene's dwelling and slowed the birth of Heracles by forcing Ilithyia, goddess of childbirth, to sit crosslegged with her clothing tied in knots, thereby causing Heracles to be trapped in the womb. Meanwhile, Hera caused Eurystheus to be born prematurely, making him High King in place of Heracles. She would have permanently delayed Heracles' birth had she not been fooled by Galanthis, Alcmene's servant, who lied to Ilithyia, saying that Alcmene had already delivered the baby. Upon hearing this, she jumped in surprise, untying the knots and inadvertently allowing Alcmene to give birth to her twins, Heracles and Iphicles. The child was originally given the name Alcides by his parents; it was only later that he became known as Heracles. He was renamed Heracles in an unsuccessful attempt to mollify Hera. A few months after he was born, Hera sent two serpents to kill him as he lay in his cot. Heracles throttled a snake in each hand and was found by his nurse playing with their limp bodies as if they were child's toys. Youth After killing his music tutor Linus with a lyre, he was sent to tend cattle on a mountain by his foster father Amphitryon. Here, according to an allegorical parable, "The Choice of Heracles", invented by the sophist Prodicus (ca. 400 BC), he was visited by two nymphs - Pleasure and Virtue - who offered him a choice between a pleasant and easy life or a severe but glorious life: he chose the latter. Later in Thebes, Heracles married King Creon's daughter, Megara. In a fit of madness, induced by Hera, Heracles killed his children by Megara. After his madness had been cured with hellebore by Antikyreus, the founder of Antikyra, Pausanias Χ 3.1, 36.5. Ptolemaeus, Geogr. Hyph. ΙΙ 184. 12. Stephanus of Byzantium, s.v. «Aντίκυρα» he realized what he had done and fled to the Oracle of Delphi. Unbeknownst to him, the Oracle was guided by Hera. He was directed to serve King Eurystheus for ten years and perform any task, which he required. Eurystheus decided to give Heracles ten labours but after completing them, he said he cheated and added two more, resulting in the Twelve Labors of Heracles. The Labours of Heracles Heracles and the Nemean lion. Black-figure lekythos worked by the Painter of Athens 581, ca. 500 BC. Museum of Cycladic Art in Athens. Driven mad by Hera, Heracles slew his own children. To expiate the crime, Heracles was required to carry out ten labors set by his archenemy, Eurystheus, who had become king in Heracles' place. If he succeeded, he would be purified of his sin and, as myth says, he would be granted immortality. Heracles accomplished these tasks, but Eurystheus did not accept the cleansing of the Augean stables because Heracles was going to accept pay for the labor. Neither did he accept the killing of the Lernaean Hydra as Heracles' cousin, Ioloas, had helped him burn the stumps of the heads. Eurysteus set two more tasks (fetching the Golden Apples of Hesperides and capturing Cerberus), which Heracles performed successfully, bringing the total number of tasks up to twelve. Not all writers gave the labors in the same order. Apollodorus (2.5.1-2.5.12) gives the following order: To kill the Nemean lion. To destroy the Lernaean Hydra. To capture the Ceryneian Hind. To capture the Erymanthian Boar. To clean the Augean Stables. To kill the Stymphalian Birds. To capture the Cretan Bull. To round up the Mares of Diomedes. To steal the Girdle of Hippolyte. To herd the Cattle of Geryon. To fetch the Apples of Hesperides. To capture Cerberus. A Roman statue of Hercules with the apple of Hesperides Further adventures After completing these tasks, Heracles joined the Argonauts in a search for the Golden Fleece. They rescued heroines, conquered Troy, and helped the gods fight against the Gigantes. He also fell in love with Princess Iole of Oechalia. King Eurytus of Oechalia promised his daughter, Iole, to whoever could beat his sons in an archery contest. Heracles won but Eurytus abandoned his promise. Heracles' advances were spurned by the king and his sons, except for one – Iole's brother Iphitus. Heracles killed the king and his sons–excluding Iphitus–and abducted Iole. Iphitus became Heracles' best friend. However, once again, Hera drove Heracles mad and he threw Iphitus over the city wall to his death. Once again, Heracles purified himself through three years of servitude - this time to Queen Omphale of Lydia. Omphale Omphale was a queen or princess of Lydia. As penalty for a murder, Heracles was her slave. He was forced to do women's work and wear women's clothes, while she wore the skin of the Nemean Lion and carried his olive-wood club. After some time, Omphale freed Heracles and married him. Some sources mention a son born to them who is variously named. It was at that time that the cercopes, mischievous wood spirits, stole Heracles' weapons. He punished them by tying them to a stick with their faces pointing downward. Hylas Bronze Herakles statuette from Ai Khanoum, Bactria, 2nd century BCE. While walking through the wilderness, Heracles was set upon by the Dryopians. He killed their king, Theiodamas, and the others gave up and offered him Prince Hylas. He took the youth on as his weapons bearer and beloved. Years later, Heracles and Hylas joined the crew of the Argo. As Argonauts, they only participated in part of the journey. In Mysia, Hylas was kidnapped by a nymph. Heracles, heartbroken, searched for a long time but Hylas had fallen in love with the nymphs and never showed up again. In other versions, he simply drowned. Either way, the Argo set sail without them. Rescue of Prometheus Hesiod's Theogony and Aeschylus' Prometheus Unbound both tell that Heracles shot and killed the eagle that tortured Prometheus (which was his punishment by Zeus for stealing fire from the gods and giving it to mortals). Heracles freed the Titan from his chains and his torments. Prometheus then made predictions regarding further deeds of Heracles. Laomedon of Troy Before the Trojan War, Poseidon sent a sea monster to attack Troy. The story is related in several digressions in the Iliad (7.451-453, 20.145-148, 21.442-457) and is found in Apollodorus' Bibliotheke (2.5.9). Laomedon planned on sacrificing his daughter Hesione to Poseidon in the hope of appeasing him. Heracles happened to arrive (along with Telamon and Oicles) and agreed to kill the monster if Laomedon would give him the horses received from Zeus as compensation for Zeus' kidnapping Ganymede. Laomedon agreed. Heracles killed the monster, but Laomedon went back on his word. Accordingly, in a later expedition, Heracles and his followers attacked Troy and sacked it. Then they slew all Laomedon's sons present there save Podarces, who was renamed Priam, who saved his own life by giving Heracles a golden veil Hesione had made. Telamon took Hesione as a war prize; they were married and had a son, Teucer. Other adventures Heracles defeated the Bebryces (ruled by King Mygdon) and gave their land to Prince Lycus of Mysia, son of Dascylus. He killed the robber Termerus. Heracles visited Evander with Antor, who then stayed in Italy. Heracles killed King Amyntor of the Dolopes for not allowing him into his kingdom. He also killed King Emathion of Arabia. Heracles killed Lityerses after beating him in a contest of harvesting. Heracles killed Poriclymenus at Pylos. Heracles founded the city Tarentum (modern: Taranto) in Italy. Heracles learned music from Linus (and Eumolpus), but killed him after Linus corrected his mistakes. He learned how to wrestle from Autolycus. He killed the famous boxer Eryx of Sicily in a match. Heracles was an Argonaut. He killed Alastor and his brothers. When Hippocoon overthrew his brother, Tyndareus, as King of Sparta, Heracles reinstated the rightful ruler and killed Hippocoon and his sons. Heracles slew the giants Cycnus, Porphyrion and Mimas. The expedition against Cycnus, in which Iolaus accompanied Heracles, is the ostensible theme of a short epic attributed to Hesiod, The Shield of Heracles. Heracles killed Antaeus the giant who was immortal while touching the earth, by picking him up and holding him in the air while strangling him. Heracles went to war with Augeias after he denied him a promised reward for clearing his stables. Augeias remained undefeated due to the skill of his two generals, the Molionides, and after Heracles fell ill, his army was badly beaten. Later, however, he was able to ambush and kill the Molionides, and thus march into Elis, sack it, and kill Augeias and his sons. Heracles visited the house of Admetus on the day Admetus' wife, Alcestis, had agreed to die in his place. By hiding beside the grave of Alcestis, Heracles was able to surprise Death when he came to collect her, and by squeezing him tight until he relented, was able to persuade Death to return Alcestis to her husband. Heracles challenged wine god Dionysus to a drinking contest and lost, resulting in his joining the Thiasus for a period. Heracles also appears in Aristophanes' The Frogs, in which Dionysus seeks out the hero to find a way to the underworld. Heracles is greatly amused by Dionysus' appearance and jokingly offers several ways to commit suicide before finally offering his knowledge of how to get to there. Heracles appears as the founder of Scythia in Herodotus' text. While Heracles is sleeping out in the wilderness, a half-woman, half-snake creature steals his horses. Heracles eventually finds the creature, but she refuses to return the horses until he has sex with her. After doing so, he takes back his horses, but before leaving, he hands over his belt and bow, and gives instructions as to which of their children should found a new nation in Scythia. Heracles' women During the course of his life, Heracles married four times. His first marriage was to Megara, whose children he murdered in a fit of madness. Apollodoros (Bibliotheke) recounts that Megara was unharmed and given in marriage to Iolaus, while in Euripides' version Heracles killed Megara, too. His second wife was Omphale, the Lydian queen or princess to whom he was delivered as a slave. His third marriage was to Deianira, for whom he had to fight the river god Achelous. (Upon Achelous' death, Heracles removed one of his horns and gave it to some nymphs who turned it into the cornucopia.) Soon after they wed, Heracles and Deianira had to cross a river, and a centaur named Nessus offered to help Deianira across but then attempted to rape her. Enraged, Heracles shot the centaur from the opposite shore with a poisoned arrow (tipped with the Lernaean Hydra's blood) and killed him. As he lay dying, Nessus plotted revenge, told Deianira to gather up his blood and spilled semen and, if she ever wanted to prevent Heracles from having affairs with other women, she should apply them to his vestments. Nessus knew that his blood had become tainted by the poisonous blood of the Hydra, and would burn through the skin of anyone it touched. The Death of Hercules, by Francisco de Zurbarán Later, when Deianira suspected that Heracles was fond of Iole, she soaked a shirt of his in the mixture, creating the poisoned shirt of Nessus. Heracles' servant, Lichas, brought him the shirt and he put it on. Instantly he was in agony, the cloth burning into him. As he tried to remove it, the flesh ripped from his bones. Heracles chose a voluntary death, asking that a pyre be built for him to end his suffering. After death, the gods transformed him into an immortal, or alternatively, the fire burned away the mortal part of the demigod, so that only the god remained. Because his mortal parts had been incinerated, he could now become a full god and join his father and the other Olympians on Mount Olympus. He then married Hebe. Another episode of his female affairs that stands out was his stay at the palace of Thespius king of Thespiae, who wished him to kill the Lion of Cithaeron. As a reward, the king offered him the chance to make love to his daughters, all fifty of them, in one night. Heracles complied and they all became pregnant and all bore sons. This is sometimes referred to as his Thirteenth Labour. Many of the kings of ancient Greece traced their lines to one or another of these, notably the kings of Sparta and Macedon. Heracles' eromenoi Heracles and Iolaus, with Eros between them.4th c. BCE Etruscan ritual vessel As symbol of masculinity and warriorship, Heracles also had a number of pederastic male beloveds. Plutarch, in his Eroticos, maintains that Heracles' eromenoi (male lovers) were beyond counting. Of these, the one most closely linked to Heracles is the Theban Iolaus. Their story, an initiatory myth thought to be of ancient origin, contains many of the elements of the Greek pederastic apprenticeship in which the older warrior is the educator and the younger his helper in battle. Thus, Iolaus serves as Heracles' charioteer and squire. In a testament to the closeness between the two heroes, Iolaus is also known as Heracles' symbomos, (altar-sharer). Unlike all other heroes and gods, each of whom had his or her own altar, sacrifices to either hero could be offered at one and the same altar. James Davidson, "Zeus Be Nice Now" in London Review of Books; 19 July 2007 accessed October 23rd, 2007 Also in keeping with the initiatory pattern of the relationship, Heracles in the end gave his pupil a wife, symbolizing his entry into adulthood. Iolaus's ritual functions paralleled his relationship with Heracles. He was a patron of male love—Plutarch reports that down to his own time, male couples would go to Iolaus's tomb in Thebes to swear an oath of loyalty to the hero and to each other Plutarch, Erotikos, 761d. —and he presided over initiations in the historical era, such as the one at Agyrion in central Sicily. Bernard Sergent, Homosexuality in Greek Myth, Boston, 1986, pp. 141-152. The tomb of Iolaus is also mentioned by Pindar. Pindar, Olympian Odes, 9.98-99. One of Heracles' best-known love affairs, and one frequently represented in ancient as well as modern art, is the one with Hylas. Though it is of more recent vintage (dated to the third century) than that with Iolaus, it too exemplifies in detail the normal cycle of a youth's initiatory process, consisting of education through service to a warrior, and concluding with promotion to adult status and marriage. Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica, 1.1177-1357; Theocritus, Idyll 13. Sparta, as a warrior city where pederastic pedagogy—ostensibly of a chaste nature—was enshrined in the laws ascribed to Lycurgus, the legendary legislator, also provided Heracles with an eromenos—Elacatas, who was honored there with a sanctuary and yearly games. The myth of their love is an ancient one. Sosibius, in Hesychius of Alexandria's Lexicon, per Sergent, 1986, p. 163 Abdera's eponymous hero, Abderus, was another of Heracles' beloveds. In what is considered to be initiatory myth, he was said to have been entrusted with—and slain by—the carnivorous mares of Thracian Diomedes. Heracles founded the city of Abdera in Thrace in his memory, where he was honored with athletic games. The topos of death in such stories is thought to symbolize the passage from one stage of life to another. Apollodorus 2.5.8; Ptolemaeus Chennus, 147b, in Photius' Bibliotheca Among the lesser-known myths is that of Iphitus. Heracles' subsequent murder of Iphitus is held to be evocative of an initiatory ritual. Ptolemaeus Chennus, in Photius' Bibliotheca; Sergent 1986, p. 297. Another such story is the one of his love for Nireus, who was "the most beautiful man who came beneath Ilion" (Iliad, 673). Ptolemy adds that certain authors made Nireus out to be a son of Heracles, a fact thought to authenticate this tradition. Ptolemaeus Chennus, 147b; Sergent 1986, p. 298. The last in this category—despite the fact that Greek literature preserves no mention of this role—is the story of Philoctetes. He is also heir to the hero—and thus presumably his disciple—and is the one who lights his pyre. Later he is the initiator of Neoptolemus, son of Achilles. Martial, Epigrams 2.84. There is also a series of lovers who are either later inventions or purely literary conceits. Among these are Admetus, who assisted in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar; Plutarch, Erotikos, 761e. Adonis; Ptolemaeus Chennus Corythus; and Nestor, who was said to have been loved for his wisdom. His role as eromenos was perhaps meant to explain why he was the only son of Neleus to be spared by the hero. Ptolemaeus Chennus, 147e; Philostratus, Heroicus 696, per Sergent, 1986, p. 163. Heracles' children Telephus is the son of Heracles and Auge. Hyllus is the son of Heracles and Deianeira or Melite. The sons of Heracles and Hebe are Alexiares and Anicetus. There is also, in some versions, reference to an episode where Heracles met and impregnated a half-serpentine woman, known as Echidna; her children, known as the Dracontidae, were the ancestors of the House of Cadmus. Death of Heracles This is described in Ovid's Metamorphoses Book IX. Having wrestled and defeated Achelous, god of the Acheloos river, Heracles takes Deianeira as his wife. Travelling to Tiryns, a centaur, Nessus, offers to help Deianeira across a fast flowing river while Heracles swims it. However, Nessus is true to the archetype of the mischievous centaur and tries to steal Deianara away while Heracles is still in the water. Angry, Heracles shoots him with his arrows dipped in the poisonous blood of the Lernaean Hydra. Thinking of revenge, Nessus gives Deianara his blood-soaked tunic before he dies, telling her it will "excite the love of her husband". Ovid, Metamorphoses, IX l.132-3 Several years later, rumor tells Deianeira that she has a rival for the love of Heracles. Deianeira, remembering Nessus' words, gives Heracles the bloodstained shirt. Lichas, the herald, delivers the shirt to Heracles. However, it is still covered in the Hydra's blood from Heracles' arrows, and this poisons him, tearing his skin and exposing his bones. Before he dies, Heracles throws Lichas into the sea, thinking he was the one who poisoned him (according to several versions, Lichas turns to stone, becoming a rock standing in the sea, named for him). Heracles then uproots several trees and builds a funeral pyre, which Poeas, father of Philoctetes, lights. As his body burns, only his immortal side is left. Through Zeus' apotheosis, Heracles rises to Olympus as he dies. No one but Heracles' friend Philoctetes (Poeas in some versions) would light his funeral pyre (in an alternate version, it is Iolaus who lights the pyre). For this action, Philoctetes (or Poeas) received Heracles' bow and arrows, which were later needed by the Greeks to defeat Troy in the Trojan War. Philoctetes confronted Paris and shot a poisoned arrow at him. The Hydra poison would subsequently lead to the death of Paris. The Trojan War, however, would continue until the Trojan Horse was used to defeat Troy. The topos of Heracles suckling at Hera's breast was especially popular in Magna Graecia, here on a mid-4th century Apulian painted vase; Etruscan mythology adopted this iconic image Heracles in Rome In Rome, Heracles was honored as Hercules, and had a number of distinctively Roman myths and practices associated with him under that name. Reception history Via the Greco-Buddhist culture, Heraclean symbolism was transmitted to the far east. An example remains to this day in the Nio guardian deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples. Herodotus connected Heracles both to Phoenician god Melqart and to the Egyptian god Shu. Temples dedicated to Heracles abounded all along the Mediterranean Sea coastal countries. For example the temple of Heracles Monoikos (i.e. the lone dweller), built far from any nearby town upon a promontory in what is now the Cote d'Azur, gave its name to the area's more recent name, Monaco. The gateway to the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic ocean, where the southernmost tip of Spain and the northernmost of Morocco face each other, is, classically speaking, referred to as the Pillars of Hercules/Heracles, owing to the story that he set up two massive spires of stone to stabilise the area and ensure the safety of ships sailing between the two landmasses. Organisations named after Heracles include the Greek football team Iraklis F.C.. Heracles was canonized by Aleister Crowley as a saint in Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica. Heracles appeared as an enemy of the Amazons in the pages of Wonder Woman. He would later reconcile with them, though. There is also a Marvel Comics superhero named Hercules, that is a member of the superhero team The Avengers. He claims to be the god of strength himself, descended from Olympus. Hercules has appeared in several movies, such as a Disney animated movie that was loosely based on his myths, and the 1963 cult classic Jason and the Argonauts, where he appeared as a member of crew of the Argo, searching for the golden fleece. In television, Hercules is the mentor and ancestor of Herry Hercules from Class of the Titans. Spoken word myths Heracles and Hylas, read by Timothy Carter Bibliography of reconstruction: Homer, Odyssey, 12.072 (7th c. BC); Theocritus, Idylls, 13 (350–310 BC); Callimachus, Aetia (Causes), 24. Thiodamas the Dryopian, Fragments, 160. Hymn to Artemis (310–250? BC); Apollonios Rhodios, Argonautika, I. 1175 - 1280 (c. 250 BC); Apollodorus, Library and Epitome 1.9.19, 2.7.7 (140 BC); Sextus Propertius, Elegies, i.20.17ff (50–15 BC); Ovid, Ibis, 488 (AD 8 –18); Gaius Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica, I.110, III.535, 560, IV.1-57 (1st century); Hyginus, Fables, 14. Argonauts Assembled (1st century); Philostratus the Elder, Images, ii.24 Thiodamas (170–245); First Vatican Mythographer, 49. Hercules et Hylas See also Other figures in Greek mythology punished by the gods include: Medusa Prometheus Sisyphus Atlas Tantalus Ixion The Danaides Notes Modern sources References Heracles at Theoi.com Classical literature and art Timeless Myths – Heracles The life and adventure of Heracles, including his twelve labours. Heracles, Greek Mythology Link Heracles (in French) Vollmer: Herkules (1836, in German) Burkert, Walter, (1977) 1985. Greek Religion (Harvard University Press). Further reading Padilla, Mark W. (1998). "Herakles and Animals in the Origins of Comedy and Satyr Drama". In Le Bestiaire d'Héraclès: IIIe Rencontre héracléenne, edited by Corinne Bonnet, Colette Jourdain-Annequin, and Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge, 217-30. Kernos Suppl. 7. Liège: Centre International d'Etude de la Religion Grecque Antique. Padilla, Mark W. (1998). "The Myths of Herakles in Ancient Greece: Survey and Profile". Lanham, Md.: University Press of America. | Heracles |@lemmatized heracles:161 roman:5 bronze:2 louvre:1 museum:2 greek:14 mythology:5 herakles:4 mean:4 glory:1 hera:16 glorious:2 alcides:3 apollodorus:6 ii:2 alcaeus:2 original:2 name:10 divine:1 hero:19 son:23 zeus:14 alcmene:7 foster:2 amphitryon:7 adoptive:1 descent:1 ampitryon:1 receive:3 epithet:1 line:2 father:6 mortal:8 iphicles:4 great:6 grandson:1 half:4 brother:5 perseus:3 paragon:1 masculinity:2 ancestor:3 royal:1 clan:1 claim:2 heracleidae:1 champion:1 olympian:4 order:3 chthonic:3 monster:4 rome:4 modern:5 west:1 know:11 hercules:14 late:4 emperor:1 particular:1 commodus:1 maximian:1 often:2 identify:3 adopt:2 version:7 life:8 work:3 essentially:1 unchanged:1 add:3 anecdotal:1 detail:3 link:3 geography:1 central:2 mediterranean:3 cult:5 adapt:1 well:3 extraordinary:1 strength:3 courage:1 ingenuity:1 sexual:1 prowess:1 male:5 female:2 among:3 characteristic:1 attribute:4 although:1 clever:1 like:3 odysseus:4 nestor:2 use:3 wit:1 several:7 occasion:1 suffice:1 labor:6 king:19 augeas:2 elis:2 wrestle:4 giant:3 antaeus:2 trick:1 atlas:2 take:5 sky:1 back:3 onto:1 shoulder:1 together:1 hermes:1 patron:2 protector:1 gymnasium:1 palaestrae:1 pausanias:2 guide:2 greece:3 iconographic:1 lion:6 skin:5 club:2 quality:1 prevent:2 regard:2 playful:1 figure:5 game:3 relax:1 play:1 deal:1 child:10 aelian:2 varia:2 historia:2 conquer:2 dangerous:1 archaic:1 force:3 say:8 make:8 world:1 safe:1 mankind:1 benefactor:1 extremely:1 passionate:1 emotional:1 individual:1 capable:1 deed:2 friend:4 thanatos:1 behalf:1 prince:3 admetus:4 regale:1 hospitality:1 restore:1 tyndareus:2 throne:1 sparta:4 overthrow:2 terrible:1 enemy:2 would:14 wreak:1 horrible:1 vengeance:1 cross:2 neleus:2 laomedon:7 find:7 cost:1 origin:3 character:1 many:5 popular:2 story:8 tell:5 famous:2 twelve:4 labour:5 alexandrian:1 poet:1 hellenistic:1 age:1 draw:2 high:4 poetic:1 tragic:1 atmosphere:1 burkert:4 pp:4 initially:1 near:1 eastern:1 motif:1 fight:3 everywhere:1 etruscan:3 equivalent:1 hercle:1 tinia:1 uni:1 hellenic:1 unlike:2 tomb:3 god:19 pindar:3 theos:1 festival:2 sacrifice:4 first:3 libation:1 upon:5 altar:4 thus:6 embody:1 close:1 approach:1 demi:1 core:1 walter:2 originate:1 neolithic:1 hunter:1 culture:3 tradition:2 shamanistic:1 crossing:1 netherworld:1 role:3 whose:2 death:14 could:5 subject:1 mythic:1 telling:1 see:2 accept:4 pantheon:1 classical:2 time:11 create:2 awkwardness:1 encounter:2 episode:3 odyssey:2 xi:1 call:1 nekuia:1 hades:1 ruin:1 ko:1 temple:5 herakleion:1 next:1 catch:1 glimpse:1 powerful:1 ghost:2 man:2 delight:1 grand:1 feast:1 deathless:1 around:1 cry:2 dead:1 rang:1 bird:2 scatter:1 left:1 right:1 horror:1 come:3 night:5 robert:1 fagles:2 translation:2 ancient:7 critic:2 aware:1 problem:1 aside:1 interrupt:1 vivid:1 complete:3 description:1 recognize:1 hail:1 good:1 reason:1 deny:2 verse:2 begin:1 part:4 composition:1 people:1 knew:1 admission:1 olympus:4 tolerate:1 presence:1 underworld:3 remark:2 friedrich:2 solmsen:2 agamemnon:1 daughter:5 hesiod:3 ehoeae:1 american:1 journal:1 philology:1 winter:1 p:5 note:2 interpolated:1 represent:2 compromise:1 conflict:1 representation:1 also:14 die:6 shed:1 go:6 join:5 ever:2 christian:2 dating:1 circle:1 euhemerist:1 reading:1 widespread:1 historical:3 offer:10 status:2 eusebius:1 preparation:1 gospel:1 report:2 clement:2 date:4 argo:6 reign:1 deification:3 asclepius:1 comprise:1 thirty:1 eight:1 year:7 accord:3 chronicler:1 point:2 castor:1 pollux:1 fifty:2 three:2 somewhere:1 capture:6 troy:7 reader:1 literalist:1 bent:1 follow:1 reasoning:1 assert:1 since:2 rule:3 tiryns:2 eurystheus:7 mycenae:1 linus:5 teacher:1 one:18 conclude:2 base:2 jerome:1 universal:1 history:2 chronicon:1 give:18 notoriety:1 teach:1 bc:11 occur:1 later:11 approximately:1 celebrate:1 herakleia:1 commemorate:1 second:2 day:3 month:2 metageitnion:1 fall:2 july:2 early:2 august:1 believe:1 egyptian:2 bahariya:1 oasis:1 myth:12 birth:4 childhood:1 major:1 factor:1 tragedy:1 surround:1 hatred:1 goddess:2 wife:5 full:2 account:1 must:1 render:1 clear:2 torment:2 illegitimate:1 offspring:2 sire:2 affair:5 woman:9 love:11 disguise:1 husband:5 home:1 war:6 return:3 become:8 pregnant:2 case:1 heteropaternal:1 superfecundation:1 carry:3 twin:5 different:1 compare:1 two:9 pair:1 bear:7 leda:1 double:1 parentage:1 theseus:1 existence:1 prove:1 least:1 illicit:1 conspire:1 revenge:3 infidelity:1 charioteer:2 iolaus:12 knowing:2 adultery:1 persuade:2 swear:3 oath:3 member:3 house:3 descendant:1 hurry:1 dwelling:1 slow:1 ilithyia:2 childbirth:1 sit:1 crosslegged:1 clothing:1 tie:2 knot:2 thereby:1 cause:3 trap:1 womb:1 meanwhile:1 prematurely:1 place:3 permanently:1 delay:1 fool:1 galanthis:1 servant:2 lie:1 already:1 deliver:3 baby:1 hear:1 jump:1 surprise:2 untie:1 inadvertently:1 allow:2 originally:1 parent:1 rename:2 unsuccessful:1 attempt:2 mollify:1 send:3 serpent:1 kill:25 lay:2 cot:1 throttle:1 snake:2 hand:2 nurse:1 playing:1 limp:1 body:2 toy:1 youth:3 music:2 tutor:1 lyre:1 tend:1 cattle:2 mountain:1 allegorical:1 parable:1 choice:2 invent:1 sophist:1 prodicus:1 ca:2 visit:3 nymphs:1 pleasure:1 virtue:1 pleasant:1 easy:1 severe:1 choose:2 latter:1 thebe:2 marry:5 creon:1 megara:5 fit:2 madness:3 induce:1 cure:1 hellebore:1 antikyreus:1 founder:2 antikyra:1 χ:1 ptolemaeus:6 geogr:1 hyph:1 ιι:1 stephanus:1 byzantium:1 v:1 aντίκυρα:1 realize:1 flee:1 oracle:2 delphi:1 unbeknownst:1 direct:1 serve:1 ten:3 perform:2 task:5 require:2 decide:1 cheat:1 result:2 nemean:3 black:1 lekythos:1 painter:1 athens:2 cycladic:1 art:3 drive:2 mad:2 slew:3 expiate:1 crime:1 set:5 archenemy:1 succeed:1 purify:2 sin:1 grant:1 immortality:1 accomplish:1 cleansing:1 augean:2 stable:3 pay:1 neither:1 killing:1 lernaean:4 hydra:7 cousin:1 ioloas:1 help:4 burn:5 stump:1 head:1 eurysteus:1 fetch:2 golden:4 apple:3 hesperides:3 cerberus:2 successfully:1 bring:2 total:1 number:3 writer:1 following:1 destroy:1 ceryneian:1 hind:1 erymanthian:1 boar:2 clean:1 stymphalian:1 cretan:1 bull:1 round:1 mare:2 diomedes:2 steal:4 girdle:1 hippolyte:1 herd:1 geryon:1 statue:1 adventure:3 argonaut:5 search:3 fleece:2 rescue:2 heroine:1 gigantes:1 fell:2 princess:3 iole:5 oechalia:2 eurytus:2 promise:3 whoever:1 beat:3 archery:1 contest:3 win:1 abandon:1 advance:1 spurn:1 except:1 iphitus:6 exclude:1 abducted:1 best:2 however:5 throw:2 city:4 wall:1 servitude:1 queen:3 omphale:5 lydia:2 penalty:1 murder:3 slave:2 wear:2 clothes:1 olive:1 wood:2 freed:1 source:2 mention:3 variously:1 cercopes:1 mischievous:2 spirit:1 stole:1 weapon:2 punish:2 stick:1 face:2 downward:1 hyla:8 statuette:1 ai:1 khanoum:1 bactria:1 century:5 bce:2 walk:1 wilderness:2 dryopians:1 theiodamas:1 others:1 bearer:1 beloved:3 crew:2 participate:1 journey:1 mysia:2 kidnap:2 nymph:3 heartbroken:1 long:1 never:1 show:1 simply:1 drown:1 either:3 way:3 sail:2 without:1 prometheus:5 theogony:1 aeschylus:1 unbound:1 shoot:3 eagle:1 torture:1 punishment:1 fire:2 free:1 titan:2 chain:1 prediction:1 trojan:4 poseidon:2 sea:5 attack:2 relate:1 digression:1 iliad:2 bibliotheke:2 plan:1 hesione:3 hope:1 appease:1 happen:1 arrive:1 along:2 telamon:2 oicles:1 agree:3 horse:5 compensation:1 ganymede:1 word:3 accordingly:1 expedition:2 follower:1 sack:2 present:1 save:2 podarces:1 priam:1 veil:1 prize:1 teucer:1 defeat:4 bebryces:1 mygdon:1 land:1 lycus:1 dascylus:1 robber:1 termerus:1 evander:1 antor:1 stay:2 italy:2 amyntor:1 dolopes:1 kingdom:1 emathion:1 arabia:1 lityerses:1 harvest:1 poriclymenus:1 pylos:1 found:2 tarentum:1 taranto:1 learn:2 eumolpus:1 correct:1 mistake:1 autolycus:1 boxer:1 eryx:1 sicily:2 match:1 alastor:1 hippocoon:2 reinstate:1 rightful:1 ruler:1 cycnus:2 porphyrion:1 mimas:1 accompany:1 ostensible:1 theme:1 short:1 epic:1 shield:1 immortal:3 touch:2 earth:1 pick:1 hold:2 air:1 strangle:1 augeias:3 reward:2 remain:3 undefeated:1 due:1 skill:1 general:1 molionides:2 ill:1 army:1 badly:1 able:3 ambush:1 march:1 alcestis:3 hide:1 beside:1 grave:1 collect:1 squeeze:1 tight:1 relent:1 challenge:1 wine:1 dionysus:3 drinking:1 lose:1 thiasus:1 period:1 appear:5 aristophanes:1 frog:1 seek:1 greatly:1 amuse:1 appearance:1 jokingly:1 commit:1 suicide:1 finally:1 knowledge:1 get:1 scythia:2 herodotus:2 text:1 sleep:1 creature:2 eventually:1 refuse:1 sex:1 leave:2 belt:1 bow:2 instruction:1 new:1 nation:1 course:1 four:1 marriage:4 apollodoros:1 recount:1 unharmed:1 euripides:1 lydian:1 third:2 deianira:5 river:4 achelous:3 remove:2 horn:1 turn:2 cornucopia:1 soon:1 wed:1 centaur:4 nessus:8 across:2 rape:1 enrage:1 opposite:1 shore:1 poisoned:2 arrow:5 tip:2 blood:7 plotted:1 gather:1 spill:1 semen:1 want:1 apply:1 vestment:1 taint:1 poisonous:2 anyone:1 francisco:1 de:2 zurbarán:1 suspect:1 fond:1 soak:2 shirt:5 mixture:1 lichas:4 put:1 instantly:1 agony:1 cloth:1 try:2 flesh:1 rip:1 bone:2 voluntary:1 ask:1 pyre:5 build:3 end:2 suffering:1 transform:1 alternatively:1 away:2 demigod:1 incinerate:1 mount:1 hebe:2 another:5 stand:1 palace:1 thespius:1 thespiae:1 wish:1 cithaeron:1 chance:1 comply:1 bore:1 sometimes:1 refer:2 thirteenth:1 trace:1 notably:1 macedon:1 eromenoi:2 eros:1 c:4 ritual:3 vessel:1 symbol:1 warriorship:1 pederastic:3 plutarch:4 eroticos:1 maintain:1 lover:2 beyond:1 count:1 closely:1 theban:1 initiatory:5 think:4 contain:1 element:1 apprenticeship:1 old:1 warrior:3 educator:1 young:1 helper:1 battle:1 serf:1 squire:1 testament:1 closeness:1 symbomos:1 sharer:1 james:1 davidson:1 nice:1 london:1 review:1 book:2 access:1 october:1 keep:1 pattern:1 relationship:2 pupil:1 symbolize:2 entry:1 adulthood:1 function:1 parallel:1 couple:1 loyalty:1 erotikos:2 preside:1 initiation:1 era:1 agyrion:1 bernard:1 sergent:5 homosexuality:1 boston:1 ode:1 frequently:1 though:2 recent:2 vintage:1 exemplify:1 normal:1 cycle:1 process:1 consist:1 education:1 service:1 promotion:1 adult:1 apollonius:1 rhodes:1 argonautica:2 theocritus:2 idyll:2 pedagogy:1 ostensibly:1 chaste:1 nature:1 enshrine:1 law:1 ascribe:1 lycurgus:1 legendary:1 legislator:1 provide:1 eromenos:2 elacatas:1 honor:3 sanctuary:1 yearly:1 sosibius:1 hesychius:1 alexandria:1 lexicon:1 per:2 abdera:2 eponymous:1 abderus:1 consider:1 entrust:1 slay:1 carnivorous:1 thracian:1 thrace:1 memory:1 athletic:1 topos:2 passage:1 stage:1 chennus:5 photius:2 bibliotheca:2 less:1 subsequent:1 evocative:1 nireus:2 beautiful:1 beneath:1 ilion:1 ptolemy:1 certain:1 author:1 fact:2 authenticate:1 last:1 category:1 despite:1 literature:2 preserve:1 philoctetes:5 heir:1 presumably:1 disciple:1 light:4 initiator:1 neoptolemus:1 achilles:1 martial:1 epigrams:1 series:1 invention:1 purely:1 literary:1 conceit:1 assist:1 hunt:1 calydonian:1 adonis:1 corythus:1 wisdom:1 perhaps:1 explain:1 spar:1 philostratus:2 heroicus:1 telephus:1 auge:1 hyllus:1 deianeira:5 melite:1 alexiares:1 anicetus:1 reference:2 meet:1 impregnate:1 serpentine:1 echidna:1 dracontidae:1 cadmus:1 describe:1 ovid:3 metamorphosis:2 ix:2 acheloos:1 travel:1 fast:1 flowing:1 swim:1 true:1 archetype:1 deianara:2 still:2 water:1 angry:1 dip:1 thinking:1 tunic:1 excite:1 l:1 rumor:1 rival:1 remember:1 bloodstained:1 herald:1 cover:1 poison:4 tear:1 expose:1 stone:2 rock:1 standing:1 uproots:1 tree:1 funeral:2 poeas:3 side:1 apotheosis:1 rise:1 alternate:1 action:1 need:1 confront:1 paris:2 shot:1 subsequently:1 lead:1 continue:1 suckle:1 breast:1 especially:1 magna:1 graecia:1 mid:1 apulian:1 painted:1 vase:1 iconic:1 image:2 distinctively:1 practice:1 associate:1 reception:1 via:1 greco:1 buddhist:2 heraclean:1 symbolism:1 transmit:1 far:3 east:1 example:2 nio:1 guardian:1 deity:1 front:1 japanese:1 connect:1 phoenician:1 melqart:1 shu:1 dedicate:1 abound:1 coastal:1 country:1 monoikos:1 e:1 lone:1 dweller:1 nearby:1 town:1 promontory:1 cote:1 azur:1 area:2 monaco:1 gateway:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 southernmost:1 spain:1 northernmost:1 morocco:1 classically:1 speak:2 pillar:1 owe:1 massive:1 spire:1 stabilise:1 ensure:1 safety:1 ship:1 landmass:1 organisation:1 include:3 football:1 team:2 iraklis:1 f:1 canonize:1 aleister:1 crowley:1 saint:1 ecclesia:1 gnostica:1 catholica:1 amazon:1 page:1 wonder:1 reconcile:1 marvel:1 comic:1 superhero:2 avenger:1 descend:1 movie:2 disney:1 animate:1 loosely:1 classic:1 jason:1 television:1 mentor:1 herry:1 class:1 read:2 timothy:1 carter:1 bibliography:1 reconstruction:1 homer:1 callimachus:1 aetia:1 thiodamas:2 dryopian:1 fragment:1 hymn:1 artemis:1 apollonios:1 rhodios:1 argonautika:1 library:1 epitome:1 sextus:1 propertius:1 elegy:1 ibis:1 ad:1 gaius:1 valerius:1 flaccus:1 iii:1 iv:1 hyginus:1 fable:1 assemble:1 elder:1 vatican:1 mythographer:1 et:1 medusa:1 sisyphus:1 tantalus:1 ixion:1 danaides:1 theoi:1 com:1 timeless:1 french:1 vollmer:1 herkules:1 german:1 religion:2 harvard:1 university:2 press:2 padilla:2 mark:2 w:2 animal:1 comedy:1 satyr:1 drama:1 le:1 bestiaire:1 héraclès:1 iiie:1 rencontre:1 héracléenne:1 edit:1 corinne:1 bonnet:1 colette:1 jourdain:1 annequin:1 vinciane:1 pirenne:1 delforge:1 kernos:1 suppl:1 liège:1 centre:1 international:1 etude:1 la:1 grecque:1 antique:1 survey:1 profile:1 lanham:1 md:1 america:1 |@bigram male_female:1 aelian_varia:2 varia_historia:2 walter_burkert:1 olympian_pantheon:1 catch_glimpse:1 deathless_god:1 heracles_hercules:1 castor_pollux:1 goddess_hera:1 swear_oath:2 oath_swear:1 goddess_childbirth:1 oracle_delphi:1 nemean_lion:3 augean_stable:2 lernaean_hydra:4 apple_hesperides:3 capture_cerberus:2 cretan_bull:1 herd_cattle:1 golden_fleece:2 hesiod_theogony:1 aeschylus_prometheus:1 prometheus_unbound:1 apollodorus_bibliotheke:1 aristophanes_frog:1 commit_suicide:1 mount_olympus:1 pindar_olympian:1 olympian_ode:1 apollonius_rhodes:1 rhodes_argonautica:1 ptolemaeus_chennus:5 literary_conceit:1 ovid_metamorphosis:2 fast_flowing:1 funeral_pyre:2 bow_arrow:1 poison_arrow:1 trojan_horse:1 magna_graecia:1 greco_buddhist:1 atlantic_ocean:1 southernmost_tip:1 pillar_hercules:1 aleister_crowley:1 marvel_comic:1 disney_animate:1 jason_argonaut:1 homer_odyssey:1 hymn_artemis:1 valerius_flaccus:1 philostratus_elder:1 vatican_mythographer:1 theoi_com:1 burkert_walter:1 lanham_md:1 |
3,230 | Inflation_(cosmology) | In physical cosmology, cosmic inflation, cosmological inflation or just inflation is the theorized exponential expansion of the universe at the end of the grand unification epoch, 10-36 seconds after the Big Bang, driven by a negative-pressure vacuum energy density. Liddle and Lyth (2000) and Mukhanov (2005) are recent cosmology textbooks with extensive discussions of inflation. Kolb and Turner (1988) and Linde (1990) miss some recent developments, but are still widely used. Peebles (1993) provides a technical discussion with historical context. Recent review articles are Lyth and Riotto (1999) and Linde (2005). Guth (1997) and Hawking (1998) give popular introductions to inflation with historical remarks. The term "inflation" is also used to refer to the hypothesis that inflation occurred, to the theory of inflation, or to the inflationary epoch. As a direct consequence of this expansion, all of the observable universe originated in a small causally connected region. Inflation answers the classic conundrum of the big bang cosmology: why does the universe appear flat, homogeneous and isotropic in accordance with the cosmological principle when one would expect, on the basis of the physics of the big bang, a highly curved, heterogeneous universe? Inflation also explains the origin of the large-scale structure of the cosmos. Quantum fluctuations in the microscopic inflationary region, magnified to cosmic size, become the seeds for the growth of structure in the universe (see galaxy formation and evolution and structure formation). Tyson, Neil deGrasse and Donald Goldsmith (2004), Origins: Fourteen Billion Years of Cosmic Evolution, W. W. Norton & Co., pp. 84-5. Inflation was proposed by Alexei Starobinski Pisma Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 30, 719 (1979) in the Soviet Union, and simultaneously by Alan Guth SLAC seminar, "10-35 seconds after the Big Bang", 23rd January, 1980. see Guth (1997), pg 186 A. H. Guth, "The Inflationary Universe: A Possible Solution to the Horizon and Flatness Problems", Phys. Rev. D 23, 347 (1981). in the United States. Guth's mechanism is different from Starobinski's, and requires a modification to allow for a graceful exit from inflation. This modification was provided independently by Andrei Linde, A. Linde, "A New Inflationary Universe Scenario: A Possible Solution Of The Horizon, Flatness, Homogeneity, Isotropy And Primordial Monopole Problems", Phys. Lett. B 108, 389 (1982). and by Andreas Albrecht and Paul Steinhardt. A. Albrecht and P. J. Steinhardt, "Cosmology For Grand Unified Theories With Radiatively Induced Symmetry Breaking," Phys. Rev. Lett. 48, 1220 (1982). While the detailed particle physics mechanism responsible for inflation is not known, the basic picture makes a number of predictions that have been confirmed by observation. Inflation is thus now considered part of the standard hot big bang cosmology. The hypothetical particle or field thought to be responsible for inflation is called the inflaton. Overview While special relativity constrains objects in the universe from moving faster than the speed of light with respect to each other, there is no such constraint in General Relativity. For example, an object which crosses the event horizon and falls into a black hole can be thought of as moving faster than light from the point of view of an outside observer. An expanding universe generally has a cosmological horizon, and like a black hole event horizon, this marks the boundary to the part of the universe that an observer can see. The horizon is the boundary beyond which objects are moving away too fast to be visible from Earth. There are two ways to describe a spacetime with a horizon, global and local. The global picture includes regions beyond the horizon, which are invisible to us, while the local picture is the picture from one point of view only. These two perspectives are related by a process of extension, wherever there is a horizon, a solution of General Relativity can go on by assuming that nothing special happens there. The local and global points of view have a different notion of time. From the local point of view, time stops at the horizon. From the global point of view, time marches on, and surfaces of constant time cross the horizon. Ignoring quantum mechanics, the two pictures are equivalent: any statement can be translated freely back and forth. For cosmology in the global point of view, the observable universe is one causal patch of a much large unobservable universe; there are parts of the universe which cannot communicate with us yet. These parts of the universe are outside our current cosmological horizon. In the standard hot big bang model, without inflation, the cosmological horizon moves out, bringing new regions into view. As we see these regions for the first time, they look no different from any other region of space we have already seen: they have a background radiation which is at nearly the exact same temperature as the background radiation of other regions, and their space-time curvature is evolving lock-step with ours. This presents a mystery: how did these new regions know what temperature and curvature they were supposed to have? They couldn't have learned it by getting signals, because they were not in communication with our past light cone before. Using Tiny Particles To Answer Giant Questions. Science Friday, 3 Apr 2009. See also Faster than light#Universal_expansion. Inflation answers this question by postulating that all the regions come from an earlier era with a big vacuum energy, or cosmological constant. A space with a cosmological constant is qualitatively different: instead of moving outward, the cosmological horizon stays put, for any one observer, the distance to the cosmological horizon is constant. Space is expanding exponentially, two nearby observers very quickly separate so far so fast that they can no longer communicate. In the global point of view, the spatial slices are expanding very fast to cover huge volumes. In the local point of view, things are constantly falling into the cosmological horizon, which is a fixed distance away, and everything becomes homogeneous very quickly. In either view, as the scalar field slowly relaxes to the vacuum, the cosmological constant goes to zero, and space begins to expand normally. The new regions which come into view during the normal expansion phase , in the global point of view, are exactly the same regions which were pushed out of the horizon during inflation, and so they are necessarily at nearly the same temperature and curvature, because they come from the same little patch of space. In the local point of view, the cosmological horizon still is at the big bang, and inflation is always going on in a thin skin where time is nearly stopped, and the same process produces new regions as it always did, up to small fluctuations. Inflation from the global point of view is often called eternal inflation. On a global constant-time slice, regions with inflation have an exponentially growing volume, while regions which are not inflating don't. This means that the volume of the inflating part of the universe in the global picture is always unimaginably larger than the part that has stopped inflating. If the probability of different regions is counted by volume, one should expect that inflation will never end, or applying boundary conditions that we exist to observe it, that inflation will end as late as possible. Weighting by volume is unnatural in the local point of view, and in the local point of view inflation is not eternal, it eventually ends from the point of view of any single observer. This second point of view gives a meaning to the probability distribution on the anthropic landscape, and naively seems more compatible with the holographic principle. The theory of inflation in any picture explains why the temperatures and curvatures of different regions are so nearly equal, and it predicts that the total curvature of a space-slice at constant global time is zero. This prediction means that the total ordinary matter, dark matter, and residual vacuum energy in the universe have to add up to the critical density, a prediction which is very accurately confirmed. More strikingly, inflation allows physicists to calculate the minute differences in temperature of different regions from quantum fluctuations during the inflationary era, and these quantitative predictions have also been confirmed. Space expands To say that space expands exponentially means that two inertial observers are moving farther apart with accelerating velocity. In stationary coordinates for one observer, a patch of an inflating universe has the following polar metric: This is just like an inside-out black hole metric—it has a zero in the component on a fixed radius sphere called the cosmological horizon. Objects are drawn away from the observer at towards the cosmological horizon, which they cross in a finite proper time. This means that any inhomogeneities are smoothed out, just as any bumps or matter on the surface of a black hole horizon are swallowed and disappear. Since the space–time metric has no explicit time dependence, once an observer has crossed the cosmological horizon, observers closer in take its place. This process of falling outward and replacement points closer in are always steadily replacing points further out—an exponential expansion of space–time. This steady-state exponentially expanding spacetime is called a de Sitter space, and to sustain it there must be a cosmological constant, a vacuum energy proportional to everywhere. The physical conditions from one moment to the next are stable: the rate of expansion, called the Hubble parameter, is nearly constant. Inflation is often called a period of accelerated expansion because the distance between two fixed observers is increasing exponentially (i.e. at an accelerating rate as they move apart), (but can stay approximately constant see deceleration parameter.) Few inhomogeneities remain Cosmological inflation has the important effect of smoothing out inhomogeneities, anisotropies and the curvature of space. This pushes the universe into a very simple state, in which it is completely dominated by the inflaton field, the source of the cosmological constant, and the only significant inhomogeneities are the tiny quantum fluctuations in the inflaton. Inflation also dilutes exotic heavy particles, such as the magnetic monopoles predicted by many extensions to the Standard Model of particle physics. If the universe was only hot enough to form such particles before a period of inflation, they would not be observed in nature, as they would be so rare that it is quite likely that there are none in the Observable universe. Together, these effects are called the inflationary "no-hair theorem" Kolb and Turner (1988). by analogy with the no hair theorem for black holes. The "no-hair" theorem works essentially because the cosmological horizon is no different from a black-hole horizon, except for philosophical disagreements about what is on the other side. The interpretation of the no-hair theorem is that the universe (observable and unobservable) expands by an enormous factor during inflation. In an expanding universe, energy densities generally fall, or get diluted, as the volume of the universe increases. For example, the density of ordinary "cold" matter (dust) goes as the inverse of the volume: when linear dimensions double, the energy density goes down by a factor of eight; the radiation energy density goes down even more rapidly as the universe expands since the wavelength of each photon is stretched (redshifted), in addition to the photons being dispersed by the expansion. When linear dimensions are doubled, the energy density in radiation falls by a factor of sixteen. During inflation, the energy density in the inflaton field is roughly constant. However, the energy density in inhomogeneities, curvature, anisotropies and exotic particles is falling, and through sufficient inflation these become negligible. This leaves an empty, flat, and symmetric universe, which is filled with radiation when inflation ends. Key requirement A key requirement is that inflation must continue long enough to produce the present observable universe from a single, small inflationary Hubble volume. This is necessary to ensure that the universe appears flat, homogeneous and isotropic at the largest observable scales. This requirement is generally thought to be satisfied if the universe expanded by a factor of at least 1026 during inflation. This is usually quoted as 60 e-folds of expansion, where e60 ≈ 1026. It is equal to the amount of expansion since reheating, which is roughly Einflation/T0, where T0 = 2.7 K is the temperature of the cosmic microwave background today. See, e.g. Kolb and Turner (1998) or Liddle and Lyth (2000). Reheating At the end of inflation, a process called reheating occurs, in which the potential energy of the inflaton field is converted into Standard Model particles, starting the radiation dominated phase of the Universe. It is not known how long inflation lasted but it is usually thought to be extremely short compared to the age of the universe. Motivation Inflation resolves several problems in the Big Bang cosmology that were pointed out in the 1970s. Much of the historical context is explained in chapters 15–17 of Peebles (1993). These problems arise from the observation that to look like it does today, the universe would have to have started from very finely tuned, or "special" initial conditions at the Big Bang. Inflation attempts to resolve these problems by providing a dynamical mechanism that drives the universe to this special state, thus making a universe like ours much more likely in the context of the Big Bang theory. Horizon problem The horizon problem is the problem of determining why the universe appears statistically homogeneous and isotropic in accordance with the cosmological principle. For example, molecules in a canister of gas are distributed homogeneously and isotropically because they are in thermal equilibrium: gas throughout the canister has had enough time to interact to dissipate inhomogeneities and anisotropies. The situation is quite different in the big bang model without inflation, because gravitational expansion does not give the early universe enough time to equilibrate. In a big bang with only the matter and radiation known in the Standard Model, two widely separated regions of the observable universe cannot have equilibrated because they move apart from each other faster than the speed of light—thus have never come in to causal contact: in the history of the universe, back to the earliest times, it has not been possible to send a light signal between the two regions. Because they have no interaction, it is difficult to explain why they have the same temperature (are thermally equilibrated). This is because the Hubble radius in a radiation or matter-dominated universe expands much more quickly than physical lengths and so points that are out of communication are coming into communication. Historically, two proposed solutions were the Phoenix universe of Georges Lemaître , English in Gen. Rel. Grav. 29:641-680, 1997. and the related oscillatory universe of Richard Chase Tolman, Reissued (1987) New York: Dover ISBN 0-486-65383-8. and the Mixmaster universe of Charles Misner. Lemaître and Tolman proposed that a universe undergoing a number of cycles of contraction and expansion could come into thermal equilibrium. Their models failed, however, because of the buildup of entropy over several cycles. Misner made the (ultimately incorrect) conjecture that the Mixmaster mechanism, which made the universe more chaotic, could lead to statistical homogeneity and isotropy. Flatness problem Another problem is the flatness problem (which is sometimes called one of the Dicke coincidences, with the other being the cosmological constant problem). It had been known in the 1960s that the density of matter in the universe was comparable to the critical density necessary for a flat universe (that is, a universe whose large scale geometry is the usual Euclidean geometry, rather than a non-Euclidean hyperbolic or spherical geometry). Therefore, regardless of the shape of the universe the contribution of spatial curvature to the expansion of the universe could not be much greater than the contribution of matter. But as the universe expands, the curvature redshifts away more slowly than matter and radiation. Extrapolated into the past, this presents a fine-tuning problem because the contribution of curvature to the universe must be exponentially small (sixteen orders of magnitude less than the density of radiation at big bang nucleosynthesis, for example). This problem is exacerbated by recent observations of the cosmic microwave background that have demonstrated that the universe is flat to the accuracy of a few percent. Magnetic monopole problem The magnetic monopole problem (sometimes called the exotic relics problem) is a problem that suggests that if the early universe were very hot, a large number of very heavy, stable magnetic monopoles would be produced. This was a problem with Grand Unified Theories, popular in the 1970s and 1980s, which proposed that at high temperatures (such as in the early universe) the electromagnetic force, strong and weak nuclear forces are not actually fundamental forces but arise due to spontaneous symmetry breaking from a much simpler gauge theory. The importance of grand unification has waned somewhat since the early 1990s, as the simplest theories have been ruled out by proton decay experiments. However, many people still believe that a supersymmetric Grand Unified Theory is built into string theory, so it is still seen as a triumph for inflation that it is able to deal with these relics. See, e.g. Kolb and Turner (1988) and These theories predict a number of heavy, stable particles which have not yet been observed in nature. The most notorious is the magnetic monopole, a kind of stable, heavy "knot" in the magnetic field. Monopoles are expected to be copiously produced in Grand Unified Theories at high temperature, and they should have persisted to the present day, to such an extent that they would become the primary constituent of the universe. Not only is that not the case, but all searches for them have so far turned out fruitless, placing stringent limits on the density of relic magnetic monopoles in the universe. See, e.g. A period of inflation that occurs below the temperature where magnetic monopoles can be produced would offer a possible resolution of this problem: monopoles would be separated from each other as the universe around them expands, potentially lowering their observed density by many orders of magnitude. History Precursors In the early days of General Relativity, Albert Einstein introduced the cosmological constant to allow a static solution which was a three dimensional sphere with a uniform density of matter. A little later, Willem de Sitter found a highly symmetric inflating universe, which described a universe with a cosmological constant which is otherwise empty. Einstein's solution is unstable, and if there are small fluctuations, it eventually turns into de Sitter's. In the early 1970s Zeldovich noticed the serious flatness and horizon problems of big bang cosmology; before his work, cosmology was presumed to be symmetrical on purely philosophical grounds. In the Soviet Union, this and other considerations led Belinski and Khalatnikov to analyze the chaotic BKL singularity in General Relativity. Misner's Mixmaster universe attempted to use this chaotic behavior to solve the cosmological problems, with limited success. In the late 1970s, Sidney Coleman applied the instanton techniques developed by Alexander Polyakov and collaborators to study the fate of the false vacuum in quantum field theory. Like a metastable phase in statistical mechanics—water below the freezing temperature or above the boiling point—a quantum field would need to nucleate a large enough bubble of the new vacuum, the new phase, in order to make a transition. Coleman found the most likely decay pathway for vacuum decay and calculated the inverse lifetime per unit volume. He eventually noted that gravitational effects would be significant, but he did not calculate these effects and did not apply the results to cosmology. In the Soviet Union, Starobinsky noted that quantum corrections to general relativity should be important in the early universe, and these generically lead to curvature-squared corrections to the Einstein–Hilbert action. The solution to Einstein's equations in the presence of curvature squared terms, when the curvatures are large, can lead to an effective cosmological constant, so he proposed that the early universe went through a deSitter phase, an inflationary era. Starobinsky, A. A. - Spectrum Of Relict Gravitational Radiation And The Early State Of The Universe - JETP Lett. 30, 682 (1979) {Pisma Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 30, 719 (1979)}. This resolved the problems of cosmology, and led to specific predictions for the corrections to the microwave background radiation, corrections which were calculated in detail shortly afterwards. In 1978, Zeldovich noted the monopole problem, which was an unambiguous quantitative version of the horizon problem, this time in a fashionable subfield of particle physics, which led to several speculative attempts to resolve it. In 1980, working in the west, Alan Guth realized that false vacuum decay in the early universe would solve the problem, leading him to propose scalar driven inflation. Starobinski's and Guth's scenarios both predicted an initial deSitter phase, differing only in the details of the mechanism. Early Inflationary Models Inflation was proposed in January, 1980 by Alan Guth as a mechanism for resolving these problems.. At the same time, Alexei Starobinsky argued that quantum corrections to gravity would replace the initial singularity of the universe with an exponentially expanding deSitter phase. In October 1980 Demosthenes Kazanas suggested that exponential expansion could eliminate the particle horizon and perhaps solve the horizon problem, and Sato suggesting that an exponential expansion could eliminate domain walls (another kind of exotic relic.) In 1981 Einhorn and Sato published a model similar to Guth's and showed that it would resolve the puzzle of the magnetic monopole abundance in Grand Unified Theories. Like Guth, they concluded that such a model not only required fine tuning of the cosmological constant, but also would very likely lead to a much too granular universe, i.e., to large density variations resulting from bubble wall collisions. The physical size of the Hubble radius (solid line) as a function of the linear expansion (scale factor) of the universe. During cosmological inflation, the Hubble radius is constant. The physical wavelength of a perturbation mode (dashed line) is also shown. The plot illustrates how the perturbation mode grows larger than the horizon during cosmological inflation before coming back inside the horizon, which grows rapidly during radiation domination. If cosmological inflation had never happened, and radiation domination continued back until a gravitational singularity, then the mode would never have been outside the horizon in the very early universe, and no causal mechanism could have ensured that the universe was homogeneous on the scale of the perturbation mode. Guth proposed that as the early universe cooled, it was trapped in a false vacuum with a high energy density, which is much like a cosmological constant. As the very early universe cooled it was trapped in a metastable state (it was supercooled) which it could only decay out of through the process of bubble nucleation via quantum tunneling. Bubbles of true vacuum spontaneously form in the sea of false vacuum and rapidly begin expanding at the speed of light. Guth recognized that this model was problematic because the model did not reheat properly: when the bubbles nucleated, they did not generate any radiation. Radiation could only be generated in collisions between bubble walls. But if inflation lasted long enough to solve the initial conditions problems, collisions between bubbles became exceedingly rare. In any one causal patch, it is likely that only one bubble will nucleate. Slow-Roll Inflation The bubble collision problem was solved by Andrei Linde and independently by Andreas Albrecht and Paul Steinhardt in a model named new inflation or slow-roll inflation (Guth's model then became known as old inflation). In this model, instead of tunneling out of a false vacuum state, inflation occurred by a scalar field rolling down a potential energy hill. When the field rolls very slowly compared to the expansion of the universe, inflation occurs. However, when the hill becomes steeper, inflation ends and reheating can occur. Effects of asymmetries Eventually, it was shown that new inflation does not produce a perfectly symmetric universe, but that tiny quantum fluctuations in the inflaton are created. These tiny fluctuations form the primordial seeds for all structure created in the later universe. These fluctuations were first calculated by Viatcheslav Mukhanov and G. V. Chibisov in the Soviet Union in analyzing Starobinsky's similar model. See Linde (1990) and Mukhanov (2005). In the context of inflation, they were worked out independently of the work of Mukhanov and Chibisov at the three-week 1982 Nuffield Workshop on the Very Early Universe at Cambridge University. See Guth (1997) for a popular description of the workshop, or The Very Early Universe, ISBN 0521316774 eds Hawking, Gibbon & Siklos for a more detailed report The fluctuations were calculated by four groups working separately over the course of the workshop: Stephen Hawking; Starobinsky; Guth and So-Young Pi; and James M. Bardeen, Paul Steinhardt and Michael Turner. Observational status Inflation is a concrete mechanism for realizing the cosmological principle which is the basis of the standard model of physical cosmology: it accounts for the homogeneity and isotropy of the observable universe. In addition, it accounts for the observed flatness and absence of magnetic monopoles. Since Guth's early work, each of these observations has received further confirmation, most impressively by the detailed observations of the cosmic microwave background made by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) satellite. See, e.g. This analysis shows that the universe is flat to an accuracy of at least a few percent, and that it is homogeneous and isotropic to a part in 10,000. In addition, inflation predicts that the structures visible in the universe today formed through the gravitational collapse of perturbations which were formed as quantum mechanical fluctuations in the inflationary epoch. The detailed form of the spectrum of perturbations called a nearly-scale-invariant Gaussian random field (or Harrison-Zel'dovich spectrum) is very specific and has only two free parameters, the amplitude of the spectrum and the spectral index which measures the slight deviation from scale invariance predicted by inflation (perfect scale invariance corresponds to the idealized de Sitter universe). Perturbations can be represented by Fourier modes of a given wavelength. Each Fourier mode is normally distributed (usually called Gaussian) with mean zero. Different Fourier components are uncorrelated. The variance of a mode depends only on its wavelength in such a way that within any given volume each wavelength contributes an equal amount of power to the spectrum of perturbations. Since the Fourier transform is in three dimensions, this means that the variance of a mode goes as k−3 to compensate for the fact that within any volume, the number of modes with a given wavenumber k goes as k³. Inflation predicts that the observed perturbations should be in thermal equilibrium with each other (these are called adiabatic or isentropic perturbations). This structure for the perturbations has been confirmed by the WMAP satellite and other cosmic microwave background experiments, and galaxy surveys, especially the ongoing Sloan Digital Sky Survey. These experiments have shown that the one part in 10,000 inhomogeneities observed have exactly the form predicted by theory. Moreover, there is evidence for a slight deviation from scale invariance. The spectral index, ns is equal to one for a scale-invariant spectrum. The simplest models of inflation predict that this quantity is between 0.92 and 0.98. This is known as a "red" spectrum, in analogy to redshift, because the spectrum has more power at longer wavelengths. From the data taken by the WMAP satellite it can be inferred that ns = 0.960 ± 0.014, implying that it differs from one at the level of two standard deviations (2σ). This is considered an important confirmation of the theory of inflation. A number of theories of inflation have been proposed that make radically different predictions, but they generally have much more fine tuning than is necessary. As a physical model, however, inflation is most valuable in that it robustly predicts the initial conditions of the universe based on only two adjustable parameters: the spectral index (that can only change in a small range) and the amplitude of the perturbations. Except in contrived models, this is true regardless of how inflation is realized in particle physics. Occasionally, effects are observed that appear to contradict the simplest models of inflation. The first-year WMAP data suggested that the spectrum might not be nearly scale-invariant, but might instead have a slight curvature. However, the third-year data revealed that the effect was a statistical anomaly. Another effect has been remarked upon since the first cosmic microwave background satellite, the Cosmic Background Explorer: the amplitude of the quadrupole moment of the cosmic microwave background is unexpectedly low and the other low multipoles appear to be preferentially aligned with the ecliptic plane. Some have claimed that this is a signature of non-Gaussianity and thus contradicts the simplest models of inflation. Others have suggested that the effect may be due to other new physics, foreground contamination, or even publication bias. See cosmic microwave background#Low multipoles for details and references. An experimental program is underway to further test inflation with more precise measurements of the cosmic microwave background. In particular, high precision measurements of the so-called "B-modes" of the polarization of the background radiation will be evidence of the gravitational radiation produced by inflation, and they will also show whether the energy scale of inflation predicted by the simplest models (1015–1016 GeV) is correct. These measurements are expected to be performed by the Planck satellite, although it is unclear if the signal will be visible, or if contamination from foreground sources will interfere with these measurements. Other forthcoming measurements, such as those of 21 centimeter radiation (radiation emitted and absorbed from neutral hydrogen before the first stars turned on), may measure the power spectrum with even greater resolution than the cosmic microwave background and galaxy surveys, although it is not known if these measurements will be possible or if interference with radio sources on earth and in the galaxy will be too great. As of 2006, it is unclear what relationship if any the period of cosmological inflation has to do with dark energy. Dark energy is broadly similar to inflation, and is thought to be causing the expansion of the present-day universe to accelerate. However, the energy scale of dark energy is much lower, 10-12 GeV, roughly 27 orders of magnitude less than the scale of inflation. Theoretical status In the early proposal of Guth, it was thought that the inflaton was the Higgs field, the field which explains the mass of the elementary particles. It is now known that the inflaton cannot be the Higgs field. Other models of inflation relied on the properties of grand unified theories. Since the simplest models of grand unification have failed, it is now thought by many physicists that inflation will be included in a supersymmetric theory like string theory or a supersymmetric grand unified theory. A promising suggestion is brane inflation. At present, however, whilst inflation is understood principally by its detailed predictions of the initial conditions for the hot early universe, the particle physics is largely ad hoc modelling. As such, despite the stringent observational tests inflation has passed, there are many open questions about the theory. Fine-tuning problem One of the most severe challenges for inflation arises from the need for fine tuning in inflationary theories. In new inflation, the slow-roll conditions must be satisfied for inflation to occur. The slow-roll conditions say that the inflaton potential must be flat (compared to the large vacuum energy) and that the inflaton particles must have a small mass. Technically, these conditions are that the logarithmic derivative of the potential, and second derivative are small, where is the potential and the equations are written in reduced Planck units. See, e.g. Liddle and Lyth (2000). In order for the new inflation theory of Linde, Albrecht and Steinhardt to be successful, therefore, it seemed that the universe must have a scalar field with an especially flat potential and special initial conditions. Andrei Linde Andrei Linde proposed a theory known as chaotic inflation in which he suggested that the conditions for inflation are actually satisfied quite generically and inflation will occur in virtually any universe that begins in a chaotic, high energy state and has a scalar field with unbounded potential energy. However, in his model the inflaton field necessarily takes values larger than one Planck unit: for this reason, these are often called large field models and the competing new inflation models are called small field models. In this situation, the predictions of effective field theory are thought to be invalid, as renormalization should cause large corrections that could prevent inflation. Technically, this is because the inflaton potential is expressed as a Taylor series in φ/mPl, where φ is the inflaton and mPl is the Planck mass. While for a single term, such as the mass term mφ4(φ/mPl)², the slow roll conditions can be satisfied for φ much greater than mPl, this is precisely the situation in effective field theory in which higher order terms would be expected to contribute and destroy the conditions for inflation. The absence of these higher order corrections can be seen as another sort of fine tuning. See e.g. This problem has not yet been resolved and some cosmologists argue that the small field models, in which inflation can occur at a much lower energy scale, are better models of inflation. See, e.g. While inflation depends on quantum field theory (and the semiclassical approximation to quantum gravity) in an important way, it has not been completely reconciled with these theories. Robert Brandenberger has commented on fine-tuning in another situation. The amplitude of the primordial inhomogeneities produced in inflation is directly tied to the energy scale of inflation. There are strong suggestions that this scale is around 1016 GeV or 10−3 times the Planck energy. The natural scale is naïvely the Planck scale so this small value could be seen as another form of fine-tuning (called a hierarchy problem): the energy density given by the scalar potential is down by 10−12 compared to the Planck density. This is not usually considered to be a critical problem, however, because the scale of inflation corresponds naturally to the scale of gauge unification. Eternal inflation Cosmological inflation seems to be eternal the way it is theorised. Although new inflation is classically rolling down the potential, quantum fluctuations can sometimes bring it back up to previous levels. These regions in which the inflaton fluctuates upwards expand much faster than regions in which the inflaton has a lower potential energy, and tend to dominate in terms of physical volume. This steady state, which first developed by Vilenkin, is called "eternal inflation". It has been shown that any inflationary theory with an unbounded potential is eternal. It is a popular belief among physicists that this steady state cannot continue forever into the past. The inflationary spacetime, which is similar to de Sitter space, is incomplete without a contracting region. However, unlike de Sitter space, fluctuations in a contracting inflationary space will collapse to form a gravitational singularity, a point where densities become infinite. Therefore, it is necessary to have a theory for the universe's initial conditions. Linde, however, believes inflation may be past eternal. Linde (2005, §V). Initial conditions Some physicists have tried to avoid the initial conditions problem by proposing models for an eternally inflating universe with no origin. Anthony Aguirre, Steven Gratton, Inflation without a beginning: A null boundary proposal, Phys.Rev. D67 (2003) 083515, Anthony Aguirre, Steven Gratton, Steady-State Eternal Inflation, Phys.Rev. D65 (2002) 083507, These models propose that whilst the universe, on the largest scales, expands exponentially it was, is and always will be, spatially infinite and has existed, and will exist, forever. Other proposals attempt to describe the ex nihilo creation of the universe based on quantum cosmology and the following inflation. Vilenkin put forth one such scenario. Hartle and Hawking offered the no-boundary proposal for the initial creation of the universe in which inflation comes about naturally. J. Hartle and S. W. Hawking, "Wave function of the universe", Phys. Rev. D28, 2960 (1983). See also Hawking (1998). Alan Guth has described the inflationary universe as the "ultimate free lunch": Hawking (1998), p. 129. Wikiquote new universes, similar to our own, are continually produced in a vast inflating background. Gravitational interactions, in this case, circumvent (but do not violate) neither the first law of thermodynamics (energy conservation) nor the second law of thermodynamics (entropy and the arrow of time problem). However, while there is consensus that this solves the initial conditions problem, some have disputed this, as it is much more likely that the universe came about by a quantum fluctuation. Donald Page was an outspoken critic of inflation because of this anomaly. D.N. Page, "Inflation does not explain time asymmetry", Nature, 304, 39 (1983) see also Roger Penrose's book The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe. He stressed that the thermodynamic arrow of time necessitates low entropy initial conditions, which would be highly unlikely. According to them, rather than solving this problem, the inflation theory further aggravates it – the reheating at the end of the inflation era increases entropy, making it necessary for the initial state of the Universe to be even more orderly than in other Big Bang theories with no inflation phase. Hawking and Page later found ambiguous results when they attempted to compute the probability of inflation in the Hartle-Hawking initial state. Other authors have argued that, since inflation is eternal, the probability doesn't matter as long as it is not precisely zero: once it starts, inflation perpetuates itself and quickly dominates the universe. However, Albrecht and Lorenzo Sorbo have argued that the probability of an inflationary cosmos, consistent with today's observations, emerging by a random fluctuation from some pre-existent state, compared with a non-inflationary cosmos overwhelmingly favours the inflationary scenario, simply because the "seed" amount of non-gravitational energy required for the inflationary cosmos is so much less than any required for a non-inflationary alternative, which outweighs any entropic considerations. Another problem that has occasionally been mentioned is the trans-Planckian problem or trans-Planckian effects. Since the energy scale of inflation and the Planck scale are relatively close, some of the quantum fluctuations which have made up the structure in our universe were smaller than the Planck length before inflation. Therefore, there ought to be corrections from Planck-scale physics, in particular the unknown quantum theory of gravity. There has been some disagreement about the magnitude of this effect: about whether it is just on the threshold of detectability or completely undetectable. Reheating The end of inflation is called reheating or thermalization because the large potential energy of the inflaton field decays into particles and fills the universe with electromagnetic radiation. Because the nature of the inflaton is not known, this process is still poorly understood, although it is believed to take place through a parametric resonance. See Kolb and Turner (1988) or Mukhanov (2005). Non-eternal inflation Another kind of inflation, called hybrid inflation, is an extension of new inflation. It introduces additional scalar fields, so that while one of the scalar fields is responsible for normal slow roll inflation, another triggers the end of inflation: when inflation has continued for sufficiently long, it becomes favorable to the second field to decay into a much lower energy state. Robert H. Brandenberger, "A Status Review of Inflationary Cosmology", proceedings Journal-ref: BROWN-HET-1256 (2001), (available from v1 11 Jan 2001) Unlike most other models of inflation, many versions of hybrid inflation are not eternal. Andrei Linde, "Prospects of Inflation", Physica Scripta Online (2004) (available from ) Blanco-Pillado et al. , "Racetrack inflation", (2004) (available from ) In hybrid inflation, one of the scalar fields is responsible for most of the energy density (thus determining the rate of expansion), while the other is responsible for the slow roll (thus determining the period of inflation and its termination). Thus fluctuations in the former inflaton would not affect inflation termination, while fluctuations in the latter would not affect the rate of expansion. Therefore hybrid inflation is not eternal. When the second (slow-rolling) inflaton reaches the bottom of its potential, it changes the location of the minimum of the first inflaton's potential, which leads to a fast roll of the inflaton down its potential, leading to termination of inflation. Inflation and string cosmology The discovery of flux compactifications have opened the way for reconciling inflation and string theory. A new theory, called brane inflation suggests that inflation arises from the motion of D-branes G. R. Dvali, S. H. Henry Tye, Brane inflation, Phys.Lett. B450, 72-82 (1999), . in the compactified geometry, usually towards a stack of anti-D-branes. This theory, governed by the Dirac-Born-Infeld action, is very different from ordinary inflation. The dynamics are not completely understood. It appears that special conditions are necessary since inflation occurs in tunneling between two vacua in the string landscape. The process of tunneling between two vacua is a form of old inflation, but new inflation must then occur by some other mechanism. Inflation and loop quantum gravity When investigating the effects the theory of loop quantum gravity would have on cosmology, a loop quantum cosmology model has evolved that provides a possible mechanism for cosmological inflation. Loop quantum gravity assumes a quantified spacetime. If the energy density is larger than can be held by the quantified spacetime, it is thought to bounce back. Alternatives to inflation String theory requires that, in addition to the three spatial dimensions we observe, there exist additional dimensions that are curled up or compactified (see also Kaluza-Klein theory). Extra dimensions appear as a frequent component of supergravity models and other approaches to quantum gravity. This raises the question of why four space-time dimensions became large and the rest became unobservably small. An attempt to address this question, called string gas cosmology, was proposed by Robert Brandenberger and Cumrun Vafa. Robert H. Brandenberger and C. Vafa, Superstrings in the early universe, Nucl. Phys. B316, 391 (1989) This model focuses on the dynamics of the early universe considered as a hot gas of strings. Brandenberger and Vafa show that a dimension of spacetime can only expand if the strings that wind around it can efficiently annihilate each other. Each string is a one-dimensional object, and the largest number of dimensions in which two strings will generically intersect (and, presumably, annihilate) is three. Therefore, one argues that the most likely number of non-compact (large) spatial dimensions is three. Current work on this model centers on whether it can succeed in stabilizing the size of the compactified dimensions and produce the correct spectrum of primordial density perturbations. For a recent review, see Thorsten Battefeld and Scott Watson, String Gas Cosmology, Rev. Mod. Phys 78, 435-454 (2006) Robert H. Brandenberger, Ali Nayeri, Subodh P. Patil and Cumrun Vafa, String Gas Cosmology and Structure Formation, Int.J.Mod.Phys.A22:3621-3642,2007. , . The ekpyrotic and cyclic models are also considered competitors to inflation. These models solve the horizon problem through an expanding epoch well before the Big Bang, and then generate the required spectrum of primordial density perturbations during a contracting phase leading to a Big Crunch. The universe passes through the Big Crunch and emerges in a hot Big Bang phase. In this sense they are reminiscent of the oscillatory universe proposed by Richard Chace Tolman: however in Tolman's model the total age of the universe is necessarily finite, while in these models this is not necessarily so. Whether the correct spectrum of density fluctuations can be produced, and whether the universe can successfully navigate the Big Bang/Big Crunch transition, remains a topic of controversy and current research. Philosophy of cosmology Philosophers of science John Earman and Jesús Mosterín Earman, John & Jesús Mosterín. (1999). “A critical look at inflationary cosmology”. Philosophy of Science, 66 (March 1999), pp. 1-50. have claimed that inflationary cosmology is flawed. Writing in 1999, they say that: (a) results showing that inflation is likely to occur under generic conditions in the universe were not forthcoming (b) cosmic no hair theorems showing that inflation is effective in ironing out generic nonuniformities were not forthcoming (and in our reckoning are probably not true) and (c) in the straightforward version of inflationary cosmology ... the presence of enough inflation... is difficult to reconcile with a low value of Earman and Mosterin "A critical look at inflationary cosmology", as quoted by Neil A. Manson, "God and Design" p.158 Their second point contradicts the well-accepted uniqueness and homogenization properties of deSitter space. Their third point is a non-sequitor--- the presence of inflation is what guarantees that the initial value of will be small. But it is the first point that contains the essential philosophical position--- they claim that inflation is no better as a starting point for cosmology than the standard big-bang, except in ways that are not accessible to experimental test. Since the standard FRW big-bang picture can be fixed to match observations by a certain amount of fine-tuning, Earman and Mosterin reckon that this type of fine tuning is no worse or no better as an explanation of experimental results than the tuning you need to match a scalar inflaton model to the same data. This conclusion is not shared by mainstream cosmologists, who view the fine-tuning of many causally disconnected patches to almost, but not quite, the same temperature and curvature as something that requires a dynamical explanation. This reflects a difference in philosophy, limits on fine-tuning have long been used by practicing scientists as criteria for a good theory, but are not given a central role in standard philosophies of science. See also Brane cosmology Varying speed of light Dark flow Notes References Linde, Andrei (2005) "Inflation and String Cosmology," eConf C040802 (2004) L024; J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 24 (2005) 151–60; v1 2005-03-24. External links Was Cosmic Inflation The 'Bang' Of The Big Bang?, by Alan Guth, 1997 An Introduction to Cosmological Inflation by Andrew Liddle, 1999 update 2004 by Andrew Liddle hep-ph/0309238 Laura Covi: Status of observational cosmology and inflation hep-th/0311040 David H. Lyth: Which is the best inflation model? The Growth of Inflation Symmetry, December 2004 Guth's logbook showing the original idea WMAP Bolsters Case for Cosmic Inflation, March 2006 NASA March 2006 WMAP press release | Inflation_(cosmology) |@lemmatized physical:8 cosmology:29 cosmic:16 inflation:158 cosmological:35 theorized:1 exponential:4 expansion:19 universe:105 end:10 grand:10 unification:4 epoch:4 second:8 big:25 bang:22 drive:3 negative:1 pressure:1 vacuum:16 energy:33 density:24 liddle:5 lyth:5 mukhanov:5 recent:5 textbook:1 extensive:1 discussion:2 kolb:5 turner:6 linde:13 miss:1 development:1 still:5 widely:2 use:5 peebles:2 provide:4 technical:1 historical:3 context:4 review:3 article:1 riotto:1 guth:20 hawk:4 give:8 popular:4 introduction:2 remark:2 term:6 also:13 refer:1 hypothesis:1 occur:10 theory:40 inflationary:25 direct:1 consequence:1 observable:8 originate:1 small:14 causally:2 connect:1 region:22 answer:3 classic:1 conundrum:1 appear:7 flat:8 homogeneous:6 isotropic:4 accordance:2 principle:4 one:20 would:20 expect:5 basis:2 physic:8 highly:3 curve:1 heterogeneous:1 explain:6 origin:3 large:20 scale:25 structure:8 cosmos:4 quantum:23 fluctuation:18 microscopic:1 magnify:1 size:3 become:10 seed:3 growth:2 see:26 galaxy:4 formation:3 evolution:2 tyson:1 neil:2 degrasse:1 donald:2 goldsmith:1 fourteen:1 billion:1 year:3 w:3 norton:1 co:1 pp:2 propose:14 alexei:2 starobinski:3 pisma:2 zh:2 eksp:2 teor:2 fiz:2 soviet:4 union:4 simultaneously:1 alan:5 slac:1 seminar:1 january:2 pg:1 h:6 possible:7 solution:7 horizon:34 flatness:6 problem:41 phys:11 rev:6 united:1 state:15 mechanism:10 different:12 require:4 modification:2 allow:3 graceful:1 exit:1 independently:3 andrei:6 new:19 scenario:4 homogeneity:3 isotropy:3 primordial:5 monopole:6 lett:4 b:3 andreas:2 albrecht:5 paul:3 steinhardt:5 p:4 j:4 unified:5 radiatively:1 induced:1 symmetry:3 break:2 detailed:5 particle:16 responsible:5 know:11 basic:1 picture:8 make:9 number:8 prediction:8 confirm:4 observation:7 thus:7 consider:5 part:8 standard:10 hot:7 hypothetical:1 field:28 think:9 call:22 inflaton:22 overview:1 special:6 relativity:6 constrains:1 object:5 move:8 faster:4 speed:4 light:8 respect:1 constraint:1 general:5 example:4 cross:4 event:2 fall:6 black:6 hole:6 point:25 view:19 outside:3 observer:11 expand:17 generally:4 like:8 mark:1 boundary:5 beyond:2 away:4 fast:5 visible:3 earth:2 two:15 way:6 describe:4 spacetime:6 global:11 local:8 include:2 invisible:1 u:2 perspective:1 relate:1 process:7 extension:3 wherever:1 go:9 assume:2 nothing:1 happen:2 notion:1 time:23 stop:3 march:4 surface:2 constant:19 ignore:1 mechanic:2 equivalent:1 statement:1 translate:1 freely:1 back:6 forth:2 causal:4 patch:5 much:16 unobservable:2 cannot:4 communicate:2 yet:3 current:3 model:44 without:4 bring:2 first:9 look:4 space:18 already:1 background:15 radiation:21 nearly:7 exact:1 temperature:12 curvature:15 evolve:2 lock:1 step:1 present:6 mystery:1 suppose:1 learn:1 get:2 signal:3 communication:3 past:4 cone:1 tiny:4 giant:1 question:5 science:4 friday:1 apr:1 postulate:1 come:9 early:23 era:4 qualitatively:1 instead:3 outward:2 stay:2 put:2 distance:3 exponentially:8 nearby:1 quickly:4 separate:2 far:5 longer:1 spatial:4 slice:3 cover:1 huge:1 volume:12 thing:1 constantly:1 fixed:3 everything:1 becomes:1 either:1 scalar:10 slowly:3 relaxes:1 zero:5 begin:3 normally:2 normal:2 phase:10 exactly:2 push:2 necessarily:4 little:2 always:5 thin:1 skin:1 produce:11 often:3 eternal:12 grow:3 inflate:4 mean:6 unimaginably:1 probability:5 count:1 never:4 apply:3 condition:20 exist:4 observe:7 late:3 weight:1 unnatural:1 eventually:4 single:3 meaning:1 distribution:1 anthropic:1 landscape:2 naively:1 seem:3 compatible:1 holographic:1 equal:4 predict:10 total:3 ordinary:3 matter:11 dark:5 residual:1 add:1 critical:5 accurately:1 strikingly:1 physicist:4 calculate:6 minute:1 difference:2 quantitative:2 say:3 inertial:1 apart:3 accelerate:3 velocity:1 stationary:1 coordinate:1 inflating:3 following:2 polar:1 metric:3 inside:2 component:3 radius:4 sphere:2 draw:1 towards:2 finite:2 proper:1 inhomogeneity:8 smooth:2 bump:1 swallow:1 disappear:1 since:12 explicit:1 dependence:1 closer:2 take:4 place:3 replacement:1 steadily:1 replace:2 steady:4 de:6 sitter:6 sustain:1 must:8 proportional:1 everywhere:1 moment:2 next:1 stable:4 rate:4 hubble:5 parameter:4 period:5 accelerated:1 increase:3 e:10 approximately:1 deceleration:1 remain:2 important:4 effect:12 anisotropy:4 simple:6 completely:4 dominate:4 source:3 significant:2 dilute:2 exotic:4 heavy:4 magnetic:10 monopoles:7 many:7 enough:7 form:10 nature:4 rare:2 quite:4 likely:8 none:1 together:1 hair:5 theorem:4 analogy:2 work:8 essentially:1 except:3 philosophical:3 disagreement:2 side:1 interpretation:1 expands:3 enormous:1 factor:5 cold:1 dust:1 inverse:2 linear:3 dimension:11 double:2 eight:1 even:4 rapidly:3 wavelength:6 photon:2 stretch:1 redshifted:1 addition:4 disperse:1 sixteen:2 roughly:3 however:15 sufficient:1 negligible:1 leave:1 empty:2 symmetric:3 fill:2 key:2 requirement:3 continue:4 long:7 necessary:6 ensure:2 satisfy:3 least:2 usually:5 quote:2 fold:1 amount:4 reheating:3 einflation:1 k:3 microwave:11 today:4 g:9 reheat:5 occurs:2 potential:16 convert:1 start:3 last:2 extremely:1 short:1 compare:5 age:2 motivation:1 resolve:7 several:3 chapter:1 arise:2 finely:1 tune:1 initial:16 attempt:6 dynamical:2 determine:3 statistically:1 molecule:1 canister:2 gas:6 distribute:2 homogeneously:1 isotropically:1 thermal:3 equilibrium:3 throughout:1 interact:1 dissipate:1 situation:4 gravitational:9 equilibrate:3 separated:1 contact:1 history:2 send:1 interaction:2 difficult:2 thermally:1 dominated:1 length:2 historically:1 phoenix:1 george:1 lemaître:2 english:1 gen:1 rel:1 grav:1 related:1 oscillatory:2 richard:2 chase:1 tolman:4 reissue:1 york:1 dover:1 isbn:2 mixmaster:3 charles:1 misner:3 undergo:1 cycle:2 contraction:1 could:10 fail:2 buildup:1 entropy:4 ultimately:1 incorrect:1 conjecture:1 chaotic:5 lead:11 statistical:3 another:9 sometimes:3 dicke:1 coincidence:1 comparable:1 whose:1 geometry:4 usual:1 euclidean:2 rather:2 non:8 hyperbolic:1 spherical:1 therefore:6 regardless:2 shape:1 contribution:3 great:4 redshifts:1 extrapolate:1 fine:12 tuning:13 order:7 magnitude:4 less:3 nucleosynthesis:1 exacerbate:1 demonstrate:1 accuracy:2 percent:2 relic:4 suggest:7 high:7 electromagnetic:2 force:3 strong:2 weak:1 nuclear:1 actually:2 fundamental:1 due:2 spontaneous:1 gauge:2 importance:1 wan:1 somewhat:1 simplest:2 rule:1 proton:1 decay:7 experiment:3 people:1 believe:3 supersymmetric:3 unify:2 build:1 string:14 triumph:1 able:1 deal:1 notorious:1 kind:3 knot:1 copiously:1 persist:1 day:3 extent:1 primary:1 constituent:1 case:3 search:1 turn:3 fruitless:1 stringent:2 limit:2 offer:2 resolution:2 around:3 potentially:1 lower:1 precursor:1 albert:1 einstein:4 introduce:2 static:1 three:6 dimensional:2 uniform:1 later:2 willem:1 find:3 otherwise:1 unstable:1 zeldovich:2 notice:1 serious:1 presume:1 symmetrical:1 purely:1 ground:1 consideration:2 belinski:1 khalatnikov:1 analyze:2 bkl:1 singularity:4 behavior:1 solve:8 limited:1 success:1 sidney:1 coleman:2 instanton:1 technique:1 develop:2 alexander:1 polyakov:1 collaborator:1 study:1 fate:1 false:5 metastable:2 water:1 freezing:1 boiling:1 need:3 nucleate:3 bubble:9 transition:2 pathway:1 lifetime:1 per:1 unit:3 note:4 result:5 starobinsky:5 correction:8 generically:3 square:2 hilbert:1 action:2 equation:2 presence:3 effective:4 desitter:4 spectrum:13 relict:1 jetp:1 specific:2 detail:3 shortly:1 afterwards:1 unambiguous:1 version:3 fashionable:1 subfield:1 speculative:1 west:1 realize:3 differ:2 argue:5 gravity:7 october:1 demosthenes:1 kazanas:1 eliminate:2 perhaps:1 sato:2 domain:1 wall:3 einhorn:1 publish:1 similar:5 show:11 puzzle:1 abundance:1 conclude:1 required:3 granular:1 variation:1 collision:4 solid:1 line:2 function:2 perturbation:13 mode:10 dashed:1 plot:1 illustrate:1 domination:2 cool:2 trap:2 supercooled:1 nucleation:1 via:1 tunneling:1 true:3 spontaneously:1 sea:1 recognize:1 problematic:1 properly:1 generate:3 exceedingly:1 slow:8 roll:11 name:1 old:2 tunnel:3 hill:2 steep:1 asymmetry:2 perfectly:1 create:2 viatcheslav:1 v:2 chibisov:2 week:1 nuffield:1 workshop:3 cambridge:1 university:1 description:1 ed:1 gibbon:1 siklos:1 report:1 four:2 group:1 separately:1 course:1 stephen:1 hawking:5 young:1 pi:1 james:1 bardeen:1 michael:1 observational:3 status:4 concrete:1 account:2 observed:2 absence:2 receive:1 confirmation:2 impressively:1 wilkinson:1 probe:1 wmap:6 satellite:5 analysis:1 predicts:1 collapse:2 mechanical:1 invariant:3 gaussian:2 random:2 harrison:1 zel:1 dovich:1 free:2 amplitude:4 spectral:3 index:3 measure:2 slight:3 deviation:3 invariance:3 perfect:1 correspond:1 idealize:1 represent:1 fourier:4 uncorrelated:1 variance:2 depend:2 within:2 contribute:2 power:3 transform:1 compensate:1 fact:1 wavenumber:1 adiabatic:1 isentropic:1 survey:3 especially:2 ongoing:1 sloan:1 digital:1 sky:1 moreover:1 evidence:2 n:2 quantity:1 red:1 redshift:1 data:4 infer:1 ns:1 imply:1 level:2 radically:1 valuable:1 robustly:1 base:2 adjustable:1 change:2 range:1 contrived:1 occasionally:2 contradict:3 might:2 third:2 reveal:1 anomaly:2 upon:1 explorer:1 quadrupole:1 unexpectedly:1 low:9 multipoles:2 preferentially:1 align:1 ecliptic:1 plane:1 claim:3 signature:1 gaussianity:1 others:1 may:3 foreground:2 contamination:2 publication:1 bias:1 reference:2 experimental:3 program:1 underway:1 test:3 precise:1 measurement:6 particular:2 precision:1 polarization:1 whether:5 gev:3 correct:3 perform:1 planck:10 although:4 unclear:2 interfere:1 forthcoming:3 centimeter:1 emit:1 absorb:1 neutral:1 hydrogen:1 star:1 interference:1 radio:1 relationship:1 broadly:1 cause:2 theoretical:1 proposal:4 higgs:2 mass:4 elementary:1 rely:1 property:2 promising:1 suggestion:2 brane:4 whilst:2 understand:1 principally:1 largely:1 ad:1 hoc:1 despite:1 pass:2 open:2 severe:1 challenge:1 arises:2 technically:2 logarithmic:1 derivative:2 write:2 reduced:1 successful:1 satisfied:1 virtually:1 unbounded:2 value:4 reason:1 compete:1 invalid:1 renormalization:1 prevent:1 express:1 taylor:1 series:1 φ:4 mpl:4 precisely:2 destroy:1 sort:1 cosmologist:2 good:4 semiclassical:1 approximation:1 reconcile:3 robert:5 brandenberger:6 comment:1 directly:1 tie:1 natural:1 naïvely:1 hierarchy:1 corresponds:1 naturally:2 theorise:1 classically:1 previous:1 fluctuate:1 upwards:1 tend:1 vilenkin:2 belief:1 among:1 forever:2 incomplete:1 contracting:3 unlike:2 densities:1 infinite:2 try:1 avoid:1 eternally:1 anthony:2 aguirre:2 steven:2 gratton:2 beginning:1 null:1 spatially:1 ex:1 nihilo:1 creation:2 hartle:3 wave:1 ultimate:1 lunch:1 wikiquote:1 continually:1 vast:1 circumvent:1 violate:1 neither:1 law:3 thermodynamics:2 conservation:1 arrow:2 consensus:1 dispute:1 page:3 outspoken:1 critic:1 roger:1 penrose:1 book:1 road:1 reality:1 complete:1 guide:1 stress:1 thermodynamic:1 necessitates:1 unlikely:1 accord:1 aggravate:1 orderly:1 ambiguous:1 compute:1 author:1 perpetuates:1 lorenzo:1 sorbo:1 consistent:1 emerge:2 pre:1 existent:1 overwhelmingly:1 favour:1 simply:1 alternative:2 outweigh:1 entropic:1 mention:1 trans:2 planckian:2 relatively:1 close:1 ought:1 unknown:1 threshold:1 detectability:1 undetectable:1 thermalization:1 poorly:1 understood:2 parametric:1 resonance:1 hybrid:4 additional:2 trigger:1 sufficiently:1 favorable:1 proceed:1 journal:1 ref:1 brown:1 het:1 available:3 jan:1 prospect:1 physica:1 scripta:1 online:1 blanco:1 pillado:1 et:1 al:1 racetrack:1 termination:3 former:1 affect:2 latter:1 rolling:1 reach:1 bottom:1 location:1 minimum:1 discovery:1 flux:1 compactifications:1 motion:1 branes:2 r:1 dvali:1 henry:1 tye:1 compactified:3 stack:1 anti:1 govern:1 dirac:1 bear:1 infeld:1 dynamic:2 loop:4 investigate:1 quantified:2 hold:1 bounce:1 curl:1 kaluza:1 klein:1 extra:1 frequent:1 supergravity:1 approach:1 raise:1 rest:1 unobservably:1 address:1 cumrun:2 vafa:4 c:2 superstring:1 nucl:1 focus:1 wind:1 efficiently:1 annihilate:2 intersect:1 presumably:1 compact:1 center:1 succeed:1 stabilize:1 thorsten:1 battefeld:1 scott:1 watson:1 mod:2 ali:1 nayeri:1 subodh:1 patil:1 int:1 ekpyrotic:1 cyclic:1 competitor:1 well:2 crunch:3 sense:1 reminiscent:1 chace:1 successfully:1 navigate:1 topic:1 controversy:1 research:1 philosophy:4 philosopher:1 john:2 earman:4 jesús:2 mosterín:2 flaw:1 generic:2 theorems:1 iron:1 nonuniformity:1 reckoning:1 probably:1 straightforward:1 mosterin:2 manson:1 god:1 design:1 accept:1 uniqueness:1 homogenization:1 sequitor:1 guarantee:1 contain:1 essential:1 position:1 starting:1 accessible:1 frw:1 fix:1 match:2 certain:1 reckon:1 type:1 bad:1 explanation:2 conclusion:1 share:1 mainstream:1 disconnected:1 almost:1 something:1 reflect:1 practice:1 scientist:1 criterion:1 central:1 role:1 vary:1 flow:1 econf:1 conf:1 ser:1 external:1 link:1 andrew:2 update:1 hep:2 ph:1 laura:1 covi:1 th:1 david:1 best:1 december:1 logbook:1 original:1 idea:1 bolster:1 nasa:1 press:1 release:1 |@bigram cosmic_inflation:3 cosmological_inflation:9 big_bang:21 kolb_turner:5 inflationary_epoch:2 observable_universe:6 bang_cosmology:4 homogeneous_isotropic:4 quantum_fluctuation:7 w_norton:1 soviet_union:4 alan_guth:5 phys_rev:5 andrei_linde:5 homogeneity_isotropy:3 monopole_problem:4 phys_lett:2 rev_lett:1 special_relativity:1 black_hole:6 cosmological_horizon:11 quantum_mechanic:1 cosmological_constant:11 probability_distribution:1 holographic_principle:1 de_sitter:6 magnetic_monopoles:5 cosmic_microwave:9 microwave_background:10 finely_tune:1 thermal_equilibrium:3 universe_expands:2 george_lemaître:1 euclidean_geometry:1 fine_tuning:12 bang_nucleosynthesis:1 magnetic_monopole:4 spontaneous_symmetry:1 magnetic_field:1 albert_einstein:1 metastable_phase:1 statistical_mechanic:1 boiling_point:1 jetp_lett:1 shortly_afterwards:1 dashed_line:1 gravitational_singularity:2 exceedingly_rare:1 stephen_hawking:1 wilkinson_microwave:1 microwave_anisotropy:1 anisotropy_probe:1 wmap_satellite:3 quantum_mechanical:1 zel_dovich:1 slight_deviation:2 fourier_transform:1 quadrupole_moment:1 elementary_particle:1 ad_hoc:1 reduced_planck:1 quantum_gravity:5 ex_nihilo:1 outspoken_critic:1 roger_penrose:1 electromagnetic_radiation:1 poorly_understood:1 inflationary_cosmology:5 et_al:1 spatial_dimension:2 cumrun_vafa:2 nucl_phys:1 density_perturbation:2 big_crunch:3 external_link:1 hep_ph:1 |
3,231 | Fruitarianism | A fruit stall in Barcelona. Fruitarians (or fructarians) eat in principle only the fruit of plants. Some people whose diets are not 100% fruit will consider themselves fruitarians if their diet is 75% or more fruit. Definitions Fruitarian definition of fruit When discussing food, the term "fruit" usually refers to just those plant fruits that are sweet and fleshy (for example, plums, apples, and oranges). Botanically, though, some foods not typically considered fruits—including bell peppers, tomatoes, cucumbers, nuts and grains—are fruits. Fruitarians use differing definitions of what is considered a "fruit." Definition of fruitarian Some fruitarians will eat only what falls (or would fall) naturally from a plant, that is: foods that can be harvested without killing the plant. These foods consist primarily of culinary fruits, nuts, and seeds. Some do not eat grains, believing it is unnatural to do so, and some fruitarians feel that it is improper for humans to eat seeds. Others believe they should eat only plants that spread seeds when the plant is eaten. Living and Raw Foods: Alternative Eating Plans - USA TODAY Others eat seeds and some cooked foods. What is a Fruitarian? Some fruitarians use the botanical definitions of fruits and consume pulses, such as many beans and peas, while others include green leafy vegetables and/or root vegetables in their diet. Motivation Some fruitarians believe fruitarianism was the original diet of mankind in the form of Adam and Eve based on Genesis 1:29. They believe that a return to an Eden-like paradise will require simple living and a holistic approach to health and diet. Some fruitarians wish to avoid killing in all its forms, including plants. Some fruitarians say that eating some types of fruit does the parent plant a favor and that fleshy fruit has evolved to be eaten by animals, to achieve seed dispersal. Criticisms The Health Promotion Program at Columbia University reports that a fruitarian diet can cause deficiencies in calcium, protein, iron, zinc, vitamin D, most B vitamins (especially B-12), and essential fatty acids. Additionally, the Health Promotion Program at Columbia reports that food restrictions in general may lead to hunger, cravings, food obsessions, social disruptions and social isolation. Alice!, Health Promotion Program at Columbia University, Health Services at Columbia, August 23, 2002."Go Ask Alice!: Fruitarian teens". Accessed May 20, 2008. As an extreme vegetarian diet, fruitarianism is highly restrictive, making nutritional adequacy almost impossible. In children, growth and development are at risk. Nutritional problems include severe protein energy malnutrition, anaemia and a wide range of vitamin and mineral deficiencies. Holden, Chris, et al, Royal College of Nursing. Nutrition and Child Health, p. 59. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2000. ISBN 070202421X, 9780702024214. Several children have died as the result of being fed fruitarian diets. Gollner, Adam Leith. The Fruit Hunters: A Story of Nature, Adventure, Commerce and Obsession, pp. 99-101. Simon and Schuster, 2008. ISBN 074329694X, 9780743296946. National Council Against Health Fraud. NCAHF Newsletter, 1 November 2001. "Stubborn parents spared prison in fruitarian infant death." Accessed 16 May 2009. As a result, children have been taken from parents feeding them fruitarian diets. Mantle, Fiona and Anne Casey. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2004, Complementary and alternative medicine for child and adolescent care. ISBN 075065175X, 9780750651752. Lack of protein in fleshy fruit can make the lifestyle difficult to sustain, and can lead to the condition of hypoproteinemia or kwashiorkor. Sanders, T. A., British Medical Journal, 10 March 1979; 1(6164)"Malnutrition in infants receiving cult diets." pp. 682–683. Accessed 21 April 2009. Nuts (if included) are a good source of protein. Due to the lower digestibility of plant proteins, however, the American Dietetic Association (ADA) states "protein needs might be higher than the RDA (when) dietary protein sources are mainly those that are less well digested, such as some cereals and legumes." “Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets”. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 2003, 06. Accessed 22 January 2008. Vitamin B12, a bacterial product, is not found in any fruits. According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health "natural food sources of vitamin B12 are limited to foods that come from animals." Like vegans who do not consume B12-fortified foods (certain plant milks and breakfast cereals, for example), fruitarians need to include a B12 supplement in their diet. This may pose a health risk for strict fruitarians, as the B12 in fortified foods and supplements is derived from bacteria, not fruits. It is also contrary to the philosophy that humans are perfectly evolved to live off fruit. Some notable advocates of fruitarianism in the past, including Morris Krok, Johnny Lovewisdom, Walter Siegmeister/Raymond Bernard, and Viktoras Kulvinskas Kulvinskas, Viktoras P. Life in the 21st Century. Twenty First Century Publications, 1981. ISBN 9780933278004. did not adhere to a strict fruitarian diet. Some, like Johnny Lovewisdom, switched to other unorthodox lifestyles (including breatharianism and liquitarianism, juices only), while others, like Morris Krok, recommended against the diet once they stopped. Famous fruitarians Mahatma Gandhi political and spiritual leader, briefly followed a diet similar to fruitarianism. He and his followers repeatedly discontinued these diets as in the long term they proved unsustainable. Gandhi experimented with this diet for the purpose of Brahmacharya. He discovered the best diet in the light of ahimsa for a Brahmacharya was fruit and nuts, he did however see the need to drink milk, which would no longer make him a fruitarian. Brahmacharya I Brahmacharya II Ben Klassen founder of the Creativity Movement. Berlet, Chip, Vysotsky, Stanislavstated. "Overview of U.S. White Supremacist Groups", Journal of Political and Military Sociology, Summer 2006. The nuns in the Anglican Order of St Elizabeth of Hungary followed a fruitarian diet. Fictional Ayesha ("She-who-must-be-obeyed") of H. Rider Haggard's She and its sequels The Eloi from HG Wells's The Time Machine The evil Medusa Johnson in Leonard Part 6 Keziah in Notting Hill (film) See also Christian vegetarianism Inedia Juice fasting Naturalistic fallacy Raw foodism Raw veganism Veganism References External links | Fruitarianism |@lemmatized fruit:20 stall:1 barcelona:1 fruitarians:12 fructarians:1 eat:9 principle:1 plant:10 people:1 whose:1 diet:19 consider:3 definition:5 fruitarian:11 discuss:1 food:12 term:2 usually:1 refer:1 sweet:1 fleshy:3 example:2 plum:1 apple:1 orange:1 botanically:1 though:1 typically:1 include:8 bell:1 pepper:1 tomato:1 cucumber:1 nut:4 grain:2 use:2 differ:1 fall:2 would:2 naturally:1 harvest:1 without:1 kill:2 consist:1 primarily:1 culinary:1 seed:5 believe:4 unnatural:1 feel:1 improper:1 human:2 others:4 spread:1 living:2 raw:3 alternative:2 eating:1 plan:1 usa:1 today:1 cook:1 botanical:1 consume:2 pulse:1 many:1 bean:1 pea:1 green:1 leafy:1 vegetable:2 root:1 motivation:1 fruitarianism:4 original:1 mankind:1 form:2 adam:2 eve:1 base:1 genesis:1 return:1 eden:1 like:4 paradise:1 require:1 simple:1 holistic:1 approach:1 health:11 wish:1 avoid:1 say:1 type:1 parent:3 favor:1 evolve:2 animal:2 achieve:1 dispersal:1 criticisms:1 promotion:3 program:3 columbia:4 university:2 report:2 cause:1 deficiency:2 calcium:1 protein:7 iron:1 zinc:1 vitamin:5 b:2 especially:1 essential:1 fatty:1 acid:1 additionally:1 restriction:1 general:1 may:4 lead:2 hunger:1 craving:1 obsession:2 social:2 disruption:1 isolation:1 alice:2 service:1 august:1 go:1 ask:1 teen:1 access:4 extreme:1 vegetarian:2 highly:1 restrictive:1 make:3 nutritional:2 adequacy:1 almost:1 impossible:1 child:5 growth:1 development:1 risk:2 problem:1 severe:1 energy:1 malnutrition:2 anaemia:1 wide:1 range:1 mineral:1 holden:1 chris:1 et:1 al:1 royal:1 college:1 nursing:1 nutrition:1 p:2 elsevier:2 science:2 isbn:4 several:1 die:1 result:2 feed:2 gollner:1 leith:1 hunter:1 story:1 nature:1 adventure:1 commerce:1 pp:2 simon:1 schuster:1 national:2 council:1 fraud:1 ncahf:1 newsletter:1 november:1 stubborn:1 spar:1 prison:1 infant:2 death:1 take:1 mantle:1 fiona:1 anne:1 casey:1 complementary:1 medicine:1 adolescent:1 care:1 lack:1 lifestyle:2 difficult:1 sustain:1 condition:1 hypoproteinemia:1 kwashiorkor:1 sander:1 british:1 medical:1 journal:3 march:1 receive:1 cult:1 april:1 good:1 source:3 due:1 low:1 digestibility:1 however:2 american:3 dietetic:3 association:3 ada:1 state:1 need:3 might:1 high:1 rda:1 dietary:1 mainly:1 less:1 well:2 digest:1 cereal:2 legume:1 position:1 dietitian:1 canada:1 january:1 bacterial:1 product:1 find:1 accord:1 u:2 institute:1 natural:1 limit:1 come:1 vegan:1 fortify:1 certain:1 milk:2 breakfast:1 supplement:2 pose:1 strict:2 fortified:1 derive:1 bacteria:1 also:2 contrary:1 philosophy:1 perfectly:1 live:1 notable:1 advocate:1 past:1 morris:2 krok:2 johnny:2 lovewisdom:2 walter:1 siegmeister:1 raymond:1 bernard:1 viktoras:2 kulvinskas:2 life:1 century:2 twenty:1 first:1 publication:1 adhere:1 switch:1 unorthodox:1 breatharianism:1 liquitarianism:1 juices:1 recommend:1 stop:1 famous:1 mahatma:1 gandhi:2 political:2 spiritual:1 leader:1 briefly:1 follow:2 similar:1 follower:1 repeatedly:1 discontinue:1 long:1 prove:1 unsustainable:1 experiment:1 purpose:1 brahmacharya:4 discover:1 best:1 light:1 ahimsa:1 see:2 drink:1 longer:1 ii:1 ben:1 klassen:1 founder:1 creativity:1 movement:1 berlet:1 chip:1 vysotsky:1 stanislavstated:1 overview:1 white:1 supremacist:1 group:1 military:1 sociology:1 summer:1 nun:1 anglican:1 order:1 st:1 elizabeth:1 hungary:1 fictional:1 ayesha:1 must:1 obeyed:1 h:1 rider:1 haggard:1 sequel:1 eloi:1 hg:1 time:1 machine:1 evil:1 medusa:1 johnson:1 leonard:1 part:1 keziah:1 notting:1 hill:1 film:1 christian:1 vegetarianism:1 inedia:1 juice:1 fast:1 naturalistic:1 fallacy:1 foodism:1 veganism:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram fruit_nut:2 nut_seed:1 bean_pea:1 green_leafy:1 leafy_vegetable:1 adam_eve:1 holistic_approach:1 fleshy_fruit:2 seed_dispersal:1 fruitarian_diet:5 fatty_acid:1 vegetarian_diet:2 vitamin_mineral:1 et_al:1 simon_schuster:1 complementary_alternative:1 child_adolescent:1 dietetic_association:3 breakfast_cereal:1 mahatma_gandhi:1 prove_unsustainable:1 white_supremacist:1 rider_haggard:1 notting_hill:1 naturalistic_fallacy:1 external_link:1 |
3,232 | Lithuanian_Armed_Forces | The Lithuanian Armed Forces consist of ~15,500 active personnel (~2,400 of them - civilian) Personnel size in 1998-2009 Ministry of National Defence and are supported by 100,000 reserve forces. Conscription was ended in September 2008. Lithuania's defence system is based on the concept of "total and unconditional defence" mandated by Lithuania's national Security Strategy. The goal of Lithuania's defence policy is to prepare their society for general defence and to integrate Lithuania into Western security and defence structures. The defence ministry is responsible for combat forces, search and rescue, and intelligence operations. White Paper Lithuanian defence policy The 5,400 border guards fall under the Interior Ministry's supervision and are responsible for border protection, passport and customs duties, and share responsibility with the navy for smuggling / drug trafficking interdiction. A special security department handles VIP protection and communications security. Structure The Lithuanian Armed Forces consist of the Lithuanian Land Force, Lithuanian Air Force, Lithuanian Naval Force, Training Command and Logistics Command. Directly subordinated to the Chief of Defence are the Special Operations Forces and Military Police. The Reserve Forces are under command of the Lithuanian National Defence Volunteer Forces. To ensure that Lithuanian Armed Forces are ready to act in the modern security environment, meet its high requirements and implement its tasks, a review of structure is carried out. Structural overview is a complex and long process, encompassing the reorganisation, merging, or dissolution of military units, personnel downsizing, and disbandment of unnecassary military infrastructure. This process is crucial in order to maintain and improve the effectiveness of the national defence system. In carrying out the defence reform, the emphasis and priorities of defence planning have shifted from large military units designed for territorial defence to the development of capabilities necessary for the collective defence of the NATO Alliance and Lithuania. According to this principle, Lithuania has abandoned plans for building up Land Forces consisting of three infantry brigades prepared for territorial defence. In 2003, after abandoning the doctrine of territorial defence, the Eastern Military District was disbanded, and in 2004, the Western Military District was disbanded. Two infantry battalions were reorganised into logistic battalions. Lithuanian The Grand Duke Kęstutis Motorised Infantry Battalion was moved to the Iron Wolf Mechanised Infantry Brigade. The First and Second Air Force Bases were merged into one Air Force Base in Šiauliai. Upon the completion of these reforms, Lithuania will be able to field armed forces that will be able to react more rapidly, be more mobile, easier to deploy, better equipped, and better trained to be able to contribute to any kind of NATO-led or other operation inside or outside the country. Current structure of the Lithuanian Armed Forces Lithuanian Land Force The core of the Lithuanian Land Force structure is the Iron Wolf Mechanised Infantry Brigade (MIB "Iron Wolf") consisting of four Mechanized Infantry battalions, one artillery battalion and logistics and support units. In the future, MIB “Iron Wolf” will also have Air Defence and Anti-tank companies, which will ensure the brigade’s sustainability during operations . The Lithuanian Land forces plan to undertake a major modernization within 2012. New weapons and heavier armor will be acquired. In 2007 the Land forces bought the German Heckler & Koch G36 rifle to replace the older Swedish Ak-4 within the second quarter of 2009 as main weapon. It is planned to buy new armoured personnel carriers / Infantry fighting vehicles before 2010. Possible variants are the Austrian Pandur 8X8, the Finish Patria AMV or the Swiss Piranha. Lithuania is determined to restructure the armed forces so that from the end of 2014, one tenth of the Land Forces could at any given time be deployed for International Operations, while half of the Land Forces would be prepared to be deployed outside Lithuania’s borders. Lithuanian Navy The Navy has 700 personnel. The Navy consists of naval headquarters, Sea Coastal Surveillance System (SCSS), mine countermeasures, corvettes, fast patrol boats and small boat squadrons. The current Commander in Chief of the Lithuanian Navy is Captain (N) Olegas Mariničius. The Naval base and Headquarters are located in the city of Klaipėda. The Navy uses fast patrol boats and former Russian corvettes for coastal surveillance. The ships are organized into a Combat Ship Squadron (F), Patrol Boat Squadron (P) and Mine Countermeasures Squadron (M). On November 28, 2008 the British Ministry of Defence (MoD) and the Lithuanian Ministry of National Defence signed a sales agreement on board HMS Victory in Portsmouth, UK, for the acquisition and reactivation of two former Royal Navy "Hunt"-class Mine countermeasure vessels - HMS Cottesmore and Dulverton. The ships are expected to enter service with the Lithuanian Navy by 2011 and will replace the M51 and M52 minesweepers. Lithuania to Get Two ex-Royal Navy Hunt-Class Minehunters The three new Flyvenfisken-class multi-purpose patrol ships will replace the older Storm class patrol boats. Lithuanian Air Force C-27J Spartan in Lithuanian air force The military command center is located in Šiauliai (Zokniai Airport), and known as the Aviation base. Lithuanian Air Force has started a modernization program to bring their hardware closer to NATO standards and therefore are gradually withdrawing from use a number of former Russian aircraft and helicopters, the replacement of which is now starting. It is also planned that by the 2012 time frame the Baltic States will be able to provide their own air-cover with a fighter type yet to be selected and acquired. Other bases used by the Lithuanian Air Force (LAF) are http://commi.narod.ru/txt/2002/0605.htm in Russian : Klaipėda (providing basing for sea search and rescue detachment); Kaunas (LTAF Headquarters and the Air Space Surveillance and Control Command); Karmėlava (Air Space Control Centre); Šiauliai (LATF Air Base and Air Force Armament and Equipment Repair Depot). The initial formation of the LAF was the 2nd transport squadron with the transfer of 20 An-2 aircraft from civilian to military use, with initial basing at the Barushai air base on the 27 April 1992. These were joined by four L-39C Albatros aircraft purchased from Kazakhstan as part of the intended 16 to be used by the 1st fighter (training) squadron. The aircraft stationed at Zokniai belong to the 11th and 12th aviation squadrons, while that at the Payustis is known as the 22nd squadron. New Lithuanian aircraft arrived on 22 December 2006 when the first of three state of the art Alenia Aeronautica C-27J Spartan tactical transport was delivered at Siauliai airbase ensuring interoperability with its NATO partners. Two out of the three Antonov An-26 transport aircraft will be kept in service during the transition period. Helicopters Mi-8's were modernised by LAF (extended fuel tanks and avionics). Air space will be patrolled by jet fighters from other NATO members, which are based out of the Šiauliai air base. In 2008 2 medium-range radars were acquired for the Air Forces Airspace Surveillance and Control Command. A very interesting part of the Lithuanian Air Arms is the Aviation Unit of the Lithuanian State Border Guard Service. It has received new helicopters to patrol the external border (with Kaliningrad and Belarus). National Defence Volunteer Forces Lithuanian NDVF soldiers in the international mission in Afghanistan The Lithuanian National Defence Volunteer Forces (NDVF) is an important part of Lithuanian Armed Forces. The Commander of the NDVF is appointed by the Minister of National Defence and is subordinate to the Commander of the Armed Forces. The NDVF is organised along administrative boundaries. It is composed of companies organised into battalions within territorial defence brigades. Each NDVF unit down to battalion level contains regular army officers and a skeletal cadre that directs training and administrative functions. The rest of the NDVF personnel are volunteers who serve with no pay. The volunteers have already successfully participated in international operations in the Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq. The NDVF consists of five territorial units, Lithuanian Grand Duke Butigeidis Dragoon Training Battalion and aviation unit. The NDVF Aviation Unit is operating from two main avia bases: Šilutė in the southwest and Kyviškės in the eastern part of the country. NDVF use YAK-52's, AN-2's, Wilga's and other aircraft. Special Operations Force Lithuanian Special Operations Force soldiers during trainings Lithuanian Special Operations Force (SOF) of Lithuanian Armed Forces has been in operation de facto since 2002 and it was estbalished de jure in April 3 2008, when amendments of National Defence System organisation and military service law came into force Commander of Lithuanian Special Operations Force appointed . SOF is formed from the Special Operations Unit. Since Fall 2005, conscripts do not serve in the SOF. The force is formed exclusively of carefully selected, motivated and specially trained professionals. The core of the SOF is based on the Special Purpose Service, Vytautas the Great Jaeger Battalion and Combat Divers Service (CDS). Lithuanian Air Force Special Operations Element is subordinate to the Unit at the level of operations management. Structure of the SOF is flexible which makes it easy to form squadrons intended for concrete operations and missions from its elements. The SOF can be called upon inside the territory of Lithuania when law enforcement agencies lack or do not have necessary capabilities to react to terrorist attacks. Equipment In line with the set priorities, the Lithuanian Armed Forces are implementing modernisation plans. The Lithuanian Armed Forces, armed with modern weapons will be able to operate more efficiently together with allies inside and outside Lithuania. The Armed Forces will continue to be equipped with reliable and modern armament and military equipment corresponding to the NATO requirements, which will be procured in line with the set priorities with most attention focused on the projects related to implementation of the NATO Force goals. Efforts will be made to achieve that the funds allocated to procurement of new armaments and equipment and modernisation of the existing equipment make up one fourth of all the expenses of the National Defence System. The funds saved during the defence reform will be allocated to the needs of modernisation of the Lithuanian Armed Forces. ! style="text-align: left; background: #808000;"|Equipment ! style="text-align: left; background: #808000;"|Numbers |----- |armoured personnel carriersarmoured fighting vehiclesarmoured cars|||374—137 |----- |artillery||150 |----- |anti-aircraft missile launchersanti-aircraft artillery|| |----- | anti-tank missile launchersanti-tank artillery|| |----- | recoilless riflesmachine guns mortars|| |----- | helicopters and UAVs||9 |} International cooperation Lithuania and NATO Lithuania and another six Middle and Eastern Europe countries were invited to join the Alliance in NATO Summit in Prague 2002. Lithuania implemented its strategic goals and acquired the most reliable security assurance throughout the history of a millennium as it became a member of Euro-Atlantic society in March 2004. Lithuania entered NATO on full-fledged rights immediately after the procedures of joining the North Atlantic Treaty were completed and Lithuania was able to participate in the political decision-making process of the Alliance. In comparison, integration into the military structures of NATO is a long-term task of Lithuanian Armed Forces. Mechanised Infantry Brigade “Iron Wolf” was affiliated to the Danish Division on the basis of agreements signed by Denmark and Lithuania in August 2006. The mentioned long-term engagement is perhaps the central cooperation project of Lithuanian Armed Forces boosting ability of the Brigade to work hand-in-hand with forces of NATO. NATO enlargement wiped out the lines dividing Europe and provided equal security assurance for all the member states. Fighter jets of NATO members deployed in Zokniai airport as soon as Lithuania acquired membership in the Alliance provide safety for the Baltic airspace – and inseparable part of NATO airspace. NATO fighter aircraft are involved in the patrolling and protection of Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian air space (see Baltic Air Policing). No threat is perceived, however the NATO treaty requires air defence patrols of partner countries' airspace. Each contributing nation deploys (usually four) aircraft for a period of four months to the air base Zokniai near the city Šiauliai. Foreign missions and operations Since the summer of 2005 Lithuania has been part of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan (ISAF), leading a Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) in the town of Chaghcharan in the province of Ghor. Currently, there are 150 soldiers stationed in Ghor. The PRT includes personnel from Denmark, Iceland and USA. There are also special operation forces from the "Aitvaras" unit in Afghanistan. They are placed in Kandahar province. Their number will be increase in 2009. Baltic military cooperation History has shown that the Baltic States cannot view their security in isolation from each other. Having learned this lesson Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia along with building up their national armed forces, have extended and deepened their cooperation in defence matters. The main projects are: BALTNET (Baltic Air Surveillance Network); BALTRON (Baltic Naval Squadron); BALTDEFCOL (Baltic Defence College); BALTBAT (Baltic Battalion). Ranks Officer Ranks of the Lithuanian Land Forces See also Lithuanian army equipment; Baltic Air Policing; External links and Further Reading Lithuanian Ministry of Defence site Media Photo gallery Lithuanian Armed Forces: video presentation (AVI file 325 Mb) Short video presentation on the Lithuanian Armed Forces (history and present) (AVI file 84 Mb) “10 years holding peacekeeper’s mandate”: video presentation (AVI file 70 Mb) "The Package from LT" (Short video film about mission in Afghanistan) Literature Stefan Marx, 'Lithuania's Defence Structure,' Jane's Intelligence Review, September 1993, p.407-409 References | Lithuanian_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized lithuanian:44 arm:15 force:55 consist:3 active:1 personnel:8 civilian:2 size:1 ministry:6 national:11 defence:32 support:2 reserve:2 conscription:1 end:2 september:2 lithuania:22 system:5 base:14 concept:1 total:1 unconditional:1 mandate:2 security:9 strategy:1 goal:3 policy:2 prepare:3 society:2 general:1 integrate:1 western:2 structure:8 responsible:2 combat:3 search:2 rescue:2 intelligence:2 operation:17 white:1 paper:1 border:5 guard:2 fall:2 interior:1 supervision:1 protection:3 passport:1 custom:1 duty:1 share:1 responsibility:1 navy:9 smuggle:1 drug:1 traffic:1 interdiction:1 special:10 department:1 handle:1 vip:1 communication:1 land:9 air:25 naval:4 train:3 command:6 logistics:2 directly:1 subordinate:3 chief:2 military:12 police:3 volunteer:5 ensure:3 ready:1 act:1 modern:3 environment:1 meet:1 high:1 requirement:2 implement:3 task:2 review:2 carry:2 structural:1 overview:1 complex:1 long:3 process:3 encompass:1 reorganisation:1 merging:1 dissolution:1 unit:11 downsizing:1 disbandment:1 unnecassary:1 infrastructure:1 crucial:1 order:1 maintain:1 improve:1 effectiveness:1 reform:3 emphasis:1 priority:3 planning:1 shift:1 large:1 design:1 territorial:5 development:1 capability:2 necessary:2 collective:1 nato:17 alliance:4 accord:1 principle:1 abandon:2 plan:5 build:2 three:4 infantry:8 brigade:7 doctrine:1 eastern:3 district:2 disband:2 two:5 battalion:10 reorganise:1 logistic:1 grand:2 duke:2 kęstutis:1 motorise:1 move:1 iron:5 wolf:5 mechanise:3 first:2 second:2 merge:1 one:4 šiauliai:5 upon:2 completion:1 able:6 field:1 react:2 rapidly:1 mobile:1 easy:2 deploy:4 good:1 equip:2 well:1 contribute:2 kind:1 lead:2 inside:3 outside:3 country:4 current:2 core:2 mib:2 consisting:1 four:4 mechanized:1 artillery:4 future:1 also:4 anti:3 tank:4 company:2 sustainability:1 undertake:1 major:1 modernization:2 within:3 new:6 weapon:3 heavy:1 armor:1 acquire:5 buy:2 german:1 heckler:1 koch:1 rifle:1 replace:3 old:2 swedish:1 ak:1 quarter:1 main:3 armoured:1 carrier:1 fight:2 vehicle:1 possible:1 variant:1 austrian:1 pandur:1 finish:1 patria:1 amv:1 swiss:1 piranha:1 determine:1 restructure:1 armed:5 tenth:1 could:1 give:1 time:2 international:5 half:1 would:1 consists:2 headquarters:3 sea:2 coastal:2 surveillance:5 scss:1 mine:3 countermeasure:3 corvette:2 fast:2 patrol:8 boat:5 small:1 squadron:10 commander:4 captain:1 n:1 olegas:1 mariničius:1 locate:2 city:2 klaipėda:2 us:1 former:3 russian:3 ship:4 organize:1 f:1 p:2 november:1 british:1 mod:1 sign:2 sale:1 agreement:2 board:1 hm:2 victory:1 portsmouth:1 uk:1 acquisition:1 reactivation:1 royal:2 hunt:2 class:4 vessel:1 cottesmore:1 dulverton:1 expect:1 enter:2 service:6 minesweeper:1 get:1 ex:1 minehunters:1 flyvenfisken:1 multi:1 purpose:2 storm:1 c:2 spartan:2 center:1 zokniai:4 airport:2 know:2 aviation:5 start:2 program:1 bring:1 hardware:1 closer:1 standard:1 therefore:1 gradually:1 withdraw:1 use:5 number:3 aircraft:11 helicopter:4 replacement:1 frame:1 baltic:10 state:5 provide:4 cover:1 fighter:5 type:1 yet:1 select:2 laf:3 http:1 commi:1 narod:1 ru:1 txt:1 htm:1 detachment:1 kaunas:1 ltaf:1 space:4 control:3 karmėlava:1 centre:1 latf:1 armament:3 equipment:7 repair:1 depot:1 initial:2 formation:1 transport:3 transfer:1 basing:1 barushai:1 april:2 join:3 l:1 albatros:1 purchase:1 kazakhstan:1 part:6 intended:1 station:2 belong:1 payustis:1 arrive:1 december:1 art:1 alenia:1 aeronautica:1 tactical:1 deliver:1 siauliai:1 airbase:1 interoperability:1 partner:2 antonov:1 keep:1 transition:1 period:2 mi:1 modernise:1 extend:2 fuel:1 avionics:1 jet:2 member:4 medium:2 range:1 radar:1 airspace:4 interesting:1 receive:1 external:2 kaliningrad:1 belarus:1 ndvf:9 soldier:3 mission:4 afghanistan:5 important:1 appoint:2 minister:1 organise:2 along:2 administrative:2 boundary:1 compose:1 level:2 contains:1 regular:1 army:2 officer:2 skeletal:1 cadre:1 direct:1 training:3 function:1 rest:1 serve:2 pay:1 already:1 successfully:1 participate:2 balkan:1 iraq:1 five:1 butigeidis:1 dragoon:1 operate:2 avia:1 šilutė:1 southwest:1 kyviškės:1 yak:1 wilga:1 sof:6 de:2 facto:1 since:3 estbalished:1 jure:1 amendment:1 organisation:1 law:2 come:1 form:3 conscript:1 exclusively:1 carefully:1 motivate:1 specially:1 trained:1 professional:1 vytautas:1 great:1 jaeger:1 diver:1 cds:1 element:2 management:1 flexible:1 make:4 intend:1 concrete:1 call:1 territory:1 enforcement:1 agency:1 lack:1 terrorist:1 attack:1 line:3 set:2 modernisation:3 efficiently:1 together:1 ally:1 continue:1 reliable:2 correspond:1 procure:1 attention:1 focus:1 project:3 relate:1 implementation:1 effort:1 achieve:1 fund:2 allocate:2 procurement:1 exist:1 fourth:1 expense:1 save:1 need:1 style:2 text:2 align:2 left:2 background:2 armour:1 carriersarmoured:1 vehiclesarmoured:1 car:1 missile:2 launchersanti:2 recoilless:1 riflesmachine:1 gun:1 mortar:1 uavs:1 cooperation:4 another:1 six:1 middle:1 europe:2 invite:1 summit:1 prague:1 strategic:1 assurance:2 throughout:1 history:3 millennium:1 become:1 euro:1 atlantic:2 march:1 full:1 fledged:1 right:1 immediately:1 procedure:1 north:1 treaty:2 complete:1 political:1 decision:1 comparison:1 integration:1 term:2 affiliate:1 danish:1 division:1 basis:1 denmark:2 august:1 mention:1 engagement:1 perhaps:1 central:1 boost:1 ability:1 work:1 hand:2 enlargement:1 wipe:1 divide:1 equal:1 soon:1 membership:1 safety:1 inseparable:1 involve:1 patrolling:1 latvian:1 estonian:1 see:2 threat:1 perceive:1 however:1 require:1 nation:1 deploys:1 usually:1 month:1 near:1 foreign:1 summer:1 assistance:1 isaf:1 provincial:1 reconstruction:1 team:1 prt:2 town:1 chaghcharan:1 province:2 ghor:2 currently:1 include:1 iceland:1 usa:1 aitvaras:1 place:1 kandahar:1 increase:1 show:1 cannot:1 view:1 isolation:1 learn:1 lesson:1 latvia:1 estonia:1 deepen:1 matter:1 baltnet:1 network:1 baltron:1 baltdefcol:1 college:1 baltbat:1 rank:2 link:1 reading:1 site:1 photo:1 gallery:1 video:4 presentation:3 avi:3 file:3 mb:3 short:2 present:1 year:1 hold:1 peacekeeper:1 package:1 lt:1 film:1 literature:1 stefan:1 marx:1 jane:1 reference:1 |@bigram infantry_brigade:4 infantry_battalion:3 motorise_infantry:1 mechanise_infantry:3 mechanized_infantry:1 battalion_logistics:1 heckler_koch:1 armoured_personnel:1 mine_countermeasure:3 patrol_boat:4 commander_chief:1 l_albatros:1 antonov_transport:1 de_facto:1 de_jure:1 enforcement_agency:1 align_left:2 full_fledged:1 lithuanian_latvian:1 lithuania_latvia:1 latvia_estonia:1 external_link:1 photo_gallery:1 |
3,233 | Foreign_relations_of_Nigeria | Since independence, with Jaja Wachuku as the first Minister of Foreign Affairs and Commonwealth Relations, later called External Affairs, Nigerian foreign policy has been characterized by a focus on Africa and by attachment to several fundamental principles: African unity and independence; peaceful settlement of disputes; nonalignment and nonintentional interference in the internal affairs of other nations; and regional economic cooperation and development. In carrying out these principles, Nigeria participates in the Organization of African Unity (OAU) now known as the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Non-Aligned Movement, the Commonwealth,and the United Nations. Nigeria and the liberation of Africa Upon gaining independence, Nigeria quickly committed itself to the liberation struggles going on in the Southern Africa sub-region. Though Nigeria never sent an expeditionary force in that struggle, it offered more than rhetoric to the African National Congress (ANC) by taking a committed tough line with regard to the racist regime and their incursions in southern Africa. Similarly, in 1975, war broke out in Angola after the country gained independence from Portugal, Nigeria, a member of the English Commonwealth of Nations, mobilized its diplomatic influence in Africa in support of the MPLA. That support tipped the balance in their favor, which led to OAU recognition of the MPLA. Nigeria extended diplomatic support to another Marxist cause, Sam Nujoma's SWAPO movement in Namibia, to stall the apartheid South African installed puppet government in Namibia. In 1977, the new General Olusegun Obasanjo's military regime made a donation of $20 million dollars to the Zimbabwean liberation movement. Nigeria also sent military equipment to Mozambique to help the new independent country suppress the South African backed RENAMO guerrillas. Although officially denied by the Nigerian government, Nigeria is known to have also provided secret military training at the Kaduna first mechanized army division and provided other material support to Joshua Nkomo and Robert Mugabe's guerrilla forces during the Rhodesian Bush War(Renamed Zimbabwe in 1979) of independence against white minority rule of Prime Minister Ian Douglas Smith which was armed and financed by the regime in South Africa. Although her economy and technology could not have supported it, Nigeria announced to a bewildered international community that she was launching a nuclear program of "unlimited scope" of her own. To demonstrate her seriousness against multi-national companies in Nigeria that violated the economic/trade embargo on the racist South African regime, the local operations of Barclays Bank was nationalized after that bank ignored the strong protests by Nigeria urging it not to buy the South African government bond. Nigeria also nationalized the British Petroleum (BP) for supplying oil to South Africa. In 1982,the Alhaji Shehu Shagari government urged the visiting Pontiff Pope John Paul II to grant audience to the leaders of Southern Africa guerrilla organisations Oliver Tambo of the ANC and Sam Nujoma of SWAPO. In December 1983, the new Major General Muhammadu Buhari regime announced that Nigeria could no longer afford an activist anti-colonial role in Africa. Nigeria and West Africa In pursuing the goal of regional economic cooperation and development, Nigeria helped create ECOWAS, which seeks to harmonize trade and investment practices for its 16 West African member countries and ultimately to achieve a full customs union. Nigeria also has taken the lead in articulating the views of developing nations on the need for modification of the existing international economic order. Nigeria has played a central role in the ECOWAS efforts to end the civil war in Liberia and contributed the bulk of the ECOWAS peacekeeping forces sent there in 1990. Nigeria also has provided the bulk of troops for ECOMOG forces in Sierra Leone. Nigeria has enjoyed generally good relations with its immediate neighbors. Cameroon A longstanding border dispute with Cameroon over the potentially oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula has been resolved by the International Court of Justice in The Hague with Cameroon being granted ownership, and Nigeria turning over the territory in 2008. Nigeria released about 150 Cameroonian prisoners of war in late 1998. Niger Nigeria maintains close relations with the Republic of Niger, in part because both nations share a large Hausa minority on each side of their 1500km border. Hausa language and cultural ties are strong, but there is little interest in a pan-Hausa state. William F. S. Miles. Development, not division: local versus external perceptions of the Niger-Nigeria boundary. The Journal of Modern African Studies (2005), 43:2:297-320 The two nations formed the Nigeria-Niger Joint Commission for Cooperation (NNJC), established in March, 1971 with its Permanent Secretariat in Niamey, Niger. INTEGRATED ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT IN SHARED CATCHMENTS BETWEEN NIGERIA AND NIGER EGEF Council Documents, MFA Regional Annex, 2006. Nigeria and International Organizations Nigeria is a member of the following international organizations: United Nations and several of its special and related agencies, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Organization of African Unity (OAU) - now African Union [AU], Organization of African Trade Union Unity (OATUU), Commonwealth, Nonaligned Movement, several other West African bodies. The Babangida regime joined the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), though President Obasanjo has indicated he might reconsider Nigeria's membership. United States - Nigerian Relations After the June 12, 1993, Nigerian presidential election was annulled, and in light of human rights abuses and the failure to embark on a meaningful democratic transition, the United States imposed numerous sanctions on Nigeria. These sanctions included the imposition of Section 212(f) of the Immigration and Nationality Act to refuse entry into the United States of senior government officials and others who formulated, implemented, or benefited from policies impeding Nigeria's transition to democracy; suspension of all military assistance; and a ban on the sale and repair of military goods and refinery services to Nigeria. The U.S. Ambassador was recalled for consultations for four months after the execution of the Ogoni Nine on November 10, 1995. After a period of increasingly strained relations, the death of General Abacha in June 1998 and his replacement by General Abubakar opened a new phase of improved bilateral relations. As the transition to democracy progressed, the removal of visa restrictions, increased high-level visits of U.S. officials, discussions of future assistance, and the granting of a Vital National Interest Certification on counter-narcotics, effective in March 1999, paved the way for re-establishment of closer ties between the United States and Nigeria, as a key partner in the region and the continent. Since the inauguration of the democratically elected Obasanjo government, the bilateral relationship has continued to improve, and cooperation on many important foreign policy goals, such as regional peacekeeping, has been good. The government has lent strong diplomatic support to the U.S. Government counter-terrorism efforts in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks. The Government of Nigeria, in its official statements, has both condemned the terrorist attacks as well as supported military action against the Taliban and Al-Qaeda. Nigeria also has played a leading role in forging an anti-terrorism consensus among states in Sub-Saharan Africa. As a member of the International Criminal Court Nigeria signed a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98).a coomprehensive passage is updated International Disputes Delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Cameroon over land and maritime boundaries around the Bakasi Peninsula is currently before the ICJ; maritime boundary dispute with Equatorial Guinea because of disputed jurisdiction over oil-rich areas in the Gulf of Guinea. See also Jaja Wachuku - First Nigerian Foreign Affairs Minister Diplomatic missions of Nigeria List of diplomatic missions in Nigeria Notes | Foreign_relations_of_Nigeria |@lemmatized since:2 independence:5 jaja:2 wachuku:2 first:3 minister:3 foreign:4 affair:4 commonwealth:4 relation:6 later:1 call:1 external:2 nigerian:5 policy:3 characterize:1 focus:1 africa:11 attachment:1 several:3 fundamental:1 principle:2 african:16 unity:4 peaceful:1 settlement:1 dispute:5 nonalignment:1 nonintentional:1 interference:1 internal:1 nation:7 regional:4 economic:6 cooperation:4 development:3 carry:1 nigeria:38 participates:1 organization:6 oau:3 know:2 union:4 community:3 west:5 state:8 ecowas:5 non:1 align:1 movement:4 united:6 liberation:3 upon:1 gain:2 quickly:1 commit:2 struggle:2 go:1 southern:3 sub:2 region:2 though:2 never:1 send:3 expeditionary:1 force:4 offer:1 rhetoric:1 national:3 congress:1 anc:2 take:2 tough:1 line:1 regard:1 racist:2 regime:6 incursion:1 similarly:1 war:4 break:1 angola:1 country:4 portugal:1 member:4 english:1 mobilize:1 diplomatic:5 influence:1 support:7 mpla:2 tip:1 balance:1 favor:1 lead:3 recognition:1 extend:1 another:1 marxist:1 cause:1 sam:2 nujoma:2 swapo:2 namibia:2 stall:1 apartheid:1 south:6 instal:1 puppet:1 government:9 new:4 general:4 olusegun:1 obasanjo:3 military:7 make:1 donation:1 million:1 dollar:1 zimbabwean:1 also:7 equipment:1 mozambique:1 help:2 independent:1 suppress:1 back:1 renamo:1 guerrilla:3 although:2 officially:1 deny:1 provide:3 secret:1 training:1 kaduna:1 mechanize:1 army:1 division:2 material:1 joshua:1 nkomo:1 robert:1 mugabe:1 rhodesian:1 bush:1 rename:1 zimbabwe:1 white:1 minority:2 rule:1 prime:1 ian:1 douglas:1 smith:1 arm:1 finance:1 economy:1 technology:1 could:2 announce:2 bewildered:1 international:8 launch:1 nuclear:1 program:1 unlimited:1 scope:1 demonstrate:1 seriousness:1 multi:1 company:1 violate:1 trade:3 embargo:1 local:2 operation:1 barclays:1 bank:2 nationalize:2 ignore:1 strong:3 protest:1 urge:2 buy:1 bond:1 british:1 petroleum:2 bp:1 supply:1 oil:3 alhaji:1 shehu:1 shagari:1 visiting:1 pontiff:1 pope:1 john:1 paul:1 ii:1 grant:2 audience:1 leader:1 organisation:2 oliver:1 tambo:1 december:1 major:1 muhammadu:1 buhari:1 longer:1 afford:1 activist:1 anti:2 colonial:1 role:3 pursue:1 goal:2 create:1 seek:1 harmonize:1 investment:1 practice:1 ultimately:1 achieve:1 full:1 custom:1 articulate:1 view:1 develop:1 need:1 modification:1 exist:1 order:1 play:2 central:1 effort:2 end:1 civil:1 liberia:1 contribute:1 bulk:2 peacekeeping:2 troop:1 ecomog:1 sierra:1 leone:1 enjoy:1 generally:1 good:3 immediate:1 neighbor:1 cameroon:5 longstanding:1 border:3 potentially:1 rich:2 bakassi:1 peninsula:2 resolve:1 court:2 justice:1 hague:1 ownership:1 turn:1 territory:1 release:1 cameroonian:1 prisoner:1 late:1 niger:7 maintains:1 close:2 republic:1 part:1 share:2 large:1 hausa:3 side:1 language:1 cultural:1 tie:2 little:1 interest:2 pan:1 william:1 f:2 mile:1 versus:1 perception:1 boundary:4 journal:1 modern:1 study:1 two:1 form:1 joint:1 commission:1 nnjc:1 establish:1 march:2 permanent:1 secretariat:1 niamey:1 integrate:1 ecosystem:1 management:1 catchment:1 egef:1 council:1 document:1 mfa:1 annex:1 following:1 special:1 related:1 agency:1 export:1 opec:1 au:1 oatuu:1 nonaligned:1 body:1 babangida:1 join:1 islamic:1 conference:1 oic:1 president:1 indicate:1 might:1 reconsider:1 membership:1 june:2 presidential:1 election:1 annul:1 light:1 human:1 right:1 abuse:1 failure:1 embark:1 meaningful:1 democratic:1 transition:3 impose:1 numerous:1 sanction:2 include:1 imposition:1 section:1 immigration:1 nationality:1 act:1 refuse:1 entry:1 senior:1 official:3 others:1 formulate:1 implement:1 benefit:1 impede:1 democracy:2 suspension:1 assistance:2 ban:1 sale:1 repair:1 refinery:1 service:1 u:4 ambassador:1 recall:1 consultation:1 four:1 month:1 execution:1 ogoni:1 nine:1 november:1 period:1 increasingly:1 strained:1 death:1 abacha:1 replacement:1 abubakar:1 open:1 phase:1 improved:1 bilateral:3 progress:1 removal:1 visa:1 restriction:1 increase:1 high:1 level:1 visit:1 discussion:1 future:1 granting:1 vital:1 certification:1 counter:2 narcotic:1 effective:1 pave:1 way:1 establishment:1 key:1 partner:1 continent:1 inauguration:1 democratically:1 elect:1 relationship:1 continue:1 improve:1 many:1 important:1 lend:1 terrorism:2 aftermath:1 september:1 attack:2 statement:1 condemn:1 terrorist:1 well:1 action:1 taliban:1 al:1 qaeda:1 leading:1 forge:1 consensus:1 among:1 saharan:1 criminal:1 sign:1 immunity:1 agreement:1 protection:1 cover:1 article:1 coomprehensive:1 passage:1 updated:1 delimitation:1 vicinity:1 lake:1 chad:2 lack:1 incident:1 past:1 complete:1 awaits:1 ratification:1 land:1 maritime:2 around:1 bakasi:1 currently:1 icj:1 equatorial:1 guinea:2 disputed:1 jurisdiction:1 area:1 gulf:1 see:1 mission:2 list:1 note:1 |@bigram foreign_affair:2 unity_oau:2 olusegun_obasanjo:1 robert_mugabe:1 prime_minister:1 barclays_bank:1 oliver_tambo:1 sierra_leone:1 bakassi_peninsula:1 niamey_niger:1 nonaligned_movement:1 conference_oic:1 presidential_election:1 strained_relation:1 democratically_elect:1 counter_terrorism:1 al_qaeda:1 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 bilateral_immunity:1 equatorial_guinea:1 diplomatic_mission:2 |
3,234 | Laplace_transform | In mathematics, the Laplace transform is one of the best known and most widely used integral transforms. It is commonly used to produce an easily solvable algebraic equation from an ordinary differential equation. It has many important applications in mathematics, physics, optics, electrical engineering, control engineering, signal processing, and probability theory. In mathematics, it is used for solving differential and integral equations. In physics and engineering, it is used for analysis of linear time-invariant systems such as electrical circuits, harmonic oscillators, optical devices, and mechanical systems. In this analysis, the Laplace transform is often interpreted as a transformation from the time-domain, in which inputs and outputs are functions of time, to the frequency-domain, where the same inputs and outputs are functions of complex angular frequency, in radians per unit time. Given a simple mathematical or functional description of an input or output to a system, the Laplace transform provides an alternative functional description that often simplifies the process of analyzing the behavior of the system, or in synthesizing a new system based on a set of specifications. Denoted , it is a linear operator on a function f(t) (original) with a real argument t (t ≥ 0) that transforms it to a function F(s) (image) with a complex argument s. This transformation is essentially bijective for the majority of practical uses; the respective pairs of f(t) and F(s) are matched in tables. The Laplace transform has the useful property that many relationships and operations over the originals f(t) correspond to simpler relationships and operations over the images F(s). Korn and Korn, Section 8.1 History The Laplace transform is named in honor of mathematician and astronomer Pierre-Simon Laplace, who used the transform in his work on probability theory. From 1744, Leonhard Euler investigated integrals of the form: — as solutions of differential equations but did not pursue the matter very far. Euler (1744), (1753) and (1769) Joseph Louis Lagrange was an admirer of Euler and, in his work on integrating probability density functions, investigated expressions of the form: — which some modern historians have interpreted within modern Laplace transform theory. Lagrange (1773) Grattan-Guinness (1997) p.260 These types of integrals seem first to have attracted Laplace's attention in 1782 where he was following in the spirit of Euler in using the integrals themselves as solutions of equations. Grattan-Guinness (1997) p.261 However, in 1785, Laplace took the critical step forward when, rather than just look for a solution in the form of an integral, he started to apply the transforms in the sense that was later to become popular. He used an integral of the form: — akin to a Mellin transform, to transform the whole of a difference equation, in order to look for solutions of the transformed equation. He then went on to apply the Laplace transform in the same way and started to derive some of its properties, beginning to appreciate its potential power. Grattan-Guinness (1997) p.261-262 Laplace also recognised that Joseph Fourier's method of Fourier series for solving the diffusion equation could only apply to a limited region of space as the solutions were periodic. In 1809, Laplace applied his transform to find solutions that diffused indefinitely in space. Grattan-Guinness (1997) p. 262-266 Formal definition The Laplace transform of a function f(t), defined for all real numbers t ≥ 0, is the function F(s), defined by: The lower limit of 0− is short notation to mean and assures the inclusion of the entire Dirac delta function δ(t) at 0 if there is such an impulse in f(t) at 0. The parameter s is a complex number: with real numbers σ and ω. This integral transform has a number of properties that make it useful for analyzing linear dynamical systems. The most significant advantage is that differentiation and integration become multiplication and division, respectively, by s. (This is similar to the way that logarithms change an operation of multiplication of numbers to addition of their logarithms.) This changes integral equations and differential equations to polynomial equations, which are much easier to solve. Once solved, use of the inverse Laplace transform reverts back to the time domain. Bilateral Laplace transform When one says "the Laplace transform" without qualification, the unilateral or one-sided transform is normally intended. The Laplace transform can be alternatively defined as the bilateral Laplace transform or two-sided Laplace transform by extending the limits of integration to be the entire real axis. If that is done the common unilateral transform simply becomes a special case of the bilateral transform where the definition of the function being transformed is multiplied by the Heaviside step function. The bilateral Laplace transform is defined as follows: Inverse Laplace transform The inverse Laplace transform is given by the following complex integral, which is known by various names (the Bromwich integral, the Fourier-Mellin integral, and Mellin's inverse formula): where is a real number so that the contour path of integration is in the region of convergence of F(s) normally requiring > Re(sp) for every singularity sp of F(s) and i2 = −1. If all singularities are in the left half-plane, that is Re(sp) < 0 for every sp, then can be set to zero and the above inverse integral formula becomes identical to the inverse Fourier transform. An alternative formula for the inverse Laplace transform is given by Post's inversion formula. Region of convergence The Laplace transform F(s) typically exists for all complex numbers s such that Re{s} > a, where a is a real constant which depends on the growth behavior of f(t), whereas the two-sided transform is defined in a range a < Re{s} < b. The subset of values of s for which the Laplace transform exists is called the region of convergence (ROC) or the domain of convergence. In the two-sided case, it is sometimes called the strip of convergence. The integral defining the Laplace transform of a function may fail to exist for various reasons. For example, when the function has infinite discontinuities in the interval of integration, or when it increases so rapidly that cannot damp it sufficiently for convergence on the interval to take place. There are no specific conditions that one can check a function against to know in all cases if its Laplace transform can be taken, other than to say the defining integral converges. It is however possible to give theorems on cases where it may or may not be taken. Properties and theorems Given the functions f(t) and g(t), and their respective Laplace transforms F(s) and G(s): the following table is a list of properties of unilateral Laplace transform: + Properties of the unilateral Laplace transform Time domain 's' domain Comment Linearity Can be proved using basic rules of integration. Frequency differentiation is the first derivative of . Frequency differentiation More general form, (n)th derivative of F(s). Differentiation Obtained by integration by parts Second Differentiation Apply the Differentiation property to . General Differentiation Follow the process briefed for the Second Differentiation. Frequency integration Integration is the Heaviside step function. Note is the convolution of and ; it does not denote multiplication. Scaling Frequency shifting Time shifting is the Heaviside step function Convolution Periodic Function is a periodic function of period so that . This is the result of the time shifting property and the geometric series. Initial value theorem: Final value theorem: , if all poles of are in the left-hand plane. The final value theorem is useful because it gives the long-term behaviour without having to perform partial fraction decompositions or other difficult algebra. If a function's poles are in the right-hand plane (e.g. or ) the behaviour of this formula is undefined. Proof of the Laplace transform of a function's derivative It is often convenient to use the differentiation property of the Laplace transform to find the transform of a function's derivative. This can be derived from the basic expression for a Laplace transform as follows: (by parts) yielding and in the bilateral case, we have Relationship to other transforms Fourier transform The continuous Fourier transform is equivalent to evaluating the bilateral Laplace transform with complex argument s = iω or s = 2πfi: Note that this expression excludes the scaling factor , which is often included in definitions of the Fourier transform. This relationship between the Laplace and Fourier transforms is often used to determine the frequency spectrum of a signal or dynamical system. Mellin transform The Mellin transform and its inverse are related to the two-sided Laplace transform by a simple change of variables. If in the Mellin transform we set θ = e-t we get a two-sided Laplace transform. Z-transform The unilateral or one-sided Z-transform is simply the Laplace transform of an ideally sampled signal with the substitution of where is the sampling period (in units of time e.g., seconds) and is the sampling rate (in samples per second or hertz) Let be a sampling impulse train (also called a Dirac comb) and be the continuous-time representation of the sampled . are the discrete samples of . The Laplace transform of the sampled signal is This is precisely the definition of the unilateral Z-transform of the discrete function with the substitution of . Comparing the last two equations, we find the relationship between the unilateral Z-transform and the Laplace transform of the sampled signal: The similarity between the Z and Laplace transforms is expanded upon in the theory of time scale calculus. Borel transform The integral form of the Borel transform is identical to the Laplace transform; indeed, these are sometimes mistakenly assumed to be synonyms. The generalized Borel transform generalizes the Laplace transform for functions not of exponential type. Fundamental relationships Since an ordinary Laplace transform can be written as a special case of a two-sided transform, and since the two-sided transform can be written as the sum of two one-sided transforms, the theory of the Laplace-, Fourier-, Mellin-, and Z-transforms are at bottom the same subject. However, a different point of view and different characteristic problems are associated with each of these four major integral transforms. Table of selected Laplace transforms The following table provides Laplace transforms for many common functions of a single variable. For definitions and explanations, see the Explanatory Notes at the end of the table. Because the Laplace transform is a linear operator: The Laplace transform of a sum is the sum of Laplace transforms of each term. The Laplace transform of a multiple of a function, is that multiple times the Laplace transformation of that function. The unilateral Laplace transform is only valid when t is non-negative, which is why all of the time domain functions in the table below are multiples of the Heaviside step function, u(t). ID Function Time domain Laplace s-domain Region of convergence for causal systems 1 ideal delay 1a unit impulse 2 delayed nth power with frequency shift 2a nth power ( for integer n ) 2a.1 qth power ( for real q ) 2a.2 unit step 2b delayed unit step 2c ramp 2d nth power with frequency shift 2d.1 exponential decay 3 exponential approach 4 sine 5 cosine 6 hyperbolic sine 7 hyperbolic cosine 8 Exponentially-decaying sine wave 9 Exponentially-decaying cosine wave 10 nth root 11 natural logarithm 12 Bessel function of the first kind, of order n 13 Modified Bessel function of the first kind, of order n 14 Bessel function of the second kind, of order 0 15 Modified Bessel function of the second kind, of order 0 16 Error function Explanatory notes: represents the Heaviside step function. represents the Dirac delta function. represents the Gamma function. is the Euler-Mascheroni constant. , a real number, typically represents time, although it can represent any independent dimension. is the complex angular frequency, and is its real part. , , , and are real numbers. , is an integer. A causal system is a system where the impulse response h(t) is zero for all time t prior to t = 0. In general, the ROC for causal systems is not the same as the ROC for anticausal systems. See also causality. s-Domain equivalent circuits and impedances The Laplace transform is often used in circuit analysis, and simple conversions to the s-Domain of circuit elements can be made. Circuit elements can be transformed into impedances, very similar to phasor impedances. Here is a summary of equivalents: Image:S-domain circuit equivalents.png Note that the resistor is exactly the same in the time domain and the s-Domain. The sources are put in if there are initial conditions on the circuit elements. For example, if a capacitor has an initial voltage across it, or if the inductor has an initial current through it, the sources inserted in the s-Domain account for that. The equivalents for current and voltage sources are simply derived from the transformations in the table above. Examples: How to apply the properties and theorems The Laplace transform is used frequently in engineering and physics; the output of a linear time invariant system can be calculated by convolving its unit impulse response with the input signal. Performing this calculation in Laplace space turns the convolution into a multiplication; the latter being easier to solve because of its algebraic form. For more information, see control theory. The Laplace transform can also be used to solve differential equations and is used extensively in electrical engineering. The method of using the Laplace transform to solve differential equations was developed by the English electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside. The following examples, derived from applications in physics and engineering, will use units of measure. SI is based on meters for distance, kilograms for mass, seconds for time, and amperes for electric current. Example #1: Solving a differential equation The following example is based on concepts from nuclear physics. Consider the following first-order, linear differential equation: This equation is the fundamental relationship describing radioactive decay, where represents the number of undecayed atoms remaining in a sample of a radioactive isotope at time t (in seconds), and is the decay constant. We can use the Laplace transform to solve this equation. Rearranging the equation to one side, we have Next, we take the Laplace transform of both sides of the equation: where and Solving, we find Finally, we take the inverse Laplace transform to find the general solution which is indeed the correct form for radioactive decay. Example #2: Deriving the complex impedance for a capacitor This example is based on the principles of electrical circuit theory. The constitutive relation governing the dynamic behavior of a capacitor is the following differential equation: where C is the capacitance (in farads) of the capacitor, i = i(t) is the electric current (in amperes) through the capacitor as a function of time, and v = v(t) is the voltage (in volts) across the terminals of the capacitor, also as a function of time. Taking the Laplace transform of this equation, we obtain where and Solving for V(s) we have The definition of the complex impedance Z (in ohms) is the ratio of the complex voltage V divided by the complex current I while holding the initial state Vo at zero: Using this definition and the previous equation, we find: which is the correct expression for the complex impedance of a capacitor. Example #3: Finding the transfer function from the impulse response Relationship between the time domain and the frequency domain. Note the in the time domain, denoting convolution. This example is based on concepts from signal processing, and describes the dynamic behavior of a damped harmonic oscillator. See also RLC circuit. Consider a linear time-invariant system with impulse response such that where t is the time (in seconds), and is the phase delay (in radians). Suppose that we want to find the transfer function of the system. We begin by noting that where is the time delay of the system (in seconds), and is the Heaviside step function. The transfer function is simply the Laplace transform of the impulse response: where is the (undamped) natural frequency or resonance of the system (in radians per second). Example #4: Method of partial fraction expansion Consider a linear time-invariant system with transfer function The impulse response is simply the inverse Laplace transform of this transfer function: To evaluate this inverse transform, we begin by expanding H(s) using the method of partial fraction expansion: The unknown constants P and R are the residues located at the corresponding poles of the transfer function. Each residue represents the relative contribution of that singularity to the transfer function's overall shape. By the residue theorem, the inverse Laplace transform depends only upon the poles and their residues. To find the residue P, we multiply both sides of the equation by to get Then by letting , the contribution from R vanishes and all that is left is Similarly, the residue R is given by Note that and so the substitution of R and P into the expanded expression for H(s) gives Finally, using the linearity property and the known transform for exponential decay (see Item #3 in the Table of Laplace Transforms, above), we can take the inverse Laplace transform of H(s) to obtain: which is the impulse response of the system. Example #5: Mixing sines, cosines, and exponentials Time function Laplace transform Starting with the Laplace transform we find the inverse transform by first adding and subtracting the same constant α to the numerator: By the shift-in-frequency property, we have Finally, using the Laplace transforms for sine and cosine (see the table, above), we have Example #6: Phase delay Time function Laplace transform Starting with the Laplace transform, we find the inverse by first rearranging terms in the fraction: {| | || |- | || |} We are now able to take the inverse Laplace transform of our terms: {| | || |- | || |} To simplify this answer, we must recall the trigonometric identity that and apply it to our value for x(t): {| | || |- | || |} We can apply similar logic to find that See also Pierre-Simon Laplace Fourier transform Analog signal processing Laplace transform applied to differential equations Moment-generating function Continuous-repayment mortgage References Bibliography Modern G.A. Korn and T.M. Korn, Mathematical Handbook for Scientists and Engineers, McGraw-Hill Companies; 2nd edition (June 1967). ISBN 0-0703-5370-0 A. D. Polyanin and A. V. Manzhirov, Handbook of Integral Equations, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1998. ISBN 0-8493-2876-4 William McC. Siebert, Circuits, Signals, and Systems, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1986. ISBN 0-262-19229-2 Davies, Brian, Integral transforms and their applications, Third edition, Springer, New York, 2002. ISBN 0-387-95314-0 Wolfgang Arendt, Charles J.K. Batty, Matthias Hieber, and Frank Neubrander. Vector-Valued Laplace Transforms and Cauchy Problems, Birkhäuser Basel, 2002. ISBN 3764365498 Historical Euler, L. (1744) "De constructione aequationum", Opera omnia 1st series, 22:150-161 — (1753) "Methodus aequationes differentiales", Opera omnia 1st series, 22:181-213 — (1769) Institutiones calculi integralis 2, Chs.3-5, in Opera omnia 1st series, 12 Grattan-Guinness, I (1997) "Laplace's integral solutions to partial differential equations", in Gillispie, C. C. Pierre Simon Laplace 1749-1827: A Life in Exact Science, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01185-0 Lagrange, J. L. (1773) "Mémoire sur l'utilité de la méthode", Œuvres de Lagrange, 2:171-234 External links Online Computation of the transform or inverse transform, wims.unice.fr Tables of Integral Transforms at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations. Laplace Transform Module by John H. Mathews Good explanations of the initial and final value theorems Laplace Transforms at MathPages Laplace and Heaviside at Interactive maths. Laplace Transform Table and Examples at Vibrationdata. Laplace Transform Cookbook at Syscomp Electronic Design. Examples of solving boundary value problems (PDEs) with Laplace Transforms ECE 209: Review of Circuits as LTI Systems — Gives brief overview of how the Laplace transform is used with ODE's in engineering. | Laplace_transform |@lemmatized mathematics:3 laplace:86 transform:98 one:7 best:1 know:4 widely:1 use:23 integral:21 transforms:18 commonly:1 produce:1 easily:1 solvable:1 algebraic:2 equation:28 ordinary:2 differential:11 many:3 important:1 application:3 physic:5 optic:1 electrical:5 engineering:7 control:2 signal:9 processing:3 probability:3 theory:7 solve:12 analysis:3 linear:8 time:30 invariant:4 system:21 circuit:11 harmonic:2 oscillator:2 optical:1 device:1 mechanical:1 often:6 interpret:2 transformation:4 domain:18 input:4 output:4 function:50 frequency:13 complex:12 angular:2 radian:3 per:3 unit:7 give:9 simple:3 mathematical:3 functional:2 description:2 provide:2 alternative:2 simplify:2 process:2 analyze:2 behavior:4 synthesize:1 new:2 base:5 set:3 specification:1 denote:3 operator:2 f:16 original:2 real:10 argument:3 image:3 essentially:1 bijective:1 majority:1 practical:1 us:1 respective:2 pair:1 match:1 table:11 useful:3 property:12 relationship:8 operation:3 correspond:1 simpler:1 korn:4 section:1 history:1 name:2 honor:1 mathematician:1 astronomer:1 pierre:3 simon:3 work:2 leonhard:1 euler:6 investigated:2 form:8 solution:8 pursue:1 matter:1 far:1 joseph:2 louis:1 lagrange:4 admirer:1 integrate:1 density:1 expression:5 modern:3 historian:1 within:1 grattan:5 guinness:5 p:7 type:2 seem:1 first:7 attract:1 attention:1 follow:5 spirit:1 however:3 take:9 critical:1 step:9 forward:1 rather:1 look:2 start:4 apply:9 sense:1 later:1 become:4 popular:1 akin:1 mellin:7 whole:1 difference:1 order:6 transformed:1 go:1 way:2 derive:5 begin:3 appreciate:1 potential:1 power:5 also:7 recognise:1 fourier:10 method:4 series:5 diffusion:1 could:1 limited:1 region:5 space:3 periodic:3 find:12 diffuse:1 indefinitely:1 formal:1 definition:7 define:7 number:10 low:1 limit:2 short:1 notation:1 mean:1 assure:1 inclusion:1 entire:2 dirac:3 delta:2 δ:1 impulse:10 parameter:1 σ:1 ω:1 make:2 dynamical:2 significant:1 advantage:1 differentiation:9 integration:8 multiplication:4 division:1 respectively:1 similar:3 logarithms:1 change:3 addition:1 logarithm:2 polynomial:1 much:1 easy:2 inverse:17 revert:1 back:1 bilateral:6 say:2 without:2 qualification:1 unilateral:8 side:13 normally:2 intend:1 alternatively:1 two:9 extend:1 axis:1 common:2 simply:5 special:2 case:6 multiply:2 heaviside:8 various:2 bromwich:1 formula:5 contour:1 path:1 convergence:7 require:1 sp:4 every:2 singularity:3 left:2 half:1 plane:3 zero:3 identical:2 post:1 inversion:1 typically:2 exist:3 constant:5 depend:2 growth:1 whereas:1 range:1 b:1 subset:1 value:8 call:3 roc:3 sometimes:2 strip:1 may:3 fail:1 reason:1 example:15 infinite:1 discontinuity:1 interval:2 increase:1 rapidly:1 cannot:1 damp:1 sufficiently:1 place:1 specific:1 condition:2 check:1 converges:1 possible:1 theorem:5 theorems:3 g:5 following:6 list:1 comment:1 linearity:2 prove:1 basic:2 rule:1 derivative:4 general:4 n:4 th:1 obtain:3 part:3 second:11 briefed:1 note:8 convolution:4 scale:2 shift:5 shifting:1 period:2 result:1 geometric:1 initial:6 final:3 pole:4 hand:2 long:1 term:4 behaviour:2 perform:2 partial:4 fraction:4 decomposition:1 difficult:1 algebra:1 right:1 e:3 undefined:1 proof:1 convenient:1 yielding:1 continuous:3 equivalent:5 evaluate:2 iω:1 exclude:1 scaling:1 factor:1 include:1 determine:1 spectrum:1 relate:1 variable:2 θ:1 get:2 z:7 ideally:1 sample:6 substitution:3 sampling:2 rate:1 hertz:1 let:2 train:1 comb:1 representation:1 discrete:2 sampled:2 precisely:1 compare:1 last:1 similarity:1 expand:2 upon:2 calculus:1 borel:3 indeed:2 mistakenly:1 assume:1 synonyms:1 generalized:1 generalize:1 exponential:5 fundamental:2 since:2 write:2 sum:3 bottom:1 subject:1 different:2 point:1 view:1 characteristic:1 problem:3 associate:1 four:1 major:1 select:1 single:1 explanation:2 see:7 explanatory:2 end:1 multiple:3 valid:1 non:1 negative:1 u:1 id:1 causal:3 ideal:1 delay:6 nth:4 integer:2 qth:1 q:1 ramp:1 decay:7 approach:1 sine:5 cosine:5 hyperbolic:2 exponentially:2 wave:2 root:1 natural:2 bessel:4 kind:4 modify:1 modified:1 error:1 represent:7 gamma:1 mascheroni:1 although:1 independent:1 dimension:1 response:7 h:5 prior:1 anticausal:1 causality:1 impedances:1 conversion:1 element:3 impedance:5 phasor:1 summary:1 png:1 resistor:1 exactly:1 source:3 put:1 capacitor:7 voltage:4 across:2 inductor:1 current:5 insert:1 account:1 frequently:1 calculate:1 convolve:1 calculation:1 turn:1 latter:1 information:1 extensively:1 develop:1 english:1 engineer:2 oliver:1 measure:1 si:1 meter:1 distance:1 kilogram:1 mass:1 ampere:2 electric:2 concept:2 nuclear:1 consider:3 describe:2 radioactive:3 undecayed:1 atom:1 remain:1 isotope:1 rearrange:2 next:1 finally:3 correct:2 principle:1 constitutive:1 relation:1 govern:1 dynamic:2 c:3 capacitance:1 farad:1 v:5 volt:1 terminal:1 ohm:1 ratio:1 divide:1 hold:1 state:1 vo:1 previous:1 transfer:7 damped:1 rlc:1 phase:2 suppose:1 want:1 undamped:1 resonance:1 expansion:2 unknown:1 r:4 residue:6 locate:1 corresponding:1 relative:1 contribution:2 overall:1 shape:1 vanishes:1 leave:1 similarly:1 expanded:1 item:1 mixing:1 add:1 subtract:1 α:1 numerator:1 able:1 answer:1 must:1 recall:1 trigonometric:1 identity:1 x:1 logic:1 analog:1 moment:1 generate:1 repayment:1 mortgage:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 handbook:2 scientist:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 company:1 edition:2 june:1 isbn:6 polyanin:1 manzhirov:1 crc:1 press:3 boca:1 raton:1 william:1 mcc:1 siebert:1 mit:1 cambridge:1 massachusetts:1 davy:1 brian:1 third:1 springer:1 york:1 wolfgang:1 arendt:1 charles:1 j:2 k:1 batty:1 matthias:1 hieber:1 frank:1 neubrander:1 vector:1 cauchy:1 birkhäuser:1 basel:1 historical:1 l:3 de:3 constructione:1 aequationum:1 opera:3 omnia:3 methodus:1 aequationes:1 differentiales:1 institutiones:1 calculi:1 integralis:1 chs:1 gillispie:1 life:1 exact:1 science:1 princeton:2 university:1 mémoire:1 sur:1 utilité:1 la:1 méthode:1 œuvres:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 computation:1 wims:1 unice:1 fr:1 eqworld:1 world:1 module:1 john:1 mathews:1 good:1 mathpages:1 interactive:1 math:1 vibrationdata:1 cookbook:1 syscomp:1 electronic:1 design:1 boundary:1 pdes:1 ece:1 review:1 lti:1 brief:1 overview:1 ode:1 |@bigram laplace_transform:63 integral_transforms:4 ordinary_differential:1 differential_equation:10 signal_processing:3 harmonic_oscillator:2 input_output:3 simon_laplace:3 leonhard_euler:1 grattan_guinness:5 mellin_transform:4 dirac_delta:2 inverse_laplace:9 fourier_transform:5 laplace_transforms:9 scaling_factor:1 fourier_transforms:1 sine_cosine:3 sine_wave:1 nth_root:1 bessel_function:4 euler_mascheroni:1 mascheroni_constant:1 oliver_heaviside:1 radioactive_decay:2 radioactive_isotope:1 capacitance_farad:1 voltage_volt:1 rlc_circuit:1 add_subtract:1 mcgraw_hill:1 polyanin_v:1 crc_press:1 boca_raton:1 opera_omnia:3 partial_differential:1 princeton_princeton:1 mémoire_sur:1 external_link:1 |
3,235 | Manganese | Manganese () is a chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn. It has the atomic number 25. It is found as a free element in nature (often in combination with iron), and in many minerals. As a free element, manganese is a metal with important industrial metal alloy uses, particularly in stainless steels. Manganese ions have various colors, depending on their oxidation state, and are used industrially as pigments. The permanganates of sodium, potassium and barium are powerful oxidizers. Manganese dioxide is used as the cathode (electron acceptor) material in standard and alkaline disposable dry cells and batteries. Manganese(II) ions function as cofactors for a number of enzymes in higher organisms, where they are essential in detoxification of superoxide free radicals. The element is a required trace mineral for all known living organisms. In larger amounts, and apparently with far greater activity by inhalation, manganese can cause a poisoning syndrome in mammals, with neurological damage which is sometimes irreversible. Characteristics Physical Manganese is a gray–white metal, resembling iron. It is a hard metal and is very brittle, fusible with difficulty, but easily oxidized. Manganese metal and its common ions are paramagnetic. Occurrence See also manganese minerals. Manganese ore Manganese makes up about 1000 ppm (0.1%) of the Earth's crust, making it the 12th most abundant element there. Soil contains 7–9000 ppm of manganese with an average of 440 ppm. Seawater has only 10 ppm manganese and the atmosphere contains 0.01 µg/m3. Manganese occurs principally as pyrolusite (MnO2), braunite, (Mn2+Mn3+6)(SiO12), psilomelane (Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10, and to a lesser extent as rhodochrosite (MnCO3). Land-based resources are large but irregularly distributed. Over 80% of the known world manganese resources are found in South Africa and Ukraine. Other important manganese deposits are in China, Australia, Brazil, Gabon, Ghana, India, and Mexico. left |Psilomelane (manganese ore) Vast quantities of manganese exist in manganese nodules on the ocean floor. Attempts to find economically viable methods of harvesting manganese nodules were abandoned in the 1970s. Isotopes Naturally occurring manganese is composed of 1 stable isotope; 55Mn. 18 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 53Mn with a half-life of 3.7 million years, 54Mn with a half–life of 312.3 days, and 52Mn with a half–life of 5.591 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half lives that are less than 3 hours and the majority of these have half lives that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 3 meta states. Manganese is part of the iron group of elements, which are thought to be synthesized in large stars shortly before the supernova explosion. 53Mn decays to 53Cr with a half-life of 3.7 million years. Because of its relatively short half-life, 53Mn is an extinct radionuclide. Manganese isotopic contents are typically combined with chromium isotopic contents and have found application in isotope geology and radiometric dating. Mn–Cr isotopic ratios reinforce the evidence from 26Al and 107Pd for the early history of the solar system. Variations in 53Cr/52Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an initial 53Mn/55Mn ratio that suggests Mn–Cr isotopic systematics must result from in–situ decay of 53Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence 53Mn provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the solar system. The isotopes of manganese range in atomic weight from 46 u (46Mn) to 65 u (65Mn). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 55Mn, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. Chemistry and Compounds Oxidation statesof manganese Common oxidation states are in bold. 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 The most common oxidation states of manganese are +2, +3, +4, +6 and +7, though oxidation states from +1 to +7 are observed. Mn2+ often competes with Mg2+ in biological systems, and manganese compounds where manganese is in oxidation state +7, which is only reached with oxyanion are powerful oxidizing agents. The Pourbaix diagram for manganese in pure water, perchloric acid or sodium hydroxide Ignasi Puigdomenech, Hydra/Medusa Chemical Equilibrium Database and Plotting Software (2004) KTH Royal Institute of Technology, freely downloadable software at Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl is used as an additive in unleaded gasoline to boost octane rating and reduce engine knocking. The manganese in this unusual organometallic compound is in the +1 oxidation state. The most stable oxidation state for manganese is +2, which has a pink to red color, and many manganese(II) compounds are known, such as manganese(II) sulfate (MnSO4) and manganese(II) chloride (MnCl2). This oxidation state is also seen in the mineral rhodochrosite, (manganese(II) carbonate). The +2 oxidation state is the state used in living organisms for essential functions; all of the other states are much more toxic. The +3 oxidation state is known, in compounds such as manganese(III) acetate, but these are quite powerful oxidizing agents. Manganese(IV) oxide (manganese dioxide, MnO2) is used as a reagent in organic chemistry for the oxidation of benzylic alcohols (i.e. adjacent to an aromatic ring). Manganese dioxide has been used since antiquity to oxidatively neutralize the greenish tinge in glass caused by trace amounts of iron contamination. MnO2 is also used in the manufacture of oxygen and chlorine, and in drying black paints. In some preparations it is a brown pigment that can be used to make paint and is a constituent of natural umber. Manganese(IV) oxide was used in the original type of dry cell battery as an electron acceptor from zinc, and is the blackish material found when opening carbon–zinc type flashlight cells. The same material also functions in newer alkaline batteries (usually battery cells), which use the same basic reaction, but a different electrolyte mixture. Manganese phosphating is used as a treatment for rust and corrosion prevention on steel. A solution of KMnO4 in water, in a volumetric flask Permanganate (+7 oxidation state) manganese compounds are purple, and can color glass an amethyst color. Potassium permanganate, sodium permanganate and barium permanganate are all potent oxidizers. Potassium permanganate, also called Condy's crystals, is a commonly used laboratory reagent because of its oxidizing properties and finds use as a topical medicine (for example, in the treatment of fish diseases). Solutions of potassium permanganate were among the first stains and fixatives to be used in the preparation of biological cells and tissues for electron microscopy. Substitutes: Manganese has no satisfactory substitute in its major applications, which are related to metallurgical alloy use. In minor applications, (e.g., manganese phosphating), zinc and sometimes vanadium are viable substitutes. In disposable battery manufacture, standard and alkaline cells using manganese will probably eventually be mostly replaced with lithium battery technology. The overall level and nature of manganese use in the United States is expected to remain about the same in the near term. No practical technologies exist for replacing manganese with other materials or for using domestic deposits or other accumulations to reduce the complete dependence of the United States on other countries for manganese ore. History The origin of the name manganese is complex. In ancient times, two black minerals from Magnesia in what is now modern Greece were both called magnes, but were thought to differ in gender. The male magnes attracted iron, and was the iron ore we now know as lodestone or magnetite, and which probably gave us the term magnet. The female magnes ore did not attract iron, but was used to decolorize glass. This feminine magnes was later called magnesia, known now in modern times as pyrolusite or manganese dioxide. This mineral is never magnetic (although manganese itself is paramagnetic). In the 16th century, the latter compound was called manganesum (note the two n's instead of one) by glassmakers, possibly as a corruption of two words since alchemists and glassmakers eventually had to differentiate a magnesia negra (the black ore) from magnesia alba (a white ore, also from Magnesia, also useful in glassmaking). Michele Mercati called magnesia negra Manganesa, and finally the metal isolated from it became known as manganese (German: Mangan). The name magnesia eventually was then used to refer only to the white magnesia alba (magnesium oxide), which provided the name magnesium for that free element, when it was eventually isolated, much later. Several oxides of manganese, for example manganese dioxide, are abundant in nature and due to color these oxides have been used as since the Stone Age. The cave paintings in Gargas contain manganese as pigments and these cave paintings are 30,000 to 24,000 years old. Manganese compounds where used by Egyptian and Roman glass makers, to either remove color from glass or add color to it. The use as glass makers soap continued through the middle ages until modern times and is evident in 14th century glass from Venice. Due to the use in glass making manganese dioxide was available to alchemists the first chemists and was used for experiments. Ignitius Kaim (1770) and Johann Glauber ( 17th century) discovered that manganese dioxide can be converted to permanganate, a useful laboratory reagent. By the mid-18th century the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele used manganese dioxide to produce chlorine. First hydrochloric acid, or a mixture of dilute sulfuric acid and sodium chloride was reacted with manganese dioxide, later hydrochloric acid from the Leblanc process was used and the manganese dioxide was recycled by the Weldon process. The production of chlorine and hypochlorite containing bleaching agents was a large consumer of manganese ores. Scheele and other chemists were aware that manganese dioxide contained a new element, but they were not able to isolate it. Johan Gottlieb Gahn was the first to isolate an impure sample of manganese metal in 1774, by reducing the dioxide with carbon. The manganese content of some iron ores used in Greece led to the speculations that the steel produced from that ore contains inadvertent amounts of manganese making the Spartan steel exceptionally hard. Around the beginning of the 19th century, manganese was used in steelmaking and several patents were granted. In 1816, it was noted that adding manganese to iron made it harder, without making it any more brittle. In 1837, British academic James Couper noted an association between heavy exposure to manganese in mines with a form of Parkinson's Disease. In 1912, manganese phosphating electrochemical conversion coatings for protecting firearms against rust and corrosion were patented in the United States, and have seen widespread use ever since. With the invention of the Leclanché cell in 1866 and the subsequent improvement of the batteries containing manganese dioxide as cathodic depolarizer increased the demand of manganese dioxide. Until the introduction of the nickel-cadmium battery and lithium containing batteries most of the batteries on the marked contained manganese. The Zinc-carbon battery and the alkaline battery normally use industrially-produced manganese dioxide, because natural occurring manganese dioxide contains impurities. In the 20th century, manganese dioxide has seen wide commercial use as the chief cathodic material for commercial disposable dry cells and dry batteries of both the standard (carbon–zinc) and alkaline type. Production The most important manganese ore is pyrolusite (MnO2. Most of the other economically important manganese ores show a close spatial relation to the iron ores. Land-based resources are large but irregularly distributed. Over 80% of the known world manganese resources are found in South Africa and Ukraine. Other important manganese deposits are in South Africa, Ukraine, Australia, India, China, Gabon and Brazil. Manganese is mined in South Africa, Australia, China, Brazil, Gabon, Ukraine, India and Ghana and Kazakhstan. US Import Sources (1998–2001): Manganese ore: Gabon, 70%; South Africa, 10%; Australia, 9%; Mexico, 5%; and other, 6%. Ferromanganese: South Africa, 47%; France, 22%; Mexico, 8%; Australia, 8%; and other, 15%. Manganese contained in all manganese imports: South Africa, 31%; Gabon, 21%; Australia, 13%; Mexico, 8%; and other, 27%. For the production of ferromanganese the manganese ore are mixed with iron ore and carbon and then reduced either in a blast furnace or in an electric arc furnace. The resulting ferromanganese has a manganese content of 30 to 80 %. Pure manganese used for the production of non-iron alloys is produced by leaching manganese ore with sulfuric acid and a subsequent electrowinning process. Applications Steel Manganese is essential to iron and steel production by virtue of its sulfur-fixing, deoxidizing, and alloying properties. Steelmaking, including its ironmaking component, has accounted for most manganese demand, presently in the range of 85% to 90% of the total demand. Among a variety of other uses, manganese is a key component of low-cost stainless steel formulations and certain widely used aluminium alloys. Aluminium alloys The second large application for manganese is as alloying agent for aluminium. Aluminium with a manganese content of roughly 1,5 % has a increased resistance against corrosion due to the formation grains absorbing impurities which would lead to galvanic corrosion. The corrosion resistant aluminium alloy 3004 and 3104 with a manganese content of 0.8 to 1.5 % are the alloy used for most of the beverage cans. For years prior to 2000 in excess of 1.6 million metric tons have been used of those alloys, with a content of 1 % of manganese this amount would need 16000 metric tons of manganese. Other use A large amount of manganese dioxide is produced for the use as depolarizer in Zinc-carbon battery and the alkaline battery. In 2002 more than 230,000 tons of manganese dioxide were used for this purpose. The manganese dioxide is reduced to the manganese oxide-hydroxide MnO(OH). MnO2 + H2O + e- → MnO(OH) + OH- The metal is very occasionally used in coins; the only United States coins to use manganese were the "wartime" nickel from 1942–1945. Due to shortage of raw materials in the war the nickel in the alloy (75 % copper and 25 % nickel) used for the production of the nickel before was substituted by the less critical metals silver and manganese (56 % copper, 35 % silver and 9 % manganese). Since 2000 dollar coins, for example the Sacagawea dollar and the Presidential $1 Coins, are made from a brass containing 7% of manganese with a pure copper core. Manganese compounds have been used as pigments and for the coloring of ceramics and glass for a long time and still the brown color of ceramic is sometimes based on manganese compounds. In the glass industry two effects of manganese compounds are used. Manganese(III) reacts with iron(II). The reaction induces a strong green color in glass by forming less colored iron(III) and slight pink manganese(II), compensating the residual color of the iron(III). Larger amounts of manganese are used to produce pink colored glass. Biological role Manganese is an essential trace nutrient in all forms of life. The classes of enzymes that have manganese cofactors are very broad and include such classes as oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, ligases, lectins, and integrins. The reverse transcriptases of many retroviruses (though not lentiviruses such as HIV) contain manganese. The best known manganese-containing polypeptides may be arginase, the diphtheria toxin, and Mn-containing superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD). Mn-SOD is the type of SOD present in eukaryotic mitochondria, and also in most bacteria (this fact is in keeping with the bacterial-origin theory of mitochondria). The Mn-SOD enzyme is probably one of the most ancient, for nearly all organisms living in the presence of oxygen use it to deal with the toxic effects of superoxide, formed from the 1-electron reduction of dioxygen. Exceptions include a few kinds of bacteria such as Lactobacillus plantarum and related lactobacilli, which use a different non-enzymatic mechanism, involving manganese (Mn2+) ions complexed with polyphosphate directly for this task, indicating how this function possibly evolved in aerobic life. The human body contains about 10 mg of manganese, which is stored mainly in the liver and kidneys. In the human brain the manganese is bound to manganese metalloproteins most notable glutamine synthetase in astrocytes. Manganese is also important in photosynthetic oxygen evolution in chloroplasts in plants. The oxygen evolving complex (OEC) is a part of Photosystem II contained in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts; it is responsible for the terminal photooxidation of water during the light reactions of photosynthesis and has a metalloenzyme core containing four atoms of manganese. For this reason, most broad-spectrum plant fertilizers contain manganese. Precautions Manganese compounds are less toxic than those of other widespread metals such as nickel and copper. Exposure to manganese dusts and fumes should not exceed the ceiling value of 5 mg/m3 even for short periods because of its toxicity level. Manganese poses a particular risk for children due to its propensity to bind to CH-7 receptors. Manganese poisoning has been linked to impaired motor skills and cognitive disorders. Acidic permanganate solutions will oxidize any organic material they come into contact with. The oxidation process can generate enough heat to ignite some organic substances. In 2005, a study suggested a possible link between manganese inhalation and central nervous system toxicity in rats. It is hypothesized that long-term exposure to the naturally occurring manganese in shower water puts up to 8.7 million Americans at risk. A form of neurodegeneration similar to Parkinson's Disease called "manganism" has been linked to manganese exposure amongst miners and smelters since the early 19th Century. Allegations of inhalation-induced manganism have been made regarding the welding industry. Manganese exposure in United States is regulated by Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 080225 osha.gov See also Parkerize Potassium permanganate Chemical element Periodic table Manganism Notes References External links National Pollutant Inventory – Manganese and compounds Fact Sheet WebElements.com – Manganese International Manganese Institute Neurotoxicity of inhaled manganese: Public health danger in the shower? NIOSH Manganese Topic Page Link Found Between Parkinson's Disease Genes And Manganese Poisoning | Manganese |@lemmatized manganese:136 chemical:3 element:10 designate:1 symbol:1 mn:8 atomic:2 number:2 find:8 free:4 nature:3 often:2 combination:1 iron:16 many:3 mineral:6 metal:10 important:6 industrial:1 alloy:11 use:47 particularly:1 stainless:2 steel:7 ion:4 various:1 color:11 depend:1 oxidation:14 state:19 industrially:2 pigment:4 permanganate:10 sodium:4 potassium:5 barium:2 powerful:3 oxidizer:2 dioxide:20 cathode:1 electron:5 acceptor:2 material:7 standard:3 alkaline:6 disposable:3 dry:5 cell:8 battery:15 ii:8 function:4 cofactor:2 enzyme:3 high:1 organism:3 essential:4 detoxification:1 superoxide:3 radical:1 required:1 trace:3 know:7 living:3 large:8 amount:6 apparently:1 far:1 great:1 activity:1 inhalation:3 cause:2 poisoning:3 syndrome:1 mammal:1 neurological:1 damage:1 sometimes:3 irreversible:1 characteristic:1 physical:1 gray:1 white:3 resemble:1 hard:3 brittle:2 fusible:1 difficulty:1 easily:1 oxidize:4 common:3 paramagnetic:2 occurrence:1 see:5 also:11 ore:16 make:9 ppm:4 earth:1 crust:1 abundant:3 soil:1 contain:18 average:1 seawater:1 atmosphere:1 µg:1 occur:4 principally:1 pyrolusite:3 braunite:1 psilomelane:2 ba:1 less:6 extent:1 rhodochrosite:2 land:2 base:3 resource:4 irregularly:2 distribute:2 known:2 world:2 south:7 africa:7 ukraine:4 deposit:3 china:3 australia:6 brazil:3 gabon:5 ghana:2 india:3 mexico:4 leave:1 vast:1 quantity:1 exist:2 nodule:2 ocean:1 floor:1 attempt:1 economically:2 viable:2 method:1 harvest:1 abandon:1 isotope:6 naturally:2 compose:1 stable:4 radioisotope:1 characterize:1 half:7 life:9 million:4 year:4 day:2 remain:2 radioactive:1 hour:1 majority:1 minute:1 meta:1 part:2 group:1 think:2 synthesize:1 star:1 shortly:1 supernova:1 explosion:1 decay:4 relatively:1 short:2 extinct:1 radionuclide:1 isotopic:4 content:7 typically:1 combine:1 chromium:1 application:5 geology:1 radiometric:1 dating:1 cr:3 ratio:3 reinforce:1 evidence:2 early:2 history:2 solar:2 system:4 variation:1 several:3 meteorite:1 indicate:2 initial:1 suggest:2 systematics:1 must:1 result:2 situ:1 differentiated:1 planetary:1 body:2 hence:1 provide:2 additional:1 nucleosynthetic:1 process:5 immediately:1 coalescence:1 range:2 weight:1 u:4 primary:2 mode:2 capture:1 beta:1 chemistry:2 compound:13 statesof:1 bold:1 though:2 observe:1 compete:1 biological:3 reach:1 oxyanion:1 agent:4 pourbaix:1 diagram:1 pure:3 water:4 perchloric:1 acid:5 hydroxide:2 ignasi:1 puigdomenech:1 hydra:1 medusa:1 equilibrium:1 database:1 plotting:1 software:2 kth:1 royal:1 institute:2 technology:3 freely:1 downloadable:1 methylcyclopentadienyl:1 tricarbonyl:1 additive:1 unleaded:1 gasoline:1 boost:1 octane:1 rating:1 reduce:5 engine:1 knocking:1 unusual:1 organometallic:1 pink:3 red:1 sulfate:1 chloride:2 carbonate:1 much:2 toxic:3 iii:4 acetate:1 quite:1 iv:2 oxide:6 reagent:3 organic:3 benzylic:1 alcohol:1 e:3 adjacent:1 aromatic:1 ring:1 since:6 antiquity:1 oxidatively:1 neutralize:1 greenish:1 tinge:1 glass:12 contamination:1 manufacture:2 oxygen:4 chlorine:3 black:3 paint:2 preparation:2 brown:2 constituent:1 natural:2 umber:1 original:1 type:4 zinc:6 blackish:1 open:1 carbon:6 flashlight:1 new:2 usually:1 basic:1 reaction:3 different:2 electrolyte:1 mixture:2 phosphating:3 treatment:2 rust:2 corrosion:5 prevention:1 solution:3 volumetric:1 flask:1 purple:1 amethyst:1 potent:1 call:6 condy:1 crystal:1 commonly:1 used:1 laboratory:2 oxidizing:1 property:2 topical:1 medicine:1 example:3 fish:1 disease:4 among:2 first:4 stain:1 fixative:1 tissue:1 microscopy:1 substitute:4 satisfactory:1 major:1 relate:1 metallurgical:1 minor:1 g:1 vanadium:1 probably:3 eventually:4 mostly:1 replace:2 lithium:2 overall:1 level:2 united:5 expect:1 near:1 term:3 practical:1 domestic:1 accumulation:1 complete:1 dependence:1 country:1 origin:2 name:3 complex:2 ancient:2 time:4 two:4 magnesia:8 modern:3 greece:2 magnes:4 differ:1 gender:1 male:1 attract:2 lodestone:1 magnetite:1 give:1 magnet:1 female:1 decolorize:1 feminine:1 later:3 never:1 magnetic:1 although:1 century:7 latter:1 manganesum:1 note:4 n:1 instead:1 one:2 glassmaker:2 possibly:2 corruption:1 word:1 alchemist:1 differentiate:1 negra:2 alba:2 useful:2 glassmaking:1 michele:1 mercati:1 manganesa:1 finally:1 isolate:4 become:1 german:1 mangan:1 refer:1 magnesium:2 due:5 stone:1 age:2 cave:2 painting:2 gargas:1 old:1 egyptian:1 roman:1 maker:2 either:2 remove:1 add:2 soap:1 continue:1 middle:1 evident:1 venice:1 available:1 alchemists:1 chemist:3 experiment:1 ignitius:1 kaim:1 johann:1 glauber:1 discover:1 convert:1 mid:1 swedish:1 carl:1 wilhelm:1 scheele:2 produce:6 hydrochloric:2 dilute:1 sulfuric:2 react:2 leblanc:1 recycle:1 weldon:1 production:6 hypochlorite:1 bleach:1 consumer:1 aware:1 able:1 johan:1 gottlieb:1 gahn:1 impure:1 sample:1 lead:2 speculation:1 contains:1 inadvertent:1 spartan:1 exceptionally:1 around:1 beginning:1 steelmaking:2 patent:2 grant:1 without:1 british:1 academic:1 james:1 couper:1 association:1 heavy:1 exposure:5 mine:2 form:5 parkinson:3 electrochemical:1 conversion:1 coating:1 protect:1 firearm:1 widespread:2 ever:1 invention:1 leclanché:1 subsequent:2 improvement:1 cathodic:2 depolarizer:2 increase:2 demand:3 introduction:1 nickel:6 cadmium:1 mark:1 normally:1 impurity:2 wide:1 commercial:2 chief:1 show:1 close:1 spatial:1 relation:1 ores:1 kazakhstan:1 import:2 source:1 ferromanganese:3 france:1 mix:1 blast:1 furnace:2 electric:1 arc:1 non:2 leach:1 electrowinning:1 virtue:1 sulfur:1 fixing:1 deoxidizing:1 include:3 ironmaking:1 component:2 account:1 presently:1 total:1 variety:1 us:1 key:1 low:1 cost:1 formulation:1 certain:1 widely:1 aluminium:5 second:1 roughly:1 resistance:1 formation:1 grain:1 absorb:1 would:2 galvanic:1 resistant:1 beverage:1 prior:1 excess:1 metric:2 ton:3 need:1 purpose:1 mno:2 oh:3 occasionally:1 coin:4 wartime:1 shortage:1 raw:1 war:1 copper:4 critical:1 silver:2 dollar:2 sacagawea:1 presidential:1 brass:1 core:2 coloring:1 ceramic:2 long:2 still:1 industry:2 effect:2 induce:1 strong:1 green:1 slight:1 compensate:1 residual:1 colored:1 role:1 nutrient:1 class:2 broad:2 oxidoreductase:1 transferase:1 hydrolases:1 lyases:1 isomerase:1 ligases:1 lectin:1 integrins:1 reverse:1 transcriptase:1 retrovirus:1 lentiviruses:1 hiv:1 best:1 polypeptide:1 may:1 arginase:1 diphtheria:1 toxin:1 dismutase:1 sod:4 present:1 eukaryotic:1 mitochondrion:2 bacteria:2 fact:2 keep:1 bacterial:1 theory:1 nearly:1 organisms:1 presence:1 deal:1 reduction:1 dioxygen:1 exception:1 kind:1 lactobacillus:2 plantarum:1 related:1 enzymatic:1 mechanism:1 involve:1 complexed:1 polyphosphate:1 directly:1 task:1 evolve:2 aerobic:1 human:2 mg:2 store:1 mainly:1 liver:1 kidney:1 brain:1 bind:2 metalloproteins:1 notable:1 glutamine:1 synthetase:1 astrocyte:1 photosynthetic:1 evolution:1 chloroplast:2 plant:2 oec:1 photosystem:1 thylakoid:1 membrane:1 responsible:1 terminal:1 photooxidation:1 light:1 photosynthesis:1 metalloenzyme:1 four:1 atom:1 reason:1 spectrum:1 fertilizer:1 precaution:1 dust:1 fume:1 exceed:1 ceiling:1 value:1 even:1 period:1 toxicity:2 pose:1 particular:1 risk:2 child:1 propensity:1 ch:1 receptor:1 link:5 impaired:1 motor:1 skill:1 cognitive:1 disorder:1 acidic:1 come:1 contact:1 generate:1 enough:1 heat:1 ignite:1 substance:1 study:1 possible:1 central:1 nervous:1 rat:1 hypothesize:1 shower:2 put:1 american:1 neurodegeneration:1 similar:1 manganism:3 amongst:1 miner:1 smelter:1 allegation:1 induced:1 regard:1 welding:1 regulate:1 occupational:1 safety:1 health:2 administration:1 osha:1 gov:1 parkerize:1 periodic:1 table:1 reference:1 external:1 national:1 pollutant:1 inventory:1 sheet:1 webelements:1 com:1 international:1 neurotoxicity:1 inhaled:1 public:1 danger:1 niosh:1 topic:1 page:1 gene:1 |@bigram stainless_steel:2 sodium_potassium:1 manganese_dioxide:19 electron_acceptor:2 manganese_ore:9 earth_crust:1 manganese_nodule:2 economically_viable:1 stable_isotope:2 isotope_radioisotope:1 radioisotope_characterize:1 radioactive_isotope:1 supernova_explosion:1 extinct_radionuclide:1 radiometric_dating:1 isotopic_ratio:1 beta_decay:1 perchloric_acid:1 sodium_hydroxide:1 freely_downloadable:1 octane_rating:1 organometallic_compound:1 organic_chemistry:1 aromatic_ring:1 alkaline_battery:3 potassium_permanganate:4 commonly_used:1 electron_microscopy:1 iron_ore:3 magnesium_oxide:1 wilhelm_scheele:1 hydrochloric_acid:2 sulfuric_acid:2 sodium_chloride:1 parkinson_disease:3 nickel_cadmium:1 cadmium_battery:1 blast_furnace:1 arc_furnace:1 aluminium_alloy:3 galvanic_corrosion:1 corrosion_resistant:1 metric_ton:2 raw_material:1 copper_nickel:1 reverse_transcriptase:1 superoxide_dismutase:1 liver_kidney:1 thylakoid_membrane:1 membrane_chloroplast:1 occupational_safety:1 periodic_table:1 external_link:1 pollutant_inventory:1 webelements_com:1 |
3,236 | Climate | Worldwide climate classifications Climate encompasses the temperatures, humidity, atmospheric pressure, winds, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorological elements in a given region over long periods of time, as opposed to the term weather, which refers to current activity of these same elements. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, altitude, persistent ice or snow cover, as well as nearby oceans and their currents. Climates can be classified using parameters such as temperature and rainfall to define specific climate types. The most commonly used classification scheme is the one originally developed by Wladimir Köppen. The Thornthwaite system, C. W. Thornthwaite, "An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate", Geographical Review, 38:55-94, 1948 in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration in addition to temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying animal species diversity and potential impacts of climate changes. The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses defining the climate for certain areas. Paleoclimatology is the study and description of ancient climates using information from both non-biotic factors such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores, and biotic factors such as tree rings and coral, and can be used to extend back the temperature or rainfall information for particular locations to a time before various weather instruments were used to monitor weather conditions. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present and future climates and can be used to describe the likely patterns of future changes. Definition Climate (from Ancient Greek klima, meaning inclination) is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period of time. The standard averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) glossary definition is: {{cquote|Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather," or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Appendix I: Glossary. Retrieved on 2007-06-01. }} The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get." National Weather Service Office Tucson, Arizona. Main page. Retrieved on 2007-06-01. Over historical time spans there are a number of static variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: for example, the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern Atlantic ocean compared to other ocean basins. Stefan Rahmstorf. The Thermohaline Ocean Circulation: A Brief Fact Sheet. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, Gertjan de Werk and Karel Mulder. Heat Absorption Cooling For Sustainable Air Conditioning of Households. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling. The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned. Climate classification There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes. Originally, climes were defined in Ancient Greece to describe the weather depending upon a location's latitude. Modern climate classification methods can be broadly divided into genetic methods, which focus on the causes of climate, and empiric'' methods, which focus on the effects of climate. Examples of genetic classification include methods based on the relative frequency of different air mass types or locations within synoptic weather disturbances. Examples of empiric classifications include climate zones defined by plant hardiness, United States National Arboretum. USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map. Retrieved on 2008-03-09 evapotranspiration, air mass origin, or more generally the Köppen climate classification which was originally designed to identify the climates associated with certain biomes. A common shortcoming of these classification schemes is that they produce distinct boundaries between the zones they define, rather than the gradual transition of climate properties more common in nature. Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Source regions of global air masses The most generic classification is that involving the concept of air masses. The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass classification. Air mass classification involves three letters. The first letter describes its moisture properties, with c used for continental air masses (dry) and m for maritime air masses (moist). The second letter describes the thermal characteristic of its source region: T for tropical, P for polar, A for Arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon, E for equatorial, and S for superior air (dry air formed by significant downward motion in the atmosphere). The third letter is used to designate the stability of the atmosphere. If the air mass is colder than the ground below it, it is labeled k. If the air mass is warmer than the ground below it, it is labeled w. While air mass identification was originally used in weather forecasting during the 1950s, climatologists began to establish synoptic climatologies based on this idea in 1973. Based upon the Bergeron classification scheme is the Spatial Synoptic Classification system (SSC). There are six categories within the SSC scheme: Dry Polar (similar to continental polar), Dry Moderate (similar to maritime superior), Dry Tropical (similar to continental tropical), Moist Polar (similar to maritime polar), Moist Moderate (a hybrid between maritime polar and maritime tropical), and Moist Tropical (similar to maritime tropical, maritime monsoon, or maritime equatorial). Robert E. Davis, L. Sitka, D. M. Hondula, S. Gawtry, D. Knight, T. Lee, and J. Stenger. J1.10 A preliminary back-trajectory and air mass climatology for the Shenandoah Valley (Formerly J3.16 for Applied Climatology). Retrieved on 2008-05-21. Köppen The Köppen classification includes climate regimes such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert. Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between and . Mean monthly temperatures exceed during all months of the year. Susan Woodward. Tropical Broadleaf Evergreen Forest: The Rainforest. Retrieved on 2008-03-14. A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months, ushering in a region's rainy season. Regions within North America, South America. Sub-Saharan Africa, Australia and East Asia are monsoon regimes. International Committee of the Third Workshop on Monsoons. The Global Monsoon System: Research and Forecast. Retrieved on 2008-03-16. A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with average temperatures remain at or above year round and rainfall between and a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia. Susan Woodward. Tropical Savannas. Retrieved on 2008-03-16. The humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones. Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20° and 40° degrees away from the equator. Michael Ritter. Humid Subtropical Climate. Retrieved on 2008-03-16. Humid continental climate worldwide A humid continental climate is marked by variable weather patterns and a large seasonal temperature variance. Places with a hottest monthly temperature above and a coldest month temperature below and which do not meet the criteria for an arid climate, are classified as continental. An oceanic climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, and in southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year round. Climate. Oceanic Climate. Retrieved on 2008-04-15. The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. Michael Ritter. Mediterranean or Dry Summer Subtropical Climate. Retrieved on 2008-04-15. A steppe is a dry grassland with an annual temperature range in the summer of up to and during the winter down to . Blue Planet Biomes. Steppe Climate. Retrieved on 2008-04-15. A subarctic climate has little precipitation, Michael Ritter. Subarctic Climate. Retrieved on 2008-04-16. and monthly temperatures which are above for one to three months of the year, with continuous permafrost due to the very cold winters. Winters within subarctic climates include up to six months of temperatures averaging below . Susan Woodward. Taiga or Boreal Forest. Retrieved on 2008-06-06. Map of arctic tundra Tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt, including vast areas of northern Russia and Canada . A polar ice cap, or polar ice sheet, is a high-latitude region of a planet or moon that is covered in ice. Ice caps form because high-latitude regions receive less energy in the form of solar radiation from the sun than equatorial regions, resulting in lower surface temperatures. Michael Ritter. Ice Cap Climate. Retrieved on 2008-03-16. A desert is a landscape form or region that receives very little precipitation. Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high daytime temperatures (in summer up to 45 °C or 113 °F), and low night-time temperatures (in winter down to 0 °C; 32 °F) due to extremely low humidity. Many deserts are formed by rain shadows, as mountains block the path of moisture and precipitation to the desert. San Diego State University. Introduction to Arid Regions: A Self-Paced Tutorial. Retrieved on 2008-04-16. Thornthwaite This climate classification method monitors the soil water budget using the concept of evapotranspiration. Glossary of Meteorology. Thornethwaite Moisture Index. Retrieved on 2008-05-21. It monitors the portion of total precipitation used to nourish vegetation over a certain area. It uses indices such as a humidity index and an aridity index to determine an area's moisture regime based upon its average temperature, average rainfall, and average vegetation type. Eric Green. Foundations of Expansive Clay Soil. Retrieved on 2008-05-21. The lower the value of the index is any given area, the drier the area is. The moisture classification includes climatic classes with descriptors such as hyperhumid, humid, subhumid, subarid, semi-arid (values of -20 to -40), and arid (values below -40). Istituto Agronomico per l'Otremare. 3 Land Resources. Retrieved on 2008-05-21. Humid regions experience more precipitation than evaporation each year, while arid regions experience greater evaporation than precipitation on an annual basis. A total of 33 percent of the Earth's landmass is considered either arid of semi-arid, including southwest North America, southwest South America, most of northern and a small part of southern Africa, southwest and portions of eastern Asia, as well as much of Australia. Studies suggest that precipitation effectiveness (PE) within the Thornthwaite moisture index is overestimated in the summer and underestimated in the winter. This index can be effectively used to determine the number of herbivore and mammal species numbers within a given area. The index is also used in studies of climate change. Gregory J. McCabe and David M. Wolock. Trends and temperature sensitivity of moisture conditions in the conterminous United States. Retrieved on 2008-05-21. Thermal classifications within the Thornthwaite scheme include microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal regimes. A mircothermal climate is one of low annual mean temperatures, generally between and which experiences short summers and has a potential evaporation between and . A mesothermal climate lacks persistent heat or persistent cold, with potential evaporation between and . A megathermal climate is one with persistent high temperatures and abundant rainfall, with potential evaporation in excess of . Record Modern Instrumental temperature record of the last 150 years Details of the modern climate record are known through the taking of measurements from such weather instruments as thermometers, barometers, and anemometers during the past few centuries. The instruments used to study weather conditions over the modern time scale, their known error, their immediate environment, and their exposure have changed over the years, which must be considered when studying the climate of centuries past. Spencer Weart. The Modern Temperature Trend. Retrieved on 2007-06-01. Paleoclimatology Paleoclimatology is the study of past climate over a great period of the Earth's history. It uses evidence from ice sheets, tree rings, sediments, coral, and rocks to determine the past state of the climate. It demonstrates periods of stability and periods of change and can indicate whether changes follow patterns such as regular cycles. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. NOAA Paleoclimatology. Retrieved on 2007-06-01. Climate change Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the past 450,000 years Climate change refers to the variation in the Earth's global climate or in regional climates over time. It describes changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years. These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth, external forces (e.g. variations in sunlight intensity) or, more recently, human activities. Arctic Climatology and Meteorology. Climate change. Retrieved on 2008-05-19. In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term "climate change" often refers only to changes in modern climate, including the rise in average surface temperature known as global warming. In some cases, the term is also used with a presumption of human causation, as in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC uses "climate variability" for non-human caused variations. Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in the past, including four major ice ages. These consisting of glacial periods where conditions are colder than normal, separated by interglacial periods. The accumulation of snow and ice during a glacial period increases the surface albedo, reflecting more of the Sun's energy into space and maintaining a lower atmospheric temperature. Increases in greenhouse gases, such as by volcanic activity, can increase the global temperature and produce an interglacial. Suggested causes of ice age periods include the positions of the continents, variations in the Earth's orbit, changes in the solar output, and vulcanism. Illinois State Museum (2002). Ice Ages. Retrieved on 2007-05-15. Climate models Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, Eric Maisonnave. Climate Variability. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. oceans, land surface and ice. They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or very nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the earth with outgoing energy as long wave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the earth. Any imbalance results in a change in the average temperature of the earth. The most talked-about models of recent years have been those relating temperature to the build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide (see greenhouse gas). These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature, with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex: A simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy this can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models), or horizontally finally, (coupled) atmosphere–ocean–sea ice global climate models discretise and solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange. Climateprediction.net. Modelling the climate. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. See also Climate Prediction Center Effect of sun angle on climate Microclimate Weather National Climatic Data Center Solar variation Temperature extreme Outline of meteorology References External links The Economics of Climate-based Data & Products for Business & Society NOAA Economics IFAS AgClimate Climate Models and modeling groups Climate Prediction Project ClimateDiagrams.com Provides climate diagrams for more than 3000 weather stations and different climate periods from all over the world. Users can also create their own diagrams with their own data. WorldClimate ESPERE Climate Encyclopaedia Global Climate Data Climate index and mode information A current view of the Bering Sea Ecosystem and Climate Climate: Data and charts for world and US locations World climates list and articles | Climate |@lemmatized worldwide:2 climate:95 classification:20 encompass:1 temperature:32 humidity:3 atmospheric:5 pressure:1 wind:3 rainfall:11 particle:1 count:1 numerous:2 meteorological:2 element:2 give:3 region:13 long:3 period:14 time:9 oppose:1 term:4 weather:17 refer:2 current:4 activity:3 location:5 affect:2 latitude:9 terrain:1 altitude:2 persistent:4 ice:16 snow:2 cover:2 well:2 nearby:1 ocean:9 classify:3 use:21 parameter:1 define:8 specific:1 type:4 commonly:2 used:1 scheme:5 one:4 originally:4 develop:1 wladimir:1 köppen:4 thornthwaite:5 system:6 c:5 w:2 approach:1 toward:1 rational:1 geographical:1 review:1 since:1 incorporate:1 evapotranspiration:3 addition:1 precipitation:10 information:4 study:8 animal:1 specie:2 diversity:1 potential:4 impact:1 change:19 bergeron:4 spatial:3 synoptic:5 focus:3 origin:2 air:16 mass:14 certain:3 area:7 paleoclimatology:4 description:3 ancient:3 non:2 biotic:2 factor:2 sediment:2 find:3 lake:1 bed:1 core:2 tree:2 ring:2 coral:2 extend:1 back:2 particular:1 various:1 instrument:3 monitor:3 condition:4 model:14 mathematical:1 past:7 present:1 future:3 describe:5 likely:1 pattern:3 definition:3 greek:1 klima:1 mean:5 inclination:1 average:12 standard:1 averaging:1 year:16 may:1 depend:2 purpose:2 also:6 include:15 statistic:1 magnitude:1 day:2 variation:7 intergovernmental:2 panel:2 ipcc:1 glossary:3 cquote:1 narrow:1 sense:2 usually:2 rigorously:1 statistical:2 variability:4 relevant:1 quantity:3 range:5 month:6 thousand:1 million:2 classical:1 world:5 organization:1 wmo:1 often:2 surface:6 variable:4 wider:1 state:7 appendix:1 retrieve:27 difference:1 usefully:1 summarize:1 popular:1 phrase:1 expect:1 get:1 national:4 service:1 office:1 tucson:1 arizona:1 main:1 page:1 historical:2 span:1 number:3 static:1 determine:6 proportion:1 land:5 water:4 proximity:1 mountain:2 determinant:2 dynamic:2 example:3 thermohaline:2 circulation:2 lead:2 f:3 warming:3 northern:6 atlantic:1 compare:1 basin:2 stefan:1 rahmstorf:1 brief:1 fact:1 sheet:3 redistribute:1 heat:5 regional:3 scale:3 density:1 vegetation:3 coverage:1 solar:5 absorption:2 gertjan:1 de:1 werk:1 karel:1 mulder:1 cool:2 sustainable:1 conditioning:1 household:1 retention:1 level:1 alteration:1 greenhouse:4 gas:4 amount:1 energy:7 retain:1 planet:3 global:10 cooling:1 interaction:2 complex:2 general:1 agreement:1 broad:1 outline:2 understood:1 least:1 insofar:1 concern:1 several:2 way:1 similar:6 regime:6 clime:1 greece:1 upon:3 modern:6 method:6 broadly:1 divide:1 genetic:2 cause:4 empiric:2 effect:2 base:5 relative:1 frequency:1 different:2 within:7 disturbance:1 zone:4 plant:2 hardiness:2 united:3 arboretum:1 usda:1 map:2 generally:2 design:1 identify:1 associate:2 biome:3 common:2 shortcoming:1 produce:2 distinct:1 boundary:1 rather:1 gradual:1 transition:1 property:2 nature:1 source:2 generic:1 involve:2 concept:2 widely:1 accepted:1 form:6 three:2 letter:4 first:1 moisture:7 continental:7 dry:8 maritime:8 moist:4 second:1 thermal:2 characteristic:1 tropical:12 p:1 polar:9 arctic:3 antarctic:1 monsoon:7 e:3 equatorial:3 superior:2 significant:1 downward:1 motion:1 atmosphere:6 third:2 designate:1 stability:2 cold:5 ground:2 label:2 k:1 warm:1 identification:1 forecasting:1 climatologist:1 begin:1 establish:1 climatology:4 idea:1 ssc:2 six:2 category:1 moderate:2 hybrid:1 robert:1 davis:1 l:2 sitka:1 hondula:1 gawtry:1 knight:1 lee:1 j:2 stenger:1 preliminary:1 trajectory:1 shenandoah:1 valley:1 formerly:1 applied:1 rain:3 forest:4 savanna:3 humid:10 subtropical:6 oceanic:4 mediterranean:4 steppe:3 subarctic:4 tundra:3 cap:4 desert:5 characterize:2 high:6 set:1 minimum:1 normal:2 annual:4 monthly:3 exceed:1 susan:3 woodward:3 broadleaf:1 evergreen:1 rainforest:1 seasonal:3 prevailing:1 last:2 usher:1 rainy:1 season:1 north:4 america:6 south:5 sub:1 saharan:1 africa:4 australia:5 east:3 asia:2 international:1 committee:1 workshop:1 research:1 forecast:1 grassland:2 locate:1 semi:4 arid:8 remain:1 round:2 widespread:1 india:1 part:5 malaysia:1 winter:7 sometimes:1 snowfall:1 large:3 storm:1 westerly:1 steer:1 west:2 summer:7 occur:2 thunderstorm:1 occasional:1 cyclone:1 lie:1 side:1 continent:3 roughly:1 degree:1 away:1 equator:1 michael:4 ritter:4 mark:1 variance:1 place:1 hottest:1 meet:1 criterion:1 typically:1 along:1 coast:1 middle:1 southeastern:1 accompany:1 plentiful:1 resemble:1 western:2 southwestern:1 central:1 chile:1 hot:1 wet:1 blue:1 little:2 continuous:1 permafrost:1 due:2 taiga:2 boreal:1 far:1 hemisphere:2 belt:1 vast:1 russia:1 canada:1 moon:1 receive:2 less:1 radiation:3 sun:3 result:2 low:6 landscape:1 diurnal:1 daytime:1 night:1 extremely:1 many:1 shadow:1 block:1 path:1 san:1 diego:1 university:1 introduction:1 self:1 pace:1 tutorial:1 soil:2 budget:1 meteorology:3 thornethwaite:1 index:9 portion:2 total:2 nourish:1 aridity:1 eric:2 green:1 foundation:1 expansive:1 clay:1 value:3 drier:1 climatic:2 class:1 descriptor:1 hyperhumid:1 subhumid:1 subarid:1 istituto:1 agronomico:1 per:1 otremare:1 resource:1 experience:3 evaporation:5 great:2 basis:1 percent:1 earth:10 landmass:1 consider:2 either:1 southwest:3 small:1 southern:1 eastern:1 much:1 suggest:1 effectiveness:1 pe:1 overestimate:1 underestimate:1 effectively:1 herbivore:1 mammal:1 gregory:1 mccabe:1 david:1 wolock:1 trend:3 sensitivity:1 conterminous:1 microthermal:1 mesothermal:2 megathermal:2 mircothermal:1 short:2 lack:1 abundant:1 excess:1 record:3 instrumental:1 detail:1 know:3 taking:1 measurement:1 thermometer:1 barometer:1 anemometer:1 century:2 error:1 immediate:1 environment:1 exposure:1 must:1 spencer:1 weart:1 history:1 evidence:1 rock:1 demonstrate:1 indicate:1 whether:1 follow:1 regular:1 cycle:1 administration:1 noaa:2 dust:1 vostok:1 refers:1 decade:1 process:1 internal:1 external:2 force:1 g:1 sunlight:1 intensity:1 recently:1 human:3 recent:2 usage:1 especially:1 context:1 environmental:1 policy:1 rise:1 case:1 presumption:1 causation:1 nation:1 framework:1 convention:1 unfccc:2 us:1 undergo:1 periodic:1 shift:1 four:1 major:1 age:3 consist:1 glacial:2 separate:1 interglacial:2 accumulation:1 increase:4 albedo:1 reflect:1 space:1 maintain:1 volcanic:1 suggested:1 position:1 orbit:1 output:1 vulcanism:1 illinois:1 museum:1 quantitative:1 simulate:1 maisonnave:1 variety:1 projection:1 balance:2 nearly:1 incoming:1 wave:2 visible:1 electromagnetic:2 outgo:2 infrared:1 imbalance:1 talked:1 relate:1 build:1 primarily:1 carbon:1 dioxide:1 see:2 predict:1 upward:1 rapid:1 project:2 relatively:1 simple:2 quite:1 radiant:2 transfer:2 treat:1 single:1 point:1 expand:1 vertically:1 radiative:1 convective:1 horizontally:1 finally:1 couple:1 sea:2 discretise:1 solve:1 full:1 equation:1 exchange:1 climateprediction:1 net:1 prediction:2 center:2 angle:1 microclimate:1 data:5 extreme:1 reference:1 link:1 economics:2 product:1 business:1 society:1 ifas:1 agclimate:1 group:1 climatediagrams:1 com:1 provide:1 diagram:2 station:1 user:1 create:1 worldclimate:1 espere:1 encyclopaedia:1 mode:1 view:1 bering:1 ecosystem:1 chart:1 u:1 climates:1 list:1 article:1 |@bigram atmospheric_pressure:1 commonly_used:1 biotic_factor:2 intergovernmental_panel:2 tucson_arizona:1 thermohaline_circulation:1 atlantic_ocean:1 air_conditioning:1 greenhouse_gas:4 global_warming:2 plant_hardiness:2 hardiness_zone:1 köppen_climate:1 arctic_antarctic:1 weather_forecasting:1 tropical_moist:2 shenandoah_valley:1 rain_forest:2 tropical_savanna:3 humid_subtropical:4 subtropical_humid:1 humid_continental:3 subarctic_climate:4 annual_rainfall:1 broadleaf_evergreen:1 prevailing_wind:1 rainy_season:1 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 savanna_grassland:1 semi_arid:3 subtropical_climate:4 tropical_cyclone:1 boreal_forest:1 arctic_tundra:1 northern_hemisphere:2 ice_sheet:2 daytime_temperature:1 san_diego:1 glossary_meteorology:1 oceanic_atmospheric:1 interglacial_period:1 electromagnetic_radiation:2 carbon_dioxide:1 upward_trend:1 external_link:1 |
3,237 | Cleveland_Browns | The Cleveland Browns are a professional American football team based in Cleveland, Ohio. They play in the AFC North division of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The Cleveland Browns began play in 1946 as a charter member of the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) and joined the NFL in 1950 after the AAFC folded. Cleveland has won a total of eight league championships; they won all four AAFC titles (including a 15-0 undefeated season in 1948), and after joining the NFL won four additional championships prior to the NFL-AFL merger in 1970. The Browns were one of three teams which joined ten former AFL teams to form the American Football Conference. Despite the Browns' historical successes the club has not played in a league championship game since the merger; however, they have competed for the AFC Championship three times. Having lost all three games, along with two NFL Championship Games of the Super Bowl era prior to the merger (in 1968 and 1969), Cleveland is one of the five NFL teams that has yet to qualify for the Super Bowl. Additionally, Cleveland has not hosted a Super Bowl, making it the only NFL city to have neither hosted nor sent a team to the Super Bowl. History 1946–1949: The AAFC years The Cleveland Browns were founded in 1946 as a charter member of the All-America Football Conference, under businessman Arthur B "Mickey" McBride. Not long after gaining the franchise, McBride named Ohio State Buckeyes coach Paul Brown as vice president, general manager and head coach. The franchise conducted a team naming contest in 1945. The most popular submission was "Browns" in recognition of Paul Brown, already an established and popular figure in Ohio sports. Brown at first objected to the name and the team selected from the contest entries the name "Panthers." However, after an area businessman informed the team that he owned the rights to the name Cleveland Panthers from an earlier failed football team, Brown rescinded his objection and agreed to the use of his name. Brown parlayed his ties to the Buckeyes and the Navy (where he'd coached a base football team during World War II) into the most extensive recruitment network that had ever been seen at the time in pro football. He used it to assemble a team that, in terms of talent, would have been more than a match for any NFL team—including quarterback Otto Graham, kicker/offensive tackle Lou Groza, wide receiver Mac Speedie, fullback Marion Motley and nose guard Bill Willis. The Browns dominated the AAFC, winning all four of its championships including the 1948 season in which they became the first unbeaten and untied team in professional football history—24 years before the NFL's perfect team, the 1972 Miami Dolphins. Cleveland's undefeated streak (including 2 ties) reached 29 games, and included 18 straight wins and the 1947 and 1948 AAFC championship games. During the AAFC's four-year run, the Browns lost only four games. The Browns issued occasional challenges to NFL teams, only to be turned down almost out of hand each time. Thanks in large part to McBride's promotional efforts, the Cleveland area showed terrific support for the Browns from the moment they were created. The team saw a record setting average attendance of 57,000 a game in its first season. Neft, David S., Cohen, Richard M., and Korch, Rick. The Complete History of Professional Football from 1892 to the Present. 1994 pg. 194 The Browns unexpectedly had Cleveland to themselves; the NFL's Cleveland Rams, who had continually lost money while in Cleveland despite winning the 1945 NFL championship, moved to the booming area of Los Angeles after the 1945 season (the team is now located in St. Louis). 1950–56: NFL Paul BrownThe AAFC dissolved after the 1949 season, due largely to the Browns' near absolute domination of the league. Jim Crowley, the AAFC's first commissioner, later said that if the AAFC had held a draft rather than simply encourage its teams to sign as many top players as possible, the league may well have survived. When the NFL agreed to take in three of the AAFC's teams for the 1950 season, it was a foregone conclusion that the Browns would be included. The Browns' first NFL game was against the two-time defending champion Philadelphia Eagles. The overwhelming consensus at the time was that the Eagles would blow the Browns off the field; there were still many who thought the Browns were merely the dominant team in a minor league. However, the Browns were determined to prove they belonged. They shredded the Eagles' vaunted defense for 487 yards of total offense en route to a 35–10 blowout. Behind a potent offense that included future Hall of Famers Graham, Motley and Dante Lavelli, the Browns picked up right where they left off in the AAFC. After going 10–2 in the regular season, the Browns defeated the New York Giants 8–3 in a playoff game and then beat Cleveland's previous NFL tenants, the Rams (who were now in Los Angeles), 30–28, in the NFL Championship game. Since the NFL does not recognize the AAFC's records, this technically makes the Browns the most successful expansion team in league history. However, the 1950 Browns were not an expansion team in any sense of the term. During the next season, the Browns went 11–1, facing the Rams in a rematch of the previous year's title game. A 73-yard touchdown pass by Norm van Brocklin to Tom Fears in the fourth quarter put Los Angeles in the lead for good. The 24–17 loss was the Browns' first in a championship game. Cleveland also advanced to the 1952 NFL championship game, finishing 8–4 to face the Detroit Lions. A muffed punt, several defensive stands, and a 67-yard touchdown run by Doak Walker combined to help the Lions win 17–7, frustrating the Browns for the second consecutive year. On the upside, Ray Renfro became a star with 722 yards receiving and 322 yards rushing. The Browns then started the 1953 season winning 11 straight games, but finished with a loss to the Eagles in the final week, and then lost the 1953 Championship game in a rematch with the Lions. The game was, however, closer than the year before. With the score tied at 10 going into the final quarter, Lou Groza kicked two field goals to put Cleveland up 16–10. But Detroit's Bobby Layne threw a 33-yard touchdown pass to Jim Doran with less than two minutes left and the Lions won 17–16. In 1954, the Browns finished 9–3 and met up with Detroit in the championship for a third consecutive year. This time, however, the Browns were relentless on both sides of the ball, intercepting Bobby Layne six times and forcing three fumbles. Otto Graham threw three touchdowns and ran for three more, en route to a 56–10 thrashing and the Browns' second NFL crown. The Browns kept rolling along in 1955. Chuck Noll had a productive season at linebacker with five interceptions, Graham passed for 15 touchdowns and ran for six more, and the team, who finished 9–2–1, won their third NFL Championship game in six seasons 38–14, against the Los Angeles Rams. In 10 years of existence, the Browns reached the title game every year (four in the AAFC, six in the NFL) and won seven of them. Graham retired before the 1956 season because of injuries, and the Browns floundered without him behind center. Three quarterbacks (George Ratterman, Babe Parilli, and Tommy O'Connell) were used, none of them throwing more touchdowns than interceptions. The team's 5–7 record was the team's first losing season ever. 1957–70: The Jim Brown Era The Browns responded in 1957 when they drafted fullback Jim Brown out of Syracuse University, who easily became the NFL's leading rusher (and NFL Rookie of the Year) with 942 yards in a 12-game regular season. Once again at the top of the division at 9–2–1, they advanced back to the championship game against Detroit. But the Lions dominated from start to finish, causing six turnovers and allowing the Browns' two quarterbacks (Tommy O'Connell and Milt Plum) only 95 yards passing in a 59–14 rout. In 1958 Jim Brown ran for 1,527 yards, almost twice as much as any other running back. In his nine seasons in the league, he crossed the 1,000-yard barrier seven times. The only snag in their getting back to another championship was the New York Giants. They lost to New York on the last week of the season after a spirited fourth-quarter comeback, then, due to their equal 9–3 records, faced the Giants again in a tiebreaker game with the winner going to the finals. However, the Giants limited Jim Brown to eight yards and the team committed four turnovers as they were shut out 10–0. In 1959 the Browns started 6–2 but finished 7–5, out of championship contention, despite Brown once again leading the league in rushing with 1,329 yards. In 1960, Plum threw for 21 touchdowns and Brown's 1,257 yards was still best in the NFL, but the team still finished second at 8–3–1. Art Modell purchased the team from David Jones (who had bought the team from McBride in 1953) in 1961. The beginnings of a power struggle between Paul Brown and Art Modell took its toll. Journalist D.L. Stewart recounted in Jeff Miller's book on the AFL, Going Long, "As you well can imagine, Jimmy Brown and Paul were not thick. The buzz was that Jimmy had Modell working for him, and Paul took exception to that." The season otherwise was typical: a fifth consecutive league-leading season from Jim Brown and a half-decent performance in the standings, but again, at 8–5–1, they were two games out of a berth in the championship. After a 7–6–1 record in 1962, Modell fired Brown and replaced him with longtime assistant Blanton Collier. Many of the Browns' younger players—such as Jim Brown and Frank Ryan had chafed under Brown's autocratic coaching style. Collier rode his team with a considerably looser rein. He also installed a much more open offense and allowed Ryan to call his own plays. In Collier's first season, the Browns went 10–4 and finished a game out of the conference title, led by Jim Brown's record 1,863 yards rushing. In 1964, the Browns went 10–3–1 and reached their first title game in 7 years. The Browns throttled the heavily favored Baltimore Colts 27–0, with receiver Gary Collins catching 3 TD passes to earn the MVP award. The Browns would go to three more NFL title games in Collier's eight-year tenure—including and , after Jim Brown retired. After the 1970 season, Collier retired due to increasing deafness; that same year the Browns finished 7–7 and was replaced by offensive coordinator Nick Skorich. 1971–84: The Kardiac Kids Skorich led the Browns to a division title in and a wild-card berth in . In the latter year, the Browns nearly defeated the Dolphins in the second round—the closest the Dolphins would come to losing a game that season (until the Dolphins played the Steelers in the Conf. Championship game, beating the Steelers by only 4 points compared to the Browns 6. They barely missed the playoffs in . However, the Browns' era of success came to a crashing halt as the team dropped to 4–10 in 1974. Neither Mike Phipps nor rookie QB Brian Sipe was effective; they threw 24 combined interceptions to only 10 touchdowns. The Browns allowed 344 points, most in the league. It was only the second losing season in franchise history, and it cost Skorich his job. Assistant coach Forrest Gregg took over in , but the Browns stumbled out of the gate with an 0–9 start that finally came to an end on November 23 in a 35–23 comeback victory over the Cincinnati Bengals. Three weeks later, third-year running back Greg Pruitt paced the team with 214 yards rushing in a rout over the Kansas City Chiefs, helping the team finish the season 3–11. Cleveland showed marked improvement with a 9–5 mark in as Brian Sipe firmly took control at quarterback. Sipe had been inserted into the lineup after a Phipps injury in the season-opening win against the New York Jets on September 12. After a 1–3 start brought visions of another disastrous year, the Browns jolted the two-time defending Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers with an 18–16 victory on October 10. Third-string quarterback Dave Mays helped lead the team to that victory, while defensive end Joe "Turkey" Jones's pile-driving sack of quarterback Terry Bradshaw fueled the heated rivalry between the two teams. That win was the first of eight in the next nine weeks, helping put the Browns in contention for the AFC playoffs. A loss to the Kansas City Chiefs in the regular season finale cost them a share of the division title, but running back Greg Pruitt continued his outstanding play by rushing for exactly 1,000 yards, his second-straight four-digit season. The Browns continued to roll in the first half of the 1977 NFL season, but an injury to Brian Sipe by Pittsburgh's Jack Lambert on November 13 proved to be disastrous. Cleveland won only one of their last five games to finish at 6–8, a collapse that led to Forrest Gregg's dismissal before the final game of the season. Dick Modzelewski served as interim coach in the team's 20–19 loss to the Seattle Seahawks. On December 27, 1977, Sam Rutigliano was named head coach, and he aided a healthy Sipe in throwing 21 touchdowns and garnering 2,900 yards during the 1978 NFL season. Greg Pruitt and Mike Pruitt led a rushing attack that gained almost 2,500 yards, but problems with the team's dismal pass defense resulted in the Browns finishing 8–8 on the year. The 1979 campaign started with four consecutive wins, three of which were in the final minute or overtime. Four more games were won by less than a touchdown. This penchant for playing close games would later earn them the nickname "Kardiac Kids". Sipe threw 28 touchdown passes, tying him with Steve Grogan of New England for most in the league, but his 26 interceptions were the worst in the league. Mike Pruitt had a Pro Bowl season with his 1,294 rushing yards, while the defense was still shaky, ranking near the bottom in rushing defense. The team finished 9–7, behind division rivals Houston and Pittsburgh in a tough AFC Central. The 1980 season is still fondly remembered by Browns fans. After going 3–3 in the first six games, the Browns won three straight games with fourth-quarter comebacks, and stopped a late comeback by the Baltimore Colts to win a fourth. The Browns won two more games in that fashion by the end of the season, and even lost a game to the Minnesota Vikings on the last play when a Hail Mary pass was tipped into the waiting hands of Ahmad Rashad. Sipe passed for 4,000 yards and 30 touchdowns with only 14 interceptions(enough for him to be named the NFL MVP), behind an offensive line that sent three members to the Pro Bowl: Doug Dieken, Tom DeLeone and Joe DeLamielleure. The "Kardiac Kids" name stuck. A fourth-quarter field goal by Don Cockroft in the final game against the Cincinnati Bengals helped the Browns capture the division with an 11–5 mark, with the Oakland Raiders their opponent in the team's first playoff game in eight years. However, a heartbreaking end of this dramatic season came in the closing seconds when Sipe called what became known as "Red Right 88" and passed toward the end zone, only to watch Oakland's Mike Davis intercept the ball. The Raiders went on to win the Super Bowl, and "Red Right 88" has numbered among the list of Cleveland sports curses ever since. If 1980 was a dream season, then was a nightmare. Sipe threw only 17 touchdowns while being picked off 25 times. The Browns went 5–11, and few of their games were particularly close. Tight end Ozzie Newsome, their only Pro Bowler, had 1,004 yards receiving for six touchdowns. In Sipe split quarterbacking duties with Paul McDonald, and both put up similar numbers. The Browns had little success rushing or defending against it, finishing in the bottom five teams in both yardage categories. Despite going 4–5, Cleveland was able to make the playoffs due to an expanded playoff system in the strike-shortened year. They were matched up with the Raiders in the playoffs, but were easily defeated 27–10. Sipe and the Browns got some of their spark back in . Sipe had 26 touchdown passes and 3,566 yards, while Mike Pruitt ran for 10 scores on 1,184 yards. Cleveland even won two games in overtime and another in the fourth quarter. A fourth-quarter loss to the Houston Oilers in their second-to-last game dashed their playoff hopes. At 9–7 the Browns finished one game behind the Steelers, and lost out on a wild-card spot due to a tiebreaker. 1984 was a rebuilding year. Brian Sipe defected to the upstart USFL after the 1983 season, and Paul McDonald was named the starting quarterback. Mike Pruitt missed much of the season and later ended up with the Buffalo Bills. Coach Sam Rutigliano lost his job after a 1–7 start as Marty Schottenheimer took over. The Browns coasted to a 5–11 record. 1985–90: Kosar and the Broncos Rivalry In 1985, the Browns selected University of Miami quarterback Bernie Kosar in the Supplemental Draft. As a rookie, Kosar learned through trial by fire as he took over for Gary Danielson midway through the 1985 season. Progressing a bit more each Sunday, the young quarterback helped turn the struggling season around, as the Browns won four of the six games Kosar started. Two young rushers, Earnest Byner and Kevin Mack, played a large part in the team's success as well; each ran for 1,000+ yards, a feat that would not be repeated until the 2008-09 season, when Brandon Jacobs and Derrick Ward of the New York Giants each broke the 1,000-yard barrier. The Browns' 8–8 record gave the team the top spot in a weak AFC Central, and they looked poised to shock the heavily favored Miami Dolphins in the 1986 Divisional Playoff game with a 21–3 lead at halftime. It took Dan Marino's spirited second-half comeback to win the game for Miami 24–21. While the Browns faithful may have felt the initial sting of disappointment, there was tremendous upside in the loss: Schottenheimer's team, with Kosar at quarterback, reached the playoffs each of the next five seasons, advancing to the AFC Championship game in three of those years. The Browns broke into the ranks of the NFL's elite—particularly on defense—with a 12–4 showing in . Behind Kosar's 3,854 yards passing and a defense with five Pro Bowlers (Chip Banks, Hanford Dixon, Bob Golic, Clay Matthews and Frank Minnifield), the Browns dominated the AFC Central with the best record in the AFC, and one of the NFL's stingiest defenses. With these on their side, the Browns clinched home-field advantage throughout the playoffs. In the 1987 Divisional Playoff game, the Browns needed some serious heroics (and a bit of luck) to overcome the New York Jets. The Jets were leading 20–10 with less than four minutes to play, with the Browns in a dire 3rd and 24 situation. As fate would have it, Mark Gastineau was called for roughing the passer, which gave Cleveland a first down. The drive ended with Kevin Mack running into the end zone for a touchdown. After going three-and-out the Jets went back on defense, but allowed the rejuvenated Browns to again drive the ball deep into their end of the field. With 11 seconds remaining in regulation, Mark Moseley kicked a field goal to tie the game. In the first of two ensuing overtime periods, Moseley missed his next attempt, but later redeemed himself by ending what had become the second longest game in NFL history. Final score Browns 23 Jets 20. The 1987 AFC Championship game saw the Denver Broncos arrive in the windswept, hostile confines of Cleveland Municipal Stadium. No one knew at the time, but the Broncos would become Cleveland's arch-nemesis of the Kosar era, having only lost once to the Browns in a span that still continues to this day. As it had been the previous week, the showdown proved again to be it was an overtime heart-stopper. But this time, it was John Elway and the Broncos who came away the victors. Pinned in on their own two yard line with 5:11 left to play and the wind in his face, Elway led his now famous 98-yard drive, which is now known by NFL historians as simply "The Drive"). With 37 seconds on the clock, Elway's 5-yard touchdown pass to Mark Jackson tied the game at 20 apiece. The 79,973 Browns fans in attendance were silenced when Rich Karlis' field goal attempt just made it inside the right-side upright to win the game for Denver early into overtime. The Browns success was replicated in , with 22 touchdown passes and 3,000 yards for Kosar, and eight Pro Bowlers: Kosar, Mack, Dixon, Golic, Minnifield, linebacker Clay Matthews, wide receiver Gerald McNeil and offensive lineman Cody Risien. At 10–5, the Browns won the AFC Central again. Cleveland easily defeated the Indianapolis Colts 38–21 in the divisional playoff and traveled to Denver for a rematch with the Broncos in the AFC Championship. With the score 21–3 in favor of the Broncos at halftime, Kosar led a third-quarter comeback with two touchdowns by Earnest Byner and another by Reggie Langhorne. Early in the fourth quarter, Webster Slaughter's 4-yard touchdown catch tied it at 31–31. The Broncos regained the lead with a 20-yard Sammy Winder touchdown with less than five minutes to go, setting the stage for another Browns comeback... or so they thought. Kosar drove the Browns to the Broncos' 8 yard line with 1:12 to go, and handed off to Byner. When it looked like he had an open route to the end zone, he was stripped of the ball by Jeremiah Castille. The Broncos recovered what became known as "The Fumble". After taking an intentional safety, the Broncos had shocked the Browns again, 38–33. Injuries to Kosar and two of his backups sidelined them for much of the season, but the Browns still finished 10–6. A final-week comeback victory in a snowstorm at Cleveland Stadium over the Houston Oilers clinched them a wild-card playoff spot, and a home game rematch against the Oilers in the first round. After Mike Pagel, in for an injured Don Strock (recently signed ex-Dolphins quarterback), threw a touchdown pass to Webster Slaughter late in the fourth quarter to pull the Browns within a point at 24–23, the Browns had three chances to recover an onside kick (due to penalties), but the Oilers recovered and stopped the Cleveland comeback. Schottenheimer left the Browns by mutual agreement with Modell shortly after the loss to the Oilers. Modell was tired of losing in the playoffs, and Schottenheimer was tired of what he perceived as Modell's interference with his coaching personnel and game strategy. Schottenheimer was quickly hired by the Kansas City Chiefs for the season. Bud Carson was his replacement in Cleveland, but his tenure was short - only one and a half years. The 1989 season, headlined by Slaughter's Pro Bowl-worthy 1,236 yards receiving, was a success at 7–3 until a 10–10 tie with Schottenheimer's Chiefs in November led to a 3-game losing streak. Two comeback wins over the Minnesota Vikings and Houston Oilers in the season's final two weeks kept them in the playoff race. The tie ended up being the Browns' saving grace, with their 9–6–1 record winning them the AFC Central title and first-round bye over the Oilers and Pittsburgh Steelers at 9–7. The Browns narrowly survived a scare from the Buffalo Bills in their divisional playoff game, when Scott Norwood missed an extra point that would have pulled Buffalo within 3 points and, later, when Jim Kelly's desperation pass to the end zone on the final play of the game was intercepted. Cleveland's 34–30 win set them up for a rematch with the Broncos in Denver for the AFC Championship. While their two previous matchups went down to the wire, this one was never in doubt. The Broncos led from start to finish, and a long Elway touchdown pass to Sammy Winder put the game away in the fourth quarter. Denver easily won 37–21. In things began to unravel. Kosar threw more interceptions (15) than touchdowns (10) for the first time in his career; and the team finished last in the league in rushing offense, and near the bottom in rushing defense. Carson was fired after a 2–7 start, and the team finished 3–13, second-worst in the league. After the season Bill Belichick, defensive coordinator of the then-Super Bowl champion New York Giants, was named head coach. 1991–95: Bill Belichick and Modell's move The Browns saw only a slight improvement under Belichick in , finishing 6–10. Kosar was markedly better, with a ratio of 18 touchdowns to 9 interceptions, and Leroy Hoard had a breakout season. The next season, with Kosar sitting out much of the season and Mike Tomczak in under center, Cleveland was in the thick of the AFC Central race before dropping their final three games to finish 7–9. The season saw Belichick make the controversial decision of cutting Kosar while back-up Vinny Testaverde, who had been signed from the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, was injured. The Browns were in first place at the time and the Browns faltered as Todd Philcox became the starter. Kosar was signed by the Dallas Cowboys and a few days later led the Cowboys to a win in place of an injured Troy Aikman. Kosar would win a ring that season as the Cowboys won the Super Bowl with a healthy Aikman. Cleveland won only two of its final nine games finishing 7–9 once again. Cleveland managed to right the ship in , although the quarterback situation hadn't quite improved. A solid defense led the league for fewest yards allowed per attempt, sending four players (Rob Burnett, Pepper Johnson, Michael Dean Perry, and Eric Turner) to the Pro Bowl. The Browns finished 11–5, making the playoffs for the first time in four seasons. In the AFC Wild Card game against the New England Patriots, the Browns' defense picked off Drew Bledsoe three times, with Testaverde completing two-thirds of his passes, to win 20–13. Arch-rival Pittsburgh ended the Browns' season the following week, however, with a 29–9 blowout in the AFC Divisional game. Modell announced on November 6, 1995, that he had signed a deal to relocate the Browns to Baltimore in —a move which would return the NFL to Baltimore for the first time since the Colts relocated to Indianapolis after the 1983 season. The very next day, on November 7, 1995, Cleveland voters overwhelmingly approved an issue that had been placed on the ballot at Modell's request, before he made his decision to move the franchise, which provided $175 million in tax dollars to refurbish the outmoded and declining Cleveland Municipal Stadium. Modell's plan was later scrapped and taxpayers ultimately paid close to $300 million to demolish the old stadium and construct a new stadium for the Browns on the site of Municipal Stadium. Browns fans reacted angrily to the news. Over 100 lawsuits were filed by fans, the city of Cleveland, and a host of others. Congress held hearings on the matter. Actor/comedian Drew Carey returned to his hometown of Cleveland on November 26, 1995, to host "Fan Jam" in protest of the proposed move. A protest was held in Pittsburgh during the Browns' game there but ABC, the network broadcasting the game, declined to cover or mention the protest. It was one of the few instances that Steelers fans and Browns fans were supporting each other, as fans in Pittsburgh felt that Modell was robbing their team of their rivalry with the Browns. Virtually all of the team's sponsors immediately pulled their support, leaving Municipal Stadium devoid of advertising during the team's final weeks. The season was a disaster on the field as well. After starting 3–1, the Browns lost 3 straight before the news broke about the team's impending move cut the legs out from under the team. They finished 5–11, including a 2–7 record in the nine games after the announcement. When fans in the Dawg Pound became unruly during their final home game against the Cincinnati Bengals, action moving towards that end zone had to be moved to the opposite end of the field. Several fans set fires in the stands, especially in the "Dawg Pound" section, and assaulted security officials and police officers who tried to quell the growing fires. The Browns won their final home game. 1996–1999 (Inactivity) After extensive talks between the NFL, the Browns and officials of the two cities, Cleveland accepted a legal settlement that would keep the Browns legacy in Cleveland. Morgan, Jon. Deal clears NFL path to Baltimore, The Baltimore Sun, February 9, 1996. In February 1996, the NFL announced that the Browns would be 'deactivated' for three years, and that a new stadium would be built for a new Browns team, as either an expansion team or a team moved from another city, that would begin play in 1999. Modell would in turn be granted a new franchise, (the 31st NFL franchise), for Baltimore, the Baltimore Ravens, retaining the current contracts of players and personnel. There would be a new team, but the Browns' name, colors, history, records, awards and archives would remain in Cleveland. Coincidentally, the only other current NFL team to suspend operations without merging with another, the St. Louis Rams, had once played in Cleveland (they suspended during the 1943 season, at the height of World War II). During this period the threat of relocation to Cleveland was used by several teams, such as the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Denver Broncos, to help convince the taxpayers in those areas to fund new stadiums. Katherine C. Leone, "Franchise Free Agency in the National Football League", 97 Columbia L. Rev. 473 (1997) Cleveland NFL Football LLC (Cleveland Browns Trust) was formed by the NFL. President of the Trust was Bill Futterer, and NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue was the Trustee. The Trust represented the NFL in the stadium design and construction, managed the sale of suites and club seats, and sold Permanent Seat Licenses and season tickets. Additionally, the Trust reorganized the Browns Backers fan clubs across the United States, resumed coaches shows on television and radio throughout the state of Ohio, and conducted a dramatic one-year countdown celebration that incorporated the first live Internet broadcast in NFL history. The Trust operated its campaign under a Countdown to '99 theme, utilizing Hall of Famers such as Lou Groza and Jim Brown extensively, and sold nearly 53,000 season tickets—a team record in 1998. It remains the only time in professional American football history that a league operated a team "in absentia" in order to preserve the history of the franchise and to build value in that franchise for the future owner. The NFL sold the Browns as an expansion team in 1998 for a North American record $530 million for a professional franchise, more than double any previous selling price for a pro sports team. Commissioner Tagliabue announced that the Browns would be an expansion team, rather than a relocated team, at the owners meeting in March 1998. Some consider the current Baltimore Ravens and the pre-1995 Cleveland Browns organization as one continuous entity, using terms like "The Modell organization" or "Art Modell's Franchise" to denote it. Officially, the National Football League, Pro Football Hall of Fame, Cleveland Browns and Baltimore Ravens all consider the current Browns team to be a continuation of the team founded in 1946. 1999–2004: Rejoining the NFL The Browns on the field in 2004 against the Washington Redskins. Cleveland returned to the NFL in 1999 with high hopes and expectations, featuring deep-pocketed ownership in Al Lerner. The team's football operations appeared to be in solid hands in the form of president and CEO Carmen Policy and general manager Dwight Clark, both of whom had come from the San Francisco 49ers. Chris Palmer, former offensive coordinator of the Jacksonville Jaguars, was hired as head coach. The team was rebuilt from an special expansion draft and the regular NFL draft; the latter included the number one selection, QB Tim Couch. It was to be expected that the resurrected Browns would struggle at first, as for all practical purposes they were an expansion team. However, the Browns' first two seasons were awful even by expansion standards. 1999 saw the Browns start 0–7 en route to a 2–14 finish, the worst in franchise history. was slightly better, with a 3–13 finish—the lone highlight being the Browns' first home win in five years, against the Steelers on September 17. Compounding the fans' frustration was the Baltimore Ravens' win over the New York Giants in Super Bowl XXXV that season. Though the Ravens were considered a "new franchise", the team still had players such as Matt Stover and Rob Burnett who had played for the Browns before the Modell move. Palmer was fired after the season and replaced by University of Miami coach Butch Davis. Under Davis the Browns became more competitive, finishing 7–9 in , three games out of the playoffs. With the team apparently close to being a contender again, Clark was forced to resign after the season, and Davis was named general manager as well as coach. In , the Browns finished 9–7, and thanks to multiple tiebreakers they made the playoffs for the first time since 1994. Facing Pittsburgh in the first round, the Browns led 33–21 with five minutes to go, but ultimately lost 36–33. The Browns did not sustain the momentum, finishing with double-digit losing records in and . Davis resigned in December 2004 with the team shouldering a 3–8 record; Policy had resigned earlier in the year. Offensive Coordinator Terry Robiskie, was named interim head coach for the remainder of the 2004 season. 2005–present Close-up look at Cleveland Browns Stadium Before the 2005 season began, Romeo Crennel, a one-time Browns assistant coach under Chris Palmer and, at the time, defensive coordinator for the New England Patriots, was named the Browns head coach. Despite the change, the 2005 and 2006 seasons saw the Browns losing trend continue. Prior to the Browns' final game of the 2005 NFL season, ESPN reported that team president John Collins was going to fire general manager Phil Savage. However, the resulting uproar from fans and local media was strong, and on January 3, 2006 Collins resigned instead. The role of team "President and CEO" was vacated, with owner Randy Lerner filling in as de facto CEO for the time being. In the 2007 season, the team saw a remarkable turnaround on the field. After opening the season with a 34–7 defeat to the Pittsburgh Steelers, the Browns traded starting quarterback Charlie Frye to the Seattle Seahawks, with backup Derek Anderson assuming the starting role. In his first start, Anderson led the Browns to a 51–45 win over the Cincinnati Bengals, throwing five touchdown passes, which tied the franchise record. In this same game, alumni from Oregon State University combined for a total of nine touchdowns. The Browns finished the 2007 season 10–6, barely missing the playoffs on tie-breaker rules. Nevertheless, the 10–6 record was the team's best record since 1994. Six players earned Pro Bowl recognition, with Anderson starting for the AFC in place of New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady. Coach Crennel agreed to a two-year contract extension. The Browns entered the 2008 season with high expectations, and many pundits predicted the team would win the division. The highlight of the season was an upset of the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants. However, inconsistent play and key injuries led to a disappointing 4-12 record. The Browns used four starting quarterbacks: Derek Anderson, Brady Quinn and Ken Dorsey were lost to injury; the fourth, Bruce Gradkowski was hired mid-season. Ending with six straight losses, the Browns finished with two consecutive shutouts (a franchise first) and 24 consecutive quarters without an offensive touchdown. General Manager Phil Savage and Head Coach Romeo Crennel were subsequently fired. On January 7, 2009, the Browns hired former New York Jets coach Eric Mangini to a four-year contract as the new head coach. Browns, Mangini reach agreement - ClevelandBrowns.com . In the 2009 NFL Draft, the Browns traded away their fifth overall draft pick to the Jets. With the 21st overall pick, the Browns drafted center Alex Mack of California. With three second round picks, the Browns drafted Ohio State wide receiver Brian Robiskie, Georgia wide receiver Mohamed Massaquoi, and Hawaii linebacker David Veikune. Browns, 2009 NFL draft - ClevelandBrowns.com . Logos and uniforms Cleveland Browns uniform combination Cleveland Browns uniform: 1975-1983 Cleveland Browns uniform: 1985-1995 Cleveland Browns alternate uniform: 2002-2005 The Browns are the only team in the NFL that does not have a logo on their helmets. Even though the team has had various logos throughout the years, such as the "Brownie Elf" mascot (a logo that Art Modell did away with in the mid-1960s, feeling it was too childish; however, its use has been revived under the current ownership.) and the Brown "B" in a white football, the club's orange "logo-less" helmet has become its primary trademark. There was an attempt by Modell to put a brown "CB" logo on the helmet in 1965, but the players removed them before the first preseason game so they never saw any kind of game action. It was widely believed that the "CB Logo Helmets" (as they're known by many Browns Fans.) were used in a Preseason Game vs The Green Bay Packers in 1965, but photographic evidence shows that this is not the case. The "CB" Logo is what Art Modell tried to use as a replacement for the "Brownie Elf" mascot. Since debuting in 1946, the Browns' uniforms have essentially remained the same. However, the team originally wore white leather helmets before switching to orange plastic-shell helmets (with a white center stripe) on a full-time basis in 1952. (In the 1950 and 1951 seasons, the Browns wore the white helmets in day games and plain orange helmets in night games because of an NFL rule prohibiting the use of white or light-colored helmets for night games because of the lighting and the use of a white football for night games. Also because of night games, they experimented with silver game pants in the 1950 & '51 seasons, and a third orange jersey for night games in the 1954 season.) From 1957 to 1960, the players' numbers were on the sides of their helmets. In 1960, the Browns went to the now familiar brown-white-brown stripe sequence on the helmets. The original designs of the jerseys, pants, and socks have remained mostly intact although the helmet has undergone significant revisions: Jerseys: 1. Brown (officially "seal brown") with white numerals and a white-orange-white-orange-white stripe sequence on the sleeves. 2. White with brown numerals and a brown-orange-brown-orange-brown stripe sequence on the sleeves. The three white or brown stripes are approximately twice the width of the two orange stripes. (The original 1946 jerseys featured block-shadow numerals.) Pants: White with an orange-brown-orange stripe sequence on the sides. The stripes are of equal width. Socks: Brown or white with matching stripe pattern to jerseys (1946–1983; 1985–1995; 1999–2002 mid-season); solid brown with brown jerseys and solid orange with white jerseys (1984); solid brown (2002 mid-season–2008) Exceptions: White striped socks appeared occasionally with the white jerseys in 2003–2005 and again in 2007. Brown striped socks appeared with 1957-style throwback uniforms in 2006-2008. Helmet: Solid white (1946–1949); solid white for day games and solid orange for night games (1950–1951); orange with a single white stripe (1952–1956); orange with a single white stripe and brown numerals on the sides (1957–1959); orange with a brown-white-brown stripe sequence and brown numerals on the sides (1960); orange with a brown-white-brown stripe sequence (1961–1995 and 1999–present). Over the years, the Browns have had on-again/off-again periods of wearing white in their home games, particularly in the 1970s and 80s, as well as in the early 2000s after the team returned to the league. Until recently, when more NFL teams started to wear white at home at least once a season, the Browns were the only non-subtropical team north of the Mason-Dixon line to wear white at home on a regular basis. Since 1999, the team has worn white, brown and orange jerseys at home. Numerals first appeared on the jersey sleeves in 1961. Over the years, there have been minor revisions to the sleeve stripes, the first occurring in 1968 (brown jerseys worn in early season) and 1969 (white and brown jerseys) when stripes began to be silk screened onto the sleeves and separated from each other to prevent color bleeding. However, the basic five-stripe sequence has remained intact (with the exception of the 1984 season). A recent revision was the addition of the initials "AL" to honor team owner Al Lerner who died in 2002. Orange pants with a brown-white-brown stripe sequence were worn from 1975–1983 and become symbolic of the Kardiac Kids era. The orange pants were worn again occasionally in 2003 and 2004. Other than the helmet, the uniform was completely redesigned for the 1984 season. New striping patterns appeared on the white jerseys, brown jerseys and pants. Solid brown socks were worn with brown jerseys and solid orange socks were worn with white jerseys. Brown numerals on the white jerseys were outlined in orange. White numerals on the brown jerseys were double outlined in brown and orange. (Orange numerals double outlined in brown and white appeared briefly on the brown jerseys in the pre-season.) This particular uniform set was not popular with the fans. In 1985, the uniform returned to a look similar to the original design and remained that way through 1995. In 1999, the expansion Browns adopted the traditional design with two exceptions: 1. Jersey-sleeve numbers were moved to the shoulders. 2. The orange-brown-orange pants stripes were significantly widened. Experimentation with the uniform design began in 2002. An alternate orange jersey was introduced that season as the NFL encouraged teams to adopt a third jersey. Also in 2002, a major design change was made when solid brown socks appeared for the first time since 1984 and were used with white, brown and orange jerseys. Other than 1984, striped socks (matching the jersey stripes) had been a signature design element in the team's traditional uniform. The white striped socks appeared occasionally with the white jerseys in 2003–2005 and again in 2007. Experimentation continued in 2003 and 2004 when the traditional orange-brown-orange stripes on the white pants were replaced by two variations of a brown-orange-brown sequence, one in which the stripes were joined (worn with white jerseys) and the other in which they were separated by white (worn with brown jerseys). The joined sequence was used exclusively with both jerseys in 2005. In 2006, the traditional orange-brown-orange sequence returned. In 2006, the team reverted to an older uniform style, featuring gray face masks; the original stripe pattern on the brown jersey sleeves (The white jersey has had that sleeve stripe pattern on a consistent basis since the 1985 season.) and the older, darker shade of brown. http://www.cleveland.com/browns/plaindealer/index.ssf?/base/sports/1143967223212420.xml&coll=2&thispage=3 The Browns wore brown pants for the first time in team history on August 18, 2008, during a Monday night nationally-televised preseason game against the New York Giants at Giants Stadium. The pants contain no stripes or markings. The team had the brown pants created as an option for their away uniform when they integrated the gray facemask in 2006. They have not been worn in a regular-season game. Fans Perhaps the most visible Browns fans are those that can be found in the Dawg Pound. Originally the name for the bleacher section located in the open (east) end of old Cleveland Municipal Stadium, the current incarnation of is likewise located in the east end of Cleveland Browns Stadium and still features hundreds of orange and brown clad fans sporting various canine-related paraphernalia. The fans adopted that name in 1984 after members of the Browns defense used it to describe the team's defense. Retired cornerback Hanford Dixon, who played his entire career for the Browns (1981–1989), is credited with naming the Cleveland Browns defense 'The Dawgs' in the mid-80's. Dixon and fellow teammates Frank Minnifield, and Eddie Johnson would bark at each other and to the fans in the bleachers at the Cleveland Stadium to fire them up. It was from Dixon's naming that the Dawg Pound subsequently took its title. The fans adopted that name in the years after. The most prominent organization of Browns fans is the Browns Backers Worldwide (BBW). The organization has approximately 93,100 members and is considered the largest sports-fan organization in the USA. Browns Backers clubs can be found in every major city in the United States, and in a number of military bases throughout the world, with the largest club being in Phoenix, Arizona. In addition, the organization has a sizable foreign presence in places as far away as Egypt, Australia, Japan, and Sri Lanka. According to The Official Fan Club of the Cleveland Browns, the two largest international fan clubs are in Alon Shvut, Israel and Niagara, Canada, with Alon Shvut having 129 members and Niagara having 310. A 2006 study conducted by Bizjournal determined that Browns fans are the most loyal fans in the NFL. The study, while not scientific, was largely based on fan loyalty during winning and losing seasons (however, it does not account for the ratio of winning to losing seasons by a team), attendance at games, and challenges confronting fans (such as inclement weather or long-term poor performance of their team). The study noted that Browns fans filled 99.8% of the seats at Cleveland Browns Stadium during the last seven seasons, despite a combined record of 36 wins and 76 losses over that span. Notable famous Browns fans include: Hank Aaron, Hall of Fame baseball player; Drew Carey, host of The Price is Right; Brad Paisley, country musician; Brad Friedel, Aston Villa goalkeeper; Martin Mull, entertainer; and Condoleezza Rice, former U.S. Secretary of State. Players of note Current roster Players enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame The Cleveland Browns have the fourth largest number of players enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame with a total of sixteen enshrined players elected based on their performance with the Browns, and five more players elected who spent at least one year with the Browns franchise. No Browns players were inducted in the inaugural induction class of 1963. Otto Graham was the first Brown to be enshrined as a member of the class of 1965, and the most recent Brown to be included in the Pro Football Hall of Fame is Gene Hickerson, who was a member of the class of 2007. Pro Football Hall of Famers Inducted No. Player name Tenure Position(s) 1965 60, 14 Otto Graham 1946–1955 Quarterback 1967 — Paul Brown 1946–1962 Head coach 1968 76, 36 Marion Motley 1946–1953 Fullback 1971 32 Jim Brown 1957–1965 Fullback 1974 46, 76 Lou Groza 1946–19591961–1967 Offensive tacklePlacekicker 1975 56, 86 Dante Lavelli 1946–1956 Wide receiver 1976 53, 80 Len Ford 1950–1957 Defensive end 1977 30, 45, 60 Bill Willis 1946–1953 Middle guardOffensive guard 1981 77 Willie Davis† 1958–1959 Defensive end 1982 83 Doug Atkins† 1953–1954 Defensive end 1983 49 Bobby Mitchell 1958–1961 Wide receiverHalfback 1983 42 Paul Warfield 1964–19691976–1977 Wide receiver 1984 74 Mike McCormack 1954–1962 Offensive tackle 1985 22, 52 Frank Gatski 1946–1956 Offensive center 1987 18 Len Dawson† 1960–1961 Quarterback 1994 44 Leroy Kelly 1964–1973 Running back 1995 72 Henry Jordan† 1957–1958 Defensive tackle 1998 29 Tommy McDonald† 1968 Wide receiver 1999 82 Ozzie Newsome 1978–1990 Tight end 2003 64 Joe DeLamielleure 1980–1984 Offensive guard 2007 66 Gene Hickerson 1958–19601962–1973 Offensive guard † Performance with Browns incidental to induction Cleveland Browns Legends The Legends program honors former Browns who made noteworthy contributions to the history of the franchise. In addition to all the Hall of Famers listed above, the Legends list includes: Cleveland Browns Legends Inducted Player name Position(s) 2001 Bernie Kosar Quarterback 2001 Michael Dean Perry Defensive end 2001 Greg Pruitt Running back 2001 Ray Renfro Wide receiver 2002 Clay Matthews Linebacker 2002 Brian Sipe Quarterback 2002 Mac Speedie Wide receiver 2003 Hanford Dixon Defensive back 2003 Bob Gain Defensive tackle 2003 Dick Schafrath Offensive tackle 2004 Gary Collins Wide Receiver 2004 Tommy James Defensive back/Punter 2004 Mike Pruitt Running back 2005 Frank Minnifield Defensive back 2005 Frank Ryan Quarterback 2005 Jerry Sherk Defensive lineman 2005 Jim Ray Smith Offensive tackle 2006 Doug Dieken Offensive tackle 2006 Jim Houston Linebacker 2006 Walt Michaels Linebacker 2007 Don Cockroft Kicker 2007 Horace Gillom Punter 2007 Bill Glass Defensive end 2007 Kevin Mack Running back 2008 Walter Johnson Defensive tackle 2008 Warren Lahr Defensive back 2008 Eric Metcalf Running back 2008 Paul Wiggin Defensive end Retired uniform numbers Starting quarterbacks First-round draft picks Coaches of note Head coaches Paul Brown 1946–1962 Blanton Collier 1963–1970 Nick Skorich 1971–1974 Forrest Gregg 1975–1977 Dick Modzelewski 1977 (Interim) Sam Rutigliano 1978–1984 Marty Schottenheimer 1984–1988 Bud Carson 1989–1990 Jim Shofner 1990 (Interim) Bill Belichick 1991–1995 Chris Palmer 1999–2000 Butch Davis 2001–2004 Terry Robiskie 2004 (Interim) Romeo Crennel 2005–2008 Eric Mangini 2009–Present Current staff Radio and television Since 2001, the Browns' flagship radio stations are WMMS, 100.7 FM, a hot talk/rock station, and news/talk station WTAM 1100 AM. Jim Donovan, sports director of WKYC Channel 3, is the play-by-play announcer, former Browns offensive tackle Doug Dieken is the color analyst, and WTAM sports anchor/reporter Andre Knott serves as sideline reporter. WTAM morning co-host/sports director Mike Snyder and former Browns quarterback Mike Pagel host the pregame, halftime, and postgame shows. During the preseason and early September games, WTAM will broadcast the Cleveland Indians games while WMMS will broadcast Browns games when both teams play at the same time. In 2006, preseason telecasts moved to WKYC (with Jim Donovan and Bernie Kosar in the booth, and WKYC weekend sports anchor Dave Chudowski as sideline reporter) from WOIO after a controversy arose over the 911 calls at the drowning death of the team owner's niece (see above). When Donovan does TV, Mike Snyder does the radio play-by-play, and WTAM evening host Bob Frantz handles pregame/halftime/postgame duties. SportsTime Ohio is the official cable home of the team, and airs numerous weekly Browns related programs. WJW-TV Channel 8 ("Fox 8") locally televises any regular season games which are nationally broadcast by ESPN or NFL Network. Cleveland native Arsenio Hall's television program, The Arsenio Hall Show, was known for the audience's shouting "Woof, woof, woof!" while pumping their fists--a chant that was used by fans of the Cleveland Browns football team. He would refer to a section of the live audience as his "dawg pound." References External links Cleveland Browns official web site Sports E-Cyclopedia.com | Cleveland_Browns |@lemmatized cleveland:65 brown:248 professional:5 american:5 football:24 team:95 base:6 ohio:6 play:22 afc:18 north:3 division:7 conference:5 national:3 league:20 nfl:57 begin:6 charter:2 member:8 america:2 aafc:14 join:4 fold:1 win:42 total:4 eight:6 championship:23 four:16 title:10 include:13 undefeated:2 season:88 additional:1 prior:3 afl:3 merger:3 one:15 three:22 ten:1 former:7 form:3 despite:6 historical:1 successes:1 club:8 game:89 since:11 however:17 compete:1 time:26 lose:19 along:2 two:28 super:10 bowl:15 era:5 five:12 yet:1 qualify:1 additionally:2 host:8 make:10 city:8 neither:2 send:3 history:13 year:33 found:2 businessman:2 arthur:1 b:2 mickey:1 mcbride:4 long:5 gain:3 franchise:17 name:21 state:7 buckeye:2 coach:22 paul:13 vice:1 president:5 general:5 manager:5 head:10 conduct:3 contest:2 popular:3 submission:1 recognition:2 already:1 establish:1 figure:1 sport:11 first:36 object:1 select:2 entries:1 panther:2 area:4 inform:1 right:7 early:6 fail:1 rescind:1 objection:1 agree:3 use:15 parlay:1 tie:11 navy:1 world:3 war:2 ii:2 extensive:2 recruitment:1 network:3 ever:3 see:2 pro:15 assemble:1 term:4 talent:1 would:24 match:4 quarterback:23 otto:4 graham:7 kicker:2 offensive:16 tackle:9 lou:4 groza:4 wide:11 receiver:11 mac:2 speedie:2 fullback:4 marion:2 motley:3 nose:1 guard:4 bill:9 willis:2 dominate:3 become:12 unbeaten:1 untied:1 perfect:1 miami:5 dolphin:6 streak:2 reach:5 straight:6 run:12 issue:2 occasional:1 challenge:2 turn:3 almost:3 hand:4 thanks:2 large:6 part:2 promotional:1 effort:1 show:6 terrific:1 support:3 moment:1 create:2 saw:8 record:21 setting:1 average:1 attendance:3 neft:1 david:3 cohen:1 richard:1 korch:1 rick:1 complete:2 present:4 pg:1 unexpectedly:1 ram:5 continually:1 money:1 move:12 booming:1 los:4 angeles:4 locate:3 st:2 louis:2 brownthe:1 dissolve:1 due:6 largely:2 near:3 absolute:1 domination:1 jim:18 crowley:1 commissioner:3 later:8 say:1 hold:3 draft:11 rather:2 simply:2 encourage:2 sign:5 many:5 top:3 player:17 possible:1 may:3 well:7 survive:2 take:10 foregone:1 conclusion:1 defend:4 champion:4 philadelphia:1 eagle:4 overwhelming:1 consensus:1 blow:1 field:11 still:9 think:2 merely:1 dominant:1 minor:2 determine:2 prove:3 belong:1 shred:1 vaunt:1 defense:14 yard:35 offense:4 en:3 route:4 blowout:2 behind:6 potent:1 future:2 hall:11 famers:4 dante:2 lavelli:2 pick:7 leave:5 go:20 regular:7 defeat:5 new:24 york:11 giant:10 playoff:21 beat:2 previous:5 tenant:1 recognize:1 technically:1 successful:1 expansion:9 sense:1 next:6 face:6 rematch:5 touchdown:28 pas:8 norm:1 van:1 brocklin:1 tom:3 fear:1 fourth:12 quarter:12 put:6 lead:21 good:2 loss:9 also:4 advance:3 finish:31 detroit:4 lion:5 muffed:1 punt:1 several:3 defensive:18 stand:2 doak:1 walker:1 combine:2 help:7 frustrate:1 second:14 consecutive:6 upside:2 ray:3 renfro:2 star:1 receive:3 rush:10 start:19 final:16 week:9 close:7 score:4 kick:3 goal:4 bobby:3 layne:2 throw:11 doran:1 less:5 minute:5 meet:1 third:8 relentless:1 side:7 ball:4 intercept:3 six:10 force:2 fumble:2 ran:3 thrashing:1 crown:1 keep:3 roll:2 chuck:1 noll:1 productive:1 linebacker:6 interception:7 pass:11 existence:1 every:2 seven:3 retire:4 injury:6 flounder:1 without:3 center:5 george:1 ratterman:1 babe:1 parilli:1 tommy:4 connell:2 none:1 respond:1 syracuse:1 university:4 easily:4 rusher:2 rookie:3 back:17 cause:1 turnover:2 allow:5 milt:1 plum:2 rout:2 twice:2 much:5 running:1 nine:5 cross:1 barrier:2 snag:1 get:2 another:7 last:6 spirited:1 comeback:10 equal:2 tiebreaker:3 winner:1 limit:1 commit:1 shut:1 contention:2 best:3 art:5 modell:19 purchase:1 jones:2 buy:1 beginning:1 power:1 struggle:3 toll:1 journalist:1 l:2 stewart:1 recount:1 jeff:1 miller:1 book:1 imagine:1 jimmy:2 thick:2 buzz:1 work:1 exception:4 otherwise:1 typical:1 fifth:2 half:4 decent:1 performance:4 standing:1 berth:2 fire:9 replace:4 longtime:1 assistant:3 blanton:2 collier:6 young:3 frank:6 ryan:3 chafe:1 autocratic:1 coaching:2 style:3 ride:1 considerably:1 loose:1 rein:1 instal:1 open:4 call:4 throttle:1 heavily:2 favor:3 baltimore:11 colt:4 gary:3 collins:4 catch:2 td:1 earn:3 mvp:2 award:2 tenure:3 increase:1 deafness:1 coordinator:5 nick:2 skorich:4 kardiac:4 kid:4 wild:4 card:4 latter:2 nearly:2 round:6 come:6 steelers:8 conf:1 point:5 compare:1 barely:2 miss:5 success:5 crashing:1 halt:1 drop:2 mike:13 phipps:2 qb:2 brian:6 sipe:14 effective:1 combined:2 losing:2 cost:2 job:2 forrest:3 gregg:3 stumble:1 gate:1 finally:1 end:27 november:6 victory:4 cincinnati:4 bengal:4 greg:4 pruitt:9 pace:1 kansas:3 chief:4 marked:1 improvement:2 mark:5 firmly:1 control:1 insert:1 lineup:1 opening:1 jet:7 september:3 bring:1 vision:1 disastrous:2 jolt:1 pittsburgh:9 october:1 string:1 dave:2 joe:3 turkey:1 pile:1 drive:5 sack:1 terry:3 bradshaw:1 fuel:1 heated:1 rivalry:3 finale:1 share:1 continue:5 outstanding:1 exactly:1 digit:2 jack:1 lambert:1 collapse:1 dismissal:1 dick:3 modzelewski:2 serve:2 interim:5 seattle:2 seahawks:2 december:2 sam:3 rutigliano:3 aid:1 healthy:2 garner:1 attack:1 problem:1 dismal:1 result:2 campaign:2 overtime:5 penchant:1 nickname:1 steve:1 grogan:1 england:4 bad:3 rushing:1 shaky:1 rank:2 bottom:3 rival:2 houston:5 tough:1 central:6 fondly:1 remember:1 fan:32 stop:2 late:2 fashion:1 even:4 minnesota:2 viking:2 hail:1 mary:1 tip:1 wait:1 ahmad:1 rashad:1 enough:1 line:4 doug:4 dieken:3 deleone:1 delamielleure:2 stuck:1 cockroft:2 capture:1 oakland:2 raider:3 opponent:1 heartbreaking:1 dramatic:2 closing:1 know:5 red:2 toward:1 zone:5 watch:1 davis:7 number:8 among:1 list:3 curse:1 dream:1 nightmare:1 particularly:3 tight:2 ozzie:2 newsome:2 bowler:3 split:1 duty:2 mcdonald:3 similar:2 little:1 yardage:1 category:1 able:1 expand:1 system:1 strike:1 shortened:1 spark:1 oiler:7 dash:1 hop:1 spot:3 rebuilding:1 defect:1 upstart:1 usfl:1 buffalo:3 marty:2 schottenheimer:7 coast:1 kosar:20 broncos:1 bernie:3 supplemental:1 learn:1 trial:1 danielson:1 midway:1 progress:1 bit:2 sunday:1 around:1 earnest:2 byner:3 kevin:3 mack:5 feat:1 repeat:1 brandon:1 jacob:1 derrick:1 ward:1 break:2 give:2 weak:1 look:4 poise:1 shock:2 divisional:5 halftime:4 dan:1 marino:1 spirit:1 faithful:1 felt:2 initial:2 sting:1 disappointment:1 tremendous:1 browns:4 broke:1 elite:1 showing:1 chip:1 bank:1 hanford:3 dixon:7 bob:3 golic:2 clay:3 matthew:3 minnifield:4 stingiest:1 clinch:2 home:10 advantage:1 throughout:4 need:1 serious:1 heroic:1 luck:1 overcome:1 dire:1 situation:2 fate:1 gastineau:1 rough:1 passer:1 rejuvenated:1 deep:2 remain:7 regulation:1 moseley:2 ensue:1 period:3 attempt:4 redeem:1 denver:6 bronco:12 arrive:1 windswept:1 hostile:1 confines:1 municipal:5 stadium:16 knew:1 arch:2 nemesis:1 span:2 day:5 showdown:1 heart:1 stopper:1 john:2 elway:4 away:6 victor:1 pin:1 wind:1 famous:2 historian:1 clock:1 jackson:1 apiece:1 silence:1 rich:1 karlis:1 inside:1 upright:1 replicate:1 gerald:1 mcneil:1 lineman:2 cody:1 risien:1 indianapolis:2 travel:1 reggie:1 langhorne:1 webster:2 slaughter:3 regain:1 sammy:2 winder:2 set:4 stage:1 drove:1 like:2 strip:4 jeremiah:1 castille:1 recover:3 intentional:1 safety:1 backup:2 sideline:3 snowstorm:1 pagel:2 injured:2 strock:1 recently:2 ex:1 pull:3 within:2 chance:1 onside:1 penalty:1 mutual:1 agreement:2 shortly:1 tire:2 perceive:1 interference:1 personnel:2 strategy:1 quickly:1 hire:4 bud:2 carson:3 replacement:2 short:1 headline:1 worthy:1 race:2 save:1 grace:1 bye:1 narrowly:1 scare:1 scott:1 norwood:1 extra:1 kelly:2 desperation:1 matchup:1 wire:1 never:2 doubt:1 thing:1 unravel:1 career:2 belichick:5 slight:1 markedly:1 ratio:2 leroy:2 hoard:1 breakout:1 sit:1 tomczak:1 controversial:1 decision:2 cut:2 vinny:1 testaverde:2 tampa:2 bay:3 buccaneer:2 injure:1 place:5 falter:1 todd:1 philcox:1 starter:1 dallas:1 cowboy:3 troy:1 aikman:2 ring:1 manage:2 ship:1 although:2 quite:1 improve:1 solid:11 per:1 rob:3 burnett:2 pepper:1 johnson:3 michael:3 dean:2 perry:2 eric:4 turner:1 patriot:3 drew:3 bledsoe:1 following:1 announce:3 deal:2 relocate:2 return:6 voter:1 overwhelmingly:1 approve:1 ballot:1 request:1 provide:1 million:3 tax:1 dollar:1 refurbish:1 outmoded:1 decline:2 plan:1 scrap:1 taxpayer:2 ultimately:2 pay:1 demolish:1 old:4 construct:1 site:2 react:1 angrily:1 news:3 lawsuit:1 file:1 others:1 congress:1 hearing:1 matter:1 actor:1 comedian:1 carey:2 hometown:1 jam:1 protest:3 propose:1 abc:1 broadcast:5 cover:1 mention:1 instance:1 virtually:1 sponsor:1 immediately:1 devoid:1 advertising:1 disaster:1 impend:1 leg:1 announcement:1 dawg:5 pound:5 unruly:1 action:2 towards:1 opposite:1 especially:1 section:3 assaulted:1 security:1 official:5 police:1 officer:1 try:2 quell:1 grow:1 inactivity:1 talk:3 accept:1 legal:1 settlement:1 legacy:1 morgan:1 jon:1 clear:1 path:1 sun:1 february:2 deactivate:1 build:2 either:1 grant:1 raven:5 retain:1 current:8 contract:3 color:3 archive:1 coincidentally:1 suspend:2 operation:2 merge:1 height:1 threat:1 relocation:1 convince:1 fund:1 katherine:1 c:1 leone:1 free:1 agency:1 columbia:1 rev:1 llc:1 trust:5 futterer:1 tagliabue:2 trustee:1 represent:1 design:7 construction:1 sale:1 suite:1 seat:3 sell:3 permanent:1 license:1 ticket:2 reorganize:1 backer:3 across:1 united:2 resume:1 television:3 radio:4 countdown:2 celebration:1 incorporate:1 live:2 internet:1 operate:2 theme:1 utilize:1 extensively:1 absentia:1 order:1 preserve:1 value:1 owner:5 double:4 selling:1 price:2 relocated:1 meeting:1 march:1 consider:4 pre:2 organization:6 continuous:1 entity:1 denote:1 officially:2 fame:5 continuation:1 rejoin:1 washington:1 redskins:1 high:2 hope:1 expectation:2 feature:4 pocketed:1 ownership:2 al:3 lerner:3 appear:8 ceo:3 carmen:1 policy:2 dwight:1 clark:2 san:1 francisco:1 chris:3 palmer:4 jacksonville:1 jaguar:1 rebuild:1 special:1 selection:1 tim:1 couch:1 expect:1 resurrected:1 practical:1 purpose:1 awful:1 standard:1 slightly:1 lone:1 highlight:2 compound:1 frustration:1 xxxv:1 though:2 matt:1 stover:1 butch:2 competitive:1 apparently:1 contender:1 resign:4 multiple:1 sustain:1 momentum:1 shoulder:2 earlier:1 robiskie:3 remainder:1 romeo:3 crennel:4 change:2 trend:1 espn:2 report:1 phil:2 savage:2 uproar:1 local:1 medium:1 strong:1 january:2 instead:1 role:2 vacate:1 randy:1 fill:2 de:1 facto:1 remarkable:1 turnaround:1 trade:2 charlie:1 frye:1 derek:2 anderson:4 assume:1 starting:1 alumni:1 oregon:1 breaker:1 rule:2 nevertheless:1 brady:2 extension:1 enter:1 pundit:1 predict:1 upset:1 inconsistent:1 key:1 disappointing:1 quinn:1 ken:1 dorsey:1 bruce:1 gradkowski:1 mid:5 shutout:1 subsequently:2 mangini:3 clevelandbrowns:2 com:4 overall:2 alex:1 california:1 georgia:1 mohamed:1 massaquoi:1 hawaii:1 veikune:1 logo:8 uniforms:1 uniform:14 combination:1 alternate:2 helmet:14 various:2 brownie:2 elf:2 mascot:2 feel:1 childish:1 revive:1 white:42 orange:34 primary:1 trademark:1 cb:3 remove:1 preseason:5 kind:1 widely:1 believe:1 v:1 green:1 packer:1 photographic:1 evidence:1 case:1 debut:1 essentially:1 originally:2 wear:12 leather:1 switch:1 plastic:1 shell:1 stripe:24 full:1 basis:3 plain:1 night:7 prohibit:1 light:1 colored:1 lighting:1 experiment:1 silver:1 pant:11 jersey:30 familiar:1 sequence:11 original:4 sock:9 mostly:1 intact:2 undergone:1 significant:1 revision:3 seal:1 numeral:9 sleeve:8 approximately:2 width:2 block:1 shadow:1 pattern:4 occasionally:3 striped:2 throwback:1 single:2 least:2 non:1 subtropical:1 mason:1 occurring:1 silk:1 screen:1 onto:1 separate:2 prevent:1 bleeding:1 basic:1 recent:2 addition:3 honor:2 die:1 symbolic:1 worn:3 completely:1 redesign:1 outline:3 briefly:1 particular:1 way:1 adopt:4 traditional:4 significantly:1 widen:1 experimentation:2 introduce:1 major:2 signature:1 element:1 variation:1 joined:1 exclusively:1 revert:1 gray:2 mask:1 consistent:1 dark:1 shade:1 http:1 www:1 plaindealer:1 index:1 ssf:1 xml:1 coll:1 thispage:1 august:1 monday:1 nationally:2 televise:2 contain:1 marking:1 option:1 integrate:1 facemask:1 perhaps:1 visible:1 find:2 bleacher:2 east:2 incarnation:1 likewise:1 hundred:1 clad:1 canine:1 related:2 paraphernalia:1 describe:1 retired:1 cornerback:1 entire:1 credit:1 dawgs:1 fellow:1 teammate:1 eddie:1 bark:1 naming:1 prominent:1 worldwide:1 bbw:1 usa:1 military:1 phoenix:1 arizona:1 sizable:1 foreign:1 presence:1 far:1 egypt:1 australia:1 japan:1 sri:1 lanka:1 accord:1 international:1 alon:2 shvut:2 israel:1 niagara:2 canada:1 study:3 bizjournal:1 loyal:1 scientific:1 loyalty:1 account:1 confront:1 inclement:1 weather:1 poor:1 note:3 notable:1 hank:1 aaron:1 baseball:1 brad:2 paisley:1 country:1 musician:1 friedel:1 aston:1 villa:1 goalkeeper:1 martin:1 mull:1 entertainer:1 condoleezza:1 rice:1 u:1 secretary:1 roster:1 enshrine:4 sixteen:1 elect:2 spend:1 induct:2 inaugural:1 induction:2 class:3 gene:2 hickerson:2 position:2 tackleplacekicker:1 len:2 ford:1 middle:1 guardoffensive:1 willie:1 atkins:1 mitchell:1 receiverhalfback:1 warfield:1 mccormack:1 gatski:1 dawson:1 henry:1 jordan:1 incidental:1 legends:3 program:3 noteworthy:1 contribution:1 legend:1 inducted:1 schafrath:1 james:1 punter:2 jerry:1 sherk:1 smith:1 walt:1 horace:1 gillom:1 glass:1 walter:1 warren:1 lahr:1 metcalf:1 wiggin:1 shofner:1 staff:1 flagship:1 station:3 wmms:2 fm:1 hot:1 rock:1 wtam:5 donovan:3 director:2 wkyc:3 channel:2 announcer:1 analyst:1 anchor:2 reporter:3 andre:1 knott:1 morning:1 co:1 snyder:2 pregame:2 postgame:2 indian:1 telecast:1 booth:1 weekend:1 chudowski:1 woio:1 controversy:1 arose:1 drown:1 death:1 niece:1 tv:2 evening:1 frantz:1 handle:1 sportstime:1 cable:1 airs:1 numerous:1 weekly:1 wjw:1 fox:1 locally:1 native:1 arsenio:2 audience:2 shout:1 woof:3 pump:1 fist:1 chant:1 refer:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 e:1 cyclopedia:1 |@bigram afc_championship:5 super_bowl:10 vice_president:1 offensive_tackle:6 miami_dolphin:2 los_angeles:4 foregone_conclusion:1 philadelphia_eagle:1 en_route:3 hall_famers:4 yard_touchdown:6 touchdown_pas:5 detroit_lion:2 bobby_layne:2 throw_touchdown:6 touchdown_interception:3 rush_yard:1 art_modell:5 baltimore_colt:2 mvp_award:1 offensive_coordinator:3 brian_sipe:5 interception_touchdown:2 forrest_gregg:3 cincinnati_bengal:4 marked_improvement:1 pittsburgh_steelers:3 seattle_seahawks:2 mike_pruitt:5 rushing_yard:1 fondly_remember:1 minnesota_viking:2 oakland_raider:1 pro_bowler:3 strike_shortened:1 houston_oiler:3 marty_schottenheimer:2 bernie_kosar:3 divisional_playoff:4 dan_marino:1 denver_bronco:2 arch_nemesis:1 offensive_lineman:1 indianapolis_colt:1 bill_belichick:3 defensive_coordinator:2 vinny_testaverde:1 tampa_bay:2 bay_buccaneer:2 dallas_cowboy:1 troy_aikman:1 arch_rival:1 afc_divisional:1 overwhelmingly_approve:1 react_angrily:1 actor_comedian:1 drew_carey:2 dawg_pound:5 baltimore_raven:4 paul_tagliabue:1 hall_fame:5 washington_redskins:1 san_francisco:1 jacksonville_jaguar:1 bowl_xxxv:1 de_facto:1 tom_brady:1 eric_mangini:2 draft_pick:2 logo_uniforms:1 bay_packer:1 throwback_uniform:1 mason_dixon:1 http_www:1 nationally_televise:1 phoenix_arizona:1 sri_lanka:1 inclement_weather:1 hank_aaron:1 aston_villa:1 martin_mull:1 condoleezza_rice:1 len_dawson:1 defensive_tackle:3 defensive_lineman:1 sideline_reporter:2 arsenio_hall:2 external_link:1 |
3,238 | Wikipedia:Phase_II_feature_requests%2FReport_features_and_automation | This page is obsolete! It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software. Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community. See Wikipedia:Feature requests for current requests. Report features and automation Reports and lists Report showing all orphaned pages (that is, pages that are not linked to by any other page). Report showing all old style link pages that aren't redirects (simplify converting them). Report showing all dangling links (i.e. links which point to pages that don't exist yet.) Automatically updated page giving the 100 or so most common searches over different periods (today, last 4 hours, last month, last 6 months). This information would help us add what people actually want (provided it fits in with what wikipedia should be). How about a feature that lists all places where the current page is linked from? Automatically-generated NewTopics page Still considering this, but not for version 0.92. --CliffordAdams Count and publicly display (somewhere) two or three different numbers of Wikipedia pages that are longer than various particulars lengths (to give a more realistic idea of how many actual pages are on the wiki, as opposed to redirection pages, tiny stubs, etc.). A good idea. The only quibble is that it requires opening every page to generate the report, but it shouldn't take any longer than the current search function. If wikipedia articles are stored in flat files, you could just approximate the length based on the file size, right? How's about an automatically generated Wikipedia Contributors page that lists contributors and the number of pages they created or changed? --SoniC Unfortunately, not all contributors use a username or have a single login. Also, not all of the requested information is kept permanently. --CliffordAdams Plagiarism-bot. A bot that goes through Wikipedia pages on a regular basis, does Google searches, and flags pages that it suspects might be plagiarized. Let's have contributors of a given Wikipedia page listed either in the header or in the footer. IP's are skipped of course and if there are more than, say, 10 contributors make a link to a special subpage "Contributors".User:Kpjas If people wish to be listed, can't they simply include their name at the end of the text? I like the basic anonymity of the entries, especially if the diff information is actually stored somewhere. -- TheCunctator Provide a way to search for all the changes made by one user in Wikipedia. For example, if I contributed to numerous pages over a long period of time, then 2 years later, I would need a way to find out whether someone else added to the subject I once touched. Alternately, allow users to "monitor" a page, so that they get email whenever that page is edited. Or adds a link to that page to another page, which could be a subpage of their user page. User:Greg Lindahl I would like a page that is a top list of the most frequently linked-to non-existent page. User:Linus Tolke Weed-whacking (tools to help in reining in chaos) Spell check batch job for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. Even better would be one that worked as the "preview" button, before saving, and that marked somehow the suspicious words. Is it possible to invent something to sort lists alphabetically? Take a look at pages like Actresses and you know why this would be helpful... Would someone provide Wikipedia with code for programmatic update of the date on the Homepage? This would certainly make WojPob's life easier ;-) It would be great to have a feature that would identify all orphaned pages. There's a small but growing problem of our having many useful pages that are not linked-to or underlinked-to. It would be great if we could list all pages to which there are no links, or only one link. --User:Larry Sanger Provide a batch job that searches for and lists all links along with the page the link is contained in so that we can look for duplicate/slightly different versions of the same link and fix them. Please make this a weekly batch job so that it does not take too much time. Automate making old-style links into Free Links This will probably happen soon after the 0.92 release. The wiki code to rename pages is already present, although it is available to wiki administrator(s) only I was trying to find a good way to change the links for the entire UnitedStatesConstitution section so that all the subsections would automatically migrate to United States Constitution. Instead of copying and pasting everything on the web, I figured I could just copy the files on the server from one directory to the other. I tried this and the site broke, so now I think I will just ask if there is a way to do this. So: When we are changing links to the much nicer free link style, is there a good way to get subsections changed as well without having to manually edit each page in the subsection? The wiki admin(s) can use the page-rename commands to move pages. Unfortunately, each individual subpage needs to be moved by this method. I'll consider this to be a feature request for renaming all subpages when a page is renamed. --CliffordAdams Automatic links For every topic, go through and grep every other topic (maybe just the root topic) and automatically create a link to the topic we are looking for. So eventually every word could possibly be a link. This could be great for people interested in the origins of words and would save topic creators much time too. This is a bad idea. First of all, there are the obvious technical difficulties. More importantly, human beings are much better at deciding when a link is relevant to a given bit of text. Patience--it'll be perfect in the end, trust me. --User:LMS At the bottom of every article, I would like to have a list of likely related pages, similar to http://everything2.com. These could be computed once a night or so, maybe at the same time the search indexing is done. Criteria for two pages to be related: contain similar words link to similar pages are linked to by similar pages --AxelBoldt Automatic Empty Page Deletion The whole Page titles to be deleted mechanism is unnecessarily burdensome. The software should be capable of automatically deleting pages that have no content other than whitespace. It's been discussed - but how do you train the software to distinguish between a blank page which is useless, a blank page which has been vandalised, or a blank page which has been wiped clean pending resolution of a debate on the relevant talk page? Page titles to be deleted is cumbersome, but it preserves the need for page deletions to be conducted with care and judicious consideration. All the history goes as well when a page is deeted - so there is no way back. User:MMGB I see. I missed the previous discussion. Sorry for retreading old ground. Causing links to empty pages to display as if it were a new page would do as well without the other problems. Attempts to deal with the issues otherwise: wait a few days or even weeks before deleting (anti-vandalism), don't delete if there are subpages (anti /Talk problem)? --User:Dmerrill See also : Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests | Wikipedia:Phase_II_feature_requests%2FReport_features_and_automation |@lemmatized page:52 obsolete:2 archive:1 old:4 feature:7 request:6 still:2 active:1 july:1 move:3 phase:3 ii:2 iii:1 software:3 many:3 implement:1 others:1 become:1 due:1 reject:1 community:1 see:3 wikipedia:10 current:3 report:6 automation:1 list:10 show:3 orphan:2 link:27 style:3 redirects:1 simplify:1 convert:1 dangle:1 e:1 point:1 exist:1 yet:1 automatically:6 updated:1 give:4 common:1 search:6 different:3 period:2 today:1 last:3 hour:1 month:2 information:3 would:14 help:2 u:1 add:3 people:3 actually:2 want:1 provide:4 fit:1 place:1 generate:2 newtopics:1 consider:2 version:2 cliffordadams:3 count:1 publicly:1 display:2 somewhere:2 two:2 three:1 number:2 long:3 various:1 particular:1 length:2 realistic:1 idea:3 actual:1 wiki:4 oppose:1 redirection:1 tiny:1 stub:1 etc:1 good:4 quibble:1 require:1 open:1 every:5 take:3 function:1 article:4 store:2 flat:1 file:3 could:7 approximate:1 base:1 size:1 right:1 generated:1 contributor:6 create:3 change:5 sonic:1 unfortunately:2 use:2 username:1 single:1 login:1 also:2 requested:1 keep:1 permanently:1 plagiarism:1 bot:2 go:3 regular:1 basis:1 google:1 flag:1 suspect:1 might:1 plagiarize:1 let:1 either:1 header:1 footer:1 ip:1 skip:1 course:1 say:1 make:5 special:1 subpage:3 user:10 kpjas:1 wish:1 simply:1 include:1 name:1 end:3 text:2 like:4 basic:1 anonymity:1 entry:1 especially:1 diff:1 thecunctator:1 way:6 one:4 example:1 contribute:1 numerous:1 time:4 year:1 later:1 need:3 find:2 whether:1 someone:2 else:1 subject:1 touch:1 alternately:1 allow:1 monitor:1 get:2 email:1 whenever:1 edit:2 another:1 greg:1 lindahl:1 top:1 frequently:1 non:1 existent:1 linus:1 tolke:1 weed:1 whacking:1 tool:1 rein:1 chaos:1 spell:2 check:1 batch:3 job:3 newly:1 week:2 incorrectly:1 word:5 even:2 well:4 work:1 preview:1 button:1 save:2 mark:1 somehow:1 suspicious:1 possible:1 invent:1 something:1 sort:1 alphabetically:1 look:3 actress:1 know:1 helpful:1 code:2 programmatic:1 update:1 date:1 homepage:1 certainly:1 wojpob:1 life:1 easy:1 great:3 identify:1 small:1 grow:1 problem:3 useful:1 underlinked:1 larry:1 sanger:1 along:1 contain:2 duplicate:1 slightly:1 fix:1 please:1 weekly:1 much:4 automate:1 free:2 probably:1 happen:1 soon:1 release:1 rename:4 already:1 present:1 although:1 available:1 administrator:1 try:2 entire:1 unitedstatesconstitution:1 section:1 subsection:3 migrate:1 united:1 state:1 constitution:1 instead:1 copy:2 paste:1 everything:1 web:1 figure:1 server:1 directory:1 site:1 break:1 think:1 ask:1 nicer:1 without:2 manually:1 admin:1 command:1 individual:1 method:1 subpages:2 automatic:2 topic:5 grep:1 maybe:2 root:1 eventually:1 possibly:1 interested:1 origin:1 creator:1 bad:1 first:1 obvious:1 technical:1 difficulty:1 importantly:1 human:1 decide:1 relevant:2 bit:1 patience:1 perfect:1 trust:1 lm:1 bottom:1 likely:1 related:1 similar:4 http:1 com:1 compute:1 night:1 indexing:1 criterion:1 relate:1 axelboldt:1 empty:2 deletion:2 whole:1 title:2 delete:5 mechanism:1 unnecessarily:1 burdensome:1 capable:1 content:1 whitespace:1 discuss:1 train:1 distinguish:1 blank:3 useless:1 vandalise:1 wipe:1 clean:1 pending:1 resolution:1 debate:1 talk:2 cumbersome:1 preserve:1 conduct:1 care:1 judicious:1 consideration:1 history:1 deeted:1 back:1 mmgb:1 miss:1 previous:1 discussion:1 sorry:1 retread:1 ground:1 cause:1 new:1 attempt:1 deal:1 issue:1 otherwise:1 wait:1 day:1 anti:2 vandalism:1 dmerrill:1 |@bigram someone_else:1 non_existent:1 larry_sanger:1 |
3,239 | Inertia | Inertia is the resistance of an object to a change in its state of motion. The principle of inertia is one of the fundamental principles of classical physics which are used to describe the motion of matter and how it is affected by applied forces. Inertia comes from the Latin word, "iners", meaning idle, or lazy. Sir Isaac Newton defined inertia in Definition 3 of his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which states: Isaac Newton, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophytranslated into English by Andrew Motte, First American Edition, New York, 1846, page 72. {{quote|The vis insita, or innate force of matter is a power of resisting, by which every body, as much as in it lies, endeavors to preserve in its present state, whether it be of rest, or of moving uniformly forward in a straight line.}} In common usage, however, people may also use the term "inertia" to refer to an object's "amount of resistance to change in velocity" (which is quantified by its mass), or sometimes to its momentum, depending on the context (e.g. "this object has a lot of inertia"). The term "inertia" is more properly understood as shorthand for "the principle of inertia" as described by Newton in his First Law of Motion. This law, expressed simply, says that an object that is not subject to any net external force moves at a constant velocity. In even simpler terms, inertia means that an object will always continue moving at its current speed and in its current direction until some force causes its speed or direction to change. This would include an object that is not in motion (speed = zero), which will remain at rest until some force causes it to move. On the surface of the Earth the nature of inertia is often masked by the effects of friction, which generally tends to decrease the speed of moving objects (often even to the point of rest), and by the acceleration due to gravity. The effects of these two forces misled classical theorists such as Aristotle, who believed that objects would move only as long as force was being applied to them. Pages 2 to 4, Section 1.1, "Skating", Chapter 1, "Things that Move", Louis Bloomfield, Professor of Physics at the University of Virginia, How Everything Works: Making Physics Out of the Ordinary, John Wiley & Sons (2007), hardcover, 720 pages, ISBN 978-0-471-74817-5 History and development of the concept Early understanding of motion Prior to the Renaissance in the 15th century, the generally accepted theory of motion in Western philosophy was that proposed by Aristotle (around 335 BC to 322 BC), which stated that in the absence of an external motive power, all objects (on earth) would naturally come to rest in a state of no movement, and that moving objects only continue to move so long as there is a power inducing them to do so. Aristotle explained the continued motion of projectiles, which are separated from their projector, by the action of the surrounding medium which continues to move the projectile in some way. Aristotle, Physics, 8.10, 267a1-21; Aristotle, Physics, trans. by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye. As a consequence, Aristotle concluded that such violent motion in a void was impossible for there would be nothing there to keep the body in motion against the resistance of its own gravity. Aristotle, Physics, 4.8, 214b29-215a24. Then in a statement regarded by Newton as expressing his Principia's first law of motion, Aristotle continued by asserting that a body in (non-violent) motion in a void would continue moving forever if externally unimpeded: No one could say why a thing once set in motion should stop anywhere; for why should it stop here rather than here? So that a thing will either be at rest or must be moved ad infinitum, unless something more powerful gets in its way. Aristotle, Physics, 4.8, 215a19-22. Despite its remarkable success and general acceptance, Aristotle's concept of motion was disputed on several occasions by notable philosophers over the nearly 2 millennia of its reign. For example, Lucretius (following, presumably, Epicurus) clearly stated that the 'default state' of matter was motion, not stasis. Lucretius, On the Nature of Things (London: Penguin, 1988), pp, 60-65 In the 6th century, John Philoponus criticized Aristotle's view, noting the inconsistency between Aristotle's discussion of projectiles, where the medium keeps projectiles going, and his discussion of the void, where the medium would hinder a body's motion. Philoponus proposed that motion was not maintained by the action of the surrounding medium but by some property implanted in the object when it was set in motion. This was not the modern concept of inertia, for there was still the need for a power to keep a body in motion. Richard Sorabji, Matter, Space, and Motion: Theories in Antiquity and their Sequel, (London: Duckworth, 1988), pp. 227-8; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: John Philoponus. This view was strongly opposed by Averroes and many scholastic philosophers who supported Aristotle. However this view did not go unchallenged in the Islamic world, where Philoponus did have several supporters who further developed his ideas. Chinese theories Mozi (Chinese: 墨子; pinyin: Mòzǐ; ca. 470 BCE–ca. 390 BCE), a philosopher who lived in China during the Hundred Schools of Thought period (early Warring States Period), composed or collected his thought in the book Mozi, which contains the following sentence: "The cessation of motion is due to the opposing force ... If there is no opposing force ... the motion will never stop. This is as true as that an ox is not a horse." According to Joseph Needham, this a precursor to Newton's first law of motion. Islamic theories Several Muslim scientists from the medieval Islamic world wrote Arabic treatises on theories of motion. In the early 11th century, the Islamic scientist Ibn al-Haytham (Arabic: ابن الهيثم) (Latinized as Alhacen) hypothesized that an object will move perpetually unless a force causes it to stop or change direction. Alhacen's model of motion thus bears resemblance to the law of inertia (now known as Newton's first law of motion) later stated by Galileo Galilei in the 16th century. Abdus Salam (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam, 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213. Alhacen's contemporary, the Persian scientist Ibn Sina (Latinized as Avicenna) developed an elaborate theory of motion, in which he made a distinction between the inclination and force of a projectile, and concluded that motion was a result of an inclination (mayl) transferred to the projectile by the thrower, and that projectile motion in a vacuum would not cease. Fernando Espinoza (2005). "An analysis of the historical development of ideas about motion and its implications for teaching", Physics Education 40 (2), p. 141. He viewed inclination as a permanent force whose effect is dissipated by external forces such as air resistance. Aydin Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p. 477–482: Avicenna also referred to mayl to as being proportional to weight times velocity, which was similar to Newton's theory of momentum. Aydin Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p. 477–482: Avicenna's concept of mayl was later used in Jean Buridan's theory of impetus. Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973-1048) was the first physicist to realize that acceleration is connected with non-uniform motion. The first scientist to reject Aristotle's idea that a constant force produces uniform motion was the Arabic Muslim physicist and philosopher Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi in the early 12th century. He was the first to argue that a force applied continuously produces acceleration, which is considered "the fundamental law of classical mechanics", (cf. Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory", Journal of the History of Ideas 64 (4), p. 521-546 [528].) and vaguely foreshadows Newton's second law of motion. In the early 16th century, al-Birjandi, in his analysis on the Earth's rotation, developed a hypothesis similar to Galileo's notion of "circular inertia", which he described in the following observational test: Theory of impetus In the 14th century, Jean Buridan rejected the notion that a motion-generating property, which he named impetus, dissipated spontaneously. Buridan's position was that a moving object would be arrested by the resistance of the air and the weight of the body which would oppose its impetus. Jean Buridan: Quaestiones on Aristotle's Physics (quoted at http://brahms.phy.vanderbilt.edu/a203/impetus_theory.html) Buridan also maintained that impetus increased with speed; thus, his initial idea of impetus was similar in many ways to the modern concept of momentum. Despite the obvious similarities to more modern ideas of inertia, Buridan saw his theory as only a modification to Aristotle's basic philosophy, maintaining many other peripatetic views, including the belief that there was still a fundamental difference between an object in motion and an object at rest. Buridan also maintained that impetus could be not only linear, but also circular in nature, causing objects (such as celestial bodies) to move in a circle. Buridan's thought was followed up by his pupil Albert of Saxony (1316-1390) and the Oxford Calculators, who performed various experiments that further undermined the classical, Aristotelian view. Their work in turn was elaborated by Nicole Oresme who pioneered the practice of demonstrating laws of motion in the form of graphs. Shortly before Galileo's theory of inertia, Giambattista Benedetti modified the growing theory of impetus to involve linear motion alone: Benedetti cites the motion of a rock in a sling as an example of the inherent linear motion of objects, forced into circular motion. Classical inertia The law of inertia states that it is the tendency of an object to resist a change in motion. According to Newton's words, an object will stay at rest and or stay in motion unless acted on by a net external force, whether it results from gravity, friction, matter, or some other source. The Aristotelian division of motion into mundane and celestial became increasingly problematic in the face of the conclusions of Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century, who argued that the earth (and everything on it) was in fact never "at rest", but was actually in constant motion around the sun. Nicholas Copernicus: The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, 1543 Galileo, in his further development of the Copernican model, recognized these problems with the then-accepted nature of motion and, at least partially as a result, included a restatement of Aristotle's description of motion in a void as a basic physical principle: A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at a constant speed unless disturbed. It is also worth noting that Galileo later went on to conclude that based on this initial premise of inertia, it is impossible to tell the difference between a moving object and a stationary one without some outside reference to compare it against. Galileo: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, 1631 (Wikipedia Article) This observation ultimately came to be the basis for Einstein to develop the theory of Special Relativity. Galileo's concept of inertia would later come to be refined and codified by Isaac Newton as the first of his Laws of Motion (first published in Newton's work, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, in 1687): Unless acted upon by a net unbalanced force, an object will maintain a constant velocity. Note that "velocity" in this context is defined as a vector, thus Newton's "constant velocity" implies both constant speed and constant direction (and also includes the case of zero speed, or no motion). Since initial publication, Newton's Laws of Motion (and by extension this first law) have come to form the basis for the almost universally accepted branch of physics now termed classical mechanics. The actual term "inertia" was first introduced by Johannes Kepler in his Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae (published in three parts from 1618-1621); however, the meaning of Kepler's term (which he derived from the Latin word for "idleness" or "laziness") was not quite the same as its modern interpretation. Kepler defined inertia only in terms of a resistance to movement, once again based on the presumption that rest was a natural state which did not need explanation. It was not until the later work of Galileo and Newton unified rest and motion in one principle that the term "inertia" could be applied to these concepts as it is today. Nevertheless, despite defining the concept so elegantly in his laws of motion, even Newton did not actually use the term "inertia" to refer to his First Law. In fact, Newton originally viewed the phenomenon he described in his First Law of Motion as being caused by "innate forces" inherent in matter, which resisted any acceleration. Given this perspective, and borrowing from Kepler, Newton actually attributed the term "inertia" to mean "the innate force possessed by an object which resists changes in motion"; thus Newton defined "inertia" to mean the cause of the phenomenon, rather than the phenomenon itself. However, Newton's original ideas of "innate resistive force" were ultimately problematic for a variety of reasons, and thus most physicists no longer think in these terms. As no alternate mechanism has been readily accepted, and it is now generally accepted that there may not be one which we can know, the term "inertia" has come to mean simply the phenomenon itself, rather than any inherent mechanism. Thus, ultimately, "inertia" in modern classical physics has come to be a name for the same phenomenon described by Newton's First Law of Motion, and the two concepts are now basically equivalent. Relativity Albert Einstein's theory of Special Relativity, as proposed in his 1905 paper, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies," was built on the understanding of inertia and inertial reference frames developed by Galileo and Newton. While this revolutionary theory did significantly change the meaning of many Newtonian concepts such as mass, energy, and distance, Einstein's concept of inertia remained unchanged from Newton's original meaning (in fact the entire theory was based on Newton's definition of inertia). However, this resulted in a limitation inherent in Special Relativity that the principle of relativity could only apply to reference frames that were inertial in nature (meaning when no acceleration was present). In an attempt to address this limitation, Einstein proceeded to develop his theory of General Relativity ("The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity," 1916), which ultimately provided a unified theory for both inertial and noninertial (accelerated) reference frames. However, in order to accomplish this, in General Relativity Einstein found it necessary to redefine several fundamental aspects of the universe (such as gravity) in terms of a new concept of "curvature" of spacetime, instead of the more traditional system of forces understood by Newton. As a result of this redefinition, Einstein also redefined the concept of "inertia" in terms of geodesic deviation instead, with some subtle but significant additional implications. The result of this is that according to General Relativity, when dealing with very large scales, the traditional Newtonian idea of "inertia" does not actually apply, and cannot necessarily be relied upon. Luckily, for sufficiently small regions of spacetime, the Special Theory can still be used, in which inertia still means the same (and works the same) as in the classical model. Another profound, perhaps the most well-known, conclusion of the theory of Special Relativity was that energy and mass are not separate things, but are, in fact, interchangeable. This new relationship, however, also carried with it new implications for the concept of inertia. The logical conclusion of Special Relativity was that if mass exhibits the principle of inertia, then inertia must also apply to energy as well. This theory, and subsequent experiments confirming some of its conclusions, have also served to radically expand the definition of inertia in some contexts to apply to a much wider context including energy as well as matter. Interpretations According to Isaac Asimov According to Isaac Asimov in "Understanding Physics": "This tendency for motion (or for rest) to maintain itself steadily unless made to do otherwise by some interfering force can be viewed as a kind of 'laziness', a kind of unwillingness to make a change." And indeed, Newton's laws of motion, as Isaac Asimov goes on to explain, "represent assumptions and definitions and are not subject to proof. In particular, the notion of 'inertia' is as much an assumption as Aristotle's notion of 'natural place'.... To be sure, the new relativistic view of the universe advanced by Einstein makes it plain that in some respects Newton's laws of motion are only approximations.... At ordinary velocities and distance, however, the approximations are extremely good." Mass and inertia Physics and mathematics appear to be less inclined to use the original concept of inertia as "a tendency to maintain momentum" and instead favor the mathematically useful definition of inertia as the measure of a body's resistance to changes in momentum or simply a body's inertial mass. This was clear in the beginning of the 20th century, when the theory of relativity was not yet created. Mass, m, denoted something like amount of substance or quantity of matter. And at the same time mass was the quantitative measure of inertia of a body. The mass of a body determines the momentum of the body at given velocity ; it is a proportionality factor in the formula: The factor m is referred to as inertial mass. But mass as related to 'inertia' of a body can be defined also by the formula: Here, F is force, m is mass, and a is acceleration. By this formula, the greater its mass, the less a body accelerates under given force. Masses defined by the formula (1) and (2) are equal because the formula (2) is a consequence of the formula (1) if mass does not depend on time and speed. Thus, "mass is the quantitative or numerical measure of body’s inertia, that is of its resistance to being accelerated". This meaning of a body's inertia therefore is altered from the original meaning as "a tendency to maintain momentum" to a description of the measure of how difficult it is to change the momentum of a body. Inertial mass The only difference there appears to be between inertial mass and gravitational mass is the method used to determine them. Gravitational mass is measured by comparing the force of gravity of an unknown mass to the force of gravity of a known mass. This is typically done with some sort of balance scale. The beauty of this method is that no matter where, or on what planet you are, the masses will always balance out because the gravitational acceleration on each object will be the same. This does break down near supermassive objects such as black holes and neutron stars due to the steep gradient of the gravitational field around such objects. Inertial mass is found by applying a known force to an unknown mass, measuring the acceleration, and applying Newton's Second Law, m = F/a. This gives an accurate value for mass, limited only by the accuracy of the measurements. When astronauts need to be weighed in outer space, they actually find their inertial mass in a special chair. The interesting thing is that, physically, no difference has been found between gravitational and inertial mass. Many experiments have been performed to check the values and the experiments always agree to within the margin of error for the experiment. Einstein used the fact that gravitational and inertial mass were equal to begin his Theory of General Relativity in which he postulated that gravitational mass was the same as inertial mass, and that the acceleration of gravity is a result of a 'valley' or slope in the space-time continuum that masses 'fell down' much as pennies spiral around a hole in the common donation toy at a chain store. Since Einstein used inertial mass to describe Special Relativity, inertial mass is closely related to relativistic mass and is therefore different from rest mass. Inertial frames In a location such as a steadily moving railway carriage, a dropped ball (as seen by an observer in the carriage) would behave as it would if it were dropped in a stationary carriage. The ball would simply descend vertically. It is possible to ignore the motion of the carriage by defining it as an inertial frame. In a moving but non-accelerating frame, the ball behaves normally because the train and its contents continue to move at a constant velocity. Before being dropped, the ball was traveling with the train at the same speed, and the ball's inertia ensured that it continued to move in the same speed and direction as the train, even while dropping. Note that, here, it is inertia which ensured that, not its mass. In an inertial frame all the observers in uniform (non-accelerating) motion will observe the same laws of physics. However observers in another inertial frame can make a simple, and intuitively obvious, transformation (the Galilean transformation), to convert their observations. Thus, an observer from outside the moving train could deduce that the dropped ball within the carriage fell vertically downwards. However, in frames which are experiencing acceleration (non-inertial frames), objects appear to be affected by fictitious forces. For example, if the railway carriage was accelerating, the ball would not fall vertically within the carriage but would appear to an observer to be deflected because the carriage and the ball would not be traveling at the same speed while the ball was falling. Other examples of fictitious forces occur in rotating frames such as the earth. For example, a missile at the North Pole could be aimed directly at a location and fired southwards. An observer would see it apparently deflected away from its target by a force (the Coriolis force) but in reality the southerly target has moved because earth has rotated while the missile is in flight. Because the earth is rotating, a useful inertial frame of reference is defined by the stars, which only move imperceptibly during most observations.The law of inertia is also known as Issac Newton's first law of motion. In summary, the principle of inertia is intimately linked with the principles of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum. Rotational inertia Another form of inertia is rotational inertia (→ moment of inertia), which refers to the fact that a rotating rigid body maintains its state of uniform rotational motion. Its angular momentum is unchanged, unless an external torque is applied; this is also called conservation of angular momentum. Rotational inertia often has hidden practical consequences. It also depends on the object holding together. If a rotating planet came apart and the pieces escaped their mutual gravity, they would fly off in straight lines, as discussed above. See also General relativity Inertial guidance system List of moments of inertia Mach's principle Newton's laws of motion Newtonian physics Special relativity Kinetic Energy Steiner theorem Inertia Stabilizers Notes References External links Inertia (animation) Jean Buridan Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy Inertia Formula Books and papers Butterfield, H (1957) The Origins of Modern Science ISBN 0-7135-0160-X Clement, J (1982) "Students' preconceptions in introductory mechanics", American Journal of Physics vol 50, pp66–71 Crombie, A C (1959) Medieval and Early Modern Science, vol 2 McCloskey, M (1983) "Intuitive physics", Scientific American, April, pp114–123 McCloskey, M & Carmazza, A (1980) "Curvilinear motion in the absence of external forces: naïve beliefs about the motion of objects", Science'' vol 210, pp1139–1141 Masreliez, C.J., Motion, Inertia and Special Relativity – a Novel Perspective, Physica Scripta, (dec 2006) | Inertia |@lemmatized inertia:59 resistance:8 object:28 change:10 state:12 motion:67 principle:11 one:5 fundamental:4 classical:8 physic:17 use:9 describe:6 matter:9 affect:2 applied:1 force:33 come:8 latin:2 word:3 iners:1 mean:7 idle:1 lazy:1 sir:1 isaac:6 newton:29 define:9 definition:5 philosophiæ:1 naturalis:2 principia:3 mathematica:2 mathematical:1 natural:3 philosophytranslated:1 english:1 andrew:1 motte:1 first:16 american:3 edition:1 new:7 york:3 page:3 quote:2 vi:1 insita:1 innate:4 power:4 resisting:1 every:1 body:20 much:4 lie:1 endeavor:1 preserve:1 present:2 whether:2 rest:12 move:24 uniformly:1 forward:1 straight:2 line:2 common:2 usage:1 however:10 people:1 may:2 also:16 term:14 refer:5 amount:2 velocity:9 quantify:1 mass:37 sometimes:1 momentum:11 depend:3 context:4 e:1 g:1 lot:1 properly:1 understood:1 shorthand:1 law:24 express:2 simply:4 say:2 subject:2 net:3 external:7 constant:9 even:4 simple:2 always:3 continue:8 current:2 speed:12 direction:6 cause:6 would:18 include:5 zero:2 remain:2 surface:2 earth:7 nature:5 often:3 mask:1 effect:3 friction:2 generally:3 tend:1 decrease:1 point:1 acceleration:10 due:3 gravity:8 two:3 mislead:1 theorist:1 aristotle:18 believe:1 long:2 apply:10 section:1 skate:1 chapter:1 thing:6 louis:1 bloomfield:1 professor:1 university:1 virginia:1 everything:2 work:5 making:1 ordinary:2 john:3 wiley:1 son:1 hardcover:1 isbn:2 history:2 development:3 concept:15 early:6 understanding:2 prior:1 renaissance:1 century:9 accept:3 theory:25 western:1 philosophy:4 propose:3 around:4 bc:2 absence:2 motive:1 naturally:1 movement:2 induce:1 explain:2 continued:1 projectile:10 separate:2 projector:1 action:2 surround:2 medium:4 way:3 trans:1 r:2 p:6 hardie:1 k:1 gaye:1 consequence:3 conclude:3 violent:2 void:4 impossible:2 nothing:1 keep:3 statement:1 regard:1 assert:1 non:5 forever:1 externally:1 unimpeded:1 could:6 set:2 stop:4 anywhere:1 rather:3 either:1 must:2 ad:1 infinitum:1 unless:7 something:2 powerful:1 get:1 despite:3 remarkable:1 success:1 general:7 acceptance:1 dispute:1 several:4 occasion:1 notable:1 philosopher:4 nearly:1 millennium:1 reign:1 example:5 lucretius:2 follow:2 presumably:1 epicurus:1 clearly:1 default:1 stasis:1 london:2 penguin:1 pp:2 philoponus:4 criticize:1 view:9 note:5 inconsistency:1 discussion:2 go:4 hinder:1 maintain:9 property:2 implant:1 modern:7 still:4 need:3 richard:1 sorabji:1 space:3 antiquity:1 sequel:1 duckworth:1 stanford:2 encyclopedia:1 strongly:1 oppose:4 averroes:1 many:5 scholastic:1 support:1 unchallenged:1 islamic:4 world:4 supporter:1 far:2 develop:6 idea:8 chinese:2 mozi:2 墨子:1 pinyin:1 mòzǐ:1 ca:2 bce:2 live:1 china:1 hundred:1 school:1 thought:3 period:2 warring:1 compose:1 collect:1 book:2 contain:1 following:2 sentence:1 cessation:1 never:2 true:1 ox:1 horse:1 accord:5 joseph:1 needham:1 precursor:1 muslim:2 scientist:4 medieval:2 write:1 arabic:3 treatise:1 ibn:4 al:4 haytham:1 ابن:1 الهيثم:1 latinize:2 alhacen:3 hypothesize:1 perpetually:1 model:3 thus:8 bear:1 resemblance:1 know:5 later:4 galileo:9 galilei:1 abdus:2 salam:2 islam:1 science:6 c:3 h:2 lai:1 ideal:1 reality:2 select:1 essay:1 ed:1 scientific:2 singapore:1 contemporary:1 persian:1 sina:1 avicenna:3 elaborate:2 make:5 distinction:1 inclination:3 result:7 mayl:3 transfer:1 thrower:1 vacuum:1 cease:1 fernando:1 espinoza:1 analysis:2 historical:1 implication:3 teach:1 education:1 permanent:1 whose:1 dissipate:2 air:2 aydin:2 sayili:2 sīnā:2 buridan:11 annals:2 academy:2 proportional:1 weight:2 time:4 similar:3 jean:4 impetus:9 abū:1 rayhān:1 bīrūnī:1 physicist:3 realize:1 connect:1 uniform:4 reject:2 produce:2 hibat:1 allah:1 abu:1 l:1 barakat:1 baghdaadi:1 argue:2 continuously:1 consider:1 mechanic:3 cf:1 abel:1 b:1 franco:1 october:1 avempace:1 journal:2 vaguely:1 foreshadow:1 second:2 birjandi:1 rotation:1 hypothesis:1 notion:4 circular:3 observational:1 test:1 generate:1 name:2 spontaneously:1 position:1 arrest:1 quaestiones:1 http:1 brahms:1 phy:1 vanderbilt:1 edu:1 html:1 increase:1 initial:3 obvious:2 similarity:1 saw:1 modification:1 basic:2 peripatetic:1 belief:2 difference:4 linear:3 celestial:2 circle:1 pupil:1 albert:2 saxony:1 oxford:1 calculator:1 perform:2 various:1 experiment:5 undermine:1 aristotelian:2 turn:1 nicole:1 oresme:1 pioneer:1 practice:1 demonstrate:1 form:3 graph:1 shortly:1 giambattista:1 benedetti:2 modify:1 grow:1 involve:1 alone:1 cite:1 rock:1 sling:1 inherent:4 tendency:4 resist:3 stay:2 act:2 source:1 division:1 mundane:1 become:1 increasingly:1 problematic:2 face:1 conclusion:4 nicolaus:1 copernicus:2 fact:6 actually:5 sun:1 nicholas:1 revolution:1 heavenly:1 sphere:1 copernican:1 recognize:1 problem:1 accepted:2 least:1 partially:1 restatement:1 description:2 physical:1 level:1 disturb:1 worth:1 base:3 premise:1 tell:1 stationary:2 without:1 outside:2 reference:6 compare:2 dialogue:1 concern:1 chief:1 system:3 wikipedia:1 article:1 observation:3 ultimately:4 basis:2 einstein:9 special:10 relativity:17 refine:1 codify:1 publish:2 philosophiae:1 upon:2 unbalanced:1 vector:1 implies:1 case:1 since:2 publication:1 extension:1 almost:1 universally:1 branch:1 actual:1 introduce:1 johannes:1 kepler:4 epitome:1 astronomiae:1 copernicanae:1 three:1 part:1 meaning:5 derive:1 idleness:1 laziness:2 quite:1 interpretation:2 presumption:1 explanation:1 late:1 unify:1 today:1 nevertheless:1 elegantly:1 originally:1 phenomenon:5 give:4 perspective:2 borrow:1 attribute:1 possess:1 original:4 resistive:1 variety:1 reason:1 longer:1 think:1 alternate:1 mechanism:2 readily:1 basically:1 equivalent:1 paper:2 electrodynamics:1 build:1 inertial:21 frame:12 revolutionary:1 significantly:1 newtonian:3 energy:6 distance:2 unchanged:2 entire:1 limitation:2 attempt:1 address:1 proceed:1 foundation:1 provide:1 unified:1 noninertial:1 accelerate:5 order:1 accomplish:1 find:4 necessary:1 redefine:2 aspect:1 universe:2 curvature:1 spacetime:2 instead:3 traditional:2 understand:2 redefinition:1 geodesic:1 deviation:1 subtle:1 significant:1 additional:1 deal:1 large:1 scale:2 cannot:1 necessarily:1 rely:1 luckily:1 sufficiently:1 small:1 region:1 another:3 profound:1 perhaps:1 well:3 interchangeable:1 relationship:1 carry:1 logical:1 exhibit:1 subsequent:1 confirm:1 serve:1 radically:1 expand:1 wider:1 asimov:3 steadily:2 otherwise:1 interfere:1 kind:2 unwillingness:1 indeed:1 represent:1 assumption:2 proof:1 particular:1 place:1 sure:1 relativistic:2 advance:1 plain:1 respect:1 approximation:2 extremely:1 good:1 mathematics:1 appear:4 less:2 inclined:1 favor:1 mathematically:1 useful:2 measure:6 clear:1 beginning:1 yet:1 create:1 denote:1 like:1 substance:1 quantity:1 quantitative:2 determine:2 proportionality:1 factor:2 formula:7 relate:2 f:2 great:1 equal:2 numerical:1 therefore:2 alter:1 difficult:1 gravitational:7 method:2 unknown:2 known:1 typically:1 sort:1 balance:2 beauty:1 planet:2 break:1 near:1 supermassive:1 black:1 hole:2 neutron:1 star:2 steep:1 gradient:1 field:1 accurate:1 value:2 limit:1 accuracy:1 measurement:1 astronaut:1 weigh:1 chair:1 interesting:1 physically:1 check:1 agree:1 within:3 margin:1 error:1 begin:1 postulate:1 valley:1 slope:1 continuum:1 fell:2 penny:1 spiral:1 donation:1 toy:1 chain:1 store:1 closely:1 different:1 location:2 railway:2 carriage:8 dropped:2 ball:9 see:3 observer:6 behave:2 drop:3 descend:1 vertically:3 possible:1 ignore:1 moving:1 accelerating:1 normally:1 train:4 content:1 travel:2 ensure:2 observe:1 intuitively:1 transformation:2 galilean:1 convert:1 deduce:1 downwards:1 experience:1 fictitious:2 fall:2 deflect:2 occur:1 rotate:4 missile:2 north:1 pole:1 aim:1 directly:1 fire:1 southward:1 apparently:1 away:1 target:2 coriolis:1 southerly:1 flight:1 imperceptibly:1 issac:1 summary:1 intimately:1 link:2 conservation:3 rotational:4 moment:2 rigid:1 angular:2 torque:1 call:1 hide:1 practical:1 hold:1 together:1 rotating:1 apart:1 piece:1 escape:1 mutual:1 fly:1 discuss:1 guidance:1 list:1 mach:1 kinetic:1 steiner:1 theorem:1 stabilizer:1 animation:1 encyclopaedia:1 butterfield:1 origin:1 x:1 clement:1 j:2 student:1 preconception:1 introductory:1 vol:3 crombie:1 mccloskey:2 intuitive:1 april:1 carmazza:1 curvilinear:1 naïve:1 masreliez:1 novel:1 physica:1 scripta:1 dec:1 |@bigram isaac_newton:3 naturalis_principia:2 principia_mathematica:2 andrew_motte:1 wiley_son:1 ad_infinitum:1 john_philoponus:2 london_duckworth:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 joseph_needham:1 al_haytham:1 galileo_galilei:1 abdus_salam:2 ibn_sina:1 sayili_ibn:2 ibn_sīnā:2 sīnā_buridan:2 buridan_motion:2 projectile_annals:2 jean_buridan:4 abū_rayhān:1 rayhān_al:1 al_bīrūnī:1 vanderbilt_edu:1 nicole_oresme:1 circular_motion:1 nicolaus_copernicus:1 special_relativity:8 philosophiae_naturalis:1 universally_accepted:1 johannes_kepler:1 albert_einstein:1 curvature_spacetime:1 isaac_asimov:3 black_hole:1 steep_gradient:1 closely_relate:1 inertial_frame:6 intuitively_obvious:1 galilean_transformation:1 rotational_inertia:3 moment_inertia:2 angular_momentum:2 inertial_guidance:1 kinetic_energy:1 external_link:1 |
3,240 | Hydrophobe | Dew drop on a hydrophobic leaf surface Water drops on the hydrophobic surface of grass In chemistry, hydrophobicity (from the combining form of water in Attic Greek hydro- and for fear phobos) refers to the physical property of a molecule (known as a hydrophobe) that is repelled from a mass of water. Aryeh Ben-Na'im Hydrophobic Interaction Plenum Press, New York (ISBN 0-306-40222-X) Hydrophobic molecules tend to be non-polar and thus prefer other neutral molecules and nonpolar solvents. Hydrophobic molecules in water often cluster together forming micelles. Water on hydrophobic surfaces will exhibit a high contact angle. Examples of hydrophobic molecules include the alkanes, oils, fats, and greasy substances in general. Hydrophobic materials are used for oil removal from water, the management of oil spills, and chemical separation processes to remove non-polar from polar compounds. Hydrophobic is often used interchangeably with lipophilic, "fat loving." However, the two terms are not synonymous. While hydrophobic substances are usually lipophilic, there are exceptions—such as the silicones and fluorocarbons. Chemical background According to thermodynamics, matter seeks to be in a low-energy state, and bonding reduces chemical energy. Water is electrically polarized, and is able to form hydrogen bonds internally, which gives it many of its unique physical properties. But, since hydrophobes are not electrically polarized, and because they are unable to form hydrogen bonds, water repels hydrophobes, in favour of bonding with itself. It is this effect that causes the hydrophobic interaction—which in itself is incorrectly named as the energetic force comes from the hydrophilic molecules. Goss, K. U. and R. P. Schwarzenbach (2003): "Rules of Thumb for Assessing Equilibrium Partitioning of Organic Compounds: Successes and Pitfalls." JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION 80(4): 450–455. Link to abstract Thus the two immiscible phases (hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic) will change so that their corresponding interfacial area will be minimal. This effect can be visualized in the phenomenon called phase separation. Superhydrophobicity A drop on a Lotus surface. Superhydrophobic surfaces such as the leaves of the lotus plant have surfaces that are extremely difficult to wet. The contact angles of a water droplet exceeds 150° and the roll-off angle is less than 10°. This is referred to as the Lotus effect. Theory In 1805 Thomas Young defined the contact angle θ by analyzing the forces acting on a fluid droplet resting on a solid surface surrounded by a gas. A liquid droplet rests on a solid surface and is surrounded by gas. The contact angle, θC, is the angle formed by a liquid at the three phase boundary where the liquid, gas, and solid intersect. A droplet resting on a solid surface and surrounded by a gas forms a characteristic contact angle θ. If the solid surface is rough, and the liquid is in intimate contact with the solid asperities, the droplet is in the Wenzel state. If the liquid rests on the tops of the asperities, it is in the Cassie-Baxter state. where = Interfacial tension between the solid and gas = Interfacial tension between the solid and liquid = Interfacial tension between the liquid and gas θ can be measured using a contact angle goniometer. Wenzel determined that when the liquid is in intimate contact with a microstructured surface, θ will change to where r is the ratio of the actual area to the projected area. Wenzel's equation shows that microstructuring a surface amplifies the natural tendency of the surface. A hydrophobic surface (one that has an original contact angle greater than 90°) becomes more hydrophobic when microstructured – its new contact angle becomes greater than the original. However, a hydrophilic surface (one that has an original contact angle less than 90°) becomes more hydrophilic when microstructured – its new contact angle becomes less than the original. Cassie and Baxter found that if the liquid is suspended on the tops of microstructures, θ will change to = φ(cos θ + 1) – 1 where φ is the area fraction of the solid that touches the liquid. Liquid in the Cassie-Baxter state is more mobile than in the Wenzel state. We can predict whether the Wenzel or Cassie-Baxter state should exist by calculating the new contact angle with both equations. By a minimization of free energy argument, the relation that predicted the smaller new contact angle is the state most likely to exist. Stated mathematically, for the Cassie-Baxter state to exist, the following inequality must be true. cos θ < (φ-1)/(r - φ) A recent alternative criteria for the Cassie-Baxter state asserts that the Cassie-Baxter state exists when the following 2 criteria are met: 1) Contact line forces overcome body forces of unsupported droplet weight and 2) The microstructures are tall enough to prevent the liquid that bridges microstructures from touching the base of the microstructures. Contact angle is a measure of static hydrophobicity, and contact angle hysteresis and slide angle are dynamic measures. Contact angle hysteresis is a phenomenon that characterizes surface heterogeneity. When a pipette injects a liquid onto a solid, the liquid will form some contact angle. As the pipette injects more liquid, the droplet will increase in volume, the contact angle will increase, but its three phase boundary will remain stationary until it suddenly advances outward. The contact angle the droplet had immediately before advancing outward is termed the advancing contact angle. The receding contact angle is now measured by pumping the liquid back out of the droplet. The droplet will decrease in volume, the contact angle will decrease, but its three phase boundary will remain stationary until it suddenly recedes inward. The contact angle the droplet had immediately before receding inward is termed the receding contact angle. The difference between advancing and receding contact angles is termed contact angle hysteresis and can be used to characterize surface heterogeneity, roughness, and mobility. Surfaces that are not homogeneous will have domains which impede motion of the contact line. The slide angle is another dynamic measure of hydrophobicity and is measured by depositing a droplet on a surface and tilting the surface until the droplet begins to slide. Liquids in the Cassie-Baxter state generally exhibit lower slide angles and contact angle hysteresis than those in the Wenzel state. Recent research Research in superhydrophobicity recently accelerated with a letter that reported man-made superhydrophobic samples produced by allowing alkylketene dimer (AKD) to solidify into a nanostructured fractal surface. Many papers have since presented fabrication methods for producing superhydrophobic surfaces including particle deposition, sol-gel techniques, plasma treatments, vapor deposition, and casting techniques. Current opportunity for research impact lies mainly in fundamental research and practical manufacturing. Debates have recently emerged concerning the applicability of the Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter models. In an experiment designed to challenge the surface energy perspective of the Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter model and promote a contact line perspective, water drops were placed on a smooth hydrophobic spot in a rough hydrophobic field, a rough hydrophobic spot in a smooth hydrophobic field, and a hydrophilic spot in a hydrophobic field. Experiments showed that the surface chemistry and geometry at the contact line affected the contact angle and contact angle hysteresis, but the surface area inside the contact line had no effect. An argument that increased jaggedness in the contact line enhances droplet mobility has also been proposed. Many very hydrophobic materials found in nature rely on Cassie's law and are biphasic on the submicrometer level with one component air. The Lotus effect is based on this principle. Inspired by it, a lot of functional superhydrophobic surfaces were prepared.. An example of a biomimetic superhydrophobic material in nanotechnology is nanopin film. In one study a vanadium pentoxide surface is presented that can switch reversibly between superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity under the influence of UV radiation. UV-Driven Reversible Switching of a Roselike Vanadium Oxide Film between Superhydrophobicity and SuperhydrophilicityHo Sun Lim, Donghoon Kwak, Dong Yun Lee, Seung Goo Lee, and Kilwon Cho J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 2007; 129(14) pp. 4128–4129; (Communication) According to the study any surface can be modified to this effect by application of a suspension of rose-like V2O5 particles for instance with an inkjet printer. Once again hydrophobicity is induced by interlaminar air pockets (separated by 2.1 nm distances). The UV effect is also explained. UV light creates electron-hole pairs, with the holes reacting with lattice oxygen creating surface oxygen vacancies while the electrons reduce V5+ to V3+. The oxygen vacancies are met by water and this water absorbency by the vanadium surface makes it hydrophilic. By extended storage in the dark, water is replaced by oxygen and hydrophilicity is once again lost. Potential applications Active recent research on superhydrophobic materials might eventually lead to industrial applications. For example, a simple routine of coating cotton fabric with silica C-H Xue et al. "Preparation of superhydrophobic surfaces on cotton textiles" Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9 (2008) 035008 free download or titania C-H Xue et al. "Superhydrophobic cotton fabrics prepared by sol–gel coating of TiO2 and surface hydrophobization" Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9 (2008) 035001 free download particles by sol-gel technique has been reported, which protects the fabric from UV light and makes it superhydrophobic. Also, an efficient routine has been reported for making polyethylene superhydrophobic and thus self-cleaning Z. Yuan et al. "Preparation and characterization of self-cleaning stable superhydrophobic linear low-density polyethylene" Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9 (2008) 045007 free download —99% of dirt adsorbed on such surface is easily washed away. Patterned superhydrophobic surfaces also have the promises for the lab-on-a-chip, microfluidic devices and can drastically improve the surface based bioanalysis. See also Froth flotation Amphiphile Hydrophobicity scales References External links Webtool to calculate and plot the hydrophobicity of proteins. Hydrophobicity applied - hydrophobic interaction chromatography (dutch) Website dedicated to news and knowledge on superhydrophobic coating | Hydrophobe |@lemmatized dew:1 drop:4 hydrophobic:21 leaf:2 surface:35 water:13 grass:1 chemistry:2 hydrophobicity:7 combine:1 form:6 attic:1 greek:1 hydro:1 fear:1 phobos:1 refers:1 physical:2 property:2 molecule:6 know:1 hydrophobe:1 repel:1 mass:1 aryeh:1 ben:1 na:1 im:1 interaction:3 plenum:1 press:1 new:5 york:1 isbn:1 x:1 tend:1 non:2 polar:3 thus:3 prefer:1 neutral:1 nonpolar:1 solvent:1 often:2 cluster:1 together:1 forming:1 micelle:1 exhibit:2 high:1 contact:36 angle:33 example:3 include:2 alkane:1 oil:3 fat:2 greasy:1 substance:2 general:1 material:4 use:4 removal:1 management:1 spill:1 chemical:4 separation:2 process:1 remove:1 compound:2 interchangeably:1 lipophilic:2 love:1 however:2 two:2 term:4 synonymous:1 usually:1 exception:1 silicone:1 fluorocarbon:1 background:1 accord:2 thermodynamics:1 matter:1 seek:1 low:3 energy:4 state:13 bond:4 reduces:1 electrically:2 polarize:2 able:1 hydrogen:2 internally:1 give:1 many:3 unique:1 since:2 hydrophobes:2 unable:1 repels:1 favour:1 effect:7 cause:1 incorrectly:1 name:1 energetic:1 force:4 come:1 hydrophilic:6 go:1 k:1 u:1 r:3 p:1 schwarzenbach:1 rule:1 thumb:1 assess:1 equilibrium:1 partitioning:1 organic:1 success:1 pitfall:1 journal:1 education:1 link:2 abstract:1 immiscible:1 phase:5 v:1 change:3 corresponding:1 interfacial:4 area:5 minimal:1 visualize:1 phenomenon:2 call:1 superhydrophobicity:4 lotus:4 superhydrophobic:13 plant:1 extremely:1 difficult:1 wet:1 droplet:14 exceed:1 roll:1 less:3 refer:1 theory:1 thomas:1 young:1 define:1 θ:7 analyze:1 act:1 fluid:1 rest:4 solid:10 surround:3 gas:6 liquid:17 θc:1 three:3 boundary:3 intersect:1 characteristic:1 rough:3 intimate:2 asperity:2 wenzel:8 top:2 cassie:11 baxter:10 tension:3 measure:6 goniometer:1 determine:1 microstructured:3 ratio:1 actual:1 project:1 equation:2 show:2 microstructuring:1 amplify:1 natural:1 tendency:1 one:4 original:4 great:2 becomes:2 become:2 find:2 suspend:1 microstructures:4 φ:4 cos:1 fraction:1 touch:2 mobile:1 predict:2 whether:1 exist:3 calculate:2 minimization:1 free:4 argument:2 relation:1 small:1 likely:1 mathematically:1 following:1 inequality:1 must:1 true:1 co:1 recent:3 alternative:1 criterion:2 assert:1 exists:1 follow:1 meet:2 line:6 overcome:1 body:1 unsupported:1 weight:1 tall:1 enough:1 prevent:1 bridge:1 base:3 static:1 hysteresis:5 slide:4 dynamic:2 characterize:2 heterogeneity:2 pipette:2 inject:2 onto:1 increase:3 volume:2 remain:2 stationary:2 suddenly:2 advance:4 outward:2 immediately:2 recede:5 pump:1 back:1 decrease:2 inward:2 difference:1 roughness:1 mobility:2 homogeneous:1 domain:1 impede:1 motion:1 another:1 deposit:1 tilt:1 begin:1 generally:1 research:5 recently:2 accelerate:1 letter:1 report:3 man:1 make:4 sample:1 produce:2 allow:1 alkylketene:1 dimer:1 akd:1 solidify:1 nanostructured:1 fractal:1 paper:1 present:2 fabrication:1 method:1 particle:3 deposition:2 sol:3 gel:3 technique:3 plasma:1 treatment:1 vapor:1 cast:1 current:1 opportunity:1 impact:1 lie:1 mainly:1 fundamental:1 practical:1 manufacturing:1 debate:1 emerge:1 concern:1 applicability:1 model:2 experiment:2 design:1 challenge:1 perspective:2 promote:1 place:1 smooth:2 spot:3 field:3 geometry:1 affect:1 inside:1 jaggedness:1 enhance:1 also:5 propose:1 nature:1 rely:1 law:1 biphasic:1 submicrometer:1 level:1 component:1 air:2 principle:1 inspire:1 lot:1 functional:1 prepared:1 biomimetic:1 nanotechnology:1 nanopin:1 film:2 study:2 vanadium:3 pentoxide:1 switch:1 reversibly:1 superhydrophilicity:1 influence:1 uv:5 radiation:1 driven:1 reversible:1 switching:1 roselike:1 oxide:1 superhydrophilicityho:1 sun:1 lim:1 donghoon:1 kwak:1 dong:1 yun:1 lee:2 seung:1 goo:1 kilwon:1 cho:1 j:1 chem:1 soc:1 pp:1 communication:1 modify:1 application:3 suspension:1 rise:1 like:1 instance:1 inkjet:1 printer:1 induce:1 interlaminar:1 pocket:1 separate:1 nm:1 distance:1 explain:1 light:2 creates:1 electron:2 hole:2 pair:1 react:1 lattice:1 oxygen:4 create:1 vacancy:2 reduce:1 absorbency:1 extended:1 storage:1 dark:1 replace:1 hydrophilicity:1 lose:1 potential:1 active:1 might:1 eventually:1 lead:1 industrial:1 simple:1 routine:2 coat:1 cotton:3 fabric:3 silica:1 c:2 h:2 xue:2 et:3 al:3 preparation:2 textile:1 sci:3 technol:3 adv:3 mater:3 download:3 titania:1 prepare:1 coating:2 hydrophobization:1 protect:1 efficient:1 polyethylene:2 self:2 clean:1 z:1 yuan:1 characterization:1 cleaning:1 stable:1 linear:1 density:1 dirt:1 adsorb:1 easily:1 wash:1 away:1 pattern:1 promise:1 lab:1 chip:1 microfluidic:1 device:1 drastically:1 improve:1 bioanalysis:1 see:1 froth:1 flotation:1 amphiphile:1 scale:1 reference:1 external:1 webtool:1 plot:1 protein:1 apply:1 chromatography:1 dutch:1 website:1 dedicate:1 news:1 knowledge:1 |@bigram hydrophobic_interaction:3 oil_spill:1 hydrogen_bond:2 organic_compound:1 superhydrophobic_surface:5 angle_θ:2 cassie_baxter:10 interfacial_tension:3 angle_hysteresis:5 sol_gel:3 vapor_deposition:1 uv_radiation:1 chem_soc:1 inkjet_printer:1 et_al:3 sci_technol:3 technol_adv:3 adv_mater:3 density_polyethylene:1 microfluidic_device:1 froth_flotation:1 external_link:1 |
3,241 | Buckingham_Palace | Buckingham Palace. This is the principal façade, the East Front; originally constructed by Edward Blore and completed in 1850, it was redesigned in 1913 by Sir Aston Webb. Queen Victoria, the first monarch to reside at Buckingham Palace, moved into the newly completed palace upon her accession in 1837. Buckingham Palace is the official London residence of the British monarch. Traditionally the British Royal Court is still resident at St. James's Palace. While foreign ambassadors assuming their new position are received by the British sovereign at Buckingham Palace, they are in fact accredited to the "Court of St. James's Palace". This anomaly continues for the sake of tradition as Buckingham Palace is to all intents and purposes the official residence. See History of St James's Palace (Royal website). Located in the City of Westminster, the palace is a setting for state occasions and royal hospitality, and a major tourist attraction. It has been a rallying point for the British people at times of national rejoicing and crisis. Originally known as Buckingham House, the building which forms the core of today's palace was a large townhouse built for the Duke of Buckingham in 1703 and acquired by George III in 1761 Robinson, p. 14 as a private residence, known as "The Queen's House". It was enlarged over the next 75 years, principally by architects John Nash and Edward Blore, forming three wings around a central courtyard. Buckingham Palace finally became the official royal palace of the British monarch on the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837. The last major structural additions were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including the present-day public face of Buckingham Palace. However, the palace chapel was destroyed by a German bomb in World War II; the Queen's Gallery was built on the site and opened to the public in 1962 to exhibit works of art from the Royal Collection. The original early 19th-century interior designs, many of which still survive, included widespread use of brightly coloured scagliola and blue and pink lapis, on the advice of Sir Charles Long. King Edward VII oversaw a partial redecoration in a Belle epoque cream and gold colour scheme. Many smaller reception rooms are furnished in the Chinese regency style with furniture and fittings brought from the Royal Pavilion at Brighton and from Carlton House. The Buckingham Palace Garden is the largest private garden in London, originally landscaped by Capability Brown, but redesigned by William Townsend Aiton of Kew Gardens and John Nash. The artificial lake was completed in 1828 and is supplied with water from the Serpentine, a river which runs through Hyde Park. The state rooms form the nucleus of the working Palace and are used regularly by Queen Elizabeth II and members of the royal family for official and state entertaining. Buckingham Palace is one of the world's most familiar buildings and more than 50,000 people visit the palace each year as guests to banquets, lunches, dinners, receptions and the royal garden parties. History Buckingham House, c.1710, was designed by William Winde for the first Duke of Buckingham and Normanby. This façade evolved into today's Grand Entrance on the west (inner) side of the quadrangle, with the Green Drawing Room above. The site In the Middle Ages, Buckingham Palace's site formed part of the Manor of Ebury (also called Eia). The marshy ground was watered by the river Tyburn, which still flows below the courtyard and south wing of the palace. Goring, P.15 Where the river was fordable (at Cow Ford), the village of Eye Cross grew. Ownership of the site changed hands many times; owners included Edward the Confessor and his queen consort Edith of Wessex in late Saxon times, and, after the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror. William gave the site to Geoffrey de Mandeville, who bequeathed it to the monks of Westminster Abbey. The topography of the site and its ownership are dealt with in Wright, chapters 1–4 In 1531, Henry VIII acquired the Hospital of St James (later St. James's Palace) Goring, p.28 from Eton College, and in 1536 he took the Manor of Ebury from Westminster Abbey. Goring, p.18 These transfers brought the site of Buckingham Palace back into royal hands for the first time since William the Conqueror had given it away almost 500 years earlier. The Acquisition of the Estate, Survey of London: volume 39: The Grosvenor Estate in Mayfair, Part 1 (General History) (1977), pp. 1–5. Date accessed: 03 February 2009 Various owners leased it from royal landlords and the freehold was the subject of frenzied speculation in the 17th century. By then, the old village of Eye Cross had long since fallen into decay, and the area was mostly wasteland. Wright, pp. 76–8 Needing money, James I sold off part of the Crown freehold but retained part of the site on which he established a mulberry garden for the production of silk. (This is at the northwest corner of today's palace.) Goring, pp. 31&36 Clement Walker in Anarchia Anglicana (1649) refers to "new-erected sodoms and spintries at the Mulberry Garden at S. James's"; this suggests it may have been a place of debauchery. Eventually, in the late 17th century, the freehold was inherited from the property tycoon Sir Hugh Audley by the great heiress Mary Davies. Audley and Davies were key figures in the development of Ebury Manor and also the Grosvenor Estate (see Dukes of Westminster), which still exists today. (They are remembered in North Audley Street, South Audley Street, and Davies Street, all in Mayfair.) First houses on the site Possibly the first house erected within the site was that of a Sir William Blake, around 1624. Wright, p. 83 The next owner was Lord Goring, who from 1633 extended Blake's house and developed much of today's garden, then known as Goring Great Garden. Goring, Chapter V Harris, p.21 He did not, however, manage to obtain freehold interest in the mulberry garden. Unbeknown to Goring, in 1640 the document "failed to pass the Great Seal before King Charles I fled London, which it needed to do for legal execution". Wright, p. 96 (It was this critical omission that helped the British royal family regain the freehold under King George III.) Goring, p.62 Goring defaulted on his rents; Goring, p.58 Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington obtained the mansion and was occupying it, now known as Goring House, when it burned down in 1674. Harris, p.21 Arlington House rose on the site—the southern wing of today's palace—the next year, Harris, p.21 and its freehold was bought in 1702. The house which forms the architectural core of the present palace was built for the first Duke of Buckingham and Normanby in 1703 to the design of William Winde. The style chosen was of a large, three-floored central block with two smaller flanking service wings. Harris, p.22 Buckingham House was eventually sold by Buckingham's descendant, Sir Charles Sheffield, in 1761 to George III for £21,000. Nash, p. 18, although the purchase price is given by Wright p. 142 as £28,000 (Like his grandfather, George II, George III refused to sell the mulberry garden interest, so that Sheffield had been unable to purchase the full freehold of the site.) The house was originally intended as a private retreat for the royal family, and in particular for Queen Charlotte, and was known as The Queen's House In 1775, an Act of Parliament settled the property on Queen Charlotte, in exchange for her rights to Somerset House (see Old and New London (below) —14 of their 15 children were born there. St. James's Palace remained the official and ceremonial royal residence; Westminster: Buckingham Palace, Old and New London: Volume 4 (1878), pp. 61–74. Date accessed: 03 February 2009 indeed, the tradition continues to the present time of foreign ambassadors being formally accredited to "the Court of St. James's", even though it is at Buckingham Palace that they present their credentials and staff to the Queen upon their appointment. Remodelling of the structure began in 1762. Harris, p.24 After his accession to the throne in 1820, George IV continued the renovation with the idea in mind of a small, comfortable home. While the work was in progress, in 1826, the King decided to modify the house into a palace with the help of his architect John Nash. Harris, pp.30–31 Some furnishings were transferred from Carlton House, and others had been bought in France after the French Revolution. Jones, p. 42 The external facade was designed in the French neo-classical influence preferred by George IV. The cost of the renovations grew exponentially and by 1829, the extravagance of Nash's designs resulted in his removal as architect. On the death of George IV in 1830, his younger brother William IV hired Edward Blore to finish the work. Harris, p.33 At one stage, William considered converting the palace into the new Houses of Parliament, after the destruction of the existing namesake by fire in 1834. Home of the monarch The palace c. 1837, depicting the Marble Arch, which served as the ceremonial entrance to the Palace precincts. It was moved to make way for the east wing, built in 1847, which enclosed the quadrangle. Buckingham Palace finally became the principal royal residence in 1837, on the accession of Queen Victoria, who was the first monarch to reside there as her predecessor William IV had died before its completion. Hedley, p. 10 While the state rooms were a riot of gilt and colour, the necessities of the new palace were somewhat less luxurious. For one thing, it was reported the chimneys smoked so much that the fires had to be allowed to die down, and consequently the court shivered in icy magnificence. Woodham-Smith, p. 249 Ventilation was so bad that the interior smelled, and when a decision was taken to install gas lamps, there was a serious worry about the build-up of gas on the lower floors. It was also said that the staff were lax and lazy and the palace was dirty. Following the Queen's marriage in 1840, her husband, Prince Albert, concerned himself with a reorganisation of the household offices and staff, and with the design faults of the palace. The problems were all rectified by the close of 1840. However, the builders were to return within the decade. By 1847, the couple had found the palace too small for court life and their growing family, Harris, de Bellaigue & Miller, p. 33 and consequently the new wing, designed by Edward Blore, was built by Thomas Cubitt, Holland & Hannen and Cubitts - The Inception and Development of a Great Building Firm, published 1920 enclosing the central quadrangle. The large East Front facing The Mall is today the "public face" of Buckingham Palace and contains the balcony from which the Royal Family acknowledge the crowds on momentous occasions and annually after Trooping the Colour. The ballroom wing and a further suite of state rooms were also built in this period, designed by Nash's student Sir James Pennethorne. Before Prince Albert's death, the palace was frequently the scene of musical entertainments, Hedley, p. 19 and the greatest contemporary musicians entertained at Buckingham Palace. The composer Felix Mendelssohn is known to have played there on three occasions. Healey, pp.137–138 Johann Strauss II and his orchestra played there when in England. Healey, p.122 Strauss's "Alice Polka" was first performed at the palace in 1849 in honour of the Queen's daughter, Princess Alice. Allen's Indian Mail, and Register of British and Foreign India, China, and all parts of the East. 1850, Vol. VIII. Google Book link Under Victoria, Buckingham Palace was frequently the scene of lavish costume balls, in addition to the routine royal ceremonies, investitures and presentations. Widowed in 1861, the grief-stricken Queen withdrew from public life and left Buckingham Palace to live at Windsor Castle, Balmoral Castle, and Osborne House. For many years the palace was seldom used, and even neglected. Eventually, public opinion forced her to return to London, though even then she preferred to live elsewhere whenever possible. Court functions were still held at Windsor Castle rather than at the palace, presided over by the sombre Queen habitually dressed in mourning black while Buckingham Palace remained shuttered for most of the year. Robinson, p. 9 Interior Piano nobile of Buckingham Palace. A: State Dining Room; B: Blue Drawing Room; C: Music Room; D: White Drawing Room; E: Royal Closet; F: Throne Room; G: Green Drawing Room; H: Cross Gallery; J: Ball Room; K: East Gallery; L: Yellow Drawing Room; M: Centre/Balcony Room; N: Chinese Luncheon Room; O: Principal Corridor; P: Private Apartments; Q: Service Areas; W: The Grand staircase. On the ground floor: R: Ambassador's Entrance; T: Grand Entrance. The areas defined by shaded walls represent lower minor wings. Note: This is an unscaled sketch plan for reference only. Proportions of some rooms may slightly differ in reality. The palace contains 77,000 square metres of floorspace (828,818 sq ft). See reference on official British monarchy website The principal rooms of the palace are contained on the piano nobile behind the west-facing garden facade at the rear of the palace. The centre of this ornate suite of state rooms is the Music Room, its large bow the dominant feature of the facade. Flanking the Music Room are the Blue and the White Drawing rooms. At the centre of the suite, serving as a corridor to link the state rooms, is the Picture Gallery, which is top-lit and 55 yards (50 m) long. Harris, p.41 The Gallery is hung with numerous works including some by Rembrandt, van Dyck, Rubens and Vermeer; Harris, pp.78–79 Healey, pp.387–388 other rooms leading from the Picture Gallery are the Throne Room and the Green Drawing Room. The Green Drawing room serves as a huge anteroom to the Throne Room, and is part of the ceremonial route to the throne from the Guard Room at the top of the Grand staircase. Harris, p.41 The Guard Room contains white marble statues of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, in Roman costume, set in a tribune lined with tapestries. These very formal rooms are used only for ceremonial and official entertaining, but are open to the public every summer. Directly underneath the State Apartments is a suite of slightly less grand rooms known as the semi-state apartments. Opening from the Marble Hall, these rooms are used for less formal entertaining, such as luncheon parties and private audiences. Some of the rooms are named and decorated for particular visitors, such as the 1844 Room, which was decorated in that year for the State visit of Emperor Nicholas I of Russia, and, on the other side of the Bow Room, the 1855 Room, in honour of the visit of Emperor Napoleon III of France. Harris, p.81 At the centre of this suite is the Bow Room, through which thousands of guests pass annually to the Queen's Garden Parties in the Gardens beyond. Harris, p.40 The Queen uses privately a smaller suite of rooms in the North wing. Prince Albert's music room, one of the smaller less formal rooms at the palace, in 1887 Between 1847 and 1850, when Blore was building the new east wing, the Brighton Pavilion was once again plundered of its fittings. As a result, many of the rooms in the new wing have a distinctly oriental atmosphere. The red and blue Chinese Luncheon Room is made up from parts of the Brighton banqueting and music rooms, but has a chimney piece designed by W.M. Feetham. The Yellow Drawing Room has wall paper which had been supplied in 1817 for the Brighton Saloon, and the chimney piece in this room is a European vision of what the Chinese equivalent would look like, complete with nodding mandarins in niches and fearsome winged dragons, designed by Robert Jones. Healey, pp.159–160 The Queen's Breakfast Room At the centre of this wing is the famous balcony, with the Centre Room behind its glass doors. This is a Chinese-style saloon enhanced by Queen Mary, who, working with the designer Sir Charles Allom, created a more "binding" Harris, de Bellaigue & Miller, p. 93 Chinese theme in the late 1920s, although the lacquer doors were brought from Brighton in 1873. Running the length of the piano nobile of the east wing is the great gallery, modestly known as the Principal Corridor, which runs the length of the eastern side of the quadrangle. Harris, de Bellaigue & Miller, p. 91 It has mirrored doors, and mirrored cross walls reflecting porcelain pagodas and other oriental furniture from Brighton. The Chinese Luncheon Room and Yellow Drawing Room are situated at each end of this gallery, with the Centre Room obviously placed in the centre. The original early 19th-century interior designs, many of which still survive, included widespread use of brightly coloured scagliola and blue and pink lapis, on the advice of Sir Charles Long. King Edward VII oversaw a partial redecoration in a Belle epoque cream and gold colour scheme. Jones, p. 43 When paying a state visit to Britain, foreign heads of state are usually entertained by the Queen at Buckingham Palace. They are allocated a large suite of rooms known as the Belgian suite, situated at the foot of the Minister's Staircase, on the ground floor of the North-facing garden wing. The rooms of the suite are linked by narrow corridors, one given extra height and perspective by saucer domes designed by Nash in the style of Soane. Harris, p.82. A second corridor in the suite has Gothic influenced cross over vaulting. The Belgian rooms themselves, were decorated in their present style, and named after, Prince Albert's uncle Léopold I, first King of the Belgians. However, at this time the suite was not reserved exclusively for foreign heads of state; in 1936, the suite briefly became the private apartments of the palace when they were occupied by Edward VIII. 40 facts about Buckingham Palace (Royal Insight: The British Monarchy Media Centre) accessed 3 February 2009 Court ceremonies Court ceremony has undergone a radical change during the current reign, and entry to the palace is no longer the prerogative of just the upper class. Hedley, pp. 16–17 The Ballroom is the largest room at Buckingham Palace. It was added by Queen Victoria and is used for ceremonies such as investitures and state banquets. This picture dates from 1856. The polychrome colour scheme has been replaced by mainly white decoration with gold details and red upholstery. The dress code governing formal court uniform and dress has progressively relaxed; in previous reigns, men not wearing military uniform would wear knee breeches of an 18th-century design. Women's evening dress included obligatory trains and tiaras or feathers in their hair (or both). After World War I, when Queen Mary wished to follow fashion by raising her skirts a few inches from the ground, she requested a Lady-in-Waiting to shorten her own skirt first to gauge the King's reaction. King George V was horrified and her hemline remained unfashionably low. Healey, p.233, quoting The Memoirs of Mabell, Countess of Airlie, edited and arranged by Jennifer Ellis, London:Hutchinson, 1962. Subsequently, King George VI and his consort, Queen Elizabeth, allowed daytime skirts to rise. Today, there is no official dress code. Advice given by HM's representatives Most men invited to Buckingham Palace in the daytime choose to wear service uniform or morning coats, and in the evening, depending on the formality of the occasion, black tie or white tie. If the occasion is "white tie" then women, if they possess one, wear a tiara. One of the first major changes was in 1958, when the Queen abolished the presentation parties for débutantes. These court presentations of aristocratic girls to the monarch took place in the throne room. A custom re-introduced by George VI and Queen Elizabeth; Edward VIII had absorbed them into less formal garden parties. At the evening courts, as the ceremonies were known, débutantes wore full court dress, with three tall ostrich feathers in their hair. They entered, curtsied, performed a choreographed backwards walk and a further curtsey, while manoeuvring a dress train of prescribed length. The ceremony corresponded to the "court drawing rooms" of earlier reigns. Queen Elizabeth II replaced the presentations with large and frequent palace garden parties for an invited cross-section of British society. The late Princess Margaret is reputed to have remarked of the débutante presentations: "We had to put a stop to it, every tart in London was getting in." Blaikie, Thomas (2002). You look awfully like the Queen: Wit and Wisdom from the House of Windsor. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-714874-7 Today, the Throne Room is used for the reception of formal addresses such as those given to the Queen on her Jubilees. It is here on the throne dais that royal wedding portraits and family photographs are taken. Investitures, which include the conferring of knighthoods by dubbing with a sword, and other awards take place in the palace's Victorian Ballroom, built in 1854. At 123 by 60 feet (37 by 20 m), this is the largest room in the palace. It has replaced the throne room in importance and use. During investitures, the Queen stands on the throne dais beneath a giant, domed velvet canopy, which is known as a shamiana or a baldachin and was used at the coronation Durbar in Delhi in 1911. Harris, p.72 A military band plays in the musicians' gallery as award recipients approach the Queen and receive their honours, watched by their families and friends. Healey, p.364 This 1870 drawing shows guests ascending the Grand Staircase. State banquets also take place in the Ballroom; these formal dinners take place on the first evening of a state visit by a visiting Head of State. Healey, p.364 On these occasions, 150 or more guests in formal "white tie and decorations", including tiaras for women, may dine off gold plate. The largest and most formal reception at Buckingham Palace takes place every November, when the Queen entertains members of the foreign diplomatic corps resident in London. Healey, p.362 On this occasion, all the state rooms are in use, as the Royal Family proceed through them Hedley, p. 16 beginning through the great north doors of the Picture Gallery. As Nash had envisaged, all the large, double-mirrored doors stand open, reflecting the numerous crystal chandeliers and sconces, causing a deliberate optical illusion of space and light. Smaller ceremonies such as the reception of new ambassadors take place in the "1844 Room". Here too the Queen holds small lunch parties, and often meetings of the Privy Council. Larger lunch parties often take place in the curved and domed Music Room, or the State Dining Room. On all formal occasions the ceremonies are attended by the Yeomen of the Guard in their historic uniforms, and other officers of the court such as the Lord Chamberlain. Healey, pp.363–365 Since the bombing of the palace chapel in World War II, royal christenings have sometimes taken place in the Music Room. The Queen's first three children were all baptised here Robinson, p. 49 in a special gold font. Prince William was also christened in the Music Room; however, his brother, Prince Harry, was christened at St George's Chapel, Windsor. The largest functions of the year are the Queen's Garden Parties for up to 8,000 invitees, taking tea and sandwiches in marquees erected in the Garden. As a military band plays the National Anthem, the Queen emerges from the Bow Room and slowly walks through the assembled guests towards her private tea tent, greeting those previously selected for the honour. Those guests who do not actually have the opportunity to meet the Queen at least have the consolation of being able to admire the Garden. Modern history |Buckingham Palace panorama, 1909 In 1901 the accession of Edward VII saw new life breathed into the palace. The new King and his wife Queen Alexandra had always been at the forefront of London high society, and their friends, known as "the Marlborough House Set", were considered to be the most eminent and fashionable of the age. Buckingham Palace—the Ballroom, Grand Entrance, Marble Hall, Grand Staircase, vestibules and galleries redecorated in the Belle epoque cream and gold colour scheme they retain today—once again became the focal point of the British Empire and a setting for entertaining on a majestic scale. Many people feel King Edward's heavy redecoration of the palace does not complement Nash's original work. Robinson (Page 9) asserts that the decorations, including plaster swags and other decorative motifs, are "finicky" and "at odds with Nash's original detailing". However, it has been allowed to remain for over one hundred years. The last major building work took place during the reign of King George V when, in 1913, Sir Aston Webb redesigned Blore's 1850 East Front to resemble in part Giacomo Leoni's Lyme Park in Cheshire. This new, refaced principal facade (of Portland stone) was designed to be the backdrop to the Victoria Memorial, a large memorial statue of Queen Victoria, placed outside the main gates. Harris, p.34 George V, who had succeeded Edward VII in 1910, had a more serious personality than his father; greater emphasis was now placed on official entertaining and royal duties than on lavish parties. Healey, p.185 George V's wife Queen Mary was a connoisseur of the arts, and took a keen interest in the Royal Collection of furniture and art, both restoring and adding to it. Queen Mary also had many new fixtures and fittings installed, such as the pair of marble Empire-style chimneypieces by Benjamin Vulliamy, dating from 1810, which the Queen had installed in the ground floor Bow Room, the huge low room at the centre of the garden facade. Queen Mary was also responsible for the decoration of the Blue Drawing Room. Healey pp.221–222 This room, 69 feet (21 m) long, previously known as the South Drawing Room, has a ceiling designed specially by Nash, coffered with huge gilt console brackets. Harris, p.63 A 1999 book published by the Royal Collection Department reported that the palace contained 19 state rooms, 52 principal bedrooms, 188 staff bedrooms, 92 offices, and 78 bathrooms. Robinson, p. 11 While this may seem large, it is small when compared to the Russian imperial palaces in Saint Petersburg and at Tsarskoe Selo, the Papal Palace in Rome, the Royal Palace of Madrid, or indeed the former Palace of Whitehall, and tiny compared to the Forbidden City and Potala Palace. The relative smallness of the palace may be best appreciated from within, looking out over the inner quadrangle. A minor extension was made in 1938, in which the north-west pavilion, designed by Nash, was converted into a swimming pool. The Victoria Memorial was created by sculptor Sir Thomas Brock in 1911 and erected in front of the main gates at Buckingham Palace on a surround constructed by architect Sir Aston Webb. During World War I the palace, then the home of King George V and Queen Mary, escaped unscathed. Its more valuable contents were evacuated to Windsor but the Royal family remained in situ. The largest change to court life at this time was that the Government persuaded the King to ostentatiously and publicly lock the wine cellars and refrain from alcohol for the duration of the war, to set a good example to the supposedly inebriated lower classes. The lower classes continued to imbibe and the King was left reputedly furious at his enforced abstinence. The King's children were photographed at this time serving tea to wounded officers in the adjacent Royal Mews. The palace fared worse during World War II; bombed no less than seven times, the most serious and publicised of which resulted in the destruction of the palace chapel in 1940. Coverage of this event was played in cinemas all over the UK to show the common suffering of rich and poor. One bomb fell in the palace quadrangle while King George VI and Queen Elizabeth were in residence, and many windows were blown in and the chapel destroyed. War time coverage of such incidents was severely restricted, however, The King and Queen were filmed inspecting their bombed home, the smiling Queen, as always, immaculately dressed in a hat and matching coat seemingly unbothered by the damage around her. It was at this time the Queen famously declared: "I'm glad we have been bombed. Now I can look the East End in the face". The Royal family were seen as sharing their subjects' hardship, as The Sunday Graphic reported: On 15 September 1940, an RAF pilot, Ray Holmes, rammed a German plane attempting to bomb the palace. "Pilot who 'saved Palace' honoured" 2 November 2005, BBC News. Retrieved 25 April 2007. Holmes had run out of ammunition and made the quick choice to ram it. Both planes crashed and their pilots survived, and the incident was captured on film. The plane's engine was later exhibited at the Imperial War Museum in London. The British pilot became a King's Messenger following the war, and died at the age of 90 in 2005. On VE Day—8 May 1945—the palace was the centre of British celebrations, with the King, Queen and the Princess Elizabeth, the future Queen, and Princess Margaret appearing on the balcony, with the palace's blacked-out windows behind them, to the cheers from a vast crowd in the Mall. 1945: Rejoicing at end of war in Europe (BBC On this day.) Retrieved 3 February 2009. The boy Jones was an intruder who gained entry to the palace on three occasions between 1838 and 1841 as recorded by Charles Dickens some 40 years later. Dickens, Charles (5 July 1885) " The boy Jones", All the Year Round, pp. 234–37. In 1982, Michael Fagan, was able to break into the palace twice, and conversed with the Queen on one of these God Save the Queen, Fast Spencer Davidson and Arthur White Time Magazine 26 July 1982 accessed 3 February 2009 Reportedly, Her Majesty maintained her composure while the palace police were en route and Fagan made no threatening motions towards the Queen. The Garden, the Royal Mews and the Mall At the rear of the palace, is the large and park-like garden which, together with its lake, is the largest private garden in London. Buckingham Palace (Museum of London.) Retrieved 3 February 2009. Here the Queen hosts her annual garden parties each summer, and also holds large functions to celebrate royal milestones, such as jubilees. Originally landscaped by Capability Brown, it was redesigned by William Townsend Aiton of Kew Gardens and John Nash. The artificial lake was completed in 1828 and is supplied with water from the Serpentine, a river which runs through Hyde Park. Adjacent to the palace is the Royal Mews, also designed by Nash, where the royal carriages, including the Gold State Coach, are housed. This rococo gilt coach, designed by Sir William Chambers in 1760, has painted panels by G. B. Cipriani. It was first used for the State Opening of Parliament by George III in 1762 and is used by the monarch only for coronations or jubilee celebrations. Also housed in the Mews are the carriage horses used in royal ceremonial processions. The Mall, a ceremonial approach route to the palace, was designed by Sir Aston Webb and completed in 1911 as part of a grand memorial to Queen Victoria. It extends from Admiralty Arch, up around the Victoria Memorial to the palace forecourt. This route is used by the cavalcades and motorcades of all visiting heads of state, and by the Royal Family on state occasions such as the annual State Opening of Parliament as well as Trooping the Colour each year. 21st century: Royal use and public access Today, Buckingham Palace is not only the weekday home of the Queen and Prince Philip but also the London residence of the Duke of York and the Earl and Countess of Wessex. The palace also houses the offices of the Royal Household and is the workplace of 450 people. The Royal Family on the balcony in 1986 Every year some 50,000 invited guests are entertained at garden parties, receptions, audiences, and banquets. The Garden Parties, usually three, are held in the summer, usually in July. The Forecourt of Buckingham Palace is used for Changing of the Guard, a major ceremony and tourist attraction (daily during the summer months; every other day during the winter). The palace, like Windsor castle, is owned by the British state. It is not the monarch's personal property unlike Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle. Many of the contents from Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle, Kensington Palace and St James' Palace are known collectively as the Royal Collection; owned by the nation, they can, on occasions, be viewed by the public at the Queen's Gallery, near the Royal Mews. Unlike the palace and the castle, the gallery is open continually and displays a changing selection of items from the collection. The rooms containing the Queen's Gallery are on the site of the former chapel, which was damaged by one of the seven bombs to fall on the palace during World War II. The palace's state rooms have been open to the public during August and September since 1993. The money raised in entry fees was originally put towards the rebuilding of Windsor Castle following the 1992 fire which destroyed many of its state rooms. Thus, Buckingham Palace is a symbol and home of the British monarchy, an art gallery and tourist attraction. Behind the gilded railings and gates which were made by the Bromsgrove Guild and Webb's famous facade which has been described as looking "like everybody's idea of a palace", the large staff employed by the Royal Household works to keep Britain's constitutional monarchy functioning. See also The nearest London Underground stations are Green Park, Hyde Park Corner, St Jame's Park and Victoria. Downing Street Flags at Buckingham Palace House of Fabergé List of British Royal Residences Palace of Placentia Savoy Palace Palace of Westminster – Royal residence from 1049 until 1530 Palace of Whitehall – Royal residence from 1530 until 1698 St. James's Palace – Royal residence from 1702 until 1837 Notes References Blaikie, Thomas (2002). You look awfully like the Queen: Wit and Wisdom from the House of Windsor. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-714874-7. Goring, O.G. (1937). From Goring House to Buckingham Palace. London:Ivor Nicholson & Watson. Harris, John; de Bellaigue, Geoffrey; & Miller, Oliver (1968). Buckingham Palace. London:Nelson. ISBN 0-17-141011-4 Healey, Edma (1997). The Queen's House: A Social History of Buckingham Palace. London:Penguin Group. ISBN 0718170893. Hedley, Olwen (1971) The Pictorial History of Buckingham Palace. Pitkin, ISBN 0-85372-086-X Nash, Roy (1980). Buckingham Palace: The Place and the People. London: Macdonald Futura. ISBN 0354045296 Robinson, John Martin (1999). Buckingham Palace. Published by The Royal Collection, St. James's Palace, London ISBN 1-902163-36-2. Williams, Neville (1971). Royal Homes. Lutterworth Press. ISBN 0-7188-0803-7. Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1973). Queen Victoria (vol 1) Hamish Hamilton Ltd. Wright, Patricia (1999; first published 1996). The Strange History of Buckingham Palace. Stroud, Gloucs.: Sutton Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-7509-1283-9 External links Buckingham Palace, Official website of the British monarchy The State Rooms, Buckingham Palace, Royal Collection: Opening times and tickets Account of Buckingham Palace, with prints of Arlington House and Buckingham House, from Edward Walford, Old and New London, Vol 4, Chap. VI (1878) Account of the acquisition of the Manor of Ebury, from F.H.W. Sheppard (ed.), Survey of London, vol. 39, "The Grosvenor Estate in Mayfair", part 1 (1977) Interactive Panorama: Buckingham Palace be-x-old:Букінгэмскі палац | Buckingham_Palace |@lemmatized buckingham:53 palace:121 principal:7 façade:2 east:9 front:4 originally:6 construct:2 edward:13 blore:6 complete:6 redesign:4 sir:13 aston:4 webb:5 queen:61 victoria:13 first:15 monarch:8 reside:2 move:2 newly:1 upon:2 accession:5 official:10 london:25 residence:11 british:17 traditionally:1 royal:47 court:15 still:6 resident:2 st:12 james:13 foreign:6 ambassador:4 assume:1 new:15 position:1 receive:2 sovereign:1 fact:2 accredit:2 anomaly:1 continue:4 sake:1 tradition:2 intent:1 purpose:1 see:6 history:7 website:3 locate:1 city:2 westminster:6 setting:2 state:30 occasion:11 hospitality:1 major:5 tourist:3 attraction:3 rally:1 point:2 people:5 time:13 national:2 rejoicing:2 crisis:1 know:14 house:30 building:4 form:5 core:2 today:11 large:20 townhouse:1 build:9 duke:5 acquire:2 george:18 iii:6 robinson:6 p:43 private:8 enlarge:1 next:3 year:13 principally:1 architect:4 john:6 nash:15 three:7 wing:14 around:4 central:3 courtyard:2 finally:2 become:5 last:2 structural:1 addition:2 make:7 late:5 early:4 century:7 include:10 present:5 day:4 public:9 face:6 however:7 chapel:6 destroy:3 german:2 bomb:6 world:7 war:11 ii:8 gallery:15 site:13 open:6 exhibit:2 work:9 art:4 collection:7 original:4 interior:4 design:19 many:11 survive:3 widespread:2 use:18 brightly:2 colour:9 scagliola:2 blue:6 pink:2 lapis:2 advice:3 charles:7 long:5 king:20 vii:4 oversee:2 partial:2 redecoration:3 belle:3 epoque:3 cream:3 gold:7 scheme:4 small:9 reception:6 room:76 furnish:1 chinese:7 regency:1 style:6 furniture:3 fitting:3 bring:3 pavilion:3 brighton:6 carlton:2 garden:27 landscape:2 capability:2 brown:2 william:13 townsend:2 aiton:2 kew:2 artificial:2 lake:3 supply:3 water:3 serpentine:2 river:4 run:5 hyde:3 park:7 nucleus:1 regularly:1 elizabeth:6 member:2 family:12 entertaining:4 one:11 familiar:1 visit:7 guest:7 banquet:4 lunch:3 dinner:2 party:13 c:3 winde:2 normanby:2 evolve:1 grand:9 entrance:5 west:3 inner:2 side:3 quadrangle:6 green:5 drawing:12 middle:1 age:3 part:10 manor:4 ebury:4 also:14 call:1 eia:1 marshy:1 ground:5 tyburn:1 flow:1 south:3 goring:9 fordable:1 cow:1 ford:1 village:2 eye:2 cross:6 grow:3 ownership:2 change:6 hand:2 owner:3 confessor:1 consort:2 edith:1 wessex:2 saxon:1 norman:1 conquest:1 conqueror:2 give:6 geoffrey:2 de:5 mandeville:1 bequeath:1 monk:1 abbey:2 topography:1 deal:1 wright:6 chapter:2 henry:2 viii:4 hospital:1 later:3 eton:1 college:1 take:14 transfer:2 back:1 since:4 away:1 almost:1 earlier:1 acquisition:2 estate:4 survey:2 volume:2 grosvenor:3 mayfair:3 general:1 pp:13 date:4 access:5 february:6 various:1 lease:1 landlord:1 freehold:7 subject:2 frenzied:1 speculation:1 old:5 fall:2 decay:1 area:3 mostly:1 wasteland:1 need:2 money:2 sell:3 crown:1 retain:2 establish:1 mulberry:4 production:1 silk:1 northwest:1 corner:2 clement:1 walker:1 anarchia:1 anglicana:1 refers:1 erect:4 sodom:1 spintries:1 suggest:1 may:6 place:14 debauchery:1 eventually:3 inherit:1 property:3 tycoon:1 hugh:1 audley:4 great:8 heiress:1 mary:7 davy:3 key:1 figure:1 development:2 exist:2 remember:1 north:5 street:4 possibly:1 within:3 blake:2 lord:2 extend:2 develop:1 much:2 gore:5 v:6 harris:20 manage:1 obtain:2 interest:3 unbeknown:1 document:1 fail:1 pass:2 seal:1 flee:1 legal:1 execution:1 critical:1 omission:1 help:2 regain:1 default:1 rent:1 bennet:1 earl:2 arlington:3 mansion:1 occupy:2 burn:1 rise:2 southern:1 buy:2 architectural:1 chosen:1 floored:1 block:1 two:1 flanking:1 service:3 descendant:1 sheffield:2 although:2 purchase:2 price:1 like:7 grandfather:1 refuse:1 unable:1 full:2 intend:1 retreat:1 particular:2 charlotte:2 act:1 parliament:4 settle:1 exchange:1 right:1 somerset:1 child:3 bear:1 remain:5 ceremonial:6 indeed:2 formally:1 even:3 though:2 credential:1 staff:5 appointment:1 remodelling:1 structure:1 begin:2 throne:10 iv:5 renovation:2 idea:2 mind:1 comfortable:1 home:7 progress:1 decide:1 modify:1 furnishing:1 others:1 france:2 french:2 revolution:1 jones:5 external:2 facade:6 neo:1 classical:1 influence:2 prefer:2 cost:1 exponentially:1 extravagance:1 result:3 removal:1 death:2 young:1 brother:2 hire:1 finish:1 stage:1 consider:2 convert:2 destruction:2 namesake:1 fire:3 depict:1 marble:5 arch:2 serve:4 precincts:1 way:1 enclose:2 predecessor:1 die:3 completion:1 hedley:5 riot:1 gilt:3 necessity:1 somewhat:1 less:6 luxurious:1 thing:1 report:3 chimney:3 smoke:1 allow:3 consequently:2 shiver:1 icy:1 magnificence:1 woodham:2 smith:2 ventilation:1 bad:2 smell:1 decision:1 install:1 gas:2 lamp:1 serious:3 worry:1 low:6 floor:4 say:1 lax:1 lazy:1 dirty:1 follow:4 marriage:1 husband:1 prince:8 albert:5 concern:1 reorganisation:1 household:3 office:3 fault:1 problem:1 rectify:1 close:1 builder:1 return:2 decade:1 couple:1 find:1 life:4 bellaigue:4 miller:4 thomas:4 cubitt:1 holland:1 hannen:1 cubitts:1 inception:1 firm:1 publish:4 mall:4 contain:6 balcony:5 acknowledge:1 crowd:2 momentous:1 annually:2 troop:2 ballroom:5 suite:12 period:1 student:1 pennethorne:1 frequently:2 scene:2 musical:1 entertainment:1 contemporary:1 musician:2 entertain:5 composer:1 felix:1 mendelssohn:1 play:5 healey:12 johann:1 strauss:2 orchestra:1 england:1 alice:2 polka:1 perform:2 honour:5 daughter:1 princess:4 allen:1 indian:1 mail:1 register:1 india:1 china:1 vol:4 google:1 book:2 link:4 lavish:2 costume:2 ball:2 routine:1 ceremony:9 investiture:4 presentation:5 widow:1 grief:1 stricken:1 withdrew:1 leave:2 live:2 windsor:9 castle:8 balmoral:2 osborne:1 seldom:1 neglect:1 opinion:1 force:1 elsewhere:1 whenever:1 possible:1 function:3 hold:4 rather:1 preside:1 sombre:1 habitually:1 dress:8 mourn:1 black:3 shutter:1 piano:3 nobile:3 dining:2 b:2 music:8 white:8 e:1 closet:1 f:2 g:3 draw:2 h:2 j:1 k:1 l:1 yellow:3 centre:11 n:1 luncheon:4 corridor:5 apartment:4 q:1 w:3 staircase:5 r:1 define:1 shaded:1 wall:3 represent:1 minor:2 note:2 unscaled:1 sketch:1 plan:1 reference:3 proportion:1 slightly:2 differ:1 reality:1 square:1 metre:1 floorspace:1 sq:1 ft:1 monarchy:5 behind:4 rear:2 ornate:1 bow:5 dominant:1 feature:1 flank:1 picture:4 top:2 lit:1 yard:1 hang:1 numerous:2 rembrandt:1 van:1 dyck:1 rubens:1 vermeer:1 lead:1 huge:3 anteroom:1 route:4 guard:4 statue:2 roman:1 set:3 tribune:1 line:1 tapestry:1 formal:10 every:5 summer:4 directly:1 underneath:1 semi:1 hall:2 audience:2 name:2 decorate:3 visitor:1 emperor:2 nicholas:1 russia:1 napoleon:1 thousand:1 beyond:1 privately:1 plunder:1 distinctly:1 oriental:2 atmosphere:1 red:2 banqueting:1 piece:2 feetham:1 paper:1 saloon:2 european:1 vision:1 equivalent:1 would:2 look:6 nod:1 mandarin:1 niche:1 fearsome:1 winged:1 dragon:1 robert:1 breakfast:1 famous:2 glass:1 door:5 enhance:1 designer:1 allom:1 create:2 bind:1 theme:1 lacquer:1 length:3 modestly:1 eastern:1 mirror:2 reflect:2 porcelain:1 pagoda:1 situate:2 end:3 obviously:1 pay:1 britain:2 head:4 usually:3 allocate:1 belgian:3 foot:3 minister:1 narrow:1 extra:1 height:1 perspective:1 saucer:1 dome:1 soane:1 second:1 gothic:1 vaulting:1 uncle:1 léopold:1 reserve:1 exclusively:1 briefly:1 insight:1 medium:1 undergone:1 radical:1 current:1 reign:4 entry:3 longer:1 prerogative:1 upper:1 class:3 add:2 polychrome:1 replace:3 mainly:1 decoration:4 detail:2 upholstery:1 code:2 govern:1 uniform:4 progressively:1 relax:1 previous:1 men:2 wear:5 military:3 knee:1 breech:1 woman:3 evening:4 obligatory:1 train:2 tiara:3 feather:2 hair:2 wish:1 fashion:1 raise:2 skirt:3 inch:1 request:1 lady:1 wait:1 shorten:1 gauge:1 reaction:1 horrify:1 hemline:1 unfashionably:1 quote:1 memoir:1 mabell:1 countess:2 airlie:1 edit:1 arrange:1 jennifer:1 elli:1 hutchinson:1 subsequently:1 vi:4 daytime:2 hm:1 representative:1 invite:1 choose:1 morning:1 coat:2 depend:1 formality:1 tie:4 possess:1 abolish:1 débutantes:2 aristocratic:1 girl:1 custom:1 introduce:1 absorb:1 tall:1 ostrich:1 enter:1 curtsy:1 choreographed:1 backwards:1 walk:2 curtsey:1 manoeuvre:1 prescribed:1 correspond:1 frequent:1 invited:2 section:1 society:2 margaret:2 repute:1 remark:1 débutante:1 put:2 stop:1 tart:1 get:1 blaikie:2 awfully:2 wit:2 wisdom:2 harper:2 collins:2 isbn:9 address:1 jubilee:3 dais:2 wed:1 portrait:1 photograph:2 conferring:1 knighthood:1 dub:1 sword:1 award:2 victorian:1 importance:1 stand:2 beneath:1 giant:1 domed:2 velvet:1 canopy:1 shamiana:1 baldachin:1 coronation:2 durbar:1 delhi:1 band:2 recipient:1 approach:2 watch:1 friend:2 show:2 ascend:1 dine:1 plate:1 november:2 diplomatic:1 corp:1 proceed:1 envisage:1 double:1 mirrored:1 crystal:1 chandelier:1 sconce:1 cause:1 deliberate:1 optical:1 illusion:1 space:1 light:1 often:2 meeting:1 privy:1 council:1 curved:1 attend:1 yeoman:1 historic:1 officer:2 chamberlain:1 bombing:1 christening:1 sometimes:1 baptise:1 special:1 font:1 christen:2 harry:1 invitee:1 tea:3 sandwich:1 marquee:1 anthem:1 emerges:1 slowly:1 assembled:1 towards:3 tent:1 greet:1 previously:2 select:1 actually:1 opportunity:1 meet:1 least:1 consolation:1 able:2 admire:1 modern:1 panorama:2 saw:1 breathe:1 wife:2 alexandra:1 always:2 forefront:1 high:1 marlborough:1 eminent:1 fashionable:1 vestibule:1 redecorate:1 focal:1 empire:2 majestic:1 scale:1 feel:1 heavy:1 complement:1 page:1 assert:1 plaster:1 swag:1 decorative:1 motif:1 finicky:1 odds:1 hundred:1 resemble:1 giacomo:1 leoni:1 lyme:1 cheshire:1 refaced:1 portland:1 stone:1 backdrop:1 memorial:5 outside:1 main:2 gate:3 succeed:1 personality:1 father:1 emphasis:1 duty:1 connoisseur:1 keen:1 restore:1 fixture:1 instal:2 pair:1 chimneypiece:1 benjamin:1 vulliamy:1 responsible:1 ceiling:1 specially:1 coffered:1 console:1 bracket:1 department:1 bedroom:2 bathroom:1 seem:1 compare:2 russian:1 imperial:2 saint:1 petersburg:1 tsarskoe:1 selo:1 papal:1 rome:1 madrid:1 former:2 whitehall:2 tiny:1 forbidden:1 potala:1 relative:1 smallness:1 best:1 appreciate:1 extension:1 swimming:1 pool:1 sculptor:1 brock:1 surround:1 escape:1 unscathed:1 valuable:1 content:2 evacuate:1 situ:1 government:1 persuade:1 ostentatiously:1 publicly:1 lock:1 wine:1 cellar:1 refrain:1 alcohol:1 duration:1 good:1 example:1 supposedly:1 inebriate:1 imbibe:1 reputedly:1 furious:1 enforced:1 abstinence:1 wounded:1 adjacent:2 mew:5 fare:1 seven:2 publicise:1 coverage:2 event:1 cinema:1 uk:1 common:1 suffering:1 rich:1 poor:1 fell:1 window:2 blow:1 incident:2 severely:1 restrict:1 film:2 inspect:1 bombed:1 smile:1 immaculately:1 hat:1 match:1 seemingly:1 unbothered:1 damage:2 famously:1 declare:1 glad:1 share:1 hardship:1 sunday:1 graphic:1 september:2 raf:1 pilot:4 ray:1 holmes:2 ram:2 plane:3 attempt:1 save:2 bbc:2 news:1 retrieve:3 april:1 ammunition:1 quick:1 choice:1 crash:1 capture:1 engine:1 museum:2 messenger:1 celebration:2 future:1 appear:1 cheer:1 vast:1 europe:1 boy:2 intruder:1 gain:1 record:1 dickens:2 july:3 round:1 michael:1 fagan:2 break:1 twice:1 converse:1 god:1 fast:1 spencer:1 davidson:1 arthur:1 magazine:1 reportedly:1 majesty:1 maintain:1 composure:1 police:1 en:1 threatening:1 motion:1 together:1 host:1 annual:2 celebrate:1 milestone:1 carriage:2 coach:2 rococo:1 chamber:1 paint:1 panel:1 cipriani:1 opening:3 horse:1 procession:1 admiralty:1 forecourt:2 cavalcade:1 motorcade:1 well:1 weekday:1 philip:1 york:1 workplace:1 daily:1 month:1 winter:1 personal:1 unlike:2 sandringham:1 kensington:1 collectively:1 nation:1 view:1 near:2 continually:1 display:1 selection:1 item:1 august:1 fee:1 rebuilding:1 thus:1 symbol:1 gilded:1 railing:1 bromsgrove:1 guild:1 describe:1 everybody:1 employ:1 keep:1 constitutional:1 functioning:1 underground:1 station:1 jame:1 flag:1 fabergé:1 list:1 placentia:1 savoy:1 ivor:1 nicholson:1 watson:1 oliver:1 nelson:1 edma:1 social:1 penguin:1 group:1 olwen:1 pictorial:1 pitkin:1 x:2 roy:1 macdonald:1 futura:1 martin:1 williams:1 neville:1 lutterworth:1 press:1 cecil:1 hamish:1 hamilton:1 ltd:2 patricia:1 strange:1 stroud:1 gloucs:1 sutton:1 publishing:1 ticket:1 account:2 print:1 walford:1 chap:1 sheppard:1 ed:1 interactive:1 букінгэмскі:1 палац:1 |@bigram buckingham_palace:45 aston_webb:4 queen_victoria:8 tourist_attraction:3 brightly_colour:2 belle_epoque:3 kew_garden:2 hyde_park:3 queen_elizabeth:5 lunch_dinner:1 edward_confessor:1 queen_consort:1 norman_conquest:1 westminster_abbey:2 henry_viii:1 eton_college:1 accession_throne:1 woodham_smith:2 felix_mendelssohn:1 johann_strauss:1 grief_stricken:1 windsor_castle:5 balmoral_castle:2 dining_room:2 sq_ft:1 rembrandt_van:1 van_dyck:1 ostrich_feather:1 perform_choreographed:1 wit_wisdom:2 harper_collins:2 optical_illusion:1 privy_council:1 yeoman_guard:1 chapel_windsor:1 decorative_motif:1 saint_petersburg:1 tsarskoe_selo:1 palace_whitehall:2 swimming_pool:1 wine_cellar:1 severely_restrict:1 bbc_news:1 charles_dickens:1 en_route:1 invited_guest:1 constitutional_monarchy:1 palace_westminster:1 lutterworth_press:1 hamish_hamilton:1 sutton_publishing:1 external_link:1 |
3,242 | Gary_Snyder | Gary Snyder (born May 8, 1930) is an American poet (often associated with the Beat Generation and the San Francisco Renaissance), as well as an essayist, lecturer, and environmental activist (frequently described as the "poet laureate of Deep Ecology" Petr Kopecký, "Nature Writing in American Literature: Inspirations, Interrelations, and Impacts of California Authors on the Deep Ecology Movement" The Trumpeter, Volume 22, Number 2 (2006) ISSN: 0832-6193 "[George] Sessions' numerous references to Snyder have not passed unnoticed by other scholars. In his influential study The Idea of Wilderness (1991), Max Oelschlaeger titled the section on Snyder 'Poet Laureate of Deep Ecology.' What is even more striking is that in the footnote, Oelschlaeger confesses that 'Sessions in particular has influenced me to see and read Snyder as the poet laureate of deep ecology.'" ). Snyder is a winner of a Pulitzer Prize for Poetry. His work, in his various roles, reflects an immersion in both Buddhist spirituality and nature. Snyder has also translated literature into English from ancient Chinese and modern Japanese. For many years, Snyder served as a faculty member at the University of California, Davis, and served for a one time on the California Arts Council. Early life Gary Sherman Snyder was born in San Francisco, California to Harold and Lois Hennessy Snyder. Snyder is of German, Scots-Irish, and English ancestry. His family, impoverished by the Great Depression, Chapter 14: The Dharma Bum moved to King County, Washington Seattle Times, 5/28/2009 , when he was two years old. There they tended dairy cows, kept laying hens, had a small orchard, and made cedar-wood shingles, Snyder, Gary (1989) "Choosing Your Place-and Taking a Stand" interview with G.S., The Mother Earth News, (89) Snyder 2007, pg. 61 until moving to Portland, Oregon ten years later. Snyder, Gary (2000) The Gary Snyder Reader. Washington, D.C.: Counterpoint. isbn 1-582430-79-9 At the age of seven, Snyder was laid up for four months by an accident. "So my folks brought me piles of books from the Seattle Public Library," he recalled in interview, "and it was then I really learned to read and from that time on was voracious — I figure that accident changed my life. At the end of four months, I had read more than most kids do by the time they're eighteen. And I didn't stop." Also during his ten childhood years in Washington, Snyder became aware of the presence of the Coast Salish people and developed an interest in the Native American peoples in general and their traditional relationship with nature. In 1942, following his parents' divorce, Snyder moved to Portland, Oregon with his mother and his younger sister, Anthea. Suiter 2002, pg. 54 (As Thea Lowry, Anthea is the author of Empty Shells.) Snyder 2007, pg. 7 Their mother, Lois Snyder Hennessey (born Wilkey), Snyder 2007, pg. 149 worked during this period as a reporter for The Oregonian. One of Gary's boyhood jobs was as a newspaper copy boy, also at the Oregonian. Also, during his teen years, he attended Lincoln High School, worked as a camp counselor, and went mountain climbing with the Mazamas youth group. Halper, Jon (1991). Gary Snyder: Dimensions of a Life. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. isbn = 0-87156-616-8 Climbing remained an interest of his, especially during his twenties and thirties. In 1947, he started attending Reed College on a scholarship. Here he met, and for a time roomed with Carl Proujan, Philip Whalen and Lew Welch. At Reed, Snyder published his first poems in a student journal. He also spent the summer of 1948 working as a seaman. He joined the now defunct Marine Cooks and Stewards union to get this job. Suiter 2002, pg. 87 (He was to work as a seaman again in the mid 1950s. As much to experience other cultures in port cities as to earn money, this work served to put him more in touch with the oceans and other aspects of the hydrosphere.) Snyder married Alison Gass in 1950; they separated after seven months, and divorced in 1953. While attending Reed, Snyder did folklore research on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation in central Oregon. He graduated with a dual degree in anthropology and literature in 1951. Smith 1999, pg. 10 He spent the following few summers working as a timber scaler at Warm Springs, developing relationships with its people that were less rooted in academia. This experience formed the basis for some of his earliest published poems (including "A Berry Feast"), later collected in the book The Back Country. He also encountered the basic ideas of Buddhism and, through its arts, some of the Far East's traditional attitudes toward nature. Going on to Indiana University with a graduate fellowship to study anthropology (where Snyder also practiced self-taught Zen meditation), he left after a single semester to return to San Francisco and to 'sink or swim as a poet'. Suiter 2002, pg. 7 Snyder worked for two summers in the North Cascades in Washington as a fire lookout, on Crater Mountain in 1952 and Sourdough Mountain (both locations on the upper Skagit River) in 1953. His attempts to get another lookout stint in 1954 (at the peak of McCarthyism), however, failed. He had been barred from working for the government, due to his above-mentioned association with the Marine Cooks and Stewards. Suiter 2002, pp. 83-94 Instead, he went back to Warm Springs to work in logging as a chokersetter (fastening cables to logs). This experience contributed to his Myths and Texts and the essay Ancient Forests of the Far West. Suiter 2002, pg. 104 The Beats Back in San Francisco, Snyder lived with Whalen, who shared his growing interest in Zen Buddhism. Snyder's reading of the writings of D.T. Suzuki had in fact been a factor in his decision not to continue as a graduate-student in anthropology, and in 1953 he enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley to study Asian culture and languages. He studied ink and wash painting under Chiura Obata and Tang Dynasty poetry under Ch'en Shih-hsiang. Suiter 2002, pp. 82-83 Snyder continued to spend summers working in the forests, including one summer as a trail-builder in Yosemite. He spent some months in 1955 and 1956 living in a cabin (which he dubbed "Marin-an") outside Mill Valley, California with Jack Kerouac. It was also at this time that Snyder was an occasional student at the American Academy of Asian Studies, where Saburō Hasegawa and Alan Watts, among others, were teaching. Hasegawa introduced Snyder to the treatment of landscape painting as a meditative practice. This inspired Snyder to attempt something equivalent in poetry, and with Hasegawa's encouragement, he began work on Mountains and Rivers without End, which would be completed and published forty years later. Suiter 2002, pp. 188-189 During these years, Snyder was writing and collecting his own work, as well as embarking on the translation of the "Cold Mountain" poems by the 8th-century Chinese recluse Han Shan; this work appeared in chapbook-form in 1969, under the title Riprap & Cold Mountain Poems. Snyder met Allen Ginsberg when the latter sought Snyder out on the recommendation of Kenneth Rexroth. Then, through Ginsberg, Snyder and Kerouac came to know each other. This period provided the materials for Kerouac's novel The Dharma Bums, and Snyder was the inspiration for the novel's main character, Japhy Ryder, in the same way Neal Cassady had inspired Dean Moriarty in On the Road. As the large majority of people in the Beat movement had urban backgrounds, writers like Ginsberg and Kerouac found Snyder, with his backcountry and manual-labor experience and interest in things rural, a refreshing and almost exotic individual. Lawrence Ferlinghetti later referred to Snyder as 'the Thoreau of the Beat Generation'. Snyder read his poem "A Berry Feast" at the famous poetry reading at the Six Gallery in San Francisco (October 7, 1955) that heralded what was to become known as the San Francisco Renaissance. This also marked Snyder's first involvement with the Beats, although he was not a member of the original New York circle, but rather entered the scene through his association with Kenneth Rexroth. As recounted in Kerouac's Dharma Bums, even at age 25 Snyder felt he could have a role in the fateful future meeting of West and East. Snyder's first book, Riprap, which drew on his experiences as a forest lookout and on the trail-crew in Yosemite, was published in 1959. Japan and India Independently, some of the Beats, including Philip Whalen, had become interested in Zen, but Snyder was one of the more serious scholars of the subject among them. He, in fact, became a practitioner, independent at first, preparing in every way he could think of for eventual study in Japan. In 1955, the First Zen Institute of America offered him a scholarship for a year of Zen training in Japan, but the State Department refused to issue him a passport, informing him that "it has been alleged you are a Communist." Fortunately, a subsequent District of Columbia Court of Appeals ruling forced a change in policy, and Snyder got his passport. Suiter 2002, pp. 124-125 In the end, his expenses were paid by Ruth Fuller Sasaki, for whom he was supposed to work; but initially he served as personal attendant and English tutor Stirling 2006, pg. 83 to Zen abbot Miura Isshu, at Rinko-in, a temple in Shokuku-ji in Kyoto, where Dwight Goddard and R. H. Blyth had preceded him. Suiter 2002, pg. 192-193 Mornings, after zazen, sutra chanting, and chores for Miura, he took Japanese classes, bringing his spoken Japanese up to a level sufficient for koan study. He developed a friendship with Philip Yampolsky, who took him around Kyoto. In early July 1955, he took refuge and requested to become Miura's disciple, thus formally becoming a Buddhist. Suiter 2002, pg. 208 He returned to California via the Persian Gulf, Turkey, Sri Lanka and various Pacific Islands, in 1958, voyaging as a crewman in the engine room on the oil freighter Sappa Creek, Suiter 2002, pg. 235 Smith 2000, pg. 12 and took up residence at Marin-an again. Suiter 2002, pg. 238 He turned one room into a zendo, with about six regular participants. In early June, he met the poet Joanne Kyger. She became his girlfriend, and eventually his wife. Suiter 2002, pg. 241 In 1959, he shipped for Japan again, where he rented a cottage outside Kyoto. Suiter 2002, pg. 245 He became the first foreign disciple of Oda Sesso Roshi, the new abbot of Daitoku-ji. Suiter 2002, pg. 246 He married Kyger on February 28, 1960, immediately after her arrival, which Sasaki insisted they do, if they were to live together and be associated with the First Zen Institute of America. Stirling 2006, pg. 110 During the period between 1956 and 1969, he went back and forth between California and Japan, Suiter 2002, pg. 250 studying Zen, working on translations with Ruth Fuller Sasaki, and finally living for a while with a group of other people on the small, volcanic island of Suwanosejima. His previous study of written Chinese assisted his immersion in the Zen tradition (with its roots in Tang Dynasty China) and enabled him to take on certain professional projects while he was living in Japan. Snyder received the Zen precepts and a dharma name (Chofu, "Listen to the Wind"), and lived sometimes as a de facto monk, but never registered to become a priest and planned eventually to return to the United States to 'turn the wheel of the dharma'. He was married from 1960 to 1965 to Joanne Kyger, who lived with him in Japan. Suiter 2002, pg. 325 During this time, he published a collection of his poems from the early to mid '50s, Myths & Texts (1960), and Six Sections from Mountains and Rivers Without End (1965). (This last was the beginning of a project that he was to continue working on until the late 1990s.) Much of Snyder's poetry expresses experiences, environments, and insights involved with the work he has done for a living: logger, fire-lookout, steam-freighter crew, translator, carpenter, and itinerant poet, among other things. Ever the participant observer, during his years in Japan Snyder not only immersed himself in Zen practice in monasteries but also was initiated into Shugendo, a form of ancient Japanese animism, (see also Yamabushi). Kyger 2000, pg. 103 In the early 1960s he traveled for six months through India with his wife Joanne, Allen Ginsberg, and Peter Orlovsky. Snyder and Joanne Kyger separated soon after their trip to India, and divorced in 1965. Continuing on in the path of the naturalist while in Japan, Snyder educated himself on subjects like geomorphology and forestry. These interests have probably surfaced as much or more in his essays and interviews as in his poetry. In 1966, Snyder joined Allen Ginsberg, Richard Baker, and Swami Kriyananda to buy in the Sierra foothills, north of Nevada City, California. In 1970, this would become his home, with the Snyder family's portion being named Kitkitdizze. Snyder spent the summers of 1967 and 1968 with a group of Japanese back-to-the-land drop-outs known as "the Tribe" on Suwanosejima Halper 1991, pg. 94 (a small Japanese island in the East China Sea), where they combed the beaches, gathered edible plants, and fished. On the island, on August 6, Suiter 2002, pg. 251 1967, he married Masa Uehara, whom he had met in Osaka a year earlier. In 1968, they moved to California with their infant son, Kai (born April 1968). Their second son, Gen, was born a year later. In 1971, they moved to San Juan Ridge () in the Sierra Nevada mountains of Northern California, near the South Fork of the Yuba River, where they and friends built a house that drew on rural-Japanese and Native-American architectural ideas. In 1968 his book The Back Country appeared, again mainly a collection of poems stretching back over about fifteen years. Snyder devoted a section at the end of the book to his translations of eighteen poems by Kenji Miyazawa. Later life and writings Regarding Wave — a stylistic departure offering poems that were more emotional, metaphoric, and lyrical — appeared in 1969. In the late 1960s and after, the content of Snyder's poetry increasingly had to do with family, friends, and community. He continued to publish poetry throughout the 1970s, much of it reflecting his re-immersion in life on the American continent and his involvement in the back-to-the-land movement in the Sierra foothills. His 1974 book Turtle Island, titled after the aboriginal name for the North American continent, won a Pulitzer Prize. It also influenced numerous West Coast Generation X writers, including Alex Steffen, Bruce Barcott and Mark Morford. Snyder also wrote numerous essays setting forth his views on poetry, culture, social experimentation, and the environment. Many of these were collected in Earth House Hold (1969), The Old Ways (1977), The Real Work (1980), The Practice of the Wild (1990), A Place in Space (1995), and The Gary Snyder Reader (1999). In 1979, Snyder published He Who Hunted Birds in His Father's Village: The Dimensions of a Haida Myth, based on his Reed thesis. Snyder's journals from his travel in India in the mid 1960s appeared in 1983 under the title Passage Through India. In interviews and in articles about him, Snyder provided much food for thought, starting back in the mid 1960s. In these, his wide-ranging interests in cultures, natural history, religions, social critique, contemporary America, and hands-on aspects of rural life, as well as his ideas on literature, were given full-blown articulation. In 1967, for instance (in a taped round-table discussion in the San Francisco Oracle), Snyder's friend Alan Watts brought up the world problem posed by the population-explosion. Snyder's comment was the "change or bend of mind that seems to be taking place in the West, today especially, is going to result — can result ultimately — in a vast leisure society in which people will voluntarily reduce their number." It was a prediction that would prove partly true. Snyder had readily accepted the far-reaching implications of the Hubbert "peak oil" prediction emerging into public policy discussion in the 1970s. Snyder often spoke of the "fossil-fuel subsidy", in the form of fairly cheap petroleum and coal, that had distorted many aspects of human activity and relationships (e.g., farming, suburban life, wealth and poverty). As a social critic, Snyder has much in common with Lewis Mumford, Aldous Huxley, Karl Hess, Aldo Leopold, and Karl Polanyi. In the 1980s and 1990s, Snyder expressed many of his insights and ideas in public lectures and in essays, including ones published in major outdoor and environmental magazines (and later collected in books). In 1986, Snyder became a professor in the writing-program at the University of California, Davis. Here he began to influence a new generation of authors interested in writing about the Far East, including Robert Clark Young, whom he mentored. Snyder is now professor emeritus of English. Snyder was married to Uehara for twenty-two years; the couple divorced in 1989. Snyder married Carole Lynn Koda (October 3, 1947 - June 29, 2006), Snyder 2007, pg. 161 who would write Homegrown: Thirteen brothers and sisters, a century in America, in 1991, Western Literature Association 1997, pg. 316 and remained married to her until her death of cancer. She had been born in the third generation of a successful Japanese-American farming family, noted for its excellent rice. She shared Buddhism, extensive travels, and work with Snyder, and performed independent work as a naturalist. As Snyder's involvement in environmental issues and his teaching grew, he seemed to move away from poetry for much of the 1980s and early 1990s. However, in 1996 he published the complete Mountains and Rivers Without End, which, in its mixture of the lyrical and epic modes celebrating the act of inhabitation on a specific place on the planet, is both his finest work and a summation of what a re-inhabitory poetics stands for. This work was written over a 40-year period. It has been translated into Japanese and French. In 2004 Snyder published Danger on Peaks, his first collection of new poems in twenty years. Along the way, Gary Snyder was awarded the Levinson Prize from the journal Poetry, the American Poetry Society Shelley Memorial Award (1986), was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1987), and won the 1997 Bollingen Prize for Poetry and, that same year, the John Hay Award for Nature Writing. A Brief Biography Snyder also has the distinction of being the first American to receive the Buddhism Transmission Award (for 1998) from the Japan-based Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai Foundation. For his ecological and social activism, Snyder was named as one of the 100 visionaries selected in 1995 by Utne Reader. Snyder's poetics Gary Snyder uses mainly common speech-patterns as the basis for his lines, though his style has been noted for its "flexibility" and the variety of different forms his poems have taken. He does not typically use conventional meters nor intentional rhyme. "Love and respect for the primitive tribe, honour accorded the Earth, the escape from city and industry into both the past and the possible, contemplation, the communal" – such, according to Glyn Maxwell, is the awareness and commitment behind the specific poems (Maxwell in "The Online Companion to the Anthology of Modern American Poetry"). The author and editor Stewart Brand once wrote: "Gary Snyder's poetry addresses the life-planet identification with unusual simplicity of style and complexity of effect." CoEvolution Quarterly, issue #4, 1974 Snyder has always maintained that his personal sensibility arose from his interest in Native Americans ("Indians") and their involvement with nature and knowledge of it; indeed, their "ways" seemed to resonate with his own. And he has sought something akin to this through Buddhist practices, Yamabushi initiation, and other experiences and involvements. However, since his youth he has been quite literate, and he has written about his appreciation of writers of similar sensibilities, like D. H. Lawrence, William Butler Yeats, and some of the great ancient Chinese poets. William Carlos Williams was another influence, especially on Snyder's earliest published work. Starting in high school, Snyder read and loved the work of Robinson Jeffers, his predecessor in poetry of the landscape of the American West; but, whereas Jeffers valued nature over humankind, Snyder saw humankind as part of nature. Suiter 2002, pp. 38-41 In 2004, receiving the Masaoka Shiki International Haiku Grand Prize, Snyder highlighted traditional ballads and folk songs, Native American songs and poems, William Blake, Walt Whitman, Jeffers, Ezra Pound, Noh drama, Zen aphorisms, Federico García Lorca, and Robert Duncan as significant influences on his poetry, but added, "the influence from haiku and from the Chinese is, I think, the deepest." Snyder 2007, pg. 59 "I have some concerns that I'm continually investigating that tie together biology, mysticism, prehistory, general systems theory", Snyder once said in interview (New York Quarterly "Craft Interview", 1973). Besides 'non-human nature', sexuality is something often expressed or contemplated in Gary Snyder's poetry. A self-admitted and somewhat famed ladies' man through most of his life, Snyder has also been married four times. Aside from content and style, Snyder's interests in anthropology and Native cultures, along with his Buddhism and environmentalism, have formed his attitude to poetry. He has often spoken of the poem as work-place, and, for him, the work to be done there is learning to be in the world. Snyder argues that poets, and humans in general, need to adjust to very long timescales, especially when judging the consequences of their actions. His poetry examines the gap between nature and culture so as to point to ways in which the two can be more closely integrated. Is Snyder "a Romantic"? Snyder is among those writers who have sought to dis-entrench conventional thinking about primitive peoples that has viewed them as simple-minded, ignorantly superstitious, brutish, and prone to violent emotionalism. In the 1960s Snyder developed a "neo-tribalist" view Snyder, Gary 1969 "Why Tribe?," in Earth House Hold. New York: New Directions. akin to the "post-modernist" theory of French Sociologist Michel Maffesoli. The "re-tribalization" of the modern, mass-society world envisioned by Marshall McLuhan, with all of the ominous, dystopian possibilities that McLuhan warned of — subsequently accepted by many modern intellectuals — is not the future that Snyder expects or works toward. Snyder's is a positive interpretation of the tribe and of the possible future. Snyder, Gary 1969 "Why Tribe?," in Earth House Hold. New York: New Directions. Charters, Samuel 1971 "Gary Snyder," pp 57-64, in Some Poems/Poets: studies in Underground American Poetry Since 1945. Berkeley: Oyez. Be these things as they may, in Snyder's work what some of his critics may deem romanticism is balanced by an evident devotion to facts, appreciation of human practicality and capability, expressions of joy found in physical work, interest in science, and continual rumination on responsibility. Is Snyder "a Beat"? Gary Snyder is widely regarded as a member of the Beat Generation circle of writers: he was one of the poets that read at the famous Six Gallery event mentioned above, and was written about in one of Kerouac's most popular novels, The Dharma Bums. Some critics argue that Snyder's connection with the Beats is exaggerated and that he might better be regarded as a member of the West-Coast group the San Francisco Renaissance, which developed independently. Snyder himself has some reservations about the label "Beat", but does not appear to have any strong objection to being included in the group. He often talks about the Beats in the first person plural, referring to the group as "we" and "us". A quotation from a 1974 interview at the University of North Dakota Writers Conference (published in The Beat Vision): However, Gary Snyder has also been quoted The Columbia History of American Poetry (1993) by Jay Parini and Brett Candlish Millier ISBN 0231078366 as saying: Bibliography Myths & Texts (1960) Six Sections from Mountains and Rivers Without End (1965) The Back Country (1967) Riprap and Cold Mountain Poems (1969) Regarding Wave (1969) Earth House Hold (1969) Turtle Island (1974) The Old Ways (1977) He Who Hunted Birds in His Father's Village: The Dimensions of a Haida Myth (1979) The Real Work (1980) Axe Handles (1983) Passage Through India (1983) Left Out in the Rain (1988) The Practice of the Wild (1990) No Nature: New and Selected Poems (1992) A Place in Space (1995) narrator of the audio book version of Kazuaki Tanahashi's Moon in a Dewdrop from Dōgen's Shōbōgenzō Mountains and Rivers Without End (1996) The Gary Snyder Reader: Prose, Poetry, and Translations (1999) Danger on Peaks (2005) Back on the Fire: Essays (2007) The Politics of Ethnopoetics (1975) text on ubuweb: visual - concrete - sound poetry Notes References Snyder, Gary. 1980. The Real Work: Interviews & Talks 1964-1979. New Directions, New York. ISBN 0-8112-0761-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-8112-0760-9 (pbk) Autobiographical notes in Mountains and Rivers Without End, by Gary Snyder, 1996 "Chronology" (c.v. for Gary Snyder) in The Gary Snyder Reader, 1999 Snyder, Gary. Back on the Fire (2007) Shoemaker & Hoard. ISBN 1-59376-137-6 Gary Snyder at Modern American Poetry Charters, Ann (ed.). The Portable Beat Reader. Penguin Books. New York. 1992. ISBN 0-670-83885-3 (hc); ISBN 0-14-015102-8 (pbk) Anthony Hunt, "Genesis, Structure, and Meaning in Gary Snyder's 'Mountains and Rivers Without End'." Detailed, book length commentary on Gary Snyder's "Mountains & Rivers Without End" mp3 Audio Books, "Biography of Snyder, Gary". Accessed April 19, 2008. Knight, Arthur Winfield. Ed. The Beat Vision (1987) Paragon House. ISBN 0-913729-40-X; ISBN 0-913729-41-8 (pbk) Kyger, Joanne. Strange Big Moon: The Japan and India Journals: 1960-1964 (2000) North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1556433375 Suiter, John. Poets on the Peaks (2002) Counterpoint. ISBN 1582431485; ISBN 1-58243-294-5 (pbk) Western Literature Assocition. Updating the Literary West (1997) Texas Christian University Press. ISBN 978-0875651750 Smith, Eric Todd. Reading Gary Snyder's Mountains and Rivers Without End (1999) Boise State University. ISBN 978-0884301417 Stirling, Isabel. Zen Pioneer: The Life & Works of Ruth Fuller Sasaki (2006) Shoemaker & Hoard. ISBN 978-1-59376-110-3 A Brief Biography External links Lannan Foundation, Wendell Berry and Gary Snyder 2001 (see Wendell Berry entry for link) Gary Snyder - Books, Selected Poems, Prose and Biography - in Russian Gary Snyder - kerouac Alley multimedia directory Shambhala Sun Magazine article "The Wild Mind Of Gary Snyder" by Trevor Carolan "Writers and the War Against Nature" by Gary Snyder in Shambhala Sun Magazine 2007 Public Access TV interview (Nevada County TeleVision), 61 minutes | Gary_Snyder |@lemmatized gary:33 snyder:121 bear:5 may:3 american:18 poet:12 often:5 associate:2 beat:14 generation:6 san:10 francisco:9 renaissance:3 well:4 essayist:1 lecturer:1 environmental:3 activist:1 frequently:1 describe:1 laureate:3 deep:5 ecology:4 petr:1 kopecký:1 nature:12 write:10 literature:6 inspiration:2 interrelation:1 impact:1 california:12 author:4 movement:3 trumpeter:1 volume:1 number:2 issn:1 george:1 session:2 numerous:3 reference:2 pass:1 unnoticed:1 scholar:2 influential:1 study:10 idea:5 wilderness:1 max:1 oelschlaeger:2 title:4 section:4 even:2 striking:1 footnote:1 confesses:1 particular:1 influence:6 see:3 read:7 winner:1 pulitzer:2 prize:5 poetry:25 work:33 various:2 role:2 reflect:2 immersion:3 buddhist:3 spirituality:1 also:16 translate:2 english:4 ancient:4 chinese:5 modern:5 japanese:9 many:5 year:16 serve:4 faculty:1 member:4 university:7 davis:2 one:9 time:8 art:3 council:1 early:8 life:10 sherman:1 harold:1 lois:2 hennessy:1 german:1 scots:1 irish:1 ancestry:1 family:4 impoverish:1 great:2 depression:1 chapter:1 dharma:6 bum:4 move:6 king:1 county:2 washington:4 seattle:2 two:4 old:3 tend:1 dairy:1 cow:1 keep:1 lay:2 hen:1 small:3 orchard:1 make:1 cedar:1 wood:1 shingle:1 choose:1 place:6 take:8 stand:2 interview:9 g:2 mother:3 earth:6 news:1 pg:26 portland:2 oregon:3 ten:2 later:6 reader:6 c:2 counterpoint:2 isbn:16 age:2 seven:2 four:3 month:5 accident:2 folk:2 bring:3 pile:1 book:14 public:4 library:1 recall:1 really:1 learn:2 voracious:1 figure:1 change:3 end:12 kid:1 eighteen:2 stop:1 childhood:1 become:11 aware:1 presence:1 coast:3 salish:1 people:7 develop:5 interest:9 native:5 general:3 traditional:3 relationship:3 follow:1 parent:1 divorce:4 young:2 sister:2 anthea:2 suiter:20 thea:1 lowry:1 empty:1 shell:1 hennessey:1 born:1 wilkey:1 period:4 reporter:1 oregonian:2 boyhood:1 job:2 newspaper:1 copy:1 boy:1 teen:1 attend:3 lincoln:1 high:2 school:2 camp:1 counselor:1 go:5 mountain:15 climb:2 mazama:1 youth:2 group:6 halper:2 jon:1 dimension:3 sierra:4 club:1 remain:2 especially:4 twenty:3 thirty:1 start:3 reed:4 college:1 scholarship:2 meet:4 room:3 carl:1 proujan:1 philip:3 whalen:3 lew:1 welch:1 publish:12 first:10 poem:18 student:3 journal:4 spend:5 summer:6 seaman:2 join:2 defunct:1 marine:2 cook:2 steward:2 union:1 get:3 mid:4 much:7 experience:7 culture:6 port:1 city:3 earn:1 money:1 put:1 touch:1 ocean:1 aspect:3 hydrosphere:1 marry:6 alison:1 gas:1 separate:2 folklore:1 research:1 warm:3 spring:3 indian:2 reservation:2 central:1 graduate:3 dual:1 degree:1 anthropology:4 smith:3 following:1 timber:1 scaler:1 less:1 root:2 academia:1 form:6 basis:2 include:7 berry:4 feast:2 collect:4 back:12 country:3 encounter:1 basic:1 buddhism:5 far:4 east:4 attitude:2 toward:2 indiana:1 fellowship:1 practice:6 self:2 taught:1 zen:13 meditation:1 leave:2 single:1 semester:1 return:3 sink:1 swim:1 north:5 cascade:1 fire:4 lookout:4 crater:1 sourdough:1 location:1 upper:1 skagit:1 river:11 attempt:2 another:2 stint:1 peak:5 mccarthyism:1 however:4 fail:1 bar:1 government:1 due:1 mention:2 association:3 pp:6 instead:1 log:2 chokersetter:1 fasten:1 cable:1 contribute:1 myth:5 text:4 essay:5 forest:3 west:7 live:6 share:2 grow:2 reading:2 writing:4 suzuki:1 fact:3 factor:1 decision:1 continue:5 enrol:1 berkeley:2 asian:2 language:1 ink:1 wash:1 painting:2 chiura:1 obata:1 tang:2 dynasty:2 ch:1 en:1 shih:1 hsiang:1 trail:2 builder:1 yosemite:2 living:2 cabin:1 dub:1 marin:2 outside:2 mill:1 valley:1 jack:1 kerouac:7 occasional:1 academy:2 saburō:1 hasegawa:3 alan:2 watt:2 among:4 others:1 teach:1 introduce:1 treatment:1 landscape:2 meditative:1 inspired:1 something:3 equivalent:1 encouragement:1 begin:2 without:9 would:4 complete:2 forty:1 embark:1 translation:4 cold:3 century:2 recluse:1 han:1 appear:5 chapbook:1 riprap:3 allen:3 ginsberg:5 latter:1 sought:1 recommendation:1 kenneth:2 rexroth:2 come:1 know:3 provide:2 material:1 novel:3 main:1 character:1 japhy:1 ryder:1 way:7 neal:1 cassady:1 inspire:1 dean:1 moriarty:1 road:1 large:1 majority:1 urban:1 background:1 writer:7 like:3 find:2 backcountry:1 manual:1 labor:1 thing:3 rural:3 refreshing:1 almost:1 exotic:1 individual:1 lawrence:2 ferlinghetti:1 refer:2 thoreau:1 famous:2 six:6 gallery:2 october:2 herald:1 mark:2 involvement:5 although:1 original:1 new:13 york:6 circle:2 rather:1 enter:1 scene:1 recount:1 felt:1 could:2 fateful:1 future:3 meeting:1 draw:2 crew:2 japan:11 india:7 independently:2 interested:2 serious:1 subject:2 practitioner:1 independent:2 prepare:1 every:1 think:3 eventual:1 institute:2 america:4 offer:2 training:1 state:3 department:1 refuse:1 issue:3 passport:2 inform:1 allege:1 communist:1 fortunately:1 subsequent:1 district:1 columbia:2 court:1 appeal:1 rule:1 force:1 policy:2 expense:1 pay:1 ruth:3 fuller:3 sasaki:4 suppose:1 initially:1 personal:2 attendant:1 tutor:1 stirling:3 abbot:2 miura:3 isshu:1 rinko:1 temple:1 shokuku:1 ji:2 kyoto:3 dwight:1 goddard:1 r:1 h:2 blyth:1 precede:1 morning:1 zazen:1 sutra:1 chanting:1 chore:1 class:1 spoken:1 level:1 sufficient:1 koan:1 friendship:1 yampolsky:1 around:1 july:1 refuge:1 request:1 disciple:2 thus:1 formally:1 via:1 persian:1 gulf:1 turkey:1 sri:1 lanka:1 pacific:1 island:6 voyage:1 crewman:1 engine:1 oil:2 freighter:2 sappa:1 creek:1 residence:1 turn:2 zendo:1 regular:1 participant:2 june:2 joanne:5 kyger:6 girlfriend:1 eventually:2 wife:2 ship:1 rent:1 cottage:1 foreign:1 oda:1 sesso:1 roshi:1 daitoku:1 february:1 immediately:1 arrival:1 insist:1 together:2 forth:2 finally:1 volcanic:1 suwanosejima:2 previous:1 assist:1 tradition:1 china:2 enable:1 certain:1 professional:1 project:2 receive:3 precept:1 name:4 chofu:1 listen:1 wind:1 sometimes:1 de:1 facto:1 monk:1 never:1 register:1 priest:1 plan:1 united:1 wheel:1 collection:3 last:1 beginning:1 late:3 express:3 environment:2 insight:2 involve:1 logger:1 steam:1 translator:1 carpenter:1 itinerant:1 ever:1 observer:1 immerse:1 monastery:1 initiate:1 shugendo:1 animism:1 yamabushi:2 travel:3 peter:1 orlovsky:1 soon:1 trip:1 path:1 naturalist:2 educate:1 geomorphology:1 forestry:1 probably:1 surface:1 richard:1 baker:1 swami:1 kriyananda:1 buy:1 foothill:2 nevada:3 home:1 portion:1 kitkitdizze:1 land:2 drop:1 outs:1 tribe:5 sea:1 comb:1 beach:1 gather:1 edible:1 plant:1 fish:1 august:1 masa:1 uehara:2 osaka:1 earlier:1 infant:1 son:2 kai:1 april:2 second:1 gen:1 juan:1 ridge:1 northern:1 near:1 south:1 fork:1 yuba:1 friend:3 build:1 house:6 architectural:1 mainly:2 stretch:1 fifteen:1 devote:1 kenji:1 miyazawa:1 regard:4 wave:2 stylistic:1 departure:1 emotional:1 metaphoric:1 lyrical:2 content:2 increasingly:1 community:1 throughout:1 continent:2 turtle:2 aboriginal:1 win:2 x:2 alex:1 steffen:1 bruce:1 barcott:1 morford:1 set:1 view:3 social:4 experimentation:1 hold:4 real:3 wild:3 space:2 hunt:3 bird:2 father:2 village:2 haida:2 base:2 thesis:1 passage:2 article:2 food:1 thought:1 wide:1 range:1 natural:1 history:2 religion:1 critique:1 contemporary:1 hand:1 give:1 full:1 blown:1 articulation:1 instance:1 tap:1 round:1 table:1 discussion:2 oracle:1 world:3 problem:1 pose:1 population:1 explosion:1 comment:1 bend:1 mind:3 seem:3 today:1 result:2 ultimately:1 vast:1 leisure:1 society:3 voluntarily:1 reduce:1 prediction:2 prove:1 partly:1 true:1 readily:1 accept:2 reach:1 implication:1 hubbert:1 emerge:1 speak:2 fossil:1 fuel:1 subsidy:1 fairly:1 cheap:1 petroleum:1 coal:1 distort:1 human:4 activity:1 e:1 farming:1 suburban:1 wealth:1 poverty:1 critic:3 common:2 lewis:1 mumford:1 aldous:1 huxley:1 karl:2 hess:1 aldo:1 leopold:1 polanyi:1 lecture:1 major:1 outdoor:1 magazine:3 professor:2 program:1 robert:2 clark:1 mentor:1 emeritus:1 couple:1 married:2 carole:1 lynn:1 koda:1 homegrown:1 thirteen:1 brother:1 western:2 death:1 cancer:1 third:1 successful:1 farm:1 note:4 excellent:1 rice:1 extensive:1 perform:1 teaching:1 away:1 mixture:1 epic:1 mode:1 celebrate:1 act:1 inhabitation:1 specific:2 planet:2 finest:1 summation:1 inhabitory:1 poetics:2 french:2 danger:2 along:2 award:4 levinson:1 shelley:1 memorial:1 induct:1 letter:1 bollingen:1 john:2 hay:1 brief:2 biography:4 distinction:1 transmission:1 bukkyo:1 dendo:1 kyokai:1 foundation:2 ecological:1 activism:1 visionary:1 select:3 utne:1 use:2 speech:1 pattern:1 line:1 though:1 style:3 flexibility:1 variety:1 different:1 typically:1 conventional:2 meter:1 intentional:1 rhyme:1 love:2 respect:1 primitive:2 honour:1 accord:2 escape:1 industry:1 past:1 possible:2 contemplation:1 communal:1 glyn:1 maxwell:2 awareness:1 commitment:1 behind:1 online:1 companion:1 anthology:1 editor:1 stewart:1 brand:1 address:1 identification:1 unusual:1 simplicity:1 complexity:1 effect:1 coevolution:1 quarterly:2 always:1 maintain:1 sensibility:2 arise:1 knowledge:1 indeed:1 resonate:1 seek:2 akin:2 initiation:1 since:2 quite:1 literate:1 appreciation:2 similar:1 william:3 butler:1 yeats:1 carlos:1 williams:1 robinson:1 jeffers:3 predecessor:1 whereas:1 value:1 humankind:2 saw:1 part:1 masaoka:1 shiki:1 international:1 haiku:2 grand:1 highlight:1 ballad:1 song:2 blake:1 walt:1 whitman:1 ezra:1 pound:1 noh:1 drama:1 aphorism:1 federico:1 garcía:1 lorca:1 duncan:1 significant:1 add:1 concern:1 continually:1 investigate:1 tie:1 biology:1 mysticism:1 prehistory:1 system:1 theory:2 say:2 craft:1 besides:1 non:1 sexuality:1 contemplate:1 admit:1 somewhat:1 famed:1 lady:1 man:1 aside:1 environmentalism:1 argue:2 need:1 adjust:1 long:1 timescales:1 judge:1 consequence:1 action:1 examine:1 gap:1 point:1 closely:1 integrated:1 romantic:1 dis:1 entrench:1 simple:1 ignorantly:1 superstitious:1 brutish:1 prone:1 violent:1 emotionalism:1 neo:1 tribalist:1 direction:3 post:1 modernist:1 sociologist:1 michel:1 maffesoli:1 tribalization:1 mass:1 envision:1 marshall:1 mcluhan:2 ominous:1 dystopian:1 possibility:1 warn:1 subsequently:1 intellectual:1 expect:1 positive:1 interpretation:1 charter:2 samuel:1 underground:1 oyez:1 deem:1 romanticism:1 balance:1 evident:1 devotion:1 practicality:1 capability:1 expression:1 joy:1 physical:1 science:1 continual:1 rumination:1 responsibility:1 widely:1 event:1 popular:1 connection:1 exaggerated:1 might:1 label:1 strong:1 objection:1 talk:2 person:1 plural:1 u:1 quotation:1 dakota:1 conference:1 vision:2 quote:1 jay:1 parini:1 brett:1 candlish:1 millier:1 bibliography:1 axe:1 handle:1 rain:1 narrator:1 audio:2 version:1 kazuaki:1 tanahashi:1 moon:2 dewdrop:1 dōgen:1 shōbōgenzō:1 prose:2 politics:1 ethnopoetics:1 ubuweb:1 visual:1 concrete:1 sound:1 hbk:1 pbk:4 autobiographical:1 chronology:1 v:1 shoemaker:2 hoard:2 ann:1 ed:2 portable:1 penguin:1 hc:1 anthony:1 genesis:1 structure:1 meaning:1 detail:1 length:1 commentary:1 mountains:1 access:2 knight:1 arthur:1 winfield:1 paragon:1 strange:1 big:1 atlantic:1 assocition:1 update:1 literary:1 texas:1 christian:1 press:1 eric:1 todd:1 boise:1 isabel:1 pioneer:1 external:1 link:2 lannan:1 wendell:2 entry:1 russian:1 alley:1 multimedia:1 directory:1 shambhala:2 sun:2 trevor:1 carolan:1 war:1 tv:1 television:1 minute:1 |@bigram gary_snyder:24 san_francisco:9 poet_laureate:3 winner_pulitzer:1 pulitzer_prize:2 dharma_bum:4 dairy_cow:1 snyder_gary:8 portland_oregon:2 suiter_pg:14 attitude_toward:1 zen_buddhism:1 tang_dynasty:2 jack_kerouac:1 allen_ginsberg:3 kenneth_rexroth:2 neal_cassady:1 persian_gulf:1 sri_lanka:1 de_facto:1 peter_orlovsky:1 san_juan:1 sierra_nevada:1 full_blown:1 fossil_fuel:1 lewis_mumford:1 aldous_huxley:1 karl_hess:1 karl_polanyi:1 professor_emeritus:1 butler_yeats:1 robinson_jeffers:1 masaoka_shiki:1 walt_whitman:1 ezra_pound:1 noh_drama:1 federico_garcía:1 garcía_lorca:1 marshall_mcluhan:1 north_dakota:1 jay_parini:1 isbn_hbk:1 isbn_pbk:4 external_link:1 kerouac_alley:1 |
3,243 | New_England_Patriots | The New England Patriots, commonly called the "Pats" by sports writers and fans, ESPN.com An example of the "Pats" nickname being used within sports reports. Accessed January 26, 2006. are a professional American football team based in the Greater Boston area, playing their home games in the town of Foxborough, Massachusetts. The team is part of the Eastern Division of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The team changed its name from the original Boston Patriots after relocating the team to Foxborough in 1971, although Foxborough is a suburb of Boston, away. An original member of the American Football League (AFL), the Patriots joined the NFL in the 1970 merger of those leagues. The team advanced to the playoffs four times before appearing in Super Bowl XX in January 1986, losing to the Chicago Bears. The team also appeared in Super Bowl XXXI in January 1997, losing to the Green Bay Packers. Between 2001 and 2005, the Patriots became the second team in NFL history (after the Dallas Cowboys) to win three Super Bowls in four years (Super Bowl XXXVI, XXXVIII, and XXXIX), and the eighth to win consecutive Super Bowls. The Patriots, however, were defeated by the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII, after winning the first 18 games of their 2007 season. Under quarterback Tom Brady and head coach Bill Belichick, the Patriots have also compiled the two longest winning streaks in NFL history, an 18-game streak in 2003-2004, and a 21-game streak in 2006-2008 (the NFL excludes playoff games from their records). NFL.com Records: Games Won Franchise history "Pat Patriot" logo, used through 1992 On November 16, 1959, Boston business executive Billy Sullivan was awarded the eighth and final franchise of the developing American Football League (AFL). The following winter, locals were allowed to submit ideas for the Boston football team's official name. The most popular choice—and the one that Sullivan selected—was "Boston Patriots". Immediately thereafter, Boston Globe artist Phil Bissell developed the "Pat Patriot" logo. The Patriots time in the AFL saw them struggle most years as they never had a regular home stadium. Nickerson Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium all served as home fields during their time in the American Football League. They did play in one AFL championship game, following the 1963 season. They lost to the San Diego Chargers 51–10. They would not appear again in an AFL or NFL post-season game for another 13 years. When the NFL and AFL merged in 1970, the Patriots were placed in the AFC East division, where they still play today. The following year, the Patriots moved to a new stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, which would serve as their home for 30 years. As a result of the move, they would change their name from the Boston Patriots to the New England Patriots. During the 1970s, the Patriots had some success, earning a berth to the playoffs in 1976—as a wild card-team—and in 1978—as AFC East champions. They lost in the first round both times. In 1985, they returned to the playoffs, and made it all the way to Super Bowl XX, which they lost to the Chicago Bears 46–10. Following their Super Bowl loss, they returned to the playoffs in 1986, but lost in the first round. The team would not make the playoffs again for eight more years. They changed ownership three times, being purchased from the Sullivan family first by Victor Kiam in 1988, who sold the team to James Orthwein in 1992. Orthwein intended to move the team to his native St. Louis, Missouri, but sold the team two years later to current owner Robert Kraft in 1994. Though Orthwein's period as owner was short and controversial, he did oversee major changes to the team. Former New York Giants coach Bill Parcells was hired in 1993, and the drastic changes were made the same year to the Patriots uniforms, changing their primary colors from their traditional red and white to blue and silver, and introducing a new logo. Article by Bill Plaschke on Kevin Loh's design of the new Patriots' logo. LATIMES.COM. Accessed January 20, 2008. Parcells would bring the Patriots to two playoff appearances, including Super Bowl XXXI, which they lost to the Green Bay Packers by a score of 35–21. Pete Carroll, Parcells's successor, would also take the team to the playoffs twice. Super Bowl banners at Gillette Stadium The Patriots current coach, Bill Belichick, was hired in 2000, and a new home field, Gillette Stadium was opened in 2002. Under Belichick, the team won three Super Bowls in four years, and finished the 2007 regular season with a perfect 16–0 record, becoming only the fifth team in league history to go undefeated in the regular season, and the only one since the league expanded its regular season schedule to 16 games. After advancing to Super Bowl XLII, the team's fourth Super Bowl in seven years, the Patriots were defeated by the Giants to end their bid for a 19–0 season. With the loss, the Patriots ended the year at 18–1, becoming only one of three teams to go 18–1 along with the 1984 San Francisco 49ers and the 1985 Chicago Bears. Those teams, however, won the Super Bowl. Players of note Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers 85 Nick Buoniconti, LB, 1962–68, elected 2001 73 John Hannah, G, 1973–85, elected 1991 40 Mike Haynes, CB, 1976–82, elected 1997 56 Andre Tippett, LB, 1982–93, elected 2008 Retired numbers 20 Gino Cappelletti, K/WR, 1960–70 40 Mike Haynes, CB, 1976–82 57 Steve Nelson, LB, 1974–87 73 John Hannah, G, 1973–85 78 Bruce Armstrong, OT, 1987–2000 79 Jim Lee Hunt, DL, 1960–71 89 Bob Dee, DL, 1960–67 Patriots Hall of Fame The New England Patriots feature 13 former players in their team hall of fame, established in 1991. A committee of media and staff selected 11 players for enshrinement between 1991 and 2001, before a six-year span of no selections. In 2007, in advance of the 2008 opening of the Hall at Patriot Place, the Patriots introduced a new nomination committee to select three candidates, with the winner of an internet fan vote being enshrined in the hall of fame. Former owner Billy Sullivan was inducted by owner Robert Kraft in March 2009 as a contributor. 1990s 1991 #73 John Hannah, G, 1973–85 1992 #85 Nick Buoniconti, LB, 1962–68 1992 #20 Gino Cappelletti, K/WR, 1960–70 1993 #89 Bob Dee, DL, 1960–67 1993 #79 Jim Lee Hunt, DL, 1960–71 1993 #57 Steve Nelson, LB, 1974–87 1993 #15 Babe Parilli, QB, 1961–67 1994 #40 Mike Haynes, CB, 1976–82 1995 #14 Steve Grogan, QB, 1975–90 1999 #56 Andre Tippett, LB, 1982–93 |- 2000s 2001 #78 Bruce Armstrong, OT, 1987–2000 2007 #86 Stanley Morgan, WR, 1977–89 2008 #87 Ben Coates, TE, 1991–99 2009 Billy Sullivan, owner, 1960–1988 All-decade teams 1960s (AFL) In November 1971, fans voted on a 10-year Patriots anniversary team, which coincided with the team's 10 years in the then-defunct American Football League: Additional selections for returner, special teamer, and coach were added in 2009: 1970s, 1980s, 1990s In March 2009, as part of the Patriots' 50th anniversary, a group of local media and other team figures selected all-decade teams for the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s: Anniversary teams 35th anniversary (1994) In 1994, a group of local media selected a 35th anniversary team: All-time first-round draft picks Draft Player name Position College Notes Year Pick 2000 No first-round draft pick The Patriots forfeited their #16 overall pick to the Jets in compensation for hiring Bill Belichick - Pro Football Draft History 2000 2001 6 Richard Seymour DT Georgia 2002 21 Daniel Graham TE Colorado Acquired from the Tampa Bay Buccaneers through the Oakland Raiders and Washington Redskins - Pro Football Draft History 2002 2003 13 Ty Warren DT Texas A&M Acquired from the Washington Redskins through the New York Jets and Chicago Bears - Pro Football Draft History 2003 2004 21 Vince Wilfork DT Miami (FL) Acquired from the Baltimore Ravens - Pro Football Draft History 2004 32 Benjamin Watson TE Georgia 2005 32 Logan Mankins OG Fresno State 2006 21 Laurence Maroney RB Minnesota 2007 24 Brandon Meriweather S Miami (FL) Acquired from the Seattle Seahawks - Pro Football Draft History 2007 2008 10 Jerod Mayo LB Tennessee Acquired from the New Orleans Saints - Pro Football Draft History 2008 2009 No first-round draft pick The Patriots traded their #23 overall pick to the Baltimore Ravens - Pro Football Draft History 2009 Coaches of note Head coaches Current staff Cheerleaders The Patriots Cheerleaders performing a routine in 2007 The Patriots NFL Cheerleaders are simply known as The Patriots Cheerleaders. In 2005, cheerleader Kristin Gauvin won Miss Massachusetts, in part from her local commitment with the Patriots. End-zone militia During each game, about 10 men dressed as minutemen line the back of each end zone. When the Patriots score a touchdown or field goal, the militia behind the opposite end zone fire a round of blanks from flintlock muskets. After the point-after-touchdown (PAT) attempt, the men fire their guns to Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture. ESPN named this one of the top ten celebrations in the league in 2007. ESPN.com It's a Celebration: Best NFL Touchdown Celebrations, Josh Pahigian, 12/3/07 Radio and television As of 2007, the Patriots' flagship radio station is WBCN 104.1FM, owned by CBS Radio. The larger radio network is called the "Patriots Rock Radio Network", whose 35 affiliate stations span 7 states. Gil Santos and Gino Cappelletti are the longtime announcing team. Any preseason games not on national television are shown on CBS affiliate WBZ-TV. These games were broadcast on ABC affiliate WCVB-TV for a number of years until the change to WBZ in 2009. Don Criqui has been the play-by-play announcer the last several years, with Randy Cross as a color commentator and Mike Lynch as a sideline reporter. Former Patriots preseason announcers include Don Gillis (1972-1973), Len Berman (1974-1978), Roger Twibell (1979-1981), Jim Kelly (1983), Bob Lobel (1985-1991 & 1994), Bob Neumeier (1991 & 1994), Mike Crispino (1992), Michael Barkann (1993), Jim Nance (1977-1979), Tim Mazzetti (1983), Gino Cappelletti (1985), Reggie Rucker (1986), Sam Rutigliano (1987-1988), Jon Morris (1989), Steve Grogan (1991-1993), Tim Fox (1991-1993), and Jerry Glanville (1995-2002). Patriots radio announcers YearsFlagship stationPlay-by-PlayColor Commentator1960–64590 WEEIBob GallagherFred Cusick1965590 WEEINed MartinFred Cusick1966–711030 WBZBob StarrGil Santos1972–771030 WBZGil SantosGino Cappelletti1978–791030 WBZGil SantosJon Morris1980–86850 WHDHJohn CarlsonJon Morris1987850 WHDHCurt GowdyJon Morris1988–90590 WEEIDale ArnoldGino Cappelletti1991–19951030 WBZGil SantosGino Cappelletti1995–present104.1 WBCNGil SantosGino Cappelletti Notes and references See also The Kraft Group External links New England Patriots official website Sport E-Cyclopedia.org | New_England_Patriots |@lemmatized new:13 england:4 patriot:36 commonly:1 call:2 pat:5 sport:3 writer:1 fan:3 espn:3 com:4 example:1 nickname:1 use:2 within:1 report:1 access:2 january:4 professional:1 american:6 football:16 team:29 base:1 great:1 boston:8 area:1 play:5 home:5 game:12 town:1 foxborough:4 massachusetts:3 part:3 eastern:1 division:2 conference:1 afc:3 national:2 league:9 nfl:10 change:7 name:5 original:2 relocate:1 although:1 suburb:1 away:1 member:1 afl:7 join:1 merger:1 advance:3 playoff:8 four:3 time:6 appear:3 super:14 bowl:14 xx:2 lose:7 chicago:4 bear:4 also:4 xxxi:2 green:2 bay:3 packer:2 become:3 second:1 history:11 dallas:1 cowboy:1 win:8 three:5 year:17 xxxvi:1 xxxviii:1 xxxix:1 eighth:2 consecutive:1 however:2 defeat:2 york:3 giant:3 xlii:2 first:7 season:7 quarterback:1 tom:1 brady:1 head:2 coach:6 bill:5 belichick:4 compile:1 two:3 long:1 streak:3 exclude:1 record:3 franchise:2 logo:4 november:2 business:1 executive:1 billy:3 sullivan:5 award:1 final:1 developing:1 following:2 winter:1 local:4 allow:1 submit:1 idea:1 official:2 popular:1 choice:1 one:5 select:5 immediately:1 thereafter:1 globe:1 artist:1 phil:1 bissell:1 develop:1 patriots:3 saw:1 struggle:1 never:1 regular:4 stadium:6 nickerson:1 field:4 harvard:1 fenway:1 park:1 alumnus:1 serve:2 championship:1 follow:2 san:2 diego:1 charger:1 would:6 post:1 another:1 merge:1 place:2 east:2 still:1 today:1 move:3 result:1 success:1 earn:1 berth:1 wild:1 card:1 champion:1 round:6 return:2 make:3 way:1 loss:2 eight:1 ownership:1 purchase:1 family:1 victor:1 kiam:1 sell:2 james:1 orthwein:3 intend:1 native:1 st:1 louis:1 missouri:1 later:1 current:4 owner:5 robert:2 kraft:3 though:1 period:1 short:1 controversial:1 oversee:1 major:1 former:4 parcells:3 hire:3 drastic:1 uniform:1 primary:1 color:2 traditional:1 red:1 white:1 blue:1 silver:1 introduce:2 article:1 plaschke:1 kevin:1 loh:1 design:1 latimes:1 bring:1 appearance:1 include:2 score:2 pete:1 carroll:1 successor:1 take:1 twice:1 banner:1 gillette:2 open:1 finish:1 perfect:1 fifth:1 go:2 undefeated:1 since:1 expand:1 schedule:1 fourth:1 seven:1 end:5 bid:1 along:1 francisco:1 player:4 note:4 roster:1 pro:8 hall:5 famers:1 nick:2 buoniconti:2 lb:7 elect:4 john:3 hannah:3 g:3 mike:5 haynes:3 cb:3 andre:2 tippett:2 retired:1 number:2 gino:4 cappelletti:5 k:2 wr:3 steve:4 nelson:2 bruce:2 armstrong:2 ot:2 jim:4 lee:2 hunt:2 dl:4 bob:4 dee:2 fame:3 feature:1 establish:1 committee:2 medium:3 staff:2 enshrinement:1 six:1 span:2 selection:2 opening:1 nomination:1 candidate:1 winner:1 internet:1 vote:2 enshrine:1 induct:1 march:2 contributor:1 babe:1 parilli:1 qb:2 grogan:2 stanley:1 morgan:1 ben:1 coates:1 te:3 decade:2 anniversary:5 coincide:1 defunct:1 additional:1 returner:1 special:1 teamer:1 add:1 group:3 figure:1 draft:11 pick:6 position:1 college:1 forfeit:1 overall:2 jet:2 compensation:1 richard:1 seymour:1 dt:3 georgia:2 daniel:1 graham:1 colorado:1 acquire:5 tampa:1 buccaneer:1 oakland:1 raider:1 washington:2 redskins:2 ty:1 warren:1 texas:1 vince:1 wilfork:1 miami:2 fl:2 baltimore:2 raven:2 benjamin:1 watson:1 logan:1 mankins:1 og:1 fresno:1 state:2 laurence:1 maroney:1 rb:1 minnesota:1 brandon:1 meriweather:1 seattle:1 seahawks:1 jerod:1 mayo:1 tennessee:1 orleans:1 saint:1 trade:1 cheerleaders:1 cheerleader:4 perform:1 routine:1 simply:1 know:1 kristin:1 gauvin:1 miss:1 commitment:1 zone:3 militia:2 men:2 dress:1 minuteman:1 line:1 back:1 touchdown:3 goal:1 behind:1 opposite:1 fire:2 blank:1 flintlock:1 musket:1 point:1 attempt:1 gun:1 tchaikovsky:1 overture:1 top:1 ten:1 celebration:3 best:1 josh:1 pahigian:1 radio:6 television:2 flagship:1 station:2 wbcn:1 cbs:2 large:1 network:2 rock:1 whose:1 affiliate:3 gil:1 santos:1 longtime:1 announcing:1 preseason:2 show:1 wbz:2 tv:2 broadcast:1 abc:1 wcvb:1 criqui:1 announcer:3 last:1 several:1 randy:1 cross:1 commentator:1 lynch:1 sideline:1 reporter:1 gillis:1 len:1 berman:1 roger:1 twibell:1 kelly:1 lobel:1 neumeier:1 crispino:1 michael:1 barkann:1 nance:1 tim:2 mazzetti:1 reggie:1 rucker:1 sam:1 rutigliano:1 jon:1 morris:1 fox:1 jerry:1 glanville:1 yearsflagship:1 stationplay:1 playcolor:1 weeibob:1 gallagherfred:1 weeined:1 martinfred:1 wbzbob:1 starrgil:1 wbzgil:3 santosgino:3 santosjon:1 whdhjohn:1 carlsonjon:1 whdhcurt:1 gowdyjon:1 weeidale:1 arnoldgino:1 wbcngil:1 reference:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 e:1 cyclopedia:1 org:1 |@bigram super_bowl:14 bowl_xx:2 bowl_xxxi:2 bay_packer:2 dallas_cowboy:1 bowl_xlii:2 tom_brady:1 bill_belichick:3 boston_globe:1 fenway_park:1 san_diego:1 diego_charger:1 afl_nfl:1 bill_parcells:1 latimes_com:1 gillette_stadium:2 san_francisco:1 roster_pro:1 hall_famers:1 nick_buoniconti:2 gino_cappelletti:4 hall_fame:3 draft_pick:3 tampa_bay:1 bay_buccaneer:1 oakland_raider:1 washington_redskins:2 miami_fl:2 baltimore_raven:2 seattle_seahawks:1 cbs_affiliate:1 sideline_reporter:1 external_link:1 |
3,244 | Ajaigarh | Ajaigarh, or Adjygurh, is town and a nagar panchayat in the Panna District of Madhya Pradesh state in central India. History Flag of Ajaigarh.Ajaigarh was the capital of a princely state of the same name during the British Raj. Ajaigarh was founded in 1765 by Guman Singh, a Bundela Rajput who was the nephew of Raja Pahar Singh of Jaitpur. After Ajaigarh was captured by the British in 1809, it became a princely state in the Bundelkhand Agency of the Central India Agency. It had an area of 771 mile² (1997 km²), and a population of 78,236 in 1901. The rulers bore the title of sawai maharaja. He commanded an estimated annual revenue of about £15,000/-, and paid a tribute of £460/-. The chief resided at the town of Nowgong, at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state took its name. This fort, situated on a steep hill, towers more than 800 ft (244 m) above the eponymous township, and contains the ruins of several temples adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. The town was often afflicted by malaria, and suffered severely from famine in 1868-1869 and 1896-1897. The state acceded to the Government of India on January 1, 1950; the ruling chief was granted a privy purse of Rs. 74,700/-, and the courtesy use of his styles and titles. All of these were revoked by the government of India in 1971, at the time when these privileges were revoked from all erstwhile princes. The former princely state became part of the new Indian state of Vindhya Pradesh, and most of the territory of the former state, including the town of Ajaigarh, became part of Panna District, with a smaller portion going to Chhatarpur District. Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh on November 1, 1956. The Royal Family tree Of Ajaygarh Pancham Singh Bundela : 1048-1071(A.D) | Virbhadra Singh : 1071-1087 | Karanpal Singh : 1087-1112 | Kinnar Shah : 1112-1130 | Shaukan Dev : 1130-1152 | Nanak Dev : 1152-1159 | Mohanpal Singh : 1159-1197 | Abhaybhupati Singh : 1197-1215 | Arjunpal Singh : 1215-1231 | Virpal Singh : 1231-1251 | Sohanpal Singh : 1251-1259 | Sahjendra Singh : 1259-1283 | Nanak Dev II : 1283-1307 | Prithviraj Singh : 1307-1339 | Ram Singh : 1339-1375 | Ramchandra Singh : 1375-1384 | Mednepal Singh : 1384-1437 | Arjun Dev : 1437-1468 | Malkhan Singh : 1468-1501 | Raja Rudrapratap : 1501- (First Ruler of Orchha) __________________________|____________________________ Bhartichandra Madhukarshah Udayjeet Singh (Orchha) (Orchha) (Mahewa) _________________________| | Ramshah Virsingh Dev(1605-1626) | (Banpur) (Orchha) | _________________________|______________________ | Pahar Singh Jujhar Singh Bhagwan Rao| (Orchha & Kaniyadana) (Orchha) (Datia) | (Killed by Aurangzeb) | _____________________________| Premchandra | Bhagwandas | Champat Rai : 1635-1641--Ruled Orchha after Jujhar Singh (Mahewa) was killed by Aurangzeb. | Maharajadhiraja Chhatrasal : 1649-1731 (founder Ruler of many Kingdoms) ___________________________|______________________________ Hirdeshah Jagatraj Bhartichandra (Panna) (Jaitpur) (Jaso) ____________________________|______________________________ Vir Singh Kirat Singh Pahar Singh(1758-1765) ____________________________|______________________________ Khuman Singh Guman Singh(1765-1792) Durg Singh (Charkari) (Banda)(No issues) | |__________________Son of______| Bhakhat Singh :b.1792-d.1837</font></a> (Founder ruler of Ajaigarh) _____________________________|_______________________________ Madho Singh(R.1837-1849) Mahipat Singh(R.1849-1853) (No male issue) | | Ranjore Singh(K.C.I.E)___________Vijay Singh(R.1853-1855) (b.1844 d.1919) (Died early, fell from horse) _____________________________|______________________________ Jaipal Singh Bhopal Singh(b.1866-d.1942) Pakshapal Singh (b. | Punyapratap Singh :b.1884-d.1958 _____________________________| Bhupendra Vijay Singh Devendra Vijay Singh :b.1913-d.1984 (Adoption to Jigni) (Privy Purses,titles abolished) __________________________|_________________________________ | Kaushalendra V. Singh | Mahipendra V. Singh (b.1934-d.1982) Surendra V. Singh (b.1935- (Predeceased his father) (b.1940- | | | Shailesh V. Singh Ajayraj Singh Tarunendra V. Singh (b.1969- (b.1971- (b.1971- Courtesy: Tarunendra V. Singh Geography Ajaigarh is located at . Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Ajaigarh It has an average elevation of 318 metres (1043 feet). Demographics As of 2001 India census , Ajaigarh had a population of 13,979. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Ajaigarh has an average literacy rate of 59%, lower than the national average of 59.5%; with 61% of the males and 39% of females literate. 16% of the population is under 6 years of age. Trivia Ajaigarh fort has been sold to Oberoi Group and they plan to develop a jungle resort here. External links Ajaigarh Photo Gallery References | Ajaigarh |@lemmatized ajaigarh:14 adjygurh:1 town:4 nagar:1 panchayat:1 panna:3 district:3 madhya:2 pradesh:4 state:8 central:2 india:5 history:1 flag:1 capital:1 princely:3 name:2 british:2 raj:1 found:1 guman:2 singh:44 bundela:2 rajput:1 nephew:1 raja:2 pahar:3 jaitpur:2 capture:1 become:3 bundelkhand:1 agency:2 area:1 population:4 ruler:4 bore:1 title:3 sawai:1 maharaja:1 command:1 estimate:1 annual:1 revenue:1 pay:1 tribute:1 chief:2 reside:1 nowgong:1 foot:2 hill:2 fortress:1 take:1 fort:2 situate:1 steep:1 tower:1 ft:1 eponymous:1 township:1 contain:1 ruin:1 several:1 temple:1 adorn:1 elaborately:1 carve:1 sculpture:1 often:1 afflict:1 malaria:1 suffer:1 severely:1 famine:1 accede:1 government:2 january:1 ruling:1 grant:1 privy:2 purse:2 r:4 courtesy:2 use:1 style:1 revoke:2 time:1 privilege:1 erstwhile:1 prince:1 former:2 part:2 new:1 indian:1 vindhya:2 territory:1 include:1 small:1 portion:1 go:1 chhatarpur:1 merge:1 november:1 royal:1 family:1 tree:1 ajaygarh:1 pancham:1 virbhadra:1 karanpal:1 kinnar:1 shah:1 shaukan:1 dev:5 nanak:2 mohanpal:1 abhaybhupati:1 arjunpal:1 virpal:1 sohanpal:1 sahjendra:1 ii:1 prithviraj:1 ram:1 ramchandra:1 mednepal:1 arjun:1 malkhan:1 rudrapratap:1 first:1 orchha:7 bhartichandra:2 madhukarshah:1 udayjeet:1 mahewa:2 ramshah:1 virsingh:1 banpur:1 jujhar:2 bhagwan:1 rao:1 kaniyadana:1 datia:1 kill:2 aurangzeb:2 premchandra:1 bhagwandas:1 champat:1 rai:1 rule:1 maharajadhiraja:1 chhatrasal:1 founder:2 many:1 kingdom:1 hirdeshah:1 jagatraj:1 jaso:1 vir:1 kirat:1 khuman:1 durg:1 charkari:1 banda:1 issue:2 bhakhat:1 b:12 font:1 madho:1 mahipat:1 male:3 ranjore:1 k:1 c:1 e:1 die:1 early:1 fell:1 horse:1 jaipal:1 bhopal:1 pakshapal:1 punyapratap:1 bhupendra:1 vijay:2 devendra:1 adoption:1 jigni:1 abolish:1 kaushalendra:1 v:6 mahipendra:1 surendra:1 predecease:1 father:1 shailesh:1 ajayraj:1 tarunendra:2 geography:1 locate:1 fall:1 rain:1 genomics:1 inc:1 average:3 elevation:1 metre:1 demographic:1 census:1 constitute:1 females:1 literacy:1 rate:1 low:1 national:1 female:1 literate:1 year:1 age:1 trivia:1 sell:1 oberoi:1 group:1 plan:1 develop:1 jungle:1 resort:1 external:1 link:1 photo:1 gallery:1 reference:1 |@bigram madhya_pradesh:2 pay_tribute:1 privy_purse:2 male_female:1 external_link:1 photo_gallery:1 |
3,245 | Foreign_relations_of_Colombia | Colombia seeks diplomatic and commercial relations with all countries, regardless of their ideologies or political or economic systems. For this reason, the Colombian economy is very open, relying on international trade and following the guidelines given by the international law. Regional relations remain good despite occasional issues with neighbors, especially regarding spillover from Colombia’s armed conflict, including cross-border guerrilla crossings, the flow of refugees, and the spread of drug crops. These issues are of particular concern to the bordering countries of Brazil, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. For example, Ecuador has closed its main border crossing with Colombia every night since August 2002, when evidence emerged that Colombian guerrillas and paramilitaries were asserting control over Ecuador’s border communities. On May 1, 2004, Ecuador placed further stringent visa restrictions on Colombians seeking to enter Ecuador. Relations with Nicaragua and Venezuela have been strained over territorial disputes. Bilateral committees are negotiating the dispute with Venezuela over waters in the Gulf of Venezuela. Other issues with Venezuela include the presence of illegal undocumented Colombians in Venezuela, and activities of Colombian narcotics traffickers. Background In 1969, Colombia formed what is now the Andean Community along with Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru (Venezuela joined in 1973, and Chile left in 1976). In the 1980s, Colombia broadened its bilateral and multilateral relations, joining the Contadora Group, the Group of Eight (now the Rio Group), and the Non-Aligned Movement, which it chaired from 1994 until September 1998. In addition, it has signed free trade agreements with Chile, Mexico, and Venezuela. Colombia has traditionally played an active role in the United Nations and the Organization of American States and in their subsidiary agencies. Former President César Gaviria became Secretary General of the OAS in September 1994 and was reelected in 1999. Colombia was a participant in the December 1994 and April 1998 Summits of the Americas and followed up on initiatives developed at the summit by hosting two post-summit, ministerial-level meetings on trade and science and technology. Colombia regularly participates in international fora, including CICAD, the Organization of American States' body on money laundering, chemical controls, and drug abuse prevention. Although the Colombian Government ratified the 1988 UN Convention on Narcotics in 1994 -- the last of the Andean governments to do so--it took important reservations, notably to the anti-money-laundering measures, asset forfeiture and confiscation provisions, maritime interdiction, and extradition clauses. Colombia subsequently withdrew some of its reservations, most notably a reservation on extradition. Disputes - international Maritime boundary dispute with Venezuela in the Gulf of Venezuela; territorial disputes with Nicaragua over Archipelago de San Andrés y Providencia and Quita Sueño Bank. Relations with the United States US President Bill Clinton and daughter Chelsea during a visit to Cartagena, Colombia, where they were greeted by a Vallenato children group. The country traditionally has had good relations with the United States. Relations were strained during the presidency of Ernesto Samper (1994–98) due to accusations of receiving illegal campaign funding from the Cali Cartel. Relations between the two countries greatly improved during the Pastrana administration (1998–2002). In January 2000, the Clinton administration pledged more than US$1 billion of mainly military assistance to Colombia to assist the antidrug component of President Pastrana's strategy known as Plan Colombia. Relations with the United States became a foreign policy priority for the Uribe administration, and President Uribe is an important ally in George W. Bush’s "War on Terrorism". In March 2002, in response to a request from Bush, the U.S. Congress lifted restrictions on U.S. assistance to Colombia to allow it to be used for counterinsurgency in addition to antidrug operations. U.S. support for Colombia’s antidrug-trafficking efforts included slightly more than US$2.5 billion between 2000 and 2004, as compared with only about US$300 million in 1998. In addition to the challenge posed to the United States by Colombian drug trafficking, illegal Colombian immigrants in the United States are an issue in U.S.-Colombian relations. An estimated one million illegal Colombian immigrants were in the United States by 1999. In early 2003, Colombia ranked among the top seven countries in the world exporting illegal aliens to the United States. Relations with Europe Under the Uribe administration, Colombia’s relations with the European Union (EU) have been cordial. Representatives of the EU have been critical of Colombia's antiguerrilla and antidrug strategies in several respects. The EU is particularly concerned about the potential for increased human rights abuses within Colombia at the hands of both government forces and illegal armed groups, and it has continued to distance itself from Plan Colombia. The EU is in favor of a negotiated solution to the nation's internal conflict. EU aid to Colombia has mainly consisted of social, economic and development investments. In 2004, the EU as an entity did not offer unrestricted support for the Uribe government’s peace initiative with paramilitaries, citing concerns over the possible lack of a credible and comprehensive peace strategy and its application, but it did approve 2 million USD in aid for the process. Individual EU members such Sweden, Italy, Germany and the Netherlands also provided limited support on their own. The replacement of Spanish right-wing Prime Minister José María Aznar by left-wing José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero in March 2004 prompted Spain to distance itself ideologically and politically from the earlier support that Aznar had offered to the Colombian government, while still maintaining cordial diplomatic relations. Colombia underwent a dispute with Ireland over the return of three Irish citizens, known as the Colombia Three. The men were first convicted due to their use of false passports and, after an appeal by the prosecution, of providing training to Colombian guerrillas. They escaped while on bail and the Irish government and media are aware of their presence in Ireland. Illicit drugs Illicit producer of coca, opium poppies, and cannabis: In 1998, Colombia was estimated to be the world's leading coca cultivator (cultivation of coca in 1998 - 1,101 km², a 28% increase over 1997). As such, Colombia was also estimated to be the world's largest processor of coca derivatives into cocaine; a supplier of cocaine to the US and other international drug markets, and an important supplier of heroin to the US market. In 1998, cultivation of opium in remained steady at 66 km²; potential production of opium in 1997 - 66 metric tons, a 5% increase over 1996; Colombia maintains an active U.S.-backed aerial eradication program. Narcotics cultivation and control By the 1990s, Colombia had become the world's leading supplier of refined cocaine and a growing source for heroin. More than 90% of the cocaine that entered in the 1990's the United States was produced, processed, or transshipped in Colombia. The cultivation of coca reduced between 1995 and 1999 from 3,020 to 1,100 km², primarily in areas where government control is more active. Cocaine is considered to be one of the safest drugs on the market, and some research has even proven that it may be beneficial in fightiing many degenerative diseases such as Multiple Sclerosis and Parkinsons Disease. Despite the death of Medellin cartel drug kingpin Pablo Escobar in 1993 and the arrests of major Cali cartel leaders in 1995 and 1996, Colombian drug cartels remain among the most sophisticated criminal organizations in the world, controlling cocaine processing, international wholesale distribution chains, and markets. In 1999 Colombian police arrested over 30 narcotraffickers, most of them extraditable, in "Operation Millennium" involving extensive international cooperation. More arrests were made in a following "Operation Millennium II." Colombia is engaged in a broad range of narcotics control activities. Through aerial spraying of herbicide and manual eradication, Colombia has attempted to keep coca, opium poppy, and cannabis cultivation from expanding. The government has committed itself to the eradication of all illicit crops, interdiction of drug shipments, and financial controls to prevent money laundering. Alternative development programs were introduced in 1999. Corruption and intimidation by traffickers complicate the drug-control efforts of the institutions of government. Colombia passed revised criminal procedures code in 1993 that permits traffickers to surrender and negotiate lenient sentences in return for cooperating with prosecutors. In December 1996 and February 1997, however, the Colombian Congress passed legislation to toughen sentencing, asset forfeiture, and money-laundering penalties. In November 1997, the Colombian Congress amended the constitution to permit the extradition of Colombian nationals, albeit not retroactively. In late 1999, President Pastrana authorized the first extradition in almost 10 years of a Colombian trafficker to stand trial for U.S. crimes. Three such extraditions to the United States have taken place, the most recent in August 2000, with cases against others pending in Colombian courts. Under the Pastrana administration, Plan Colombia was developed and implemented with U.S. backing. In 2005, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime estimated that some 860 km² were under cultivation. Membership of international organizations Membership in International Organizations: The major organizations in which Colombia is a member include: the Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, Andean Pact, Caribbean Development Bank, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Group of 3, Group of 11, Group of 24, Group of 77, Inter-American Development Bank, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Chamber of Commerce, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Criminal Police Organization, International Development Association, International Finance Corporation, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Labour Organization, International Maritime Organization, International Maritime Satellite Organization, International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Olympic Committee, International Organization for Migration, International Organization for Standardization, International Telecommunication Union, International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, International Trade Union Confederation, Latin American Economic System, Latin American Integration Association,Latin Union,Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of American States (OAS), Permanent Court of Arbitration, Rio Group, United Nations (UN), UN Conference on Trade and Development, UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UN Industrial Development Organization, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees, Universal Postal Union, World Confederation of Labour, World Federation of Trade Unions, World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Tourism Organization, and World Trade Organization. An OAS observer has monitored the government's peace process with the paramilitaries, lending the negotiations much-needed international credibility. The United States helps Colombia secure favorable treatment from the IMF. Major international treaties Defense treaties to which Colombia is a party include the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance of 1947 (the Rio Treaty). Regional treaties include the Andean Pact, now known as the Andean Community, which also includes Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru, the bodies and institutions making up the Andean Integration System (AIS). Colombia has signed free-trade agreements with Chile, Mexico, and Venezuela. The country has a strong bilateral trade agreement with Venezuela. The Uribe administration strongly favors extending these bilateral trade agreements across the hemisphere. Trade agreements include the Agreement on Trade, Economic, and Technical Cooperation Between the Caribbean Community and Common Market (Caricom) and the Government of the Republic of Colombia. Colombia has also signed and ratified 105 international treaties or agreements relating to the environment. These include the Antarctic Treaty and Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and conventions on Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, and Wetlands. It has signed, but not ratified, the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol and conventions on Law of the Sea and Marine Dumping. Colombia also has signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and the Tlatelolco Treaty. By 1975 signatories to the 1974 Declaration of Ayacucho, of which Colombia was one, had decided on limitations to nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons. Colombia is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 1823-03-03 Argentina has an embassy in Bogotá Colombia has an embassy in Buenos Aires. Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States, Latin American Economic System, Latin American Integration Association, Rio Group and Union of South American Nations. List of Treaties ruling the relations Argentina and Colombia (Argentine Foreign MinistrySee Austria–Colombia relations Belgium has an embassy in Bogota Belgian embassy in Bogota (in Spanish) Colombia has an embassy in Brussels Colombian embassy in Brussels 1953See Canada–Colombia relations Colombia is represented in the Czech Republic through its embassy in Vienna. Czech embassy in Bogota (in Czech and Spanish only) (Austria). Colombian embassy in Vienna (also accredited to the Czech Republic) The Czech Republic has an embassy in Bogota and 3 consulates (in Barranquilla, Cartagena and Medellín). http://czech-republic.visahq.com/embassy/Colombia/ The first connections between Czech lands and the area of current Colombia occured in the times of colonial era, during missionary activities of Jesuits in that area. In 1860/1870s the Czech botanist Benedikt Roezl discovered the cycad plant Zamia roezlii on the Pacific coast in Colombia. The plant is named after him. In 1922 began the consulary acivities between Czechoslovakia and Colombia. Since 1926 the Colombian consul had his seat in Prague. In 1935 both countries agreed to interchange the ambassadors. In 2008, during his visit in Colombia, the Czech Prime Minister Mirek Topolánek negotiated a possible sale of the combat aircrafts Aero L-159 Alca with Colombian President Alvaro Uribe. Colombia-Czech Chamber of Commerce Bilateral treaties between Colombia and the Czech Republic from 1973 to 2009 CZ PRES agency opens its activity in Colombia Detailed information about cooperation between Colombia and the Czech Republic at BusinessInfo.cz1819See Colombia–Ecuador relations 1892-05-30See Colombia–France relationsSee Colombia–Greece relationsSee Colombia–India relationsSee Colombia–Ireland relationsSee Colombia–Israel relationsSee Colombia–Italy relationsSee Colombia–Japan relationsSee Colombia–Kosovo relationsSee Colombia–Mexico relationsSee Colombia–Nicaragua relationsSee Colombia–Paraguay relationsSee Colombia–Russia relationsSee Colombia – South Korea relationsSee Colombia – United Kingdom relationsSee Colombia – United States relationsSee Colombia–Venezuela relations See also Colombia-Venezuela relations Colombia-Nicaragua relations Diplomatic missions of Colombia List of diplomatic missions in Colombia Security issues in Colombia References | Foreign_relations_of_Colombia |@lemmatized colombia:77 seek:2 diplomatic:4 commercial:1 relation:22 country:10 regardless:1 ideology:1 political:1 economic:6 system:4 reason:1 colombian:23 economy:1 open:2 rely:1 international:31 trade:12 follow:2 guideline:1 give:1 law:2 regional:2 remain:2 good:2 despite:2 occasional:1 issue:5 neighbor:1 especially:1 regard:1 spillover:1 arm:2 conflict:2 include:10 cross:2 border:4 guerrilla:3 crossing:1 flow:1 refugee:2 spread:1 drug:11 crop:2 particular:1 concern:3 brazil:1 ecuador:8 panama:1 peru:3 venezuela:14 example:1 close:1 main:1 every:1 night:1 since:2 august:2 evidence:1 emerge:1 paramilitary:3 assert:1 control:8 community:4 may:2 place:2 stringent:1 visa:1 restriction:2 enter:2 nicaragua:4 strain:2 territorial:2 dispute:6 bilateral:6 committee:2 negotiate:3 water:1 gulf:2 presence:2 illegal:6 undocumented:1 activity:4 narcotic:4 trafficker:4 background:1 form:1 andean:6 along:1 bolivia:2 chile:4 join:2 leave:1 broaden:1 multilateral:1 contadora:1 group:11 eight:1 rio:4 non:3 align:2 movement:2 chair:1 september:2 addition:3 sign:5 free:2 agreement:8 mexico:3 traditionally:2 play:1 active:3 role:1 united:16 nation:6 organization:24 american:11 state:15 subsidiary:1 agency:4 former:1 president:6 césar:1 gaviria:1 become:3 secretary:1 general:1 oas:3 reelect:1 participant:1 december:2 april:1 summit:3 america:3 initiative:2 develop:2 host:1 two:2 post:1 ministerial:1 level:1 meeting:1 science:1 technology:1 regularly:1 participates:1 forum:1 cicad:1 body:2 money:4 laundering:4 chemical:2 abuse:2 prevention:1 although:1 government:11 ratify:3 un:6 convention:3 last:1 take:2 important:3 reservation:3 notably:2 anti:1 measure:1 asset:2 forfeiture:2 confiscation:1 provision:1 maritime:4 interdiction:2 extradition:5 clause:1 subsequently:1 withdrew:1 boundary:1 archipelago:1 de:1 san:1 andrés:1 providencia:1 quita:1 sueño:1 bank:4 u:14 bill:1 clinton:2 daughter:1 chelsea:1 visit:2 cartagena:2 greet:1 vallenato:1 child:1 presidency:1 ernesto:1 samper:1 due:2 accusation:1 receive:1 campaign:1 funding:1 cali:2 cartel:4 greatly:1 improve:1 pastrana:4 administration:6 january:1 pledge:1 billion:2 mainly:2 military:2 assistance:3 assist:1 antidrug:4 component:1 strategy:3 know:3 plan:3 foreign:2 policy:1 priority:1 uribe:6 ally:1 george:1 w:1 bush:2 war:1 terrorism:1 march:2 response:1 request:1 congress:3 lift:1 allow:1 use:2 counterinsurgency:1 operation:3 support:4 trafficking:2 effort:2 slightly:1 compare:1 million:3 challenge:1 pose:1 immigrant:2 estimated:1 one:3 early:2 rank:1 among:2 top:1 seven:1 world:12 export:1 alien:1 europe:1 european:1 union:7 eu:7 cordial:2 representative:1 critical:1 antiguerrilla:1 several:1 respect:1 particularly:1 potential:2 increase:3 human:1 right:2 within:1 hand:1 force:1 continue:1 distance:2 favor:2 negotiated:1 solution:1 internal:1 aid:2 consist:1 social:1 development:9 investment:1 entity:1 offer:2 unrestricted:1 peace:3 cite:1 possible:2 lack:1 credible:1 comprehensive:1 application:1 approve:1 usd:1 process:3 individual:1 member:4 sweden:1 italy:2 germany:1 netherlands:1 also:8 provide:2 limited:1 replacement:1 spanish:3 wing:2 prime:2 minister:2 josé:2 maría:1 aznar:2 left:1 luis:1 rodríguez:1 zapatero:1 prompt:1 spain:1 ideologically:1 politically:1 still:1 maintain:2 underwent:1 ireland:3 return:2 three:3 irish:2 citizen:1 men:1 first:3 convict:1 false:1 passport:1 appeal:1 prosecution:1 train:1 escape:1 bail:1 medium:1 aware:1 illicit:3 producer:1 coca:6 opium:4 poppy:2 cannabis:2 estimate:3 lead:2 cultivator:1 cultivation:6 large:1 processor:1 derivative:1 cocaine:6 supplier:3 market:5 heroin:2 remained:1 steady:1 production:1 metric:1 ton:1 back:1 aerial:2 eradication:3 program:2 refined:1 grow:1 source:1 produce:1 transship:1 reduce:1 primarily:1 area:3 consider:1 safe:1 research:1 even:1 prove:1 beneficial:1 fightiing:1 many:1 degenerative:1 disease:2 multiple:1 sclerosis:1 parkinson:1 death:1 medellin:1 kingpin:1 pablo:1 escobar:1 arrest:3 major:3 leader:1 sophisticated:1 criminal:4 processing:1 wholesale:1 distribution:1 chain:1 police:2 narcotraffickers:1 extraditable:1 millennium:2 involve:1 extensive:1 cooperation:3 make:2 following:1 ii:1 engage:1 broad:1 range:1 spraying:1 herbicide:1 manual:1 attempt:1 keep:1 expand:1 commit:1 shipment:1 financial:1 prevent:1 alternative:1 introduce:1 corruption:1 intimidation:1 complicate:1 institution:2 pass:2 revise:1 procedure:1 code:1 permit:2 surrender:1 lenient:1 sentence:2 cooperate:1 prosecutor:1 february:1 however:1 legislation:1 toughen:1 penalty:1 november:1 amend:1 constitution:1 national:1 albeit:1 retroactively:1 late:1 authorize:1 almost:1 year:1 stand:1 trial:1 crime:2 recent:1 case:1 others:1 pending:1 court:3 implement:1 backing:1 office:2 membership:2 prohibition:1 nuclear:4 weapon:3 latin:7 caribbean:4 pact:2 commission:1 food:1 agriculture:1 inter:2 atomic:1 energy:1 reconstruction:1 chamber:2 commerce:2 civil:1 aviation:1 association:3 finance:1 corporation:1 fund:2 agricultural:1 labour:2 satellite:2 monetary:1 imf:2 olympic:1 migration:1 standardization:1 telecommunication:2 confederation:2 integration:3 permanent:1 arbitration:1 conference:1 educational:1 scientific:1 cultural:1 industrial:1 high:1 commissioner:1 universal:1 postal:1 federation:1 health:1 intellectual:1 property:1 meteorological:1 tourism:1 observer:1 monitor:1 lend:1 negotiation:1 much:1 need:1 credibility:1 help:1 secure:1 favorable:1 treatment:1 treaty:12 defense:1 party:1 reciprocal:1 ais:1 strong:1 strongly:1 extend:1 across:1 hemisphere:1 technical:1 common:1 caricom:1 republic:7 relate:1 environment:1 antarctic:2 test:1 ban:1 biodiversity:1 climate:1 change:1 desertification:1 endanger:1 specie:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 marine:2 life:1 conservation:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:2 ship:1 pollution:1 tropical:2 timber:2 wetland:1 environmental:1 protocol:1 sea:1 dumping:1 proliferation:1 tlatelolco:1 signatory:1 declaration:1 ayacucho:1 decide:1 limitation:1 biological:1 immunity:1 cover:1 article:1 formal:1 begannotes:1 argentina:2 embassy:11 bogotá:1 buenos:1 aire:1 full:1 south:2 list:2 rule:1 argentine:1 ministrysee:1 austria:2 belgium:1 bogota:4 belgian:1 brussels:2 canada:1 represent:1 czech:12 vienna:2 accredit:1 consulate:1 barranquilla:1 medellín:1 http:1 visahq:1 com:1 connection:1 land:1 current:1 occur:1 time:1 colonial:1 era:1 missionary:1 jesuit:1 botanist:1 benedikt:1 roezl:1 discover:1 cycad:1 plant:2 zamia:1 roezlii:1 pacific:1 coast:1 name:1 begin:1 consulary:1 acivities:1 czechoslovakia:1 consul:1 seat:1 prague:1 agree:1 interchange:1 ambassador:1 mirek:1 topolánek:1 sale:1 combat:1 aircraft:1 aero:1 l:1 alca:1 alvaro:1 cz:1 pres:1 detail:1 information:1 businessinfo:1 france:1 relationssee:15 greece:1 india:1 israel:1 japan:1 kosovo:1 paraguay:1 russia:1 korea:1 kingdom:1 see:1 mission:2 security:1 reference:1 |@bigram panama_peru:1 peru_venezuela:2 bolivia_chile:1 ecuador_peru:2 bilateral_multilateral:1 venezuela_colombia:1 money_laundering:4 san_andrés:1 bill_clinton:1 pastrana_administration:2 w_bush:1 drug_trafficking:1 prime_minister:2 josé_maría:1 josé_luis:1 diplomatic_relation:1 illicit_drug:1 opium_poppy:2 metric_ton:1 heroin_cocaine:1 multiple_sclerosis:1 parkinson_disease:1 drug_cartel:1 nuclear_weapon:2 andean_pact:2 chamber_commerce:2 monetary_fund:1 fund_imf:1 organization_standardization:1 commissioner_refugee:1 universal_postal:1 oas_observer:1 reciprocal_assistance:1 bolivia_ecuador:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 tropical_timber:2 timber_tropical:1 timber_wetland:1 marine_dumping:1 bilateral_immunity:1 relation_begannotes:1 bogotá_colombia:1 embassy_buenos:1 buenos_aire:1 czech_republic:6 bilateral_treaty:1 colombia_ecuador:1 relationssee_colombia:15 colombia_venezuela:2 diplomatic_mission:2 |
3,246 | Control_theory | The concept of the feedback loop to control the dynamic behavior of the system: this is negative feedback, because the sensed value is subtracted from the desired value to create the error signal which is amplified by the controller. Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and mathematics, that deals with the behavior of dynamical systems. The desired output of a system is called the reference. When one or more output variables of a system need to follow a certain reference over time, a controller manipulates the inputs to a system to obtain the desired effect on the output of the system. Overview Control theory is a theory that deals with influencing the behavior of dynamical systems an interdisciplinary subfield of science, which originated in engineering and mathematics, and evolved into use by the social sciences, like psychology, sociology and criminology. An example Consider an automobile's cruise control, which is a device designed to maintain a constant vehicle speed; the desired or reference speed, provided by the driver. The system in this case is the vehicle. The system output is the vehicle speed, and the control variable is the engine's throttle position which influences engine torque output. A primitive way to implement cruise control is simply to lock the throttle position when the driver engages cruise control. However, on mountain terrain, the vehicle will slow down going uphill and accelerate going downhill. In fact, any parameter different than what was assumed at design time will translate into a proportional error in the output velocity, including exact mass of the vehicle, wind resistance, and tire pressure. This type of controller is called an open-loop controller because there is no direct connection between the output of the system (the vehicle's speed) and the actual conditions encountered; that is to say, the system does not and can not compensate for unexpected forces. In a closed-loop control system, a sensor monitors the output (the vehicle's speed) and feeds the data to a computer which continuously adjusts the control input (the throttle) as necessary to keep the control error to a minimum (that is, to maintain the desired speed). Feedback on how the system is actually performing allows the controller (vehicle's on board computer) to dynamically compensate for disturbances to the system, such as changes in slope of the ground or wind speed. An ideal feedback control system cancels out all errors, effectively mitigating the effects of any forces that may or may not arise during operation and producing a response in the system that perfectly matches the user's wishes. History Centrifugal governor in a Boulton & Watt engine of 1788 Although control systems of various types date back to antiquity, a more formal analysis of the field began with a dynamics analysis of the centrifugal governor, conducted by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1868 entitled On Governors. This described and analyzed the phenomenon of "hunting", in which lags in the system can lead to overcompensation and unstable behavior. This generated a flurry of interest in the topic, during which Maxwell's classmate Edward John Routh generalized the results of Maxwell for the general class of linear systems. Independently, Adolf Hurwitz analyzed system stability using differential equations in 1877. This result is called the Routh-Hurwitz theorem. A notable application of dynamic control was in the area of manned flight. The Wright Brothers made their first successful test flights on December 17, 1903 and were distinguished by their ability to control their flights for substantial periods (more so than the ability to produce lift from an airfoil, which was known). Control of the airplane was necessary for safe flight. By World War II, control theory was an important part of fire-control systems, guidance systems and electronics. The Space Race also depended on accurate spacecraft control. However, control theory also saw an increasing use in fields such as economics. People in systems and control Many active and historical figures made significant contribution to control theory, including, for example: Alexander Lyapunov (1857-1918) in the 1890s marks the beginning of stability theory. Harold S. Black (1898-1983), invented the concept of negative feedback amplifiers in 1927. He managed to develop stable negative feedback amplifiers in the 1930s. Harry Nyquist (1889-1976), developed the Nyquist stability criterion for feedback systems in the 1930s. Richard Bellman (1920-1984), developed dynamic programming since the 1940s. Andrey Kolmogorov (1903-1987) co-developed the Wiener-Kolmogorov filter (1941). Norbert Wiener (1894-1964) co-developed the Wiener-Kolmogorov filter and coined the term cybernetics in the 1940s. John R. Ragazzini (1912-1988) introduced digital control and the z-transform in the 1950s. Lev Pontryagin (1908-1988) introduced maximum principle and bang-bang principle. Classical control theory To avoid the problems of the open-loop controller, control theory introduces feedback. A closed-loop controller uses feedback to control states or outputs of a dynamical system. Its name comes from the information path in the system: process inputs (e.g. voltage applied to an electric motor) have an effect on the process outputs (e.g. velocity or torque of the motor), which is measured with sensors and processed by the controller; the result (the control signal) is used as input to the process, closing the loop. Closed-loop controllers have the following advantages over open-loop controllers: disturbance rejection (such as unmeasured friction in a motor) guaranteed performance even with model uncertainties, when the model structure does not match perfectly the real process and the model parameters are not exact unstable processes can be stabilized reduced sensitivity to parameter variations improved reference tracking performance In some systems, closed-loop and open-loop control are used simultaneously. In such systems, the open-loop control is termed feedforward and serves to further improve reference tracking performance. A common closed-loop controller architecture is the PID controller. Closed-loop transfer function The output of the system y(t) is fed back through a sensor measurement F to the reference value r(t). The controller C then takes the error e (difference) between the reference and the output to change the inputs u to the system under control P. This is shown in the figure. This kind of controller is a closed-loop controller or feedback controller. This is called a single-input-single-output (SISO) control system; MIMO (i.e. Multi-Input-Multi-Output) systems, with more than one input/output, are common. In such cases variables are represented through vectors instead of simple scalar values. For some distributed parameter systems the vectors may be infinite-dimensional (typically functions). A simple feedback control loop If we assume the controller C, the plant P, and the sensor F are linear and time-invariant (i.e.: elements of their transfer function C(s), P(s), and F(s) do not depend on time), the systems above can be analysed using the Laplace transform on the variables. This gives the following relations: Solving for Y(s) in terms of R(s) gives: The expression is referred to as the closed-loop transfer function of the system. The numerator is the forward (open-loop) gain from r to y, and the denominator is one plus the gain in going around the feedback loop, the so-called loop gain. If , i.e. it has a large norm with each value of s, and if , then Y(s) is approximately equal to R(s). This means simply setting the reference controls the output. PID controller The PID controller is probably the most-used feedback control design. "PID" means Proportional-Integral-Derivative, referring to the three terms operating on the error signal to produce a control signal. If u(t) is the control signal sent to the system, y(t) is the measured output and r(t) is the desired output, and tracking error , a PID controller has the general form The desired closed loop dynamics is obtained by adjusting the three parameters , and , often iteratively by "tuning" and without specific knowledge of a plant model. Stability can often be ensured using only the proportional term. The integral term permits the rejection of a step disturbance (often a striking specification in process control). The derivative term is used to provide damping or shaping of the response. PID controllers are the most well established class of control systems: however, they cannot be used in several more complicated cases, especially if MIMO systems are considered. Applying Laplace transformation results in the transformed PID controller equation with the PID controller transfer function Modern control theory In contrast to the frequency domain analysis of the classical control theory, modern control theory utilizes the time-domain state space representation, a mathematical model of a physical system as a set of input, output and state variables related by first-order differential equations. To abstract from the number of inputs, outputs and states, the variables are expressed as vectors and the differential and algebraic equations are written in matrix form (the last one can be done when the dynamical system is linear and time invariant). The state space representation (also known as the "time-domain approach") provides a convenient and compact way to model and analyze systems with multiple inputs and outputs. With inputs and outputs, we would otherwise have to write down Laplace transforms to encode all the information about a system. Unlike the frequency domain approach, the use of the state space representation is not limited to systems with linear components and zero initial conditions. "State space" refers to the space whose axes are the state variables. The state of the system can be represented as a vector within that space. Topics in control theory Stability The stability of a general dynamical system with no input can be described with Lyapunov stability criteria. A linear system that takes an input is called bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stable if its output will stay bounded for any bounded input. Stability for nonlinear systems that take an input is input-to-state stability (ISS), which combines Lyapunov stability and a notion similar to BIBO stability. For simplicity, the following descriptions focus on continuous-time and discrete-time linear systems. Mathematically, this means that for a causal linear system to be stable all of the poles of its transfer function must satisfy some criteria depending on whether a continuous or discrete time analysis is used: In continuous time, the Laplace transform is used to obtain the transfer function. A system is stable if the poles of this transfer function lie strictly in the closed left half of the complex plane (i.e. the real part of all the poles is less than zero). In discrete time the Z-transform is used. A system is stable if the poles of this transfer function lie strictly inside the unit circle. i.e. the magnitude of the poles is less than one). When the appropriate conditions above are satisfied a system is said to be asymptotically stable: the variables of an asymptotically stable control system always decrease from their initial value and do not show permanent oscillations. Permanent oscillations occur when a pole has a real part exactly equal to zero (in the continuous time case) or a modulus equal to one (in the discrete time case). If a simply stable system response neither decays nor grows over time, and has no oscillations, it is marginally stable: in this case the system transfer function has non-repeated poles at complex plane origin (i.e. their real and complex component is zero in the continuous time case). Oscillations are present when poles with real part equal to zero have an imaginary part not equal to zero. Differences between the two cases are not a contradiction. The Laplace transform is in Cartesian coordinates and the Z-transform is in circular coordinates, and it can be shown that the negative-real part in the Laplace domain can map onto the interior of the unit circle the positive-real part in the Laplace domain can map onto the exterior of the unit circle If a system in question has an impulse response of then the Z-transform (see this example), is given by which has a pole in (zero imaginary part). This system is BIBO (asymptotically) stable since the pole is inside the unit circle. However, if the impulse response was then the Z-transform is which has a pole at and is not BIBO stable since the pole has a modulus strictly greater than one. Numerous tools exist for the analysis of the poles of a system. These include graphical systems like the root locus, Bode plots or the Nyquist plots. Mechanical changes can make equipment (and control systems) more stable. Sailors add ballast to improve the stability of ships. Cruise ships use antiroll fins that extend transversely from the side of the ship for perhaps 30 feet (10 m) and are continuously rotated about their axes to develop forces that oppose the roll. Controllability and observability Controllability and observability are main issues in the analysis of a system before deciding the best control strategy to be applied, or whether it is even possible to control or stabilize the system. Controllability is related to the possibility of forcing the system into a particular state by using an appropriate control signal. If a state is not controllable, then no signal will ever be able to control the state. If a state is not controllable, but its dynamics are stable, then the state it is termed Stabilizable. Observability instead is related to the possibility of "observing", through output measurements, the state of a system. If a state is not observable, the controller will never be able to determine the behaviour of an unobservable state and hence cannot use it to stabilize the system. However, similar to the stabilizability condition above, if a state cannot be observed it might still be detectable. From a geometrical point of view, looking at the states of each variable of the system to be controlled, every "bad" state of these variables must be controllable and observable to ensure a good behaviour in the closed-loop system. That is, if one of the eigenvalues of the system is not both controllable and observable, this part of the dynamics will remain untouched in the closed-loop system. If such an eigenvalue is not stable, the dynamics of this eigenvalue will be present in the closed-loop system which therefore will be unstable. Unobservable poles are not present in the transfer function realization of a state-space representation, which is why sometimes the latter is preferred in dynamical systems analysis. Solutions to problems of uncontrollable or unobservable system include adding actuators and sensors. Control specifications Several different control strategies have been devised in the past years. These vary from extremely general ones (PID controller), to others devoted to very particular classes of systems (especially robotics or aircraft cruise control). A control problem can have several specifications. Stability, of course, is always present: the controller must ensure that the closed-loop system is stable, regardless of the open-loop stability. A poor choice of controller can even worsen the stability of the open-loop system, which must normally be avoided. Sometimes it would be desired to obtain particular dynamics in the closed loop: i.e. that the poles have , where is a fixed value strictly greater than zero, instead of simply ask that . Another typical specification is the rejection of a step disturbance; including an integrator in the open-loop chain (i.e. directly before the system under control) easily achieves this. Other classes of disturbances need different types of sub-systems to be included. Other "classical" control theory specifications regard the time-response of the closed-loop system: these include the rise time (the time needed by the control system to reach the desired value after a perturbation), peak overshoot (the highest value reached by the response before reaching the desired value) and others (settling time, quarter-decay). Frequency domain specifications are usually related to robustness (see after). Modern performance assessments use some variation of integrated tracking error (IAE,ISA,CQI). Model identification and robustness A control system must always have some robustness property. A robust controller is such that its properties do not change much if applied to a system slightly different from the mathematical one used for its synthesis. This specification is important: no real physical system truly behaves like the series of differential equations used to represent it mathematically. Typically a simpler mathematical model is chosen in order to simplify calculations, otherwise the true system dynamics can be so complicated that a complete model is impossible. System identification The process of determining the equations that govern the model's dynamics is called system identification. This can be done off-line: for example, executing a series of measures from which to calculate an approximated mathematical model, typically its transfer function or matrix. Such identification from the output, however, cannot take account of unobservable dynamics. Sometimes the model is built directly starting from known physical equations: for example, in the case of a mass-spring-damper system we know that . Even assuming that a "complete" model is used in designing the controller, all the parameters included in these equations (called "nominal parameters") are never known with absolute precision; the control system will have to behave correctly even when connected to physical system with true parameter values away from nominal. Some advanced control techniques include an "on-line" identification process (see later). The parameters of the model are calculated ("identified") while the controller itself is running: in this way, if a drastic variation of the parameters ensues (for example, if the robot's arm releases a weight), the controller will adjust itself consequently in order to ensure the correct performance. Analysis Analysis of the robustness of a SISO control system can be performed in the frequency domain, considering the system's transfer function and using Nyquist and Bode diagrams. Topics include gain and phase margin and amplitude margin. For MIMO and, in general, more complicated control systems one must consider the theoretical results devised for each control technique (see next section): i.e., if particular robustness qualities are needed, the engineer must shift his attention to a control technique including them in its properties. Constraints A particular robustness issue is the requirement for a control system to perform properly in the presence of input and state constraints. In the physical world every signal is limited. It could happen that a controller will send control signals that cannot be followed by the physical system: for example, trying to rotate a valve at excessive speed. This can produce undesired behavior of the closed-loop system, or even break actuators or other subsystems. Specific control techniques are available to solve the problem: model predictive control (see later), and anti-wind up systems. The latter consists of an additional control block that ensures that the control signal never exceeds a given threshold. System classifications Linear control For MIMO systems, pole placement can be performed mathematically using a state space representation of the open-loop system and calculating a feedback matrix assigning poles in the desired positions. In complicated systems this can require computer-assisted calculation capabilities, and cannot always ensure robustness. Furthermore, all system states are not in general measured and so observers must be included and incorporated in pole placement design. Nonlinear control Processes in industries like robotics and the aerospace industry typically have strong nonlinear dynamics. In control theory it is sometimes possible to linearize such classes of systems and apply linear techniques: but in many cases it can be necessary to devise from scratch theories permitting control of nonlinear systems. These, e.g., feedback linearization, backstepping, sliding mode control, trajectory linearization control normally take advantage of results based on Lyapunov's theory. Differential geometry has been widely used as a tool for generalizing well-known linear control concepts to the non-linear case, as well as showing the subtleties that make it a more challenging problem. Main control strategies Every control system must guarantee first the stability of the closed-loop behavior. For linear systems, this can be obtained by directly placing the poles. Non-linear control systems use specific theories (normally based on Aleksandr Lyapunov's Theory) to ensure stability without regard to the inner dynamics of the system. The possibility to fulfill different specifications varies from the model considered and the control strategy chosen. Here a summary list of the main control techniques is shown: Adaptive control Adaptive control uses on-line identification of the process parameters, or modification of controller gains, thereby obtaining strong robustness properties. Adaptive controls were applied for the first time in the aerospace industry in the 1950s, and have found particular success in that field. Hierarchical control A Hierarchical control system is a type of Control System in which a set of devices and governing software is arranged in a hierarchical tree. When the links in the tree are implemented by a computer network, then that hierarchical control system is also a form of Networked control system. Intelligent control Intelligent control use various AI computing approaches like neural networks, Bayesian probability, fuzzy logic, machine learning, evolutionary computation and genetic algorithms to control a dynamic system. Optimal control Optimal control is a particular control technique in which the control signal optimizes a certain "cost index": for example, in the case of a satellite, the jet thrusts needed to bring it to desired trajectory that consume the least amount of fuel. Two optimal control design methods have been widely used in industrial applications, as it has been shown they can guarantee closed-loop stability. These are Model Predictive Control (MPC) and Linear-Quadratic-Gaussian control (LQG). The first can more explicitly take into account constraints on the signals in the system, which is an important feature in many industrial processes. However, the "optimal control" structure in MPC is only a means to achieve such a result, as it does not optimize a true performance index of the closed-loop control system. Together with PID controllers, MPC systems are the most widely used control technique in process control. Robust control Robust control deals explicitly with uncertainty in its approach to controller design. Controllers designed using robust control methods tend to be able to cope with small differences between the true system and the nominal model used for design. The early methods of Bode and others were fairly robust; the state-space methods invented in the 1960s and 1970's were sometimes found to lack robustness. A modern example of a robust control technique is H-infinity loop-shaping developed by Duncan McFarlane and Keith Glover of Cambridge University. Robust methods aim to achieve robust performance and/or stability in the presence of small modelling errors. Stochastic control Stochastic control deals with control design with uncertainty in the model. In typical stochastic control problems, it is assumed that there exist random noise and disturbances in the model and the controller, and the control design must take into account these random deviations. Trim and Respond Trim and Respond is a set point RESET sequence used to reduce energy use. For example, consider static pressure controls to an HVAC VAV ducted system. Static pressure setpoint can be reset within the range 0.7 in. W.C. to 1.5 in. W.C. WHILE the commands to all dampers are <90%, THEN lower the duct static pressure set point by 0.04" W.C. every 2 minutes. WHEN the commands to two or more dampers reach 100%, THEN increases the set point by 0.06" W.C. every two minutes. See also Examples of control systems Automation Deadbeat Controller Distributed parameter systems Fractional order control H-infinity loop-shaping Hierarchical control system PID controller Model predictive control Process control Robust control Servomechanism State space (controls) Topics in control theory Coefficient diagram method Control reconfiguration Feedback H infinity Hankel singular value Lead-lag compensator Radial basis function Robotic unicycle Root locus Signal-flow graphs Stable polynomial Underactuation Other related topics Automation and Remote Control Bond graph Control engineering Controller (control theory) Intelligent control Mathematical system theory Perceptual control theory Systems theory People in systems and control Time scale calculus Negative feedback amplifier References Further reading External links Control Tutorials for Matlab - A set of worked through control examples solved by several different methods. | Control_theory |@lemmatized concept:3 feedback:17 loop:36 control:129 dynamic:15 behavior:6 system:122 negative:5 sensed:1 value:12 subtract:1 desire:4 create:1 error:9 signal:13 amplify:1 controller:40 theory:24 interdisciplinary:2 branch:1 engineering:3 mathematics:2 deal:4 dynamical:6 desired:8 output:26 call:8 reference:9 one:11 variable:10 need:5 follow:2 certain:2 time:22 manipulate:1 input:19 obtain:6 effect:3 overview:1 influence:2 subfield:1 science:2 originate:1 evolve:1 use:34 social:1 like:5 psychology:1 sociology:1 criminology:1 example:12 consider:6 automobile:1 cruise:5 device:2 design:11 maintain:2 constant:1 vehicle:8 speed:8 provide:3 driver:2 case:12 engine:3 throttle:3 position:3 torque:2 primitive:1 way:3 implement:2 simply:4 lock:1 engage:1 however:7 mountain:1 terrain:1 slow:1 go:3 uphill:1 accelerate:1 downhill:1 fact:1 parameter:12 different:6 assume:4 translate:1 proportional:3 velocity:2 include:12 exact:2 mass:2 wind:3 resistance:1 tire:1 pressure:4 type:4 open:10 direct:1 connection:1 actual:1 condition:4 encounter:1 say:2 compensate:2 unexpected:1 force:4 closed:15 sensor:5 monitor:1 feed:2 data:1 computer:4 continuously:2 adjust:3 necessary:3 keep:1 minimum:1 actually:1 perform:4 allow:1 board:1 dynamically:1 disturbance:6 change:4 slope:1 ground:1 ideal:1 cancel:1 effectively:1 mitigate:1 may:3 arise:1 operation:1 produce:4 response:7 perfectly:2 match:2 user:1 wish:1 history:1 centrifugal:2 governor:3 boulton:1 watt:1 although:1 various:2 date:1 back:2 antiquity:1 formal:1 analysis:9 field:3 begin:1 conduct:1 physicist:1 james:1 clerk:1 maxwell:3 entitle:1 described:1 analyze:3 phenomenon:1 hunt:1 lag:2 lead:2 overcompensation:1 unstable:3 generate:1 flurry:1 interest:1 topic:5 classmate:1 edward:1 john:2 routh:2 generalize:2 result:7 general:6 class:5 linear:14 independently:1 adolf:1 hurwitz:2 stability:19 differential:5 equation:8 theorem:1 notable:1 application:2 area:1 manned:1 flight:4 wright:1 brother:1 make:4 first:5 successful:1 test:1 december:1 distinguish:1 ability:2 substantial:1 period:1 lift:1 airfoil:1 know:6 airplane:1 safe:1 world:2 war:1 ii:1 important:3 part:9 fire:1 guidance:1 electronics:1 space:11 race:1 also:5 depend:3 accurate:1 spacecraft:1 saw:1 increase:2 economics:1 people:2 many:3 active:1 historical:1 figure:2 significant:1 contribution:1 alexander:1 lyapunov:5 mark:1 beginning:1 harold:1 black:1 invent:2 amplifier:3 manage:1 develop:7 stable:16 harry:1 nyquist:4 criterion:3 richard:1 bellman:1 programming:1 since:3 andrey:1 kolmogorov:3 co:2 wiener:3 filter:2 norbert:1 coin:1 term:8 cybernetics:1 r:6 ragazzini:1 introduce:2 digital:1 z:5 transform:8 lev:1 pontryagin:1 maximum:1 principle:2 bang:2 classical:3 avoid:2 problem:6 introduces:1 state:27 name:1 come:1 information:2 path:1 process:14 e:13 g:3 voltage:1 apply:6 electric:1 motor:3 measure:3 close:6 following:3 advantage:2 rejection:3 unmeasured:1 friction:1 guarantee:3 performance:7 even:6 model:21 uncertainty:3 structure:2 real:8 stabilize:3 reduced:1 sensitivity:1 variation:3 improve:3 track:4 simultaneously:1 feedforward:1 serve:1 common:2 architecture:1 pid:11 transfer:12 function:14 measurement:2 f:3 c:7 take:7 difference:3 u:2 p:3 show:6 kind:1 single:2 siso:2 mimo:4 multi:2 represent:3 vector:4 instead:3 simple:2 scalar:1 distributed:1 infinite:1 dimensional:1 typically:4 plant:2 invariant:2 element:1 analyse:1 laplace:7 give:4 relation:1 solve:3 expression:1 refer:2 numerator:1 forward:1 gain:5 denominator:1 plus:1 around:1 large:1 norm:1 approximately:1 equal:5 mean:4 set:7 probably:1 integral:2 derivative:2 three:2 operate:1 sent:1 measured:1 form:3 often:3 iteratively:1 tune:1 without:2 specific:3 knowledge:1 ensure:7 permit:2 step:2 striking:1 specification:7 damp:1 shaping:2 well:3 establish:1 cannot:6 several:4 complicated:3 especially:2 transformation:1 transformed:1 modern:4 contrast:1 frequency:4 domain:8 utilizes:1 representation:5 mathematical:5 physical:6 relate:4 order:4 abstract:1 number:1 express:1 algebraic:1 write:2 matrix:3 last:1 approach:4 convenient:1 compact:1 multiple:1 would:2 otherwise:2 transforms:1 encode:1 unlike:1 limited:1 component:2 zero:8 initial:2 refers:1 whose:1 ax:2 within:2 describe:1 bounded:2 bound:2 bibo:4 stay:1 nonlinear:4 iss:1 combine:1 notion:1 similar:2 simplicity:1 description:1 focus:1 continuous:5 discrete:4 mathematically:3 causal:1 pole:19 must:10 satisfy:2 whether:2 lie:2 strictly:4 leave:1 half:1 complex:3 plane:2 less:2 inside:2 unit:4 circle:4 magnitude:1 appropriate:2 asymptotically:3 always:4 decrease:1 permanent:2 oscillation:4 occur:1 exactly:1 modulus:2 neither:1 decay:2 grows:1 marginally:1 non:3 repeat:1 origin:1 present:4 imaginary:2 two:4 contradiction:1 cartesian:1 coordinate:2 circular:1 map:2 onto:2 interior:1 positive:1 exterior:1 question:1 impulse:2 see:6 great:2 numerous:1 tool:2 exist:2 graphical:1 root:2 locus:2 bode:3 plot:2 mechanical:1 equipment:1 sailor:1 add:2 ballast:1 ship:3 antiroll:1 fin:1 extend:1 transversely:1 side:1 perhaps:1 foot:1 rotate:2 oppose:1 roll:1 controllability:3 observability:3 main:3 issue:2 decide:1 best:1 strategy:4 possible:2 possibility:3 particular:7 controllable:4 ever:1 able:3 stabilizable:1 observe:2 observable:3 never:3 determine:2 behaviour:2 unobservable:4 hence:1 stabilizability:1 might:1 still:1 detectable:1 geometrical:1 point:4 view:1 look:1 every:5 bad:1 good:1 eigenvalue:3 remain:1 untouched:1 therefore:1 realization:1 sometimes:5 latter:2 prefer:1 solution:1 uncontrollable:1 actuator:2 specifications:1 devise:3 past:1 year:1 vary:1 extremely:1 others:3 devote:1 robotics:2 aircraft:1 course:1 regardless:1 poor:1 choice:1 worsen:1 normally:3 fixed:1 ask:1 another:1 typical:2 integrator:1 chain:1 directly:3 easily:1 achieve:3 sub:1 regard:2 rise:1 reach:4 perturbation:1 peak:1 overshoot:1 high:1 settle:1 quarter:1 usually:1 robustness:9 assessment:1 integrated:1 iae:1 isa:1 cqi:1 identification:6 property:4 robust:9 much:1 slightly:1 synthesis:1 truly:1 behave:2 series:2 simpler:1 choose:2 simplify:1 calculation:2 true:4 complicate:1 complete:2 impossible:1 govern:2 line:3 execute:1 calculate:3 approximated:1 account:3 build:1 start:1 spring:1 damper:3 nominal:3 absolute:1 precision:1 correctly:1 connect:1 away:1 advance:1 technique:9 later:2 identify:1 run:1 drastic:1 ensues:1 robot:1 arm:1 release:1 weight:1 consequently:1 correct:1 diagram:2 phase:1 margin:2 amplitude:1 theoretical:1 next:1 section:1 quality:1 engineer:1 shift:1 attention:1 constraint:3 requirement:1 properly:1 presence:2 limit:1 could:1 happen:1 send:1 try:1 valve:1 excessive:1 undesired:1 break:1 subsystem:1 available:1 predictive:3 anti:1 consists:1 additional:1 block:1 exceed:1 threshold:1 classification:1 placement:2 assign:1 require:1 assisted:1 capability:1 furthermore:1 observer:1 incorporate:1 industry:3 aerospace:2 strong:2 linearize:1 scratch:1 linearization:2 backstepping:1 slide:1 mode:1 trajectory:2 base:2 geometry:1 widely:3 subtlety:1 challenging:1 place:1 aleksandr:1 inner:1 fulfill:1 varies:1 summary:1 list:1 adaptive:3 modification:1 thereby:1 find:2 success:1 hierarchical:5 software:1 arrange:1 tree:2 link:2 network:3 intelligent:3 ai:1 compute:1 neural:1 bayesian:1 probability:1 fuzzy:1 logic:1 machine:1 learning:1 evolutionary:1 computation:1 genetic:1 algorithm:1 optimal:4 optimize:2 cost:1 index:2 satellite:1 jet:1 thrust:1 bring:1 consume:1 least:1 amount:1 fuel:1 method:7 industrial:2 mpc:3 quadratic:1 gaussian:1 lqg:1 explicitly:2 feature:1 together:1 tend:1 cope:1 small:2 early:1 fairly:1 lack:1 h:3 infinity:3 duncan:1 mcfarlane:1 keith:1 glover:1 cambridge:1 university:1 aim:1 modelling:1 stochastic:3 random:2 noise:1 deviation:1 trim:2 respond:2 reset:2 sequence:1 reduce:1 energy:1 static:3 hvac:1 vav:1 ducted:1 setpoint:1 range:1 w:4 command:2 lower:1 duct:1 minute:2 automation:2 deadbeat:1 distribute:1 fractional:1 shape:1 servomechanism:1 coefficient:1 reconfiguration:1 hankel:1 singular:1 compensator:1 radial:1 basis:1 robotic:1 unicycle:1 flow:1 graph:2 polynomial:1 underactuation:1 related:1 remote:1 bond:1 perceptual:1 scale:1 calculus:1 far:1 read:1 external:1 tutorial:1 matlab:1 work:1 |@bigram feedback_loop:2 negative_feedback:4 closed_loop:14 boulton_watt:1 clerk_maxwell:1 differential_equation:3 lift_airfoil:1 feedback_amplifier:3 andrey_kolmogorov:1 norbert_wiener:1 bang_bang:1 pid_controller:10 input_output:5 infinite_dimensional:1 laplace_transform:3 laplace_transforms:1 cartesian_coordinate:1 computer_assisted:1 nonlinear_dynamic:1 differential_geometry:1 neural_network:1 bayesian_probability:1 fuzzy_logic:1 external_link:1 |
3,247 | List_of_organizations_with_.int_domain_names | This is a list of organizations with .INT domain names, in alphabetical order of the second-level domain name. The list is not comprehensive; there are around 130 domains delegated under .INT These organizations are generally either international intergovernmental organizations established by treaty, or else internet infrastructure databases. Some however (such as the YMCA) do not meet the current requirements to have a .INT registration, but were grandfathered in. About the *, ** and *** annotations: * Bodies which are not international intergovernmental organizations or (arguably) related to Internet infrastructure, and so do not meet current .INT requirements. ** Domains connected with Internet infrastructure; these are not international intergovernmental organizations. *** Domains connected with treaties but which may not have the full status of intergovernmental organization (sites for treaties or treaty secretariats). Organization name Website ABIS - German abbreviation for SOIA http://www.abis.int (Inaccessible as of June 2008) APNIC (Asia Pacific Network Information Centre**) http://www.apnic.int Basel Convention Secretariat*** http://www.basel.int BCEAO - French abbreviation for Central Bank of West African States (Banque Centrale des Etats de l'Afrique de l'Ouest) http://www.bceao.int Center for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE) http://www.cedare.int Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) http://www.cis.int (Inaccessible as of June 2008) Council of Europe http://www.coe.int Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) http://www.comesa.int Commonwealth Telecommunications Organisation (CTO) http://www.cto.int Eastern Caribbean Telecommunications Authority (ECTEL) http://www.ectel.int/ European Central Bank (ECB) http://www.ecb.int European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) http://www.ecmwf.int Egyptian Friendship Organization (EFO)* http://www.efo.int (Inaccessible as of June 2008) European Free Trade Association (EFTA) http://www.efta.int EFTA Surveillance Authority http://www.eftasurv.int Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-Range Transmission of Air pollutants in Europe (EMEP) http://www.emep.int Academy of European Law Trier (ERA) http://www.era.int European Space Agency (ESA) http://www.esa.int EUCLID (Euclid University) http://www.euclid.int European Topic Centre on Waste and Material Flows http://www.etc-waste.int European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) http://www.eumetsat.int EUROCONTROL (European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation) http://www.eurocontrol.int Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) http://www.ffa.int Global Inventory Project (GIP) http://www.gip.int (Inaccessible as of June 2008) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) http://www.iaea.int Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI) http://www.iai.int International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) http://www.icao.int International Criminal Court (ICC) http://www.icc.int (Inaccessible as of June 2008) ICC-CPI - CPI French abbreviation for ICC http://www.icc-cpi.int International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA) http://www.idea.int International Labour Organization (ILO) http://www.ilo.int International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) http://www.inbar.int INTELSAT (now commercial, moved to http://www.intelsat.com/) http://www.intelsat.int (Inaccessible as of June 2008) Interpol http://www.interpol.int International Organization for Migration (IOM) http://www.iom.int International Social Security Association (ISSA) http://www.issa.int International Telecommunication Union (ITU) http://www.itu.int Maritime Information Society (MARIS) http://www.maris.int (Inaccessible as of June 2008) Nordic Patent Institute http://www.npi.int Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) http://www.nafo.int/ North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization (NASCO) http://www.nasco.int North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) http://www.nato.int NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO PA) http://www.nato-pa.int Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) http://www.oecd.int Office of the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina (OHR) http://www.ohr.int Office International des Epizooties (OIE) http://www.oie.int Office International de la Vigne et du Vin (OIV) http://www.oiv.int OMPI - Romance abbreviation for WIPO http://www.ompi.int Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade http://www.pic.int Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) http://www.pops.int International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement http://www.redcross.int ReliefWeb http://www.reliefweb.int Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre http://www.ripe.int Southern African Development Community (SADC) http://www.sadc.int Seanet** http://www.seanet.int SET Secure Electronic Transaction LLC** http://www.set-ca.card.reg.int (Inaccessible as of June 2008) System for the Observation of and Information on the Alps (SOIA) http://www.soia.int (Inaccessible as of June 2008) South Pacific Applied Geosciences Commission (SOPAC) http://www.sopac.int Secretariat of the Pacific Community http://www.spc.int Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA) http://www.cta.int.int The Phone Company Remote Printing Service** http://www.tpc.int UEMOA - Romance abbreviation for West African Economic and Monetary Union (Union Economique et Monetaire Ouest Africaine) http://www.uemoa.int United Nations (UN) http://www.un.int Secretariat for the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) http://www.unccd.int United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) http://www.unesco.int (Inaccessible as of June 2008) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) http://www.unfccc.int International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) http://www.upov.int Universal Postal Union (UPU) http://www.upu.int Western European Union (WEU) http://www.weu.int World Health Organization (WHO) http://www.who.int World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) http://www.wipo.int World Bank http://www.worldbank.int World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) http://www.wmo.int World Trade Organization (WTO) http://www.wto.int World Alliance of YMCAs* http://www.ymca.int References | List_of_organizations_with_.int_domain_names |@lemmatized list:2 organization:17 int:80 domain:5 name:3 alphabetical:1 order:1 second:1 level:1 comprehensive:1 around:1 delegate:1 generally:1 either:1 international:18 intergovernmental:4 establish:1 treaty:5 else:1 internet:3 infrastructure:3 database:1 however:1 ymca:2 meet:2 current:2 requirement:2 registration:1 grandfathered:1 annotation:1 body:1 arguably:1 relate:1 connect:2 may:1 full:1 status:1 site:1 secretariat:4 website:1 abis:2 german:1 abbreviation:5 soia:3 http:76 www:76 inaccessible:10 june:10 apnic:2 asia:1 pacific:3 network:3 information:3 centre:5 basel:2 convention:5 bceao:2 french:2 central:2 bank:3 west:2 african:3 state:2 banque:1 centrale:1 de:5 etats:1 l:2 afrique:1 ouest:2 center:1 environment:1 development:3 arab:1 region:1 europe:3 cedare:2 commonwealth:2 independent:1 ci:2 council:1 coe:1 common:1 market:1 eastern:2 southern:2 africa:1 comesa:2 telecommunication:3 organisation:6 cto:2 caribbean:1 authority:2 ectel:2 european:9 ecb:2 medium:1 range:2 weather:1 forecast:1 ecmwf:2 egyptian:1 friendship:1 efo:2 free:1 trade:3 association:2 efta:3 surveillance:1 eftasurv:1 co:2 operative:1 programme:1 monitoring:1 evaluation:1 long:1 transmission:1 air:2 pollutant:2 emep:2 academy:1 law:1 trier:1 era:2 space:1 agency:3 esa:2 euclid:3 university:1 topic:1 waste:2 material:1 flow:1 etc:1 exploitation:1 meteorological:2 satellite:1 eumetsat:2 eurocontrol:2 safety:1 navigation:1 forum:1 fishery:2 ffa:2 global:2 inventory:1 project:1 gip:2 atomic:1 energy:1 iaea:2 inter:1 american:1 institute:3 change:2 research:1 iai:2 civil:1 aviation:1 icao:2 criminal:1 court:1 icc:5 cpi:3 democracy:1 electoral:1 assistance:1 idea:2 labour:1 ilo:2 bamboo:1 rattan:1 inbar:2 intelsat:3 commercial:1 move:1 com:1 interpol:2 migration:1 iom:2 social:1 security:1 issa:2 union:6 itu:2 maritime:1 society:1 mari:2 nordic:1 patent:1 npi:1 northwest:1 atlantic:3 nafo:2 north:2 salmon:1 conservation:1 nasco:2 nato:5 parliamentary:1 assembly:1 pa:2 economic:2 operation:1 oecd:2 office:3 high:1 representative:1 bosnia:1 herzegovina:1 ohr:2 epizooties:1 oie:2 la:1 vigne:1 et:2 du:1 vin:1 oiv:2 ompi:2 romance:2 wipo:3 rotterdam:1 prior:1 informed:1 consent:1 pic:2 procedure:1 certain:1 hazardous:1 chemical:1 pesticide:1 stockholm:1 persistent:1 organic:1 pop:2 red:2 cross:1 crescent:1 movement:1 redcross:1 reliefweb:2 réseaux:1 ip:1 européens:1 coordination:1 ripe:1 community:2 sadc:2 seanet:2 set:2 secure:1 electronic:1 transaction:1 llc:1 ca:1 card:1 reg:1 system:1 observation:1 alp:1 south:1 apply:1 geosciences:1 commission:1 sopac:2 spc:1 technical:1 agricultural:1 rural:1 cooperation:1 acp:1 eu:1 cta:2 phone:1 company:1 remote:1 print:1 service:1 tpc:1 uemoa:2 monetary:1 economique:1 monetaire:1 africaine:1 united:3 nation:4 un:2 combat:1 desertification:1 unccd:2 educational:1 scientific:1 cultural:1 unesco:2 unite:1 framework:1 climate:1 unfccc:2 protection:1 new:1 variety:1 plant:1 upov:2 universal:1 postal:1 upu:2 western:1 weu:2 world:6 health:1 intellectual:1 property:1 worldbank:1 wmo:2 wto:2 alliance:1 ymcas:1 reference:1 |@bigram alphabetical_order:1 http_www:76 int_inaccessible:10 l_ouest:1 coe_int:1 bank_ecb:1 weather_forecast:1 efta_surveillance:1 co_operative:1 agency_iaea:1 migration_iom:1 itu_int:1 bosnia_herzegovina:1 persistent_organic:1 organic_pollutant:1 community_sadc:1 int_int:1 combat_desertification:1 desertification_unccd:1 universal_postal:1 |
3,248 | Official_Monster_Raving_Loony_Party | The Official Monster Raving Loony Party (OMRLP) is a registered political party established in the United Kingdom in 1983 by musician and politician David Sutch, also known as Screaming Lord Sutch (1940-1999). Sutch's early political activity Beginning in 1964, Sutch, of Screaming Lord Sutch & The Savages, stood under a range of party names, mainly as the National Teenage Party candidate. At that time the voting age was set at 21. The name "National Teenage Party" was intended to highlight what Sutch and others saw as hypocrisy on a national scale: while teenagers were denied the right to vote on the basis of their supposed immaturity, the "adults" running the country were involved in such shenanigans as the Profumo Affair. Formation of the Official Monster Raving Loony Party After being shot at during a mugging attempt while living in the United States, Sutch returned to the and to politics during the 1980s, and it was at this time that the "Raving Loony" tag first appeared. A similar concept had appeared in the "Election Night Special" sketch by Monty Python's Flying Circus in 1970 in which the "Silly Party" and the "Sensible Party" competed against each other, and The Goodies did a similar skit with Graeme Garden standing as a "Science Loony". Monty Python and The Goodies also popularised the word "loony" in the sense that Sutch was using in the name of the OMRLP, but it is equally possible that Sutch inspired the two comedy shows by managing to stand against Harold Wilson in 1966 and in the City of London election in 1970. There had also been a "Science Fiction and Loony" candidate in the 1976 Cambridge by-election. There were two other individuals important in the formation of the future OMRLP. The first was John Dougrez-Lewis, who stood at the Crosby by-election of 1981 (which was won by the Social Democratic Party's co-founder Shirley Williams). Dougrez-Lewis stood at the by-election as Tarquin Fin-tim-lin-bin-whin-bim-lim-bus-stop-F'tang-F'tang-Olé-Biscuitbarrel (a name taken from the aforementioned Monty Python sketch), having changed his name by deed poll from the somewhat plainer John Desmond Lewis, on the behalf of the Cambridge University Raving Loony Society (CURLS) despite a legal challenge to stop him from standing by a far-right candidate wishing to highlight his suspension from Middlesex Polytechnic for his views. CURLS were an "anti-political party" and charity fund raising group formed largely to be a fun counter response to increasingly polarised student politics on campus and responsible for a number of fun-stunts (their Oxford University equivalents were the “Oxford Raving Lunatics”) Dougrez-Lewis was to become Sutch's agent at the notorious Bermondsey by-election of 1983 where the OMRLP banner was first officially unfurled. The second person who helped found the party was Commander Bill Boaks, a retired World War II hero involved in the sinking of the Bismarck, who had campaigned and stood for election for over 30 years on limited funds, always on the issue of road safety (he had been prosecuted several times as a result of his campaigns against several prominent figures who had mysteriously managed to escape prosecution for drunk-driving offences). Boaks foresaw the problems that increased traffic and more roads would cause the country, but by the time his predictions of unnecessary child deaths, pollution and congestion were proved correct, he had died as a result of head injuries received three years earlier from a motorcycle collision. Boaks acted as one of Sutch's counting agents at Bermondsey and also proved influential on Sutch's direction as the leading anti-politician: "it's the ones who don't vote you really want, because they're the ones who think". Boaks subsequently retired from standing at elections due to his injuries, content that someone else was now taking up the anti-Establishment baton he had held for three decades. Elections and party manifesto The OMRLP are distinguished by having a deliberately bizarre manifesto, which contains things that seem to be too impossible or too absurd to implement – usually to highlight what they see as real-life absurdities. Despite its satirical nature, some of the things that have featured in Loony manifestos have become law, such as being able to vote at 18, "passports for pets", and all-day pub openings. Similarly, the outcry following Alan Hope's appearance on the BBC's Nationwide current affairs programme after he was elected – during which he mentioned that butter and milk surpluses were being dumped down abandoned mine shafts under European Community rules to maintain prices (something the media of the day had failed to expose) - resulted in the distribution of such surpluses to the needy or charities instead. The Loonies generally field as many candidates as possible in United Kingdom general elections, some (but by no means all) standing under ridiculous names they have adopted via deed poll. Sutch himself stood against all three main party leaders (John Major, Neil Kinnock and Paddy Ashdown) in the 1992 General Election. Parliamentary candidates have to pay their own deposit (which currently stands at £500) and cover all of their expenses. No OMRLP candidate has managed to get the required 5% of the popular vote needed to retain his deposit, but this does not stop people standing. Sutch came closest with 4.1% and over a thousand votes at the Rotherham by-election, whilst Stuart Hughes still holds the record for the largest number of votes for a Loony candidate at a Parliamentary election, with 1,442 at the 1992 General Election in the Honiton seat in east Devon. The all time highest vote achieved was by comedian Danny Bamford aka Danny Blue, who secured 3,339 votes in the 1994 European Elections under the pseudonym of "John Major". Bamford had also acted as an election agent for Lindi St Clair's rival Corrective Party, and was a former close associate of Stuart Hughes. Divisions within the Loony Party Just like any other party, the OMRLP has long suffered from splits over policy regarding just how silly it should be. Many believed that the splits were flimsy attempts at poking fun at the series of splits going on in British politics during the late 1980s—at the Vauxhall by-election there were two Green Party candidates (due to an error on their part) and two National Front candidates from their warring "Third Way" and "Flag" factions, whilst at the same time feuding continued between the Social and Liberal Democrats and Social Democratic Party candidates, both products of a merger — but the splits were serious, despite Peter "Top Cat" Owen's blithe dismissal to journalists that "the only splits I'm interested in are the ones with bananas in them" (which led to his adoption of an inflatable banana when on the campaign trail. Owen's election leaflets are also noted for stressing his political philosophy as a "pragmatist"). Some members believe that OMRLP activities are purely for fun (and an ego trip or publicity for their entertainment business), while others see the party in the same vein as Private Eye magazine or programmes such as That Was The Week That Was or Spitting Image, using satire to make serious points on issues of the day. Tensions have often resulted because the more serious types in the OMRLP have managed to do what most observers considered impossible—actually achieve a creditable number of votes—tending to put the noses of the "Fun-Da-Mental-ists" out of joint. There were also objections in some quarters to the continued presence of alleged brothel keeper and minor celebrity Cynthia Payne—a friend of Sutch—who was at the front of many party photo opportunities but continued to stand instead as a member of the rival Rainbow Alliance party (aka Captain Rainbow's Universal Abolish Parliament Party) of George Weiss (a friend of Ian Dury and Peter Cook). The controversy heightened after Weiss was convicted of heroin possession (the News of the World settled a damages claim by the OMRLP, for saying Weiss was a member, out of court). Due to ill health, Lord Sutch became less involved with the party and his last campaign was in Winchester after a by-election was called when the main election was undecided due to a count difference of just two votes between the Conservative and Liberal Democrat candidates. Assisted by his Campaign Manager and Election Agent, Peter 'Uncle Belly' Byford, the party gained 316 votes. Split leads to Raving Loony Green Giant Party In 1989, Stuart Hughes, along with Danny Bamford (later Danny Blue), Roly Gillard, Melvyn Hartshorne, inventor Mike Madden and tree surgeon Stuart Greenwood formed the breakaway Raving Loony Green Giant Party (RLGGP), mainly due to personality clashes with OMRLP Chairman Alan Hope and other "Fun-da-Mental-ists"—the final straw being the latter (and Sutch's) behaviour during a sponsored walk to the Scilly Isles for the children's cancer charity, CLIC, where they only turned up at the start and finish for the media call whilst Hughes and others did the whole event. Electoral success for Raving Loony candidates In 1987, the OMRLP won its first seat on Ashburton Town Council in Devon, as Alan Hope was elected unopposed. He subsequently became Deputy Mayor and later Mayor of Ashburton in 1998 (mainly opposed by the local Conservatives - they never forgave him for becoming a member of the OMRLP, which is considered to be defection in the Conservative Party and led to his expulsion) until he moved to Hampshire after Sutch's death. His hotel in Ashburton "The Golden Lion" (referred to by some in the party as "The Mucky Mog" for reasons apparent to anyone visiting it for the first time) was the party's Headquarters and conference centre for over a decade. The first Raving Loony to win as a result of a straight vote (versus being elected unopposed) was Stuart Hughes, taking the "safe" Conservative seat of Sidmouth Woolbrook on East Devon District Council in May 1991. He then took a seat on Sidmouth Town Council from the Conservatives the following day. His success was met with hostility from the local Tories. Hughes' reaction was to attempt to make their lives a misery for the next three years: eg. refusing to pay his Community Charge (also known as the Poll Tax), then dumping scrap metal in the middle of the council chambers to the value of his unpaid tax when threatened with legal action. He also formed an alliance known as "The Coastals" (because of the seats they held) of Independents and the sole Green Party councillor, giving East Devon's ruling Conservatives the first true opposition they had faced for decades (the local Liberal Democrat and Labour Parties being negligible). Hughes retained his seats with increased majorities in subsequent elections, and the final humiliation for the Conservatives came when he took the Devon County Council seat from the local party's Chief Whip in the council. Hughes remains a member of all three councils to this day although he now does his politicising— ironically—as a Conservative. The RLGGP's better organisation and success at the polls proved a wake up call to the OMRLP, and at one stage in England during the early 1990s there were 16 councillors elected despite having the phrase "Raving Loony" accredited to them, and one in Scotland—Mark Boyle on Johnstone Community Council—who stood as a joint Official Monster Raving Loony Party and Raving Loony Green Giant Party candidate because he disagreed with the split (Hughes and Sutch thought having a joint councillor for two warring factions hilarious, Hope less so). To date, two have risen to become mayors — Alan Hope in Ashburton in Devon and Chris "Screwy" Driver on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent. Loonies embarrass Social Democrats: the first Bootle by-election At the Bootle by-election in May 1990, the Loony candidate (Sutch) received more votes than the candidate for the continuing Social Democrats. The OMRLP newsletter for June 1990 released by Alan Hope said "What is going on?" and Sutch himself appeared utterly shocked when interviewed by the BBC after the result was announced. The story was a major headline in many UK newspapers; ironically the by-election itself had attracted little coverage: the little media attention there was focused on a bizarre row between Labour and the Raving Loonies. Relations between Labour members and Raving Loonies had never been good, but they reached a new low when the Labour agent tried to have the Loony candidate, Screaming Lord Sutch, arrested for breaking the old electoral law forbidding using a public house as an election campaign headquarters, a law which had been repealed in 1987. The tabloid newspapers referred to "Kinnock’s Killjoys" (Neil Kinnock being the Labour leader at this time) for the campaign's duration, and the OMRLP never looked back. The result was the last straw for the continuing Social Democrats — centred around former Labour Foreign Secretary and Social Democratic leader Dr. David Owen—who had refused to accept the merger of the SDP with the Liberals to form the Liberal Democrats. Rubbing salt in their wounds, Sutch offered in jest to form a coalition with them, but they instead disbanded, though in a repeat of the events of 1988 once again a week later some members voted to carry on. Almost a year after Bootle, the supposedly dead SDP finished fourth at Neath, beating the OMRLP to 5th place in the process, and survive to this day (for the history of the post-Owen SDP, see the continuing Social Democratic Party). Although there have been far more prestigious Loony results before and after (particularly Monmouth), Bootle is still regarded by Raving Loonies as their finest hour, the watershed moment when they had to be treated as a serious political party, albeit one largely lampooning the political world. Serious attempts to gather votes: the Tempest/Beckett era Sutch also defeated a joint Plaid Cymru/Green Party candidate at the bitter Monmouth 1991 by-election and almost beat the ruling Conservative Party's candidate at the Islwyn 1995 by-election later on—but by this time the OMRLP were organised enough to make coming in fourth the norm in by-elections in England and Wales. The credit for this must lie with John Tempest, a former Liberal/Liberal Democrat press officer and election agent (and co-founder of the award winning Bradford Soup Run charity for the homeless). Together with friend and OMRLP activist Willi Beckett (one of the founders of the anarchist One-In-Twelve Club in Bradford), they transformed the way the party fought elections. From the outset they were determined to make the OMRLP reap the rewards of being the unofficial "protest vote party" of the UK: now posters, car stickers, and a never-ending series of headline-grabbing stunts not only made it easier for the party to gain publicity, but also ensured they were treated fairly by the media (three by-election TV shows were cancelled when the OMRLP used the law to stop them having candidate debates that barred the Loony candidate). The party even managed to attract some corporate sponsorship from the makers of "Monster Munch" crisps & "Spillers" dogfood, albeit to lampoon the manner in which Labour under Blair in particular had become big business puppets. Tempest and Beckett suffered the same problems from the "Fun-da-Mental-ist" faction, but by then new people had entered the party such as future Chairman Peter 'T.C.' Owen, to whom beating the other parties was what it was all about and who saw nothing funny about coming last with a handful of votes. Also Tempest was known – ironically – as one not to suffer fools gladly (there were a number of clashes between him and Hope). It was no coincidence that during the era of Tempest and Beckett, other well known "alternative" parties such as the Greens, National Front, British National Party, and the UK Independence Party often withdrew their candidates from seats after an OMRLP member had announced their candidature because of the damage to party morale from finishing with fewer votes than a "Raving Loony". Beckett was forced to drop out of Loony activities due to ill health, prompting Tempest to end his association with the OMRLP, thanks to work & Soup Run commitments—along with being fed up with the lack of gratitude and backbiting from the "Fun-da-Mental-ist" faction that were happy enough to ask for his help to get them out of a number of scrapes—including a nasty election feud in Holmfirth between Melodie Staniforth and Mike Madden of the rival RLGGP faction during the mid 1990s (Madden eventually quit standing in elections). Sutch's death, and its aftermath Screaming Lord Sutch, suffering from clinical depression, after the death of his mother Annie in 1998, committed suicide on June 16, 1999. Sutch's death drew tributes from right across the political spectrum. There were also however some not-so-complimentary comments, the worst coming from Roseanna Cunningham, at the time MP for Perth and a columnist for the Scottish Sunday Mail. Cunningham claimed newspapers were more interested in the death of someone she felt had contributed nothing to politics nor society whilst 'ignoring' the death that same week of Cardinal Basil Hume (in fact most had given long obituaries to Hume) who she felt had done more (she did not name any specific achievements). Cunningham had previously been upstaged by the OMRLP on the night of her victory at the ill-tempered Perth & Kinross by-election due to the death of Sir Nicholas Fairbairn. A foul-up between SNP spin doctors inside and outside Perth City Hall and the BBC led to expectant nationalist supporters gathered outside cheering Sutch, Boyle and Beckett for five minutes instead when they stumbled out of Perth City Hall first; leaving Cunningham trapped inside whilst the OMRLP (and one defecting Scottish Liberal Democrat) conducted the crowd in choral renditions of both "Spot the Loony" and "Let's All Laugh At Labour". (Labour had spent a fortune in vain on trying to win the seat for Peter Mandelson's then aide Douglas Alexander.) This in many ways sums up the OMRLP's role in politics. Politicians and the media loved them, so long as they themselves did not fall foul of their antics. Sutch's funeral, organised by Tempest, was attended by members of the OMRLP and RLGGP, including Hughes, who with Freddie Zapp brought along a huge floral tribute shaped as an OMRLP rosette; they provided a more dignified entourage than Sutch's own relatives and romantic partners, who fought with one another at the graveside. The running of the OMRLP fell to Alan "Howling Laud" Hope and his late cat, Cat Mandu (killed 2002), who were the joint winners of the 1999 membership ballot for the replacement for Sutch. The OMRLP fielded 15 candidates in the 2001 General Election, where they actually ran up their best General Election results to date. Second split: the Rock 'n' Roll Loony Party This, however, has been followed by a series of disastrous by-election results and a further split. Town Councillor Chris Driver formed the Rock 'n' Roll Loony Party with Mike Young & others dissatisfied with Alan Hope's leadership, in a sad replay of the events surrounding the OMRLP/RLGGP split a decade earlier (interestingly Roly Gillard, who had rejoined the OMRLP upon the RLGGP's demise, also took part in this split). This splinter however did not last anywhere near as long as the RLGGP, although in a replay of what happened to Stuart Hughes and the RLGGP, success at the ballot box ensured the failure of the new party. Chris Driver's election as Mayor of Queensborough Town Council for the municipal year 2002/2003 curtailed on its leader's time enough to ensure party activities effectively ground to a halt. By 2004, the RRLP was effectively dead, with most of its members having rejoined the OMRLP. (Gillard however dropped out of politics altogether in 2002 after his wife's suicide). Non-Loonies who claimed to be The party suffered from a number of individuals that claimed to be members—usually for their nefarious reasons—down the years (leading in several instances to recourse to the Law), eg. one Peter “The Mad Monk” Dixon in Cheshire stood as an "Official Monster Raving Loony Christian Party" candidate to promote his own religious views—he was promptly disowned by John Tempest in the press). Two cases in particular deserve mention. Sir Patrick Moore, the famous British TV amateur astronomer, claimed several times to be the party's Minister for Flying Saucers. In fact, Moore was not welcome at all within the party due to his past involvement as joint leader of the far-right New Britain Party. Moore has since proclaimed his allegiance to the UKIP. Hugh Reed & The Velvet Underpants, a band barely known outside of the Scottish University circuit released the song "Vote Monster Raving Looney" in 1992. They were however nothing to do with the Official Monster Raving Loony Party (hence the different spelling of "Loony") & similarly disowned by a press statement from John Tempest. The band subsequently became involved in fund-raising activities for the "ultra-nationalist" (i.e., ethnic/cultural nationalist) Siol nan Gaidheal group (who were expelled from the Scottish National Party in 1982). Councillor defects to BNP One of the few bright moments for the party after the death of Sutch came in 2000 when Angela Ashcroft won a seat on the multi-member Cuckoo Oak ward on Madeley Parish Council in Shropshire. This soon turned to embarrassment when she defected not long after to become the local organiser for the far-right British National Party. 2005 general election A biography of Sutch,"The Man Who Was Screaming Lord Sutch" (by Graham Sharpe, the Media Relations Manager for bookmakers William Hill) was released in April 2005 (ISBN 1-85410-983-9), but its description of what remains of the party as "wannabes, never-would-bes and some bloody-well-shouldn't bes" was hardly what the party needed in the middle of a General Election campaign, though it is debatable just how much an effect this had on the party’s fortunes at the General Election. (They did gain an impressive article in the financial section of The Times days before the vote itself.) The manifesto, entitled "The Manicfesto", for the 2005 General Election featured the major commitment of their long held pledge to abolish income tax, citing as always that it was only meant to be a temporary measure during the Napoleonic Wars. This has been a Loony staple policy since the original manifesto was written by Sutch's agent Pauline Read in 1983. Also included was another old staple, the "Putting Parliament On Wheels" idea of having Parliament sit throughout the country rather than solely in London—with special emphasis this time in its creation negating the need for national/regional assemblies. The rest of the party's manifesto included: Refusing to sign up to the euro, but inviting the rest of Europe to join the pound. Drivers can go straight over a roundabout when there's no traffic coming "to make driving through Milton Keynes more fun". Traffic cops "too stupid" for normal police work to be retrained as vicars. Withdrawal of MPs' £118,000 expenses allowance, and the money "in future be distributed to the poor and needy so that they can waste it instead." Any MP whose constituency sells off a school playing field for development will be required to relinquish their own back garden as a replacement sports facility for the school. All motorways to become massive cycle tracks instead All speed cameras will be abolished and replaced by a new device fitted to cars which will automatically slow down to the speed limit when driven though an infra-red beam. The introduction of a 99p coin to "save on change". Overall the results were a disappointment for the OMRLP after their success in the previous general election showed there was life after Sutch, the only improvement being Alan Hope’s increase of the vote to over 500, but all other candidates saw marked reductions—including Owen haemorrhaging over 300 votes straight over to the BNP, contesting the Wokingham seat for the first time. "Top Cat" Owen is the only member of the current OMRLP line up ever to poll over 1000 votes (he polled 2,859 votes in the 1994 European elections), and his dip in fortunes despite a previously strong local following appears to have killed the last realistic chance the party ever had of seeing a saved deposit. York Branch terminal split The party also suffered from an ill-needed row over its York branch, which led to there being no "official" City of York candidate and gave more credence to those that denounced the post-Sutch OMRLP as little more than a PR machine for pub-circuit entertainers rather than a political party. Graham Cambridge, otherwise known as Eddie Vee, the Elvis-impersonating previous candidate, wished to stand again, but the branch honorary secretary John E Morris and the branch treasurer, Gareth Sheehan (also known as "Spydaz") elected to have the famous alternative artist Andy "Milladdio" Hinkles as the candidate and asked Vee to stand elsewhere. Morris and Spydaz were well known enough in York, Morris as a Green Party activist, whilst Spydaz was known as York's "super-squatter", an activist of the York Peace Collective that led a series of highly publicised squats during 2003 and 2004 to highlight neglected "listed" buildings (their antics included the holding of Art exhibitions within such abandoned properties). The response however from OMRLP headquarters was for Deputy Leader Boney Maroney to promptly expel Morris and Spydaz from the party. In York's "Evening Press" newspaper of 12/4/2005, Maroney claimed it was "for selling loony merchandise against Electoral Commission rules": to be precise the OMRLP's Financial Scheme as registered with the Electoral Commission, which meant any Branch of the OMRLP taking money on the party's behalf would be breaching the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 Part 2. As such, the York Branch's alleged selling of merchandise provided a pretext to expel the entire branch—bar Vee—and declare Vee to be the "approved" York candidate. Vee then failed to raise the £500 deposit to stand, but the expelled York Branch members had the deposit for Hinkles—now standing as a York Integrity Party (although the ballot paper simply reads "Independent Hinkles")—submitted within days of the Notice of Election being posted. Morris, Hinkles and Spydaz offered an olive branch to party HQ, but with no response, and with the Socialist Alliance and the Green Party contesting the seat, any hopes the Hinkles candidature may have had of attracting the "alternative" vote from his association with Spydaz were dashed—he barely took 100 votes. 2005 school mock elections shock There were however two crumbs of comfort. For the third election in a row, the OMRLP found its candidates being debarred from the Hansard Society/BBC TV "Newsround" School Mock Elections running in tandem with the General Election (the same fate befell the BNP), and the party advised pupils to get voters to spoil their ballot papers in protest or simply write "OMRLP" on the ballot papers in schools that refused to back down. In the event, 102 Raving Loony school candidates stood, winning in 21 of these, and taking enough votes in two parliamentary constituencies to be declared to have 'won' the seat—the two being Bristol East (the former seat of Tony Benn) and the hard-line Tory constituency of Chesham & Amersham, neither of which have any history of active Raving Loonyism before. Current status The OMRLP's official headquarters was originally the (now gone) "Golden Lion Hotel" in Ashburton, then the "Dog & Partridge" pub at Yateley in Hampshire, but this was lost shortly after the 2005 General Election. Conference venues are now chosen in advance—the 2006 conference was held at Torrington in Devon, and the 2007 conference was held in Jersey. Although Alan Hope took over as Party Leader after Sutch's death, the real day-to-day running of the party has always been done by other party members. Even on the council election circuit, its vote, funds — and public interest — appear to be in terminal decline, facing a tighter squeeze for the "protest vote" from other minor UK parties with more members, money, and organisation. The party fell foul over its funding on 26 September 2005 when the Electoral Commission forced them to return a donation of £350 sent by a supporter from the independent British Dependency of the Isle of Man. The party's last elected representative was R. U. Seerius (formerly Jon Brewer) on the 11 member Sawley Parish Council in South Derbyshire, first elected (uncontested) in 2005. He was no longer a member as of May 2007, having failed to appear in no less than 11 statutory meetings during his time in office (see links to Sawley Parish Council minutes) The party contested both the Bromley and Chislehurst and the Blaenau Gwent Parliamentary by-elections on 29 June 2006; and with it a degree of their previous by-election lustre—a matter perhaps the result of the return of Willi Beckett to frontline OMRLP activities; tragically in October 2006 he was diagnosed as terminally ill with cancer, and he died on Friday 2 March 2007, less than a day after setting up his own MySpace website. His ashes were later used to make his farewell vinyl single. Deputy Leader Staniforth resigns In March 2007, Melodie "Boney Maroney" Staniforth, the Deputy Leader resigned from the party, though she stood in the April 2007 Kirklees council elections as an OMRLP candidate. The party's webmaster, Stuart "Parish Poisoner" Estell did likewise. According to her 29 March 2007 interview with the "Huddersfield Examiner" newspaper, she was doing the party's books, merchandising & electoral law work with little help, and had grown fed up with the lack of leadership accountability. Asking Hope to become Party President whilst she would become official Party Leader, Hope refused, saying he was leader until death. Ironically, she had been the most vociferous critic of the Raving Loony Green Giant and Rock'n'Roll Loony factions that had left the OMRLP for largely the same reasons, and of John Tempest's more organised approach to elections and funding. She has since stood as a candidate for the Blah! Party. Hope retaliated with a press release stating - with little appreciation of the irony - that "although the sudden resignation of a main party member was a shock the Loony party is not just one person and will continue regardless." and that "the party will never again be reliant on one person". The post-Staniforth OMRLP succeeded in standing in the two by-elections of 19 July 2007 in Sedgefield and Ealing Southall, but again achieving derisory results: Alan Hope acquiring 129 votes (0.46%) and John Cartwright taking 188 (0.51%), beating the English Democrats but coming behind even the so-called Christian Party of the Reverend George Hargreaves and David Braid. “Top Cat” Owen takes over as Deputy Leader In recognition that reforms were needed, Peter 'T.C.' Owen was moved from the honorary position of Party Chairman to that of Deputy Leader (& thus effective day-to-day leader) of the OMRLP, whilst Anthony "The Jersey Flyer" Blyth (owner of the Ommaroo and a member of the Jersey Heritage Trust) took over Owen’s role. A self styled pragmatist, Owen comes from the side of the OMRLP that always took the fighting of elections seriously and is one of four Raving Loonies to have scored over 1000 votes in an election. Crewe and Nantwich by-election Nick "The Flying Brick" Delves was the candidate at the Crewe and Nantwich by-election, 2008 on 22 May 2008. He is the party's current treasurer and has contested several General elections and council elections for the OMRLP. Delves finished 7th out of 10 candidates with 236 votes (0.57%), coming behind the Green Party of England and Wales, United Kingdom Independence Party (who stood MEP Mike Nattrass as their candidate) and even the English Democrats. At the announcement of the result, the candidates were made to stand with the returning officer on the right side of the stage, whilst their agents stood some distance away on the left. However, chairman Alan Hope and Nick Delves swapped places so that Hope would be televised being the first to shake the victorious Conservative candidate's hand. Membership The statement of accounts for the period 1 January to 31 December 2007 outlines membership at 1,236, made of 53 paying members and 1,183 "lifetime but non-paying". It currently costs £9.99/year for membership (and you get a OMRLP goody bag!) and £19.99 if you want a T-shirt with the membership, too. Quotations "Vote for insanity. You know it makes sense." - Screaming Lord Sutch (a parody on Margaret Thatcher's oft-used "You know it makes sense" by-line circa 1979-1983 "Why is there only one Monopolies Commission?" - Screaming Lord Sutch (on many occasions) References "The Man Who Was Screaming Lord Sutch" - Graham Sharpe, April 2005 (ISBN 1-85410-983-9) "Life As Sutch" - Lord David Sutch (ghost written by Peter Chippendale), Angus & Robertson 1991 (Expanded Edition 1992)(ISBN 0-207-17240-4). Sutch's "autobiography" needs to be treated with care, as amid the facts are fictions from Chippendale because he thought they made the book more entertaining. During this period, a number of UK publishers released many such spurious "faction" autobiographies from minor celebrities only too happy to take the royalties (or having little choice but to do so owing to financial problems). Another problem for researchers on the OMRLP is the tendency of newspapers to simply make up policies the party purported to have or even statements from members when they did not (a problem most minor UK parties face without adequate access to legal redress). Further reading See also Pet passport External links Official web site of the Official Monster Raving Loony Party. OMRLP listing on Electoral Commission register of parties The Hinkles/Vee Row (continued) Baron Von Thunderclap's 2005 election result Cambridge University Raving Loony Society R.U.Seerius John Cartwright - Croydon Branch OMRLP | Official_Monster_Raving_Loony_Party |@lemmatized official:10 monster:8 rave:22 loony:44 party:101 omrlp:53 registered:1 political:9 establish:1 united:4 kingdom:3 musician:1 politician:3 david:4 sutch:44 also:18 know:12 scream:5 lord:10 early:2 activity:6 begin:1 savage:1 stand:26 range:1 name:7 mainly:3 national:9 teenage:2 candidate:37 time:16 voting:1 age:1 set:2 intend:1 highlight:4 others:4 saw:3 hypocrisy:1 scale:1 teenager:1 deny:1 right:6 vote:33 basis:1 suppose:1 immaturity:1 adult:1 run:6 country:3 involve:4 shenanigan:1 profumo:1 affair:2 formation:2 shot:1 mugging:1 attempt:4 living:1 state:2 return:4 politics:6 tag:1 first:12 appear:6 similar:2 concept:1 election:65 night:2 special:2 sketch:2 monty:3 python:3 fly:3 circus:1 silly:2 sensible:1 compete:1 goody:3 skit:1 graeme:1 garden:2 standing:1 science:2 popularise:1 word:1 sense:3 use:6 equally:1 possible:2 inspire:1 two:12 comedy:1 show:3 manage:5 harold:1 wilson:1 city:4 london:2 fiction:2 cambridge:4 individual:2 important:1 future:3 john:11 dougrez:3 lewis:4 crosby:1 win:8 social:8 democratic:4 co:2 founder:3 shirley:1 williams:1 tarquin:1 fin:1 tim:1 lin:1 bin:1 whin:1 bim:1 lim:1 bus:1 stop:4 f:2 tang:2 olé:1 biscuitbarrel:1 take:15 aforementioned:1 change:2 deed:2 poll:6 somewhat:1 plainer:1 desmond:1 behalf:2 university:4 society:4 curl:2 despite:5 legal:3 challenge:1 far:5 wish:2 suspension:1 middlesex:1 polytechnic:1 view:2 anti:3 charity:4 fund:4 raise:2 group:2 form:6 largely:3 fun:9 counter:1 response:3 increasingly:1 polarised:1 student:1 campus:1 responsible:1 number:7 stunt:2 oxford:2 equivalent:1 lunatic:1 become:12 agent:8 notorious:1 bermondsey:2 banner:1 officially:1 unfurled:1 second:2 person:3 help:3 find:2 commander:1 bill:1 boaks:4 retired:1 world:3 war:3 ii:1 hero:1 sinking:1 bismarck:1 campaign:8 year:7 limited:1 always:4 issue:2 road:2 safety:1 prosecute:1 several:5 result:15 prominent:1 figure:1 mysteriously:1 escape:1 prosecution:1 drunk:1 driving:1 offence:1 foresee:1 problem:5 increase:2 traffic:3 would:5 cause:1 prediction:1 unnecessary:1 child:2 death:11 pollution:1 congestion:1 prove:3 correct:1 die:2 head:1 injury:2 receive:2 three:6 earlier:2 motorcycle:1 collision:1 act:3 one:18 counting:1 influential:1 direction:1 lead:8 really:1 want:2 think:3 subsequently:3 retire:1 due:8 content:1 someone:2 else:1 establishment:1 baton:1 hold:6 decade:4 manifesto:6 distinguish:1 deliberately:1 bizarre:2 contain:1 thing:2 seem:1 impossible:2 absurd:1 implement:1 usually:2 see:6 real:2 life:4 absurdity:1 satirical:1 nature:1 feature:2 law:6 able:1 passport:2 pet:2 day:13 pub:3 opening:1 similarly:2 outcry:1 follow:3 alan:11 hope:17 appearance:1 bbc:4 nationwide:1 current:4 programme:2 elect:7 mention:2 butter:1 milk:1 surplus:2 dump:2 abandon:1 mine:1 shaft:1 european:3 community:3 rule:2 maintain:1 price:1 something:1 medium:6 fail:3 expose:1 distribution:1 needy:2 instead:6 generally:1 field:3 many:7 general:13 mean:2 ridiculous:1 adopt:1 via:1 main:3 leader:14 major:4 neil:2 kinnock:3 paddy:1 ashdown:1 parliamentary:4 pay:4 deposit:5 currently:2 cover:1 expense:2 get:4 required:1 popular:1 need:6 retain:2 people:2 come:10 close:2 thousand:1 rotherham:1 whilst:9 stuart:7 hughes:11 still:2 record:1 large:1 honiton:1 seat:14 east:4 devon:7 high:1 achieve:2 comedian:1 danny:4 bamford:3 aka:2 blue:2 secure:1 pseudonym:1 lindi:1 st:1 clair:1 rival:3 corrective:1 former:4 associate:1 division:1 within:4 like:1 long:7 suffer:6 split:12 policy:3 regard:2 believe:2 flimsy:1 poke:1 series:4 go:4 british:5 late:3 vauxhall:1 green:11 error:1 part:3 front:3 warring:1 third:2 way:3 flag:1 faction:7 feud:2 continue:8 liberal:8 democrat:11 product:1 merger:2 serious:5 peter:8 top:3 cat:5 owen:11 blithe:1 dismissal:1 journalist:1 interested:2 banana:2 adoption:1 inflatable:1 trail:1 leaflet:1 note:1 stress:1 philosophy:1 pragmatist:2 member:22 purely:1 ego:1 trip:1 publicity:2 entertainment:1 business:2 vein:1 private:1 eye:1 magazine:1 week:3 spit:1 image:1 satire:1 make:13 point:1 tension:1 often:2 type:1 observer:1 consider:2 actually:2 creditable:1 tend:1 put:2 nose:1 da:4 mental:4 ists:2 joint:6 objection:1 quarter:1 presence:1 alleged:1 brothel:1 keeper:1 minor:4 celebrity:2 cynthia:1 payne:1 friend:3 photo:1 opportunity:1 rainbow:2 alliance:3 captain:1 universal:1 abolish:3 parliament:3 george:2 wei:3 ian:1 dury:1 cook:1 controversy:1 heighten:1 convict:1 heroin:1 possession:1 news:1 settle:1 damage:2 claim:6 say:3 court:1 ill:5 health:2 less:4 last:6 winchester:1 call:4 undecided:1 count:1 difference:1 conservative:9 assist:1 manager:2 uncle:1 belly:1 byford:1 gain:3 giant:4 along:3 later:4 roly:2 gillard:3 melvyn:1 hartshorne:1 inventor:1 mike:4 madden:3 tree:1 surgeon:1 greenwood:1 breakaway:1 rlggp:8 personality:1 clash:2 chairman:4 final:2 straw:2 latter:1 behaviour:1 sponsored:1 walk:1 scilly:1 isles:1 cancer:2 clic:1 turn:2 start:1 finish:4 whole:1 event:4 electoral:7 success:5 ashburton:5 town:4 council:15 unopposed:2 deputy:6 mayor:4 oppose:1 local:6 never:6 forgive:1 defection:1 expulsion:1 move:2 hampshire:2 hotel:2 golden:2 lion:2 refer:2 mucky:1 mog:1 reason:3 apparent:1 anyone:1 visit:1 headquarters:4 conference:4 centre:2 raving:3 straight:3 versus:1 safe:1 sidmouth:2 woolbrook:1 district:1 may:5 following:1 meet:1 hostility:1 tory:2 reaction:1 misery:1 next:1 eg:2 refuse:4 charge:1 tax:3 scrap:1 metal:1 middle:2 chamber:1 value:1 unpaid:1 threaten:1 action:1 coastals:1 independent:3 sole:1 councillor:5 give:3 ruling:2 conservatives:1 true:1 opposition:1 face:3 labour:9 negligible:1 increased:1 majority:1 subsequent:1 humiliation:1 county:1 chief:1 whip:1 remain:2 although:6 politicise:1 ironically:4 well:4 organisation:2 wake:1 stage:2 england:3 phrase:1 accredit:1 scotland:1 mark:1 boyle:2 johnstone:1 disagree:1 hilarious:1 date:2 rise:1 chris:3 screwy:1 driver:4 isle:2 sheppey:1 kent:1 embarrass:1 bootle:4 newsletter:1 june:3 release:5 utterly:1 shock:3 interview:2 announce:2 story:1 headline:2 uk:6 newspaper:6 attract:3 little:6 coverage:1 attention:1 focus:1 row:4 relation:2 good:1 reach:1 new:5 low:1 try:2 arrest:1 break:1 old:2 forbid:1 public:2 house:1 repeal:1 tabloid:1 killjoys:1 duration:1 look:1 back:3 around:1 foreign:1 secretary:2 dr:1 accept:1 sdp:3 rub:1 salt:1 wound:1 offer:2 jest:1 coalition:1 disband:1 though:4 repeat:1 carry:1 almost:2 supposedly:1 dead:2 fourth:2 neath:1 beat:4 place:2 process:1 survive:1 history:2 post:4 prestigious:1 particularly:1 monmouth:2 fine:1 hour:1 watershed:1 moment:2 treat:3 albeit:2 lampoon:2 gather:2 tempest:10 beckett:7 era:2 defeat:1 plaid:1 cymru:1 bitter:1 islwyn:1 organise:2 enough:5 norm:1 wale:2 credit:1 must:1 lie:1 press:5 officer:2 award:1 bradford:2 soup:2 homeless:1 together:1 activist:3 willi:2 anarchist:1 twelve:1 club:1 transform:1 fought:1 outset:1 determine:1 reap:1 reward:1 unofficial:1 protest:3 poster:1 car:2 sticker:1 end:2 grab:1 easy:1 ensure:3 fairly:1 tv:3 cancel:1 debate:1 bar:2 even:5 corporate:1 sponsorship:1 maker:1 munch:1 crisp:1 spiller:1 dogfood:1 manner:1 blair:1 particular:2 big:1 puppet:1 ist:2 enter:1 c:2 nothing:3 funny:1 handful:1 fool:1 gladly:1 coincidence:1 alternative:3 independence:2 withdraw:1 candidature:2 morale:1 force:2 drop:2 prompt:1 association:2 thanks:1 work:3 commitment:2 feed:2 lack:2 gratitude:1 backbiting:1 happy:2 ask:3 scrape:1 include:6 nasty:1 holmfirth:1 melodie:2 staniforth:4 mid:1 eventually:1 quit:1 aftermath:1 screaming:3 clinical:1 depression:1 mother:1 annie:1 commit:1 suicide:2 draw:1 tribute:2 across:1 spectrum:1 however:8 complimentary:1 comment:1 bad:1 roseanna:1 cunningham:4 mp:3 perth:4 columnist:1 scottish:4 sunday:1 mail:1 felt:2 contribute:1 ignore:1 cardinal:1 basil:1 hume:2 fact:3 obituary:1 specific:1 achievement:1 previously:2 upstage:1 victory:1 temper:1 kinross:1 sir:2 nicholas:1 fairbairn:1 foul:3 snp:1 spin:1 doctor:1 inside:2 outside:3 hall:2 expectant:1 nationalist:3 supporter:2 cheer:1 five:1 minute:2 stumble:1 leave:2 trap:1 defect:3 conduct:1 crowd:1 choral:1 rendition:1 spot:1 let:1 laugh:1 spend:1 fortune:3 vain:1 mandelson:1 aide:1 douglas:1 alexander:1 sum:1 role:2 love:1 fall:1 antic:2 funeral:1 attend:1 freddie:1 zapp:1 bring:1 huge:1 floral:1 shape:1 rosette:1 provide:2 dignified:1 entourage:1 relative:1 romantic:1 partner:1 fight:1 another:3 graveside:1 running:1 fell:2 howl:1 laud:1 mandu:1 killed:1 winner:1 membership:5 ballot:5 replacement:2 best:1 rock:3 n:3 roll:3 disastrous:1 young:1 dissatisfy:1 leadership:2 sad:1 replay:2 surround:1 interestingly:1 rejoin:2 upon:1 demise:1 splinter:1 anywhere:1 near:1 happen:1 box:1 failure:1 queensborough:1 municipal:1 curtail:1 effectively:2 ground:1 halt:1 rrlp:1 altogether:1 wife:1 non:2 nefarious:1 instance:1 recourse:1 mad:1 monk:1 dixon:1 cheshire:1 christian:2 promote:1 religious:1 promptly:2 disown:2 case:1 deserve:1 patrick:1 moore:3 famous:2 amateur:1 astronomer:1 minister:1 saucer:1 welcome:1 past:1 involvement:1 britain:1 since:3 proclaim:1 allegiance:1 ukip:1 hugh:1 reed:1 velvet:1 underpants:1 band:2 barely:2 circuit:3 song:1 looney:1 hence:1 different:1 spelling:1 statement:3 raising:1 ultra:1 e:2 ethnic:1 cultural:1 siol:1 nan:1 gaidheal:1 expel:3 bnp:3 bright:1 angela:1 ashcroft:1 multi:1 cuckoo:1 oak:1 ward:1 madeley:1 parish:4 shropshire:1 soon:1 embarrassment:1 organiser:1 biography:1 man:3 graham:3 sharpe:2 bookmaker:1 william:1 hill:1 april:3 isbn:3 description:1 wannabe:1 bloody:1 hardly:1 debatable:1 much:1 effect:1 impressive:1 article:1 financial:3 section:1 entitle:1 manicfesto:1 pledge:1 income:1 cite:1 meant:1 temporary:1 measure:1 napoleonic:1 staple:2 original:1 write:3 pauline:1 read:3 wheel:1 idea:1 sit:1 throughout:1 rather:2 solely:1 emphasis:1 creation:1 negate:1 regional:1 assembly:1 rest:2 refusing:1 sign:1 euro:1 invite:1 europe:1 join:1 pound:1 roundabout:1 drive:2 milton:1 keynes:1 cop:1 stupid:1 normal:1 police:1 retrain:1 vicar:1 withdrawal:1 allowance:1 money:3 distribute:1 poor:1 waste:1 whose:1 constituency:3 sell:2 school:6 playing:1 development:1 require:1 relinquish:1 sport:1 facility:1 motorway:1 massive:1 cycle:1 track:1 speed:2 camera:1 replace:1 device:1 fit:1 automatically:1 slow:1 limit:1 infra:1 red:1 beam:1 introduction:1 coin:1 save:1 overall:1 disappointment:1 previous:3 improvement:1 marked:1 reduction:1 haemorrhaging:1 contest:4 wokingham:1 line:3 ever:2 dip:1 strong:1 kill:1 realistic:1 chance:1 saved:1 york:11 branch:10 terminal:2 credence:1 denounce:1 pr:1 machine:1 entertainer:1 otherwise:1 eddie:1 vee:6 elvis:1 impersonate:1 honorary:2 morris:5 treasurer:2 gareth:1 sheehan:1 spydaz:6 artist:1 andy:1 milladdio:1 hinkles:6 elsewhere:1 super:1 squatter:1 peace:1 collective:1 highly:1 publicised:1 squat:1 neglected:1 list:1 building:1 holding:1 art:1 exhibition:1 abandoned:1 property:1 boney:2 maroney:3 evening:1 merchandise:3 commission:5 precise:1 scheme:1 register:2 breach:1 referendum:1 allege:1 selling:1 pretext:1 entire:1 declare:2 approve:1 expelled:1 integrity:1 paper:3 simply:3 submit:1 notice:1 olive:1 hq:1 socialist:1 hop:1 dash:1 mock:2 crumb:1 comfort:1 debar:1 hansard:1 newsround:1 tandem:1 fate:1 befell:1 advise:1 pupil:1 voter:1 spoil:1 bristol:1 tony:1 benn:1 hard:1 chesham:1 amersham:1 neither:1 active:1 loonyism:1 status:1 originally:1 dog:1 partridge:1 yateley:1 lose:1 shortly:1 venue:1 choose:1 advance:1 torrington:1 jersey:3 interest:1 decline:1 tighter:1 squeeze:1 funding:2 september:1 donation:1 send:1 dependency:1 representative:1 r:2 u:2 seerius:2 formerly:1 jon:1 brewer:1 sawley:2 south:1 derbyshire:1 uncontested:1 statutory:1 meeting:1 office:1 link:2 bromley:1 chislehurst:1 blaenau:1 gwent:1 degree:1 lustre:1 matter:1 perhaps:1 frontline:1 tragically:1 october:1 diagnose:1 terminally:1 friday:1 march:3 myspace:1 website:1 ash:1 farewell:1 vinyl:1 single:1 resigns:1 resign:1 kirklees:1 webmaster:1 poisoner:1 estell:1 likewise:1 accord:1 huddersfield:1 examiner:1 book:2 grow:1 accountability:1 president:1 vociferous:1 critic:1 organised:1 approach:1 blah:1 retaliate:1 appreciation:1 irony:1 sudden:1 resignation:1 regardless:1 reliant:1 succeed:1 july:1 sedgefield:1 ealing:1 southall:1 achieving:1 derisory:1 acquire:1 cartwright:2 english:2 behind:2 reverend:1 hargreaves:1 braid:1 recognition:1 reform:1 position:1 thus:1 effective:1 anthony:1 flyer:1 blyth:1 owner:1 ommaroo:1 heritage:1 trust:1 self:1 style:1 side:2 fighting:1 seriously:1 four:1 score:1 crewe:2 nantwich:2 nick:2 brick:1 delve:1 delf:2 mep:1 nattrass:1 announcement:1 distance:1 away:1 left:1 swap:1 televise:1 shake:1 victorious:1 hand:1 account:1 period:2 january:1 december:1 outline:1 lifetime:1 cost:1 bag:1 shirt:1 quotation:1 insanity:1 parody:1 margaret:1 thatcher:1 oft:1 circa:1 monopoly:1 occasion:1 reference:1 ghost:1 chippendale:2 angus:1 robertson:1 expand:1 edition:1 autobiography:2 care:1 amid:1 entertaining:1 publisher:1 spurious:1 royalty:1 choice:1 owe:1 researcher:1 tendency:1 purport:1 without:1 adequate:1 access:1 redress:1 external:1 web:1 site:1 listing:1 baron:1 von:1 thunderclap:1 croydon:1 |@bigram monster_rave:7 rave_loony:19 lord_sutch:9 sketch_monty:1 monty_python:3 fly_circus:1 science_fiction:1 loony_candidate:6 python_sketch:1 deed_poll:2 drunk_driving:1 someone_else:1 neil_kinnock:2 st_clair:1 poke_fun:1 liberal_democrat:6 ian_dury:1 elect_unopposed:2 tabloid_newspaper:1 sdp_liberal:1 plaid_cymru:1 corporate_sponsorship:1 commit_suicide:1 perth_kinross:1 amateur_astronomer:1 fly_saucer:1 fund_raising:1 ultra_nationalist:1 income_tax:1 milton_keynes:1 infra_red:1 highly_publicised:1 parliamentary_constituency:1 tony_benn:1 blaenau_gwent:1 terminally_ill:1 crewe_nantwich:2 margaret_thatcher:1 angus_robertson:1 external_link:1 |
3,249 | Cytosine | Cytosine is one of the four main bases found in DNA and RNA. It is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two substituents attached (an amine group at position 4 and a keto group at position 2). The nucleoside of cytosine is cytidine. In Watson-Crick base pairing, it forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine. History Cytosine was discovered by Albrecht Kossel in 1894 when it was hydrolysed from calf thymus tissues. Kossel, A.; Steudel, H. Z. Physiol. Chem. 1903, 38, 49 A structure was proposed in 1903, and was synthesized (and thus confirmed) in the laboratory in the same year. Cytosine recently found use in quantum computation. The first time any quantum mechanical properties were harnessed to process information took place on August 1st in 1998 when researchers at Oxford implemented David Deutsch's algorithm on a two qubit NMRQC (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Quantum Computer) based on the cytosine molecule. Chemical reactions Cytosine can be found as part of DNA, RNA, or as a part of a nucleotide. As cytidine triphosphate (CTP), it can act as a co-factor to enzymes, and can transfer a phosphate to convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with guanine. However, it is inherently unstable, and can change into uracil (spontaneous deamination). This can lead to a point mutation if not repaired by the DNA repair enzymes such as uracil glycosylase, which cleaves a uracil in DNA. Cytosine can also be methylated into 5-methylcytosine by an enzyme called DNA methyltransferase or be methylated and hydroxylated to make 5-hydroxymethylcytosine. References External links Computational Chemistry Wiki | Cytosine |@lemmatized cytosine:8 one:1 four:1 main:1 base:3 find:3 dna:6 rna:3 pyrimidine:1 derivative:1 heterocyclic:1 aromatic:1 ring:1 two:2 substituents:1 attach:1 amine:1 group:2 position:2 keto:1 nucleoside:1 cytidine:2 watson:1 crick:1 pairing:1 form:1 three:1 hydrogen:1 bond:1 guanine:2 history:1 discover:1 albrecht:1 kossel:2 hydrolyse:1 calf:1 thymus:1 tissue:1 steudel:1 h:1 z:1 physiol:1 chem:1 structure:1 propose:1 synthesize:1 thus:1 confirm:1 laboratory:1 year:1 recently:1 use:1 quantum:3 computation:1 first:1 time:1 mechanical:1 property:1 harness:1 process:1 information:1 take:1 place:1 august:1 researcher:1 oxford:1 implement:1 david:1 deutsch:1 algorithm:1 qubit:1 nmrqc:1 nuclear:1 magnetic:1 resonance:1 computer:1 molecule:1 chemical:1 reaction:1 part:2 nucleotide:1 triphosphate:2 ctp:1 act:1 co:1 factor:1 enzyme:3 transfer:1 phosphate:1 convert:1 adenosine:2 diphosphate:1 adp:1 atp:1 pair:1 however:1 inherently:1 unstable:1 change:1 uracil:3 spontaneous:1 deamination:1 lead:1 point:1 mutation:1 repair:2 glycosylase:1 cleave:1 also:1 methylated:2 methylcytosine:1 call:1 methyltransferase:1 hydroxylated:1 make:1 hydroxymethylcytosine:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 computational:1 chemistry:1 wiki:1 |@bigram dna_rna:3 aromatic_ring:1 watson_crick:1 hydrogen_bond:1 quantum_mechanical:1 david_deutsch:1 magnetic_resonance:1 adenosine_diphosphate:1 diphosphate_adp:1 adenosine_triphosphate:1 triphosphate_atp:1 inherently_unstable:1 external_link:1 computational_chemistry:1 |
3,250 | Transport_in_Gabon | Railways The only railway in the nation is the Trans-Gabon Railway. total: 649 km (Gabon State Railways or OCTRA) standard gauge: 649 km 1.435-m gauge; single track (1994) Railway links with adjacent states Equatorial Guinea - no - no railways Cameroon - no - break of gauge 1435 mm/1000 mm Republic of the Congo - no - break of gauge 1435 mm/1067 mm Maps UN Map - shows line to Franceville UNHCR map - does not show line to Franceville TravelPortal map - shows major rivers UNJLC Rail map of Southern Africa - does not show line to Franceville Cities served by rail Existing Libreville - capital Owendo - port Sahoué - port Franceville - railhead Ndjolé Lopé Booué - likely junction for branchline to Makokou Lastoursville Moanda Ntoum - proposed junction for iron ore traffic to Santa Clara Kango Four-Place Mounana - ? Proposed Makokou - iron ore Cape Santa Clara - proposed deep water port for Makokou iron ore. Bélinga - possible iron ore mine. Other Railway telecom system 2003 2007 New rail line from Belinga will go 450 km all the way to the coast, rather than to be a branch off an existing line. Business Report - China given monopoly to work Gabon's untapped iron ore resources Pan African issues Railway Corridors in Africa to be Connected 2006 China signs a deal for an iron ore mine with associated rail and port upgrades from Belinga to Santa Clara Highways total: 7,670 km paved: 629 km (including 30 km of expressways) unpaved: 7,041 km (1996 est.) Roads in Gabon link most areas of the country, and many of the main roads are of a reasonable standard. However, remoter areas along the coast and in the east are often not connected to the road network. Major roads are denoted national routes and numbered, with a prefix "N" (sometimes "RN"): N1 road: Libreville – Kougouleu – Bifoun – Lambaréné – Mouila – Ndendé – Tchibanga - (Congo-Brazzaville) N2 road: Bifoun – Alembe – Viate – Mitzic – Bibasse – Oyem – Bitam – Éboro – (Cameroon) N3 road: Alembe – Kazamabika – Lastoursville – Moanda – Franceville N4 road: Viate – Ekonlong – Makokou – Mékambo N5 road: Kougouleu – Bibasse N6 road: Mayumba – Tchibanga – Ndendé – Lebamba - Koulamoutou – Lastoursville Waterways 1,600 km perennially navigable Pipelines crude oil 270 km; petroleum products 14 km Seaports and harbours Cap Lopez, Kango, Lambaréné (river port), Libreville, Mayumba, Owendo (railhead), Port-Gentil Merchant marine total: 1 ship (with a volume of or over) totaling / ships by type: cargo ship 1 (1999 est.) Airports 61 (1999 est.) Airports - with paved runways total: 11 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 50 1,524 to 2,437 m: 9 914 to 1,523 m: 16 under 914 m: 25 (1999 est.) See also COMILOG Cableway Gabon References | Transport_in_Gabon |@lemmatized railways:1 railway:7 nation:1 trans:1 gabon:5 total:6 km:10 state:2 octra:1 standard:2 gauge:4 single:1 track:1 link:2 adjacent:1 equatorial:1 guinea:1 cameroon:2 break:2 mm:4 republic:1 congo:2 map:5 un:1 show:4 line:5 franceville:5 unhcr:1 travelportal:1 major:2 river:2 unjlc:1 rail:4 southern:1 africa:2 city:1 serve:1 exist:2 libreville:3 capital:1 owendo:2 port:6 sahoué:1 railhead:2 ndjolé:1 lopé:1 booué:1 likely:1 junction:2 branchline:1 makokou:4 lastoursville:3 moanda:2 ntoum:1 propose:3 iron:6 ore:6 traffic:1 santa:3 clara:3 kango:2 four:1 place:1 mounana:1 cape:1 deep:1 water:1 bélinga:1 possible:1 mine:2 telecom:1 system:1 new:1 belinga:2 go:1 way:1 coast:2 rather:1 branch:1 business:1 report:1 china:2 give:1 monopoly:1 work:1 untapped:1 resource:1 pan:1 african:1 issue:1 corridor:1 connect:2 sign:1 deal:1 associated:1 upgrade:1 highway:1 pave:2 include:1 expressway:1 unpaved:2 est:5 road:10 area:2 country:1 many:1 main:1 reasonable:1 however:1 remote:1 along:1 east:1 often:1 network:1 denote:1 national:1 route:1 number:1 prefix:1 n:1 sometimes:1 rn:1 kougouleu:2 bifoun:2 lambaréné:2 mouila:1 ndendé:2 tchibanga:2 brazzaville:1 alembe:2 viate:2 mitzic:1 bibasse:2 oyem:1 bitam:1 éboro:1 kazamabika:1 ekonlong:1 mékambo:1 mayumba:2 lebamba:1 koulamoutou:1 waterways:1 perennially:1 navigable:1 pipeline:1 crude:1 oil:1 petroleum:1 product:1 seaport:1 harbour:1 cap:1 lopez:1 gentil:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:3 volume:1 type:1 cargo:1 airport:3 runway:2 see:1 also:1 comilog:1 cableway:1 reference:1 |@bigram equatorial_guinea:1 mm_mm:2 republic_congo:1 iron_ore:6 santa_clara:3 expressway_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 congo_brazzaville:1 waterways_km:1 pipeline_crude:1 crude_oil:1 merchant_marine:1 pave_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 |
3,251 | Economy_of_Colombia | Tourism in Riohacha,capital of the La Guajira departament Colombia is a free market economy with major commercial and investment ties to the United States. Transition from a highly regulated economy has been underway for more than a decade. In 1990, the administration of President César Gaviria Trujillo (1990-94) initiated economic liberalism policies or "apertura economica" and this has continued since then, with tariff reductions, financial deregulation, privatization of state-owned enterprises, and adoption of a more liberal foreign exchange rate. Almost all sectors became open to foreign investment although agricultural products remained protected. The original idea of his then Minister of Finance, Rudolf Hommes, was that the country should import agricultural products in which it was not competitive, like maize, wheat, cotton and soybeans and export the ones in which it had an advantage, like fruits and flowers. In ten years, the sector lost 7,000 km² to imports, represented mostly in heavily subsidized agricultural products from the United States, as a result of this policy, with a critical impact on employment in rural areas. Plan Colombia: Colombia: Peace Agreements: Library and Links: U.S. Institute of Peace Still, this policy makes food cheaper for the average Colombian than it would be if agricultural trade were more restricted. Until 1997, Colombia had enjoyed a fairly stable economy. The first 5 years of liberalization were characterized by high economic growth rates of between 4% and 5%. The Samper administration (1994-98) emphasized social welfare policies which targeted Colombia's lower income population. However, these reforms led to higher government spending which increased the fiscal deficit and public sector debt, the financing of which required higher interest rates. An over-valued peso inherited from the previous administration was maintained. The economy slowed, and by 1998 GDP growth was only 0.6%. In 1999, the country fell into its first recession since the Great Depression. The economy shrank by 4.5% with unemployment at over 20%. While unemployment remained at 20% in 2000, GDP growth recovered to 3.1%. The administration of President Andrés Pastrana Arango, when it took office on August 7, 1998, faced an economy in crisis, with the difficult internal security situation and global economic turbulence additionally inhibiting confidence. As evidence of a serious recession became clear in 1999, the government took a number of steps. It engaged in a series of controlled devaluations of the peso, followed by a decision to let it float. Colombia also entered into an agreement with the International Monetary Fund which provided a $2.7 billion guarantee (extended funds facility), while committing the government to budget discipline and structural reforms. By early 2000 there had been the beginning of an economic recovery, with the export sector leading the way, as it enjoyed the benefit of the more competitive exchange rate, as well as strong prices for petroleum, Colombia's leading export product. Prices of coffee, the other principal export product, have been more variable. Economic growth reached 3.1 % during 2000 and inflation was 9.0% although unemployment has yet to significantly improve. Colombia's international reserves have remained stable at around $8.35 billion, and Colombia has successfully remained in international capital markets. Colombia's total foreign debt at the end of 1999 was $34.5 billion with $14.7 billion in private sector and $19.8 billion in public sector debt. Major international credit rating organizations have dropped Colombian sovereign debt below investment grade, primarily as a result of large fiscal deficits, which current policies are seeking to close. Several international financial institutions have praised the economic reforms introduced by current president Álvaro Uribe (elected August 7, 2002), which include measures designed to reduce the public-sector deficit below 2.5% of GDP in 2004. The government's economic policy and democratic security strategy have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, particularly within the business sector, and GDP growth in 2003 was among the highest in Latin America, at over 4%. By 2007, GDP grew over 8%. Statistics Economy - overview: Colombia's economy has experienced positive growth over the past three years despite a serious armed conflict. The economy continues to improve in part because of austere government budgets, focused efforts to reduce public debt levels, an export-oriented growth strategy, an improved security situation in the country, and high commodity prices. Ongoing economic problems facing President Uribe range from reforming the pension system to reducing high unemployment, and to achieving congressional passage of a fiscal transfers reform. New exploration is needed to offset declining oil production. International and domestic financial analysts note with concern the growing central government deficit, which hovers at 5% of GDP. However, the government's economic policy and democratic security strategy have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, particularly within the business sector. GDP (purchasing power parity): $374.4 billion (2006 est.) GDP (official exchange rate): $106.8 billion (2006 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 6.8% (2006 est.) GDP - per capita (PPP): $8,600 (2006 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 12% industry: 35.2% services: 52.7% (2006 est.) Labor force: 20.81 million (2006 est.) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture: 22.7% industry: 18.7% services: 58.5% (2000 est.) Unemployment rate: 11.1% (2006 est.) Population below poverty line: 49.2% (2005) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 7.9% highest 10%: 34.3% (2004) Distribution of family income - Gini index: 53.8 (2005) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 7.74% (Nov. 2008) Investment (gross fixed): 22.8% of GDP (2006 est.) Budget: revenues: $50.7 billion expenditures: $52.29 billion; including capital expenditures of $NA (2006 est.) Public debt: 45.3% of GDP (2006 est.) Agriculture - products (Main article: Agriculture in Colombia): Colombian coffee, cut flowers, bananas, rice, tobacco, corn, sugarcane, cocoa beans, oilseed, vegetables; forest products; shrimp Industries: textiles, food processing, oil, clothing and footwear, beverages, chemicals, cement; gold, coal, emeralds Industrial production growth rate: 5.8% (2006 est.) Electricity - production: 46.93 billion kWh (2004) Electricity - consumption: 42.01 billion kWh (2004) Electricity - exports: 1.682 billion kWh (2004) Electricity - imports: 48 million kWh (2004) Oil - production: 578,100 bbl/day (2007 est.) Oil - consumption: 269,000 bbl/day (2004 est.) Oil - exports: NA bbl/day (2003) Oil - imports: NA bbl/day (2003) Oil - proved reserves: 1.506 billion bbl (2006 est.) Natural gas - production: 6.18 billion cu m (2004 est.) Natural gas - consumption: 6.18 billion cu m (2004 est.) Natural gas - exports: 0 cu m (2004 est.) Natural gas - imports: 0 cu m (2004 est.) Natural gas - proved reserves: 114.4 billion cu m (1 January 2005 est.) Current account balance: $-2.219 billion (2006 est.) Exports: $24.86 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.) Exports - commodities: petroleum, coffee, coal, nickel, emeralds, apparel, bananas, cut flowers Exports - partners:US 41.8%, Venezuela 9.9%, Ecuador 6.3% (2005) Imports: $24.33 billion f.o.b. (2006 est.) Imports - commodities: industrial equipment, transportation equipment, consumer goods, chemicals, paper products, fuels, electricity Imports - partners: US 28.5%, Mexico 8.3%, China 7.6%, Brazil 6.5%, Venezuela 5.7% (2005) Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: $16.5 billion (2006 est.) Debt - external: $37.21 billion (30 June 2006 est.) Economic aid - recipient: $NA Currency (code): Colombian peso (COP) Exchange rates: Colombian pesos per US dollar - 2,382.9 (2006), 2,320.75 (2005), 2,628.61 (2004), 2,877.65 (2003), 2,504.24 (2002) Fiscal year: calendar year Economic Growth GDP growth 2001-2007 Quarterly Growth 2005 - I 4.92% 2005 - II 6.26% 2005 - III 5.89% 2005 - IV 1.99% 2005 4.765% 2006 - I 5.52% 2006 - II 5.89% 2006 - III 7.74% 2006 - IV 8.42% 2006 6.8925% 2007 - I 8.23% 2007 - II 6.97% Source: http://www.dane.gov.co/files/comunicados/cp_pib_Itrim07.pdf Mining and energy Colombia is well-endowed with minerals and energy resources. It has the largest coal reserves in Latin America, and is second to Brazil in hydroelectric potential. Estimates of petroleum reserves in 1995 were . It also possesses significant amounts of nickel, gold, silver, platinum, and emeralds. The discovery of of high-quality oil at the Cusiana and Cupiagua fields, about east of Bogotá, has enabled Colombia to become a net oil exporter since 1986. The Transandino pipeline transports oil from Orito in the Department of Putumayo to the Pacific port of Tumaco in the Department of Nariño. Total crude oil production averages ; about is exported. The Pastrana government has significantly liberalized its petroleum investment policies, leading to an increase in exploration activity. Refining capacity cannot satisfy domestic demand, so some refined products, especially gasoline, must be imported. Plans for the construction of a new refinery are under development. While Colombia has vast hydroelectric potential, a prolonged drought in 1992 forced severe electricity rationing throughout the country until mid-1993. The consequences of the drought on electricity-generating capacity caused the government to commission the construction or upgrading of 10 thermoelectric power plants. Half will be coal-fired, and half will be fired by natural gas. The government also has begun awarding bids for the construction of a natural gas pipeline system that will extend from the country's extensive gas fields to its major population centers. Plans call for this project to make natural gas available to millions of Colombian households by the middle of the next decade. As of 2004, Colombia has become a net energy exporter, exporting electricity to Ecuador and developing connections to Peru, Venezuela and Panama to export to those markets as well. The Trans-Caribbean pipeline connecting western Venezuela to Panama through Colombia is also under construction, thanks to cooperation between presidents Álvaro Uribe of Colombia, Martín Torrijos of Panama and Hugo Chávez of Venezuela. The pipeline will be inaugurated by October, 2007 Human Rights Abuse in Mining Zones The oil pipelines are a frequent target of extortion and bombing campaigns by the ELN and, more recently, the FARC. The bombings, which have occurred on average once every 5 days, have caused substantial environmental damage, often in fragile rainforests and jungles, as well as causing significant loss of life. In April 1999 in Cartagena de Indias, Clinton's Secretary of Energy Bill Richardson spoke before investors from the United States, Canada and other countries. He expressed his government's willingness to use military aid to support the investment that they and their allies were going to make in Colombia, especially in strategically important sectors like mining and energy. In 2002 there were 170 attacks on the 2nd largest pipeline, which travels 780 km from the Caño Limón to the Atlantic port of Coveñas. The pipeline was out of operation for 266 days of that year. The government estimates that these bombings reduced the GDP of Colombia by 0.5%. The government of the United States increased military aid, in 2003, to Colombia to assist in the effort to defend the pipeline. Occidental Petroleum privately contracted mercenaries who flew Skymaster planes, from AirScan International Inc., to patrol the Cano Limon-Covenas pipeline. Many of these operations used helicopters, equipment and weapons provided by the U.S. military and antinarcotics aid programs. On the morning of December 13, 1998, after two days of fierce combat between the army protecting Occidental Petroleum and the FARC in the region, a Colombian Air Force helicopter carried out an air attack against guerrillas, near the village of Santo Domingo, including the use of cluster-bombs. After the bombing was over, the bodies of seventeen civilians were found in Santo Domingo, including seven children. When questioned about the matter by civilian prosecutors in Colombia, the helicopter crew argued that an AirScan Skymaster surveillance plane had provided them with incorrect coordinates for a planned bombing attack on guerrilla positions. The case was subsequently handed over to a Colombian military court, as the crime occurred during official military duty. In September 2000, a non-binding informal tribunal was organized at Northwestern University in Chicago regarding this case. In December of the same year, the tribunal concluded that Occidental Petroleum, AirScan, the Colombian State, and Generals Fabio Velasco of the Air Force and Hernando Barbosa of the Army were mutually responsible for the attacks. The decision also called for the case to be judged in civil court, for comprehensive reparations to the victims, special aid for the children and the suspension of U.S. military support for the military unit involved, in accordance with U.S. law, and a suspension of the human rights certification required for the approval of U.S. aid through Plan Colombia. The case was later brought before a Federal Court in California in April 2003. Recent conflict in areas of wealth, such as Magdalena Medio, have seen the current neo-liberal economic process (supported internationally by the World Bank) be accompanied with violentence. Many actors are involved in the internal conflict. 68% of forced displacement in the country occurs in mining zones (mostly in mining municipios of Rio Blanco-Ataco in Tolima, La Gabarra and surrounding areas in Norte de Santander, the municipios of the South of Bolivar, and Barrancabermeja in Santander). In 1996 and 2001, after new mining codes were written, huge increases in human rights violations in the zones affected by the legislation were reported. In Bolivar there was a 1000% increase in homicides, forced disappearances, injuries, torture, and arbitrary detentions. Between 1997 and 1998, forced displacements in the south of Bolivar grew by 1500%, as the paramilitary operation was implemented. The departments that showed the highest increase in human rights violations were also those that with the greatest concentration of mining operations: Antioquia, Bolivar, Norte de Santander, and Cesar. Others with high levels of oil and gas production, like Arauca and Putumayo, show the same rates. Over the past fifteen years in Colombia, a union leader has been assassinated every other day. During the government of Álvaro Uribe Vélez the number has fallen slightly, to one every five days. The national union of mine workers Sintraminercol has been facing dissolution. Since Álvaro Uribe Vélez's government has come into office, an indigenous person has been assassinated every five days, most of these in areas of natural resource exploitation. Mining and Natural Exploitaton has had environmental consequences. The region of Guajira is undergoing an accelerated desertification with the disappearances of forests, land, and water sources, due to the increase in coal production. Social Consequences or lack of development in resource rich areas is common. Eleven million Colombians survive on less than one dollar a day. Over 65% of these live in mining zones. There are 3.5 million children out of school, and the most critical situation is in the mining zone of Choco, Bolivar, and Sucre. Economic consequences of privatization and liberal institutions have meant changes in taxation to attract foreign investment. Colombia will lose another $800 million over the next ninety years that Glencore International operates in El Cerrejon Zona Media, if the company continues to produce coal at a rate of 5 million tons/year, because of the reduction of the royalty tax from 10-15% to .04%. If the company, as is plausible, doubles or triples its production, the losses will be proportionally greater. The operational losses from the three large mining projects (El Cerrejon, La Loma, operated by Drummond, and Montelíbano, which produces ferronickel) for Colombia to more than 12 billion. Just $10 billion would be enough to provide employment for Colombia's three million unemployed, to save the lives of the up to 160 children who die daily of hunger, malnutrition and curable diseases, and to have avoided the closing of over 20 hospitals around the country, which has created a humanitarian emergency in the poorest sectors of the population. Coal production has grown rapidly, from 22.7 million tons in 1994 to 50.0 million tons in 2003. Unidad de Planeación Minero Energética - UPME (2004), Boletín Estadístico de Minas y Energía 1994 - 2004. PDF file in Spanish. Over 90% of this amount was exported, making Colombia the world's sixth largest coal exporter, behind Australia, the People's Republic of China, Indonesia, South Africa and Russia. World Coal Institute (2004), Coal Facts - 2004 Edition. PDF file. From the mid-1980s the center of coal production was the Cerrejón mines in the Guajira department. However, the growth in output at La Loma in neighboring Cesar mean that this department has been the leader in coal production since 2004. Production in other departments, including Boyacá, Cundinamarca and Norte de Santander, forms about 13% of the total. The coal industry is largely controlled by international mining companies, including a consortium of BHP Billiton, Anglo American and Glencore International at Cerrejón, and Drummond Company at La Loma, which is undergoing a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court in Alabama for union assassinations and alleged paramilitary links. Trade Colombia's estimated balance of trade showed a surplus $910 million in 1999, up from a $3.8 billion deficit in 1998. Total 1999 imports were $10.6 billion, while exports were $11.5 billion. Estimated 2000 imports were $11.2 billion with $14.0 exports. Colombia's major exports continue to be petroleum, coffee, coal, nickel, gold and nontraditional exports (e.g., cut flowers, semiprecious stones, sugar, and tropical fruits). The United States remained Colombia's major trading partner in 1999, taking 48.5% of exports and providing 42.1% of imports. The EU and Japan also are important trading partners, as are Andean Pact countries and Venezuela. Foreign Investment In 1990, to attract foreign investors and promote trade, an experiment from the IMF known as "la apertura" was adopted by the government as an open trade strategy. Although the analysis of the results are not clear, the fact is that the agricultural sector was severely impacted by this policy. In 1991 and 1992, the government passed laws to stimulate foreign investment in nearly all sectors of the economy. The only activities closed to foreign direct investment are defense and national security, disposal of hazardous wastes, and real estate--the last of these restrictions is intended to hinder money laundering. Colombia established a special entity--CoInvertir--to assist foreigners in making investments in the country. Foreign investment flows for 1999 were $4.4 billion, down from $4.8 billion in 1998. Major foreign investment projects underway include the $6 billion development of the Cusiana and Cupiagua oil fields, development of coal fields in the north of the country, and the recently concluded licensing for establishment of cellular telephone service. The United States accounted for 26.5% of the total $19.4 billion stock of nonpetroleum foreign direct investment in Colombia at the end of 1998. On October 21, 1995, under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), President Clinton signed an Executive Order barring U.S. entities from any commercial or financial transactions with four Colombian drug kingpins and with individuals and companies associated with the traffic in narcotics, as designated by the Secretary of the Treasury in consultation with the Secretary of State and the Attorney General. The list of designated individuals and companies is amendeded periodically and is maintained by the Office of Foreign Asset Control at the Department of the Treasury, tel. (202) 622-0077 (ask for Document #1900). The document also is available at the Department of Treasury web site. Colombia is the United States' fifth-largest export market in Latin America--behind Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina--and the 26th-largest market for U.S. products worldwide. The United States is Colombia's principal trading partner, with two-way trade from November 1999 through November 2000 exceeding $9.5 billion--$3.5 billion U.S. exports and $6.0 billion U.S. imports. Colombia benefits from duty-free entry--for a 10-year period, through 2001--for certain of its exports to the United States under the Andean Trade Preferences Act. Colombia improved protection of intellectual property rights through the adoption of three Andean Pact decisions in 1993 and 1994, but the U.S. remains concerned over deficiencies in licensing, patent regulations, and copyright protection. The petroleum and natural gas coal mining, chemical, and manufacturing industries attract the greatest U.S. investment interest. U.S. investment accounted for 37.8% ($4.2 billion) of the total $11.2 billion in foreign direct investment at the end of 1997, excluding petroleum and portfolio investment. Worker rights and benefits in the U.S.-dominated sectors are more favorable than general working conditions. Examples include shorter-than-average working hours, higher wages, and compliance with health and safety standards above the national average. Industry and Agriculture The most industrially diverse member of the five-nation Andean Community, Colombia has four major industrial centers--Bogota, Medellin, Cali, and Barranquilla, each located in a distinct geographical region. Colombia's industries include textiles and clothing, particularly lingerie, leather products, processed foods and beverages, paper and paper products, chemicals and petrochemicals, cement, construction, iron and steel products, and metalworking. Its diverse climate and topography permit the cultivation of a wide variety of crops. In addition, all regions yield forest products, ranging from tropical hardwoods in the hot country to pine and eucalyptus in the colder areas. Cacao, sugarcane, coconuts, bananas, plantains, rice, cotton, tobacco, cassava, and most of the nation's beef cattle are produced in the hot regions from sea level to 1,000 meters elevation. The temperate regions -- between 1,000 and 2,000 meters -- are better suited for coffee; certain flowers; maize and other vegetables; and fruits such as citrus, pears, pineapples, and tomatoes. The cooler elevations -- between 2,000 and 3,000 meter -- produce wheat, barley, potatoes, cold-climate vegetables, flowers, dairy cattle, and poultry. Notes See also Colombia List of Colombian companies Economy of South America Emigration from Colombia A U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement: Strengthening Democracy and Progress in Latin America | Economy_of_Colombia |@lemmatized tourism:1 riohacha:1 capital:3 la:6 guajira:3 departament:1 colombia:42 free:3 market:5 economy:13 major:7 commercial:2 investment:18 tie:1 united:9 state:12 transition:1 highly:1 regulated:1 underway:2 decade:2 administration:4 president:6 césar:1 gaviria:1 trujillo:1 initiate:1 economic:14 liberalism:1 policy:9 apertura:2 economica:1 continue:4 since:5 tariff:1 reduction:2 financial:4 deregulation:1 privatization:2 owned:1 enterprise:1 adoption:2 liberal:3 foreign:14 exchange:5 rate:12 almost:1 sector:15 become:4 open:2 although:3 agricultural:5 product:14 remain:5 protected:1 original:1 idea:1 minister:1 finance:1 rudolf:1 hommes:1 country:12 import:13 competitive:2 like:4 maize:2 wheat:2 cotton:2 soybean:1 export:23 one:3 advantage:1 fruit:3 flower:6 ten:1 year:11 lose:2 represent:1 mostly:2 heavily:1 subsidize:1 result:3 critical:2 impact:2 employment:2 rural:1 area:6 plan:4 peace:2 agreement:3 library:1 link:2 u:18 institute:2 still:1 make:5 food:3 cheap:1 average:5 colombian:12 would:2 trade:8 restricted:1 enjoy:2 fairly:1 stable:2 first:2 liberalization:1 characterize:1 high:11 growth:13 samper:1 emphasize:1 social:2 welfare:1 target:2 low:2 income:3 population:4 however:3 reform:5 lead:4 government:17 spending:1 increase:7 fiscal:4 deficit:5 public:5 debt:7 financing:1 require:2 interest:2 value:1 peso:4 inherit:1 previous:1 maintain:2 slow:1 gdp:15 fell:1 recession:2 great:4 depression:1 shrank:1 unemployment:5 recover:1 andrés:1 pastrana:2 arango:1 take:3 office:3 august:2 face:3 crisis:1 difficult:1 internal:2 security:5 situation:3 global:1 turbulence:1 additionally:1 inhibit:1 confidence:3 evidence:1 serious:2 clear:2 number:2 step:1 engage:1 series:1 controlled:1 devaluation:1 follow:1 decision:3 let:1 float:1 also:9 enter:1 international:11 monetary:1 fund:2 provide:5 billion:36 guarantee:1 extended:1 facility:1 commit:1 budget:3 discipline:1 structural:1 early:1 beginning:1 recovery:1 way:2 benefit:3 well:5 strong:1 price:4 petroleum:10 coffee:5 principal:2 variable:1 reach:1 inflation:2 yet:1 significantly:2 improve:2 reserve:6 around:2 successfully:1 total:6 end:3 private:1 credit:1 rating:1 organization:1 drop:1 sovereign:1 grade:1 primarily:1 large:7 current:4 seek:1 close:2 several:1 institution:2 praise:1 introduce:1 álvaro:4 uribe:5 elect:1 include:9 measure:1 design:1 reduce:4 democratic:2 strategy:4 engender:2 grow:6 sense:2 particularly:3 within:2 business:2 among:1 latin:4 america:5 statistic:1 overview:1 experience:1 positive:1 past:2 three:4 despite:1 armed:1 conflict:3 part:1 austere:1 focus:1 effort:2 level:3 oriented:1 improved:2 commodity:3 ongoing:1 problem:1 range:2 pension:1 system:2 achieve:1 congressional:1 passage:1 transfer:1 new:3 exploration:2 need:1 offset:1 decline:1 oil:14 production:13 domestic:2 analyst:1 note:2 concern:1 central:1 hover:1 purchase:1 power:3 parity:1 est:25 official:2 real:2 per:2 caput:1 ppp:1 composition:1 agriculture:5 industry:7 service:3 labor:2 force:7 million:11 occupation:1 poverty:1 line:1 household:2 consumption:4 percentage:1 share:1 distribution:1 family:1 gini:1 index:1 consumer:2 nov:1 gross:1 fix:1 revenue:1 expenditure:2 na:4 main:1 article:1 cut:3 banana:3 rice:2 tobacco:2 corn:1 sugarcane:2 cocoa:1 bean:1 oilseed:1 vegetable:3 forest:3 shrimp:1 textile:2 processing:1 clothing:2 footwear:1 beverage:2 chemical:4 cement:2 gold:4 coal:16 emeralds:1 industrial:3 electricity:8 kwh:4 bbl:5 day:11 proved:2 natural:11 gas:11 cu:5 january:1 account:3 balance:2 f:2 b:2 nickel:3 emerald:2 apparel:1 partner:5 venezuela:7 ecuador:2 equipment:3 transportation:1 good:1 paper:3 fuel:1 mexico:2 china:2 brazil:3 external:1 june:1 aid:6 recipient:1 currency:1 code:2 cop:1 dollar:2 calendar:1 quarterly:1 ii:3 iii:2 iv:2 source:2 http:1 www:1 dane:1 gov:1 co:1 file:3 comunicados:1 pdf:3 mining:7 energy:5 endow:1 mineral:1 resource:3 second:1 hydroelectric:2 potential:2 estimate:4 possess:1 significant:2 amount:2 silver:1 platinum:1 discovery:1 quality:1 cusiana:2 cupiagua:2 field:4 east:1 bogotá:1 enable:1 net:2 exporter:3 transandino:1 pipeline:9 transport:1 orito:1 department:8 putumayo:2 pacific:1 port:2 tumaco:1 nariño:1 crude:1 liberalize:1 activity:2 refining:1 capacity:2 cannot:1 satisfy:1 demand:1 refined:1 especially:2 gasoline:1 must:1 construction:5 refinery:1 development:4 vast:1 prolonged:1 drought:2 severe:1 ration:1 throughout:1 mid:2 consequence:4 generating:1 cause:3 commission:1 upgrading:1 thermoelectric:1 plant:1 half:2 fire:2 begin:1 award:1 bid:1 extend:1 extensive:1 center:3 call:2 project:3 available:2 middle:1 next:2 develop:1 connection:1 peru:1 panama:3 trans:1 caribbean:1 connect:1 western:1 thanks:1 cooperation:1 martín:1 torrijos:1 hugo:1 chávez:1 inaugurate:1 october:2 human:4 right:6 abuse:1 mine:8 zone:5 frequent:1 extortion:1 bombing:5 campaign:1 eln:1 recently:2 farc:2 occur:3 every:4 substantial:1 environmental:2 damage:1 often:1 fragile:1 rainforest:1 jungle:1 loss:3 life:2 april:2 cartagena:1 de:6 india:1 clinton:2 secretary:3 bill:1 richardson:1 speak:1 investor:2 canada:1 express:1 willingness:1 use:3 military:7 support:3 ally:1 go:1 strategically:1 important:2 attack:4 travel:1 km:1 caño:1 limón:1 atlantic:1 coveñas:1 operation:4 assist:2 defend:1 occidental:3 privately:1 contract:1 mercenary:1 fly:1 skymaster:2 plane:2 airscan:3 inc:1 patrol:1 cano:1 limon:1 covenas:1 many:2 helicopter:3 weapon:1 antinarcotics:1 program:1 morning:1 december:2 two:2 fierce:1 combat:1 army:2 protect:1 region:6 air:3 carry:1 guerrilla:2 near:1 village:1 santo:2 domingo:2 cluster:1 bomb:1 body:1 seventeen:1 civilian:2 find:1 seven:1 child:4 question:1 matter:1 prosecutor:1 crew:1 argue:1 surveillance:1 incorrect:1 coordinate:1 planned:1 position:1 case:4 subsequently:1 hand:1 court:4 crime:1 duty:2 september:1 non:1 bind:1 informal:1 tribunal:2 organize:1 northwestern:1 university:1 chicago:1 regard:1 conclude:2 general:3 fabio:1 velasco:1 hernando:1 barbosa:1 mutually:1 responsible:1 judge:1 civil:1 comprehensive:1 reparation:1 victim:1 special:2 suspension:2 unit:1 involve:2 accordance:1 law:2 certification:1 approval:1 later:1 bring:1 federal:1 california:1 recent:1 wealth:1 magdalena:1 medio:1 see:2 neo:1 process:2 internationally:1 world:3 bank:1 accompany:1 violentence:1 actor:1 forced:1 displacement:2 municipios:2 rio:1 blanco:1 ataco:1 tolima:1 gabarra:1 surround:1 norte:3 santander:4 south:4 bolivar:5 barrancabermeja:1 write:1 huge:1 violation:2 affect:1 legislation:1 report:1 homicide:1 disappearance:2 injury:1 torture:1 arbitrary:1 detention:1 paramilitary:2 implement:1 show:3 concentration:1 antioquia:1 cesar:2 others:1 arauca:1 fifteen:1 union:3 leader:2 assassinate:2 vélez:2 fall:1 slightly:1 five:3 national:3 worker:2 sintraminercol:1 dissolution:1 come:1 indigenous:1 person:1 exploitation:1 exploitaton:1 undergo:2 accelerated:1 desertification:1 land:1 water:1 due:1 lack:1 rich:1 common:1 eleven:1 survive:1 less:1 live:1 school:1 choco:1 sucre:1 mean:2 change:1 taxation:1 attract:3 another:1 ninety:1 glencore:2 operates:1 el:2 cerrejon:2 zona:1 medium:1 company:7 produce:4 ton:3 royalty:1 tax:1 plausible:1 double:1 triple:1 proportionally:1 operational:1 loma:3 operate:1 drummond:2 montelíbano:1 ferronickel:1 enough:1 unemployed:1 save:1 die:1 daily:1 hunger:1 malnutrition:1 curable:1 disease:1 avoid:1 closing:1 hospital:1 create:1 humanitarian:1 emergency:2 poor:1 rapidly:1 unidad:1 planeación:1 minero:1 energética:1 upme:1 boletín:1 estadístico:1 mina:1 energía:1 spanish:1 sixth:1 behind:2 australia:1 people:1 republic:1 indonesia:1 africa:1 russia:1 fact:2 edition:1 cerrejón:2 output:1 neighbor:1 boyacá:1 cundinamarca:1 form:1 largely:1 control:2 consortium:1 bhp:1 billiton:1 anglo:1 american:1 lawsuit:1 district:1 alabama:1 assassination:1 allege:1 surplus:1 nontraditional:1 e:1 g:1 semiprecious:1 stone:1 sugar:1 tropical:2 trading:3 eu:1 japan:1 andean:4 pact:2 promote:1 experiment:1 imf:1 know:1 adopt:1 analysis:1 severely:1 pass:1 stimulate:1 nearly:1 direct:3 defense:1 disposal:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 estate:1 last:1 restriction:1 intend:1 hinder:1 money:1 laundering:1 establish:1 entity:2 coinvertir:1 foreigner:1 flow:1 north:1 licensing:2 establishment:1 cellular:1 telephone:1 stock:1 nonpetroleum:1 act:2 ieepa:1 sign:1 executive:1 order:1 bar:1 transaction:1 four:2 drug:1 kingpin:1 individual:2 associate:1 traffic:1 narcotic:1 designate:1 treasury:3 consultation:1 attorney:1 list:2 designated:1 amend:1 periodically:1 asset:1 tel:1 ask:1 document:2 web:1 site:1 fifth:1 argentina:1 worldwide:1 november:2 exceed:1 entry:1 period:1 certain:2 preference:1 protection:2 intellectual:1 property:1 remains:1 concerned:1 deficiency:1 patent:1 regulation:1 copyright:1 manufacture:1 exclude:1 portfolio:1 dominated:1 favorable:1 working:2 condition:1 example:1 short:1 hour:1 wage:1 compliance:1 health:1 safety:1 standard:1 industrially:1 diverse:2 member:1 nation:2 community:1 bogota:1 medellin:1 cali:1 barranquilla:1 locate:1 distinct:1 geographical:1 lingerie:1 leather:1 petrochemical:1 iron:1 steel:1 metalworking:1 climate:2 topography:1 permit:1 cultivation:1 wide:1 variety:1 crop:1 addition:1 yield:1 hardwood:1 hot:2 pine:1 eucalyptus:1 colder:1 cacao:1 coconut:1 plantain:1 cassava:1 beef:1 cattle:2 sea:1 meter:3 elevation:2 temperate:1 suit:1 citrus:1 pear:1 pineapple:1 tomato:1 cooler:1 barley:1 potato:1 cold:1 dairy:1 poultry:1 emigration:1 strengthening:1 democracy:1 progress:1 |@bigram owned_enterprise:1 maize_wheat:1 fiscal_deficit:2 monetary_fund:1 álvaro_uribe:4 per_caput:1 caput_ppp:1 unemployment_rate:1 household_income:1 income_gini:1 gini_index:1 expenditure_na:1 colombia_colombian:1 cocoa_bean:1 clothing_footwear:1 billion_kwh:3 kwh_electricity:3 electricity_consumption:1 bbl_day:4 consumption_bbl:1 proved_reserve:2 export_commodity:1 http_www:1 gold_silver:1 crude_oil:1 peru_venezuela:1 hugo_chávez:1 chávez_venezuela:1 strategically_important:1 occidental_petroleum:3 santo_domingo:2 reparation_victim:1 arbitrary_detention:1 nontraditional_export:1 trading_partner:3 andean_pact:2 hazardous_waste:1 real_estate:1 money_laundering:1 textile_clothing:1 cotton_tobacco:1 beef_cattle:1 vegetable_fruit:1 elevation_meter:1 wheat_barley:1 barley_potato:1 cattle_poultry:1 |
3,252 | Galileo_(satellite_navigation) | Galileo logo Galileo is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) currently being built by the European Union (EU) and European Space Agency (ESA). The €3.4 billion project is an alternative and complementary to the U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS. On 30 November 2007 the 27 EU transportation ministers involved reached an agreement that it should be operational by 2013. BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | 'Unanimous backing' for Galileo When in operation, it will have two ground operations centers, one near Munich, Germany, and another in Fucino, 130 km east of Rome, Italy. http://www.physorg.com/news115630526.html Since 18 May 2007, at the recommendation of Transport Commissioner Jacques Barrot, the EU took direct control of the Galileo project from the private sector group of eight companies called European Satellite Navigation Industries, which had abandoned this Galileo project in early 2007. Galileo is intended to provide more precise measurements than available through GPS or GLONASS (Galileo will be accurate down to the metre range) including the height (altitude) above sea level, and a better positioning services at high latitudes. The political aim is to provide an independent positioning system upon which European nations can rely even in times of war or political disagreement, since Russia or the USA could disable use of their national systems by others (through encryption). Like the US GPS, use of basic (open) Galileo services will be free for everyone. However, more qualified services will be accessible with pecuniary or military restrictions. Named for the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei, the positioning system is officially referred to as just "Galileo". It is also sometimes colloquially described as the "Galileo positioning system"; however, since this abbreviates to GPS, the shorter astronomer's name is preferred to avoid confusion with Navstar GPS. History In 1999, the different concepts (from Germany, France, Italy and the United Kingdom) for Galileo were compared and reduced to one by a joint team of engineers from all four countries. The first stage of the Galileo programme was agreed upon officially on 26 May 2003 by the European Union and the European Space Agency. The system is intended primarily for civilian use, unlike the United States system, which the U.S. military runs and uses on a primary basis. The U.S. reserves the right to limit the signal strength or accuracy of the GPS systems, or to shut down public GPS access completely (although it has never done the latter), so that only the U.S. military and its allies would be able to use it in time of conflict. Until 2000, the precision of the signal available to non-U.S.-military users was limited (due to a timing pulse distortion process known as selective availability). The European system will only be subject to shutdown for military purposes in extreme circumstances. It will be available at its full precision to both civil and military users. Galileo Galilei The European Commission had some difficulty getting money for the project's next stage, as economic difficulty was threatening national budgets across Europe. Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, the United States Government wrote to the European Union opposing the project, arguing that it would end the ability of the United States to shut down GPS in times of military operations. On 17 January 2002 a spokesman for the project stated that, as a result of U.S. pressure and economic difficulties, "Galileo is almost dead." http://www.guardian.co.uk A few months later, however, the situation changed dramatically. Partially in reaction to the pressure exerted by the U.S. Government, European Union member states decided it was important to have their own independent satellite-based positioning and timing infrastructure. The European Union and the European Space Agency agreed in March 2002 to fund the project, pending a review in 2003 (which was finalised on 26 May 2003). The starting cost for the period ending in 2005 is estimated at €1.1 billion. The required satellites—the planned number is 30 — will be launched throughout the period 2006–2010 and the system will be up and running and under civilian control from 2010. The final cost is estimated at €3 billion, including the infrastructure on Earth, which is to be constructed in the years 2006 and 2007. The plan was for private companies and investors to invest at least two-thirds of the cost of implementation, with the EU and ESA dividing the remaining cost. An encrypted higher-bandwidth Commercial Service with improved accuracy would be available at an extra cost, with the base Open Service freely available to anyone with a Galileo-compatible receiver. In June 2004, in a signed agreement with the United States, the European Union agreed to switch to a modulation known as BOC(1,1) (Binary Offset Carrier 1.1) allowing the coexistence of both GPS and Galileo, and the future combined use of both systems. The European Union also agreed to address the "mutual concerns related to the protection of allied and U.S. national security capabilities." US-EU Agreement on Galileo Early 2007, the EU had yet to decide how to pay for the system and the project was said to be "in deep crisis" due to lack of more public funds. http://www.cnn.com/2007/TECH/05/08/galileo.troubles.ap/index.html EU: Galileo project in deep 'crisis' German Transport Minister Wolfgang Tiefensee, was particularly doubtful about the consortium's ability to end the infighting at a time when only one of the 30 planned satellites had been successfully launched. Although a decision was yet to be reached, EU countries on Friday the 13th of July 2007 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19750947/ discussed cutting €548m ($755m, £370m) from the union's competitiveness budget for next year and shift some of that cash to other parts of the financing pot, a move that could meet part of the cost of the union's Galileo satellite navigation system. European Union research and development projects could be scrapped to overcome a funding shortfall. In November 2007, it was agreed to reallocate funds from the EU's agriculture and administration budgets EU agrees 2008 budget to include Galileo financing — EUbusiness.com - business, legal and financial news and information from the European Union and to soften the tendering process in order to invite more EU companies. BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Galileo 'compromise' is emerging In April 2008, the EU transport ministers approved the Galileo Implementation Regulation. This allowed the €3.4bn to be released from the EU's agriculture and administration budgets. BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Galileo legal process ticks over This will allow the issuing of contracts to start construction of the ground station and the satellites. International involvement In September 2003, China joined the Galileo project. China will invest €230 million (USD 302 million, GBP 155 million, CNY 2.34 billion) in the project over the next few years. China joins EU's satellite network - BBC News, 19 September 2003 In July 2004, Israel signed an agreement with the EU to become a partner in the Galileo project. Press release On 3 June 2005 the EU and Ukraine signed an agreement for Ukraine to join the project, as noted in a press release. Press release On 7 September 2005, India signed an agreement to take part in the project and to establish a regional augmentation system based on the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS). As of November 2005, Morocco have also joined the programme. On 12 January 2006, South Korea joined the programme. On 30 November 2007, the 27 member states of the European Union unanimously agreed to move forward with the project, with plans for bases in Germany and Italy. Spain did not approve during the initial vote, but approved it later that day. This greatly improves the viability of the Galileo project: "The EU's executive had previously said that if agreement was not reached by January 2008, the long-troubled project would essentially be dead." BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | 'Unanimous backing' for Galileo On the 3rd April 2009, Norway too joined the programme pledging €68.9 Million toward development costs and allowing its companies to bid for the construction contracts. Norway while not a member of the EU is a member of the ESA. http://www.gpsdaily.com/reports/Norway_joins_EUs_Galileo_satnav_project_999.html Political implications of Galileo project Tension with the United States Galileo is supposed to be a GNSS civilian system that allows all users access to it. GPS is a US GNSS military system that provides location signals that have high accuracy to US military users, while also providing somewhat accurate location signals to others. The GPS had the capability to block the "civilian" signals while still being able to use the "military" signal (M-band). Since Galileo was designed to provide the highest possible accuracy (possible even greater than GPS) to anyone, the US was concerned that an enemy could use Galileo signals in military strikes against the US (some weapons like missiles use GNSS systems for guidance). The frequency initially chosen for Galileo would have made it impossible for the US to block the Galileo signals without also interfering with their own GPS signals. The US did not want to lose their GNSS capability with GPS while denying enemies the use of GNSS. Some US officials became especially concerned when Chinese interest in Galileo was reported. Some US officials have threatened to potentially shoot down Galileo satellites in the event of a major conflict. The EU's stance is that Galileo is a neutral technology, available to all countries and everyone. Originally, EU officials did not want to change their original plans for Galileo, but have since reached a compromise, that Galileo was to use a different frequency. This allowed the blocking/jamming of one GNSS system without affecting the other, giving the US a greater advantage in conflicts. Military use The projects has been criticised by think tank Transnational Institute for leading to European militarization of space. GPS and Galileo One of the reasons given for developing Galileo as an independent system was that, though GPS is widely used worldwide for civilian applications, it until 2000 had Selective Availability (SA) enabled (and could be re-enabled), which could intentionally render the locations given via GPS inaccurate. Galileo's proponents argued that civil infrastructure, including aeroplane navigation and landing, should not rely solely upon GPS. On May 1, 2000, SA was disabled by the then President of the United States Bill Clinton, and in late 2001, the entity managing the GPS system confirmed that they never intend to enable selective availability again. Selective Availability. Retrieved August 31, 2007. Though Selective Availability still exists, on 19 September 2007, the US Department of Defense announced that the new GPS satellites will not be capable of implementing Selective Availability. This means the next wave of Block IIF satellites launching in 2009 will not support SA. As old satellites are replaced in the GPS modernization programme, SA will cease to exist. The modernisation programme also contains standardised features that allow GPS III and Galileo systems to inter-operate, allowing a new receiver to utilise both systems to improve accuracy. By combining GPS and Galileo, it can create an even more accurate GNSS system. Final system description Galileo satellites 30 spacecraft orbital altitude: 23,222 km (MEO) 3 orbital planes, 56° inclination, ascending nodes separated by 120° longitude (9 operational satellites and one active spare per orbital plane) satellite lifetime: >12 years satellite mass: 675 kg satellite body dimensions: 2.7 m x 1.2 m x 1.1 m span of solar arrays: 18.7 m power of solar arrays: 1,500 W (end of life) Services There will be four different navigation services available: The Open Service (OS) will be free for anyone to access. The OS signals will be broadcast in two bands, at 1164–1214 MHz and at 1563–1591 MHz. Receivers will achieve an accuracy of <4 m horizontally and <8 m vertically if they use both OS bands. Receivers that use only a single band will still achieve <15 m horizontally and <35 m vertically, comparable to what the civilian GPS C/A service provides today. It is expected that most future mass market receivers, such as automotive navigation systems, will process both the GPS C/A and the Galileo OS signals, for maximum coverage. The encrypted Commercial Service (CS) will be available for a fee and will offer an accuracy of better than 1 m. The CS can also be complemented by ground stations to bring the accuracy down to less than 10 cm. This signal will be broadcast in three frequency bands, the two used for the OS signals, as well as at 1260–1300 MHz. The encrypted Public Regulated Service (PRS) and Safety of Life Service (SoL) will both provide an accuracy comparable to the Open Service. Their main aim is robustness against jamming and the reliable detection of problems within 10 seconds. They will be targeted at security authorities (police, military, etc.) and safety-critical transport applications (air-traffic control, automated aircraft landing, etc.), respectively. In addition, the Galileo satellites will be able to detect and report signals from Cospas-Sarsat search-and-rescue beacons in the 406.0–406.1 MHz band, which makes them a part of the Global Maritime Distress Safety System. Validation satellites Galileo satellite test beds: GIOVE GIOVE-A was successfully launched 28 December 2005. In 2004 the Galileo System Test Bed Version 1 (GSTB-V1) project validated the on-ground algorithms for Orbit Determination and Time Synchronisation (OD&TS). This project, led by ESA and European Satellite Navigation Industries, has provided industry with fundamental knowledge to develop the mission segment of the Galileo positioning system. Galileo System Test Bed Version 1 experimentation is now complete, ESA News release, 7 January 2005 GIOVE-A is the first GIOVE (Galileo In-Orbit Validation Element) test satellite. It was built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd (SSTL), and successfully launched on 28 December 2005 by the European Space Agency and the Galileo Joint. Operation of GIOVE-A ensured that Galileo meets the frequency-filing allocation and reservation requirements for the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a process that was required to be complete by June 2006. GIOVE-B, built by Astrium and Thales Alenia Space, has a more advanced payload than GIOVE-A. It was successfully launched on 27 April 2008 at 22:16 GMT (4.16 a.m. (Baikonur time) aboard a Soyuz-FG/Fregat rocket provided by Starsem. The GIOVE-A2 satellite, to be built by SSTL, will be ready for launch in the second half of 2008, to ensure continuous reservation of Galileo frequency use with the ITU. GIOVE-A2 to secure the Galileo programme, ESA News release, 5 March 2007 The GIOVE Mission GIOVE mission core infrastructure, ESA press release, 26 February 2007. One year of Galileo signals; new website opens, ESA press release, 12 January 2007. segment operated by European Satellite Navigation Industries is exploiting the GIOVE-A/B satellites to provide experimental results based on real data to be used for risk mitigation for the IOV satellites that will follow on from the testbeds. ESA organised the global network of ground stations to collect the measurements of GIOVE-A/B with the use of the GETR receivers for further systematic study. GETR receivers are supplied by Septentrio as well as the first Galileo navigation receivers to be used to test the functioning of the system at further stages of its deployment. Signal analysis of GIOVE-A/B data has confirmed successful operation of all the Galileo signals with the tracking performance as expected. IOV Galileo satellites These testbed satellites will be followed by four In-Orbit Validation (IOV) Galileo satellites that will be much closer to the final Galileo positioning satellite design. Science projects using Galileo In July 2006, an international consortium of universities and research institutions embarked on a study of potential scientific applications of the Galileo constellation. This project, dubbed GEO6, is a 360-degree study oriented to the scientific community in its broader sense, aiming to define and implement new applications of Galileo. Among the various GNSS users identified by the Galileo Joint Undertaking, the GEO6 project addresses the Scientific User Community (UC). The GEO6 project aims at fostering possible novel applications within the scientific UC of GNSS signals, and particularly of Galileo. The AGILE project is an EU-funded project devoted to the study of the technical and commercial aspects of Location-based Services (LBS). It includes technical analysis of the benefits brought by Galileo (and EGNOS); also studying the hybridisation of Galileo with other positioning technologies (network-based, WLAN, etc.). Within these project, some pilot prototypes were implemented and demonstrated. On the basis of the potential number of users, potential revenues for Galileo Operating Company or Concessionaire (GOC), international relevance, and level of innovation, a set of Priority Applications (PA) will be selected by the consortium and they will be developed within the time frame of the same Project. These applications will help to increase and optimise the use of the EGNOS services as well as the opportunities offered by the Galileo Signal Test-Bed (GSTB-V2) and the Galileo (IOV) phase. European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin See also The European Satellite Navigation project was selected as the main motif of a very high value collectors' coin: the Austrian European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin, minted in 1 March 2006. The coin has a silver ring and niobium “pill”, colour gold-brown. In the reverse, the niobium portion depicts navigation satellites orbiting the Earth. The ring shows different means of transportation (an aeroplane, an automobile, a container ship, a train and a truck) for which satellite navigation was developed. European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service Commercialization of space Multilateration - the mathematical technique used for Galileo positioning Binary Offset Carrier modulation - the modulation family used in Galileo MBOC- Multiplexed Binary Offset Modulation Notes and references The Galileo Project – GALILEO Design consolidation, European Commission, 2003 Guenter W. Hein, Jeremie Godet, et al.: Status of Galileo Frequency and Signal Design, Proc. ION GPS 2002. Jean-Luc Issler, Gunter W. Hein, et al.: Galileo Frequency and Signal Design. GPS World, vol. 14, no. 6, June, 2003, pp. 30–37. Dee Ann Divis: Military role for Galileo emerges. GPS World, May 2002, Vol. 13, No. 5, p. 10. Dr Richard North: Galileo - The Military and Political Dimensions. 2004. Further reading Psiaki, M. L., “Block Acquisition of weak GPS signals in a software receiver”, Proceedings of ION GPS 2001, the 14th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, Salt Lake City, Utah, September 11-14, 2001, pp. 2838–2850. Bandemer, B., Denks, H., Hornbostel, A., Konovaltsev, A., “Performance of acquisition methods for Galileo SW receivers”, European Journal of Navigation, Vol.4, No. 3, pp 17–9, July 2006 External links Official websites Official website – Europa European GNSS Supervisory Authority (GSA) – Europa Official website – ESA Other News and Information – Host Europe The GEO6 project – EU-funded project devoted to the investigation in scientific applications using GNSS, particularly GALILEO PACIFIC Project – PACIFIC GREAT project – EU-funded project to develop GALILEO Receivers for Mass Market Applications AGILE project – EU-funded project devoted to the analysis of LBS applications and how Galileo will contribute to enhance them u-blox 5 GALILEO GPS chips – First receivers to simultaneously track GPS and GALILEO satellites Press coverage Green light for Galileo project - BBC News, 26 March 2002 China joins EU's satellite network - BBC News, 19 September 2003 EU-US strike sat-navigation deal - BBC News, 26 June 2004 Galileo, fusion energy propel India, E.U. `strategic partnership' - The Hindu 9 November 2004 Europe presses ahead on sat-navigation - BBC News, 10 December 2004 Four Galileo spacecraft ordered - BBC News, 21 December 2004 Dead heat for Galileo companies - BBC News, 1 March 2005 Consortia combine to run Galileo - BBC News, 27 June 2005 Q&A: Europe's Galileo project - BBC News, 26 December 2005 Europe launches Galileo satellite - BBC News, 28 December 2005 First Galileo signals received - BBC News, 13 January 2006 First commercial Galileo receiver - EDN, 18 September 2006 EU seeks input on use of Galileo navigation system - CBC, 11 December 2006 Galileo System in Deep Crisis - BBC News, 8 May 2007 Galileo Project in deep crisis - CNN, 8 May 2007 Galileo firms miss key deadline BBC News, 10 May 2007 EU looks to public funds for satellite system, CBC News, 10 June 2007 Galileo demo sat to be despatched, BBC News, 6 March 2008 | Galileo_(satellite_navigation) |@lemmatized galileo:101 logo:1 global:4 navigation:21 satellite:41 system:34 gnss:12 currently:1 build:4 european:29 union:13 eu:28 space:7 agency:4 esa:10 billion:4 project:42 alternative:1 complementary:1 u:23 positioning:6 gps:32 russian:1 glonass:2 november:5 transportation:2 minister:3 involve:1 reach:4 agreement:7 operational:2 bbc:18 news:23 science:5 nature:4 unanimous:2 back:2 operation:5 two:4 ground:5 center:1 one:7 near:1 munich:1 germany:3 another:1 fucino:1 km:2 east:1 rome:1 italy:3 http:5 www:5 physorg:1 com:5 html:3 since:5 may:8 recommendation:1 transport:4 commissioner:1 jacques:1 barrot:1 take:2 direct:1 control:3 private:2 sector:1 group:1 eight:1 company:6 call:1 industry:4 abandon:1 early:2 intend:3 provide:10 precise:1 measurement:2 available:8 accurate:3 metre:1 range:1 include:5 height:1 altitude:2 sea:1 level:2 good:2 service:17 high:5 latitude:1 political:4 aim:4 independent:3 upon:3 nation:1 rely:2 even:3 time:7 war:1 disagreement:1 russia:1 usa:1 could:6 disable:2 use:26 national:3 others:2 encryption:1 like:2 basic:1 open:5 free:2 everyone:2 however:3 qualified:1 accessible:1 pecuniary:1 military:15 restriction:1 name:2 italian:1 astronomer:2 galilei:2 officially:2 refer:1 also:9 sometimes:1 colloquially:1 describe:1 position:4 abbreviate:1 short:1 prefer:1 avoid:1 confusion:1 navstar:1 history:1 different:4 concept:1 france:1 united:7 kingdom:1 compare:1 reduce:1 joint:3 team:1 engineer:1 four:4 country:3 first:6 stage:3 programme:7 agree:6 primarily:1 civilian:6 unlike:1 state:9 run:3 primary:1 basis:2 reserve:1 right:1 limit:2 signal:23 strength:1 accuracy:9 shut:2 public:4 access:3 completely:1 although:2 never:2 latter:1 ally:1 would:5 able:3 conflict:3 precision:2 non:1 user:7 due:2 timing:2 pulse:1 distortion:1 process:5 know:2 selective:6 availability:6 subject:1 shutdown:1 purpose:1 extreme:1 circumstance:1 full:1 civil:2 commission:2 difficulty:3 get:1 money:1 next:4 economic:2 threaten:2 budget:5 across:1 europe:5 follow:3 september:8 attack:1 government:2 write:1 oppose:1 argue:2 end:4 ability:2 january:6 spokesman:1 result:2 pressure:2 almost:1 dead:3 guardian:1 co:1 uk:1 month:1 later:2 situation:1 change:2 dramatically:1 partially:1 reaction:1 exert:1 member:4 decide:2 important:1 base:7 infrastructure:4 march:6 fund:4 pending:1 review:1 finalise:1 starting:1 cost:7 period:2 estimate:2 required:1 planned:1 number:2 launch:8 throughout:1 final:3 earth:2 construct:1 year:5 plan:4 investor:1 invest:2 least:1 third:1 implementation:2 divide:1 remain:1 encrypted:3 bandwidth:1 commercial:4 improved:1 extra:1 freely:1 anyone:3 compatible:1 receiver:13 june:7 signed:1 switch:1 modulation:4 boc:1 binary:3 offset:3 carrier:2 allow:8 coexistence:1 future:2 combine:3 address:2 mutual:1 concern:3 relate:1 protection:1 allied:1 security:2 capability:3 yet:2 pay:1 say:2 deep:4 crisis:4 lack:1 cnn:2 tech:1 trouble:1 ap:1 index:1 german:1 wolfgang:1 tiefensee:1 particularly:3 doubtful:1 consortium:4 infighting:1 successfully:4 decision:1 friday:1 july:4 msnbc:1 msn:1 id:1 discuss:1 cut:1 competitiveness:1 shift:1 cash:1 part:4 financing:2 pot:1 move:2 meet:2 research:2 development:2 scrap:1 overcome:1 funding:1 shortfall:1 reallocate:1 agriculture:2 administration:2 agrees:1 eubusiness:1 business:1 legal:2 financial:1 information:2 soften:1 tendering:1 order:2 invite:1 compromise:2 emerge:1 april:3 approve:3 regulation:1 release:8 tick:1 issuing:1 contract:2 start:1 construction:2 station:3 international:5 involvement:1 china:4 join:7 million:4 usd:1 gbp:1 cny:1 network:4 israel:1 sign:3 become:2 partner:1 press:7 ukraine:2 note:2 india:2 establish:1 regional:1 augmentation:1 geostationary:2 overlay:2 egnos:3 morocco:1 south:1 korea:1 unanimously:1 forward:1 spain:1 initial:1 vote:1 day:1 greatly:1 improve:2 viability:1 executive:1 previously:1 long:1 troubled:1 essentially:1 norway:2 pledge:1 toward:1 bid:1 gpsdaily:1 report:3 implication:1 tension:1 suppose:1 location:4 somewhat:1 block:5 still:3 band:6 design:5 possible:3 great:3 enemy:2 strike:2 weapon:1 missile:1 guidance:1 frequency:7 initially:1 choose:1 make:2 impossible:1 without:2 interfere:1 want:2 lose:1 deny:1 official:6 especially:1 chinese:1 interest:1 potentially:1 shoot:1 event:1 major:1 stance:1 neutral:1 technology:3 originally:1 original:1 jamming:2 affect:1 give:3 advantage:1 criticise:1 think:1 tank:1 transnational:1 institute:2 lead:2 militarization:1 reason:1 develop:5 though:2 widely:1 worldwide:1 application:10 sa:4 enable:3 intentionally:1 render:1 via:1 inaccurate:1 proponent:1 aeroplane:2 landing:2 solely:1 president:1 bill:1 clinton:1 late:1 entity:1 manage:1 confirm:2 retrieve:1 august:1 exist:2 department:1 defense:1 announce:1 new:4 capable:1 implement:3 mean:2 wave:1 iif:1 support:1 old:1 replace:1 modernization:1 cease:1 modernisation:1 contain:1 standardised:1 feature:1 iii:1 inter:1 operate:3 utilise:1 create:1 description:1 spacecraft:2 orbital:3 meo:1 plane:2 inclination:1 ascend:1 node:1 separate:1 longitude:1 active:1 spare:1 per:1 lifetime:1 mass:3 kg:1 body:1 dimension:2 x:2 span:1 solar:2 array:2 power:1 w:3 life:2 os:2 broadcast:2 mhz:4 achieve:2 horizontally:2 vertically:2 single:1 comparable:2 c:4 today:1 expect:2 market:2 automotive:1 maximum:1 coverage:2 fee:1 offer:2 complement:1 bring:2 less:1 cm:1 three:1 well:3 regulate:1 pr:1 safety:3 sol:1 main:2 robustness:1 reliable:1 detection:1 problem:1 within:4 second:2 target:1 authority:2 police:1 etc:3 critical:1 air:1 traffic:1 automate:1 aircraft:1 respectively:1 addition:1 detect:1 cospas:1 sarsat:1 search:1 rescue:1 beacon:1 maritime:1 distress:1 validation:3 test:6 bed:4 giove:14 december:7 version:2 gstb:2 validate:1 algorithm:1 orbit:4 determination:1 synchronisation:1 od:1 ts:1 fundamental:1 knowledge:1 mission:3 segment:2 experimentation:1 complete:2 element:1 surrey:1 ltd:1 sstl:2 ensured:1 filing:1 allocation:1 reservation:2 requirement:1 telecommunication:1 itu:2 require:1 b:5 astrium:1 thales:1 alenia:1 advanced:1 payload:1 gmt:1 baikonur:1 aboard:1 soyuz:1 fg:1 fregat:1 rocket:1 starsem:1 ready:1 half:1 ensure:1 continuous:1 secure:1 core:1 february:1 website:4 exploit:1 experimental:1 real:1 data:2 risk:1 mitigation:1 iov:4 testbeds:1 organise:1 collect:1 getr:2 systematic:1 study:5 supply:1 septentrio:1 functioning:1 deployment:1 analysis:3 successful:1 track:2 performance:2 testbed:1 much:1 closer:1 university:1 institution:1 embark:1 potential:3 scientific:5 constellation:1 dub:1 degree:1 orient:1 community:2 broad:1 sense:1 define:1 among:1 various:1 identify:1 undertaking:1 uc:2 foster:1 novel:1 agile:2 funded:4 devote:3 technical:3 aspect:1 lbs:1 benefit:1 hybridisation:1 wlan:1 pilot:1 prototype:1 demonstrate:1 revenue:1 concessionaire:1 goc:1 relevance:1 innovation:1 set:1 priority:1 pa:1 select:2 frame:1 help:1 increase:1 optimise:1 opportunity:1 phase:1 commemorative:2 coin:4 see:1 motif:1 value:1 collector:1 austrian:1 mint:1 silver:1 ring:2 niobium:2 pill:1 colour:1 gold:1 brown:1 reverse:1 portion:1 depict:1 show:1 automobile:1 container:1 ship:1 train:1 truck:1 commercialization:1 multilateration:1 mathematical:1 technique:1 family:1 mboc:1 multiplexed:1 reference:1 consolidation:1 guenter:1 hein:2 jeremie:1 godet:1 et:2 al:2 status:1 proc:1 ion:2 jean:1 luc:1 issler:1 gunter:1 world:2 vol:3 pp:3 dee:1 ann:1 divis:1 role:1 emerges:1 p:1 dr:1 richard:1 north:1 far:1 read:1 psiaki:1 l:1 acquisition:2 weak:1 software:1 proceeding:1 meeting:1 division:1 salt:1 lake:1 city:1 utah:1 bandemer:1 denks:1 h:1 hornbostel:1 konovaltsev:1 method:1 sw:1 journal:1 external:1 link:1 europa:2 supervisory:1 gsa:1 host:1 investigation:1 pacific:2 lb:1 contribute:1 enhance:1 blox:1 chip:1 simultaneously:1 green:1 light:1 sit:2 deal:1 fusion:1 energy:1 propel:1 e:1 strategic:1 partnership:1 hindu:1 ahead:1 sat:1 heat:1 q:1 receive:1 edn:1 seek:1 input:1 cbc:2 firm:1 miss:1 key:1 deadline:1 look:1 demo:1 despatch:1 |@bigram global_positioning:1 bbc_news:18 http_www:5 physorg_com:1 galileo_galilei:2 avoid_confusion:1 selective_availability:6 cnn_com:1 msnbc_msn:1 bill_clinton:1 mhz_mhz:1 horizontally_vertically:2 automotive_navigation:1 commemorative_coin:2 coin_mint:1 et_al:2 jean_luc:1 external_link:1 |
3,253 | Microelectronics | Microelectronics is a subfield of electronics. Microelectronics, as the name suggests, is related to the study and manufacture, or microfabrication, of electronic components which are very small (usually micrometre-scale or smaller, but not always). These devices are made from semiconductors. Many components of normal electronic design are available in microelectronic equivalent: transistors, capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes and of course insulators and conductors can all be found in microelectronic devices. Digital integrated circuits (ICs) consist mostly of transistors. Analog circuits commonly contain resistors and capacitors as well. Inductors are used in some high frequency analog circuits, but tend to occupy large chip area if used at low frequencies; gyrators can replace them in many applications. As techniques improve, the scale of microelectronic components continues to decrease. At smaller scales, the relative impact of intrinsic circuit properties such as interconnections may become more significant. These are called parasitic effects, and the goal of the microelectronics design engineer is to find ways to compensate for or to minimize these effects, while always delivering smaller, faster, and cheaper devices. See also Nanoelectronics Electrical engineering Digital circuit Analog circuit External links ERMETIS Microelectronics and Reconfigurable Systems Research Laboratory MIXDES - International Conference 'MIXed DESign of Integrated Circuits and Systems' IEEE Global History Network, Early Microelectronics CMC Microsystems (CMC) C-MAC MicroTechnology MIGAS, International Summer School on Advanced Microelectronics | Microelectronics |@lemmatized microelectronics:6 subfield:1 electronics:1 name:1 suggest:1 relate:1 study:1 manufacture:1 microfabrication:1 electronic:2 component:3 small:4 usually:1 micrometre:1 scale:3 always:2 device:3 make:1 semiconductor:1 many:2 normal:1 design:3 available:1 microelectronic:3 equivalent:1 transistor:2 capacitor:2 inductor:2 resistor:2 diode:1 course:1 insulator:1 conductor:1 find:2 digital:2 integrated:2 circuit:7 ic:1 consist:1 mostly:1 analog:3 commonly:1 contain:1 well:1 use:2 high:1 frequency:2 tend:1 occupy:1 large:1 chip:1 area:1 low:1 gyrators:1 replace:1 application:1 technique:1 improve:1 continue:1 decrease:1 relative:1 impact:1 intrinsic:1 property:1 interconnection:1 may:1 become:1 significant:1 call:1 parasitic:1 effect:2 goal:1 engineer:1 way:1 compensate:1 minimize:1 deliver:1 faster:1 cheap:1 see:1 also:1 nanoelectronics:1 electrical:1 engineering:1 external:1 link:1 ermetis:1 reconfigurable:1 system:2 research:1 laboratory:1 mixdes:1 international:2 conference:1 mixed:1 ieee:1 global:1 history:1 network:1 early:1 cmc:2 microsystems:1 c:1 mac:1 microtechnology:1 migas:1 summer:1 school:1 advanced:1 |@bigram capacitor_inductor:1 integrated_circuit:2 resistor_capacitor:1 external_link:1 |
3,254 | Nitronium_ion | The structure and bonding in the nitronium cation, NO2+ Space-filling model of nitronium The nitronium ion (improperly called nitryl ion, because it is not a radical), 2+ is a generally unstable cation created by the removal of an electron from the paramagnetic nitrogen dioxide molecule, or the protonation of nitric acid. It is not stable enough to exist in normal conditions, but it is used extensively as an electrophile in the nitration of other substances. The ion is generated in situ for this purpose by mixing sulfuric acid and nitric acid according to the equilibrium: 2H2SO4 + HNO3 → 2HSO4− + NO2+ + H3O+ The nitronium ion also exists in the solid form of dinitrogen pentoxide, 25, which is an ionic solid formed from nitronium and nitrate ions. Its liquid and gaseous forms, however, are molecular and do not contain nitronium ions. A few nitronium salts with anions of low nucleophilic power, such as nitronium perchlorate, [NO2][ClO4] can be isolated but are extremely reactive. The nitronium ion is isoelectronic with carbon dioxide and like that compound has a linear structure with a ONO bond angle of 180°. Related species The compounds nitryl fluoride, NO2F, and nitryl chloride, NO2Cl, are not nitronium salts but rather molecular compounds, as shown by their low boiling points (−72 °C and −6 °C respectively) and short N-X bond lengths (N-F 135 pm, N-Cl 184 pm). F.A.Cotton and G.Wilkinson, Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 5th edition (1988), Wiley, p.333 Addition of one electron forms the neutral nitryl radical, ·NO2; in fact, this is fairly stable and known as the compound nitrogen dioxide. The related negatively charged species is NO2−, the nitrite ion. Notes and references | Nitronium_ion |@lemmatized structure:2 bonding:1 nitronium:10 cation:2 space:1 fill:1 model:1 ion:8 improperly:1 call:1 nitryl:4 radical:2 generally:1 unstable:1 create:1 removal:1 electron:2 paramagnetic:1 nitrogen:2 dioxide:3 molecule:1 protonation:1 nitric:2 acid:3 stable:2 enough:1 exist:2 normal:1 condition:1 use:1 extensively:1 electrophile:1 nitration:1 substance:1 generate:1 situ:1 purpose:1 mix:1 sulfuric:1 accord:1 equilibrium:1 also:1 solid:2 form:4 dinitrogen:1 pentoxide:1 ionic:1 nitrate:1 liquid:1 gaseous:1 however:1 molecular:2 contain:1 salt:2 anion:1 low:2 nucleophilic:1 power:1 perchlorate:1 isolate:1 extremely:1 reactive:1 isoelectronic:1 carbon:1 like:1 compound:4 linear:1 ono:1 bond:2 angle:1 related:2 specie:2 fluoride:1 chloride:1 rather:1 show:1 boiling:1 point:1 c:2 respectively:1 short:1 n:3 x:1 length:1 f:2 pm:2 cl:1 cotton:1 g:1 wilkinson:1 advance:1 inorganic:1 chemistry:1 edition:1 wiley:1 p:1 addition:1 one:1 neutral:1 fact:1 fairly:1 know:1 negatively:1 charge:1 nitrite:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram nitronium_ion:4 nitrogen_dioxide:2 nitric_acid:2 sulfuric_acid:1 liquid_gaseous:1 carbon_dioxide:1 boiling_point:1 inorganic_chemistry:1 negatively_charge:1 |
3,255 | Chemical_engineering | Chemical engineers design, construct and operate plants Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with the application of physical science (e.g. chemistry and physics), with mathematics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. In addition to producing useful materials, modern chemical engineering is also concerned with pioneering valuable new materials and techniques - such as nanotechnology, fuel cells and biomedical engineering. From Petroleum to Penicillin. The First Hundred Years of Modern Chemical Engineering: 1859-1959. - Burnett, J. N. A person employed in this field is called a chemical engineer. Chemical engineering largely involves the design and maintenance of chemical processes for large-scale manufacture. Chemical engineers in this branch are usually employed under the title of process engineer. A related term with a wider definition is chemical technology. Chemical engineering timeline In 1824, French physicist Sadi Carnot, in his “On the Motive Power of Fire”, was the first to study the thermodynamics of combustion reactions in steam engines. In the 1850s, German physicist Rudolf Clausius began to apply the principles developed by Carnot to chemical systems at the atomic to molecular scale. Mechanical Theory of Heat – Nine Memoirs on the development of concept of "Entropy" by Rudolf Clausius [1850-1865] During the years 1873 to 1876 at Yale University, American mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs, the first to be awarded a Ph.D. in engineering in the U.S., in a series of three papers, developed a mathematical-based, graphical methodology, for the study of chemical systems using the thermodynamics of Clausius. In 1882, German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz, published a founding thermodynamics paper, similar to Gibbs, but with more of an electro-chemical basis, in which he showed that measure of chemical affinity, i.e. the “force” of chemical reactions, is determined by the measure of the free energy of the reaction process. Following these early developments, the new science of chemical engineering began to develop. The following timeline shows some of the key steps in the development of the science of chemical engineering: History of Chemical Engineering – at North Carolina State University (and in general). 1805 – John Dalton published Atomic Weights, allowing chemical equations to be balanced and the basis for chemical engineering mass balances. 1882 – a course in “Chemical Technology” is offered at University College London 1883 – Osborne Reynolds defines the dimensionless group for fluid flow, leading to practical scale-up and understanding of flow, heat and mass transfer 1885 – Henry Edward Armstrong offers a course in “chemical engineering” at Central College (later Imperial College), London. 1888 – There is a Department of Chemical Engineering at Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College offering day and evening classes Glasgow Herald July 18, 1888 and September 5, 1888 . 1888 – Lewis M. Norton starts a new curriculum at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT): Course X, Chemical Engineering N. A. Peppas (1989) One Hundred Years of Chemical Engineering Kluwer ISBN 0792301455 However, this was an industrial chemistry course, not really dealing with engineering. N Rosenberg(1998), p 175 in E. Helpman General Purpose Technologies and Economic Growth MIT Press ISBN 0262082632 1889 – Rose Polytechnic Institute awards the first bachelor’s of science in chemical engineering in the US. 2007 Indiana Economic Development Corporation Life Sciences Report 1891 – MIT awards a bachelor’s of science in chemical engineering to William Page Bryant and six other candidates. 1892 – A bachelor’s program in chemical engineering is established at the University of Pennsylvania. 1901 – George E. Davis produces the Handbook of Chemical Engineering 1905 – the University of Wisconsin awards the first Ph.D. in chemical engineering to Oliver Patterson Watts. 1908 – the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) is founded. 1922 – the UK Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) is founded. 1942 – Hilda Derrick, first female student member of the IChemE. Colin Duvall and Sean F, Johnston Scaling Up: The Institution of Chemical Engineers and the Rise of a New Profession Kluwer Academic Publishers (2000) Applications Chemical engineering is applied in the manufacture of a wide variety of products. The chemical industry proper manufactures inorganic and organic industrial chemicals, ceramics, fuels and petrochemicals, agrochemicals (fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides), plastics and elastomers, oleochemicals, explosives, detergents and detergent products (soap, shampoo, cleaning fluids), fragrances and flavors, additives, dietary supplements and pharmaceuticals. Closely allied or overlapping disciplines include wood processing, food processing, environmental technology, and the engineering of petroleum, glass, paints and other coatings, inks, sealants and adhesives. Overview Chemical engineers design processes to ensure the most economical operation. This means that the entire production chain must be planned and controlled for costs. A chemical engineer can both simplify and complicate "showcase" reactions for an economic advantage. Using a higher pressure or temperature makes several reactions easier; ammonia, for example, is simply produced from its component elements in a high-pressure reactor. On the other hand, reactions with a low yield can be recycled continuously, which would be complex, arduous work if done by hand in the laboratory. It is not unusual to build 6-step, or even 12-step evaporators to reuse the vaporization energy for an economic advantage. In contrast, laboratory chemists evaporate samples in a single step. The individual processes used by chemical engineers (eg. distillation or filtration) are called unit operations and consist of chemical reactions, mass-, heat- and momentum- transfer operations. Unit operations are grouped together in various configurations for the purpose of chemical synthesis and/or chemical separation. Some processes are a combination of intertwined transport and separation unit operations, (e.g. reactive distillation). Three primary physical laws underlying chemical engineering design are conservation of mass, conservation of momentum and conservation of energy. The movement of mass and energy around a chemical process are evaluated using mass balances and energy balances, laws that apply to discrete parts of equipment, unit operations, or an entire plant. In doing so, chemical engineers must also use principles of thermodynamics, reaction kinetics and transport phenomena. The task of performing these balances is now aided by process simulators, which are complex software models (see List of Chemical Process Simulators) that can solve mass and energy balances and usually have built-in modules to simulate a variety of common unit operations. Modern chemical engineering The modern discipline of chemical engineering encompasses much more than just process engineering. Chemical engineers are now engaged in the development and production of a diverse range of products, as well as in commodity and specialty chemicals. These products include high performance materials needed for aerospace, automotive, biomedical, electronic, environmental, space and military applications. Examples include ultra-strong fibers, fabrics, dye-sensitized solar cells, adhesives and composites for vehicles, bio-compatible materials for implants and prosthetics, gels for medical applications, pharmaceuticals, and films with special dielectric, optical or spectroscopic properties for opto-electronic devices. Additionally, chemical engineering is often intertwined with biology and biomedical engineering. Many chemical engineers work on biological projects such as understanding biopolymers (proteins) and mapping the human genome. The line between chemists and chemical engineers is growing ever more thin as more and more chemical engineers begin to start their own innovation using their knowledge of chemistry, physics and mathematics to create, implement and mass produce their ideas. Related fields and topics Today, the field of chemical engineering is a diverse one, covering areas from biotechnology and nanotechnology to mineral processing. Biochemical engineering Biomedical engineering Biomolecular engineering Biotechnology Ceramics Chemical process modeling Chemical Technologist Chemical reactor Computational fluid dynamics Corrosion engineering Distillation Design Electrochemistry Environmental engineering Earthquake engineering Fluid dynamics Food process engineering Fuel science Heat transfer Industrial gas Mass transfer Materials science Metallurgy Microfluidics Mineral Processing Nanotechnology Natural environment Oil exploration Oil refinery Plastics engineering Polymers Process control Process design Process development Pulp and paper Safety engineering Semiconductor device fabrication Separation processes (see also: separation of mixture) Crystallization processes Distillation processes Membrane processes Textile engineering Thermodynamics Transport Phenomena Unit operations Water technology Additional topics under the title AIChE's Technical Divisions and Forums in American Institute of Chemical Engineers See also Chemical engineer List of notable chemical engineers List of chemical engineering societies American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) Chemistry and Engineering Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) Food and Bioprocess Technology Contemporary Food Engineering Education for Chemical Engineers Process design (chemical engineering) List of Chemical Process Simulators List of Dynamic Process Simulators References Further reading Levenspiel, O.: The Chemical Reactor Omnibook, Osu, Oregon, 1993 External links The Chemical Engineer UK journal Chemical Engineers' Resource Page American Institute of Chemical Engineers (USA) Institution of Chemical Engineers (Global) Canadian Society for Chemical Engineers Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers (IN) Brazilian Association of Chemical Engineering (BRA) | Chemical_engineering |@lemmatized chemical:76 engineer:27 design:7 construct:1 operate:1 plant:2 engineering:46 branch:2 deal:2 application:4 physical:2 science:8 e:5 g:2 chemistry:4 physic:2 mathematics:2 process:24 convert:1 raw:1 material:6 useful:2 valuable:2 form:1 addition:1 produce:4 modern:4 also:4 concern:1 pioneer:1 new:4 technique:1 nanotechnology:3 fuel:3 cell:2 biomedical:4 petroleum:2 penicillin:1 first:6 hundred:2 year:3 burnett:1 j:1 n:3 person:1 employ:2 field:3 call:2 largely:1 involve:1 maintenance:1 large:1 scale:4 manufacture:3 usually:2 title:2 related:1 term:1 wide:2 definition:1 technology:7 timeline:2 french:1 physicist:4 sadi:1 carnot:2 motive:1 power:1 fire:1 study:2 thermodynamics:5 combustion:1 reaction:8 steam:1 engine:1 german:2 rudolf:2 clausius:3 begin:3 apply:3 principle:2 develop:3 system:2 atomic:2 molecular:1 mechanical:1 theory:1 heat:4 nine:1 memoir:1 development:6 concept:1 entropy:1 yale:1 university:5 american:5 mathematical:2 josiah:1 willard:1 gibbs:2 award:4 ph:2 u:2 series:1 three:2 paper:3 base:1 graphical:1 methodology:1 use:6 hermann:1 von:1 helmholtz:1 publish:2 founding:1 similar:1 electro:1 basis:2 show:2 measure:2 affinity:1 force:1 determine:1 free:1 energy:6 follow:1 early:1 following:1 key:1 step:4 history:1 north:1 carolina:1 state:1 general:2 john:1 dalton:1 weight:1 allow:1 equation:1 balance:6 mass:9 course:4 offer:2 college:4 london:2 osborne:1 reynolds:1 define:1 dimensionless:1 group:2 fluid:4 flow:2 lead:1 practical:1 understanding:1 transfer:4 henry:1 edward:1 armstrong:1 central:1 late:1 imperial:1 department:1 glasgow:2 west:1 scotland:1 technical:2 offering:1 day:1 evening:1 class:1 herald:1 july:1 september:1 lewis:1 norton:1 start:2 curriculum:1 massachusetts:1 institute:7 mit:3 x:1 peppas:1 one:2 kluwer:2 isbn:2 however:1 industrial:3 really:1 rosenberg:1 p:1 helpman:1 purpose:2 economic:4 growth:1 press:1 rise:2 polytechnic:1 bachelor:3 indiana:1 corporation:1 life:1 report:1 william:1 page:2 bryant:1 six:1 candidate:1 program:1 establish:1 pennsylvania:1 george:1 davis:1 handbook:1 wisconsin:1 oliver:1 patterson:1 watt:1 aiche:3 found:2 uk:2 institution:4 icheme:3 hilda:1 derrick:1 female:1 student:1 member:1 colin:1 duvall:1 sean:1 f:1 johnston:1 profession:1 academic:1 publisher:1 variety:2 product:4 industry:1 proper:1 inorganic:1 organic:1 ceramic:2 petrochemical:1 agrochemicals:1 fertilizer:1 insecticide:1 herbicide:1 plastic:2 elastomer:1 oleochemicals:1 explosive:1 detergent:2 soap:1 shampoo:1 clean:1 fragrance:1 flavor:1 additive:1 dietary:1 supplement:1 pharmaceutical:2 closely:1 allied:1 overlap:1 discipline:2 include:3 wood:1 processing:3 food:4 environmental:3 glass:1 paint:1 coating:1 ink:1 sealant:1 adhesive:2 overview:1 ensure:1 economical:1 operation:8 mean:1 entire:2 production:2 chain:1 must:2 plan:1 control:2 cost:1 simplify:1 complicate:1 showcase:1 advantage:2 high:3 pressure:2 temperature:1 make:1 several:1 easier:1 ammonia:1 example:2 simply:1 component:1 element:1 reactor:3 hand:2 low:1 yield:1 recycle:1 continuously:1 would:1 complex:2 arduous:1 work:2 laboratory:2 unusual:1 build:2 even:1 evaporators:1 reuse:1 vaporization:1 contrast:1 chemist:2 evaporate:1 sample:1 single:1 individual:1 eg:1 distillation:4 filtration:1 unit:6 consist:1 momentum:2 together:1 various:1 configuration:1 synthesis:1 separation:4 combination:1 intertwined:1 transport:3 reactive:1 primary:1 law:2 underlie:1 conservation:3 movement:1 around:1 evaluate:1 discrete:1 part:1 equipment:1 kinetics:1 phenomenon:1 task:1 perform:1 aid:1 simulator:4 software:1 model:2 see:3 list:5 solve:1 module:1 simulate:1 common:1 encompass:1 much:1 engage:1 diverse:2 range:1 well:1 commodity:1 specialty:1 performance:1 need:1 aerospace:1 automotive:1 electronic:2 space:1 military:1 ultra:1 strong:1 fiber:1 fabric:1 dye:1 sensitize:1 solar:1 composite:1 vehicle:1 bio:1 compatible:1 implant:1 prosthetics:1 gel:1 medical:1 film:1 special:1 dielectric:1 optical:1 spectroscopic:1 property:1 opto:1 device:2 additionally:1 often:1 intertwine:1 biology:1 many:1 biological:1 project:1 understand:1 biopolymers:1 protein:1 map:1 human:1 genome:1 line:1 grow:1 ever:1 thin:1 innovation:1 knowledge:1 create:1 implement:1 idea:1 relate:1 topic:2 today:1 cover:1 area:1 biotechnology:2 mineral:2 biochemical:1 biomolecular:1 technologist:1 computational:1 dynamic:3 corrosion:1 electrochemistry:1 earthquake:1 gas:1 metallurgy:1 microfluidics:1 natural:1 environment:1 oil:2 exploration:1 refinery:1 polymer:1 pulp:1 safety:1 semiconductor:1 fabrication:1 mixture:1 crystallization:1 membrane:1 textile:1 phenomena:1 water:1 additional:1 division:1 forum:1 notable:1 society:2 bioprocess:1 contemporary:1 education:1 reference:1 reading:1 levenspiel:1 omnibook:1 osu:1 oregon:1 external:1 link:1 journal:1 resource:1 usa:1 global:1 canadian:1 indian:1 brazilian:1 association:1 bra:1 |@bigram raw_material:1 biomedical_engineering:3 sadi_carnot:1 rudolf_clausius:2 josiah_willard:1 willard_gibbs:1 von_helmholtz:1 north_carolina:1 polytechnic_institute:1 kluwer_academic:1 dietary_supplement:1 oil_refinery:1 pulp_paper:1 external_link:1 |
3,256 | Geography_of_the_Netherlands_Antilles | Geography of the Netherlands Antilles. The Netherlands Antilles are in the Caribbean Sea. It consists of two island groups, one including Curaçao and Bonaire, just north of Venezuela, and the other east of the Virgin Islands. Its geographical coordinates are . The Netherlands Antilles has 960 km². of land, including no major lakes or other bodies of water. Territory includes the islands of Curaçao, Bonaire, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten (which is the Dutch part of the island of Saint Martin). Its only land boundary is with France on the island of Saint Martin, which is 10.2 kilometers in length. The Netherlands Antilles has 364 kilometers of coastline. Maritime claims: exclusive fishing zone: 12 nm territorial sea: 12 nm Climate: tropical; ameliorated by northeast trade winds Terrain: generally hilly, volcanic interiors Elevation extremes: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m highest point: Mount Scenery 862 m Natural resources: phosphates (Curaçao only), salt (Bonaire only) Land use: arable land: 10% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 90% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: NA km² Natural hazards: Curaçao and Bonaire are south of Caribbean hurricane belt and are rarely threatened; Sint Maarten, Saba, and Sint Eustatius are subject to hurricanes from July to October Environment - current issues: NA | Geography_of_the_Netherlands_Antilles |@lemmatized geography:1 netherlands:4 antilles:4 caribbean:3 sea:3 consist:1 two:1 island:4 group:1 one:1 include:3 curaçao:4 bonaire:4 north:1 venezuela:1 east:1 virgin:1 islands:1 geographical:1 coordinate:1 land:5 major:1 lake:1 body:1 water:1 territory:1 saba:2 sint:4 eustatius:2 maarten:2 dutch:1 part:1 saint:2 martin:2 boundary:1 france:1 kilometer:2 length:1 coastline:1 maritime:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 fishing:1 zone:1 nm:2 territorial:1 climate:1 tropical:1 ameliorate:1 northeast:1 trade:1 wind:1 terrain:1 generally:1 hilly:1 volcanic:1 interior:1 elevation:1 extreme:1 low:1 point:2 high:1 mount:1 scenery:1 natural:2 resource:1 phosphate:1 salt:1 use:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 est:1 irrigated:1 na:2 hazard:1 south:1 hurricane:2 belt:1 rarely:1 threaten:1 subject:1 july:1 october:1 environment:1 current:1 issue:1 |@bigram netherlands_antilles:4 curaçao_bonaire:3 bonaire_saba:1 saba_sint:2 sint_eustatius:2 sint_maarten:2 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 |
3,257 | Extremophile | Thermophiles, a type of extremophile, produce some of the bright colors of Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone National Park An extremophile (from Latin meaning "extreme" and Greek () meaning "love") is an organism that thrives in and even may require physically or geochemically extreme conditions that are detrimental to the majority of life on Earth. In contrast, organisms from moderate or neutral (often referring to pH) environments are termed neutrophiles. Most known extremophiles are microbes. The domain Archaea contains renowned examples, but extremophiles are present in numerous and diverse genetic lineages of both bacteria and archaeans. Furthermore, it is erroneous to use the term extremophile to encompass all archaeans, as some are mesophilic. Neither are all extremophiles unicellular; protostome animals found in similar environments include the Pompeii worm, the psychrophilic Grylloblattodea (insects), Antarctic krill (a crustacean), and the "water bear". Types of extremophiles There are many different classes of extremophiles, each corresponding to the way its environmental niche differs from mesophilic conditions. These classifications are not exclusive. Many extremophiles fall under multiple categories. For example, organisms living inside hot rocks deep under Earth's surface are both thermophilic and barophilic. Acidophile An organism with an optimum pH level at or below pH 3 Alkaliphile An organism with optimal growth at pH levels of 9 or above Endolith An organism that lives in microscopic spaces within rocks, such as pores between aggregate grains; these may also be called cryptoendoliths, a term that also includes organisms populating fissures, aquifers, and faults filled with groundwater in the deep subsurface Halophile An organism requiring at least 2M concentrations of salt (NaCl) for growth Hyperthermophile An organism that can thrive at temperatures between 80–122 °C, such as those found in hydrothermal systems Hypolith An organism that lives inside rocks in cold deserts Lithoautotroph An organism (usually bacteria) whose sole source of carbon is carbon dioxide and exergonic inorganic oxidation (chemolithotrophs) such as Nitrosomonas europaea; these organisms are capable of deriving energy from reduced mineral compounds like pyrites, and are active in geochemical cycling and the weathering of parent bedrock to form soil Metalotolerant capable of tolerating high levels of dissolved heavy metals in solution, such as copper, cadmium, arsenic, and zinc; examples include Ferroplasma sp. and Ralstonia metallidurans Oligotroph An organism capable of growth in nutritionally limited environments Osmophile An organism capable of growth in environments with a high sugar concentration Piezophile An organism that lives optimally at high hydrostatic pressure; common in the deep terrestrial subsurface, as well as in oceanic trenches Polyextremophile An organism that qualifies as an extremophile under more than one category Psychrophile/Cryophile An organism that grows better at temperatures of 15 °C or lower; common in cold soils, permafrost, polar ice, cold ocean water, and in or under alpine snowpack Radioresistant Organisms resistant to high levels of ionizing radiation, most commonly ultraviolet radiation, but also including organisms capable of resisting nuclear radiation Thermophile An organism that can thrive at temperatures between 60–80 °C Thermoacidophile Combination of thermophile and acidophile that prefer temperatures of 70–80 °C and pH between 2 and 3 Xerophile An organism that can grow in extremely dry, desiccating conditions; this type is exemplified by the soil microbes of the Atacama Desert Extremophiles and astrobiology Astrobiology is the field concerned with forming theories, such as panspermia, about the distribution, nature, and future of life in the universe. In it, microbial ecologists, astronomers, planetary scientists, geochemists, philosophers, and explorers cooperate constructively to guide the search for life on other planets. Astrobiologists are particularly interested in studying extremophiles, as many organisms of this type are capable of surviving in environments similar to those known to exist on other planets. For example, Mars may have regions in its deep subsurface permafrost that could harbor endolith communities. The subsurface water ocean of Jupiter's moon Europa may harbor life, especially at hypothesized hydrothermal vents at the ocean floor. References External links Extremophile Research Eukaryotes in extreme environments DaveDarling's Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight The International Society for Extremophiles | Extremophile |@lemmatized thermophiles:1 type:4 extremophile:5 produce:1 bright:1 color:1 grand:1 prismatic:1 spring:1 yellowstone:1 national:1 park:1 latin:1 meaning:2 extreme:3 greek:1 love:1 organism:19 thrive:3 even:1 may:4 require:2 physically:1 geochemically:1 condition:3 detrimental:1 majority:1 life:4 earth:2 contrast:1 organisms:3 moderate:1 neutral:1 often:1 refer:1 ph:5 environment:6 term:3 neutrophile:1 known:1 extremophiles:9 microbe:2 domain:1 archaea:1 contains:1 renowned:1 example:4 present:1 numerous:1 diverse:1 genetic:1 lineage:1 bacteria:2 archaeans:2 furthermore:1 erroneous:1 use:1 encompass:1 mesophilic:2 neither:1 unicellular:1 protostome:1 animal:1 find:2 similar:2 include:4 pompeii:1 worm:1 psychrophilic:1 grylloblattodea:1 insect:1 antarctic:1 krill:1 crustacean:1 water:3 bear:1 many:3 different:1 class:1 correspond:1 way:1 environmental:1 niche:1 differs:1 classification:1 exclusive:1 fall:1 multiple:1 category:2 live:4 inside:2 hot:1 rock:3 deep:4 surface:1 thermophilic:1 barophilic:1 acidophile:2 optimum:1 level:4 alkaliphile:1 optimal:1 growth:4 endolith:2 microscopic:1 space:1 within:1 pore:1 aggregate:1 grain:1 also:3 call:1 cryptoendoliths:1 populate:1 fissure:1 aquifer:1 fault:1 fill:1 groundwater:1 subsurface:4 halophile:1 least:1 concentration:2 salt:1 nacl:1 hyperthermophile:1 temperature:4 c:4 hydrothermal:2 system:1 hypolith:1 cold:3 desert:2 lithoautotroph:1 usually:1 whose:1 sole:1 source:1 carbon:2 dioxide:1 exergonic:1 inorganic:1 oxidation:1 chemolithotrophs:1 nitrosomonas:1 europaea:1 capable:6 derive:1 energy:1 reduced:1 mineral:1 compound:1 like:1 pyrite:1 active:1 geochemical:1 cycling:1 weathering:1 parent:1 bedrock:1 form:2 soil:3 metalotolerant:1 tolerate:1 high:4 dissolve:1 heavy:1 metal:1 solution:1 copper:1 cadmium:1 arsenic:1 zinc:1 ferroplasma:1 sp:1 ralstonia:1 metallidurans:1 oligotroph:1 nutritionally:1 limited:1 osmophile:1 sugar:1 piezophile:1 optimally:1 hydrostatic:1 pressure:1 common:2 terrestrial:1 well:1 oceanic:1 trench:1 polyextremophile:1 qualify:1 one:1 psychrophile:1 cryophile:1 grow:2 good:1 low:1 permafrost:2 polar:1 ice:1 ocean:3 alpine:1 snowpack:1 radioresistant:1 resistant:1 ionize:1 radiation:3 commonly:1 ultraviolet:1 resist:1 nuclear:1 thermophile:2 thermoacidophile:1 combination:1 prefer:1 xerophile:1 extremely:1 dry:1 desiccating:1 exemplify:1 atacama:1 astrobiology:3 field:1 concern:1 theory:1 panspermia:1 distribution:1 nature:1 future:1 universe:1 microbial:1 ecologist:1 astronomer:1 planetary:1 scientist:1 geochemists:1 philosopher:1 explorer:1 cooperate:1 constructively:1 guide:1 search:1 planet:2 astrobiologists:1 particularly:1 interested:1 study:1 survive:1 know:1 exist:1 mar:1 region:1 could:1 harbor:2 community:1 jupiter:1 moon:1 europa:1 especially:1 hypothesize:1 vent:1 floor:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 research:1 eukaryote:1 davedarling:1 encyclopedia:1 astronomy:1 spaceflight:1 international:1 society:1 |@bigram carbon_dioxide:1 oceanic_trench:1 ionize_radiation:1 ultraviolet_radiation:1 atacama_desert:1 hydrothermal_vent:1 external_link:1 |
3,258 | Data_Encryption_Standard | The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a block cipher (a form of shared secret encryption) that was selected by the National Bureau of Standards as an official Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) for the United States in 1976 and which has subsequently enjoyed widespread use internationally. It is based on a symmetric-key algorithm that uses a 56-bit key. The algorithm was initially controversial with classified design elements, a relatively short key length, and suspicions about a National Security Agency (NSA) backdoor. DES consequently came under intense academic scrutiny which motivated the modern understanding of block ciphers and their cryptanalysis. DES is now considered to be insecure for many applications. This is chiefly due to the 56-bit key size being too small; in January, 1999, distributed.net and the Electronic Frontier Foundation collaborated to publicly break a DES key in 22 hours and 15 minutes (see chronology). There are also some analytical results which demonstrate theoretical weaknesses in the cipher, although they are unfeasible to mount in practice. The algorithm is believed to be practically secure in the form of Triple DES, although there are theoretical attacks. In recent years, the cipher has been superseded by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). In some documentation, a distinction is made between DES as a standard and DES the algorithm which is referred to as the DEA (the Data Encryption Algorithm). When spoken, "DES" is either spelled out as an abbreviation (), or pronounced as a one-syllable acronym (). History of DES The origins of DES go back to the early 1970s. In 1972, after concluding a study on the US government's computer security needs, the US standards body NBS (National Bureau of Standards) — now named NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) — identified a need for a government-wide standard for encrypting unclassified, sensitive information. Accordingly, on 15 May 1973, after consulting with the NSA, NBS solicited proposals for a cipher that would meet rigorous design criteria. None of the submissions, however, turned out to be suitable. A second request was issued on 27 August 1974. This time, IBM submitted a candidate which was deemed acceptable — a cipher developed during the period 1973–1974 based on an earlier algorithm, Horst Feistel's Lucifer cipher. The team at IBM involved in cipher design and analysis included Feistel, Walter Tuchman, Don Coppersmith, Alan Konheim, Carl Meyer, Mike Matyas, Roy Adler, Edna Grossman, Bill Notz, Lynn Smith, and Bryant Tuckerman. NSA's involvement in the design On 17 March 1975, the proposed DES was published in the Federal Register. Public comments were requested, and in the following year two open workshops were held to discuss the proposed standard. There was some criticism from various parties, including from public-key cryptography pioneers Martin Hellman and Whitfield Diffie, citing a shortened key length and the mysterious "S-boxes" as evidence of improper interference from the NSA. The suspicion was that the algorithm had been covertly weakened by the intelligence agency so that they — but no-one else — could easily read encrypted messages. Alan Konheim (one of the designers of DES) commented, "We sent the S-boxes off to Washington. They came back and were all different." The United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence reviewed the NSA's actions to determine whether there had been any improper involvement. In the unclassified summary of their findings, published in 1978, the Committee wrote: "In the development of DES, NSA convinced IBM that a reduced key size was sufficient; indirectly assisted in the development of the S-box structures; and certified that the final DES algorithm was, to the best of their knowledge, free from any statistical or mathematical weakness." However, it also found that "NSA did not tamper with the design of the algorithm in any way. IBM invented and designed the algorithm, made all pertinent decisions regarding it, and concurred that the agreed upon key size was more than adequate for all commercial applications for which the DES was intended." Another member of the DES team, Walter Tuchman, is quoted as saying, "We developed the DES algorithm entirely within IBM using IBMers. The NSA did not dictate a single wire!" In contrast, a declassified NSA book on cryptologic history states: "In 1973 NBS solicited private industry for a data encryption standard (DES). The first offerings were disappointing, so NSA began working on its own algorithm. Then Howard Rosenblum, deputy director for research and engineering, discovered that Walter Tuchman of IBM was working on a modification to Lucifer for general use. NSA gave Tuchman a clearance and brought him in to work jointly with the Agency on his Lucifer modification." Some of the suspicions about hidden weaknesses in the S-boxes were allayed in 1990, with the independent discovery and open publication by Eli Biham and Adi Shamir of differential cryptanalysis, a general method for breaking block ciphers. The S-boxes of DES were much more resistant to the attack than if they had been chosen at random, strongly suggesting that IBM knew about the technique back in the 1970s. This was indeed the case — in 1994, Don Coppersmith published some of the original design criteria for the S-boxes. According to Steven Levy, IBM Watson researchers discovered differential cryptanalytic attacks in 1974 and were asked by the NSA to keep the technique secret. Levy, Crypto, p. 55 Coppersmith explains IBM's secrecy decision by saying, "that was because [differential cryptanalysis] can be a very powerful tool, used against many schemes, and there was concern that such information in the public domain could adversely affect national security." Levy quotes Walter Tuchman: "[t]hey asked us to stamp all our documents confidential... We actually put a number on each one and locked them up in safes, because they were considered U.S. government classified. They said do it. So I did it". Levy, p. 55 The algorithm as a standard Despite the criticisms, DES was approved as a federal standard in November 1976, and published on 15 January 1977 as FIPS PUB 46, authorized for use on all unclassified data. It was subsequently reaffirmed as the standard in 1983, 1988 (revised as FIPS-46-1), 1993 (FIPS-46-2), and again in 1999 (FIPS-46-3), the latter prescribing "Triple DES" (see below). On 26 May 2002, DES was finally superseded by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), following a public competition. On 19 May 2005, FIPS 46-3 was officially withdrawn, but NIST has approved Triple DES through the year 2030 for sensitive government information. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST Special Publication 800-67 Recommendation for the Triple Data Encryption Algorithm (TDEA) Block Cipher, Version 1.1 The algorithm is also specified in ANSI X3.92 American National Standards Institute, ANSI X3.92-1981 American National Standard, Data Encryption Algorithm , NIST SP 800-67 and ISO/IEC 18033-3 ISO/IEC 18033-3:2005 Information technology — Security techniques — Encryption algorithms — Part 3: Block ciphers (as a component of TDEA). Another theoretical attack, linear cryptanalysis, was published in 1994, but it was a brute force attack in 1998 that demonstrated that DES could be attacked very practically, and highlighted the need for a replacement algorithm. These and other methods of cryptanalysis are discussed in more detail later in the article. The introduction of DES is considered to have been a catalyst for the academic study of cryptography, particularly of methods to crack block ciphers. According to a NIST retrospective about DES, The DES can be said to have "jump started" the nonmilitary study and development of encryption algorithms. In the 1970s there were very few cryptographers, except for those in military or intelligence organizations, and little academic study of cryptography. There are now many active academic cryptologists, mathematics departments with strong programs in cryptography, and commercial information security companies and consultants. A generation of cryptanalysts has cut its teeth analyzing (that is trying to "crack") the DES algorithm. In the words of cryptographer Bruce Schneier, Bruce Schneier, Applied Cryptography, Protocols, Algorithms, and Source Code in C, Second edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York (1996) p. 267 "DES did more to galvanize the field of cryptanalysis than anything else. Now there was an algorithm to study." An astonishing share of the open literature in cryptography in the 1970s and 1980s dealt with the DES, and the DES is the standard against which every symmetric key algorithm since has been compared. William E. Burr, "Data Encryption Standard", in NIST's anthology "A Century of Excellence in Measurements, Standards, and Technology: A Chronicle of Selected NBS/NIST Publications, 1901–2000. HTML PDF Chronology Date Year Event 15 May 1973 NBS publishes a first request for a standard encryption algorithm 27 August 1974 NBS publishes a second request for encryption algorithms 17 March 1975 DES is published in the Federal Register for comment August 1976 First workshop on DES September 1976 Second workshop, discussing mathematical foundation of DES November 1976 DES is approved as a standard 15 January 1977 DES is published as a FIPS standard FIPS PUB 46 1983 DES is reaffirmed for the first time 1986 Videocipher II, a TV satellite scrambling system based upon DES begins use by HBO 22 January 1988 DES is reaffirmed for the second time as FIPS 46-1, superseding FIPS PUB 46 July 1990 Biham and Shamir rediscover differential cryptanalysis, and apply it to a 15-round DES-like cryptosystem. 1992 Biham and Shamir report the first theoretical attack with less complexity than brute force: differential cryptanalysis. However, it requires an unrealistic 247 chosen plaintexts. 30 December 1993 DES is reaffirmed for the third time as FIPS 46-2 1994 The first experimental cryptanalysis of DES is performed using linear cryptanalysis (Matsui, 1994). June 1997 The DESCHALL Project breaks a message encrypted with DES for the first time in public. July 1998 The EFF's DES cracker (Deep Crack) breaks a DES key in 56 hours. January 1999 Together, Deep Crack and distributed.net break a DES key in 22 hours and 15 minutes. 25 October 1999 DES is reaffirmed for the fourth time as FIPS 46-3, which specifies the preferred use of Triple DES, with single DES permitted only in legacy systems. 26 November 2001 The Advanced Encryption Standard is published in FIPS 197 26 May 2002 The AES standard becomes effective 26 July 2004 The withdrawal of FIPS 46-3 (and a couple of related standards) is proposed in the Federal Register FR Doc 04-16894 19 May 2005 NIST withdraws FIPS 46-3 (see Federal Register vol 70, number 96) April 2006 The FPGA based parallel machine COPACOBANA of the University of Bochum and Kiel, Germany, breaks DES in 9 days at $10,000 hardware cost. Within a year software improvements reduced the average time to 6.4 days. Replacement algorithms Concerns about security and the relatively slow operation of DES in software motivated researchers to propose a variety of alternative block cipher designs, which started to appear in the late 1980s and early 1990s: examples include RC5, Blowfish, IDEA, NewDES, SAFER, CAST5 and FEAL. Most of these designs kept the 64-bit block size of DES, and could act as a "drop-in" replacement, although they typically used a 64-bit or 128-bit key. In the USSR the GOST 28147-89 algorithm was introduced, with a 64-bit block size and a 256-bit key, which was also used in Russia later. DES itself can be adapted and reused in a more secure scheme. Many former DES users now use Triple DES (TDES) which was described and analysed by one of DES's patentees (see FIPS Pub 46-3); it involves applying DES three times with two (2TDES) or three (3TDES) different keys. TDES is regarded as adequately secure, although it is quite slow. A less computationally expensive alternative is DES-X, which increases the key size by XORing extra key material before and after DES. GDES was a DES variant proposed as a way to speed up encryption, but it was shown to be susceptible to differential cryptanalysis. In 2001, after an international competition, NIST selected a new cipher, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), as a replacement. The algorithm which was selected as the AES was submitted by its designers under the name Rijndael. Other finalists in the NIST AES competition included RC6, Serpent, MARS and Twofish. Description For brevity, the following description omits the exact transformations and permutations which specify the algorithm; for reference, the details can be found in DES supplementary material. DES is the archetypal block cipher — an algorithm that takes a fixed-length string of plaintext bits and transforms it through a series of complicated operations into another ciphertext bitstring of the same length. In the case of DES, the block size is 64 bits. DES also uses a key to customize the transformation, so that decryption can supposedly only be performed by those who know the particular key used to encrypt. The key ostensibly consists of 64 bits; however, only 56 of these are actually used by the algorithm. Eight bits are used solely for checking parity, and are thereafter discarded. Hence the effective key length is 56 bits, and it is usually quoted as such. Like other block ciphers, DES by itself is not a secure means of encryption but must instead be used in a mode of operation. FIPS-81 specifies several modes for use with DES. FIPS 81 - Des Modes of Operation Further comments on the usage of DES are contained in FIPS-74. FIPS 74 - Guidelines for Implementing and Using the NBS Data Overall structure The algorithm's overall structure is shown in Figure 1: there are 16 identical stages of processing, termed rounds. There is also an initial and final permutation, termed IP and FP, which are inverses (IP "undoes" the action of FP, and vice versa). IP and FP have almost no cryptographic significance, but were apparently included in order to facilitate loading blocks in and out of mid-1970s hardware, as well as to make DES run slower in software. Before the main rounds, the block is divided into two 32-bit halves and processed alternately; this criss-crossing is known as the Feistel scheme. The Feistel structure ensures that decryption and encryption are very similar processes — the only difference is that the subkeys are applied in the reverse order when decrypting. The rest of the algorithm is identical. This greatly simplifies implementation, particularly in hardware, as there is no need for separate encryption and decryption algorithms. The symbol denotes the exclusive-OR (XOR) operation. The F-function scrambles half a block together with some of the key. The output from the F-function is then combined with the other half of the block, and the halves are swapped before the next round. After the final round, the halves are not swapped; this is a feature of the Feistel structure which makes encryption and decryption similar processes. The Feistel (F) function The F-function, depicted in Figure 2, operates on half a block (32 bits) at a time and consists of four stages: Expansion — the 32-bit half-block is expanded to 48 bits using the expansion permutation, denoted E in the diagram, by duplicating some of the bits. Key mixing — the result is combined with a subkey using an XOR operation. Sixteen 48-bit subkeys — one for each round — are derived from the main key using the key schedule (described below). Substitution — after mixing in the subkey, the block is divided into eight 6-bit pieces before processing by the S-boxes, or substitution boxes. Each of the eight S-boxes replaces its six input bits with four output bits according to a non-linear transformation, provided in the form of a lookup table. The S-boxes provide the core of the security of DES — without them, the cipher would be linear, and trivially breakable. Permutation — finally, the 32 outputs from the S-boxes are rearranged according to a fixed permutation, the P-box. The alternation of substitution from the S-boxes, and permutation of bits from the P-box and E-expansion provides so-called "confusion and diffusion" respectively, a concept identified by Claude Shannon in the 1940s as a necessary condition for a secure yet practical cipher. Key schedule Figure 3 illustrates the key schedule for encryption — the algorithm which generates the subkeys. Initially, 56 bits of the key are selected from the initial 64 by Permuted Choice 1 (PC-1) — the remaining eight bits are either discarded or used as parity check bits. The 56 bits are then divided into two 28-bit halves; each half is thereafter treated separately. In successive rounds, both halves are rotated left by one or two bits (specified for each round), and then 48 subkey bits are selected by Permuted Choice 2 (PC-2) — 24 bits from the left half, and 24 from the right. The rotations (denoted by "<<<" in the diagram) mean that a different set of bits is used in each subkey; each bit is used in approximately 14 out of the 16 subkeys. The key schedule for decryption is similar — the subkeys are in reverse order compared to encryption. Apart from that change, the process is the same as for encryption. Security and cryptanalysis Although more information has been published on the cryptanalysis of DES than any other block cipher, the most practical attack to date is still a brute force approach. Various minor cryptanalytic properties are known, and three theoretical attacks are possible which, while having a theoretical complexity less than a brute force attack, require an unrealistic amount of known or chosen plaintext to carry out, and are not a concern in practice. Brute force attack For any cipher, the most basic method of attack is brute force — trying every possible key in turn. The length of the key determines the number of possible keys, and hence the feasibility of this approach. For DES, questions were raised about the adequacy of its key size early on, even before it was adopted as a standard, and it was the small key size, rather than theoretical cryptanalysis, which dictated a need for a replacement algorithm. It is known that the NSA encouraged, if not persuaded, IBM to reduce the key size from 128 to 64 bits, and from there to 56 bits; this is often taken as an indication that the NSA thought it would be able to break keys of this length even in the mid-1970s. In academia, various proposals for a DES-cracking machine were advanced. In 1977, Diffie and Hellman proposed a machine costing an estimated US$20 million which could find a DES key in a single day. By 1993, Wiener had proposed a key-search machine costing US$1 million which would find a key within 7 hours. However, none of these early proposals were ever implemented—or, at least, no implementations were publicly acknowledged. The vulnerability of DES was practically demonstrated in the late 1990s. In 1997, RSA Security sponsored a series of contests, offering a $10,000 prize to the first team that broke a message encrypted with DES for the contest. That contest was won by the DESCHALL Project, led by Rocke Verser, Matt Curtin, and Justin Dolske, using idle cycles of thousands of computers across the Internet. The feasibility of cracking DES quickly was demonstrated in 1998 when a custom DES-cracker was built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), a cyberspace civil rights group, at the cost of approximately US$250,000 (see EFF DES cracker). Their motivation was to show that DES was breakable in practice as well as in theory: "There are many people who will not believe a truth until they can see it with their own eyes. Showing them a physical machine that can crack DES in a few days is the only way to convince some people that they really cannot trust their security to DES." The machine brute-forced a key in a little more than 2 days search. The only other confirmed DES cracker was the COPACOBANA machine (abbreviation of cost-optimized parallel code breaker) built in 2006 by teams of the Universities of Bochum and Kiel, both in Germany. Unlike the EFF machine, COPACOBANA consists of commercially available, reconfigurable integrated circuits. 120 of these Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) of type XILINX Spartan3-1000 run in parallel. They are grouped in 20 DIMM modules, each containing 6 FPGAs. The use of reconfigurable hardware makes the machine applicable to other code breaking tasks as well. The figure shows a full-sized COPACOBANA. One of the more interesting aspects of COPACOBANA is its cost factor. One machine can be built for approximately $10,000. The cost decrease by roughly a factor of 25 over the EFF machine is an impressive example for the continuous improvement of digital hardware. Adjusting for inflation over 8 years yields an even higher improvement of about 30x. Interestingly Moore's law predicts an improvement of about 32, since about 8 years have passed between the design of the two machines, which allows for about five doublings of computer power (or 5 reductions by 50% of the cost for doing the same computation). Attacks faster than brute-force There are three attacks known that can break the full sixteen rounds of DES with less complexity than a brute-force search: differential cryptanalysis (DC), linear cryptanalysis (LC), and Davies' attack. However, the attacks are theoretical and are unfeasible to mount in practice; these types of attack are sometimes termed certificational weaknesses. Differential cryptanalysis was rediscovered in the late 1980s by Eli Biham and Adi Shamir; it was known earlier to both IBM and the NSA and kept secret. To break the full 16 rounds, differential cryptanalysis requires 247 chosen plaintexts. DES was designed to be resistant to DC. Linear cryptanalysis was discovered by Mitsuru Matsui, and needs 243 known plaintexts (Matsui, 1993); the method was implemented (Matsui, 1994), and was the first experimental cryptanalysis of DES to be reported. There is no evidence that DES was tailored to be resistant to this type of attack. A generalisation of LC — multiple linear cryptanalysis — was suggested in 1994 (Kaliski and Robshaw), and was further refined by Biryukov et al. (2004); their analysis suggests that multiple linear approximations could be used to reduce the data requirements of the attack by at least a factor of 4 (i.e. 241 instead of 243). A similar reduction in data complexity can be obtained in a chosen-plaintext variant of linear cryptanalysis (Knudsen and Mathiassen, 2000). Junod (2001) performed several experiments to determine the actual time complexity of linear cryptanalysis, and reported that it was somewhat faster than predicted, requiring time equivalent to 239–241 DES evaluations. Improved Davies' attack: while linear and differential cryptanalysis are general techniques and can be applied to a number of schemes, Davies' attack is a specialised technique for DES, first suggested by Donald Davies in the eighties, and improved by Biham and Biryukov (1997). The most powerful form of the attack requires 250 known plaintexts, has a computational complexity of 250, and has a 51% success rate. There have also been attacks proposed against reduced-round versions of the cipher, i.e. versions of DES with fewer than sixteen rounds. Such analysis gives an insight into how many rounds are needed for safety, and how much of a "security margin" the full version retains. Differential-linear cryptanalysis was proposed by Langford and Hellman in 1994, and combines differential and linear cryptanalysis into a single attack. An enhanced version of the attack can break 9-round DES with 215.8 known plaintexts and has a 229.2 time complexity (Biham et al., 2002). Minor cryptanalytic properties DES exhibits the complementation property, namely that where is the bitwise complement of denotes encryption with key and denote plaintext and ciphertext blocks respectively. The complementation property means that the work for a brute force attack could be reduced by a factor of 2 (or a single bit) under a chosen-plaintext assumption. DES also has four so-called weak keys. Encryption (E) and decryption (D) under a weak key have the same effect (see involution): or equivalently, There are also six pairs of semi-weak keys. Encryption with one of the pair of semiweak keys, , operates identically to decryption with the other, : or equivalently, It is easy enough to avoid the weak and semiweak keys in an implementation, either by testing for them explicitly, or simply by choosing keys randomly; the odds of picking a weak or semiweak key by chance are negligible. The keys are not really any weaker than any other keys anyway, as they do not give an attack any advantage. DES has also been proved not to be a group, or more precisely, the set (for all possible keys ) under functional composition is not a group, nor "close" to being a group (Campbell and Wiener, 1992). This was an open question for some time, and if it had been the case, it would have been possible to break DES, and multiple encryption modes such as Triple DES would not increase the security. It is known that the maximum cryptographic security of DES is limited to about 64 bits, even when independently choosing all round subkeys instead of deriving them from a key, which would otherwise permit a security of 768 bits. See also DES supplementary material Symmetric key algorithm Advanced Encryption Standard Skipjack References Ehrsam et al., Product Block Cipher System for Data Security, , Filed February 24, 1975 (preprint) Eli Biham, Adi Shamir, Differential Cryptanalysis of the Data Encryption Standard, Springer Verlag, 1993. ISBN 0-387-97930-1, ISBN 3-540-97930-1. Eli Biham, Alex Biryukov: An Improvement of Davies' Attack on DES. J. Cryptology 10(3): 195–206 (1997) Eli Biham, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller: Enhancing Differential-Linear Cryptanalysis. ASIACRYPT 2002: pp254–266 Eli Biham: A Fast New DES Implementation in Software Cracking DES: Secrets of Encryption Research, Wiretap Politics, and Chip Design, Electronic Frontier Foundation (preprint). Keith W. Campbell, Michael J. Wiener: DES is not a Group. CRYPTO 1992: pp512–520 Don Coppersmith. (1994). The data encryption standard (DES) and its strength against attacks. IBM Journal of Research and Development, 38(3), 243–250. Whitfield Diffie, Martin Hellman, "Exhaustive Cryptanalysis of the NBS Data Encryption Standard" IEEE Computer 10(6), June 1977, pp74–84 John Gilmore, "Cracking DES: Secrets of Encryption Research, Wiretap Politics and Chip Design", 1998, O'Reilly, ISBN 1-56592-520-3. Pascal Junod, "On the Complexity of Matsui's Attack." Selected Areas in Cryptography, 2001, pp199–211. Burton S. Kaliski Jr., Matthew J. B. Robshaw: Linear Cryptanalysis Using Multiple Approximations. CRYPTO 1994: pp26–39 Lars R. Knudsen, John Erik Mathiassen: A Chosen-Plaintext Linear Attack on DES. Fast Software Encryption - FSE 2000: pp262–272 Susan K. Langford, Martin E. Hellman: Differential-Linear Cryptanalysis. CRYPTO 1994: 17–25 Steven Levy, Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government Saving Privacy in the Digital Age, 2001, ISBN 0-14-024432-8. (preprint) National Bureau of Standards, Data Encryption Standard, FIPS-Pub.46. National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington D.C., January 1977. Notes External links FIPS 46-3: The official document describing the DES standard (PDF); An older version in HTML. The EFF DES cracker project COPACOBANA, a $10,000 DES cracker based on FPGAs by the Universities of Bochum and Kiel Helger Lipmaa's links for DES Worked DES example A Javascript DES calculator showing intermediate values A step-by-step presentation of the DES scheme and a reliable message encrypting/decrypting application John Savard's description of DES A Fast New DES Implementation in Software - Biham Bit slice implementation of DES On Multiple Linear Approximations FPGA DES Cracking at hardware-hacking.com RFC4772 : Security Implications of Using the Data Encryption Standard (DES) be-x-old:DES | Data_Encryption_Standard |@lemmatized data:16 encryption:36 standard:38 de:103 block:22 cipher:22 form:4 share:2 secret:5 select:8 national:10 bureau:4 official:2 federal:6 information:7 process:5 fips:22 united:2 state:3 subsequently:2 enjoy:1 widespread:1 use:30 internationally:1 base:5 symmetric:3 key:53 algorithm:37 bit:38 initially:2 controversial:1 classified:1 design:13 element:1 relatively:2 short:1 length:7 suspicion:3 security:16 agency:3 nsa:15 backdoor:1 consequently:1 come:2 intense:1 academic:4 scrutiny:1 motivate:2 modern:1 understanding:1 cryptanalysis:31 consider:3 insecure:1 many:6 application:3 chiefly:1 due:1 size:11 small:2 january:6 distribute:2 net:2 electronic:3 frontier:3 foundation:4 collaborate:1 publicly:2 break:13 des:15 hour:4 minute:2 see:8 chronology:2 also:11 analytical:1 result:2 demonstrate:4 theoretical:8 weakness:4 although:5 unfeasible:2 mount:2 practice:4 believe:2 practically:3 secure:5 triple:7 attack:31 recent:1 year:7 supersede:3 advanced:5 aes:6 documentation:1 distinction:1 make:5 refer:1 dea:1 spoken:1 either:3 spell:1 abbreviation:2 pronounce:1 one:10 syllable:1 acronym:1 history:2 origin:1 go:1 back:3 early:5 conclude:1 study:5 u:8 government:5 computer:4 need:7 body:1 nbs:3 name:2 nist:10 institute:3 technology:4 identify:2 wide:1 encrypt:5 unclassified:3 sensitive:2 accordingly:1 may:6 consult:1 solicit:2 proposal:3 would:7 meet:1 rigorous:1 criterion:2 none:2 submission:1 however:6 turn:2 suitable:1 second:5 request:4 issue:1 august:3 time:13 ibm:12 submit:2 candidate:1 deem:1 acceptable:1 develop:2 period:1 horst:1 feistel:6 lucifer:3 team:4 involve:2 analysis:3 include:5 walter:4 tuchman:5 coppersmith:4 alan:2 konheim:2 carl:1 meyer:1 mike:1 matyas:1 roy:1 adler:1 edna:1 grossman:1 bill:1 notz:1 lynn:1 smith:1 bryant:1 tuckerman:1 involvement:2 march:2 propose:9 publish:11 register:4 public:5 comment:4 following:2 two:6 open:4 workshop:3 hold:1 discuss:3 criticism:2 various:3 party:1 cryptography:7 pioneer:1 martin:3 hellman:5 whitfield:2 diffie:3 cite:1 shorten:1 mysterious:1 box:14 evidence:2 improper:2 interference:1 covertly:1 weaken:1 intelligence:3 else:2 could:7 easily:1 read:1 encrypted:1 message:4 designer:2 send:1 washington:2 different:3 senate:1 committee:2 review:1 action:2 determine:3 whether:1 summary:1 finding:1 write:1 development:4 convinced:1 reduced:1 sufficient:1 indirectly:1 assist:1 structure:5 certify:1 final:3 best:1 knowledge:1 free:1 statistical:1 mathematical:2 find:4 tamper:1 way:3 invent:1 pertinent:1 decision:2 regard:2 concur:1 agree:1 upon:2 adequate:1 commercial:2 intend:1 another:3 member:1 quote:3 say:4 entirely:1 within:3 ibmers:1 dictate:2 single:5 wire:1 contrast:1 declassified:1 book:1 cryptologic:1 nb:5 private:1 industry:1 first:10 offering:1 disappointing:1 begin:2 work:5 howard:1 rosenblum:1 deputy:1 director:1 research:4 engineering:1 discover:3 modification:2 general:3 give:3 clearance:1 bring:1 jointly:1 hidden:1 allay:1 independent:1 discovery:1 publication:3 eli:6 biham:11 adi:3 shamir:5 differential:15 method:5 much:2 resistant:3 choose:5 random:1 strongly:1 suggest:4 know:10 technique:5 indeed:1 case:3 original:1 accord:4 steven:2 levy:5 watson:1 researcher:2 cryptanalytic:3 ask:2 keep:3 crypto:5 p:5 explains:1 secrecy:1 powerful:2 tool:1 scheme:5 concern:3 domain:1 adversely:1 affect:1 hey:1 stamp:1 document:2 confidential:1 actually:2 put:1 number:4 lock:1 safe:1 classify:1 despite:1 approve:3 november:3 pub:5 authorize:1 reaffirm:5 revise:1 latter:1 prescribing:1 finally:2 follow:1 competition:3 officially:1 withdraw:2 special:1 recommendation:1 tdea:2 version:6 specify:4 ansi:2 american:2 sp:1 iso:2 iec:2 part:1 component:1 linear:18 brute:10 force:10 highlight:1 replacement:5 detail:2 later:2 article:1 introduction:1 catalyst:1 particularly:2 crack:9 retrospective:1 jump:1 start:2 nonmilitary:1 cryptographer:2 except:1 military:1 organization:1 little:2 active:1 cryptologist:1 mathematics:1 department:2 strong:1 program:1 company:1 consultant:1 generation:1 cryptanalyst:1 cut:1 teeth:1 analyze:1 try:2 word:1 bruce:2 schneier:2 apply:5 protocol:1 source:1 code:4 c:2 edition:1 john:4 wiley:1 son:1 new:4 york:1 galvanize:1 field:2 anything:1 astonishing:1 literature:1 dealt:1 every:2 since:2 compare:2 william:1 e:7 burr:1 anthology:1 century:1 excellence:1 measurement:1 chronicle:1 html:2 pdf:2 date:2 event:1 september:1 videocipher:1 ii:1 tv:1 satellite:1 scramble:2 system:3 hbo:1 july:3 rediscover:2 round:15 like:2 cryptosystem:1 report:3 less:4 complexity:8 require:5 unrealistic:2 chosen:4 plaintexts:5 december:1 third:1 experimental:2 perform:3 matsui:5 june:2 deschall:2 project:3 eff:6 cracker:6 deep:2 together:2 october:1 fourth:1 preferred:1 permit:2 legacy:1 become:1 effective:2 withdrawal:1 couple:1 related:1 fr:1 doc:1 vol:1 april:1 fpga:2 parallel:3 machine:12 copacobana:6 university:3 bochum:3 kiel:3 germany:2 day:5 hardware:6 cost:8 software:6 improvement:5 reduce:5 average:1 slow:3 operation:6 variety:1 alternative:2 appear:1 late:3 example:3 blowfish:1 idea:1 newdes:1 safer:1 feal:1 act:1 drop:1 typically:1 ussr:1 gost:1 introduce:1 russia:1 adapt:1 reuse:1 former:1 user:1 tdes:2 describe:3 analyse:1 patentee:1 three:4 adequately:1 quite:1 computationally:1 expensive:1 x:2 increase:2 xoring:1 extra:1 material:3 gdes:1 variant:2 speed:1 show:6 susceptible:1 international:1 rijndael:1 finalist:1 serpent:1 mar:1 twofish:1 description:3 brevity:1 omit:1 exact:1 transformation:3 permutation:6 reference:2 supplementary:2 archetypal:1 take:2 fixed:2 string:1 plaintext:6 transforms:1 series:2 complicated:1 ciphertext:2 bitstring:1 customize:1 decryption:7 supposedly:1 particular:1 ostensibly:1 consist:1 eight:4 solely:1 check:2 parity:2 thereafter:2 discard:2 hence:2 usually:1 mean:3 must:1 instead:3 mode:4 specifies:1 several:2 usage:1 contain:2 guideline:1 implement:3 overall:2 figure:4 identical:2 stage:2 processing:2 term:2 initial:2 ip:3 fp:3 inverse:1 undoes:1 vice:1 versa:1 almost:1 cryptographic:2 significance:1 apparently:1 order:3 facilitate:1 load:1 mid:2 well:3 run:2 main:2 divide:3 half:11 alternately:1 criss:1 crossing:1 ensure:1 similar:4 difference:1 subkeys:6 reverse:2 decrypting:1 rest:1 greatly:1 simplify:1 implementation:6 separate:1 symbol:1 denote:4 exclusive:1 xor:2 f:4 function:4 output:3 combine:3 swap:2 next:1 feature:1 depict:1 operate:2 consists:2 four:3 expansion:3 expand:1 diagram:2 duplicate:1 mix:2 subkey:4 sixteen:3 derive:2 schedule:4 substitution:3 piece:1 replace:1 six:2 input:1 non:1 provide:3 lookup:1 table:1 core:1 without:1 trivially:1 breakable:2 rearrange:1 alternation:1 call:2 confusion:1 diffusion:1 respectively:2 concept:1 claude:1 shannon:1 necessary:1 condition:1 yet:1 practical:2 illustrate:1 generate:1 permuted:2 choice:2 pc:2 remain:1 treat:1 separately:1 successive:1 rotate:1 leave:1 left:1 right:2 rotation:1 set:2 approximately:3 apart:1 change:1 still:1 approach:2 minor:2 property:4 possible:5 amount:1 carry:1 basic:1 feasibility:2 question:2 raise:1 adequacy:1 even:4 adopt:1 rather:1 encourage:1 persuade:1 often:1 indication:1 thought:1 able:1 academia:1 cracking:1 estimate:1 million:2 wiener:3 search:3 ever:1 least:2 acknowledge:1 vulnerability:1 rsa:1 sponsor:1 contest:3 offer:1 prize:1 win:1 lead:1 rocke:1 verser:1 matt:1 curtin:1 justin:1 dolske:1 idle:1 cycle:1 thousand:1 across:1 internet:1 quickly:1 custom:1 build:3 cyberspace:1 civil:1 group:6 motivation:1 theory:1 people:2 truth:1 eye:1 physical:1 convince:1 really:2 cannot:1 trust:1 confirm:1 optimize:1 breaker:1 unlike:1 commercially:1 available:1 reconfigurable:2 integrate:1 circuit:1 programmable:1 gate:1 array:1 fpgas:3 type:3 xilinx:1 dimm:1 module:1 applicable:1 task:1 full:4 interesting:1 aspect:1 factor:4 decrease:1 roughly:1 impressive:1 continuous:1 digital:2 adjust:1 inflation:1 yield:1 high:1 interestingly:1 moore:1 law:1 predict:2 pass:1 allow:1 five:1 doubling:1 power:1 reduction:2 computation:1 faster:1 dc:2 lc:2 davy:5 sometimes:1 termed:1 certificational:1 earlier:1 mitsuru:1 tailor:1 generalisation:1 multiple:5 kaliski:2 robshaw:2 far:1 refine:1 biryukov:3 et:3 al:3 approximation:3 requirement:1 obtain:1 knudsen:2 mathiassen:2 junod:2 experiment:1 actual:1 somewhat:1 fast:4 equivalent:1 evaluation:1 improved:1 specialised:1 donald:1 eighty:1 improve:1 known:2 computational:1 success:1 rate:1 insight:1 safety:1 margin:1 retains:1 langford:2 enhanced:1 exhibit:1 complementation:2 namely:1 bitwise:1 complement:1 denotes:1 assumption:1 weak:6 effect:1 involution:1 equivalently:2 pair:2 semi:1 semiweak:3 identically:1 easy:1 enough:1 avoid:1 test:1 explicitly:1 simply:1 randomly:1 odds:1 pick:1 chance:1 negligible:1 anyway:1 advantage:1 prove:1 precisely:1 functional:1 composition:1 close:1 campbell:2 maximum:1 limit:1 independently:1 otherwise:1 advance:1 skipjack:1 ehrsam:1 product:1 file:1 february:1 preprint:3 springer:1 verlag:1 isbn:4 alex:1 j:3 cryptology:1 orr:1 dunkelman:1 nathan:1 keller:1 enhance:1 asiacrypt:1 wiretap:2 politics:2 chip:2 keith:1 w:1 michael:1 strength:1 journal:1 exhaustive:1 ieee:1 gilmore:1 reilly:1 pascal:1 area:1 burton:1 jr:1 matthew:1 b:1 lars:1 r:1 erik:1 fse:1 susan:1 k:1 rebel:1 beat:1 save:1 privacy:1 age:1 commerce:1 note:1 external:1 link:2 old:2 helger:1 lipmaa:1 javascript:1 calculator:1 intermediate:1 value:1 step:2 presentation:1 reliable:1 decrypt:1 savard:1 slice:1 hacking:1 com:1 implication:1 |@bigram block_cipher:11 martin_hellman:2 whitfield_diffie:2 eli_biham:6 biham_adi:3 adi_shamir:3 shamir_differential:2 differential_cryptanalysis:10 adversely_affect:1 fips_pub:5 iso_iec:2 linear_cryptanalysis:12 bruce_schneier:2 wiley_son:1 anything_else:1 chosen_plaintexts:2 vice_versa:1 encryption_decryption:2 exclusive_xor:1 claude_shannon:1 diffie_hellman:1 integrate_circuit:1 programmable_gate:1 adjust_inflation:1 et_al:3 chosen_plaintext:2 computational_complexity:1 plaintext_ciphertext:1 springer_verlag:1 external_link:1 encrypt_decrypt:1 |
3,259 | Jeroboam_II | Jeroboam II (ירבעם השני) was the son and successor of Jehoash, (alternatively spelled Joash), and the fourteenth king of the ancient Kingdom of Israel, over which he ruled for forty-one years according to the 2 Kings (2 Kings 14:23). His reign was contemporary with those of Amaziah (2 Kings 14:23) and Uzziah (15:1), kings of Judah. He was victorious over the Syrians (13:4; 14:26, 27), and extended Israel to its former limits, from "the entering of Hamath to the sea of the plain" (14:25; Amos 6:14). William F. Albright has dated his reign to 786 BC – 746 BC, while E. R. Thiele says he was coregent with Jehoash 793 BC to 782 BC and sole ruler 782 BC to 753 BC. In 1910, G. A. Reisner found sixty-three inscribed potsherds while excavating the royal palace at Samaria, which were later dated to the reign of Jeroboam II and mention regnal years extending from the ninth to the 17th of his reign. These ostraca, while unremarkable in themselves, contain valuable information about the script, language, religion and administrative system of the period. Archaeological evidence confirms the biblical account of his reign as the most prosperous that Israel had yet known. By the late 8th century BC the territory of Israel was the most densely settled in the entire Levant, with a population of about 350,000. Broshi, M, and Finkelstein, I, The Population of Palestine in Iron Age II, Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research, 287: 47-60. This prosperity was built on trade in olive oil, wine, and possibly horses, with Egypt and especially Assyria providing the markets. The number of settlements devoted to olive production, identified by olive persses and other installations, increased dramatically in the 8th century. The Samaria ostraca record the commerce in oil and wine. For a brief description, see Finkelstein, I, and Silberman, N.A, "The Bible Unearthed", 2001. Jeroboam's reign was also the period of the prophets Hosea, Joel, and Amos, all of whom condemned the materialism and selfishness of the Israelite elite of their day: "Woe unto those who lie upon beds of ivory...eat lambs from the flock and calves...[and] sing idle songs..." The book of Kings, written a century later than the time of Jeroboam and from the perspective of the puritanical court of Judah, condemns Jeroboam for doing "evil in the eyes of the Lord", meaning both the oppression of the poor and his continuing support of the cult centres of Dan and Bethel, in opposition to the temple in Jerusalem. His name occurs in the Old Testament only in 2 Kings 13:13; 14:16, 23, 27, 28, 29; 15:1, 8; 1 Chronicles 5:17; Hosea 1:1; and Amos 1:1; 7:9, 10, 11. In all other passages it is Jeroboam I, the son of Nebat that is meant. See also Jonah was the prophet during Jeroboam II's reign. Amos also prophesied in the days of Jeroboam II Amos 1:1-5 References | Jeroboam_II |@lemmatized jeroboam:8 ii:5 ירבעם:1 השני:1 son:2 successor:1 jehoash:2 alternatively:1 spell:1 joash:1 fourteenth:1 king:7 ancient:1 kingdom:1 israel:4 rule:1 forty:1 one:1 year:2 accord:1 reign:7 contemporary:1 amaziah:1 uzziah:1 judah:2 victorious:1 syrian:1 extend:2 former:1 limit:1 entering:1 hamath:1 sea:1 plain:1 amos:5 william:1 f:1 albright:1 date:2 bc:7 e:1 r:1 thiele:1 say:1 coregent:1 sole:1 ruler:1 g:1 reisner:1 find:1 sixty:1 three:1 inscribed:1 potsherd:1 excavate:1 royal:1 palace:1 samaria:2 later:2 mention:1 regnal:1 ninth:1 ostraca:2 unremarkable:1 contain:1 valuable:1 information:1 script:1 language:1 religion:1 administrative:1 system:1 period:2 archaeological:1 evidence:1 confirm:1 biblical:1 account:1 prosperous:1 yet:1 know:1 late:1 century:3 territory:1 densely:1 settle:1 entire:1 levant:1 population:2 broshi:1 finkelstein:2 palestine:1 iron:1 age:1 bulletin:1 american:1 school:1 oriental:1 research:1 prosperity:1 build:1 trade:1 olive:3 oil:2 wine:2 possibly:1 horse:1 egypt:1 especially:1 assyria:1 provide:1 market:1 number:1 settlement:1 devote:1 production:1 identify:1 persses:1 installation:1 increase:1 dramatically:1 record:1 commerce:1 brief:1 description:1 see:2 silberman:1 n:1 bible:1 unearthed:1 also:3 prophet:2 hosea:2 joel:1 condemn:1 materialism:1 selfishness:1 israelite:1 elite:1 day:2 woe:1 unto:1 lie:1 upon:1 bed:1 ivory:1 eat:1 lamb:1 flock:1 calf:1 sing:1 idle:1 song:1 book:1 write:1 time:1 perspective:1 puritanical:1 court:1 condemns:1 evil:1 eye:1 lord:1 mean:2 oppression:1 poor:1 continue:1 support:1 cult:1 centre:1 dan:1 bethel:1 opposition:1 temple:1 jerusalem:1 name:1 occur:1 old:1 testament:1 chronicle:1 passage:1 nebat:1 jonah:1 prophesy:1 reference:1 |@bigram f_albright:1 r_thiele:1 reign_jeroboam:1 archaeological_evidence:1 olive_oil:1 finkelstein_silberman:1 bible_unearthed:1 prophet_hosea:1 |
3,260 | Chandrasekhar_limit | The Chandrasekhar limit limits the mass of bodies made from electron-degenerate matter, a dense form of matter which consists of nuclei immersed in a gas of electrons. The limit is the maximum nonrotating mass which can be supported against gravitational collapse by electron degeneracy pressure. It is named after the astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, and is commonly given as being about 1.4 p. 55, How A Supernova Explodes, Hans A. Bethe and Gerald Brown, pp. 51–62 in Formation And Evolution of Black Holes in the Galaxy: Selected Papers with Commentary, Hans Albrecht Bethe, Gerald Edward Brown, and Chang-Hwan Lee, River Edge, NJ: World Scientific: 2003. ISBN 981238250X. solar masses. As white dwarfs are composed of electron-degenerate matter, no nonrotating white dwarf can be heavier than the Chandrasekhar limit. Stars produce energy through nuclear fusion, producing heavier elements from lighter ones. The heat generated from these reactions prevents gravitational collapse of the star. Over time, the star builds up a central core which consists of elements which the temperature at the center of the star is not sufficient to fuse. For main-sequence stars with a mass below approximately 8 solar masses, the mass of this core will remain below the Chandrasekhar limit, and they will eventually lose mass (as planetary nebulae) until only the core, which becomes a white dwarf, remains. Stars with higher mass will develop a degenerate core whose mass will grow until it exceeds the limit. At this point the star will explode in a core-collapse supernova, leaving behind either a neutron star or a black hole. White dwarfs in open clusters. VIII. NGC 2516: a test for the mass-radius and initial-final mass relations, D. Koester and D. Reimers, Astronomy and Astrophysics 313 (1996), pp. 810–814. An Empirical Initial-Final Mass Relation from Hot, Massive White Dwarfs in NGC 2168 (M35), Kurtis A. Williams, M. Bolte, and Detlev Koester, Astrophysical Journal 615, #1 (2004), pp. L49–L52; also arXiv astro-ph/0409447. How Massive Single Stars End Their Life, A. Heger, C. L. Fryer, S. E. Woosley, N. Langer, and D. H. Hartmann, Astrophysical Journal 591, #1 (2003), pp. 288–300. Computed values for the limit will vary depending on the approximations used, the nuclear composition of the mass, and the temperature. Chandrasekhar The Highly Collapsed Configurations of a Stellar Mass, S. Chandrasekhar, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 91 (1931), 456–466. , eq. (36), The Highly Collapsed Configurations of a Stellar Mass (second paper), S. Chandrasekhar, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 95 (1935), pp. 207--225. , eq. (58), On Stars, Their Evolution and Their Stability, Nobel Prize lecture, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, December 8, 1983. , eq. (43) gives a value of Here, μe is the average molecular weight per electron, mH is the mass of the hydrogen atom, and ω30≈2.018236 is a constant connected with the solution to the Lane-Emden equation. Numerically, this value is approximately (2/μe)2 · 2.85 · 1030 kg, or 1.43 (2/μe)2 M☉, where M☉=1.989·1030 kg is the standard solar mass. Standards for Astronomical Catalogues, Version 2.0, section 3.2.2, web page, accessed 12-I-2007. As is the Planck mass, MPl≈2.176·10−8 kg, the limit is of the order of MPl3/mH2. Physics Electron degeneracy pressure is a quantum-mechanical effect arising from the Pauli exclusion principle. Since electrons are fermions, no two electrons can be in the same state, so not all electrons can be in the minimum-energy level. Rather, electrons must occupy a band of energy levels. Compression of the electron gas increases the number of electrons in a given volume and raises the maximum energy level in the occupied band. Therefore, the energy of the electrons will increase upon compression, so pressure must be exerted on the electron gas to compress it. This is the origin of electron degeneracy pressure. Radius-mass relations for a model white dwarf. The green curve uses the general pressure law for an ideal Fermi gas, while the blue curve is for a non-relativistic ideal Fermi gas. The black line marks the ultra-relativistic limit. In the nonrelativistic case, electron degeneracy pressure gives rise to an equation of state of the form P=K1ρ5/3. Solving the hydrostatic equation leads to a model white dwarf which is a polytrope of index 3/2 and therefore has radius inversely proportional to the cube root of its mass, and volume inversely proportional to its mass. The Density of White Dwarf Stars, S. Chandrasekhar, Philosophical Magazine (7th series) 11 (1931), pp. 592–596. As the mass of a model white dwarf increases, the typical energies to which degeneracy pressure forces the electrons are no longer negligible relative to their rest masses. The velocities of the electrons approach the speed of light, and special relativity must be taken into account. In the strongly relativistic limit, we find that the equation of state takes the form P=K2ρ4/3. This will yield a polytrope of index 3, which will have a total mass, Mlimit say, depending only on K2. The Maximum Mass of Ideal White Dwarfs, S. Chandrasekhar, Astrophysical Journal 74 (1931), pp. 81–82. For a fully relativistic treatment, the equation of state used will interpolate between the equations P=K1ρ5/3 for small ρ and P=K2ρ4/3 for large ρ. When this is done, the model radius still decreases with mass, but becomes zero at Mlimit. This is the Chandrasekhar limit. The curves of radius against mass for the non-relativistic and relativistic models are shown in the graph. They are colored blue and green, respectively. μe has been set equal to 2. Radius is measured in standard solar radii or kilometers, and mass in standard solar masses. A more accurate value of the limit than that given by this simple model requires adjusting for various factors, including electrostatic interactions between the electrons and nuclei and effects caused by nonzero temperature. The Neutron Star and Black Hole Initial Mass Function, F. X. Timmes, S. E. Woosley, and Thomas A. Weaver, Astrophysical Journal 457 (February 1, 1996), pp. 834–843. Lieb and Yau A rigorous examination of the Chandrasekhar theory of stellar collapse, Elliott H. Lieb and Horng-Tzer Yau, Astrophysical Journal 323 (1987), pp. 140–144. have given a rigorous derivation of the limit from a relativistic many-particle Schrödinger equation. History In 1926, the British physicist Ralph H. Fowler observed that the relationship between the density, energy and temperature of white dwarfs could be explained by viewing them as a gas of nonrelativistic, non-interacting electrons and nuclei which obeyed Fermi-Dirac statistics. On Dense Matter, R. H. Fowler, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 87 (1926), pp. 114–122. This Fermi gas model was then used by the British physicist E. C. Stoner in 1929 to calculate the relationship between the mass, radius, and density of white dwarfs, assuming them to be homogenous spheres. The Limiting Density of White Dwarf Stars, Edmund C. Stoner, Philosophical Magazine (7th series) 7 (1929), pp. 63–70. Wilhelm Anderson applied a relativistic correction to this model, giving rise to a maximum possible mass of approximately 1.37 kg. Über die Grenzdichte der Materie und der Energie, Wilhelm Anderson, Zeitschrift für Physik 56, #11–12 (November 1929), pp. 851–856. DOI 10.1007/BF01340146. In 1930, Stoner derived the internal energy-density equation of state for a Fermi gas, and was then able to treat the mass-radius relationship in a fully relativistic manner, giving a limiting mass of approximately (for μe=2.5) 2.19 · 1030 kg. The Equilibrium of Dense Stars, Edmund C. Stoner, Philosophical Magazine (7th series) 9 (1930), pp. 944–963. Stoner went on to derive the pressure-density equation of state, which he published in 1932. The minimum pressure of a degenerate electron gas, E. C. Stoner, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 92 (May 1932), pp. 651–661. These equations of state were also previously published by the Russian physicist Yakov Frenkel in 1928, together with some other remarks on the physics of degenerate matter. Anwendung der Pauli-Fermischen Elektronengastheorie auf das Problem der Kohäsionskräfte, J. Frenkel, Zeitschrift für Physik 50, #3–4 (March 1928), pp. 234–248. DOI 10.1007/BF01328867. Frenkel's work, however, was ignored by the astronomical and astrophysical community. The article by Ya I Frenkel' on `binding forces' and the theory of white dwarfs, D. G. Yakovlev, Physics Uspekhi 37, #6 (1994), pp. 609–612. A series of papers published between 1931 and 1935 had its beginning on a trip from India to England in 1930, where the Indian physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar worked on the calculation of the statistics of a degenerate Fermi gas. Chandrasekhar's biographical memoir at the National Academy of Sciences, web page, accessed 12-I-2007. In these papers, Chandrasekhar solved the hydrostatic equation together with the nonrelativistic Fermi gas equation of state, and also treated the case of a relativistic Fermi gas, giving rise to the value of the limit shown above. Stellar Configurations with degenerate Cores, S. Chandrasekhar, The Observatory 57 (1934), pp. 373–377. Chandrasekhar reviews this work in his Nobel Prize lecture. This value was also computed in 1932 by the Soviet physicist Lev Davidovich Landau, On the Theory of Stars, in Collected Papers of L. D. Landau, ed. and with an introduction by D. ter Haar, New York: Gordon and Breach, 1965; originally published in Phys. Z. Sowjet. 1 (1932), 285. who, however, did not apply it to white dwarfs. Chandrasekhar's work on the limit aroused controversy, owing to the opposition of the British astrophysicist Arthur Stanley Eddington. Eddington was aware that the existence of black holes was theoretically possible, and also realized that the existence of the limit made their formation possible. However, he was unwilling to accept that this could happen. After a talk by Chandrasekhar on the limit in 1935, he replied: The star has to go on radiating and radiating and contracting and contracting until, I suppose, it gets down to a few km. radius, when gravity becomes strong enough to hold in the radiation, and the star can at last find peace. … I think there should be a law of Nature to prevent a star from behaving in this absurd way! Meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, Friday, 1935 January 11, The Observatory 58 (February 1935), pp. 33–41. Eddington's proposed solution to the perceived problem was to modify relativistic mechanics so as to make the law P=K1ρ5/3 universally applicable, even for large ρ. On "Relativistic Degeneracy", Sir A. S. Eddington, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 95 (1935), 194–206. Although Bohr, Fowler, Pauli, and other physicists agreed with Chandrasekhar's analysis, at the time, owing to Eddington's status, they were unwilling to publicly support Chandrasekhar. Empire of the Stars: Obsession, Friendship, and Betrayal in the Quest for Black Holes, Arthur I. Miller, Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005, ISBN 0-618-34151-X; reviewed at The Guardian: The battle of black holes. , pp. 110–111 Through the rest of his life, Eddington held to his position in his writings, The International Astronomical Union meeting in Paris, 1935, The Observatory 58 (September 1935), pp. 257–265, at p. 259. Note on "Relativistic Degeneracy", Sir A. S. Eddington, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 96 (November 1935), 20–21. The Pressure of a Degenerate Electron Gas and Related Problems, Arthur Eddington, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 152 (November 1, 1935), pp. 253–272. Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons, Sir Arthur Eddington, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1936, chapter 13. The physics of white dwarf matter, Sir A. S. Eddington, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 100 (June 1940), pp. 582–594. including his work on his fundamental theory. Fundamental Theory, Sir A. S. Eddington, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1946, §43–45. The drama associated with this disagreement is one of the main themes of Empire of the Stars, Arthur I. Miller's biography of Chandrasekhar. In Miller's view: Chandra's discovery might well have transformed and accelerated developments in both physics and astrophysics in the 1930s. Instead, Eddington's heavy-handed intervention lent weighty support to the conservative community astrophysicists, who steadfastly refused even to consider the idea that stars might collapse to nothing. As a result, Chandra's work was almost forgotten., p. 150 Applications The core of a star is kept from collapsing by the heat generated by the fusion of nuclei of lighter elements into heavier ones. At various points in a star's life, the nuclei required for this process will be exhausted, and the core will collapse, causing it to become denser and hotter. A critical situation arises when iron accumulates in the core, since iron nuclei are incapable of generating further energy through fusion. If the core becomes sufficiently dense, electron degeneracy pressure will play a significant part in stabilizing it against gravitational collapse. The evolution and explosion of massive stars, S. E. Woosley, A. Heger, and T. A. Weaver, Reviews of Modern Physics 74, #4 (October 2002), pp. 1015–1071. If a main-sequence star is not too massive (less than approximately 8 solar masses), it will eventually shed enough mass to form a white dwarf having mass below the Chandrasekhar limit, which will consist of the former core of the star. For more massive stars, electron degeneracy pressure will not keep the iron core from collapsing to very great density, leading to formation of a neutron star, black hole, or, speculatively, a quark star. (For very massive, low-metallicity stars, it is also possible that instabilities will destroy the star completely.) Strange quark matter in stars: a general overview, Jürgen Schaffner-Bielich, Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 31, #6 (2005), pp. S651–S657; also arXiv astro-ph/0412215. During the collapse, neutrons are formed by the capture of electrons by protons, leading to the emission of neutrinos., pp. 1046–1047. The decrease in gravitational potential energy of the collapsing core releases a large amount of energy which is on the order of 1046 joules (100 foes.) Most of this energy is carried away by the emitted neutrinos. The Physics of Neutron Stars, by J. M. Lattimer and M. Prakash, Science 304, #5670 (2004), pp. 536–542; also arXiv astro-ph/0405262. This process is believed to be responsible for supernovae of types Ib, Ic, and II. Type Ia supernovae derive their energy from runaway fusion of the nuclei in the interior of a white dwarf. This fate may befall carbon-oxygen white dwarfs that accrete matter from a companion giant star, leading to a steadily increasing mass. It is believed that, as the white dwarf's mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit, its central density increases, and, as a result of compressional heating, its temperature also increases. This results in an increasing rate of fusion reactions, eventually igniting a thermonuclear flame which causes the supernova. Type IA Supernova Explosion Models, Wolfgang Hillebrandt and Jens C. Niemeyer, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 38 (2000), pp. 191–230. , §5.1.2 Strong indications of the reliability of Chandrasekhar's formula are: Only one white dwarf with a mass greater than Chandrasekhar's limit has ever been observed. (See below.) The absolute magnitudes of supernovae of Type Ia are all approximately the same; at maximum luminosity, MV is approximately -19.3, with a standard deviation of no more than 0.3., (1) A 1-sigma interval therefore represents a factor of less than 2 in luminosity. This seems to indicate that all type Ia supernovae convert approximately the same amount of mass to energy. A type Ia supernova apparently from a supra-limit white dwarf On April 2003, the Supernova Legacy Survey observed a type Ia supernova, designated SNLS-03D3bb, in a galaxy approximately 4 billion light years away. According to a group of astronomers at the University of Toronto and elsewhere, the observations of this supernova are best explained by assuming that it arose from a white dwarf which grew to twice the mass of the Sun before exploding. They believe that the star, dubbed the "Champagne Supernova" by David R. Branch, may have been spinning so fast that centrifugal force allowed it to exceed the limit. Alternatively, the supernova may have resulted from the merger of two white dwarfs, so that the limit was only violated momentarily. Nevertheless, they point out that this observation poses a challenge to the use of type Ia supernovae as standard candles. The weirdest Type Ia supernova yet, LBL press release, web page accessed 13-I-2007. Champagne Supernova Challenges Ideas about How Supernovae Work, web page, spacedaily.com, accessed 13-I-2007. The type Ia supernova SNLS-03D3bb from a super-Chandrasekhar-mass white dwarf star, D. Andrew Howell et al., Nature 443 (September 21, 2006), pp. 308–311; also, arXiv:astro-ph/0609616. References Further reading On Stars, Their Evolution and Their Stability, Nobel Prize lecture, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, December 8, 1983. White dwarf stars and the Chandrasekhar limit, Masters' thesis, Dave Gentile, DePaul University, 1995. Estimating Stellar Parameters from Energy Equipartition, sciencebits.com. Discusses how to find mass-radius relations and mass limits for white dwarfs using simple energy arguments. See also Degenerate matter Schönberg-Chandrasekhar limit Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit | Chandrasekhar_limit |@lemmatized chandrasekhar:30 limit:29 mass:45 body:1 make:3 electron:26 degenerate:9 matter:9 dense:4 form:5 consist:3 nucleus:7 immerse:1 gas:13 maximum:5 nonrotating:2 support:3 gravitational:4 collapse:11 degeneracy:9 pressure:12 name:1 astrophysicist:3 subrahmanyan:4 commonly:1 give:9 p:8 supernova:17 explode:3 hans:1 bethe:2 gerald:2 brown:2 pp:28 formation:3 evolution:4 black:8 hole:7 galaxy:2 select:1 paper:5 commentary:1 han:1 albrecht:1 edward:1 chang:1 hwan:1 lee:1 river:1 edge:1 nj:1 world:1 scientific:1 isbn:2 solar:6 white:27 dwarf:27 compose:1 heavy:4 star:38 produce:2 energy:16 nuclear:3 fusion:5 element:3 light:4 one:4 heat:2 generate:3 reaction:2 prevent:2 time:2 build:1 central:2 core:13 temperature:5 center:1 sufficient:1 fuse:1 main:3 sequence:2 approximately:9 remain:2 eventually:3 lose:1 planetary:1 nebula:1 become:5 high:1 develop:1 whose:1 grow:2 exceed:2 point:3 leave:1 behind:1 either:1 neutron:5 open:1 cluster:1 viii:1 ngc:2 test:1 radius:11 initial:3 final:2 relation:4 koester:2 reimers:1 astronomy:2 astrophysics:3 empirical:1 hot:1 massive:6 kurtis:1 williams:1 bolte:1 detlev:1 astrophysical:6 journal:6 also:11 arxiv:4 astro:4 ph:4 single:1 end:1 life:3 heger:2 c:6 l:2 fryer:1 e:5 woosley:3 n:1 langer:1 h:4 hartmann:1 compute:2 value:6 vary:1 depend:2 approximation:1 use:6 composition:1 highly:2 collapsed:2 configuration:3 stellar:5 monthly:7 notice:7 royal:9 astronomical:11 society:9 eq:3 second:1 stability:2 nobel:3 prize:3 lecture:3 december:2 μe:5 average:1 molecular:1 weight:1 per:1 mh:1 hydrogen:1 atom:1 constant:1 connect:1 solution:2 lane:1 emden:1 equation:12 numerically:1 kg:5 standard:6 catalogue:1 version:1 section:1 web:4 page:4 access:4 planck:1 mpl:1 order:2 physic:9 quantum:1 mechanical:1 effect:2 arise:3 pauli:3 exclusion:1 principle:1 since:2 fermion:1 two:2 state:8 minimum:2 level:3 rather:1 must:3 occupy:1 band:2 compression:2 increase:7 number:1 volume:2 raise:1 occupied:1 therefore:3 upon:1 exert:1 compress:1 origin:1 model:9 green:2 curve:3 general:2 law:3 ideal:3 fermi:8 blue:2 non:3 relativistic:13 line:1 mark:1 ultra:1 nonrelativistic:3 case:2 rise:3 solve:2 hydrostatic:2 lead:4 polytrope:2 index:2 inversely:2 proportional:2 cube:1 root:1 density:8 philosophical:3 magazine:3 series:5 typical:1 force:3 longer:1 negligible:1 relative:1 rest:2 velocity:1 approach:2 speed:1 special:1 relativity:2 take:2 account:1 strongly:1 find:3 yield:1 total:1 mlimit:2 say:1 fully:2 treatment:1 interpolate:1 small:1 ρ:3 large:3 still:1 decrease:2 zero:1 show:2 graph:1 color:1 respectively:1 set:1 equal:1 measure:1 kilometer:1 accurate:1 simple:2 require:2 adjust:1 various:2 factor:2 include:2 electrostatic:1 interaction:1 cause:3 nonzero:1 function:1 f:1 x:2 timmes:1 thomas:1 weaver:2 february:2 lieb:2 yau:2 rigorous:2 examination:1 theory:6 elliott:1 horng:1 tzer:1 derivation:1 many:1 particle:2 schrödinger:1 history:1 british:3 physicist:6 ralph:1 fowler:3 observe:3 relationship:3 could:2 explain:2 view:2 interacting:1 obey:1 dirac:1 statistic:2 r:2 stoner:6 calculate:1 assume:2 homogenous:1 sphere:1 edmund:2 wilhelm:2 anderson:2 apply:2 correction:1 possible:4 über:1 die:1 grenzdichte:1 der:4 materie:1 und:1 energie:1 zeitschrift:2 für:2 physik:2 november:3 doi:2 derive:3 internal:1 able:1 treat:2 manner:1 equilibrium:1 go:2 publish:4 may:4 previously:1 russian:1 yakov:1 frenkel:4 together:2 remark:1 anwendung:1 fermischen:1 elektronengastheorie:1 auf:1 da:1 problem:3 kohäsionskräfte:1 j:2 march:1 work:7 however:3 ignore:1 community:2 article:1 ya:1 bind:1 g:2 yakovlev:1 uspekhi:1 beginning:1 trip:1 india:1 england:1 indian:1 calculation:1 biographical:1 memoir:1 national:1 academy:1 science:3 observatory:3 review:4 soviet:1 lev:1 davidovich:1 landau:2 collected:1 ed:1 introduction:1 ter:1 haar:1 new:2 york:2 gordon:1 breach:1 originally:1 phys:1 z:1 sowjet:1 arouse:1 controversy:1 owe:2 opposition:1 arthur:5 stanley:1 eddington:12 aware:1 existence:2 theoretically:1 realize:1 unwilling:2 accept:1 happen:1 talk:1 reply:1 radiating:2 contracting:2 suppose:1 get:1 km:1 gravity:1 strong:2 enough:2 hold:2 radiation:1 last:1 peace:1 think:1 nature:2 behave:1 absurd:1 way:1 meeting:2 friday:1 january:1 propose:1 perceive:1 modify:1 mechanic:1 universally:1 applicable:1 even:2 sir:5 although:1 bohr:1 agree:1 analysis:1 status:1 publicly:1 empire:2 obsession:1 friendship:1 betrayal:1 quest:1 miller:3 boston:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 guardian:1 battle:1 position:1 writing:1 international:1 union:1 paris:1 september:2 note:1 related:1 proceeding:1 london:1 mathematical:1 physical:1 proton:2 cambridge:4 university:4 press:3 chapter:1 june:1 fundamental:2 drama:1 associate:1 disagreement:1 theme:1 biography:1 chandra:2 discovery:1 might:2 well:1 transform:1 accelerate:1 development:1 instead:1 hand:1 intervention:1 lent:1 weighty:1 conservative:1 steadfastly:1 refuse:1 consider:1 idea:2 nothing:1 result:4 almost:1 forgotten:1 application:1 keep:2 process:2 exhaust:1 denser:1 hotter:1 critical:1 situation:1 iron:3 accumulate:1 incapable:1 sufficiently:1 play:1 significant:1 part:1 stabilize:1 explosion:2 modern:1 october:1 less:2 shed:1 former:1 great:2 speculatively:1 quark:2 low:1 metallicity:1 instability:1 destroy:1 completely:1 strange:1 overview:1 jürgen:1 schaffner:1 bielich:1 capture:1 emission:1 neutrinos:1 potential:1 release:2 amount:2 joule:1 foe:1 carry:1 away:2 emitted:1 neutrino:1 lattimer:1 prakash:1 believe:3 responsible:1 type:10 ib:1 ic:1 ii:1 ia:9 supernovae:2 runaway:1 interior:1 fate:1 befall:1 carbon:1 oxygen:1 accrete:1 companion:1 giant:1 steadily:1 compressional:1 heating:1 rate:1 ignite:1 thermonuclear:1 flame:1 wolfgang:1 hillebrandt:1 jens:1 niemeyer:1 annual:1 indication:1 reliability:1 formula:1 ever:1 see:2 absolute:1 magnitude:1 luminosity:2 mv:1 deviation:1 sigma:1 interval:1 represent:1 seem:1 indicate:1 convert:1 apparently:1 supra:1 april:1 legacy:1 survey:1 designate:1 snls:2 billion:1 year:1 accord:1 group:1 astronomer:1 toronto:1 elsewhere:1 observation:2 best:1 twice:1 sun:1 dub:1 champagne:2 david:1 branch:1 spin:1 fast:1 centrifugal:1 allow:1 alternatively:1 merger:1 violated:1 momentarily:1 nevertheless:1 pose:1 challenge:2 candle:1 weird:1 yet:1 lbl:1 spacedaily:1 com:2 super:1 andrew:1 howell:1 et:1 al:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 master:1 thesis:1 dave:1 gentile:1 depaul:1 estimate:1 parameter:1 equipartition:1 sciencebits:1 discuss:1 argument:1 schönberg:1 tolman:1 oppenheimer:1 volkoff:1 |@bigram chandrasekhar_limit:10 electron_degeneracy:6 degeneracy_pressure:7 subrahmanyan_chandrasekhar:4 hans_bethe:1 black_hole:7 planetary_nebula:1 astronomy_astrophysics:2 astrophysical_journal:5 arxiv_astro:4 astro_ph:4 nobel_prize:3 hydrogen_atom:1 quantum_mechanical:1 pauli_exclusion:1 exclusion_principle:1 inversely_proportional:2 special_relativity:1 electrostatic_interaction:1 schrödinger_equation:1 fermi_dirac:1 dirac_statistic:1 über_die:1 zeitschrift_für:2 für_physik:2 lev_davidovich:1 collected_paper:1 stanley_eddington:1 houghton_mifflin:1 arthur_eddington:2 steadfastly_refuse:1 ia_supernova:7 supernova_explosion:1 absolute_magnitude:1 centrifugal_force:1 et_al:1 tolman_oppenheimer:1 oppenheimer_volkoff:1 volkoff_limit:1 |
3,261 | Abakan | Statue of Vladimir I. Lenin in Abakan Abakan (; Khakass: Ағбан) is the capital city of the Republic of Khakassia in Russia, in South Siberia. It is located in the central part of Minusinsk Depression, at the confluence of the Yenisei and Abakan Rivers, at approximately the same latitude as Hamburg and Minsk. Population: 159,000(1994 est.). Abakan fort () was built at this location in 1675, also known as Abakansk. In Russian Empire it belonged to Yenisei gubernia. During 1823–1931 the grown settlement was known as Ust-Abakanskoye, 1914–1925: Abakan, 1925–1931: Khakassk. It received the status of town and its current name in 1931. Abakan (together with Tayshet) was a terminal of the major Abakan-Taishet Railway. Now it is an important railway junction. The city is served by the Abakan International Airport. The city has a river port, industry enterprises, Khakas State University, and three theatres. Furthermore, it has a commercial center that produces footwear, foodstuffs, and metal products. The 100th Air Assault Brigade of the Russian Airborne Troops was based in the city until c.1996. (Schofield, The Russian Elite) Lithuanian exiles In the late eighteenth and during the nineteenth century, Lithuanian participants in the 1794, 1830-1831, and 1863 rebellions against the Russian czarist rule were exiled to Abakan. A group of camps was established, and prisoners were forced to work in the coal mines. After Stalin's death, Lithuanian exiles from the nearby settlements moved in Abakanas. Aldona Juodvalkytė. Sites Abakan's sites of interest include Holy Transfiguration Cathedral, "Good Angel of Peace" sculpture, park of topiar art, and many others. References External links Abakan web portal | Abakan |@lemmatized statue:1 vladimir:1 lenin:1 abakan:11 khakass:1 ағбан:1 capital:1 city:4 republic:1 khakassia:1 russia:1 south:1 siberia:1 locate:1 central:1 part:1 minusinsk:1 depression:1 confluence:1 yenisei:2 river:2 approximately:1 latitude:1 hamburg:1 minsk:1 population:1 est:1 fort:1 build:1 location:1 also:1 know:2 abakansk:1 russian:4 empire:1 belong:1 gubernia:1 grown:1 settlement:2 ust:1 abakanskoye:1 khakassk:1 receive:1 status:1 town:1 current:1 name:1 together:1 tayshet:1 terminal:1 major:1 taishet:1 railway:2 important:1 junction:1 serve:1 international:1 airport:1 port:1 industry:1 enterprise:1 khakas:1 state:1 university:1 three:1 theatre:1 furthermore:1 commercial:1 center:1 produce:1 footwear:1 foodstuff:1 metal:1 product:1 air:1 assault:1 brigade:1 airborne:1 troop:1 base:1 c:1 schofield:1 elite:1 lithuanian:3 exile:3 late:1 eighteenth:1 nineteenth:1 century:1 participant:1 rebellion:1 czarist:1 rule:1 group:1 camp:1 establish:1 prisoner:1 force:1 work:1 coal:1 mine:1 stalin:1 death:1 nearby:1 move:1 abakanas:1 aldona:1 juodvalkytė:1 sit:1 site:1 interest:1 include:1 holy:1 transfiguration:1 cathedral:1 good:1 angel:1 peace:1 sculpture:1 park:1 topiar:1 art:1 many:1 others:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 portal:1 |@bigram vladimir_lenin:1 eighteenth_nineteenth:1 nineteenth_century:1 external_link:1 |
3,262 | Inductor | An inductor or reactor is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units of henries. Typically an inductor is a conducting wire shaped as a coil, the loops help create a strong magnetic field inside the coil due to Faraday's law of induction. Inductors are one of the basic electronic components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents. Physics Overview Inductance (L) (measured in henries) is an effect resulting from the magnetic field that forms around a current-carrying conductor that tends to resist changes in the current. Electric current through the conductor creates a magnetic flux proportional to the current. A change in this current creates a change in magnetic flux that, in turn, by Faraday's law generates an electromotive force (EMF) that acts to oppose this change in current. Inductance is a measure of the amount of EMF generated for a unit change in current. For example, an inductor with an inductance of 1 henry produces an EMF of 1 volt when the current through the inductor changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second. The number of loops, the size of each loop, and the material it is wrapped around all affect the inductance. For example, the magnetic flux linking these turns can be increased by coiling the conductor around a material with a high permeability such as iron. This can increase the inductance by 2000 times, although less so at high frequencies. Hydraulic model Electric current can be modeled by the hydraulic analogy. An inductor can be modeled by the flywheel effect of a heavy turbine rotated by the flow. When water first starts to flow (current), the stationary turbine will cause an obstruction in the flow and high pressure (voltage) opposing the flow until it gets turning. Once it is turning, if there is a sudden interruption of water flow the turbine will continue to turn by inertia, generating a high pressure to keep the flow moving. Ideal and real inductors An "ideal inductor" has inductance, but no resistance or capacitance, and does not dissipate or radiate energy. A real inductor may be partially modeled by a combination of inductance, resistance (due to the resistivity of the wire and losses in core material), and capacitance. At some frequency, usually higher than the working frequency, some real inductors behave as a resonant circuit (due to its self capacitance). At some frequency the capacitive component of impedance gets dominant. In addition to dissipating energy in the resistance of the wire, magnetic core inductors may dissipate energy in the core due to hysteresis, and at high currents (bias currents) show gradual departure from ideal behavior due to nonlinearity caused by magnetic saturation. At higher frequencies, resistance and resistive losses in inductors grow due to skin effect in the inductor's winding wires. Additionally, real-world inductors work as antennas, radiating a part of energy processed into surrounding space and circuits, and accepting electromagnetic emissions from other circuit, taking part in electromagnetic interference. Real-world inductor applications deal heavily with "parasitic" parameters, while the "inductance" may be of minor significance. Applications An inductor with two 47mH windings, as may be found in a power supply. Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing. Inductors in conjunction with capacitors and other components form tuned circuits which can emphasize or filter out specific signal frequencies. Applications range from the use of large inductors in power supplies, which in conjunction with filter capacitors remove residual hums known as the Mains hum or other fluctuations from the direct current output, to the small inductance of the ferrite bead or torus installed around a cable to prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted down the wire. Smaller inductor/capacitor combinations provide tuned circuits used in radio reception and broadcasting, for instance. Two (or more) inductors which have coupled magnetic flux form a transformer, which is a fundamental component of every electric utility power grid. The efficiency of a transformer may decrease as the frequency increases due to eddy currents in the core material and skin effect on the windings. Size of the core can be decreased at higher frequencies and, for this reason, aircraft use 400 hertz alternating current rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great saving in weight from the use of smaller transformers http://www.wonderquest.com/expounding-aircraft-electrical-systems.htm . An inductor is used as the energy storage device in some switched-mode power supplies. The inductor is energized for a specific fraction of the regulator's switching frequency, and de-energized for the remainder of the cycle. This energy transfer ratio determines the input-voltage to output-voltage ratio. This XL is used in complement with an active semiconductor device to maintain very accurate voltage control. Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to depress voltages from lightning strikes and to limit switching currents and fault current. In this field, they are more commonly referred to as reactors. Larger value inductors may be simulated by use of gyrator circuits. Kind of coils Air coil Ferrite honeycomb coil The honeycomb coil is wound in a crisscross manner to reduce distributed capacitance. It is used in the tuning circuits of radios in the ranges of medium and long waves, thanks to the shape of the winding achieving inductively high values in low volume. Toroidal core coil A simple coil wound on a cylindrical form creates an external magnetic field with a north and south pole. A toroidal coil can be created from a cylindrical coil by bending it into a doughnut shape thereby merging the north and south poles. In a toroidal coil, the magnetic flux is largely kept internal to the coil. This results in less magnetic radiation from coil, and less sensitivity to external fields. Variable Inductor Inductor construction Inductors. Major scale in centimetres. An inductor is usually constructed as a coil of conducting material, typically copper wire, wrapped around a core either of air or of ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material. Core materials with a higher permeability than air increase the magnetic field and confine it closely to the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance. Low frequency inductors are constructed like transformers, with cores of electrical steel laminated to prevent eddy currents. 'Soft' ferrites are widely used for cores above audio frequencies, since they don't cause the large energy losses at high frequencies that ordinary iron alloys do. This is because of their narrow hysteresis curves, and their high resistivity prevents eddy currents. Inductors come in many shapes. Most are constructed as enamel coated wire wrapped around a ferrite bobbin with wire exposed on the outside, while some enclose the wire completely in ferrite and are called "shielded". Some inductors have an adjustable core, which enables changing of the inductance. Inductors used to block very high frequencies are sometimes made by stringing a ferrite cylinder or bead on a wire. Small inductors can be etched directly onto a printed circuit board by laying out the trace in a spiral pattern. Some such planar inductors use a planar core. Small value inductors can also be built on integrated circuits using the same processes that are used to make transistors. Aluminium interconnect is typically used, laid out in a spiral coil pattern. However, the small dimensions limit the inductance, and it is far more common to use a circuit called a "gyrator" which uses a capacitor and active components to behave similarly to an inductor. In electric circuits An inductor opposes changes in current. An ideal inductor would offer no resistance to a constant direct current; however, only superconducting inductors have truly zero electrical resistance. In general, the relationship between the time-varying voltage v(t) across an inductor with inductance L and the time-varying current i(t) passing through it is described by the differential equation: When there is a sinusoidal alternating current (AC) through an inductor, a sinusoidal voltage is induced. The amplitude of the voltage is proportional to the product of the amplitude () of the current and the frequency ( f ) of the current. In this situation, the phase of the current lags that of the voltage by 90 degrees. # If an inductor is connected to a DC current source, with value I via a resistance, R, and then the current source short circuited, the differential relationship above shows that the current through the inductor will discharge with an exponential decay: Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain) When using the Laplace transform in circuit analysis, the transfer impedance of an ideal inductor with no initial current is represented in the s domain by: where L is the inductance, and s is the complex frequency If the inductor does have initial current, it can be represented by: adding a voltage source in series with the inductor, having the value: (Note that the source should have a polarity that is aligned with the initial current) or by adding a current source in parallel with the inductor, having the value: where L is the inductance, and is the initial current in the inductor. Inductor networks Inductors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find their total equivalent inductance (Leq): A diagram of several inductors, side by side, both leads of each connected to the same wires The current through inductors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each inductor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find their total inductance: A diagram of several inductors, connected end to end, with the same amount of current going through each These simple relationships hold true only when there is no mutual coupling of magnetic fields between individual inductors. Stored energy The energy (measured in joules, in ) stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the current through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field. This is given by: where L is inductance and I is the current through the inductor(****). Q factor An ideal inductor will be lossless irrespective of the amount of current through the winding. However, typically inductors have winding resistance from the metal wire forming the coils. Since the winding resistance appears as a resistance in series with the inductor, it is often called the series resistance. The inductor's series resistance converts electrical current through the coils into heat, thus causing a loss of inductive quality. The quality factor (or Q) of an inductor is the ratio of its inductive reactance to its resistance at a given frequency, and is a measure of its efficiency. The higher the Q factor of the inductor, the closer it approaches the behavior of an ideal, lossless, inductor. The Q factor of an inductor can be found through the following formula, where R'' is its internal electrical resistance and is capacitive or inductive reactance at resonance: By using a ferromagnetic core, the inductance is greatly increased for the same amount of copper, multiplying up the Q. Cores however also introduce losses that increase with frequency. A grade of core material is chosen for best results for the frequency band. At VHF or higher frequencies an air core is likely to be used. Inductors wound around a ferromagnetic core may saturate at high currents, causing a dramatic decrease in inductance (and Q). This phenomenon can be avoided by using a (physically larger) air core inductor. A well designed air core inductor may have a Q of several hundred. An almost ideal inductor (Q approaching infinity) can be created by immersing a coil made from a superconducting alloy in liquid helium or liquid nitrogen. This supercools the wire, causing its winding resistance to disappear. Because a superconducting inductor is virtually lossless, it can store a large amount of electrical energy within the surrounding magnetic field (see superconducting magnetic energy storage). Inductance formulae The table below lists some common formulae for calculating the theoretical inductance of several inductor constructions. Construction Formula Dimensions Cylindrical coil L = inductance in henries (H) μ0 = permeability of free space = 4 × 10-7 H/m K = Nagaoka coefficient N = number of turns A = area of cross-section of the coil in square metres (m2) l = length of coil in metres (m) Straight wire conductor The Self and Mutual Inductances of Linear Conductors, By Edward B. Rosa, Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, Vol.4, No.2, 1908, p301-344 L = inductance (H) l = length of conductor (m) d = diameter of conductor (m) L = inductance (nH) l = length of conductor (in) d = diameter of conductor (in) Short air-core cylindrical coil L = inductance (µH) r = outer radius of coil (in) l = length of coil (in) N = number of turns Multilayer air-core coil L = inductance (µH) r = mean radius of coil (in) l = physical length of coil winding (in) N = number of turns d = depth of coil (outer radius minus inner radius) (in) Flat spiral air-core coil L = inductance (H) r = mean radius of coil (m) N = number of turns d = depth of coil (outer radius minus inner radius) (m) L = inductance (µH) r = mean radius of coil (in) N = number of turns d = depth of coil (outer radius minus inner radius) (in) Toroidal core (circular cross-section) L = inductance (H) μ0 = permeability of free space = 4 × 10-7 H/m μr = relative permeability of core material N = number of turns r = radius of coil winding (m) D = overall diameter of toroid (m) See also Capacitor Electricity Electronic component Electronics Ferrite bead Gyrator Inductance (including mutual inductance) Induction coil Induction cooking Induction loop RL circuit RLC circuit Magnetic core Magnetomotive force (MMF) Memristor Reactance (electronics) Resistor Saturable reactor Solenoid Transformer Synonyms Choke (electronics) coil reactor Notes External links General How stuff works The initial concept, made very simple Capacitance and Inductance - A chapter from an online textbook Spiral inductor models. Article on inductor characteristics and modeling. Online coil inductance calculator. Online calculator calculates the inductance of conventional and toroidal coils using formulas 3, 4, 5, and 6, above. AC circuits - Understanding coils and transforms | Inductor |@lemmatized inductor:78 reactor:4 passive:1 electrical:8 component:7 store:5 energy:13 magnetic:19 field:10 create:7 electric:5 current:44 passing:2 ability:2 measure:5 inductance:37 unit:2 henry:4 typically:4 conducting:1 wire:14 shape:4 coil:40 loop:4 help:1 strong:1 inside:1 due:8 faraday:2 law:2 induction:4 one:1 basic:1 electronic:2 use:24 electronics:4 voltage:15 change:8 time:4 delay:1 reshape:1 alternate:2 physic:1 overview:1 l:18 effect:4 result:3 form:5 around:7 carrying:1 conductor:9 tend:1 resist:1 flux:5 proportional:2 turn:11 generate:3 electromotive:1 force:2 emf:3 act:1 oppose:3 amount:6 example:2 produce:1 volt:1 rate:1 ampere:1 per:1 second:1 number:7 size:2 material:9 wrap:3 affect:1 link:2 increase:7 high:16 permeability:5 iron:2 although:1 less:3 frequency:20 hydraulic:2 model:6 analogy:1 flywheel:1 heavy:1 turbine:3 rotate:1 flow:6 water:2 first:1 start:1 stationary:1 cause:6 obstruction:1 pressure:2 get:2 sudden:1 interruption:1 continue:1 inertia:1 keep:1 move:1 ideal:8 real:5 resistance:15 capacitance:5 dissipate:3 radiate:2 may:8 partially:1 combination:2 resistivity:2 loss:5 core:25 usually:2 working:1 behave:2 resonant:1 circuit:18 self:2 capacitive:2 impedance:2 dominant:1 addition:1 hysteresis:2 bias:1 show:2 gradual:1 departure:1 behavior:2 nonlinearity:1 saturation:1 resistive:1 grow:1 skin:2 winding:6 additionally:1 world:2 work:3 antenna:1 part:2 process:2 surround:2 space:3 accept:1 electromagnetic:2 emission:1 take:1 interference:2 application:3 deal:1 heavily:1 parasitic:1 parameter:1 minor:1 significance:1 two:2 find:4 power:4 supply:3 extensively:1 analog:1 signal:2 processing:1 conjunction:2 capacitor:5 tune:3 emphasize:1 filter:2 specific:2 range:2 large:5 remove:1 residual:1 hum:2 know:1 main:1 fluctuation:1 direct:2 output:2 small:6 ferrite:7 bead:3 torus:1 instal:1 cable:1 prevent:2 radio:3 transmit:1 provide:1 reception:1 broadcasting:1 instance:1 couple:1 transformer:5 fundamental:1 every:1 utility:1 grid:1 efficiency:2 decrease:3 eddy:3 reason:1 aircraft:2 hertz:2 rather:1 usual:1 allow:1 great:1 saving:1 weight:1 http:1 www:1 wonderquest:1 com:1 expound:1 system:2 htm:1 storage:2 device:2 switched:1 mode:1 energize:2 fraction:1 regulator:1 switching:1 de:1 remainder:1 cycle:1 transfer:2 ratio:3 determine:1 input:1 xl:1 complement:1 active:2 semiconductor:1 maintain:1 accurate:1 control:1 also:4 employ:1 transmission:1 depress:1 lightning:1 strike:1 limit:2 switch:1 fault:1 commonly:1 refer:1 value:6 simulate:1 gyrator:3 kind:1 air:9 honeycomb:2 wind:6 crisscross:1 manner:1 reduce:1 distribute:1 medium:1 long:1 wave:1 thanks:1 achieve:1 inductively:1 low:2 volume:1 toroidal:5 simple:3 wound:1 cylindrical:4 external:3 north:2 south:2 pole:2 bend:1 doughnut:1 thereby:2 merge:1 largely:1 kept:1 internal:2 radiation:1 sensitivity:1 variable:1 construction:3 major:1 scale:1 centimetre:1 construct:3 conduct:1 copper:2 either:1 ferromagnetic:3 ferrimagnetic:1 confine:1 closely:1 like:1 steel:1 laminate:1 soft:1 widely:1 audio:1 since:2 ordinary:1 alloy:2 narrow:1 curve:1 prevents:1 come:1 many:1 enamel:1 coat:1 bobbin:1 expose:1 outside:1 enclose:1 completely:1 call:3 shield:1 adjustable:1 enable:1 changing:1 block:1 sometimes:1 make:4 string:1 cylinder:1 etch:1 directly:1 onto:1 printed:1 board:1 lay:2 trace:1 spiral:4 pattern:2 planar:2 build:1 integrated:1 transistor:1 aluminium:1 interconnect:1 however:4 dimension:2 far:1 common:2 similarly:1 would:1 offer:1 constant:1 superconducting:4 truly:1 zero:1 general:2 relationship:3 varying:1 v:1 across:2 vary:1 describe:1 differential:2 equation:1 sinusoidal:2 alternating:1 ac:2 induce:1 amplitude:2 product:1 f:1 situation:1 phase:1 lag:1 degree:1 connect:3 dc:1 source:5 via:1 r:7 short:2 discharge:1 exponential:1 decay:1 laplace:2 analysis:2 domain:2 transform:1 initial:5 represent:2 complex:1 add:2 series:5 note:2 polarity:1 align:1 parallel:2 networks:1 configuration:1 potential:2 difference:2 total:3 equivalent:1 leq:1 diagram:2 several:4 side:2 lead:1 stay:1 different:1 sum:1 equal:2 end:2 go:1 hold:1 true:1 mutual:3 coupling:1 individual:1 joule:1 require:1 establish:1 therefore:1 give:2 q:8 factor:4 lossless:3 irrespective:1 metal:1 appear:1 often:1 convert:1 heat:1 thus:1 inductive:3 quality:2 reactance:3 closer:1 approach:2 following:1 formula:3 resonance:1 greatly:1 multiply:1 introduce:1 grade:1 choose:1 best:1 band:1 vhf:1 likely:1 saturate:1 dramatic:1 phenomenon:1 avoid:1 physically:1 well:1 design:1 hundred:1 almost:1 infinity:1 immerse:1 liquid:2 helium:1 nitrogen:1 supercools:1 disappear:1 virtually:1 within:1 see:2 formulae:1 table:1 list:1 calculate:2 theoretical:1 h:6 free:2 k:1 nagaoka:1 coefficient:1 n:6 area:1 cross:2 section:2 square:1 metre:2 length:5 straight:1 linear:1 edward:1 b:1 rosa:1 bulletin:1 bureau:1 standard:1 vol:1 diameter:3 nh:1 µh:3 outer:1 radius:11 multilayer:1 mean:3 physical:1 depth:3 minus:3 inner:3 flat:1 circular:1 μr:1 relative:1 overall:1 toroid:1 electricity:1 include:1 cook:1 rl:1 rlc:1 magnetomotive:1 mmf:1 memristor:1 resistor:1 saturable:1 solenoid:1 synonym:1 choke:1 stuff:1 concept:1 chapter:1 online:3 textbook:1 article:1 characteristic:1 calculator:2 conventional:1 formulas:1 understanding:1 transforms:1 |@bigram magnetic_field:8 magnetic_flux:5 electromotive_force:1 signal_processing:1 http_www:1 integrated_circuit:1 differential_equation:1 laplace_transform:1 liquid_helium:1 induction_coil:1 rlc_circuit:1 external_link:1 |
3,263 | Gematria | Gematria or gimatria (, ) is a system of assigning numerical value to an alphabet. The word "gematria" is generally held to derive from Greek geōmetriā, "geometry", which was used a translation of gēmaṭriyā, though some scholars believe it to derive from Greek grammateia, rather; it's possible that both words had an influence on the formation of the Hebrew word. [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=gematria&r=66 "Gematria" at Dictionary.com It has been extant in English since the 17th century from translations of works by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. Although ostensibly derived from Greek, it is largely used in Jewish texts of Tanakh and Talmud, notably in those associated with the Kabbalah. Some identify two forms of gematria: the "revealed" form, which is prevalent in many hermeneutic methods found throughout Rabbinic literature, and the "mystical" form, a largely Kabbalistic practice e.g. Aish HaTorah, http://www.aish.com/spirituality/prayer/Prayer_6_-_Hear_O_Israel_Part_1.asp, which says "It is part of a Kabbalistic tradition ... Gematria is a Kabbalistic way of showing how two ideas are related on a conceptual level; it is using numerology as basis to confirm (not create) the connection." Textual sources A Mishnaic textual source makes clear that the use of gematria is dated to at least the Tannaic period. Pirkei Avot 3:23: רבי אלעזר בן חסמא אומר, קנין ופתחי נדה הן הן גופי הלכות. תקופות וגמטריאות פרפראות לחכמה. Rabbi Eleazar Chisma astronomer and mathematician and knew geometry, Horayoth 10 a-b said: the laws of mixed bird offerings and the key to the calculations of menstruation days—these, these are the body of the halakhah. The calculation of the equinoxes and gematria are the desserts of wisdom. An alternative translation to the Hebrew word פרפראות is "minor side dishes". Minor dishes may be served before, during, or after a meal, to add interest and variety; they are the appetizers, side dishes, desserts, tid-bits — never to be served as main dishes. In other words, these sciences, while important, are yet only auxiliary and secondary. What is primary is the Torah. What is central is the life giving law. Bunim, I (1964). "Ethics From Sinai", Feldheim Values table The Mispar gadol (see below) values are: DecimalHebrewGlyph1Aleph א2Bet ב3Gimel ג4Dalet ד5He ה6vav ו7Zayin ז8Het ח9 ט10Yod י20 or 500Kaph כ, ך30Lamed ל40 or 600Mem מ, ם50 or 700Nun נ, ן60Samech ס70Ayin ע80 or 800Pe פ, ף90 or 900Tsadi צ, ץ100kuf ק200Resh ר300Shin ש400Tav ת Gematria methods There are several methods used to calculate the numerical value for the individual words, and psukim (verses). Mispar Hechrachi (absolute value) that uses full numerical value of the twenty-two letters. Mispar Gadol counts the final forms (sofit) of the Hebrew letters as a continuation of the numerical sequence for the alphabet, with the final letters assigned values from 500 to 900. Mispar Katan calculates the value of each letter, but truncates all of the zeros. Mispar Siduri (ordinal value) with each of the 22 letters given a value from one to twenty-two. At Bash uses letter (of a word or phrase) exchanges with its opposite letter and then the result is calculated. Opposite letters are determined by substituting the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet (Aleph) with the last letter (Tav), the second letter (Bet) with the next to last (Shin), etc. Mispar Kidmi (triangular value) uses each letter as the sum of the all the standard gematria letter values preceding it. Therefore, the value of Aleph is 1, the value of Bet is 1+2=3, the value of Gimmel is 1+2+3=6, etc. Mispar P'rati calculates the value of each letter as the square of its standard gematria value. Therefore, the value of Aleph is 1*1=1, the value of Bet is 2*2=4, the value of gimmel is 3*3=9, etc. Mispar Shemi (also Millui letter "filling"), uses the value of each letter as equal to the value of its name the spelling of the name of the number comes from the Talmud . For example, the value of the letter Aleph is (1+30+80) = 111, Bet is (2+10+400) = 412, etc. Mispar Katan Mispari (integral reduced value) is used where the total numerical value of a word is reduced to a single digit. If the sum of the value exceeds 9, the integer values of the total are repeatedly added to produce a single-digit number. The same value will be arrived at regardless of whether it is the absolute values, the ordinal values, or the reduced values that are being counted by methods above. Within the wider topic of Gematria are included the various alphabet transformations where one letter is substituted by another based on a logical scheme: Albam the alphabet is divided in half, eleven letters in each section. The first letter of the first series is exchanged for the first letter of the second series, the second letter of the first series for the second letter of the second series and so forth. Atbash the first letter (alef) of the alphabet is paired with the last letter of the alphabet (tav). The second letter (bet) is paired with the second to last (shin), and so on. Achbi Absolute value gematria The most common form of gematria is used in the Talmud and Midrash, and elaborately by many post-Talmudic commentators. It involves reading words and sentences as numbers, assigning numerical instead of phonetic value to each letter of the Hebrew alphabet. When read as numbers, they can be compared and contrasted with other words or phrases. A classic Biblical commentary incorporating a great deal of gematria is Baal ha-Turim by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher. Gematria is often used by the Maharal of Prague and hasidic Torah commentators (such as the "Sefath Emmeth" from Gur). Use in other languages The first attested use of gematria occurs in an inscription of Assyrian ruler Sargon II (727–707 BCE) stating that the king built the wall of Khorsabad 16,283 cubits long to correspond with the numerical value of his name. p.197, Ratzan Gematria was borrowed into the Greek probably soon after their adoption of the Semitic writing system. The extant examples of use in Greek come primarily for the Christian literature and, unlike rabbinic sources, is always explicitly stated as being used. p.164, Davies & Allison Plato (c. 427-347 BCE) offers a discussion of gematria in its simplest forms in Cratylus, where he claims that the "essential force" of a thing's name is to be found in its numerical value, with words and phrases of the same numerical value may be substituted in context without loss in meaning. The Latin-script languages exhibit borrowing of gematria methods dating from the early Middle Ages after the use lapsed following the collapse of Roman Empire in the 5th century. Many researchers connect the "Number of the Beast", referred to in the Book of Revelation of the New Testament, with either Greek or Hebrew Gematria as used by the early Christians. According to such interpretations, the number in question (666 or 616) was originally derived via Gematria from the name of a specific Roman Emperor of the time, though later given various other interpretations (see Number of the Beast). See also Abjad numerals Bible Code English Qabalah Hebrew numerals Significance of numbers of Judaism Isopsephy Jewish mysticism Kabbalah Kollel Mathers table Metaphysics Mysticism Notarikon Numerology Temurah Theomatics Number of the Beast Citations and notes References Klein, Ernest, Dr., A comprehensive etymological dictionary of the English language: Dealing with the origin of words and their sense development thus illustrating the history and civilization of culture, Elsevier, Oxford, 7th ed., 2000 Davies, William David & Allison, Dale C., A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004 Acres, Kevin, Data integrity patterns of the Torah: A tale of prime, perfect and transcendental numbers, Research Systems, Melbourne, 2004 Clawson, Calvin C., Mathematical Mysteries: The Beauty and Magic of Numbers, Perseus Books, 1999 Ratzan, Lee, Understanding Information Systems: What They Do and why We Need Them, ALA Editions, 2004 Genesis Rabbah 95:3. Land of Israel, 5th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon. Volume II, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. ISBN 0-900689-38-2. Deuteronomy Rabbah 1:25. Land of Israel, 5th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon. Volume VII, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. ISBN 0-900689-38-2. Further reading Swiggers, Pierre, Transmission of the Phoenician Script to the West, in Daniels and Bright, The World's Writing Systems, 1996 Bernal, Martin. Cadmean Letters: The Transmission of the Alphabet to the Aegean and Further West before 1400 B.C. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1990. Cajori, Florian. A History of Mathematical Notations (2 vv.). Chicago: Open Court, 1928-9. Contenau, Georges. Everyday Life in Babylon and Assyria, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1954. Diringer, David. The Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind (2 vv.). New York, Funk & Wagnalls, 1968. Diringer, David. The Story of the Aleph Beth. New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1960; World Jewish Congress, 1958. Fideler, David. Jesus Christ: Sun of God: Ancient Cosmology and Early Christian Symbolism. Quest Books, 1993. Ifrah, Georges. From One to Zero: A Universal History of Numbers, Viking, 1985. Menninger, Karl. Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969. Naveh, Joseph. Early History of the Alphabet: An Introduction to West Semitic Epigraphy and Paleography. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University, 1987. Parpola, Simo. "The Assyrian Tree of Life: Tracing the Origins of Jewish Monotheism and Greek Philosophy." Journ. Near Eastern Studies 52, 3 (July 1993), 161-208. External links WebGim - An interactive gematria calculator, which includes results from Torah verses. (Hebrew) Peter's Gematria Site - examines the application of gematria to the European languages from the Medieval period onwards, particularly in respect to esoteric communities, such as the Freemasons. Gematria Synonymous Calculator - Hebrew gematria calculator that finds synonymous phrases. Letters of several alphabets and their numerical amounts Gematria calculator, finds match to Biblical verses (in Hebrew) The Gematria Database at Esoteric Delights is a large online gematria database (over 235,000 translations) of the Hebrew-English dictionary, along with tools for transliteration and translation, geared towards English-speaking esoteric communities. Wheel Gematria "Hitomi Function" - You must know, that a hebrew Torah, because it contains a lot of words, can be seen as a long sequence of numbers. What happens if we arrange these numbers in a wheel? Learn here... | Gematria |@lemmatized gematria:31 gimatria:1 system:5 assign:3 numerical:10 value:36 alphabet:12 word:14 generally:1 hold:1 derive:4 greek:7 geōmetriā:1 geometry:2 use:17 translation:5 gēmaṭriyā:1 though:2 scholar:1 believe:1 grammateia:1 rather:1 possible:1 influence:1 formation:1 hebrew:13 http:2 dictionary:4 reference:2 com:3 search:1 q:1 r:1 extant:2 english:5 since:1 century:4 work:1 giovanni:1 pico:1 della:1 mirandola:1 although:1 ostensibly:1 largely:2 jewish:4 text:1 tanakh:1 talmud:3 notably:1 associate:1 kabbalah:2 identify:1 two:4 form:6 reveal:1 prevalent:1 many:3 hermeneutic:1 method:5 find:4 throughout:1 rabbinic:2 literature:2 mystical:1 kabbalistic:3 practice:1 e:3 g:3 aish:2 hatorah:1 www:1 spirituality:1 prayer:1 asp:1 say:2 part:1 tradition:1 way:1 show:1 idea:1 relate:1 conceptual:1 level:1 numerology:2 basis:1 confirm:1 create:1 connection:1 textual:2 source:3 mishnaic:1 make:1 clear:1 date:2 least:1 tannaic:1 period:2 pirkei:1 avot:1 רבי:1 אלעזר:1 בן:1 חסמא:1 אומר:1 קנין:1 ופתחי:1 נדה:1 הן:2 גופי:1 הלכות:1 תקופות:1 וגמטריאות:1 פרפראות:2 לחכמה:1 rabbi:2 eleazar:1 chisma:1 astronomer:1 mathematician:1 knew:1 horayoth:1 b:2 law:2 mixed:1 bird:1 offering:1 key:2 calculation:2 menstruation:1 day:1 body:1 halakhah:1 equinox:1 dessert:2 wisdom:1 alternative:1 minor:2 side:2 dish:4 may:2 serve:2 meal:1 add:2 interest:1 variety:1 appetizer:1 tid:1 bit:1 never:1 main:1 science:1 important:1 yet:1 auxiliary:1 secondary:1 primary:1 torah:5 central:1 life:3 give:3 bunim:1 ethic:1 sinai:1 feldheim:1 table:2 mispar:9 gadol:2 see:4 כ:1 מ:1 נ:1 פ:1 צ:1 ת:1 several:2 calculate:4 individual:1 psukim:1 verse:3 hechrachi:1 absolute:3 full:1 twenty:2 letter:29 count:2 final:2 sofit:1 continuation:1 sequence:2 katan:2 truncate:1 zero:2 siduri:1 ordinal:2 one:3 bash:1 us:1 phrase:4 exchange:2 opposite:2 result:2 determine:1 substitute:3 first:7 aleph:5 last:4 tav:2 second:7 bet:5 next:1 shin:2 etc:4 kidmi:1 triangular:1 sum:2 standard:2 precede:1 therefore:2 gimmel:2 p:3 rati:1 square:1 shemi:1 also:2 millui:1 fill:1 equal:1 name:5 spelling:1 number:17 come:2 example:2 mispari:1 integral:1 reduce:2 total:2 single:2 digit:2 exceed:1 integer:1 repeatedly:1 produce:1 arrive:1 regardless:1 whether:1 reduced:1 within:1 wider:1 topic:1 include:2 various:2 transformation:1 another:1 base:1 logical:1 scheme:1 albam:1 divide:1 half:1 eleven:1 section:1 series:4 forth:1 atbash:1 alef:1 pair:2 achbi:1 common:1 midrash:3 elaborately:1 post:1 talmudic:1 commentator:2 involve:1 read:2 sentence:1 instead:1 phonetic:1 compare:1 contrast:1 classic:1 biblical:2 commentary:2 incorporate:1 great:1 deal:1 baal:1 ha:1 turim:1 jacob:1 ben:1 asher:1 often:1 maharal:1 prague:1 hasidic:1 sefath:1 emmeth:1 gur:1 language:3 attest:1 occurs:1 inscription:1 assyrian:2 ruler:1 sargon:1 ii:2 bce:2 state:2 king:1 build:1 wall:1 khorsabad:1 cubit:1 long:2 correspond:1 ratzan:2 borrow:1 probably:1 soon:1 adoption:1 semitic:2 writing:1 primarily:1 christian:3 unlike:1 always:1 explicitly:1 davy:2 allison:2 plato:1 c:4 offer:1 discussion:1 simple:1 cratylus:1 claim:1 essential:1 force:1 thing:1 context:1 without:1 loss:1 meaning:1 latin:1 script:2 languages:1 exhibit:1 borrowing:1 early:4 middle:1 age:1 lapse:1 follow:1 collapse:1 roman:2 empire:1 researcher:1 connect:1 beast:3 refer:1 book:3 revelation:1 new:4 testament:1 either:1 accord:2 interpretation:2 question:1 originally:1 via:1 specific:1 emperor:1 time:1 later:1 abjad:1 numeral:2 bible:1 code:1 qabalah:1 significance:1 judaism:1 isopsephy:1 mysticism:2 kollel:1 mathers:1 metaphysics:1 notarikon:1 temurah:1 theomatics:1 citation:1 note:1 klein:1 ernest:1 dr:1 comprehensive:1 etymological:1 dealing:1 origin:2 sense:1 development:1 thus:1 illustrate:1 history:6 civilization:1 culture:1 elsevier:1 oxford:1 ed:1 william:1 david:4 dale:1 critical:1 exegetical:1 gospel:1 saint:1 matthew:1 continuum:1 international:1 publishing:1 group:1 acre:1 kevin:1 data:1 integrity:1 pattern:1 tale:1 prime:1 perfect:1 transcendental:1 research:1 melbourne:1 clawson:1 calvin:1 mathematical:2 mystery:1 beauty:1 magic:1 perseus:1 lee:1 understand:1 information:1 need:1 ala:1 edition:1 genesis:2 rabbah:4 land:2 israel:2 reprint:2 translate:2 h:2 freedman:2 maurice:2 simon:2 volume:2 london:2 soncino:2 press:5 isbn:2 deuteronomy:1 leviticus:1 vii:1 reading:1 swiggers:1 pierre:1 transmission:2 phoenician:1 west:3 daniel:1 bright:1 world:2 write:1 bernal:1 martin:2 cadmean:1 aegean:1 winona:1 lake:1 eisenbrauns:1 cajori:1 florian:1 notation:1 vv:2 chicago:1 open:1 court:1 contenau:1 george:2 everyday:1 babylon:1 assyria:1 york:3 st:1 diringer:2 mankind:1 funk:1 wagnalls:1 story:1 beth:1 thomas:1 yoseloff:1 congress:1 fideler:1 jesus:1 christ:1 sun:1 god:1 ancient:1 cosmology:1 symbolism:1 quest:1 ifrah:1 universal:1 viking:1 menninger:1 karl:1 symbol:1 cultural:1 cambridge:1 mit:1 naveh:1 joseph:1 introduction:1 epigraphy:1 paleography:1 jerusalem:1 magnes:1 university:1 parpola:1 simo:1 tree:1 trace:1 monotheism:1 philosophy:1 journ:1 near:1 eastern:1 study:1 july:1 external:1 link:1 webgim:1 interactive:1 calculator:4 peter:1 site:1 examine:1 application:1 european:1 medieval:1 onwards:1 particularly:1 respect:1 esoteric:3 community:2 freemason:1 synonymous:2 amount:1 match:1 database:2 delight:1 large:1 online:1 along:1 tool:1 transliteration:1 gear:1 towards:1 speak:1 wheel:2 hitomi:1 function:1 must:1 know:1 contain:1 lot:1 happen:1 arrange:1 learn:1 |@bigram pico_della:1 della_mirandola:1 rabbinic_literature:1 http_www:1 talmud_midrash:1 ben_asher:1 abjad_numeral:1 etymological_dictionary:1 exegetical_commentary:1 genesis_rabbah:1 midrash_rabbah:2 soncino_press:2 winona_lake:1 lake_eisenbrauns:1 babylon_assyria:1 funk_wagnalls:1 jesus_christ:1 external_link:1 |
3,264 | Lorentz_transformation | A visualisation of the Lorentz transformation. Only one space coordinate is considered. The thin solid lines crossing at right angles depict the time and distance coordinates of an observer at rest; the skewed solid straight lines depict the coordinate grid of a moving observer. In physics, the Lorentz transformation converts between two different observers' measurements of space and time, where one observer is in uniform (non-accelerating) motion with respect to the other. In classical physics (Galilean relativity), the only conversion believed necessary was , describing how the origin of one observer's coordinate system slides through space with respect to the other's, at speed v and along the x-axis of each frame. According to special relativity, this is only a good approximation at much smaller speeds than the speed of light, and in general the result is not just an offsetting of the x coordinates; lengths and times are distorted as well. If space is homogeneous, then the Lorentz transformation must be a linear transformation. Also, since relativity postulates that the speed of light is the same for all observers, it must preserve the spacetime interval between any two events in Minkowski space. The Lorentz transformations describe only the transformations in which the event at , is left fixed, so they can be considered as a rotation of Minkowski space. The more general set of transformations that also includes translations is known as the Poincaré group. Henri Poincaré named the Lorentz transformations after the Dutch physicist and mathematician Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928) in 1905. The reference is within the following paper: They form the mathematical basis for Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity. They were derived by Joseph Larmor in 1897, and Lorentz (1899, 1904). ; and In 1905 Einstein derived them under the assumptions of the principle of relativity and the constancy of the speed of light in any inertial reference frame. Lorentz transformation for frames in standard configuration Standard configuration of coordinate systems for Lorentz transformations. Views of spacetime along the world line of a rapidly accelerating observer moving in a 1-dimensional (straight line) "universe". The vertical direction indicates time, while the horizontal indicates distance, the dashed line is the spacetime trajectory ("world line") of the observer. The small dots are specific events in spacetime. If one imagines these events to be the flashing of a light, then the events that pass the two diagonal lines in the bottom half of the image (the past light cone of the observer in the origin) are the events visible to the observer. The slope of the world line (deviation from being vertical) gives the relative velocity to the observer. Note how the view of spacetime changes when the observer accelerates. Assume there are two observers O and Q, each using their own Cartesian coordinate system to measure space and time intervals. O uses and Q uses . Assume further that the coordinate systems are oriented so that the x-axis and the x' -axis overlap, the y-axis is parallel to the y' -axis, as are the z-axis and the z' -axis. The relative velocity between the two observers is v along the common x-axis. Also assume that the origins of both coordinate systems are the same. If all these hold, then the coordinate systems are said to be in standard configuration. A symmetric presentation between the forward Lorentz Transformation and the inverse Lorentz Transformation can be achieved if coordinate systems are in symmetric configuration. The symmetric form highlights that all physical laws should be of such a kind that they remain unchanged under a Lorentz transformation. The Lorentz transformation for frames in standard configuration can be shown to be: where is called the Lorentz factor. Matrix form This Lorentz transformation is called a "boost" in the x-direction and is often expressed in matrix form as More generally for a boost in an arbitrary direction , where and . Note that this is only the "boost", i.e. a transformation between two frames in relative motion. But the most general proper Lorentz transformation also contains a rotation of the three axes. This boost alone is given by a symmetric matrix. But the general Lorentz transformation matrix is not symmetric. Rapidity The Lorentz transformation can be cast into another useful form by introducing a parameter called the rapidity (an instance of hyperbolic angle) through the equation: Equivalently: Then the Lorentz transformation in standard configuration is: Hyperbolic trigonometric expressions It can also be shown that: and therefore, Hyperbolic rotation of coordinates Substituting these expressions into the matrix form of the transformation, we have: Thus, the Lorentz transformation can be seen as a hyperbolic rotation of coordinates in Minkowski space, where the rapidity represents the hyperbolic angle of rotation. General boosts For a boost in an arbitrary direction with velocity , it is convenient to decompose the spatial vector into components perpendicular and parallel to the velocity : . Then only the component in the direction of is 'warped' by the gamma factor: where now . The second of these can be written as: These equations can be expressed in matrix form as where I is the identity matrix, v is velocity written as a column vector and vT is its transpose (a row vector). Spacetime interval In a given coordinate system (), if two events and are separated by the spacetime interval between them is given by This can be written in another form using the Minkowski metric. In this coordinate system, Then, we can write or, using the Einstein summation convention, Now suppose that we make a coordinate transformation . Then, the interval in this coordinate system is given by or It is a result of special relativity that the interval is an invariant. That is, . It can be shown : (Section 2:1) that this requires the coordinate transformation to be of the form Here, is a constant vector and a constant matrix, where we require that Such a transformation is called a Poincaré transformation or an inhomogeneous Lorentz transformation. : volume 1. The represents a space-time translation. When , the transformation is called an homogeneous Lorentz transformation, or simply a Lorentz transformation. Taking the determinant of gives us Lorentz transformations with are called proper Lorentz transformations. They consist of spatial rotations and boosts and form a subgroup of the Lorentz group. Those with are called improper Lorentz transformations and consist of (discrete) space and time reflections combined with spatial rotations and boosts. They don't form a subgroup, as the product of any two improper Lorentz transformations will be a proper Lorentz transformation. The composition of two Poincaré transformations is a Poincaré transformation and the set of all Poincaré transformations with the operation of composition forms a group called the Poincaré group. Under the Erlangen program, Minkowski space can be viewed as the geometry defined by the Poincaré group, which combines Lorentz transformations with translations. In a similar way, the set of all Lorentz transformations forms a group, called the Lorentz group. A quantity invariant under Lorentz transformations is known as a Lorentz scalar. Special relativity One of the most astounding consequences of Einstein's clock-setting method is the idea that time is relative. In essence, each observer's frame of reference is associated with a unique set of clocks, the result being that time passes at different rates for different observers. This was a direct result of the Lorentz transformations and is called time dilation. We can also clearly see from the Lorentz "local time" transformation that the concept of the relativity of simultaneity and of the relativity of length contraction are also consequences of that clock-setting hypothesis. Lorentz transformations can also be used to prove that magnetic and electric fields are simply different aspects of the same force — the electromagnetic force. If we have one charge or a collection of charges which are all stationary with respect to each other, we can observe the system in a frame in which there is no motion of the charges. In this frame, there is only an "electric field". If we switch to a moving frame, the Lorentz transformation will predict that a "magnetic field" is present. This field was initially unified in Maxwell's concept of the "electromagnetic field". The correspondence principle For relative speeds much less than the speed of light, the Lorentz transformations reduce to the Galilean transformation in accordance with the correspondence principle. The correspondence limit is usually stated mathematically as , so it is usually said that non relativistic physics is a physics of "instant action at a distance" . History See also History of Lorentz transformations. The transformations were first discovered and published by Joseph Larmor in 1897. In 1905, Henri Poincaré named them after the Dutch physicist and mathematician Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853-1928) who had published a first order version of these transformations in 1895 See History of Special Relativity The work is contained within and the final version in 1899 and 1904. Many physicists, including FitzGerald, Larmor, Lorentz and Woldemar Voigt, had been discussing the physics behind these equations since 1887. Larmor and Lorentz, who believed the luminiferous aether hypothesis, were seeking the transformations under which Maxwell's equations were invariant when transformed from the ether to a moving frame. In early 1889, Heaviside had shown from Maxwell's equations that the electric field surrounding a spherical distribution of charge should cease to have spherical symmetry once the charge is in motion relative to the ether. FitzGerald then conjectured that Heaviside’s distortion result might be applied to a theory of intermolecular forces. Some months later, FitzGerald published his conjecture in Science to explain the baffling outcome of the 1887 ether-wind experiment of Michelson and Morley. This became known as the FitzGerald-Lorentz explanation of the Michelson-Morley null result, known early on through the writings of Lodge, Lorentz, Larmor, and FitzGerald. Their explanation was widely accepted as correct before 1905. Larmor gets credit for discovering the basic equations in 1897 and for being first in understanding the crucial time dilation property inherent in his equations. Larmor's (1897) and Lorentz's (1899, 1904) final equations are algebraically equivalent to those published and interpreted as a theory of relativity by Albert Einstein (1905) but it was the French mathematician Henri Poincaré who first recognized that the Lorentz transformations have the properties of a mathematical group. Both Larmor and Lorentz discovered that the transformation preserved Maxwell's equations. Paul Langevin (1911) said of the transformation: "It is the great merit of H. A. Lorentz to have seen that the fundamental equations of electromagnetism admit a group of transformations which enables them to have the same form when one passes from one frame of reference to another; this new transformation has the most profound implications for the transformations of space and time". The citation is within the following paper: Derivation The usual treatment (e.g., Einstein's original work) is based on the invariance of the speed of light. However, this is not necessarily the starting point: indeed (as is exposed, for example, in the second volume of the Course in Theoretical Physics by Landau and Lifshitz), what is really at stake is the locality of interactions: one supposes that the influence that one particle, say, exerts on another can not be transmitted instantaneously. Hence, there exists a theoretical maximal speed of information transmission which must be invariant, and it turns out that this speed coincides with the speed of light in vacuum. The need for locality in physical theories was already noted by Newton (see Koestler's "The Sleepwalkers"), who considered the notion of an action at a distance "philosophically absurd" and believed that gravity must be transmitted by an agent (interstellar aether) which obeys certain physical laws. Michelson and Morley in 1887 designed an experiment, which employed an interferometer and a half-silvered mirror, that was accurate enough to detect aether flow. The mirror system reflected the light back into the interferometer. If there were an aether drift, it would produce a phase shift and a change in the interference that would be detected. However, given the results were negative, rather than validating the aether, based upon the findings aether was not confirmed. This was a major step in science that eventually resulted in Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity. In a 1964 paper, Erik Christopher Zeeman showed that the causality preserving property, a condition that is weaker in a mathematical sense than the invariance of the speed of light, is enough to assure that the coordinate transformations are the Lorentz transformations. From group postulates Following is a classical derivation (see, e.g., and references therein) based on group postulates and isotropy of the space. Coordinate transformations as a group The coordinate transformations between inertial frames form a group (called the proper Lorentz group) with the group operation being the composition of transformations (performing one transformation after another). Indeed the four group axioms are apparently satisfied: Closure: the composition of two transformations is a transformation: consider a composition of transformations from the inertial frame to inertial frame , (denoted as ), and then from to inertial frame , ; apparently there exists a transformation, , directly from an inertial frame to inertial frame . Associativity: the result of and is apparently the same, . Identity element: there is an identity element, a transformation . Inverse element: for any transformation there apparently exists an inverse transformation . Transformation matrices consistent with group axioms Let us consider two inertial frames, K and K', the latter moving with velocity with respect to the former. By rotations and shifts we can choose the z and z' axes along the relative velocity vector and also that the events (t=0,z=0) and (t'=0,z'=0) coincide. Since the velocity boost is along the z (and z') axes nothing happens to the perpendicular coordinates and we can just omit them for brevity. Now since the transformation we are looking after connects two inertial frames, it has to transform a linear motion in (t,z) into a linear motion in (t',z') coordinates. Therefore it must be a linear transformation. The general form of a linear transformation is where and are some yet unknown functions of the relative velocity . Let us now consider the motion of the origin of the frame K'. In the K' frame it has coordinates (t',z'=0), while in the K frame it has coordinates (t,z=vt). These two points are connected by our transformation from which we get . Analogously, considering the motion of the origin of the frame K, we get from which we get . Combining these two gives and the transformation matrix has simplified a bit, Now let us consider the group postulate inverse element. There are two ways we can go from the coordinate system to the coordinate system. The first is to apply the inverse of the transform matrix to the coordinates: The second is, considering that the coordinate system is moving at a velocity relative to the coordinate system, the coordinate system must be moving at a velocity relative to the coordinate system. Replacing with in the transformation matrix gives: Now the function can not depend upon the direction of because it is apparently the factor which defines the relativistic contraction and time dilation. These two (in an isotropic world of ours) cannot depend upon the direction of . Thus, and comparing the two matrices, we get According to the closure group postulate a composition of two coordinate transformations is also a coordinate transformation, thus the product of two of our matrices should also be a matrix of the same form. Transforming to and from to gives the following transformation matrix to go from to : In the original transform matrix, the main diagonal elements are both equal to , hence, for the combined transform matrix above to be of the same form as the original transform matrix, the main diagonal elements must also be equal. Equating these elements and rearranging gives: The denominator will be nonzero for nonzero v as is always nonzero, as . If v=0 we have the identity matrix which coincides with putting v=0 in the matrix we get at the end of this derivation for the other values of v, making the final matrix valid for all nonnegative v. For the nonzero v, this combination of function must be a universal constant, one and the same for all inertial frames. Let's define this constant as where has the dimension of . Solving we finally get and thus the transformation matrix, consistent with the group axioms, is given by If were positive, then there would be transformations (with ) which transform time into a spatial coordinate and vice versa. We exclude this on physical grounds, because time can only run in the positive direction. Thus two types of transformation matrices are consistent with group postulates: i) with the universal constant and ii) with . Galilean transformations If then we get the Galilean-Newtonian kinematics with the Galilean transformation, where time is absolute, , and the relative velocity of two inertial frames is not limited. Lorentz transformations If is negative, then we set which becomes the invariant speed, the speed of light in vacuum. This yields and thus we get special relativity with Lorentz transformation where the speed of light is a finite universal constant determining the highest possible relative velocity between inertial frames. If the Galilean transformation is a good approximation to the Lorentz transformation. Only experiment can answer the question which of the two possibilities, or , is realised in our world. The experiments measuring the speed of light, first performed by a Danish physicist Ole Rømer, show that it is finite, and the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that it is an absolute speed, and thus that . From physical principles The problem is usually restricted to two dimensions by using a velocity along the x axis such that the y and z coordinates do not intervene. It is similar to that of Einstein. More details may be found in Bernard Schaeffer, Relativités et quanta clarifiés As in the Galilean transformation, the Lorentz transformation is linear : the relative velocity of the reference frames is constant. They are called inertial or Galilean reference frames. According to relativity no Galilean reference frame is privileged. Another condition is that the speed of light must be independent of the reference frame, in practice of the velocity of the light source. Galilean reference frames In classical kinematics, the total displacement x in the R frame is the sum of the relative displacement x′ in frame R' and of the displacement x in frame R. If v is the relative velocity of R' relative to R, we have v: x = x′ + vt or x′ = x − vt. This relationship is linear for a constant v, that is when R and R' are Galilean frames of reference. In Einstein's relativity, the main difference with Galilean relativity is that space is a function of time and vice-versa: t ≠ t′. The most general linear relationship is obtained with four constant coefficients, α, β, γ and v: The Lorentz transformation becomes the Galilan transformation when β = γ = 1 and α = 0. Speed of light independent of the velocity of the source Light being independent of the reference frame as was shown by Michelson, we need to have x = ct if x′ = ct′. Replacing x and x′ in the preceding equations, one has: Replacing t′ with the help of the second equation, the first one writes: After simplification by t and dividing by cβ, one obtains: Principle of relativity According to the principle of relativity, there is no privileged Galilean frame of reference. One has to find the same Lorentz transformation from frame R to R' or from R' to R. As in the Galilean transformation, the sign of the transport velocity v has to be changed when passing from one frame to the other. The following derivation uses only the principle of relativity which is independent of light velocity constancy. The inverse transformation of is given by . In accordance with the principle of relativity, the expressions of x and t are . As the right hand sides have to be identical to those obtained by inverting the transformation, we have the identities, valid for any x’ and t’ : Substituting x'=1 and t'=0 in the first identity and x'=0 and t'=1 in the second, we immediately get the equalities Expression of the Lorentz transformation Using the earlier obtained relation , one has and, finally . We now have all the coefficients needed and, therefore, the Lorentz transformation , or, using the Lorentz factor γ, , and its inverse: . See also Electromagnetic field Galilean transformation Hyperbolic rotation Invariance mechanics Lorentz group Principle of relativity Velocity-addition formula Algebra of physical space References Further reading External links Derivation of the Lorentz transformations. This web page contains a more detailed derivation of the Lorentz transformation with special emphasis on group properties. The Paradox of Special Relativity. This webpage poses a problem, the solution of which is the Lorentz transformation, which is presented graphically in its next page. Relativity - a chapter from an online textbook Special Relativity: The Lorentz Transformation, The Velocity Addition Law on Project PHYSNET Warp Special Relativity Simulator. A computer program demonstrating the Lorentz transformations on everyday objects. Animation clip visualizing the Lorentz transformation. Lorentz Frames Animated from John de Pillis. Online Flash animations of Galilean and Lorentz frames, various paradoxes, EM wave phenomena, etc. | Lorentz_transformation |@lemmatized visualisation:1 lorentz:69 transformation:106 one:18 space:15 coordinate:36 consider:9 thin:1 solid:2 line:8 cross:1 right:2 angle:3 depict:2 time:18 distance:4 observer:16 rest:1 skewed:1 straight:2 grid:1 move:6 physic:6 convert:1 two:23 different:4 measurement:1 uniform:1 non:2 accelerate:3 motion:8 respect:4 classical:3 galilean:16 relativity:25 conversion:1 believe:3 necessary:1 describe:2 origin:5 system:18 slide:1 speed:19 v:14 along:6 x:22 axis:9 frame:41 accord:4 special:11 good:2 approximation:2 much:2 small:2 light:18 general:7 result:9 offsetting:1 length:2 distort:1 well:1 homogeneous:2 must:9 linear:8 also:14 since:4 postulate:6 preserve:3 spacetime:7 interval:6 event:8 minkowski:5 leave:1 fixed:1 rotation:9 set:5 include:2 translation:3 know:4 poincaré:10 group:23 henri:3 name:2 dutch:2 physicist:4 mathematician:3 hendrik:2 reference:14 within:3 following:4 paper:3 form:18 mathematical:3 basis:1 albert:2 einstein:9 theory:5 derive:2 joseph:2 larmor:8 assumption:1 principle:9 constancy:2 inertial:13 standard:5 configuration:6 view:3 world:5 rapidly:1 dimensional:1 universe:1 vertical:2 direction:8 indicate:2 horizontal:1 dashed:1 trajectory:1 dot:1 specific:1 imagine:1 flashing:1 pass:4 diagonal:3 bottom:1 half:2 image:1 past:1 cone:1 visible:1 slope:1 deviation:1 give:13 relative:16 velocity:22 note:3 change:3 assume:3 q:2 use:8 cartesian:1 measure:2 us:2 far:2 orient:1 overlap:1 parallel:2 z:13 common:1 hold:1 say:4 symmetric:5 presentation:1 forward:1 inverse:7 achieve:1 highlight:1 physical:6 law:3 kind:1 remain:1 unchanged:1 show:8 call:12 factor:4 matrix:24 boost:9 often:1 express:2 generally:1 arbitrary:2 e:3 proper:4 contain:3 three:1 ax:3 alone:1 rapidity:3 cast:1 another:6 useful:1 introduce:1 parameter:1 instance:1 hyperbolic:6 equation:12 equivalently:1 trigonometric:1 expression:4 therefore:3 substitute:1 thus:7 see:8 represent:2 convenient:1 decompose:1 spatial:4 vector:5 component:2 perpendicular:2 warped:1 gamma:1 second:5 write:5 identity:6 column:1 vt:4 transpose:1 row:1 separate:1 metric:1 summation:1 convention:1 suppose:2 make:2 invariant:5 section:1 require:2 constant:9 inhomogeneous:1 volume:2 simply:2 take:1 determinant:1 u:4 consist:2 subgroup:2 improper:2 discrete:1 reflection:1 combine:3 product:2 composition:6 operation:2 erlangen:1 program:2 geometry:1 define:3 similar:2 way:2 quantity:1 scalar:1 astounding:1 consequence:2 clock:3 setting:2 method:1 idea:1 essence:1 associate:1 unique:1 rate:1 direct:1 dilation:3 clearly:1 local:1 concept:2 simultaneity:1 contraction:2 hypothesis:2 prove:1 magnetic:2 electric:3 field:7 aspect:1 force:3 electromagnetic:3 charge:5 collection:1 stationary:1 observe:1 switch:1 moving:1 predict:1 present:2 initially:1 unify:1 maxwell:4 correspondence:3 less:1 reduce:1 accordance:2 limit:1 usually:3 state:1 mathematically:1 relativistic:2 instant:1 action:2 history:3 first:8 discover:3 publish:4 antoon:1 order:1 version:2 work:2 final:3 many:1 fitzgerald:5 woldemar:1 voigt:1 discuss:1 behind:1 luminiferous:1 aether:6 seek:1 transform:8 ether:3 early:3 heaviside:2 surround:1 spherical:2 distribution:1 cease:1 symmetry:1 conjecture:2 distortion:1 might:1 apply:2 intermolecular:1 month:1 later:1 science:2 explain:1 baffle:1 outcome:1 wind:1 experiment:5 michelson:5 morley:4 become:3 explanation:2 null:1 writing:1 lodge:1 widely:1 accept:1 correct:1 get:10 credit:1 basic:1 understand:1 crucial:1 property:4 inherent:1 algebraically:1 equivalent:1 interpret:1 french:1 recognize:1 paul:1 langevin:1 great:1 merit:1 h:1 fundamental:1 electromagnetism:1 admit:1 enable:1 new:1 profound:1 implication:1 citation:1 derivation:6 usual:1 treatment:1 g:2 original:3 base:3 invariance:3 however:2 necessarily:1 start:1 point:2 indeed:2 expose:1 example:1 course:1 theoretical:2 landau:1 lifshitz:1 really:1 stake:1 locality:2 interaction:1 influence:1 particle:1 exerts:1 transmit:2 instantaneously:1 hence:2 exist:3 maximal:1 information:1 transmission:1 turn:1 coincide:3 vacuum:2 need:3 already:1 newton:1 koestler:1 sleepwalker:1 notion:1 philosophically:1 absurd:1 gravity:1 agent:1 interstellar:1 obey:1 certain:1 design:1 employ:1 interferometer:2 silvered:1 mirror:2 accurate:1 enough:2 detect:2 flow:1 reflect:1 back:1 drift:1 would:3 produce:1 phase:1 shift:2 interference:1 negative:2 rather:1 validate:1 upon:3 finding:1 confirm:1 major:1 step:1 eventually:1 erik:1 christopher:1 zeeman:1 causality:1 condition:2 weak:1 sense:1 assure:1 follow:1 therein:1 isotropy:1 perform:2 four:2 axiom:3 apparently:5 satisfy:1 closure:2 denote:1 directly:1 associativity:1 element:7 consistent:3 let:4 k:6 latter:1 former:1 choose:1 nothing:1 happen:1 omit:1 brevity:1 look:1 connects:1 yet:1 unknown:1 function:4 connect:1 analogously:1 simplify:1 bit:1 go:2 replace:2 depend:2 isotropic:1 cannot:1 compare:1 main:3 equal:2 combined:1 equate:1 rearrange:1 denominator:1 nonzero:4 always:1 put:1 end:1 value:1 valid:2 nonnegative:1 combination:1 universal:3 dimension:2 solve:1 finally:2 positive:2 vice:2 versa:2 exclude:1 ground:1 run:1 type:1 ii:1 newtonian:1 kinematics:2 absolute:2 limited:1 yield:1 finite:2 determine:1 high:1 possible:1 answer:1 question:1 possibility:1 realise:1 danish:1 ole:1 rømer:1 problem:2 restrict:1 intervene:1 detail:1 may:1 find:2 bernard:1 schaeffer:1 relativités:1 et:1 quanta:1 clarifiés:1 privilege:1 independent:4 practice:1 source:2 total:1 displacement:3 r:11 sum:1 relationship:2 difference:1 obtain:3 coefficient:2 α:2 β:2 γ:3 galilan:1 ct:2 preceding:1 replacing:1 help:1 simplification:1 dividing:1 cβ:1 privileged:1 sign:1 transport:1 hand:1 side:1 identical:1 invert:1 substituting:1 immediately:1 equality:1 obtained:1 relation:1 mechanic:1 addition:2 formula:1 algebra:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 page:2 detailed:1 emphasis:1 paradox:2 webpage:1 pose:1 solution:1 graphically:1 next:1 chapter:1 online:2 textbook:1 project:1 physnet:1 warp:1 simulator:1 computer:1 demonstrate:1 everyday:1 object:1 animation:2 clip:1 visualize:1 animate:1 john:1 de:1 pillis:1 flash:1 various:1 em:1 wave:1 phenomenon:1 etc:1 |@bigram lorentz_transformation:49 special_relativity:9 minkowski_space:4 henri_poincaré:3 hendrik_lorentz:1 albert_einstein:2 larmor_lorentz:5 dashed_line:1 cartesian_coordinate:1 poincaré_transformation:4 magnetic_field:1 galilean_transformation:7 luminiferous_aether:1 maxwell_equation:3 michelson_morley:4 profound_implication:1 inertial_frame:11 vice_versa:2 ole_rømer:1 morley_experiment:1 α_β:1 β_γ:2 external_link:1 project_physnet:1 flash_animation:1 |
3,265 | Civil_war | Aftermath of the Battle of Gettysburg, American Civil War, 1863 A civil war is a between organized groups to take control of a nation or region, or to change government policies. James Fearon, "Iraq's Civil War" in Foreign Affairs, March/April 2007. For further discussion on civil war classification, see the section "Definition". It is high-intensity conflict, often involving regular armed forces, that is sustained, organized and large-scale. Civil wars result in large numbers of casualties and the expenditure of large amounts of resource. A civil war involves two-sided violence; for example, a massacre of civilians by the state is not a civil war. Similarly, less intense forms of societal conflict, such as riots or social movements, are excluded from the definition. Ann Hironaka, Neverending Wars: The International Community, Weak States, and the Perpetuation of Civil War, Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Mass., 2005, p. 3, ISBN 0674015320 Civil wars since the end of World War II have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half year average of the 1900-1944 period. While the rate of emergence of new civil wars has been relatively steady since the mid-1800s, the increasing length of those wars resulted in increasing numbers of wars ongoing at any one time. For example, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the twentieth century, while over 20 concurrent civil wars were occurring at the end of the Cold War, before a significant decrease as conflicts strongly associated with the superpower rivalry came to an end. Since 1945, civil wars have resulted in the deaths of over 25 million people, as well as the forced displacement of millions more. Civil wars have further resulted in economic collapse; Burma (Myanmar), Uganda and Angola are examples of nations that were considered to have promising futures before being engulfed in civil wars. Hironaka (2005), pp. 1-2, 4-5 Scholars of war divide theories on the causes of civil war into either greed versus grievance. Roughly stated: are conflicts caused by who people are, whether that be defined in terms of ethnicity, religion or other social affiliation, or do conflicts begin because it is in the economic best interests of individuals and groups to start them? Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war. See, for example, Hironaka (2005), pp. 9-10, and Collier, Paul, Anke Hoeffler and Nicholas Sambanis, "The Collier-Hoeffler Model of Civil War Onset and the Case Study Project Research Design," in Collier, Paul and Nicholas Sambanis, eds, Understanding Civil War, Volume 1: Africa, The World Bank, 2005, p. 13 Definition Remains of a T-62 tank after rebels enter Addis Ababa at the end of the Ethiopian Civil War, 1991 James Fearon, a scholar of civil wars at Stanford University, states that "a civil war is a violent conflict within a country fought by organized groups that aim to take power at the center or in a region, or to change government policies". Ann Hironaka further specifies that one side of a civil war is the state. The intensity at which a civil disturbance becomes a civil war is contested by academics. Some political scientists define as civil war as having more than 1000 casualties, while others further specify that at least 100 must come from each side. Edward Wong, "A Matter of Definition: What Makes a Civil War, and Who Declares It So?" New York Times November 26, 2006 The Correlates of War, a dataset widely used by scholars of conflict, classifies civil wars as having over 1000 war-related casualties per year of conflict. This rate is a small fraction of the millions killed in the Second Sudanese Civil War and Cambodian Civil War, for example, but excludes several highly publicized conflicts, such as The Troubles of Northern Ireland and the struggle of the African National Congress in Apartheid-era South Africa. Based on the 1000 casualties per year criterion, there were 213 civil wars from 1816 to 1997, 104 of which occurred from 1944 to 1997. If one uses the less-stringent 1000 casualties total criterion, there were over 90 civil wars between 1945 and 2007, with 20 ongoing civil wars as of 2007. Further definitions Battle of Tewkesbury (1471) of the Wars of the Roses in England The Geneva Conventions do not specifically define the term 'civil war'. They do, however, describe the criteria for acts qualifying as "armed conflict not of an international character", which includes civil wars. Among the conditions listed are four requirements: Final Record of the Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 1949, (Volume II-B, p. 121) See also the International Committee of the Red Cross commentary on Third 1949 Geneva Convention, Article III, Section "A. Cases of armed conflict" for the ICRC's reading of the definition and a listing of proposed alternate wording The party in revolt must be in possession of a part of the national territory. The insurgent civil authority must exercise de facto authority over the population within the determinate portion of the national territory. The insurgents must have some amount of recognition as a belligerent. The legal Government is "obliged to have recourse to the regular military forces against insurgents organized as military." Causes of civil war in the Collier-Hoeffler Model A comprehensive studies of civil war was carried out by a team from the World Bank in the early 2000s. The study framework, which came to be called the Collier-Hoeffler Model, examined 78 five-year increments when civil war occurred from 1960 to 1999, as well as 1167 five-year increments of "no civil war" for comparison, and subjected the data set to regression analysis to see the effect of various factors. The factors that were shown to have a statistically-significant effect on the chance that a civil war would occur in any given five-year period were: Availability of finance An economic dependence on commodities, such the diamonds being mined by these children in Sierra Leone, is correlated with an increased risk of civil war. (See also blood diamond.) A high proportion of primary commodities in national exports significantly increases the risk of a conflict. A country at "peak danger", with commodities comprising 32% of gross domestic product, has a 22% of falling into civil war in a given five-year period, while a country with no primary commodity exports has a 1% risk. When disaggregated, only petroleum and non-petroleum groupings showed different results: a country with relatively low levels of dependence on petroleum exports is at slightly less risk, while a high-level of dependence on oil as an export results in slightly more risk of a civil war than national dependence on another primary commodity. The authors of the study interpreted this as being the result of the ease by which primary commodities may be extorted or captured compared to other forms of wealth, e.g. it is easy to capture and control the output of a gold mine or oil field compared to a sector of garment manufacturing or hospitality services. A second source of finance is national diasporas, which can fund rebellions and insurgencies from abroad. The study found that statistically switching the size of a country's diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war. Opportunity cost of rebellion Higher male secondary school enrollment, per capita income and economic growth rate all had significant effects on reducing the chance of civil war. Specifically, a male secondary school enrollment 10% above the average reduced the chance of a conflict by about 3%, while a growth rate 1% higher than the study average resulted in a decline in the chance of a civil war of about 1%. The study interpreted these three factors as proxies for earnings foregone by rebellion, and therefore that lower foregone earnings encourages rebellion. Phrased another way: young males (who make up the vast majority of combatants in civil wars) are less likely to join a rebellion if they are getting an education and/or have a comfortable salary, and can reasonably assume that they will prosper in the future. Low per capita income has been proposed as a cause for grievance, prompting armed rebellion. However, for this to be true, one would expect economic inequality to also be a significant factor in rebellions, which it is not. The study therefore concluded that the economic model of opportunity cost better explained the findings. Military advantage High levels of population dispersion and, to a lesser extent, the presence of mountainous terrain increased the chance of conflict. Both of these factors favor rebels, as a population dispersed outward toward the borders is harder to control than one concentrated in a central region, while mountains offer terrain where rebels can seek sanctuary. Communist soldiers during the Battle of Siping, Chinese Civil War, 1946 Grievance Most proxies for "grievance" - the theory that civil wars begin because of issues of identity, rather than economics - were statistically insignificant, including economic equality, political rights, ethnic polarization and religious fractionalization. Only ethnic dominance, the case where the largest ethnic group comprises a majority of the population, increased the risk of civil war. A country characterized by ethnic dominance has nearly twice the chance of a civil war. However, the combined effects of ethnic and religious fractionalization, i.e. the more chance that any two randomly chosen people will be from separate ethnic or religious groups the less chance of a civil war, were also significant and positive, as long as the country avoided ethnic dominance. The study interpreted this as stating that minority groups are more likely to rebel if they feel that they are being dominated, but that rebellions are more likely to occur the more homogeneous the population and thus more cohesive the rebels. These two factors may thus be seen as mitigating each other in many cases. Population size The various factors contributing to the risk of civil war rise increase with population size. The risk of a civil war rises approximately proportionately with the size of a country's population. Time The more time that has elapsed since the last civil war, the less likely it is that a conflict will recur. The study had two possible explanations for this: one opportunity-based and the other grievance-based. The elapsed time may represent the depreciation of whatever capital the rebellion was fought over and thus increase the opportunity cost of restarting the conflict. Alternatively, elapsed time may represent the gradual process of healing of old hatreds. The study found that the presence of diaspora substantially reduced the positive effect of time, as the funding from diasporas offsets the depreciation of rebellion-specific capital. Duration of civil wars Ann Hironaka, author of Neverending Wars, divides the modern history of civil wars into the pre-nineteenth century, nineteenth century to early twentieth century, and late twentieth century. In nineteenth century Europe, the length of civil wars fell significantly, largely due to the nature of the conflicts as battles for the power center of the state, the strength of centralized governments, and the normally quick and decisive intervention by other states to support the government. Following World War II the duration of civil wars grew past the norm of the pre-nineteenth century, largely due to weakness of the many postcolonial states and the intervention by major powers on both sides of conflict. The most obvious commonality to civil wars are that they occur in fragile states. Hironaka, 2005, p. 28 Civil wars in the 19th and early 20th centuries Civil wars through the nineteenth century to early twentieth century tended to be short; the average length of a civil war between 1900 and 1944 was one and half years. Hironaka, 2005, p. 1 The state itself was the obvious center of authority in the majority of cases, and the civil wars were thus fought for control of the state. This meant that whoever had control of the capital and the military could normally crush resistance. If a rebellion failed to quickly seize the capital and control of the military for itself, it was normally doomed to a quick destruction. For example, the fighting associated with the 1871 Paris Commune occurred almost entirely in Paris, and ended quickly once the military sided with the government. Hironaka, 2005, pp. 28-29 The power of non-state actors resulted in a lower value placed on sovereignty in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, which further reduced the number of civil wars. For example, the pirates of the Barbary Coast were recognized as de facto states because of their military power. The Barbary pirates thus had no need to rebel against the Ottoman Empire, who were their nominal state government, to gain recognition for their sovereignty. Conversely, states such as Virginia and Massachusetts in the United States of America did not have sovereign status, but had significant political and economic independence coupled with weak federal control, reducing the incentive to secede. Hironaka, 2005, p. 29 The two major global ideologies, monarchism and democracy, led to several civil wars. However, a bi-polar world, divided between the two ideologies, did not develop, largely due the dominance of monarchists through most of the period. The monarchists would thus normally intervene in other countries to stop democratic movements taking control and forming democratic governments, which were seen by monarchists as being both dangerous and unpredictable. The Great Powers, defined in the 1815 Congress of Vienna as the United Kingdom, Habsburg Austria, Prussia, France, and Russia, would frequently coordinate interventions in other nations' civil wars, nearly always on the side of the incumbent government. Given the military strength of the Great Powers, these interventions were nearly always decisive and quickly ended the civil wars. Hironaka, 2005, p. 30 A plane, supported by smaller fighter planes, of Francisco Franco's Nationalists bombs Madrid during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) There were several exceptions from the general rule of quick civil wars during this period. The American Civil War (1861-1865) was unusual for at least two reasons: it was fought around regional identities, rather than political ideologies, and it was ended through a war of attrition, rather than over a decisive battle over control of the capital, as was the norm. The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) was exceptional because both sides of the war received support from intervening great powers: Germany, Italy and Portugal supported opposition leader Francisco Franco, while France and Russia supported the government. Hironaka, 2005, p. 31 Civil wars since 1945 In the 1990s, about twenty civil wars were occurring concurrently during an average year, a rate about ten times the historical average since the 19th century. However, the rate of new civil wars had not increased appreciably; the drastic rise in the number of ongoing wars after World War II was a result of the tripling of the average duration of civil wars to over four years. Hironaka, 2005, p. 1, 4-5 This increase was a result of the increased number of states, the fragility of states formed after 1945, the decline in interstate war, and the Cold War rivalry. Hironaka, 2005, pp. 7 & 23 Following World War II, the major European powers divested themselves of their colonies at an increasing rate: the number of ex-colonial states jumped from about 30 to almost 120 after the war. The rate of state formation leveled off in the 1980s, at which point few colonies remained. Hironaka, 2005, pp. 36 More states also meant more states in which to have long civil wars. Hironaka statistically measures the impact of the increased number of ex-colonial states as increasing the post-WWII incidence of civil wars by +165% over the pre-1945 number. Hironaka, 2005, p. 40 While the new ex-colonial states appeared to follow the blueprint of the idealized state - centralized government, territory enclosed by defined borders, and citizenry with defined rights -, as well as accessories such as a national flag, an anthem, a seat at the United Nations and an official economic policy, they were in actuality far weaker than the Western states they were modeled after. Hironaka, 2005, p. 54 In Western states, the structure of governments closely matched states' actual capabilities, which had been arduously developed over centuries. The development of strong administrative structures, in particular those related to extraction of taxes, is closely associated with the intense warfare between predatory European states in the seventeenth and eighteenth century, or in Charles Tilly's famous formulation: "War made the state and the state made war". Hironaka, 2005, p. 6 For example, the formation of the modern states of Germany and Italy in the nineteenth century is closely associated with the wars of expansion and consolidation led by Prussia and Sardinia, respectively. The Western process of forming effective and impersonal bureaucracies, developing efficient tax systems, and integrating national territory continued into the twentieth century; as late as World War I, some French military conscripts from rural regions were unable to name the country they were fighting for. Hironaka, 2005, p. 58 Nevertheless, Western states that survived into the latter half of the twentieth century were considered "strong" by simple reason that they had managed to develop the institutional structures and military capability required to survive predation by their fellow states. In sharp contrast, decolonization was an entirely different process of state formation. Most imperial powers had not foreseen a need to prepare their colonies for independence; for example, Britain had given limited self-rule to India and Sri Lanka, while treating British Somaliland as little more than a trading post, while all major decisions for French colonies were made in Paris and Belgium prohibited any self-government up until it suddenly granted independence to its colonies in 1960. Like Western states of previous centuries, the new ex-colonies lacked autonomous bureaucracies, which would make decisions based on the benefit to society as a whole, rather than respond to corruption and nepotism to favor a particular interest group. In such a situation, factions manipulate the state to benefit themselves or, alternatively, state leaders use the bureaucracy to further their own self-interest. The lack of credible governance was compounded by the fact that most colonies were economic loss-makers at independence, lacking both a productive economic base and a taxation system to effectively extract resources from economic activity. Among the rare states profitable at decolonization was India, to which scholars credibly argue that Uganda, Malaysia and Angola may be included. Neither did imperial powers make territorial integration a priority, and may have discouraged nascent nationalism as a danger to their rule. Many newly independent states thus found themselves impoverished, with minimal administrative capacity in a fragmented society, while faced with the expectation of immediately meeting the demands of a modern state. Hironaka, 2005, pp. 59-61 Such states are considered "weak" or "fragile". The "strong"-"weak" categorization is not the same as "Western"-"non-Western", as some Latin American states like Argentina and Brazil and Middle Eastern states like Egypt and Israel are considered to have "strong" administrative structures and economic infrastructure. Hironaka, 2005, p. 56 Historically, the international community would have targeted weak states for territorial absorption or colonial domination or, alternatively, such states would fragment into pieces small enough to be effectively administered and secured by a local power. However, international norms towards sovereignty changed in the wake of WWII in ways that support and maintain the existence of weak states. Weak states are given de jure sovereignty equal to that of other states, even when they do not have de facto sovereignty or control of their own territory, including the privileges of international diplomatic recognition and an equal vote in the United Nations. Further, the international community offers development aid to weak states, which helps maintain the facade of a functioning modern state by giving the appearance that the state is capable of fulfilling its implied responsibilities of control and order. Hironaka, 2005, pp. 6 The formation of a strong international law regime and norms against territorial aggression is strongly associated with the dramatic drop in the number of interstate wars, though it has also been attributed to the effect of the Cold War or to the changing nature of economic development. Consequently, military aggression that results in territorial annexation became increasingly likely to prompt international condemnation, diplomatic censure, a reduction in international aid or the introduction of economic sanction, or, as in the case of 1990 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq, international military intervention to reverse the territorial aggression. Hironaka, 2005, p. 16 Similarly, the international community has largely refused to recognize secessionist regions, while keeping some states such as Cyprus and Taiwan in diplomatic recognition limbo. While there is not a large body of academic work examining the relationship, Hironaka's statistical study found a correlation that suggests that every major international anti-secessionist declaration increased the number of ongoing civil wars by +10%, or a total +114% from 1945-1997. Hironaka, 2005, pp. 37-40 The diplomatic and legal protection given by the international community, as well as economic support to weak governments and discouragement of secession, thus had the unintended effect of encouraging civil wars. Artist's depiction of the death of Spartacus (71 BC) at the end of the Third Servile War, Roman Republic There has been an enormous amount of international intervention in civil wars since 1945 that served to extend wars. While intervention has been practiced since the international system has existed, its nature changed substantially. It became common for both the state and opposition group to receive foreign support, allowing wars to continue well past the point when domestic resources had been exhausted. Superpowers, such as the European Great Powers, had always felt no compunction in intervening in civil wars that affected their interests, while distant regional powers such as the United States could declare the interventionist Monroe Doctrine of 1821 for events in its Central American "backyard". However, the large population of weak states after 1945 allowed intervention by former colonial powers, regional powers and neighboring states who themselves often had scarce resources. On average, a civil war with interstate intervention was 300% longer than those without. When disaggregated, a civil war with intervention on only one side is 156% longer, while intervention on both sides lengthens the average civil war by an addition 92%. If one of the intervening states was a superpower, a civil war is extended a further 72%; a conflict such as the Angolan Civil War, in which there is two-sided foreign intervention, including by a superpower (actually, two superpowers in the case of Angola), would be 538% longer on average than a civil war without any international intervention. Hironaka, 2005, pp. 50-51 Effect of the Cold War The Cold War (1945-1989) provided a global network of material and ideological support that perpetuated civil wars, which were mainly fought in ex-colonial weak states, rather than the relatively strong states that were aligned with the Warsaw Pact and North Atlantic Treaty Organization. In some cases, superpowers would superimpose Cold War ideology onto local conflicts, while in others local actors using Cold War ideology would attract the attention of a superpower. Using a separate statistical evaluation than used above for interventions, civil wars that included pro- or anti-communist forces lasted 141% longer than the average non-Cold War conflict, while a Cold War civil war that attracted superpower intervention resulted in wars typically lasting over three times as long as other civil wars. Conversely, the end of the Cold War marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 resulted in a reduction in the duration of Cold War civil wars of 92% or, phrased another way, a roughly ten-fold increase in the rate of resolution of Cold War civil wars. Lengthy Cold War-associated civil conflicts that ground to a halt include the wars of Guatemala (1960-1996), El Salvador (1979–1991), Nicaragua (1970-1990) and Peru (1980-2000). Hironaka, 2005, pp. 48-50 See also List of civil wars The Logic of Violence in Civil War Wars of Independence Wars of national liberation References Bibliography Ali, Taisier Mohamed Ahmed and Robert O. Matthews, eds. Civil Wars in Africa: roots and resolution (1999), 322 pages Mats Berdal and David M. Malone, Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars (Lynne Rienner, 2000). Paul Collier, Breaking the Conflict Trap: civil war and development policy World Bank (2003) - 320 pages Stathis Kalyvas, "'New' and 'Old' Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?" World Politics 54, no. 1 (2001): 99-118. David Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds. The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton University Press, 1996). Roy Licklider, "The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945--1993," American Political Science Review 89, no. 3 (summer 1995): pp 681–690. Andrew Mack, "Civil War: Academic Research and the Policy Community," Journal of Peace Research 39, no. 5 (2002): pp. 515–525. David T. Mason and Patrick 3. Fett, "How Civil Wars End: A Rational Choice Approach," Journal of Conflict Resolution 40, no. 4 (fall 1996): 546-568. Patrick M. Regan. Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict (2000) 172 pages Stephen John et al., eds. Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements (2002), 729 pages Monica Duffy Toft, The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003). ISBN 0-691-12383-7. Barbara F. Walter, Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars (Princeton University Press, 2002), Elisabeth Jean Wood; "Civil Wars: What We Don't Know," Global Governance, Vol. 9, 2003 pp 247+ online version External links Map of current conflicts Royal Air Force Doctrine - The Nature of War and Armed Conflict Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends "What makes a civil war?", BBC News, 20 April 2006 | Civil_war |@lemmatized aftermath:1 battle:5 gettysburg:1 american:5 civil:110 war:150 organize:4 group:8 take:3 control:11 nation:5 region:5 change:5 government:14 policy:5 james:2 fearon:2 iraq:2 foreign:4 affair:1 march:1 april:2 discussion:1 classification:1 see:8 section:2 definition:6 high:6 intensity:2 conflict:28 often:2 involve:2 regular:2 armed:2 force:4 sustain:1 large:7 scale:1 result:15 number:10 casualty:5 expenditure:1 amount:3 resource:4 two:9 side:10 violence:3 example:9 massacre:1 civilian:1 state:61 similarly:2 less:7 intense:2 form:5 societal:1 riot:1 social:2 movement:2 exclude:2 ann:3 hironaka:27 neverending:2 international:18 community:6 weak:12 perpetuation:1 harvard:1 university:5 press:4 cambridge:1 mass:1 p:15 isbn:2 since:8 end:11 world:10 ii:5 last:4 average:12 four:3 year:11 dramatic:2 rise:4 one:10 half:4 period:5 rate:9 emergence:1 new:6 relatively:3 steady:1 mid:1 increase:15 length:3 ongoing:4 time:9 five:5 underway:1 simultaneously:1 first:1 twentieth:6 century:18 concurrent:1 occur:8 cold:13 significant:6 decrease:1 strongly:2 associate:6 superpower:8 rivalry:2 come:3 death:2 million:3 people:3 well:6 forced:1 displacement:1 far:5 economic:18 collapse:1 burma:1 myanmar:1 uganda:2 angola:3 consider:4 promising:1 future:2 engulf:1 pp:13 scholar:3 divide:3 theory:2 cause:4 either:1 greed:2 versus:1 grievance:6 roughly:2 whether:1 define:4 term:2 ethnicity:1 religion:1 affiliation:1 begin:2 best:1 interest:5 individual:1 start:1 scholarly:1 analysis:2 support:10 conclusion:1 structural:1 factor:8 important:1 identity:4 predict:1 occurrence:1 collier:6 paul:3 anke:1 hoeffler:4 nicholas:2 sambanis:2 model:5 onset:1 case:8 study:13 project:1 research:3 design:1 ed:3 understand:1 volume:2 africa:3 bank:3 remains:1 tank:1 rebel:6 enter:1 addis:1 ababa:1 ethiopian:1 stanford:1 violent:1 within:2 country:10 fight:6 aim:1 power:17 center:3 specifies:1 disturbance:1 become:3 contest:1 academic:3 political:5 scientist:1 others:2 specify:1 least:2 must:4 edward:1 wong:1 matter:1 make:8 declare:2 york:1 november:1 correlate:2 dataset:1 widely:1 use:6 classifies:1 related:1 per:4 small:4 fraction:1 kill:1 second:2 sudanese:1 cambodian:1 several:3 highly:1 publicize:1 trouble:1 northern:1 ireland:1 struggle:1 african:1 national:9 congress:2 apartheid:1 era:1 south:1 base:5 criterion:3 stringent:1 total:2 tewkesbury:1 rose:1 england:1 geneva:3 convention:2 specifically:2 however:7 describe:1 act:1 qualify:1 arm:3 character:1 include:7 among:2 condition:1 list:2 requirement:1 final:1 record:1 diplomatic:5 conference:1 b:1 also:7 committee:1 red:1 cross:1 commentary:1 third:2 article:1 iii:1 icrc:1 reading:1 listing:1 propose:2 alternate:1 word:1 party:1 revolt:1 possession:1 part:1 territory:6 insurgent:3 authority:3 exercise:1 de:4 facto:3 population:9 determinate:1 portion:1 recognition:4 belligerent:1 legal:2 oblige:1 recourse:1 military:12 comprehensive:1 carry:1 team:1 early:4 framework:1 call:1 examine:2 increment:2 comparison:1 subject:1 data:1 set:1 regression:1 effect:8 various:2 show:2 statistically:4 chance:9 would:10 give:7 availability:1 finance:2 dependence:4 commodity:6 diamond:2 mine:2 child:1 sierra:1 leone:1 risk:8 blood:1 proportion:1 primary:4 export:4 significantly:2 peak:1 danger:2 comprise:2 gross:1 domestic:2 product:1 fall:3 disaggregated:2 petroleum:3 non:4 grouping:1 different:2 low:4 level:4 slightly:2 oil:2 another:3 author:2 interpret:3 ease:1 may:6 extort:1 capture:2 compare:2 wealth:1 e:2 g:1 easy:1 output:1 gold:1 field:1 sector:1 garment:1 manufacturing:1 hospitality:1 service:1 source:1 diaspora:3 fund:1 rebellion:11 insurgency:1 abroad:1 find:4 switch:1 size:4 found:1 sixfold:1 opportunity:4 cost:3 male:3 secondary:2 school:2 enrollment:2 capita:2 income:2 growth:2 reduce:5 decline:2 three:2 proxy:2 earnings:2 foregone:2 therefore:2 encourages:1 phrase:2 way:3 young:1 vast:1 majority:3 combatant:1 likely:5 join:1 get:1 education:1 comfortable:1 salary:1 reasonably:1 assume:1 prosper:1 prompt:2 true:1 expect:1 inequality:1 conclude:1 explain:1 finding:1 advantage:1 dispersion:1 extent:1 presence:2 mountainous:1 terrain:2 favor:2 disperse:1 outward:1 toward:1 border:2 hard:1 concentrate:1 central:2 mountain:1 offer:2 seek:1 sanctuary:1 communist:2 soldier:1 sip:1 chinese:1 issue:1 rather:5 economics:1 insignificant:1 equality:1 right:2 ethnic:9 polarization:1 religious:3 fractionalization:2 dominance:4 characterize:1 nearly:3 twice:1 combined:1 randomly:1 choose:1 separate:2 positive:2 long:7 avoid:1 minority:1 feel:1 dominate:1 homogeneous:1 thus:8 cohesive:1 mitigate:1 many:3 contribute:1 approximately:1 proportionately:1 elapse:2 recur:1 possible:1 explanation:1 elapsed:1 represent:2 depreciation:2 whatever:1 capital:5 restart:1 alternatively:3 gradual:1 process:3 healing:1 old:2 hatred:1 substantially:2 funding:1 diasporas:1 offset:1 specific:1 duration:4 modern:4 history:1 pre:3 nineteenth:7 late:2 europe:1 fell:1 largely:4 due:3 nature:4 strength:2 centralized:2 normally:4 quick:3 decisive:3 intervention:16 follow:2 grow:1 past:2 norm:4 weakness:1 postcolonial:1 major:5 obvious:2 commonality:1 fragile:2 tend:1 short:1 meant:1 whoever:1 could:2 crush:1 resistance:1 fail:1 quickly:3 seize:1 doom:1 destruction:1 fighting:1 paris:3 commune:1 almost:2 entirely:2 actor:2 value:1 place:1 sovereignty:5 eighteenth:2 pirate:2 barbary:2 coast:1 recognize:2 need:2 ottoman:1 empire:1 nominal:1 gain:1 conversely:2 virginia:1 massachusetts:1 united:5 america:1 sovereign:1 status:1 independence:5 couple:1 federal:1 incentive:1 secede:1 global:3 ideology:5 monarchism:1 democracy:1 lead:2 bi:1 polar:1 develop:4 monarchist:3 intervene:4 stop:1 democratic:2 dangerous:1 unpredictable:1 great:4 vienna:1 kingdom:1 habsburg:1 austria:1 prussia:2 france:2 russia:2 frequently:1 coordinate:1 always:3 incumbent:1 plane:2 fighter:1 francisco:2 franco:2 nationalist:1 bomb:1 madrid:1 spanish:2 exception:1 general:1 rule:3 unusual:1 reason:2 around:1 regional:3 attrition:1 exceptional:1 receive:2 germany:2 italy:2 portugal:1 opposition:2 leader:2 twenty:1 concurrently:1 ten:2 historical:1 appreciably:1 drastic:1 tripling:1 increased:2 fragility:1 interstate:3 following:1 european:3 divest:1 colony:7 ex:5 colonial:6 jump:1 formation:4 point:2 remain:1 mean:1 measure:1 impact:1 post:2 wwii:2 incidence:1 appear:1 blueprint:1 idealized:1 enclose:1 defined:2 citizenry:1 accessory:1 flag:1 anthem:1 seat:1 official:1 actuality:1 western:7 structure:4 closely:3 match:1 actual:1 capability:2 arduously:1 development:4 strong:6 administrative:3 particular:2 relate:1 extraction:1 tax:2 warfare:1 predatory:1 seventeenth:1 charles:1 tilly:1 famous:1 formulation:1 expansion:1 consolidation:1 sardinia:1 respectively:1 effective:1 impersonal:1 bureaucracy:3 efficient:1 system:3 integrate:1 continue:2 french:2 conscript:1 rural:1 unable:1 name:1 nevertheless:1 survive:2 latter:1 simple:1 manage:1 institutional:1 require:1 predation:1 fellow:1 sharp:1 contrast:1 decolonization:2 imperial:2 foresee:1 prepare:1 britain:1 limited:1 self:3 india:2 sri:1 lanka:1 treat:1 british:1 somaliland:1 little:1 trading:1 decision:2 belgium:1 prohibit:1 suddenly:1 grant:1 like:3 previous:1 lack:3 autonomous:1 benefit:2 society:2 whole:1 respond:1 corruption:1 nepotism:1 situation:1 faction:1 manipulate:1 credible:1 governance:2 compound:1 fact:1 loss:1 maker:1 productive:1 taxation:1 effectively:2 extract:1 activity:1 rare:1 profitable:1 scholars:1 credibly:1 argue:1 malaysia:1 neither:1 territorial:5 integration:1 priority:1 discourage:1 nascent:1 nationalism:1 newly:1 independent:1 impoverish:1 minimal:1 capacity:1 fragmented:1 face:1 expectation:1 immediately:1 meet:1 demand:1 categorization:1 latin:1 argentina:1 brazil:1 middle:1 eastern:1 egypt:1 israel:1 infrastructure:1 historically:1 target:1 absorption:1 domination:1 fragment:1 piece:1 enough:1 administer:1 secure:1 local:3 towards:1 wake:1 maintain:2 existence:1 jure:1 equal:2 even:1 privilege:1 vote:1 aid:2 help:1 facade:1 functioning:1 appearance:1 capable:1 fulfil:1 implied:1 responsibility:1 order:1 law:1 regime:1 aggression:3 drop:1 though:1 attribute:1 consequently:1 annexation:1 increasingly:1 condemnation:1 censure:1 reduction:2 introduction:1 sanction:1 invasion:1 kuwait:1 reverse:1 refuse:1 secessionist:2 keep:1 cyprus:1 taiwan:1 limbo:1 body:1 work:1 relationship:1 statistical:2 correlation:1 suggest:1 every:1 anti:2 declaration:1 protection:1 discouragement:1 secession:1 unintended:1 encourage:1 artist:1 depiction:1 spartacus:1 bc:1 servile:1 roman:1 republic:1 enormous:1 serve:1 extend:2 practice:1 exist:1 common:1 allow:2 exhaust:1 felt:1 compunction:1 affect:1 distant:1 interventionist:1 monroe:1 doctrine:2 event:1 backyard:1 former:1 neighbor:1 scarce:1 without:2 lengthen:1 addition:1 angolan:1 actually:1 provide:1 network:1 material:1 ideological:1 perpetuate:1 mainly:1 align:1 warsaw:1 pact:1 north:1 atlantic:1 treaty:1 organization:1 superimpose:1 onto:1 attract:2 attention:1 evaluation:1 pro:1 typically:1 mark:1 berlin:1 wall:1 fold:1 resolution:3 lengthy:1 grind:1 halt:1 guatemala:1 el:1 salvador:1 nicaragua:1 peru:1 logic:1 liberation:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 ali:1 taisier:1 mohamed:1 ahmed:1 robert:1 matthew:1 root:1 page:4 mat:1 berdal:1 david:3 malone:1 agenda:1 lynne:1 rienner:1 break:1 trap:1 stathis:1 kalyvas:1 valid:1 distinction:1 politics:1 lake:1 donald:1 rothchild:1 spread:1 fear:1 diffusion:1 escalation:1 princeton:4 roy:1 licklider:1 consequence:1 negotiated:1 settlement:2 science:1 review:1 summer:1 andrew:1 mack:1 journal:2 peace:3 mason:1 patrick:2 fett:1 rational:1 choice:1 approach:1 regan:1 outside:1 intrastate:1 stephen:1 john:1 et:1 al:1 eds:1 implementation:1 agreement:1 monica:1 duffy:1 toft:1 geography:1 indivisibility:1 nj:1 barbara:1 f:1 walter:1 commit:1 successful:1 elisabeth:1 jean:1 wood:1 know:1 vol:1 online:1 version:1 external:1 link:1 map:1 current:1 royal:1 air:1 secular:1 cycle:1 millennial:1 trend:1 bbc:1 news:1 |@bigram foreign_affair:1 twentieth_century:6 burma_myanmar:1 addis_ababa:1 highly_publicize:1 geneva_convention:2 de_facto:3 regression_analysis:1 statistically_significant:1 sierra_leone:1 gross_domestic:1 per_capita:2 capita_income:2 vast_majority:1 mountainous_terrain:1 statistically_insignificant:1 nineteenth_century:7 eighteenth_nineteenth:1 barbary_coast:1 barbary_pirate:1 ottoman_empire:1 francisco_franco:2 seventeenth_eighteenth:1 sri_lanka:1 de_jure:1 angolan_civil:1 warsaw_pact:1 el_salvador:1 lynne_rienner:1 negotiated_settlement:1 et_al:1 princeton_nj:1 nj_princeton:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
3,266 | Cycling | Protest with bicycle. Cyclists crossing Kansas. Police officer on a bicycle. Cycling, also known as biking, is the use of bicycles, or – less commonly – unicycles, tricycles, quadricycles and other similar wheeled human powered vehicles (HPVs) as a means of transport, a form of recreation or a sport. It is done on roads and paths, across open country or even over snow and ice (icebiking). Bicycles, the most common form of cycle, were introduced in the 19th century and now number about one billion worldwide. DidYouKnow.cd. There are about a billion or more bicycles in the world. Retrieved 30 July 2006. They are the principal means of transportation in many regions. Bicycling is a highly efficient mode of transportation and useful for short to moderate distances. Compared to motor vehicles, bicycles have numerous benefits including: using no nonrenewable energy, creating no air pollution, contributing less to traffic congestion, much quieter (virtually silent), great form of exercise, much easier and less costly to park, not deadly, very maneuverable, not restricted to road travel, less costly. Criticisms and downsides to cycling commonly include: less protection during crashes with motor vehicles , longer travel time, no barrier during "bad" weather, not able to take passengers, more physically demanding, perspiration in hot weather or on long climbs. Introduction As a sport, cycling is governed internationally by the Union Cycliste Internationale in Switzerland (for upright bicycles) and by the International Human Powered Vehicle Association (for other HPVs, or human-powered vehicles). Cycling for transport and touring is promoted on a European level by the European Cyclists' Federation, with associated members from Great Britain, Japan and elsewhere. Regular conferences on cycling as transport are held under the auspices of Velo City; global conferences are coordinated by Velo Mondial Welkom bij XS4ALL . Equipment In many countries, the most commonly used vehicle for road transport is a utility bicycle. These have frames with relaxed geometry, protecting the rider from shocks from the road, and easing steering at low speeds. Road bikes tend to have a more upright shape and a shorter wheelbase, which make the bike more mobile but harder to ride slowly. The design, coupled with low or dropped handlebars, requires the rider to bend forward more, utilizing stronger muscles and reducing air resistance at high speed. The price of a new bicycle can range from US$50 to more than US$20,000 Custom Bike Builders: Groupe de Tete - bicycling.com , depending on quality, type and weight (the most exotic road bicycles can weigh as little as 3.2kg (7 lb) SPIN Custom...7.04 lbs ). Being measured for a bike and taking it for a test ride are recommended before buying. The drivetrain components of the bike should also be considered. A middle grade dérailleur is sufficient for a beginner, although many utility bikes come equipped with hub gears. If the rider plans a significant amount of hillclimbing, a triple-crank (three chainrings) front gear system may be preferred. Otherwise, the relatively lighter and less expensive two chainrings may be better. Many road bikes along with mountain bikes include clipless pedals to which special shoes attach via a cleat, permitting the rider to pull on the pedals as well as push. Other possible accessories for the bicycle include headlights and brake lights, bells or horns, disc brakes, child carrying seats, cycling computers with GPS, locks, bar tape, fenders, baggage racks, baggage carriers and pannier bags, water bottles and bottle cages. Cycling with a backpack in London. For basic maintenance and repairs, cyclists can choose to carry a pump (or a CO2 cartridge), a puncture repair kit, a spare inner tube, and tire levers. Cycling can be more efficient and comfortable with special shoes, gloves, and shorts. In wet weather, riding can be more tolerable with waterproof clothes, such as cape, jacket, pants and overshoes. Items legally required in some jurisdictions, or voluntarily adopted for safety reasons, include bicycle helmets, generator or battery operated lights, reflectors, and audible signaling devices such as a bell or horn. Extras include studded tires and a bicycle computer. Skills Learning to ride efficiently and safely in traffic is important. In the United Kingdom, many primary school children took the Cycling Proficiency Test, to help them travel more safely. However, the Cycling Proficiency Test has now been superseded, for children, by 'Bikeability' and the National Standards for Cycle Training. In countries such as the Netherlands, where cycling is popular, cyclists sometimes ride in bike lanes at the side of, or separate from, main highways and roads. Many primary schools participate in the national road test in which children individually complete a circuit on roads near the school while being observed by testers. Types Urban A parking lot for bicycles in Niigata, Niigata, Japan. Cyclists, pedestrians and motorists make different demands on road design which may lead to conflicts. Some jurisdictions give priority to motorized traffic, for example setting up one-way street systems, free-right turns, high capacity roundabouts, and slip roads. Others may apply traffic restraint measures to limit the impact of motorized transport. In the former cases, cycling has tended to decline while in the latter it has tended to be maintained. Occasionally, extreme measures against cycling may occur. In Shanghai, where bicycles were once the dominant mode of transport, bicycle travel on a few city roads was banned temporarily in December 2003. In areas in which cycling is popular and encouraged, cycle-parking facilities using bicycle stands, lockable mini-garages, and patrolled cycle parks are used to reduce theft. Local governments promote cycling by permitting the carriage of bicycles on public transport or by providing external attachment devices on public transport vehicles. Conversely, an absence of secure cycle-parking is a recurring complaint by cyclists from cities with low modal share of cycling. Extensive bicycle path systems may be found in some cities. Such dedicated paths often have to be shared with in-line skaters, scooters, skateboarders, and pedestrians. Segregating bicycle and automobile traffic in cities has met with mixed success, both in terms of safety and bicycle promotion. At some point the two streams of traffic inevitably intersect, often in a haphazard and congested fashion. Studies have demonstrated that, due to the high incidence of accidents at these sites, some such segregated schemes can actually increase the number of car-bike collisions. "Bicycling Life" Bicycles are considered a sustainable mode of transport, especially suited for urban use and relatively shorter distances when used for transport (compared to recreation). Case studies and good practices (from European cities and some worldwide examples) that promote and stimulate this kind of functional cycling in cities can be found at Eltis, Europe's portal for local transport. In the Netherlands bicycle paths are widespread and are (in the cities) closed to scooters. Cyclists in the Netherlands are well protected as the law assumes the stronger participant (i.e. the car driver) is guilty until proved innocent (ie is the guilty party in all accidents involving weaker traffic unless evidence of the opposite is provided). Furthermore, drivers know to expect bikes, which are plentiful and treat traffic rules as guidelines to be ignored at will. Due to these issues the number of car-bike collisions with serious consequences is not alarmingly high in the Netherlands Utility A bicycle loaded with tender coconut for sale. Karnataka, India. Utility cycling refers both to cycling as a mode of daily commuting transport as well as the use of a bicycle in a commercial activity, mainly to transport goods. The postal services of many countries have long relied on bicycles. The British Royal Mail first started using bicycles in 1880; now bicycle delivery fleets include 37,000 in the UK, 25,700 in Germany, 10,500 in Hungary and 7000 in Sweden. The London Ambulance Service has recently introduced bicycling paramedics, who can often get to the scene of an incident in Central London more quickly than a motorized ambulance. Late in the 20th century, urban police bicycles became more common, as the mobility of car-borne officers was increasingly limited by traffic congestion and pedestrianisation. Bicycles enjoy substantial use as general delivery vehicles in many countries. In the UK and North America, generations of teenagers have got their first jobs delivering newspapers by bicycle. London has many delivery companies that use bicycles with trailers. Most cities in the West, and many outside it, support a sizeable and visible industry of cycle couriers who deliver documents and small packages. In India, many of Mumbai's Dabbawalas use bicycles to deliver home cooked lunches to the city’s workers. In Bogotá, Colombia the city’s largest bakery recently replaced most of its delivery trucks with bicycles. Even the car industry uses bicycles. At the huge Mercedes-Benz factory in Sindelfingen, Germany workers use bicycles, color-coded by department, to move around the factory. Recreational Bicycle Touring In the Netherlands, bicycles are freely available for use in the Hoge Veluwe National Park Bicycles are used for recreation at all ages. Bicycle touring, also known as cyclotourism, involves touring and exploration or sightseeing by bicycle for leisure. A brevet or randonnée is an organized long-distance ride. One popular Dutch pleasure is the enjoyment of relaxed cycling in the countryside of the Netherlands. The land is very flat and full of public bicycle trails where cyclists aren't bothered by cars and other traffic, which makes it ideal for cycling recreation. Many Dutch people subscribe every year to an event called fietsvierdaagse — four days of organised cycling through the local environment. Paris-Brest-Paris (PBP), which began in 1891, is the oldest bicycling event still run on a regular basis on the open road, covers over 1200 km and imposes a 90-hour time limit. Similar if smaller institutions exist in many countries. Organized rides Tour de Fat group ride in Portland, Oregon Many cycling clubs hold organized rides in which bicyclists of all levels participate. The typical organized ride starts with a large group of riders, called the mass, bunch or even peloton. This will thin out over the course of the ride. Many riders choose to ride together in groups of the same skill level to take advantage of drafting. Most organized rides, for example Cyclosportives, Challenge Rides or reliability trials, and hill climbs include registration requirements and will provide information either through the mail or online concerning start times and other requirements. Rides usually consist of 25, 50 and 100 mile routes, each with a certain number of rest stops that usually include refreshments, first aid and maintenance tools. Mountain Mountain biking grew in the late 20th century, including recreation and racing. Most mountain biking takes place on dirt roads, trails and in purpose-built parks. Racing Bicycle racing in 1909. The professional peloton racing across the Golden Gate Bridge Shortly after the introduction of bicycles, competitions developed independently in many parts of the world. Early races involving boneshaker style bicycles were predictably fraught with injuries. Large races became popular during the 1890s "Golden Age of Cycling", with events across Europe, and in the U.S. and Japan as well. At one point, almost every major city in the US had a velodrome or two for track racing events. However since the middle of the 20th century cycling has become a minority sport in the US whilst in Continental Europe it continues to be a major sport, particularly in France, Belgium, Italy and Spain. The most famous of all bicycle races is the Tour de France. This began in 1903, and continues to capture the attention of the sporting world. In 1899, Mile-a-Minute Murphy became the first man to ride his bicycle a mile in under a minute, which he did by drafting a locomotive at New York's Long Island. As the bicycle evolved its various forms, different racing formats developed. Road races may involve both team and individual competition, and are contested in various ways. They range from the one-day road race, criterium, and time trial to multi-stage events like the Tour de France and its sister events which make up cycling's Grand Tours. Recumbent bicycles were banned from bike races in 1934 after Marcel Berthet set a new hour record in his Velodyne streamliner (49.992 km on November 18, 1933). Track bicycles are used for track cycling in Velodromes , while cyclo-cross races are held on rugged outdoor terrain. In the past decade, mountain bike racing has also reached international popularity and is even an Olympic sport. Professional racing organizations place limitations on the bicycles that can be used in the races that they sanction. For example, the Union Cycliste Internationale, the governing body of international cycle sport (which sanctions races such as the Tour de France), decided in the late 1990s to create additional rules which prohibit racing bicycles weighing less than 6.8 kilograms (14.96 pounds). The UCI rules also effectively ban some bicycle frame innovations (such as the recumbent bicycle) by requiring a double triangle structure. War The bicycle is not suited for combat, but it has been used as a method of reconnaissance as well as transporting soldiers and supplies to combat zones. In this it has taken over many of the functions of horses in warfare. In the Second Boer War, both sides used bicycles for scouting. In World War I, France, Germany, Australia and New Zealand used bicycles to move troops. In its 1937 invasion of China, Japan employed some 50,000 bicycle troops, and similar forces were instrumental in Japan's march or "roll" through Malaysia in World War II. Germany used bicycles again in World War II, while the British employed airborne "Cycle-commandos" with folding bikes. In the Vietnam War, communist forces used bicycles extensively as cargo carriers along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The last country known to maintain a regiment of bicycle troops was Switzerland, who disbanded their final unit in 2003. Activism Two broad and correlated themes run in bicycle activism: one is about advocating the bicycle as an alternative mode of transport, and the other is about the creation of conditions to permit and/or encourage bicycle use, both for utility and recreative cycling. Although the first, which emphasizes the potential for energy and resource conservation and health benefits gained from cycling versus automobile use, is relatively undisputed, the second is the subject of much debate. San Francisco Critical Mass, April 29, 2005. It is generally agreed that improved local and inter-city rail services and other methods of mass transportation (including greater provision for cycle carriage on such services) create conditions to encourage bicycle use. However, there are different opinions on the role of the use of segregated cycle facilities and other items of the cycling infrastructure in building bicycle-friendly cities and roads. Some bicycle activists (including some traffic management advisers) seek the construction of segregated cycle facilities for journeys of all lengths. Other activists, especially those from the more established tradition, view the safety, practicality, and intent of many segregated cycle facilities with suspicion. They favour a more holistic approach based on the 4 'E's; education (of everyone involved), encouragement (to apply the education), enforcement (to protect the rights of others), and engineering (to facilitate travel while respecting every person's equal right to do so). In some cases this opposition has a more ideological basis: some members of the Vehicular Cycling movement oppose segregated public facilities, such as on-street bike lanes, on principle. Some groups offer training courses to help cyclists integrate themselves with other traffic. This is part of the ongoing cycle path debate. Critical Mass is an event typically held on the last Friday of every month in cities around the world where bicyclists take to the streets en masse. While the ride was originally founded with the idea of drawing attention to how unfriendly the city was to bicyclists, the leaderless structure of Critical Mass makes it impossible to assign it any one specific goal. In fact, the purpose of Critical Mass is not formalized beyond the direct action of meeting at a set location and time and traveling as a group through city streets. There is a long-running cycle helmet debate among activists. The most heated controversy surrounds the topic of compulsory helmet use. Associations Cyclists form associations, both for specific interests (trails development, road maintenance, urban design, racing clubs, touring clubs, etc.) and for more global goals (energy conservation, pollution reduction, promotion of fitness). Some bicycle clubs and national associations became prominent advocates for improvements to roads and highways. In the United States, the League of American Wheelmen lobbied for the improvement of roads in the last part of the 19th century, founding and leading the national Good Roads Movement. Their model for political organization, as well as the paved roads for which they argued, facilitated the growth of the automobile. Health Benefits The physical exercise gained from cycling is generally linked with increased health and well-being. According to the World Health Organization, physical inactivity is second only to tobacco smoking as a health risk in developed countries, and this is associated with many tens of billions of dollars of healthcare costs. The WHO's report suggests that increasing physical activity is a public health 'best buy', and that cycling is a 'highly suitable activity' for this purpose. The charity Sustrans reports that investment in cycling provision can give a 20:1 return from health and other benefits. It has been estimated that, on average, approximately 20 life-years are gained from the health benefits of road bicycling for every life-year lost through injury. Bicycles are often used by people seeking to improve their fitness and cardiovascular health. In this regard, cycling is especially helpful for those with arthritis of the lower limbs who are unable to pursue sports that cause impact to the knees and other joints. Since cycling can be used for the practical purpose of transportation, there can be less need for self-discipline to exercise. Interestingly, it has been found that despite toning the leg muscles, cycling also tones the buttocks. Cycling while seated is a relatively non-weight bearing exercise that, like swimming, does little to promote bone density. Cycling up and out of the saddle, on the other hand, does a better job by transferring more of the rider's body weight to the legs. However, excessive cycling while standing can cause knee damage. It used to be thought that cycling while standing was less energy efficient, but recent research has proven this not to be true. Other than air resistance, there is no wasted energy from cycling while standing if it is done correctly. Cycling on a stationary cycle is frequently advocated as a suitable exercise for rehabilitation, particularly for lower limb injury due to the low impact that it has on the joints. In particular cycling is commonly used within knee rehabilitation programs. As a response to the increased global sedentarity and consequent overweight and obesity, one response that has been adopted by many organizations concerned with health and environment is the promotion of Active travel, which seeks to promote walking and cycling as safe and attractive alternatives to motorized transport. Given that many journeys are for relatively short distances, there is considerable scope to replace car use with walking or cycling, though in many setting this may require some infrastructure modification, particularly to attract the less experienced and confident. Injuries Cycling is seen by some to be an inherently high-risk, dangerous activity although use of appropriate safety equipment and obedience of road rules can reduce risk of serious injury. In the UK, fatality rates per mile or kilometre are slightly less than those for walking . In the US, bicycling fatality rates are less than 2/3 of those walking the same distance . For a child cyclist the rate per mile or kilometre travelled is around 55 times that for a child occupant of a car , while the fatality and serious injury rates per hour of travel are just over double for cycling than for walking (due to the reduced travel time), in the UK. It should be noted that calculated fatality rates based on distance for bicycling (as well as for walking) can have an exceptionally large margin of error, since there are generally no annual registrations or odometers required for bicycles (as there are with motor vehicles), and this means the distance traveled must be estimated. Most cycle deaths result from a collision with a car or heavy goods vehicle, both motorist and cyclist have been found responsible for collisions However, a very high proportion of non-fatal injuries to cyclists do not involve any other person or vehicle. A Danish study in 2000 concluded that "bicycling to work decreased risk of mortality in approximately 40% after multivariate adjustment, including leisure time physical activity". This conclusion is open to various interpretations. Injuries (to cyclists, from cycling) can be divided into two types: Physical trauma (extrinsic) Overuse (intrinsic). Acute physical trauma includes injuries to the head and extremities resulting from falls and collisions. Since a large percentage of the collisions between motor and pedal vehicles occur at night, bicycle lighting is required for safety when bicycling at night. The most common cycling overuse injury occurs in the knees, affecting cyclists at all levels. These are caused by many factors: Incorrect bicycle fit or adjustment, particularly the saddle. Incorrect adjustment of clipless pedals. Too many hills, or too many miles, too early in the training season. Poor training preparation for long touring rides. Selecting too high a gear. A lower gear for uphill climb protects the knees, even though your muscles are well able to handle a higher gear. Excessive saddle height can cause posterior knee pain, while setting the saddle too low can cause pain in the anterior of the knee. An incorrectly fitted saddle may eventually lead to muscle imbalance. A 25 to 35 degree knee angle is recommended to avoid an overuse injury. Overuse injuries, including chronic nerve damage at weight bearing locations, can occur as a result of repeatedly riding a bicycle for extended periods of time. Damage to the ulnar nerve in the palm, carpal tunnel in the wrist, the genitourinary tract or bicycle seat neuropathy may result from overuse. Recumbent bicycles are designed on different ergonomic principles and eliminate pressure from the saddle and handlebars, due to the relaxed riding position. Note that overuse is a relative term, and capacity varies greatly between individuals. Someone starting out in cycling must be careful to increase length and frequency of cycling sessions slowly, starting for example at an hour or two per day, or a hundred miles or kilometers per week. Muscular pain is a normal by-product of the training process, but joint pain and numbness are early signs of overuse injury. Cycling has been linked to sexual impotence due to pressure on the perineum from the seat, but fitting a proper sized seat prevents this effect. In extreme cases, Pudendal Nerve Entrapment can be a source of intractable perineal pain. Some cyclists with induced pudendal nerve pressure neuropathy gained relief from improvements in saddle position and riding techniques. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has investigated the potential health effects of prolonged bicycling in police bicycle patrol units, including the possibility that some bicycle saddles exert excessive pressure on the urogenital area of cyclists, restricting blood flow to the genitals. NIOSH is investigating whether saddles developed without protruding noses (which remove the pressure from the urogenital area) will alleviate any potential health problems. Despite rumors to the contrary, there is no scientific evidence linking cycling with testicular cancer in men. Andy Pruitt, director of the Boulder Center for Sports Medicine, wrote a book about diagnosing, treating, and preventing cycling-related injuries. Andy Pruitt's Complete Medical Guide for Cyclists Air pollution One concern often expressed (both by non-cyclists and some cyclists) is the thought that riding in traffic exposes the cyclist to higher levels of air pollution, especially if he travels on or along busy roads. This has been shown to be untrue, as the pollutant and irritant count within cars is consistently higher, (presumably because of limited circulation of air within the car and due to the air intake being directly in the stream of other traffic). See also Bicycle General Bicycling terminology Cyclists, list of Bike dynamics Indoor cycling Offroad cycling Road cycling Cycling Culture Bicycle culture Clothing-optional and top-free cycling events Cycling Advocacy & Safety Bicycle law Cycling advocacy Cycling safety Hand signals Segregated cycle facilities Vehicular cycling Filtering forward Sports-related cycling and fast-paced recreation Bike trials riding Bicycle racing Bicycle Motocross(BMX) Bike derby Cross-country cycling Cycle speedway Cyclo-cross Cyclosportive Freeride Goldsprint Mountain biking Road bicycle racing Track cycling Triathlon Utility cycling and slow recreation Artistic cycling Bicycle commuting Bicycle touring Bicycle messenger Bicycle transportation engineering Bicycle sharing system Bicycle rental/hire Brevet Challenge riding Cycleways, list of Icebiking Rail trail Utility cycling Other Aerobic exercise Divorce your Car! Exercise General fitness training Green transport Active travel Heart rate monitor Sustainable transport Notes External links sheldonbrown.com Sheldon Brown's web site, a source of technical information and wisdom. | Cycling |@lemmatized protest:1 bicycle:93 cyclist:22 cross:4 kansa:1 police:3 officer:2 cycling:42 also:7 know:4 biking:3 use:33 less:11 commonly:4 unicycle:1 tricycle:1 quadricycles:1 similar:3 wheel:1 human:3 powered:2 vehicle:12 hpvs:2 mean:3 transport:18 form:5 recreation:7 sport:9 road:28 path:5 across:3 open:3 country:9 even:5 snow:1 ice:1 icebiking:2 common:3 cycle:46 introduce:2 century:5 number:4 one:9 billion:3 worldwide:2 didyouknow:1 cd:1 world:8 retrieve:1 july:1 principal:1 transportation:5 many:25 region:1 bicycling:8 highly:2 efficient:3 mode:5 useful:1 short:5 moderate:1 distance:7 compare:2 motor:4 numerous:1 benefit:5 include:16 nonrenewable:1 energy:5 create:3 air:7 pollution:4 contribute:1 traffic:14 congestion:2 much:3 quieter:1 virtually:1 silent:1 great:3 exercise:7 easy:1 costly:2 park:4 deadly:1 maneuverable:1 restrict:2 travel:13 criticism:1 downside:1 protection:1 crash:1 long:7 time:9 barrier:1 bad:1 weather:3 able:2 take:7 passenger:1 physically:1 demand:2 perspiration:1 hot:1 climb:3 introduction:2 govern:2 internationally:1 union:2 cycliste:2 internationale:2 switzerland:2 upright:2 international:3 power:1 association:4 touring:3 promote:5 european:3 level:5 federation:1 associated:1 member:2 britain:1 japan:5 elsewhere:1 regular:2 conference:2 hold:4 auspex:1 velo:2 city:17 global:3 coordinate:1 mondial:1 welkom:1 bij:1 equipment:2 used:1 utility:7 frame:2 relaxed:3 geometry:1 protect:4 rider:7 shock:1 ease:1 steer:1 low:8 speed:2 bike:20 tend:3 shape:1 wheelbase:1 make:5 mobile:1 hard:1 ride:17 slowly:2 design:4 couple:1 drop:1 handlebar:2 require:6 bend:1 forward:2 utilize:1 strong:2 muscle:4 reduce:4 resistance:2 high:10 price:1 new:4 range:2 u:6 custom:2 builder:1 groupe:1 de:5 tete:1 com:2 depend:1 quality:1 type:3 weight:4 exotic:1 weigh:2 little:2 lb:1 spin:1 lbs:1 measure:3 test:4 recommend:2 buying:1 drivetrain:1 component:1 consider:2 middle:2 grade:1 dérailleur:1 sufficient:1 beginner:1 although:3 come:1 equip:1 hub:1 gear:5 plan:1 significant:1 amount:1 hillclimbing:1 triple:1 crank:1 three:1 chainrings:2 front:1 system:4 may:10 prefer:1 otherwise:1 relatively:5 light:3 expensive:1 two:6 good:6 along:3 mountain:6 clipless:2 pedal:4 special:2 shoe:2 attach:1 via:1 cleat:1 permit:3 pull:1 well:9 push:1 possible:1 accessory:1 headlight:1 brake:2 bell:2 horn:2 disc:1 child:6 carry:2 seat:5 computer:2 gps:1 lock:1 bar:1 tape:1 fender:1 baggage:2 rack:1 carrier:2 pannier:1 bag:1 water:1 bottle:2 cage:1 backpack:1 london:4 basic:1 maintenance:3 repair:2 choose:2 pump:1 cartridge:1 puncture:1 kit:1 spare:1 inner:1 tube:1 tire:2 lever:1 comfortable:1 glove:1 wet:1 rid:7 tolerable:1 waterproof:1 clothes:1 cape:1 jacket:1 pant:1 overshoe:1 item:2 legally:1 jurisdiction:2 voluntarily:1 adopt:2 safety:8 reason:1 helmet:3 generator:1 battery:1 operated:1 reflector:1 audible:1 signal:2 device:2 extra:1 stud:1 skill:2 learn:1 efficiently:1 safely:2 important:1 united:2 kingdom:1 primary:2 school:3 proficiency:2 help:2 however:5 supersede:1 bikeability:1 national:6 standard:1 training:5 netherlands:6 popular:4 sometimes:1 lane:2 side:2 separate:1 main:1 highway:2 participate:2 individually:1 complete:2 circuit:1 near:1 observe:1 tester:1 urban:4 parking:3 lot:1 niigata:2 pedestrian:2 motorist:2 different:4 lead:3 conflict:1 give:3 priority:1 motorize:2 example:5 set:5 way:2 street:4 free:2 right:3 turn:1 capacity:2 roundabout:1 slip:1 others:2 apply:2 restraint:1 limit:3 impact:3 motorized:2 former:1 case:4 decline:1 latter:1 maintain:2 occasionally:1 extreme:2 occur:4 shanghai:1 dominant:1 ban:3 temporarily:1 december:1 area:3 encourage:3 facility:6 stand:4 lockable:1 mini:1 garage:1 patrol:2 theft:1 local:4 government:1 carriage:2 public:5 provide:3 external:2 attachment:1 conversely:1 absence:1 secure:1 recur:1 complaint:1 modal:1 share:3 extensive:1 find:4 dedicated:1 often:5 line:1 skater:1 scooter:2 skateboarder:1 segregate:4 automobile:3 meet:1 mixed:1 success:1 term:2 promotion:3 point:2 stream:2 inevitably:1 intersect:1 haphazard:1 congested:1 fashion:1 study:3 demonstrate:1 due:7 incidence:1 accident:2 site:2 scheme:1 actually:1 increase:4 car:12 collision:6 life:3 sustainable:2 especially:4 suit:2 practice:1 stimulate:1 kind:1 functional:1 eltis:1 europe:3 portal:1 widespread:1 close:1 law:2 assume:1 participant:1 e:2 driver:2 guilty:2 proved:1 innocent:1 ie:1 party:1 involve:6 weaker:1 unless:1 evidence:2 opposite:1 furthermore:1 expect:1 plentiful:1 treat:1 rule:4 guideline:1 ignore:1 issue:1 serious:3 consequence:1 alarmingly:1 load:1 tender:1 coconut:1 sale:1 karnataka:1 india:2 refers:1 daily:1 commute:2 commercial:1 activity:5 mainly:1 postal:1 service:4 rely:1 british:2 royal:1 mail:2 first:5 start:5 delivery:4 fleet:1 uk:4 germany:4 hungary:1 sweden:1 ambulance:2 recently:2 paramedic:1 get:2 scene:1 incident:1 central:1 quickly:1 late:3 become:5 mobility:1 borne:1 increasingly:1 pedestrianisation:1 enjoy:1 substantial:1 general:3 north:1 america:1 generation:1 teenager:1 job:2 deliver:3 newspaper:1 company:1 trailer:1 west:1 outside:1 support:1 sizeable:1 visible:1 industry:2 courier:1 document:1 small:2 package:1 mumbai:1 dabbawalas:1 home:1 cook:1 lunch:1 worker:2 bogotá:1 colombia:1 large:5 bakery:1 replace:2 truck:1 huge:1 mercedes:1 benz:1 factory:2 sindelfingen:1 color:1 cod:1 department:1 move:2 around:3 recreational:1 tour:9 freely:1 available:1 hoge:1 veluwe:1 age:2 cyclotourism:1 exploration:1 sightseeing:1 leisure:2 brevet:2 randonnée:1 organize:4 dutch:2 pleasure:1 enjoyment:1 countryside:1 land:1 flat:1 full:1 trail:5 bother:1 ideal:1 people:2 subscribe:1 every:5 year:3 event:8 call:2 fietsvierdaagse:1 four:1 day:3 organised:1 environment:2 paris:2 brest:1 pbp:1 begin:2 old:1 still:1 run:3 basis:2 cover:1 km:2 impose:1 hour:4 institution:1 exist:1 fat:1 group:5 portland:1 oregon:1 club:4 bicyclist:3 typical:1 mass:6 bunch:1 peloton:2 thin:1 course:2 together:1 advantage:1 draft:2 organized:1 cyclosportives:1 challenge:2 reliability:1 trial:3 hill:2 registration:2 requirement:2 information:2 either:1 online:1 concern:3 usually:2 consist:1 mile:7 route:1 certain:1 rest:1 stop:1 refreshment:1 aid:1 tool:1 grow:1 racing:5 place:2 dirt:1 purpose:4 build:1 race:16 professional:2 golden:2 gate:1 bridge:1 shortly:1 competition:2 develop:3 independently:1 part:3 early:3 boneshaker:1 style:1 predictably:1 fraught:1 injury:14 almost:1 major:2 velodrome:2 track:4 since:4 minority:1 whilst:1 continental:1 continue:2 particularly:4 france:5 belgium:1 italy:1 spain:1 famous:1 capture:1 attention:2 sporting:1 minute:2 murphy:1 man:1 locomotive:1 york:1 island:1 evolve:1 various:3 format:1 team:1 individual:2 contest:1 criterium:1 multi:1 stage:1 like:2 sister:1 grand:1 recumbent:3 marcel:1 berthet:1 record:1 velodyne:1 streamliner:1 november:1 cyclo:2 rugged:1 outdoor:1 terrain:1 past:1 decade:1 reach:1 popularity:1 olympic:1 organization:4 limitation:1 sanction:2 body:2 decide:1 additional:1 prohibit:1 kilogram:1 pound:1 uci:1 effectively:1 innovation:1 double:2 triangle:1 structure:2 war:6 combat:2 method:2 reconnaissance:1 soldier:1 supply:1 zone:1 function:1 horse:1 warfare:1 second:3 boer:1 scout:1 australia:1 zealand:1 troop:3 invasion:1 china:1 employ:1 force:2 instrumental:1 march:1 roll:1 malaysia:1 ii:2 employed:1 airborne:1 commando:1 fold:1 vietnam:1 communist:1 extensively:1 cargo:1 ho:1 chi:1 minh:1 last:3 regiment:1 disband:1 final:1 unit:2 activism:2 broad:1 correlate:1 theme:1 advocate:3 alternative:2 creation:1 condition:2 recreative:1 emphasize:1 potential:3 resource:1 conservation:2 health:13 gain:4 versus:1 undisputed:1 subject:1 debate:3 san:1 francisco:1 critical:4 april:1 generally:3 agree:1 improved:1 inter:1 rail:2 provision:2 opinion:1 role:1 segregated:3 infrastructure:2 building:1 friendly:1 activist:3 management:1 adviser:1 seek:3 construction:1 journey:2 length:2 established:1 tradition:1 view:1 practicality:1 intent:1 suspicion:1 favour:1 holistic:1 approach:1 base:2 education:2 everyone:1 encouragement:1 enforcement:1 engineering:2 facilitate:2 respect:1 person:2 equal:1 opposition:1 ideological:1 vehicular:2 movement:2 oppose:1 principle:2 offer:1 train:1 integrate:1 ongoing:1 typically:1 friday:1 month:1 en:1 masse:1 originally:1 found:1 idea:1 draw:1 unfriendly:1 leaderless:1 impossible:1 assign:1 specific:2 goal:2 fact:1 formalize:1 beyond:1 direct:1 action:1 meeting:1 location:2 among:1 heated:1 controversy:1 surround:1 topic:1 compulsory:1 interest:1 development:1 etc:1 reduction:1 fitness:3 prominent:1 improvement:3 state:1 league:1 american:1 wheelmen:1 lobby:1 founding:1 model:1 political:1 paved:1 argue:1 growth:1 physical:6 link:4 increased:1 accord:1 inactivity:1 tobacco:1 smoking:1 risk:4 developed:1 associate:1 ten:1 dollar:1 healthcare:1 cost:1 report:2 suggest:1 best:1 buy:1 suitable:2 charity:1 sustrans:1 investment:1 return:1 estimate:2 average:1 approximately:2 lose:1 improve:1 cardiovascular:1 regard:1 helpful:1 arthritis:1 limb:2 unable:1 pursue:1 cause:5 knee:8 joint:3 practical:1 need:1 self:1 discipline:1 interestingly:1 despite:2 tone:2 leg:2 buttock:1 non:3 bearing:2 swimming:1 bone:1 density:1 saddle:9 hand:2 transfer:1 excessive:3 damage:3 think:1 recent:1 research:1 prove:1 true:1 wasted:1 correctly:1 stationary:1 frequently:1 rehabilitation:2 particular:1 within:3 program:1 response:2 sedentarity:1 consequent:1 overweight:1 obesity:1 active:2 walking:3 safe:1 attractive:1 considerable:1 scope:1 though:2 modification:1 attract:1 le:1 experienced:1 confident:1 see:2 inherently:1 dangerous:1 appropriate:1 obedience:1 fatality:4 rate:6 per:5 kilometre:2 slightly:1 walk:3 occupant:1 note:3 calculated:1 exceptionally:1 margin:1 error:1 annual:1 odometer:1 must:2 death:1 result:4 heavy:1 responsible:1 proportion:1 fatal:1 danish:1 conclude:1 work:1 decreased:1 mortality:1 multivariate:1 adjustment:3 conclusion:1 interpretation:1 divide:1 trauma:2 extrinsic:1 overuse:7 intrinsic:1 acute:1 head:1 extremity:1 fall:1 percentage:1 night:2 lighting:1 affect:1 factor:1 incorrect:2 fit:3 season:1 poor:1 preparation:1 select:1 uphill:1 handle:1 height:1 posterior:1 pain:5 anterior:1 incorrectly:1 eventually:1 imbalance:1 degree:1 angle:1 avoid:1 chronic:1 nerve:4 repeatedly:1 extend:1 period:1 ulnar:1 palm:1 carpal:1 tunnel:1 wrist:1 genitourinary:1 tract:1 neuropathy:2 ergonomic:1 eliminate:1 pressure:5 position:2 relative:1 varies:1 greatly:1 someone:1 careful:1 frequency:1 session:1 hundred:1 kilometer:1 week:1 muscular:1 normal:1 product:1 process:1 numbness:1 sign:1 sexual:1 impotence:1 perineum:1 proper:1 sized:1 prevents:1 effect:2 pudendal:2 entrapment:1 source:2 intractable:1 perineal:1 induced:1 relief:1 technique:1 institute:1 occupational:1 niosh:2 investigate:2 prolonged:1 possibility:1 exert:1 urogenital:2 blood:1 flow:1 genitals:1 whether:1 without:1 protrude:1 nose:1 remove:1 alleviate:1 problem:1 rumor:1 contrary:1 scientific:1 testicular:1 cancer:1 men:1 andy:2 pruitt:2 director:1 boulder:1 center:1 medicine:1 write:1 book:1 diagnosing:1 treating:1 prevent:1 related:1 medical:1 guide:1 express:1 thought:1 expose:1 busy:1 show:1 untrue:1 pollutant:1 irritant:1 count:1 consistently:1 presumably:1 limited:1 circulation:1 intake:1 directly:1 terminology:1 list:2 dynamic:1 indoor:1 offroad:1 culture:2 clothe:1 optional:1 top:1 advocacy:2 filter:1 relate:1 fast:1 paced:1 motocross:1 bmx:1 derby:1 speedway:1 cyclosportive:1 freeride:1 goldsprint:1 triathlon:1 slow:1 artistic:1 messenger:1 rental:1 hire:1 cycleways:1 aerobic:1 divorce:1 green:1 heart:1 monitor:1 sheldonbrown:1 sheldon:1 brown:1 web:1 technical:1 wisdom:1 |@bigram traffic_congestion:2 upright_bicycle:1 commonly_used:1 short_wheelbase:1 disc_brake:1 ride_bike:1 parking_lot:1 cyclist_pedestrian:1 bicycle_trailer:1 bogotá_colombia:1 mercedes_benz:1 portland_oregon:1 mountain_biking:2 recumbent_bicycle:3 kilogram_pound:1 ho_chi:1 chi_minh:1 san_francisco:1 holistic_approach:1 en_masse:1 paved_road:1 tobacco_smoking:1 billion_dollar:1 overuse_injury:4 carpal_tunnel:1 varies_greatly:1 occupational_safety:1 fast_paced:1 aerobic_exercise:1 external_link:1 |
3,267 | Doris_Day | Doris Mary Anne von Kappelhoff (born April 3, 1922) The majority of sources say she was born in 1922, though some sources say she was born in 1924. On April 10, 1930, the household was enumerated in Cincinnati, Ohio, for the decennial federal census. Doris is listed as age seven. Source Citation: Year: 1930; Census Place: Cincinnati, Hamilton, Ohio; Roll: 1808; Page: 10A; Enumeration District: 55. Kaufman's publishers, Virgin Books, list Day's birthyear as 1924 on the Verso (Copyright) page. However, Kaufman stated that she was born in 1922. is an American singer, actress and animal welfare advocate known as Doris Day. Able to sing, dance and play comedy and dramatic roles, she became one of the biggest box-office stars. Day has 39 films to her credit, over 75 hours of television and as one of the most prolific recording artists in history, has recorded over 650 songs. She is an Academy Award nominee, as well as a Golden Globe and Grammy Award winner. She is currently the top ranking female box-office star of all time according to the annual Quigley Publishing poll's "All-Time Number One Stars" list, ranking #6 of the top ten of mostly male stars (the only other female on the list is Shirley Temple.) Quigley Publishing: Annual Box Office Poll & All-Time Top Ten Stars List Early life Doris Day was born in the Cincinnati, Ohio neighborhood of Evanston to Alma Sophia Welz and Wilhelm (later William) von Kappelhoff. All of her grandparents were German emigrants. Doris Day's ancestry Her parents' marriage failed due to her father's reported infidelity. Although the family was Roman Catholic, her parents divorced. After her second marriage, Day herself would become a Christian Scientist. Day has been married four times. The youngest of three children, she had two brothers: Richard, who died before she was born, and Paul, a few years older. She was named after silent movie actress Doris Kenyon, whom her mother admired. Hotchner, A. E., Doris Day: Her Own Story, Morrow & Co., Inc., 1976, p. 18 Growing up in the 1930s, Day developed an interest in dance. By the mid-1930s, she formed a dance duo that performed locally in Cincinnati, until a car accident on October 13, 1937 damaged her legs and curtailed her prospects as a professional dancer. Hamilton Daily News Journal, October 18, 1937, "Trenton Friends Regret Injury To Girl Dancer" However, while recovering, Day took up singing. Soon she took lessons; at 17 she began performing locally. It was while working for local bandleader Barney Rapp in 1939 or 1940 that she adopted the stage name "Day" as an alternative to "Kappelhoff," at his suggestion. Rapp felt her surname was too long for marquees. The first song she had performed for him was Day After Day, and her stage name was taken from that."The Dark Days of Doris Day", June 14, 2008, Daily Mail newspaper (Britain). After working with Rapp, Day worked with a number of other bandleaders including Jimmy James, The Lima (Ohio) News, April 17, 1940, p. 11, "To Entertain At Convention Here" Bob Crosby, and Les Brown. It was while working with Brown that Day scored her first hit recording, "Sentimental Journey", which was released in early 1945. It soon became an anthem of the desire of World War II demobilizing troops to return home. This song is still associated with Day, and was rerecorded by her on several occasions, as well as being included in her 1971 television special. Career Film career While singing with the Les Brown band and briefly with Bob Hope, Day toured extensively across the United States. Her popularity as a radio performer and vocalist, which included a second hit record My Dreams Are Getting Better All The Time, led directly to a career in films. After her separation from second husband George Weidler in 1948, Day planned to leave Los Angeles and return to her mother's home in Cincinnati. Her agent Al Levy convinced her to attend a party at the home of composer Jule Styne. Her personal circumstances at the time and her reluctance to perform contributed to an emotive performance of Embraceable You, which greatly impressed Styne and his partner, Sammy Cahn. They then recommended her for a role in Romance on the High Seas which they were working on for Warner Brothers. The withdrawal of Betty Hutton due to pregnancy left the main role to be re-cast. Thus, Day began her film career, in 1948, in a "peppy" Hutton-esque role. (The film was digitally remastered and released on DVD in May 2007.) The success of this film established her as a popular film personality and provided her with another hit recording It's Magic. In 1950 U.S. servicemen in Korea voted her their favorite star. Early publicity saddled her with such unflattering nicknames as "The Tomboy with a Voice" and "The Golden Tonsil". She continued to make minor and frequently nostalgic period musicals such as Starlift, On Moonlight Bay, By the Light of the Silvery Moon, and Tea For Two for Warner Brothers, but 1953 found Day as pistol-packin' Calamity Jane, winning the Academy Award for Best Original Song for Secret Love (her recording of which became her fourth U.S. No. 1 recording). from the trailer for the film Love Me or Leave Me (1955) After filming Young at Heart (1954) with Frank Sinatra, Day chose not to renew her contract with Warner Brothers and instead freelanced under the management of her third husband, Martin Melcher, whom she married in Burbank on April 3, 1951 in a ceremony performed by justice of the peace, Leonard W. Hamner. Day had divorced saxophonist-songwriter George W. Weidler (September 11, 1917 –July 26, 1995) of Les Brown's band, brother of actress Virginia Weidler on May 31, 1949 in Los Angeles in an uncontested divorce action after marrying him on March 30, 1946 in Mount Vernon, New York, separating in April 1947 and filing for divorce in June 1948. Day's first husband was trombonist-musician Albert "Al" Jorden (February 1, 1917 –July 1967) from Barney Rapp's Ohio-based band, and later in Jimmy Dorsey's band in New York City, from March 1941 at New York's City Hall until their divorce in 1943. Her range of acting broadened to include more dramatic roles. In 1955, she received excellent notices for her portrayal of singer Ruth Etting in Love Me or Leave Me, co-starring James Cagney. Doris would later call it, in her autobiography, her best film. She was also paired with such top stars as Jack Lemmon, James Stewart, Cary Grant, David Niven, and Clark Gable. In Alfred Hitchcock's The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956), Day sang "Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be)" which won an Academy Award for Best Original Song and became her signature song. According to Jay Livingston, who wrote the song with Ray Evans, Day preferred another song used briefly in the film, "We'll Love Again" and skipped the recording for Que Sera, Sera. When the studio pushed her, she relented, but after recording the number in one take, she reportedly told a friend of Livingston's, "That's the last time you'll ever hear that song." The song was used again in her film, Please Don't Eat the Daisies (1960), and was reprised as a brief duet with Arthur Godfrey in The Glass Bottom Boat (1966). Que Sera, Sera also became the theme song for her CBS television show (1968-1973). The Man Who Knew Too Much was her only film for Hitchcock and, as she admitted in her 1975 autobiography, she was initially concerned at his lack of direction. She finally asked if anything was wrong and Hitchcock said everything was fine — if she wasn't doing what he wanted, he would have said something. McGilligan, Patrick, Alfred Hitchcock: A Life in Darkness and Light, ReganBooks, 2003, p.520 After the critical and popular success of 1958's Teacher's Pet, Day's popularity at the box office seemed to wane, and some critical attention focused on perceived elements of "blandness" in her on-screen persona, although in some foreign markets (Germany, Britain and the Commonwealth), she remained a top box office draw. A dynamic performance in The Pajama Game received warm critical notices, but box office returns were disappointing. In the case of The Tunnel of Love and It Happened to Jane, both the critical and popular response was uneven. As a result, from 1957 to 1959, she was no longer regarded a "Top Ten Box Office Draw" by U.S. film exhibitors. This development may have been linked to a marked decline in popularity of musical films during the late 1950s, as well as to some poor choices in material made by Melcher on his wife's behalf. In addition, Day's popularity as a recording artist was diminished due to the growing popularity for rock and roll. Que Sera, Sera, for instance, was never a No. 1 hit, being kept from the top by Elvis Presley's Hound Dog. However, it was her biggest hit after the so-called "rock era" began. She had one more Top Ten hit with "Everybody Loves a Lover" in 1958, which was successfully covered by The Shirelles in 1963. Her rendition of the Van Heusen/Cahn song, High Hopes had special lyrics fashioned into an endorsement of John F. Kennedy's 1960 presidential campaign. Box office queen In 1959, Day entered her most successful phase as a film actress with a series of romantic comedies, starting with the hugely popular Pillow Talk, co-starring Rock Hudson, who became a lifelong friend. The film received positive reviews and was a box office favorite. It also brought a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Actress. Doris and Rock made two more films together, and she also made two with James Garner, starting with 1963's The Thrill of It All. Many of her 1960s films ignored her singing abilities and painted her as a good-hearted woman with a hint of naïveté and the purest virtue. Algonquin Round Table wit Oscar Levant, who had known Day earlier in her career, summed up the paradox of Day's late-blooming ingenue phase when he famously said, "I knew Doris Day before she was a virgin." But the public loved Day's light, frothy comedies of this period, buying enough tickets to make her by far the top female film star in America during the first half of the 1960s. By the late 1960s, the sexual revolution of the baby boomer generation had refocused public attitudes about sex. Times changed, but Day's films did not. Critics and comics dubbed Day "the world's oldest virgin", and audiences began to shy away from her repetitive roles. As a result, she slipped from the list of top box-office stars, last appearing in the Top 10 in 1966 with The Glass Bottom Boat, her final hit film. Day herself found many of her late films to be of very poor quality - her least favorite was Caprice, co-starring Richard Harris) - and did them only at Melcher's insistence. One of the roles she turned down was that of middle-aged adulteress Mrs. Robinson in The Graduate (a role that went to Anne Bancroft). In her published memoirs (co-authored by A.E. Hotchner), Day said that she had rejected the part on moral grounds. Her final feature film, With Six You Get Eggroll, was released in 1968. The impact of changing public tastes could be seen in the waning popularity of Day as a recording artist. Albums like Duet and Latin for Lovers garnered critical praise, but little commercial success in the U.S., although sales remained strong in some overseas markets like Britain. Day's last major hit single came in the UK in 1964 with "Move Over, Darling", co-written by her son specifically for her. The recording was a notable departure for Day, with its distinctly contemporary-sounding arrangement and, especially, her breathy and suggestive delivery of the lyrics. It was perhaps for this reason that it was banned by the BBC, and was labelled "distasteful" by senior management. In 1967, Day recorded her last album, The Love Album, essentially concluding her recording career, though this album was not released until 1994. Bankruptcy and television career 1960s Melcher died April 20, 1968. After nearly two decades as a top star, Day was shocked to discover that her husband of 17 years and his business partner Jerome Bernard Rosenthal Jerome Bernard Rosenthal (born April 1, 1911 and died August 15, 2007), admitted to the State Bar of California on June 11, 1946 after graduating from the University of Chicago Law School, whose clients also included Ross Hunter, Van Johnson, and Gordon MacRae, also Day's lawyer, business manager, and tax adviser under a May 1956 agreement (in which he was to receive 10% of virtually everything owned or earned by Day and Melcher) had squandered her earnings, leaving her deeply in debt. Rosenthal had been her attorney since the late 1940s, and he represented her in May 31, 1949 uncontested divorce action against her second husband, songwriter, George W. Weidler. In February 1969, Day filed suit against Rosenthal and won the largest civil judgment (over $20 million) up until that time in California. 1970s On September 18, 1974, Day was awarded $22,835,646 for fraud and malpractice in an hour long oral decision by Superior Judge Lester E. Olson, ending a 99-day trial that involved 18 consolidated lawsuits and countersuits filed by Day and Rosenthal that involved Rosenthal's handling of her finances after she terminated him in July 1968. The civil trial included 14,451 pages of transcript from 67 witnesses. Represented by attorney Robert Winslow and the law firm of Mitchell, Silberberg & Knupp LLP, Day was awarded $1 million punitive damages, $5.6 million plus $2 million interest for losses incurred in a sham oil venture; $3.4 million plus $1.2 million interest over a hotel venture; $2.2 million plus $793,800 interest for duplicate or unnecessary fees paid to Rosenthal; more than $2 million to recoup loans to Rosenthal; $2.9 million plus $1 million interest for fraud, and $850,000 attorney fees for Day. Olson also enjoined Rosenthal from prosecuting any more lawsuits against Day or her business operations. Rosenthal filed more than 20 suits from 1969 to 1974. Olson, an expert in complex financial marital settlements, read every page of 3,275 individual exhibits and 68 boxes of miscellaneous financial records. In October 1979, Rosenthal's liability insurer settled with Day for about $6 million payable in 23 annual installments. Rosenthal continued to file an appeal in the 2nd District Court of Appeal, and also filed another half-dozen suits related to the case. Two were libel suits, one against Day and her publishers over comments she made about Rosenthal in her book in which he sought damages. The other suits sought court determinations that insurance companies and individual lawyers failed to defend Rosenthal properly before Olson and in appellate stages. In April 1979, he filed a suit to set aside the $6 million settlement with Day and recover damages from everybody involved in agreeing to the payment supposedly without his permission. 1980s In October 1985, the state Supreme Court rejected Rosenthal's appeal of the multimillion-dollar judgment against him for legal malpractice, and upheld conclusions of a trial court and a Court of Appeal that Rosenthal acted improperly. In March 1986, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to review the lower court's judgment. In June 1987, Rosenthal filed a $30-million lawsuit against lawyers he claimed cheated him out of millions of dollars in real estate investments, naming Day as a co-defendant, describing her as an "unwilling, involuntary plaintiff whose consent cannot be obtained". Rosenthal said that the millions of dollars he and Day lost were in real estate sold after Melcher died in 1968, in which Rosenthal asserted that the attorneys gave Day bad advice, telling her to sell, at a loss, three hotels, in Palo Alto, Dallas and Atlanta and some oil leases in Kentucky and Ohio. Rosenthal claimed he had made the investments under a long-term plan, and did not intend to sell them until they appreciated in value. Two of the hotels sold in 1970 for about $7 million, and their estimated worth in 1986 was $50 million. In July 1987, after a hearing panel of the State Bar Court, after 80 days of testimony and consideration of documentary evidence, the panel accused Rosenthal of 13 separate acts of misconduct and urged his disbarment in a 44-page unsigned opinion. The panel's findings were upheld by the State Bar Court's review department, which asked the justices to order Rosenthal's disbarment. He continued representing clients in federal courts until the U.S. Supreme Court disbarred him on March 21, 1988. Disbarment by the Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals followed on August 19, 1988. The Supreme Court of California, in affirming the disbarment, held that Rosenthal engaged in transactions involving undisclosed conflicts of interest, took positions adverse to his former clients, overstated expenses, double-billed for legal fees, failed to return client files, failed to provide access to records, failed to give adequate legal advice, failed to provide clients with an opportunity to obtain independent counsel, filed fraudulent claims, gave false testimony, engaged in conduct designed to harass his clients, delayed court proceedings, obstructed justice and abused legal process. Terry Melcher later commented that it was only his stepfather's premature death that saved Day from financial ruin. It remains unresolved whether Melcher worked in collusion with Rosenthal to pillage her vast earnings, or was himself duped. Day herself has stated publicly that she believes Melcher innocent of any deliberate wrongdoing. In her words, he "simply trusted the wrong person" completely, until it was too late. Doris Day interviewed, Doris Day: A Sentimental Journey, Television Documentary, Arwin Productions, PBS, 1991 According to Day's autobiography, as told to A. E. Hotchner, the usually athletic and healthy Melcher had an enlarged heart. Another factor in his death may have been his conversion to Christian Science during his relationship with Day, which led him to delay going to the doctor for some time. Most of the interviews on the subject given to Hotchner (and included in Day's autobiography) paint an unflattering portrait of Melcher. Author David Kaufman asserts that one of Day's costars, actor Louis Jourdan, maintained that Day herself disliked Melcher, "Doris Day's Vanishing Act", by David Kaufman, Vanity Fair, May 2008, p. 260 however Day's own statements regarding her relationship with Melcher belie that assertion. Hotchner, Doris Day: Her Own Story, p. 226 The Doris Day Show Upon her husband's death, Day learned that he had committed her to a TV series, which became The Doris Day Show. "It was awful", Day told OK! Magazine in 1996. "I was really, really not very well when Marty passed away, and the thought of going into TV was overpowering. But he'd signed me up for a series. And then my son Terry took me walking in Beverly Hills and explained that it wasn't nearly the end of it. I had also been signed up for a bunch of TV specials, all without anyone ever asking me." Day hated the idea of doing television, but felt obligated. "There was a contract. I didn't know about it. I never wanted to do TV, but I gave it 100 percent anyway. That's the only way I know how to do it." Melcher died on April 20, 1968, and the first episode of the TV show was aired on September 24, 1968. From 1968 to 1973, The Doris Day Show aired with "Que Sera, Sera" as its theme song. Day grudgingly persevered as long as she needed the work to help pay off her debts, and only after CBS had ceded creative control to Day and her son. The show was so successful that it ran for five years. It also functioned as a lead-in to the hugely popular Carol Burnett Show. Despite its successful run, today Day's show is remembered for its abrupt changes in casting and premise from season to season. The show has not been widely syndicated unlike many of its contemporaries and has been little seen outside the US and the UK. Garry McGee, Doris Day: Sentimental Journey, McFarland & Co., 2005, pp. 227-228. By the end of the series in 1973, public tastes had changed to such a degree that her firmly established persona was now out of fashion. She largely retired from acting after The Doris Day Show ended, but she did complete two TV specials, The Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff Special (1971) and Doris Day to Day (1975). She appeared in a John Denver TV special (in 1974) parodying her sunny public image. Renewal of interest During the 1990s, interest in Day grew. The release of a greatest hits CD in 1992 garnered her another entry onto the British charts, while the inclusion of the song "Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps" in the soundtrack of the Australian film Strictly Ballroom gained her new fans. During the late 1990s and early 2000s, the release of her films and TV series and specials on DVD further revived interest in her work, resulting in new websites devoted to Day and a growing number of academic texts analyzing various aspects of her career. Pillow Talk's Repackaging of Doris Day: "Under All Those Dirndls ... " by Tamar Jeffers, published in Fashioning Film Stars: Dress, Culture and Identity, Rachel Moseley (ed.), British Film Institute Press, London, 2005. In 2006, Day recorded a commentary for the DVD release of the fifth (and final) season of her TV show. Recently Day has participated in telephone interviews with a radio station that celebrates her birthday with an annual Doris Day music marathon. These interviews are available as downloadable podcasts. While Day turned down a tribute offer from the American Film Institute, she received and accepted the Golden Globe's Cecil B. DeMille Award for lifetime achievement in 1989. In 2004, Day was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom but declined to attend the ceremony because of a fear of flying. Day did not accept an invitation to be a recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors for undisclosed reasons. Liz Smith, a long-time entertainment gossip columnist, and movie critic Rex Reed have mounted vigorous campaigns to gather support for an honorary Academy Award for Day to herald her spectacular film career and her status as the top female box-office star of all time. New York Post article at www.nypost.com Retrieved on 06-05-07 Day was honored with a Grammy for Lifetime Achievement in Music in February 2008. Two new biographies, coincidentally bearing the same cover photograph, were published in June 2008. Doris Day: The Untold Story of the Girl Next Door (Virgin Books) by David Kaufman, and Doris Day: Reluctant Star (JR Books) are "reputed" to tell about Day's "incredible, previously untold story". Discography Personal life In 1975, Day released her autobiography, Doris Day: Her Own Story, an "as-told-to" work with A. E. Hotchner. It revealed to the general public many of the painful events in her private life that belied her sunny public image. In particular, the book detailed her first three difficult marriages: To Al Jorden, a trombonist whom she had met when he was in Barney Rapp's Band, from March 1941 to 1943. Her only child, son Terry Melcher, was born from this marriage. Jorden, who was reportedly physically abusive to Day, committed suicide in 1967 by self-inflicted gun shot wound. To George Weidler (a saxophonist), from March 30, 1946 to May 31, 1949. Weidler, the brother of actress Virginia Weidler, and Day met again several years later. During a brief reconciliation, he helped her become involved in Christian Science. To Martin Melcher, whom she married on April 3, 1951. This marriage lasted far longer than her first two. Melcher adopted Terry (thus renaming the boy Terry Melcher), and also produced many of Day's movies. Day later revealed that Melcher had physically abused Terry. His profligate spending caused the financial problems for Day that are outlined above. After her autobiography was published, Day was married one more time; this marriage also ended in divorce. Her fourth marriage was to Barry Comden, from April 14, 1976 until 1981. Comden was her first husband from outside of show business. Comden was the maitre d' at one of Day's favorite restaurants. Knowing of her great love of dogs, Comden endeared himself to Day by giving her a bag of meat scraps and bones on her way out of the restaurant. When this marriage unraveled, Comden complained that Day cared more for her "animal friends" than she did for him. The book was a best seller, thanks to its revelations about Day's private life, many contributed by her friends who were particularly scathing towards husband number three Marty Melcher. While promoting the book, Day caused a stir by rejecting the "girl next door" and "virgin" labels so often attached to her. As she remarked in her book, "The succession of cheerful, period musicals I made, plus Oscar Levant's highly publicized comment about my virginity ('I knew Doris Day before she became a virgin.') contributed to what has been called my 'image', which is a word that baffles me. There never was any intent on my part either in my acting or in my private life to create any such thing as an image." In an interview with Barbara Walters, she commented, "I don't know where that label came from. Maybe it's the way I look. Do I look like a virgin?" In later interviews, Day said she believed people should live together prior to marriage, something that she herself would do if the opportunity arose. Her candor won her admiration among reviewers and possibly contributed to the book's success. At the conclusion of this book tour, Day seemed content to focus on her charity and pet work and her business interests. (In 1985, she became part-owner with her son of the Cypress Inn in Carmel, California.) The mid-1980s saw a renewed period of activity. In May 1983, she became a grandmother, and in 1985 briefly hosted her own talk show, Doris Day's Best Friends on CBN. The show generated unexpected press when her old friend Rock Hudson appeared in the first episode. Day was taken aback by Hudson's emaciated frame, as he had always been in top physical condition. Soon after, she and the world learned that he was dying of AIDS. Day and Hudson were good friends off-screen, but would not publicly acknowledge that he was gay. Despite the worldwide publicity her show received, it was canceled after 26 episodes. Terry Melcher Terry Melcher first made a brief attempt to become a surf music singing star, then became a staff producer for Columbia Records in the 1960s, and was famous for producing some latter-day recordings by The Beach Boys and The Byrds. In November 2004, after a long period of illness, he died from complications of melanoma, aged 62. Animal welfare activism Although the press had occasionally noted Day's interest in animal welfare, it was not until the early 1970s that her interest in animal rights was widely publicized. In 1971, she co-founded Actors and Others for Animals and appeared in a series of newspaper advertisements denouncing the wearing of fur, alongside Mary Tyler Moore, Angie Dickinson, and Jayne Meadows. Pierre Patrick, Que Sera, Sera: The Magic of Doris Day Through Television, Bear Manor Media, 2006, p. 132 (photograph of ad) Day's friend, Cleveland Amory, wrote about these events in Man Kind? Our Incredible War on Wildlife (1974). Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Day actively promoted the annual Spay Day USA, and on a number of occasions, actively lobbied the United States Congress - and, it has been suggested, Presidents Ronald Reagan and Bill Clinton - in support of legislation designed to safeguard animal rights. The Doris Day Animal League (www.ddal.org) is a group she funds. She was long known to stop her car on the Los Angeles freeways if and when she saw an abandoned, stray or injured animal. In 2006, The Humane Society of the United States merged with the Doris Day Animal League. Merger Adds To Humane Society's Bite, Washingtonpost.com Retrieved on 06-05-07. Staff members of the Doris Day League took positions within The HSUS, and Day recorded public service announcements for the organization. The HSUS now manages Spay Day USA, the one-day spay/neuter event she originated. Humane Society and Doris Day, official website of Humane Society of the United States. Retrieved on 06-05-07. Recent years Day now lives on an ranch near Carmel, California and often uses the name Clara Kappelhoff. Rep: Doris Day Still "Sharp as a Tack" UPI.com 13 August 2008 Clara is a nickname originally given to her by her Tea for Two co-star Billy De Wolfe, and close friends have called her that. "Once a Hollywood legend, Doris Day is now an ageing recluse called Clara" by Liz Thomas, Mail Online, 11 Aug 2008. Retrieved on 12 Aug 2008. Day: "Don't Call Me Doris" Retrieved on 12 Aug 2008. Doris Day in popular culture Film In 2003, Ewan McGregor and Renée Zellweger starred in the film Down With Love, which was touted as a throwback to the old "Rock Hudson and Doris Day" romantic comedies. In many ways, the film is almost a remake of Day's film Pillow Talk, and in fact utilizes some stock footage of various New York streetscapes originally featured in That Touch of Mink. The song "Here's To Love", sung by McGregor and Zellweger at the end of the film, includes the line "I'll be your Rock, if you'll be my Doris". Literature Doris Day is mentioned in Janice Galloway's novel "Foreign Parts". She is used as a symbol for women concealing their mis-treatment as the novel describes her assuming all women were victims of domestic violence but no-one talks about it. Music On The Beatles' 1970 album Let It Be, John Lennon yells out Doris Day's name in the song "Dig It". The album went to #1 on the Billboard albums chart. Dutch band Doe Maar made a national breakthrough by scoring a huge hit in the Low Countries (Belgium & The Netherlands) with their 1982 song "Doris Day". An excerpt of the lyrics is "Hey, er is geen bal op de t.v., alleen een film met Doris Day," which translates as, "Hey, there is nothing on TV, only a Doris Day film." In the Wham! single "Wake Me Up Before You Go Go", she is mentioned in the second verse, as George Michael sings the lyric "You take the grey skies out of my way/You make the sun shine brighter than Doris Day/Turned a bright spark into a flame/My beats per minute never been the same". The 1984 song went to #1 on the U.S. Hot 100 and in the UK, Australia and Scandinavia. Doris Day is the second reference in the first line of Billy Joel's "We Didn't Start the Fire", and one of seven pop culture references selected to capture the zeitgeist of the year 1949, in the line, "Harry Truman, Doris Day, Red China, Johnnie Ray/South Pacific, Walter Winchell, Joe DiMaggio." The following line, representing 1950, was "Joe McCarthy, Richard Nixon, Studebaker, television/North Korea, South Korea, Marilyn Monroe". The 1989 song went to #1 on the Billboard Hot 100. In The Who song "Mirror Door" from their 2006 concept album Endless Wire, Pete Townshend's lyrics mention a number of music icons who greet a central character—a performer—upon reaching heaven. Only after the song was recorded and the album produced did Townshend discover that Day was still alive. When questioned about it, he suggested asking her to appear in a possible music video for the song. TV In the M*A*S*H episode "Your Hit Parade", Radar plays records for the unit. Colonel Potter requests "Sentimental Journey" repeatedly. He relates that at Fort Dix, he fell in love with "this willowy, blonde beauty" who walked across the dance floor. The vocalist started singing "Sentimental Journey," and he found he had fallen in love with Doris Day. Aircraft There is a B-17 Flying Fortress still flying that is named Sentimental Journey (ironically with a picture of Betty Grable on the airplane's nose). The first aircraft to land at the South Pole (October 31, 1956) was named "Que Sera, Sera". News During the 2000 Canadian federal election campaign, comedian Rick Mercer called into question a proposal by the Canadian Alliance to hold national referenda on any issue in which three per cent of the electorate signed a petition. He successfully gathered the required number of signatures on a petition regarding whether Alliance leader Stockwell Day should be required to change his name to Doris Day. "'Doris Day' petition hits the mark", cbc.ca, November 16, 2000. References External links Discovering Doris (Longest running fan tribute website) The Films Of Doris Day (In depth tribute focusing on Doris's movies) 2008 Online Christmas Card For Doris Day Spotlight at Turner Classic Movies Doris Day Animal Foundation Doris Day Animal League Doris Day on "Solid! The encyclopedia of big band, lounge, classic jazz and space-age sounds" Photographs of Doris Day Doris Day Official Discography (+78rpm) Further reading Barothy, Mary Anne. Day at a Time: An Indiana Girl's Sentimental Journey to Doris Day's Hollywood and Beyond. Hawthorne Publishing, 2007. Bret, David. Doris Day: Reluctant Star. JR Books, London. 2008. Day, Doris, as told to A. E. Hotchner. Doris Day: Her Own Story. William Morrow & Co., Inc., 1976. McGee, Garry. Doris Day: Sentimental Journey. McFarland & Company, Inc., 2005. Patrick, Pierre and Garry McGee. Que Sera, Sera: The Magic of Doris Day Through Television. Bear Manor Media, 2005 Santopietro, Tom. Considering Doris Day. Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, 2007. | Doris_Day |@lemmatized doris:67 mary:4 anne:4 von:2 kappelhoff:5 bear:11 april:11 majority:1 source:3 say:8 though:2 household:1 enumerate:1 cincinnati:5 ohio:6 decennial:1 federal:3 census:2 list:6 age:4 seven:2 citation:1 year:7 place:1 hamilton:2 roll:2 page:5 enumeration:1 district:2 kaufman:5 publisher:2 virgin:7 book:12 day:165 birthyear:1 verso:1 copyright:1 however:4 state:10 american:2 singer:2 actress:6 animal:12 welfare:3 advocate:1 know:10 able:1 sing:7 dance:4 play:2 comedy:4 dramatic:2 role:8 become:14 one:13 big:3 box:12 office:11 star:19 film:38 credit:1 hour:2 television:9 prolific:1 record:16 artist:3 history:1 song:22 academy:5 award:10 nominee:1 well:5 golden:3 globe:2 grammy:2 winner:1 currently:1 top:14 ranking:1 female:4 time:14 accord:3 annual:5 quigley:2 publish:5 poll:2 number:8 rank:1 ten:4 mostly:1 male:1 shirley:1 temple:1 publishing:2 early:5 life:6 neighborhood:1 evanston:1 alma:1 sophia:1 welz:1 wilhelm:1 later:6 william:2 grandparent:1 german:1 emigrant:1 ancestry:1 parent:2 marriage:9 fail:6 due:3 father:1 report:1 infidelity:1 although:4 family:1 roman:1 catholic:1 divorce:7 second:6 would:5 christian:3 scientist:1 marry:5 four:1 young:2 three:5 child:2 two:11 brother:6 richard:3 die:7 paul:1 older:1 name:9 silent:1 movie:5 kenyon:1 mother:2 admire:1 hotchner:7 e:6 story:6 morrow:2 co:11 inc:3 p:6 grow:4 develop:1 interest:12 mid:2 form:1 duo:1 perform:5 locally:2 car:2 accident:1 october:5 damage:4 leg:1 curtail:1 prospect:1 professional:1 dancer:2 daily:2 news:3 journal:1 trenton:1 friends:1 regret:1 injury:1 girl:4 recover:2 take:9 singing:1 soon:3 lesson:1 begin:4 work:10 local:1 bandleader:2 barney:3 rapp:5 adopt:2 stage:3 alternative:1 suggestion:1 felt:2 surname:1 long:9 marquee:1 first:12 dark:1 june:5 mail:2 newspaper:2 britain:3 include:8 jimmy:2 james:4 lima:1 entertain:1 convention:1 bob:2 crosby:1 les:1 brown:4 score:2 hit:12 recording:6 sentimental:8 journey:8 release:8 anthem:1 desire:1 world:3 war:2 ii:1 demobilize:1 troop:1 return:4 home:3 still:4 associate:1 rerecorded:1 several:2 occasion:2 special:7 career:9 le:2 band:7 briefly:3 hope:2 tour:2 extensively:1 across:2 united:4 popularity:6 radio:2 performer:2 vocalist:2 dream:1 get:2 lead:3 directly:1 separation:1 husband:8 george:5 weidler:7 plan:2 leave:4 los:3 angeles:3 agent:1 al:3 levy:1 convince:1 attend:2 party:1 composer:1 jule:1 styne:2 personal:2 circumstance:1 reluctance:1 contribute:4 emotive:1 performance:2 embraceable:1 greatly:1 impress:1 partner:2 sammy:1 cahn:2 recommend:1 romance:1 high:2 sea:1 warner:3 withdrawal:1 betty:2 hutton:2 pregnancy:1 left:1 main:1 cast:1 thus:2 peppy:1 esque:1 digitally:1 remastered:1 dvd:3 may:9 success:4 establish:2 popular:6 personality:1 provide:3 another:5 magic:3 u:9 serviceman:1 korea:3 vote:1 favorite:4 publicity:2 saddle:1 unflattering:2 nickname:2 tomboy:1 voice:1 tonsil:1 continue:3 make:11 minor:1 frequently:1 nostalgic:1 period:5 musical:3 starlift:1 moonlight:1 bay:1 light:3 silvery:1 moon:1 tea:2 find:3 pistol:1 packin:1 calamity:1 jane:2 win:4 best:6 original:2 secret:1 love:13 fourth:2 trailer:1 heart:2 frank:1 sinatra:1 choose:1 renew:1 contract:2 instead:1 freelance:1 management:2 third:1 martin:3 melcher:22 burbank:1 ceremony:2 justice:3 peace:1 leonard:1 w:3 hamner:1 saxophonist:2 songwriter:2 september:3 july:4 virginia:2 uncontested:2 action:2 march:6 mount:2 vernon:1 new:8 york:5 separate:2 file:10 trombonist:2 musician:1 albert:1 jorden:3 february:3 base:1 dorsey:1 city:2 hall:1 range:1 act:5 broaden:1 receive:6 excellent:1 notice:2 portrayal:1 ruth:1 etting:1 cagney:1 call:7 autobiography:6 also:12 pair:1 jack:1 lemmon:1 stewart:1 cary:1 grant:1 david:5 niven:1 clark:1 gable:1 alfred:2 hitchcock:4 man:3 much:2 que:8 serum:16 whatever:1 signature:2 jay:1 livingston:2 write:3 ray:2 evans:1 prefer:1 use:4 skip:1 studio:1 push:1 relent:1 reportedly:2 tell:7 friend:9 last:5 ever:2 hear:1 please:1 eat:1 daisy:1 reprise:1 brief:3 duet:2 arthur:1 godfrey:1 glass:2 bottom:2 boat:2 theme:2 cbs:2 show:15 admit:2 initially:1 concern:1 lack:1 direction:1 finally:1 ask:4 anything:1 wrong:2 everything:2 fine:1 want:2 something:2 mcgilligan:1 patrick:3 darkness:1 reganbooks:1 critical:5 teacher:1 pet:2 seem:2 wane:1 attention:1 focus:3 perceived:1 element:1 blandness:1 screen:2 persona:2 foreign:2 market:2 germany:1 commonwealth:1 remain:3 draw:2 dynamic:1 pajama:1 game:1 warm:1 disappoint:1 case:2 tunnel:1 happen:1 response:1 uneven:1 result:3 longer:1 regard:3 exhibitor:1 development:1 link:2 marked:1 decline:2 late:8 poor:2 choice:1 material:1 wife:1 behalf:1 addition:1 diminish:1 rock:7 instance:1 never:4 keep:1 elvis:1 presley:1 hound:1 dog:2 era:1 everybody:2 lover:2 successfully:2 cover:2 shirelles:1 rendition:1 van:2 heusen:1 lyric:5 fashion:3 endorsement:1 john:3 f:1 kennedy:2 presidential:2 campaign:3 queen:1 enter:1 successful:3 phase:2 series:6 romantic:2 start:4 hugely:2 pillow:3 talk:5 starring:1 hudson:5 lifelong:1 positive:1 review:3 bring:1 nomination:1 together:2 garner:3 thrill:1 many:7 ignore:1 ability:1 paint:2 good:2 hearted:1 woman:3 hint:1 naïveté:1 pure:1 virtue:1 algonquin:1 round:1 table:1 wit:1 oscar:2 levant:2 earlier:1 sum:1 paradox:1 blooming:1 ingenue:1 famously:1 public:8 frothy:1 buy:1 enough:1 ticket:1 far:4 america:1 half:2 sexual:1 revolution:1 baby:1 boomer:1 generation:1 refocus:1 attitude:1 sex:1 change:5 critic:2 comic:1 dub:1 old:3 audience:1 shy:1 away:2 repetitive:1 slip:1 appearing:1 final:3 quality:1 least:1 caprice:1 harris:1 insistence:1 turn:3 middle:1 adulteress:1 mr:1 robinson:1 graduate:2 go:8 bancroft:1 memoir:1 author:2 reject:3 part:4 moral:1 ground:1 feature:2 six:1 eggroll:1 impact:1 taste:2 could:1 see:2 waning:1 album:9 like:3 latin:1 praise:1 little:2 commercial:1 sale:1 strong:1 overseas:1 major:1 single:2 come:2 uk:3 move:1 darling:1 son:5 specifically:1 notable:1 departure:1 distinctly:1 contemporary:2 sounding:1 arrangement:1 especially:1 breathy:1 suggestive:1 delivery:1 perhaps:4 reason:2 ban:1 bbc:1 label:3 distasteful:1 senior:1 essentially:1 conclude:1 bankruptcy:1 nearly:2 decade:1 shock:1 discover:3 business:5 jerome:2 bernard:2 rosenthal:24 august:3 bar:3 california:5 university:1 chicago:1 law:2 school:1 whose:2 client:6 ross:1 hunter:1 johnson:1 gordon:1 macrae:1 lawyer:3 manager:1 tax:1 adviser:1 agreement:1 virtually:1 earn:1 squander:1 earnings:2 deeply:1 debt:2 attorney:4 since:1 represent:4 suit:6 large:1 civil:2 judgment:3 million:17 fraud:2 malpractice:2 oral:1 decision:1 superior:1 judge:1 lester:1 olson:4 end:6 trial:3 involve:4 consolidated:1 lawsuit:3 countersuit:1 handling:1 finance:1 terminate:1 transcript:1 witness:1 robert:1 winslow:1 firm:1 mitchell:1 silberberg:1 knupp:1 llp:1 punitive:1 plus:5 loss:2 incur:1 sham:1 oil:2 venture:2 hotel:3 duplicate:1 unnecessary:1 fee:3 pay:2 recoup:1 loan:1 enjoin:1 prosecute:1 operation:1 expert:1 complex:1 financial:4 marital:1 settlement:2 read:2 every:1 individual:2 exhibit:1 miscellaneous:1 liability:1 insurer:1 settle:1 payable:1 installment:1 appeal:5 court:14 dozen:1 relate:2 libel:1 comment:4 seek:2 determination:1 insurance:1 company:2 defend:1 properly:1 appellate:1 set:1 aside:1 agree:1 payment:1 supposedly:1 without:2 permission:1 supreme:4 multimillion:1 dollar:3 legal:4 upheld:1 conclusion:2 improperly:1 refuse:1 low:2 claim:3 cheat:1 real:2 estate:2 investment:2 defendant:1 describe:2 unwilling:1 involuntary:1 plaintiff:1 consent:1 cannot:1 obtain:2 lose:1 sell:4 assert:2 give:7 bad:1 advice:2 palo:1 alto:1 dallas:1 atlanta:1 lease:1 kentucky:1 term:1 intend:1 appreciate:1 value:1 estimate:1 worth:1 hearing:1 panel:3 testimony:2 consideration:1 documentary:2 evidence:1 accuse:1 misconduct:1 urge:1 disbarment:4 unsigned:1 opinion:1 finding:1 uphold:1 department:1 order:1 disbar:1 ninth:1 circuit:1 follow:1 affirm:1 hold:2 engage:2 transaction:1 undisclosed:2 conflict:1 position:2 adverse:1 former:1 overstated:1 expense:1 double:1 bill:2 access:1 adequate:1 opportunity:2 independent:1 counsel:1 fraudulent:1 false:1 conduct:1 design:2 harass:1 delayed:1 proceeding:1 obstruct:1 abused:1 process:1 terry:8 stepfather:1 premature:1 death:3 save:1 ruin:1 unresolved:1 whether:2 collusion:1 pillage:1 vast:1 duped:1 publicly:2 believe:2 innocent:1 deliberate:1 wrongdoing:1 word:2 simply:1 trust:1 person:1 completely:1 interview:6 arwin:1 production:1 pb:1 usually:1 athletic:1 healthy:1 enlarged:1 factor:1 conversion:1 science:2 relationship:2 delay:1 doctor:1 subject:1 portrait:1 costars:1 actor:2 louis:1 jourdan:1 maintain:1 dislike:1 vanish:1 vanity:1 fair:1 statement:1 belie:2 assertion:1 upon:2 learn:2 commit:2 tv:11 awful:1 ok:1 magazine:1 really:2 marty:2 pass:1 thought:1 overpower:1 sign:3 walk:2 beverly:1 hill:1 explain:1 bunch:1 anyone:1 hat:1 idea:1 obligate:1 percent:1 anyway:1 way:5 episode:4 air:2 grudgingly:1 persevere:1 need:1 help:2 cede:1 creative:1 control:1 run:3 five:1 function:1 carol:1 burnett:1 despite:2 today:1 remember:1 abrupt:1 casting:1 premise:1 season:3 widely:2 syndicate:1 unlike:1 outside:2 garry:3 mcgee:3 mcfarland:2 pp:1 degree:1 firmly:1 largely:1 retire:1 complete:1 appear:4 denver:1 parody:1 sunny:2 image:4 renewal:1 great:2 cd:1 entry:1 onto:1 british:2 chart:2 inclusion:1 soundtrack:1 australian:1 strictly:1 ballroom:1 gain:1 fan:2 revive:1 website:3 devote:1 academic:1 text:1 analyze:1 various:2 aspect:1 repackaging:1 dirndl:1 tamar:1 jeffers:1 dress:1 culture:3 identity:1 rachel:1 moseley:1 ed:1 institute:2 press:4 london:2 commentary:1 fifth:1 recently:1 participate:1 telephone:1 station:1 celebrate:1 birthday:1 music:6 marathon:1 available:1 downloadable:1 podcasts:1 tribute:3 offer:1 accept:2 cecil:1 b:2 demille:1 lifetime:2 achievement:2 medal:1 freedom:1 fear:1 fly:3 invitation:1 recipient:1 center:1 honor:2 liz:2 smith:1 entertainment:1 gossip:1 columnist:1 rex:1 reed:1 vigorous:1 gather:2 support:2 honorary:1 herald:1 spectacular:1 status:1 post:1 article:1 www:2 nypost:1 com:3 retrieve:5 biography:1 coincidentally:1 photograph:3 untold:2 next:2 door:3 reluctant:2 jr:2 reputed:1 incredible:2 previously:1 discography:2 reveal:2 general:1 painful:1 event:3 private:3 particular:1 detail:1 difficult:1 meet:3 physically:2 abusive:1 suicide:1 self:1 inflict:1 gun:1 shot:1 wound:1 reconciliation:1 involved:1 rename:1 boy:2 produce:3 abuse:1 profligate:1 spending:1 cause:2 problem:1 outline:1 barry:1 comden:5 maitre:1 restaurant:2 knowing:1 endear:1 bag:1 meat:1 scrap:1 bone:1 unravel:1 complain:1 care:1 seller:1 thanks:1 revelation:1 particularly:1 scathing:1 towards:1 promote:2 stir:1 often:2 attached:1 remark:1 succession:1 cheerful:1 highly:1 publicized:1 virginity:1 baffle:1 intent:1 either:1 acting:1 create:1 thing:1 barbara:1 walter:2 maybe:1 look:2 people:1 live:2 prior:1 arose:1 candor:1 admiration:1 among:1 reviewer:1 possibly:1 content:1 charity:1 owner:1 cypress:1 inn:1 carmel:2 saw:2 renewed:1 activity:1 grandmother:1 host:1 cbn:1 generate:1 unexpected:1 aback:1 emaciate:1 frame:1 always:1 physical:1 condition:1 aid:1 acknowledge:1 gay:1 worldwide:1 cancel:1 attempt:1 surf:1 staff:2 producer:1 columbia:1 famous:1 latter:1 beach:1 byrd:1 november:2 illness:1 complication:1 melanoma:1 activism:1 occasionally:1 note:1 right:2 publicize:1 found:1 others:1 advertisement:1 denounce:1 wearing:1 fur:1 alongside:1 tyler:1 moore:1 angie:1 dickinson:1 jayne:1 meadow:1 pierre:2 manor:2 medium:2 ad:1 cleveland:1 amory:1 kind:1 wildlife:1 throughout:1 actively:2 spay:3 usa:2 lobby:1 congress:1 suggest:2 president:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 clinton:1 legislation:1 safeguard:1 league:4 ddal:1 org:1 group:1 fund:1 stop:1 freeway:1 abandon:1 stray:1 injure:1 humane:4 society:4 merge:1 merger:1 add:1 bite:1 washingtonpost:1 member:1 within:1 hsus:2 service:1 announcement:1 organization:1 manage:1 neuter:1 originate:1 official:2 recent:1 ranch:1 near:1 clara:3 rep:1 sharp:1 tack:1 upi:1 originally:2 billy:2 de:2 wolfe:1 close:1 hollywood:2 legend:1 ageing:1 recluse:1 thomas:2 online:2 aug:3 ewan:1 mcgregor:2 renée:1 zellweger:2 tout:1 throwback:1 almost:1 remake:1 fact:1 utilizes:1 stock:1 footage:1 streetscapes:1 touch:1 mink:1 sung:1 line:4 literature:1 mention:3 janice:1 galloway:1 novel:2 symbol:1 conceal:1 mi:1 treatment:1 assume:1 victim:1 domestic:1 violence:1 beatles:1 let:1 lennon:1 yell:1 dig:1 billboard:2 dutch:1 doe:1 maar:1 national:2 breakthrough:1 huge:1 country:1 belgium:1 netherlands:1 excerpt:1 hey:2 er:1 geen:1 bal:1 op:1 v:1 alleen:1 een:1 translate:1 nothing:1 wham:1 wake:1 verse:1 michael:1 grey:1 sky:1 sun:1 shine:1 brighter:1 bright:1 spark:1 flame:1 beat:1 per:2 minute:1 hot:2 australia:1 scandinavia:1 reference:3 joel:1 fire:1 pop:1 select:1 capture:1 zeitgeist:1 harry:1 truman:1 red:1 china:1 johnnie:1 south:3 pacific:1 winchell:1 joe:2 dimaggio:1 following:1 mccarthy:1 nixon:1 studebaker:1 north:1 marilyn:1 monroe:1 mirror:1 concept:1 endless:1 wire:1 pete:1 townshend:2 icon:1 greet:1 central:1 character:1 reach:1 heaven:1 alive:1 question:2 possible:1 video:1 h:1 parade:1 radar:1 unit:1 colonel:1 potter:1 request:1 repeatedly:1 fort:1 dix:1 fell:1 willowy:1 blonde:1 beauty:1 floor:1 fall:1 aircraft:2 fortress:1 ironically:1 picture:1 grable:1 airplane:1 nose:1 land:1 pole:1 canadian:2 election:1 comedian:1 rick:1 mercer:1 proposal:1 alliance:2 referendum:1 issue:1 cent:1 electorate:1 petition:3 required:1 leader:1 stockwell:1 require:1 mark:1 cbc:1 ca:1 external:1 depth:1 christmas:1 card:1 spotlight:1 turner:1 classic:2 foundation:1 solid:1 encyclopedia:1 lounge:1 jazz:1 space:1 sound:1 barothy:1 indiana:1 beyond:1 hawthorne:1 bret:1 santopietro:1 tom:1 consider:1 dunne:1 st:1 |@bigram cincinnati_ohio:2 golden_globe:2 grammy_award:1 sentimental_journey:8 los_angeles:3 jule_styne:1 digitally_remastered:1 frank_sinatra:1 mount_vernon:1 jack_lemmon:1 cary_grant:1 clark_gable:1 alfred_hitchcock:2 que_serum:8 serum_serum:8 mcgilligan_patrick:1 elvis_presley:1 hound_dog:1 romantic_comedy:2 hugely_popular:2 co_starring:1 algonquin_round:1 baby_boomer:1 boomer_generation:1 shy_away:1 anne_bancroft:1 punitive_damage:1 libel_suit:1 supreme_court:4 multimillion_dollar:1 real_estate:2 palo_alto:1 terry_melcher:5 vanity_fair:1 beverly_hill:1 celebrate_birthday:1 lifetime_achievement:2 gossip_columnist:1 nypost_com:1 grammy_lifetime:1 untold_story:2 commit_suicide:1 take_aback:1 mary_tyler:1 tyler_moore:1 angie_dickinson:1 ronald_reagan:1 bill_clinton:1 washingtonpost_com:1 upi_com:1 ewan_mcgregor:1 billy_joel:1 harry_truman:1 joe_dimaggio:1 richard_nixon:1 marilyn_monroe:1 billboard_hot:1 pete_townshend:1 betty_grable:1 per_cent:1 cbc_ca:1 external_link:1 william_morrow:1 thomas_dunne:1 |
3,268 | Stripped_deck | A stripped deck is a set of playing cards from which some cards have been removed. The removed cards are usually in the range from 2 to 9. The standard Anglo-French suited deck of 52 cards itself can be regarded as a stripped tarot deck from which the 21 numbered trumps, the fool and the 4 mounted knights have been removed. Many card games use stripped decks, and stripped decks for popular games are commercially available. Piquet deck A French-suited deck of 32 cards, consisting of 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King and Ace in four suits each, is used in the two-player game Piquet, which dates back to the 16th century. Games played with a piquet deck (or the equivalent German- or Swiss-suited decks) are still among the most popular in some parts of Europe. This includes belote and klaverjas (the national games of France and the Netherlands, respectively) and skat (the German national game, which is also played with the equivalent German-suited decks in some regions). Bezique is played with two piquet decks. Stripped decks in poker variants Stripped decks are used in certain poker variants. For example, the Australian game of Manila uses a piquet deck, and Mexican stud is played with the 8s, 9s, and 10s removed from the deck (and a joker added). This may require adjusting hand values: in both of these games, a flush ranks above a full house, because having fewer cards of each suit available makes flushes rarer. A hand such as 6-7-J-Q-K plays as a straight in Mexican stud, skipping over the removed ranks. Some places may allow a hand such as 10-9-8-7-A to play as a straight (by analogy to a wheel) in the 32-card game, the A playing low and skipping over the removed ranks (although this is not the case in Manila). Finally, the relative frequency of straights versus three of a kind is also sensitive to the deck composition (and to the number of cards dealt), so some places may consider three of a kind to be superior to a straight, but the difference is small enough that this complication is not necessary for most games. Five-card stud is also often played with a piquet deck. In lively home games it might work better to only strip three ranks (2s through 4s) with seven or eight players; with only two or three players 7s and 8s could be stripped as well, leaving the same 24-card deck used in euchre. In any of these cases, a flush should rank above a full house (in a 24-card deck it is actually rarer than four of a kind, but is rarely played that flushes are superior to four of a kind). It should be noted that stripped deck five-card stud is a game particularly well-suited to cheating by collusion, because it is easy for partners to signal a single hole card and the relative value of knowing the location of a single card is higher than with a full deck. References | Stripped_deck |@lemmatized stripped:3 deck:21 set:1 play:9 card:15 remove:3 removed:3 usually:1 range:1 standard:1 anglo:1 french:2 suit:5 regard:1 tarot:1 numbered:1 trump:1 fool:1 mount:1 knight:1 many:1 game:12 use:5 strip:6 popular:2 commercially:1 available:2 piquet:6 consist:1 jack:1 queen:1 king:1 ace:1 four:3 two:3 player:3 date:1 back:1 century:1 equivalent:2 german:3 swiss:1 suited:2 still:1 among:1 part:1 europe:1 include:1 belote:1 klaverjas:1 national:2 france:1 netherlands:1 respectively:1 skat:1 also:3 region:1 bezique:1 poker:2 variant:2 certain:1 example:1 australian:1 manila:2 mexican:2 stud:4 joker:1 add:1 may:3 require:1 adjust:1 hand:3 value:2 flush:4 rank:5 full:3 house:2 make:1 rarer:1 j:1 q:1 k:1 straight:4 skip:1 place:2 allow:1 analogy:1 wheel:1 playing:1 low:1 skipping:1 although:1 case:2 finally:1 relative:2 frequency:1 versus:1 three:4 kind:4 sensitive:1 composition:1 number:1 dealt:1 consider:1 superior:2 difference:1 small:1 enough:1 complication:1 necessary:1 five:2 often:1 lively:1 home:1 might:1 work:1 well:3 seven:1 eight:1 could:1 leave:1 euchre:1 actually:1 rare:1 rarely:1 note:1 particularly:1 cheat:1 collusion:1 easy:1 partner:1 signal:1 single:2 hole:1 know:1 location:1 high:1 reference:1 |@bigram tarot_deck:1 piquet_deck:5 card_dealt:1 |
3,269 | Lake_Erie | Lake Erie United States Geological Survey Hydrological Unit Code: 04-12-02-00 () is the fourth largest lake (by surface area) of the five Great Lakes, and the tenth largest globally. Large Lakes of the World. Factmonster.com. It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes Lake Erie - Facts and Figures, Great Lakes Information Network. Erie, Lake, Factmonster.com. and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time. It is bounded on the north by the Canadian province of Ontario, on the south by the U.S. states of Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York, and on the west by the state of Michigan. The lake is named after the Erie tribe of Native Americans who lived along its southern shore. Geography Lake Erie (42.2° N, 81.2° W) has a mean elevation of 571 feet (174 m) above sea level. It has a surface area of 9,940 square miles (25,745 km²) with a length of 241 miles (388 km) and breadth of 57 miles (92 km) at its widest points. It is the shallowest of the Great Lakes with an average depth of 62 feet (19 m) and a maximum depth of 210 feet (64 m). For comparison, Lake Superior has an average depth of 483 feet (147 m), a volume of 2,900 cubic miles (12,100 km³) and shoreline of 2,726 miles (4385 km). Because it is the shallowest, it is also the warmest of the Great Lakes. Dr. Charles E. Herdendorf Lake Erie is primarily fed by the Detroit River (from Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair) and drains via the Niagara River and Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario. Navigation downstream is provided by the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Other major contributors to Lake Erie include the Grand River, the Huron River, the Maumee River, the Sandusky River and the Cuyahoga River. Point Pelee National Park, the southernmost point of the Canadian mainland, is located on a peninsula extending into the lake. Several islands are found in the western end of the lake; these belong to Ohio except for Pelee Island and 8 neighboring islands, which are part of Ontario. The cities of Buffalo, New York; Erie, Pennsylvania; Toledo, Ohio; Port Stanley, Ontario; Monroe, Michigan; and Cleveland, Ohio are located on the shores of Lake Erie. The drainage basin covers 30,140 square miles (78,000 km2). Partial map of the Lake Erie islands Islands Ballast Island Big Chicken Island Chick Island East Sister Island Gibraltar Island Green Island Gull Island Hen Island Johnson's Island Kelleys Island Little Chicken Island Lost Ballast Island Middle IslandMiddle Bass Island Middle Sister Island Mohawk Island Mouse Island North Bass Island North Harbour Island Pelee Island Rattlesnake Island South Bass Island Starve Island Sugar Island Turtle Island West Sister Island Hydrology Lake Erie and the other Great Lakes Lake Erie has a lake retention time of 2.6 years, the shortest of all the Great Lakes. Great Lakes; Basic Information: Lake Erie. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Lake Erie's water level fluctuates with the seasons as in the other Great Lakes. The lowest levels are in January and February, and the highest in June or July. The average yearly level varies depending on long-term precipitation. Short-term level changes are often caused by seiches that are partcularly high when southwesterly winds blow across the length of the lake during storms. These cause water to pile up at the eastern end of the lake. Storm driven seiches can cause damage onshore. During one storm in November 2003, the water level at Buffalo rose by 7 feet (2.1 m) with waves of 10-15 feet (3-4.5 m) for a rise of 22 feet (6.7 m). Great Lakes Storm Surges November 12-13, 2003 http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagrant/glwlphotos/Seiche/1113Storm/November2003.html Meanwhile, at the western end of the lake, Toledo experienced a similar drop in water level. Geology Lake Erie in its current form is less than 4,000 years old, a short amount of time geologically speaking. Prior to this, the land on which the lake now sits has gone through several complex stages. Over two million years ago, a large lowland basin formed as a result of an eastern flowing river that existed well before the Pleistocene ice ages. This ancient drainage system was destroyed by the first major glacier in the area while at the same time deepening and enlarging the lowland allowing water to settle and form a lake. The glaciers were able to carve away more land on the eastern side of the lowland because the bedrock is made of shale which is much softer then the carbonate rocks on the western side. Thus, the eastern side of the modern lake is much deeper than the western portion which averages only 25 feet deep. Lake Erie is the shallowest of the Great Lakes because the ice was so thin and lacked erosion power needed when it reached that far south. As many as three glaciers advanced and retreated over the land causing temporary lakes to form in the time periods in between each of them. Because each the lakes had a different amount of water volume, their shorelines rested at differing elevations. The last of these lakes to form, Lake Warren, existed between about 13,000 and 12,000 years ago. It was deeper than the current Lake Erie, so its shoreline existed about eight miles inland from the modern one. The shorelines of these lakes left behind high ground sand ridges that cut trough swamps that served as trails for Indians and later, the pioneers. Later, these trails became primitive roads which were eventually paved. U.S. Route 30 west of Delphos and U.S. Route 20 west of Norwalk and east of Cleveland were formed in this manner. One can still see some of these ancient sand dunes that formed at in the Oak Openings Region in Northwestern Ohio. There, the sandy dry lake bed soil was not enough to support large trees with the exception of a few species of oaks, forming a rare oak savanna. Hansen, Michael C. "The History of Lake Erie" http://www.ohiodnr.com/geosurvey/lakeerie/lefact1/tabid/7829/Default.aspx History Native American At the time of European contact, there were several groups of Iroquoian cultures living around the shores of the eastern end of the lake. The Erie tribe (from whom the lake takes its name) lived along the southern edge, while the Neutrals (also known as Attawandaron) lived along the northern shore. Both tribes were conquered and assimilated by their hostile eastern neighbors, the Iroquois Confederacy between AD 1651 and 1657, in what is referred to as part of the Beaver Wars. Trigger, Bruce; The Children of Aataentsic (McGill-Queen's University Press, Kingston and Montreal,1987, ISBN 0-7735-0626-8), pgs.789-797. For decades after those wars, the land around eastern Lake Erie was claimed and utilized by the Iroquois as a hunting ground. As the power of the Iroquois waned during the last quarter of the seventeenth century, several other, mainly Anishinaabe Native American tribes, displaced them from the territories they claimed on the north shore of the lake. Schmalz, Peter S.; The Ojibwa of Southern Ontario (University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Buffalo, London, 1991, ISBN 0-8020-2736-9), pgs.13-34. European exploration and settlement In 1669, the Frenchman Louis Jolliet was the first documented European to sight Lake Erie, although there is speculation that Etienne Brule may have come across it in 1615. Ashworth, William (1987). The Late, Great Lakes: An Environmental History, p. 36. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0814318878. Lake Erie was the last of the Great Lakes to be explored by Europeans, since the Iroquois who occupied the Niagara River area were in conflict with the French, and they did not allow explorers or traders to pass through. Explorers had followed rivers out of Lake Ontario and portaged into Lake Huron. During the War of 1812, Oliver Hazard Perry captured an entire British fleet near Put-in-Bay, Ohio. Great Lakes Compact In 2008, the Great Lakes States of Ohio, Michigan, New York, Pennslyvania, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin,Minnesota and the Canadian Province of Ontario formed an alliance to save the Great Lakes. The Great Lakes Compact is an international policy written by the compact concerning water rights that protects the Great Lakes from distance states exploiting it. This compact is not popular in the southwestern states because of recent drought conditions. The compact was signed into law by President George Walker Bush in September 2008. Its supporters range from United States Senator George Voinovich (R-OH) to Michigan Governor Jennifer Granholm (democrat). Environment Weather Winter at Cleveland's lakefront Like the other Great Lakes, Erie produces lake effect snow when the first cold winds of winter pass over the warm waters, making Buffalo, New York, the eleventh snowiest place in the entire United States, according to data collected from the National Climatic Data Center. Answers: 10 snowiest 'cities' aren't all in New York. Also creating the snow belt from Cleveland to Buffalo. Chris Cappella, USATODAY.com. The lake effect ends or its effect is reduced, however, when the lake freezes over. Being the shallowest of the Great Lakes, it is the most likely to freeze and frequently does. What's the physics behind "lake effect snow"?. the Straight Dope Science Advisory Board. The lake is also responsible for microclimates that are important to agriculture. Along its north shore is one of the richest areas of Canada's fruit and vegetable production, and along the southeastern shore in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York is an important grape growing region, as are the islands in the lake. Apple orchards are abundant in northeast Ohio to western New York. Water quality Lake Erie infamously became very polluted in the 1960s and 1970s. The water quality deteriorated due to increasing levels of the nutrient phosphorus in both the water and lake bottom sediments. The resultant high nitrogen levels in the water caused eutrophication, which resulted in algal blooms. Algae masses and fish kills increasingly fouled the shoreline during this period, but a 1969 Time magazine article about a fire on the Cuyahoga River, a tributary feeding the lake at Cleveland, Ohio so embarrassed officials that the United States Congress quickly passed the Clean Water Act of 1972. Ashworth (1987), pp. 143-44. In 1972 the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement between the United States and Canadian governments also significantly reduced the dumping and runoff of phosphorus into the lake. The lake has since become clean enough to allow sunlight to infiltrate its water and produce algae and sea weed, but a dead zone persists in the central Lake Erie Basin during the late summer. The clearing of the water column is also partly due to the introduction and rapid spread of zebra mussels, each of which can filter up to one litre (1L) of water per day. The United States Environmental Protection Agency is currently studying this cyclic phenomenon. Lake Erie 'Dead Zone'. US EPA Lake Erie 'Dead Zone'. URL accessed on December 15, 2005. Since the 1970s environmental regulation has led to a great increase in water quality and the return of economically important fish species such as walleye and other biological life. Recovery of Lake Erie Walleye a Success Story. Michigan Department of Natural Resources. Economy Fisheries Summer morning west of Cleveland Lake Erie is home to one of the world's largest freshwater commercial fisheries. Once a mainstay of communities around the lake, commercial fishing is now predominantly based in Canadian communities, with a much smaller fishery—largely restricted to yellow perch—in Ohio. The Ontario fishery is one of the most intensively managed in the world. It was one of the first fisheries in the world managed on individual transferable quotas and features mandatory daily catch reporting and intensive auditing of the catch reporting system. Still, the commercial fishery is the target of critics who would like to see the lake managed for the exclusive benefit of sport fishing and the various industries serving the sport fishery. Commercial landings are dominated by yellow perch and walleye, with substantial quantities of rainbow smelt and white bass also taken. Anglers target walleye and yellow perch, with some effort directed at rainbow trout. A variety of other species are taken in smaller quantities by both commercial and sport fleets. Management of the fishery is by consensus of all management agencies with an interest in the resource (the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan and the province of Ontario) under the mandate of the Great Lakes Fishery Commission, which is driven by comprehensive fisheries assessment programs and sophisticated mathematical modeling systems. The Commission remains the source of considerable recrimination, primarily from United States based angler and charter fishing groups with a historical antipathy to the commercial fishery. This conflict is complex, dating from the 1960s, with in U.S. fisheries management that led to elimination of commercial fishing in most U.S. Great Lakes states. The process began in Michigan, and its evolution is well documented in Szylvian (2004) Szylvian,K.M. 2004. Transforming Lake Michigan into the 'World's Greatest Fishing Hole': The Environmental Politics of Michigan's Great Lakes Sport Fishing, 1965–1985. , using Lake Michigan as a case study. The underlying issues are universal, wherever sport and commercial fishing coexist, but their persistence in the Lake Erie context, one of the most intensively scrutinized and managed fisheries, suggests that these conflicts are cultural, not scientific, and therefore not resolvable by reference to ecological data. These debates are largely driven by social, political and economic issues, not ecology Berkes, F. 1984. Competition between commercial and sport fishermen: an ecological analysis. Human Ecology 12: 413-429. . The lake consists of a long list of well established introduced species. Common non-indigenous fish species include the rainbow smelt, alewife, white perch and common carp. Non-native sport fish such as rainbow trout and brown trout are stocked specifically for anglers to catch. Attempts failed to stock coho salmon and its numbers are once again dwindling. Sour cherry orchard on shorelineat Leamington, Ontario The lake has recently been plagued with a number of invasive species, including Zebra and quagga mussels, the goby and the grass carp. Zebra mussels and gobies have been credited with the increased population and size of smallmouth bass in Lake Erie. ESPN - 2003/04 New York Northern Open: Smallmouth haven Erie to host Northern anglers Agriculture The lake's formerly more extensive lakebed creates a favorable environment for agriculture in the bordering areas of Ontario, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. The lake also supports a strong commercial and sport fishery. But since high levels of pollution were discovered in the 1960s and 1970s, there has been continued debate over the desired intensity of commercial fishing. The drainage basin has led to well fertilized soil. Ohio's north coast is widely referred to as the nursery capital. Lake County Ohio Business and Personal Directory Transportation The Port of Cleveland generates over $350 million and over 15 million tons of cargo. The port will begin work on a new set of docks with more efficient railway, road, and crane access. The current port facility is unable to handle larger cargo ships, and the cranes needed to lift goods such as steel to truck trailers are insuficcient to current shipping standards. This project is planned to start in 2010 and will be completed by 2020. The ship traffic in Lake Erie being the highest among the Great Lakes, along with it being the shallowest and roughest of the lakes has led to it having the highest number of known shipwrecks in the Great Lakes. The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. Great Lakes Circle Tour. See also Bass Islands Battle of Lake Erie Bessie - the reported Lake Erie lake monster Cedar Point Erie Canal Lake Erie belt List of lakes by area List of lakes in Ohio Maumee Bay Notes Further reading Assel, R.A. (1983). Lake Erie regional ice cover analysis: preliminary results [NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL GLERL 48]. Ann Arbor, MI: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Research Laboratories, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory. Saylor, J.H. and G.S. Miller. (1983). Investigation of the currents and density structure of Lake Erie [NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL GLERL 49]. Ann Arbor, MI: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Research Laboratories, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory. Images External links Lake Erie Islands Directory How many Islands are there in Lake Erie? EPA's Great Lakes Atlas Great Lakes Coast Watch Lake Erie Bathymetry - National Geophysical Data Center | Lake_Erie |@lemmatized lake:112 erie:42 united:7 state:15 geological:1 survey:1 hydrological:1 unit:1 code:1 fourth:1 large:7 surface:2 area:7 five:1 great:35 tenth:1 globally:1 world:5 factmonster:2 com:4 southernmost:2 shallowest:3 small:3 volume:3 fact:1 figure:1 information:2 network:1 therefore:2 also:10 short:4 average:5 water:19 residence:1 time:7 bound:1 north:6 canadian:5 province:3 ontario:11 south:3 u:9 ohio:16 pennsylvania:5 new:11 york:10 west:5 michigan:10 name:2 tribe:4 native:4 american:3 live:4 along:6 southern:3 shore:7 geography:1 n:1 w:1 mean:1 elevation:2 foot:8 sea:2 level:10 square:2 mile:7 length:2 km:3 breadth:1 wide:1 point:4 depth:3 maximum:1 comparison:1 superior:1 cubic:1 shoreline:5 shallow:3 warm:2 dr:1 charles:1 e:1 herdendorf:1 primarily:2 feed:2 detroit:2 river:12 huron:3 st:2 clair:1 drain:1 via:1 niagara:3 fall:1 navigation:1 downstream:1 provide:1 welland:1 canal:2 part:3 saint:1 lawrence:2 seaway:1 major:2 contributor:1 include:3 grand:1 maumee:2 sandusky:1 cuyahoga:2 pelee:3 national:5 park:1 mainland:1 locate:2 peninsula:1 extend:1 several:4 island:33 find:1 western:5 end:5 belong:1 except:1 neighboring:1 city:2 buffalo:5 toledo:2 port:4 stanley:1 monroe:1 cleveland:7 drainage:3 basin:4 cover:2 partial:1 map:1 islands:1 ballast:2 big:1 chicken:2 chick:1 east:2 sister:3 gibraltar:1 green:1 gull:1 hen:1 johnson:1 kelleys:1 little:1 lose:1 middle:2 islandmiddle:1 bass:6 mohawk:1 mouse:1 harbour:1 rattlesnake:1 starve:1 sugar:1 turtle:1 hydrology:1 retention:1 year:4 basic:1 environmental:9 protection:2 agency:3 fluctuates:1 season:1 low:1 january:1 february:1 high:7 june:1 july:1 yearly:1 varies:1 depend:1 long:2 term:2 precipitation:1 change:1 often:1 cause:5 seiche:3 partcularly:1 southwesterly:1 wind:2 blow:1 across:2 storm:4 pile:1 eastern:7 driven:1 damage:1 onshore:1 one:9 november:2 rise:2 wave:1 surge:1 http:2 www:2 glerl:3 noaa:3 gov:1 seagrant:1 glwlphotos:1 html:1 meanwhile:1 experience:1 similar:1 drop:1 geology:1 current:5 form:9 less:1 old:1 amount:2 geologically:1 speak:1 prior:1 land:4 sit:1 go:1 complex:2 stage:1 two:1 million:3 ago:2 lowland:3 result:3 flowing:1 exist:3 well:4 pleistocene:1 ice:3 age:1 ancient:2 system:4 destroy:1 first:4 glacier:3 deepening:1 enlarge:1 allow:3 settle:1 able:1 carve:1 away:1 side:3 bedrock:1 make:2 shale:1 much:3 soft:1 carbonate:1 rock:1 thus:1 modern:2 deep:3 portion:1 thin:1 lacked:1 erosion:1 power:2 need:2 reach:1 far:1 many:2 three:1 advance:1 retreat:1 temporary:1 period:2 different:1 rest:1 differ:1 last:3 warren:1 eight:1 inland:1 leave:1 behind:2 ground:2 sand:2 ridge:1 cut:1 trough:1 swamp:1 serve:2 trail:2 indian:1 later:2 pioneer:1 become:3 primitive:1 road:3 eventually:1 pave:1 route:2 delphos:1 norwalk:1 manner:1 still:2 see:3 dune:1 oak:3 opening:1 region:2 northwestern:1 sandy:1 dry:1 bed:1 soil:2 enough:2 support:2 tree:1 exception:1 specie:6 rare:1 savanna:1 hansen:1 michael:1 c:1 history:3 ohiodnr:1 geosurvey:1 lakeerie:1 tabid:1 default:1 aspx:1 european:4 contact:1 group:2 iroquoian:1 culture:1 around:3 take:3 edge:1 neutral:1 know:1 attawandaron:1 northern:3 conquer:1 assimilate:1 hostile:1 neighbor:1 iroquois:4 confederacy:1 ad:1 refer:2 beaver:1 war:3 trigger:1 bruce:1 child:1 aataentsic:1 mcgill:1 queen:1 university:3 press:3 kingston:1 montreal:1 isbn:3 pgs:2 decade:1 claim:2 utilize:1 hunting:1 wan:1 quarter:1 seventeenth:1 century:1 mainly:1 anishinaabe:1 displace:1 territory:1 schmalz:1 peter:1 ojibwa:1 toronto:2 london:1 exploration:1 settlement:1 frenchman:1 louis:1 jolliet:1 documented:1 sight:1 although:1 speculation:1 etienne:1 brule:1 may:1 come:1 ashworth:2 william:1 late:2 p:1 wayne:1 explore:1 since:4 occupy:1 conflict:3 french:1 explorer:2 trader:1 pass:2 follow:1 portaged:1 oliver:1 hazard:1 perry:1 capture:1 entire:2 british:1 fleet:2 near:1 put:1 bay:2 lakes:7 compact:5 pennslyvania:1 illinois:1 indiana:1 wisconsin:1 minnesota:1 alliance:1 save:1 international:1 policy:1 write:1 concerning:1 right:1 protect:1 distance:1 exploit:1 popular:1 southwestern:1 recent:1 drought:1 condition:1 sign:1 law:1 president:1 george:2 walker:1 bush:1 september:1 supporter:1 range:1 senator:1 voinovich:1 r:2 oh:1 governor:1 jennifer:1 granholm:1 democrat:1 environment:2 weather:1 winter:2 lakefront:1 like:2 produce:2 effect:4 snow:3 cold:1 pas:1 eleventh:1 snowy:2 place:1 accord:1 data:4 collect:1 climatic:1 center:2 answer:1 create:2 belt:2 chris:1 cappella:1 usatoday:1 reduce:2 however:1 freeze:2 likely:1 frequently:1 physic:1 straight:1 dope:1 science:1 advisory:1 board:1 responsible:1 microclimates:1 important:3 agriculture:3 rich:1 canada:1 fruit:1 vegetable:1 production:1 southeastern:1 grape:1 grow:1 apple:1 orchard:2 abundant:1 northeast:1 quality:4 infamously:1 pollute:1 deteriorate:1 due:2 increase:3 nutrient:1 phosphorus:2 bottom:1 sediment:1 resultant:1 nitrogen:1 eutrophication:1 algal:1 bloom:1 algae:2 mass:1 fish:4 kill:1 increasingly:1 foul:1 magazine:1 article:1 fire:1 tributary:1 embarrassed:1 official:1 congress:1 quickly:1 clean:2 act:1 pp:1 agreement:1 government:1 significantly:1 dumping:1 runoff:1 sunlight:1 infiltrate:1 weed:1 dead:3 zone:3 persist:1 central:1 summer:2 clearing:1 column:1 partly:1 introduction:1 rapid:1 spread:1 zebra:3 mussel:3 filter:1 litre:1 per:1 day:1 currently:1 study:2 cyclic:1 phenomenon:1 epa:2 url:1 access:2 december:1 regulation:1 lead:4 return:1 economically:1 walleye:4 biological:1 life:1 recovery:1 success:1 story:1 department:3 natural:1 resource:2 economy:1 fishery:14 morning:1 home:1 freshwater:1 commercial:11 mainstay:1 community:2 fishing:8 predominantly:1 base:2 largely:2 restrict:1 yellow:3 perch:4 intensively:2 manage:4 individual:1 transferable:1 quota:1 feature:1 mandatory:1 daily:1 catch:3 reporting:2 intensive:1 auditing:1 target:2 critic:1 would:1 exclusive:1 benefit:1 sport:8 various:1 industry:1 landing:1 dominate:1 substantial:1 quantity:2 rainbow:4 smelt:2 white:2 angler:4 effort:1 direct:1 trout:3 variety:1 management:3 consensus:1 interest:1 mandate:1 commission:2 drive:2 comprehensive:1 assessment:1 program:1 sophisticated:1 mathematical:1 model:1 remain:1 source:1 considerable:1 recrimination:1 charter:1 historical:1 antipathy:1 date:1 elimination:1 process:1 begin:2 evolution:1 document:1 szylvian:2 k:1 transform:1 hole:1 politics:1 use:1 case:1 underlying:1 issue:2 universal:1 wherever:1 coexist:1 persistence:1 context:1 scrutinize:1 suggest:1 cultural:1 scientific:1 resolvable:1 reference:1 ecological:2 debate:2 social:1 political:1 economic:1 ecology:2 berkes:1 f:1 competition:1 fisherman:1 analysis:2 human:1 consist:1 list:3 establish:1 introduce:1 common:2 non:2 indigenous:1 alewife:1 carp:2 brown:1 stock:2 specifically:1 attempt:1 fail:1 coho:1 salmon:1 number:3 dwindle:1 sour:1 cherry:1 shorelineat:1 leamington:1 recently:1 plague:1 invasive:1 quagga:1 goby:2 grass:1 credit:1 population:1 size:1 smallmouth:2 espn:1 open:1 host:1 formerly:1 extensive:1 lakebed:1 favorable:1 border:1 strong:1 pollution:1 discover:1 continue:1 desired:1 intensity:1 fertilized:1 coast:2 widely:1 nursery:1 capital:1 county:1 business:1 personal:1 directory:2 transportation:1 generates:1 ton:1 cargo:2 work:1 set:1 dock:1 efficient:1 railway:1 crane:2 facility:1 unable:1 handle:1 ship:2 lift:1 good:1 steel:1 truck:1 trailer:1 insuficcient:1 shipping:1 standard:1 project:1 plan:1 start:1 complete:1 traffic:1 among:1 roughest:1 known:1 shipwreck:1 circle:2 tour:2 designated:1 scenic:1 connect:1 battle:1 bessie:1 reported:1 monster:1 cedar:1 note:1 reading:1 assel:1 regional:1 preliminary:1 technical:2 memorandum:2 erl:2 ann:2 arbor:2 mi:2 commerce:2 oceanic:2 atmospheric:2 administration:2 research:4 laboratory:4 saylor:1 j:1 h:1 g:1 miller:1 investigation:1 density:1 structure:1 image:1 external:1 link:1 atlas:1 watch:1 bathymetry:1 geophysical:1 |@bigram lake_erie:37 geological_survey:1 mile_km:3 lake_huron:2 st_clair:1 niagara_fall:1 welland_canal:1 lawrence_seaway:1 maumee_river:1 cuyahoga_river:2 pelee_island:2 toledo_ohio:1 drainage_basin:2 storm_surge:1 http_www:2 noaa_gov:1 erie_shoreline:1 sand_dune:1 default_aspx:1 iroquois_confederacy:1 mcgill_queen:1 louis_jolliet:1 jennifer_granholm:1 usatoday_com:1 straight_dope:1 advisory_board:1 fruit_vegetable:1 algal_bloom:1 zebra_mussel:2 url_access:1 yellow_perch:3 intensively_manage:1 rainbow_trout:2 cherry_orchard:1 invasive_specie:1 designated_scenic:1 erie_canal:1 ann_arbor:2 oceanic_atmospheric:2 external_link:1 |
3,270 | Romantic_orientation | Affectional orientation (or romantic orientation) is used both alternatively and side-by-side with sexual orientation. Crethar, H. C. & Vargas, L. A. (2007). Multicultural intricacies in professional counseling. In J. Gregoire & C. Jungers (Eds.), The counselor’s companion: What every beginning counselor needs to know. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. ISBN 0805856846. p.61. It is based on the perspective that sexual attraction is but a single component of a larger dynamic. To holders of this view, one's orientation is defined by with whom one is predisposed to fall in love, whether or not one desires that person sexually. Lately, the predominant use of the term "sexual orientation" is considered to reduce a whole category of desires and emotions, as well as power and connection, to sex. The term affectional orientation is also used by those who consider themselves asexual and only experience mental, emotional, physical (i.e. sensual, tactile), and/or aesthetic attraction(s). The terms used for different affectional orientations are often the same as those for sexual orientations; though "homoromantic," "biromantic," "heteroromantic," and "aromantic" have gained some popularity. Asexuals sometimes incorporate colloquial terms to describe both the romantic and sexual components of their orientation (e.g. gay-asexual, bi-asexual, and straight-asexual). There are also those who hold the view that one's orientation is defined by for whom one has affection and that their sexual attraction (or "drive", perhaps more appropriately) is dependent upon affection for another human being's personal qualities, regardless of their sex, gender or even outward appearance altogether. This use of the term does not require falling in love but is still based on a personal affection. One might now consider the phrase "conditional sexual attraction" to describe the experience of those who are otherwise asexual, as opposed to "primary sexual attraction" used to describe people who are "sexual". Criticism Some object to the need for a broader term than sexual orientation as they interpret "sexual" to refer to the sex/gender one desires in a partner, irrespective of desire for any sexual acts with that partner. In other words, they interpret the question of sexual orientation as "towards which of the sexes (hence "sexual") does a person generally lean (hence "orientation") in a partner?" not "which of the sexes does a person prefer to engage sexually?". A counter criticism is that even when used in this broader sense, the term sexual orientation excludes those for whom a person's sex/gender is irrelevant to their attractiveness. The critics would strike back and say that these people simply don't have a sexual orientation but that it does not render the term useless to describe those who do. Yet another opinion is that human sexuality and identity are so complex that an exhaustive and accurate list of categorizations and labels is impractical if not impossible. Those with this opinion would cite the following example: "X is a biological male who feels to be a woman trapped inside a man's body. Despite identifying as female in most social aspects, X does enjoy cross-dressing as a male. X has undergone several SRS procedures but the transition is as of yet incomplete. X prefers sexual activities exclusively with biological females who self-identify as males, but has no romantic aspirations with them. X seeks a romantic, sexless, long-term open relationship with another biological male who identifies as female and has undergone full SRS. What is the proper label for X?" Notes References Wells, J. W. (1989). "Teaching about Gay and Lesbian Sexual and Affectional Orientation Using Explicit Films to Reduce Homophobia". Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 28(1),18-34. | Romantic_orientation |@lemmatized affectional:4 orientation:16 romantic:4 use:8 alternatively:1 side:2 sexual:18 crethar:1 h:1 c:2 vargas:1 l:1 multicultural:1 intricacy:1 professional:1 counseling:1 j:2 gregoire:1 jungers:1 ed:1 counselor:2 companion:1 every:1 beginning:1 need:2 know:1 mahwah:1 nj:1 lawrence:1 erlbaum:1 isbn:1 p:1 base:2 perspective:1 attraction:5 single:1 component:2 large:1 dynamic:1 holder:1 view:2 one:7 define:2 predispose:1 fall:2 love:2 whether:1 desire:4 person:4 sexually:2 lately:1 predominant:1 term:9 consider:3 reduce:2 whole:1 category:1 emotion:1 well:2 power:1 connection:1 sex:6 also:2 asexual:5 experience:2 mental:1 emotional:1 physical:1 e:2 sensual:1 tactile:1 aesthetic:1 different:1 often:1 though:1 homoromantic:1 biromantic:1 heteroromantic:1 aromantic:1 gain:1 popularity:1 asexuals:1 sometimes:1 incorporate:1 colloquial:1 describe:4 g:1 gay:2 bi:1 straight:1 hold:1 affection:3 drive:1 perhaps:1 appropriately:1 dependent:1 upon:1 another:3 human:2 personal:2 quality:1 regardless:1 gender:3 even:2 outward:1 appearance:1 altogether:1 require:1 still:1 might:1 phrase:1 conditional:1 otherwise:1 oppose:1 primary:1 people:2 criticism:2 object:1 broad:2 interpret:2 refer:1 partner:3 irrespective:1 act:1 word:1 question:1 towards:1 hence:2 generally:1 lean:1 prefer:1 engage:1 counter:1 sense:1 excludes:1 irrelevant:1 attractiveness:1 critic:1 would:2 strike:1 back:1 say:1 simply:1 render:1 useless:1 yet:2 opinion:2 sexuality:1 identity:1 complex:1 exhaustive:1 accurate:1 list:1 categorization:1 label:2 impractical:1 impossible:1 cite:1 following:1 example:1 x:6 biological:3 male:4 feel:1 woman:1 trap:1 inside:1 man:1 body:1 despite:1 identify:3 female:3 social:1 aspect:1 enjoy:1 cross:1 dressing:1 undergone:1 several:1 sr:2 procedure:1 transition:1 incomplete:1 prefers:1 activity:1 exclusively:1 self:1 aspiration:1 seek:1 sexless:1 long:1 open:1 relationship:1 undergo:1 full:1 proper:1 note:1 reference:1 w:1 teach:1 lesbian:1 explicit:1 film:1 homophobia:1 journal:1 humanistic:1 education:1 development:1 |@bigram affectional_orientation:4 sexual_orientation:7 mahwah_nj:1 nj_lawrence:1 lawrence_erlbaum:1 cross_dressing:1 gay_lesbian:1 |
3,271 | Military_of_Mali | Mali's armed forces number some 7,000 and are under the control of the Minister of Armed Forces and Veterans. The Gendarmerie and local police forces (under the Ministry of Territorial Administration and Security) maintain internal security. In the sixties and seventies, Mali's army and air force relied primarily on the Soviet Union for materiel and training. A few Malians receive military training in the United States, France, and Germany. Military expenditures total about 13% of the national budget. The Malian armed forces intervened in politics in 1991, but were overcoming an autocratic president, and initiated a process that led to democratic elections. Herbert Howe, Ambiguous Order: Military Forces in African States, Lynne Rienner, 2005, p.277 Colonel Gabriel Podiougou was appointed chief of staff of the Malian Military in June 2008. Mali, Algeria plan joint patrols on Saharan border, Reuters, Tiemoko Diallo, 15 July 2008. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Tuareg Rebellion, the Army has struggled to maintain its size, despite recent military aid from the United States. It is organized into a single brigade consisting of four motorized infantry battalions, an MBT battalion operating 33 T-55 and T-54 and T-34/85, tanks, and a light armoured battalion of PT-76's and Type 62 light tanks. An airborne battalion and two companies of commandos comprise the nation's special forces. Manpower is provided by two-year selective conscription. The Mali Airforce operates 16 MiG-21MF ʼFishbed-Jʼ, MiG-17F Fresco fighters, Antonov An-24, Antonov An-26, Aero L-29 Delfin, two Yak-18A Max, one MiG-15UTI Midget' trainer aircraft, 1 Ecureuil, 2 Z-9 (AS-365N) Dauphin 2, and Mi-8 Hip helicopters. IISS Military Balance 2007, p.283 The Army controls the small navy (approx. 130 sailors and 3 river patrol boats). Mali Air Force The Mali Air Force (Force Aerienne de la Republique du Mali) was founded in 1961, and has been influenced over the years by both French (from its colonial past) and Soviet aircraft. Its inventory is thus: ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Aero L-29 Delfín | | Advanced trainer | | 6 | Received from USSR in |----- | Antonov An-2 | | Transport | AN-2P 'Colt' | 2 | Received from USSR in |----- | Antonov An-24 | | Transport | | 2 | Received from USSR in |----- | Antonov An-26 | | Tactical transport | | 1 | Received from USSR in |----- | Basler BT-67 | | Transport | BT-67 Turbo Dakota | 2 | |----- | Eurocopter Ecureuil | | Utility helicopter | AS 350B | 1 | |----- | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 | | Advanced trainer | MiG-17F | 5 | Received from USSR in |----- | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 | | Air defenceGround attack | MiG-21BIS/MF/UM | 10 | Received from USSR in |----- | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 | | Combat trainer | MiG-15UTI | 1 | Received from USSR in |----- | Mil Mi-8 | | Transport helicopter | | 1 | |----- | Mil Mi-24 | | attack helicopter | Mi-24D | 2 | Received from Bulgaria in 2007 Deagel.com Mi-24 transaction reports |----- | Yakovlev Yak-18 | | Primary trainer | | 2 | Received from USSR in |} CIA WFB Data Amelia branches: Army, Air Force, Gendarmerie, Republican Guard, National Guard, National Police (Surete Nationale) Amelia manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 2,369,578 (2002 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,358,646 (2002 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: $68 million (FY03) Military expenditures - procurement: $5 million (FY03) Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2% (FY01) References World Aircraft Information Files. Brightstar Publishing, London. Files 337, Sheet 04. External links World Desk Reference Mali Defense Mike Golf's armored vehicles database - Mali Janes - Mali Airforce US military training efforts in Mali | Military_of_Mali |@lemmatized mali:11 arm:2 force:11 number:1 control:2 minister:1 armed:1 veteran:1 gendarmerie:2 local:1 police:2 ministry:1 territorial:1 administration:1 security:2 maintain:2 internal:1 sixty:1 seventy:1 army:4 air:5 rely:1 primarily:1 soviet:3 union:2 materiel:1 training:3 malian:3 receive:10 military:12 united:2 state:3 france:1 germany:1 expenditure:2 total:1 national:3 budget:1 intervene:1 politics:1 overcome:1 autocratic:1 president:1 initiate:1 process:1 lead:1 democratic:1 election:1 herbert:1 howe:1 ambiguous:1 order:1 african:1 lynne:1 rienner:1 p:2 colonel:1 gabriel:1 podiougou:1 appoint:1 chief:1 staff:1 june:1 algeria:1 plan:1 joint:1 patrol:2 saharan:1 border:1 reuters:1 tiemoko:1 diallo:1 july:1 since:1 collapse:1 end:1 tuareg:1 rebellion:1 struggle:1 size:1 despite:1 recent:1 aid:1 organize:1 single:1 brigade:1 consist:1 four:1 motorized:1 infantry:1 battalion:4 mbt:1 operate:2 tank:2 light:2 armoured:1 pt:1 type:2 airborne:1 two:3 company:1 commandos:1 comprise:1 nation:1 special:1 manpower:3 provide:1 year:2 selective:1 conscription:1 airforce:2 mig:9 ʼfishbed:1 jʼ:1 fresco:1 fighter:1 antonov:5 aero:2 l:2 delfin:1 yak:2 max:1 one:1 midget:1 trainer:5 aircraft:4 ecureuil:2 z:1 dauphin:1 mi:5 hip:1 helicopter:4 iiss:1 balance:1 small:1 navy:1 approx:1 sailor:1 river:1 boat:1 aerienne:1 de:1 la:1 republique:1 du:1 found:1 influence:1 french:1 colonial:1 past:1 inventory:1 thus:1 style:6 text:6 align:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 origin:1 version:1 service:2 note:1 delfín:1 advance:2 ussr:8 transport:5 colt:1 tactical:1 basler:1 bt:2 turbo:1 dakota:1 eurocopter:1 utility:1 mikoyan:3 gurevich:3 defenceground:1 attack:2 mf:1 um:1 combat:1 mil:2 bulgaria:1 deagel:1 com:1 transaction:1 report:1 yakovlev:1 primary:1 cia:1 wfb:1 data:1 amelia:2 branch:1 republican:1 guard:2 surete:1 nationale:1 availability:1 male:2 age:2 est:2 fit:1 dollar:1 figure:1 million:2 expenditures:2 procurement:1 percent:1 gdp:1 reference:2 world:2 information:1 file:2 brightstar:1 publishing:1 london:1 sheet:1 external:1 links:1 desk:1 defense:1 mike:1 golf:1 armored:1 vehicle:1 database:1 janes:1 u:1 effort:1 |@bigram sixty_seventy:1 soviet_union:2 lynne_rienner:1 chief_staff:1 tuareg_rebellion:1 infantry_battalion:1 iiss_military:1 patrol_boat:1 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 antonov_transport:2 eurocopter_ecureuil:1 ecureuil_utility:1 utility_helicopter:1 mikoyan_gurevich:3 gurevich_mig:3 trainer_mig:2 mil_mi:2 helicopter_mil:1 deagel_com:1 yakovlev_yak:1 manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 military_expenditures:2 expenditures_percent:1 external_links:1 |
3,272 | Antibody | Each antibody binds to a specific antigen; an interaction similar to a lock and key. Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins , abbreviated Ig) are gamma globulin proteins that are found in blood or other bodily fluids of vertebrates, and are used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects, such as bacteria and viruses. They are typically made of basic structural units—each with two large heavy chains and two small light chains—to form, for example, monomers with one unit, dimers with two units or pentamers with five units. Antibodies are produced by a kind of white blood cell called a plasma cell. There are several different types of antibody heavy chains, and several different kinds of antibodies, which are grouped into different isotypes based on which heavy chain they possess. Five different antibody isotypes are known in mammals, which perform different roles, and help direct the appropriate immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter. Eleonora Market, F. Nina Papavasiliou (2003) V(D)J Recombination and the Evolution of the Adaptive Immune System PLoS Biology1(1): e16. Although the general structure of all antibodies is very similar, a small region at the tip of the protein is extremely variable, allowing millions of antibodies with slightly different tip structures to exist. This region is known as the hypervariable region. Each of these variants can bind to a different target, known as an antigen. This huge diversity of antibodies allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide diversity of antigens. The unique part of the antigen recognized by an antibody is called an epitope. These epitopes bind with their antibody in a highly specific interaction, called induced fit, that allows antibodies to identify and bind only their unique antigen in the midst of the millions of different molecules that make up an organism. Recognition of an antigen by an antibody tags it for attack by other parts of the immune system. Antibodies can also neutralize targets directly by, for example, binding to a part of a pathogen that it needs to cause an infection. The large and diverse population of antibodies is generated by random combinations of a set of gene segments that encode different antigen binding sites (or paratopes), followed by random mutations in this area of the antibody gene, which create further diversity. Antibody genes also re-organize in a process called class switching that changes the base of the heavy chain to another, creating a different isotype of the antibody that retains the antigen specific variable region. This allows a single antibody to be used by several different parts of the immune system. Production of antibodies is the main function of the humoral immune system. Forms Surface immunoglobulin (Ig) is attached to the membrane of the effector B cells by its transmembrane region, while antibodies are the secreted form of Ig and lack the trans membrane region so that antibodies can be secreted into the bloodstream and body cavities. As a result, surface Ig and antibodies are identical except for the transmembrane regions. Therefore, they are considered two forms of antibodies: soluble form or membrane-bound form (Parham 21-22). The membrane-bound form of an antibody may be called a surface immunoglobulin (sIg) or a membrane immunoglobulin (mIg). It is part of the B cell receptor (BCR), which allows a B cell to detect when a specific antigen is present in the body and triggers B cell activation. The BCR is composed of surface-bound IgD or IgM antibodies and associated Ig-α and Ig-β heterodimers, which are capable of signal transduction. A typical human B cell will have 50,000 to 100,000 antibodies bound to its surface. Upon antigen binding, they cluster in large patches, which can exceed 1 micrometer in diameter, on lipid rafts that isolate the BCRs from most other cell signaling receptors. These patches may improve the efficiency of the cellular immune response. In humans, the cell surface is bare around the B cell receptors for several thousand Ångstroms, which further isolates the BCRs from competing influences. Isotypes + Antibody isotypes of mammals Name Types Description Antibody Complexes IgA 2 Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory tract and urogenital tract, and prevents colonization by pathogens. Also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk.Some antibodies form complexes that bind to multiple antigen molecules. IgD 1 Functions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that have not been exposed to antigens. Its function is less defined than other isotypes. IgE 1 Binds to allergens and triggers histamine release from mast cells and basophils, and is involved in allergy. Also protects against parasitic worms. IgG 4 In its four forms, provides the majority of antibody-based immunity against invading pathogens. The only antibody capable of crossing the placenta to give passive immunity to fetus. IgM 1 Expressed on the surface of B cells and in a secreted form with very high avidity. Eliminates pathogens in the early stages of B cell mediated (humoral) immunity before there is sufficient IgG. Antibodies can come in different varieties known as isotypes or classes. In placental mammals there are five antibody isotypes known as IgA, IgD, IgE,IgG and IgM. They are each named with an "Ig" prefix that stands for immunoglobulin, another name for antibody, and differ in their biological properties, functional locations and ability to deal with different antigens, as depicted in the table. The antibody isotype of a B cell changes during cell development and activation. Immature B cells, which have never been exposed to an antigen, are known as naïve B cells and express only the IgM isotype in a cell surface bound form. B cells begin to express both IgM and IgD when they reach maturity—the co-expression of both these immunoglobulin isotypes renders the B cell 'mature' and ready to respond to antigen. B cell activation follows engagement of the cell bound antibody molecule with an antigen, causing the cell to divide and differentiate into an antibody producing cell called a plasma cell. In this activated form, the B cell starts to produce antibody in a secreted form rather than a membrane-bound form. Some daughter cells of the activated B cells undergo isotype switching, a mechanism that causes the production of antibodies to change from IgM or IgD to the other antibody isotypes, IgE, IgA or IgG, that have defined roles in the immune system. Structure Antibodies are heavy (~150kDa) globular plasma proteins that are also known as immunoglobulins. They have sugar chains added to some of their amino acid residues. In other words, antibodies are glycoproteins. The basic functional unit of each antibody is an immunoglobulin (Ig) monomer (containing only one Ig unit); secreted antibodies can also be dimeric with two Ig units as with IgA, tetrameric with four Ig units like teleost fish IgM, or pentameric with five Ig units, like mammalian IgM. Several immunoglobulin domains make up the two heavy chains (red and blue) and the two light chains (green and yellow) of an antibody. The immunoglobulin domains are composed of between 7 (IgC) and 9 (IgV) β-strands. See also: Immunoglobulin domains The Ig monomer is a "Y"-shaped molecule that consists of four polypeptide chains; two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains connected by disulfide bonds. Each chain is composed of structural domains called Ig domains. These domains contain about 70-110 amino acids and are classified into different categories (for example, variable or IgV, and constant or IgC) according to their size and function. They have a characteristic immunoglobulin fold in which two beta sheets create a “sandwich” shape, held together by interactions between conserved cysteines and other charged amino acids. Heavy chain There are five types of mammalian Ig heavy chain denoted by the Greek letters: α, δ, ε, γ, and μ. The type of heavy chain present defines the class of antibody; these chains are found in IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM antibodies, respectively. Distinct heavy chains differ in size and composition; α and γ contain approximately 450 amino acids, while μ and ε have approximately 550 amino acids. 1. Fab region2. Fc region3. Heavy chain with one variable (VH) domain followed by a constant domain (CH1), a hinge region, and two more constant (CH2 and CH3) domains.4. Light chain with one variable (VL) and one constant (CL) domain5. Antigen binding site (paratope)6. Hinge regions. Each heavy chain has two regions, the constant region and the variable region. The constant region is identical in all antibodies of the same isotype, but differs in antibodies of different isotypes. Heavy chains γ, α and δ have a constant region composed of three tandem (in a line) Ig domains, and a hinge region for added flexibility; heavy chains μ and ε have a constant region composed of four immunoglobulin domains. The variable region of the heavy chain differs in antibodies produced by different B cells, but is the same for all antibodies produced by a single B cell or B cell clone. The variable region of each heavy chain is approximately 110 amino acids long and is composed of a single Ig domain. Light chain In mammals there are two types of Immunoglobulin light chain, which are called lambda (λ) and kappa (κ). A light chain has two successive domains: one constant domain and one variable domain. The approximate length of a light chain is 211 to 217 amino acids. Each antibody contains two light chains that are always identical; only one type of light chain, κ or λ, is present per antibody in mammals. Other types of light chains, such as the iota (ι) chain, are found in lower vertebrates like Chondrichthyes and Teleostei. CDRs, Fv, Fab and Fc Regions Some parts of an antibody have unique functions. The tips of the Y, for example, contain the site that bind antigen and, therefore, recognize specific foreign objects. This region of the antibody is called the Fab (fragment, antigen binding) region. It is composed of one constant and one variable domain from each heavy and light chain of the antibody. The paratope is shaped at the amino terminal end of the antibody monomer by the variable domains from the heavy and light chains. The variable domain is also referred to as the FV region and is the most important region for binding to antigens. More specifically variable loops, three each on the light (VL) and heavy (VH) chains are responsible for binding to the antigen. These loops are referred to as the Complementarity Determining Regions (CDRs). The base of the Y plays a role in modulating immune cell activity. This region is called the Fc (Fragment, crystallizable) region, and is composed of two heavy chains that contribute two or three constant domains depending on the class of the antibody. By binding to specific proteins the Fc region ensures that each antibody generates an appropriate immune response for a given antigen. The Fc region also binds to various cell receptors, such as Fc receptors, and other immune molecules, such as complement proteins. By doing this, it mediates different physiological effects including opsonization, cell lysis, and degranulation of mast cells, basophils and eosinophils. Function Activated B cells differentiate into either antibody-producing cells called plasma cells that secrete soluble antibody or memory cells that survive in the body for years afterward in order to allow the immune system to remember an antigen and respond faster upon future exposures. Since antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream, they are said to be part of the humoral immune system. Circulating antibodies are produced by clonal B cells that specifically respond to only one antigen (an example is a virus capsid protein fragment). Antibodies contribute to immunity in three ways: they prevent pathogens from entering or damaging cells by binding to them; they stimulate removal of pathogens by macrophages and other cells by coating the pathogen; and they trigger destruction of pathogens by stimulating other immune responses such as the complement pathway. The secreted mammalian IgM has five Ig units. Each Ig unit (labeled 1) has two epitope binding Fab regions, so IgM is capable of binding up to 10 epitopes. Activation of complement Antibodies that bind to surface antigens on, for example, a bacterium attract the first component of the complement cascade with their Fc region and initiate activation of the "classical" complement system. This results in the killing of bacteria in two ways. First, the binding of the antibody and complement molecules marks the microbe for ingestion by phagocytes in a process called opsonization; these phagocytes are attracted by certain complement molecules generated in the complement cascade. Secondly, some complement system components form a membrane attack complex to assist antibodies to kill the bacterium directly. Activation of effector cells To combat pathogens that replicate outside cells, antibodies bind to pathogens to link them together, causing them to agglutinate. Since an antibody has at least two paratopes it can bind more than one antigen by binding identical epitopes carried on the surfaces of these antigens. By coating the pathogen, antibodies stimulate effector functions against the pathogen in cells that recognize their Fc region. Those cells which recognize coated pathogens have Fc receptors which, as the name suggests, interacts with the Fc region of IgA, IgG, and IgE antibodies. The engagement of a particular antibody with the Fc receptor on a particular cell triggers an effector function of that cell; phagocytes will phagocytose, mast cells and neutrophils will degranulate, natural killer cells will release cytokines and cytotoxic molecules; that will ultimately result in destruction of the invading microbe. The Fc receptors are isotype-specific, which gives greater flexibility to the immune system, invoking only the appropriate immune mechanisms for distinct pathogens. Immunoglobulin diversity Virtually all microbes can trigger an antibody response. Successful recognition and eradication of many different types of microbes requires diversity among antibodies; their amino acid composition varies allowing them to interact with many different antigens. It has been estimated that humans generate about 10 billion different antibodies, each capable of binding a distinct epitope of an antigen. Although a huge repertoire of different antibodies is generated in a single individual, the number of genes available to make these proteins is limited. Several complex genetic mechanisms have evolved that allow vertebrate B cells to generate a diverse pool of antibodies from a relatively small number of antibody genes. Domain variability The hypervariable regions of the heavy chain is shown in red, PDB 1IGT The region (locus) of a chromosome that encodes an antibody is large and contains several distinct genes for each domain of the antibody—the locus containing heavy chain genes (IGH@) is found on chromosome 14, and the loci containing lambda and kappa light chain genes (IGL@ and IGK@) are found on chromosomes 22 and 2 in humans. One of these domains is called the variable domain, which is present in each heavy and light chain of every antibody, but can differ in different antibodies generated from distinct B cells. Differences, between the variable domains, are located on three loops known as hypervariable regions (HV-1, HV-2 and HV-3) or complementarity determining regions (CDR1, CDR2 and CDR3). CDRs are supported within the variable domains by conserved framework regions. The heavy chain locus contains about 65 different variable domain genes that all differ in their CDRs. Combining these genes with an array of genes for other domains of the antibody generates a large cavalry of antibodies with a high degree of variability. This combination is called V(D)J recombination discussed below. Peter Parham. "The Immune System. 2nd ed. Garland Science: New York, 2005. pg.47-62 V(D)J recombination Simplistic overview of V(D)J recombination of immunoglobulin heavy chains Somatic recombination of immunoglobulins, also known as V(D)J recombination, involves the generation of a unique immunoglobulin variable region. The variable region of each immunoglobulin heavy or light chain is encoded in several pieces—known as gene segments. These segments are called variable (V), diversity (D) and joining (J) segments. V, D and J segments are found in Ig heavy chains, but only V and J segments are found in Ig light chains. Multiple copies of the V, D and J gene segments exist, and are tandemly arranged in the genomes of mammals. In the bone marrow, each developing B cell will assemble an immunoglobulin variable region by randomly selecting and combining one V, one D and one J gene segment (or one V and one J segment in the light chain). As there are multiple copies of each type of gene segment, and different combinations of gene segments can be used to generate each immunoglobulin variable region, this process generates a huge number of antibodies, each with different paratopes, and thus different antigen specificities. After a B cell produces a functional immunoglobulin gene during V(D)J recombination, it cannot express any other variable region (a process known as allelic exclusion) thus each B cell can produce antibodies containing only one kind of variable chain. Somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation For more details on this topic, see Somatic hypermutation and Affinity maturation Following activation with antigen, B cells begin to proliferate rapidly. In these rapidly dividing cells, the genes encoding the variable domains of the heavy and light chains undergo a high rate of point mutation, by a process called somatic hypermutation (SHM). SHM results in approximately one nucleotide change per variable gene, per cell division. As a consequence, any daughter B cells will acquire slight amino acid differences in the variable domains of their antibody chains. This serves to increase the diversity of the antibody pool and impacts the antibody’s antigen-binding affinity. Some point mutations will result in the production of antibodies that have a weaker interaction (low affinity) with their antigen than the original antibody, and some mutations will generate antibodies with a stronger interaction (high affinity). B cells that express high affinity antibodies on their surface will receive a strong survival signal during interactions with other cells, whereas those with low affinity antibodies will not, and will die by apoptosis. Thus, B cells expressing antibodies with a higher affinity for the antigen will outcompete those with weaker affinities for function and survival. The process of generating antibodies with increased binding affinities is called affinity maturation. Affinity maturation occurs in mature B cells after V(D)J recombination, and is dependent on help from helper T cells. Mechanism of class switch recombination that allows isotype switching in activated B cells Class switching Isotype or class switching is a biological process occurring after activation of the B cell, which allows the cell to produce different classes of antibody (IgA, IgE, or IgG). The different classes of antibody, and thus effector functions, are defined by the constant (C) regions of the immunoglobulin heavy chain. Initially, naïve B cells express only cell-surface IgM and IgD with identical antigen binding regions. Each isotype is adapted for a distinct function, therefore, after activation, an antibody with a IgG, IgA, or IgE effector function might be required to effectively eliminate an antigen. Class switching allows different daughter cells from the same activated B cell to produce antibodies of different isotypes. Only the constant region of the antibody heavy chain changes during class switching; the variable regions, and therefore antigen specificity, remain unchanged. Thus the progeny of a single B cell can produce antibodies, all specific for the same antigen, but with the ability to produce the effector function appropriate for each antigenic challenge. Class switching is triggered by cytokines; the isotype generated depends on which cytokines are present in the B cell environment. Class switching occurs in the heavy chain gene locus by a mechanism called class switch recombination (CSR). This mechanism relies on conserved nucleotide motifs, called switch (S) regions, found in DNA upstream of each constant region gene (except in the δ-chain). The DNA strand is broken by the activity of a series of enzymes at two selected S-regions. The variable domain exon is rejoined through a process called non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) to the desired constant region (γ, α or ε). This process results in an immunoglobulin gene that encodes an antibody of a different isotype. Medical applications Disease diagnosis and therapy Detection of particular antibodies is a very common form of medical diagnostics, and applications such as serology depend on these methods. For example, in biochemical assays for disease diagnosis, a titer of antibodies directed against Epstein-Barr virus or Lyme disease is estimated from the blood. If those antibodies are not present, either the person is not infected, or the infection occurred a very long time ago, and the B cells generating these specific antibodies have naturally decayed. In clinical immunology, levels of individual classes of immunoglobulins are measured by nephelometry (or turbidimetry) to characterize the antibody profile of patient. Elevations in different classes of immunoglobulins are sometimes useful in determining the cause of liver damage in patients whom the diagnosis is unclear. For example, elevated IgA indicates alcoholic cirrhosis, elevated IgM indicates viral hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis, while IgG is elevated in viral hepatitis, autoimmune hepatitis and cirrhosis. Autoimmune disorders can often be traced to antibodies that bind the body's own epitopes; many can be detected through blood tests. Antibodies directed against red blood cell surface antigens in immune mediated hemolytic anemia are detected with the Coombs test. The Coombs test is also used for antibody screening in blood transfusion preparation and also for antibody screening in antenatal women. Practically, several immunodiagnostic methods based on detection of complex antigen-antibody are used to diagnose infectious diseases, for example ELISA, immunofluorescence, Western blot, immunodiffusion, immunoelectrophoresis, and Magnetic immunoassay. Antibodies raised against Human chorionic gonadotropin are used in over the counter pregnancy tests. Targeted monoclonal antibody therapy is employed to treat diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, psoriasis, and many forms of cancer including non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, colorectal cancer, head and neck cancer and breast cancer. Some immune deficiencies, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia and hypogammaglobulinemia, result in partial or complete lack of antibodies. These diseases are often treated by inducing a short term form of immunity called passive immunity. Passive immunity is achieved through the transfer of ready-made antibodies in the form of human or animal serum, pooled immunoglobulin or monoclonal antibodies, into the affected individual. Prenatal therapy Rhesus factor, also known as Rhesus D (RhD) antigen, is an antigen found on red blood cells; individuals that are Rhesus-positive (Rh+) have this antigen on their red blood cells and individuals that are Rhesus-negative (Rh–) do not. During normal childbirth, delivery trauma or complications during pregnancy, blood from a fetus can enter the mother's system. In the case of an Rh-incompatible mother and child, consequential blood mixing may sensitize an Rh- mother to the Rh antigen on the blood cells of the Rh+ child, putting the remainder of the pregnancy, and any subsequent pregnancies, at risk for hemolytic disease of the newborn. Rho(D) immune globulin antibodies are specific for human Rhesus D (RhD) antigen. Anti-RhD antibodies are administered as part of a prenatal treatment regimen to prevent sensitization that may occur when a Rhesus-negative mother has a Rhesus-positive fetus. Treatment of a mother with Anti-RhD antibodies prior to and immediately after trauma and delivery destroys Rh antigen in the mother's system from the fetus. Importantly, this occurs before the antigen can stimulate maternal B cells to "remember" Rh antigen by generating memory B cells. Therefore, her humoral immune system will not make anti-Rh antibodies, and will not attack the Rhesus antigens of the current or subsequent babies. Rho(D) Immune Globulin treatment prevents sensitization that can lead to Rh disease, but does not prevent or treat the underlying disease itself. Research applications Immunofluorescence image of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton. Actin filaments are shown in red, microtubules in green, and the nuclei in blue. Specific antibodies are produced by injecting an antigen into a mammal, such as a mouse, rat or rabbit for small quantities of antibody, or goat, sheep, or horse for large quantities of antibody. Blood isolated from these animals contains polyclonal antibodies—multiple antibodies that bind to the same antigen—in the serum, which can now be called antiserum. Antigens are also injected into chickens for generation of polyclonal antibodies in egg yolk. To obtain antibody that is specific for a single epitope of an antigen, antibody-secreting lymphocytes are isolated from the animal and immortalized by fusing them with a cancer cell line. The fused cells are called hybridomas, and will continually grow and secrete antibody in culture. Single hybridoma cells are isolated by dilution cloning to generate cell clones that all produce the same antibody; these antibodies are called monoclonal antibodies. Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are often purified using Protein A/G or antigen-affinity chromatography. In research, purified antibodies are used in many applications. They are most commonly used to identify and locate intracellular and extracellular proteins. Antibodies are used in flow cytometry to differentiate cell types by the proteins they express; different types of cell express different combinations of cluster of differentiation molecules on their surface, and produce different intracellular and secretable proteins. They are also used in immunoprecipitation to separate proteins and anything bound to them (co-immunoprecipitation) from other molecules in a cell lysate, in Western blot analyses to identify proteins separated by electrophoresis, and in immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence to examine protein expression in tissue sections or to locate proteins within cells with the assistance of a microscope. Proteins can also be detected and quantified with antibodies, using ELISA and ELISPOT techniques. Structure prediction The importance of antibodies in health care and the biotechnology industry demands knowledge of their structures at high resolution. This information is used for protein engineering, modifying the antigen binding affinity, and identifying an epitope, of a given antibody. X-ray crystallography is one commonly used method for determining antibody structures. However, crystallizing an antibody is often laborious and time consuming. Computational approaches can provide a cheaper faster alternative to crystallography, but their results are more equivocal since they do not produce empirical structures. Online web servers such as Web Antibody Modeling (WAM) WAM and Prediction of Immunoglobulin Structure (PIGS) Prediction of Immunoglobulin Structure (PIGS) enables computational modeling of antibody variable regions. Rosetta Antibody is a novel antibody FV region structure prediction server, which incorporates sophisticated techniques to minimize CDR loops and optimize the relative orientation of the light and heavy chains, as well as homology models that predict successful docking of antibodies with their unique antigen. RosettaAntibody History The first use of the term "antibody" occurred in a text by Paul Ehrlich. The term antikörper (the German word for antibody) appears in the conclusion of his article "Experimental Studies on Immunity", published in October 1891, which states that "if two substances give rise to two different antikörper, then they themselves must be different". . However, the term was not accepted immediately and several other terms for antibody were proposed; these included Immunkörper, Amboceptor, Zwischenkörper, substance sensibilisatrice, copula, Desmon, philocytase, fixateur, and Immunisin. The word antibody has formal analogy to the word antitoxin and a similar concept to Immunkörper. Angel of the West (2008) by Julian Voss-Andreae was created based on the antibody structure published by E. Padlan for the Florida campus of the Scripps Research Institute. The antibody is placed into a ring referencing Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man thus highlighting the similar proportions of the antibody and the human body. The study of antibodies began in 1890 when Emil von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato described antibody activity against diphtheria and tetanus toxins. Behring and Kitasato put forward the theory of humoral immunity, proposing that a mediator in serum could react with a foreign antigen. Their idea prompted Paul Ehrlich to propose the side chain theory for antibody and antigen interaction in 1897, when he hypothesized that receptors (described as “side chains”) on the surface of cells could bind specifically to toxins – in a "lock-and-key" interaction – and that this binding reaction was the trigger for the production of antibodies. Other researchers believed that antibodies existed freely in the blood and, in 1904, Almroth Wright suggested that soluble antibodies coated bacteria to label them for phagocytosis and killing; a process that he named opsoninization. In the 1920s, Michael Heidelberger and Oswald Avery observed that antigens could be precipitated by antibodies and went on to show that antibodies were made of protein. The biochemical properties of antigen-antibody binding interactions were examined in more detail in the late 1930s by John Marrack. The next major advance was in the 1940s, when Linus Pauling confirmed the lock-and-key theory proposed by Ehrlich by showing that the interactions between antibodies and antigens depended more on their shape than their chemical composition. In 1948, Astrid Fagreaus discovered that B cells, in the form of plasma cells, were responsible for generating antibodies. Further work concentrated on characterizing the structures of the antibody proteins. A major advance in these structural studies was the discovery in the early 1960s by Gerald Edelman and Joseph Gally of the antibody light chain, and their realization that this protein was the same as the Bence-Jones protein described in 1845 by Henry Bence Jones. Edelman went on to discover that antibodies are composed of disulfide bond-linked heavy and light chains. Around the same time, antibody-binding (Fab) and antibody tail (Fc) regions of IgG were characterized by Rodney Porter. Together, these scientists deduced the structure and complete amino acid sequence of IgG, a feat for which they were jointly awarded the 1972 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine. While most of these early studies focused on IgM and IgG, other immunoglobulin isotypes were identified in the 1960s: Thomas Tomasi discovered secretory antibody (IgA) and David Rowe and John Fahey identified IgD, and IgE was identified by Kikishige Ishizaka and Teruki Ishizaka as a class of antibodies involved in allergic reactions. Genetic studies identifying the basis of the vast diversity of these antibody proteins when somatic recombination of immunoglobulin genes was by Susumu Tonegawa in 1976. See also Anti-mitochondrial antibodies Anti-nuclear antibodies ELISA Humoral immunity Immunology Immunosuppressive drug Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) Monoclonal antibody Nanobodies Secondary antibodies Magnetic immunoassay Notes External links Mike's Immunoglobulin Structure/Function Page at University of Cambridge Antibodies as the PDB molecule of the month Discussion of the structure of antibodies at Protein Data Bank Microbiology and Immunology On-line Textbook at University of South Carolina A hundred years of antibody therapy History and applications of antibodies in the treatment of disease at University of Oxford How Lymphocytes Produce Antibody from Cells Alive! Antibody applications Fluorescent antibody image library, University of Birmingham | Antibody |@lemmatized antibody:185 bind:27 specific:12 antigen:59 interaction:10 similar:4 lock:3 key:3 also:18 know:13 immunoglobulin:33 abbreviate:1 ig:21 gamma:1 globulin:3 protein:19 find:11 blood:13 bodily:1 fluid:1 vertebrate:3 use:15 immune:23 system:16 identify:9 neutralize:2 foreign:4 object:3 bacteria:3 virus:3 typically:1 make:7 basic:2 structural:3 unit:11 two:23 large:6 heavy:34 chain:58 small:4 light:23 form:20 example:9 monomer:4 one:21 dimer:1 pentamers:1 five:6 produce:18 kind:3 white:1 cell:93 call:24 plasma:5 several:10 different:38 type:12 group:1 isotypes:12 base:6 possess:1 mammal:7 perform:1 role:3 help:2 direct:3 appropriate:4 response:5 encounter:1 eleonora:1 market:1 f:1 nina:1 papavasiliou:1 v:13 j:13 recombination:11 evolution:1 adaptive:1 plos:1 although:2 general:1 structure:15 region:53 tip:3 extremely:1 variable:30 allow:10 million:2 slightly:1 exist:4 hypervariable:3 variant:1 target:3 huge:3 diversity:8 recognize:5 equally:1 wide:1 unique:5 part:8 epitope:9 highly:1 induced:1 fit:1 midst:1 molecule:11 organism:1 recognition:2 tag:1 attack:3 directly:2 pathogen:14 need:1 cause:5 infection:2 diverse:2 population:1 generate:17 random:2 combination:4 set:1 gene:23 segment:11 encode:5 binding:9 site:3 paratopes:3 follow:4 mutation:4 area:2 create:4 organize:1 process:10 class:17 switching:6 change:5 another:2 isotype:11 retain:1 single:7 production:4 main:1 function:14 humoral:6 surface:15 attach:1 membrane:7 effector:7 b:42 transmembrane:2 secreted:4 lack:2 trans:1 secrete:4 bloodstream:2 body:5 cavity:1 result:8 identical:7 except:2 therefore:5 consider:1 soluble:3 bound:7 parham:2 may:4 sig:1 mig:1 receptor:10 bcr:2 detect:4 present:6 trigger:7 activation:9 compose:9 igd:8 igm:14 associate:1 α:5 β:2 heterodimers:1 capable:4 signal:3 transduction:1 typical:1 human:8 upon:2 cluster:2 patch:2 exceed:1 micrometer:1 diameter:1 lipid:1 raft:1 isolate:5 bcrs:2 improve:1 efficiency:1 cellular:1 bare:1 around:2 thousand:1 ångstroms:1 far:1 compete:1 influence:1 name:5 description:1 complex:5 iga:10 mucosal:1 gut:1 respiratory:1 tract:2 urogenital:1 prevents:2 colonization:1 saliva:1 tear:1 breast:2 milk:1 multiple:5 mainly:1 expose:2 less:1 define:4 ige:8 allergen:1 histamine:1 release:2 mast:3 basophil:2 involve:3 allergy:1 protect:1 parasitic:1 worm:1 igg:12 four:4 provide:2 majority:1 immunity:10 invade:1 cross:1 placenta:1 give:5 passive:3 fetus:4 express:9 high:7 avidity:1 eliminate:2 early:3 stage:1 mediate:3 sufficient:1 come:1 variety:1 placental:1 prefix:1 stand:1 differ:4 biological:2 property:2 functional:3 location:1 ability:2 deal:1 depict:1 table:1 development:1 immature:1 never:1 naïve:2 begin:3 reach:1 maturity:1 co:2 expression:2 render:1 mature:2 ready:2 respond:3 engagement:2 divide:2 differentiate:3 activated:3 start:1 rather:1 daughter:3 undergo:2 mechanism:6 globular:1 proteins:4 sugar:1 add:1 amino:11 acid:10 residue:1 word:4 glycoprotein:1 contain:11 dimeric:1 tetrameric:1 like:3 teleost:1 fish:1 pentameric:1 mammalian:3 domain:28 red:6 blue:2 green:2 yellow:1 igc:2 igv:2 strand:2 see:3 domains:2 shape:4 consist:1 polypeptide:1 connect:1 disulfide:2 bond:2 classify:1 category:1 constant:15 accord:1 size:2 characteristic:1 fold:1 beta:1 sheet:1 sandwich:1 hold:1 together:3 conserve:2 cysteine:1 charge:1 denote:1 greek:1 letter:1 δ:3 ε:4 γ:4 μ:3 respectively:1 distinct:6 composition:3 approximately:4 fab:5 fc:13 vh:2 hinge:3 vl:2 cl:1 paratope:2 differs:2 three:5 tandem:1 line:3 added:1 flexibility:2 clone:3 long:2 lambda:2 λ:2 kappa:2 κ:2 successive:1 approximate:1 length:1 always:1 per:3 iota:1 ι:1 low:3 chondrichthyes:1 teleostei:1 cdrs:4 fv:3 fragment:3 terminal:1 end:2 refer:2 important:1 antigens:3 specifically:3 loop:4 responsible:2 complementarity:2 determine:4 play:1 modulate:1 activity:3 crystallizable:1 contribute:2 depend:3 ensure:1 various:1 complement:9 physiological:1 effect:1 include:3 opsonization:2 lysis:1 degranulation:1 eosinophil:1 activate:2 either:2 memory:2 survive:1 year:2 afterward:1 order:1 remember:2 faster:2 future:1 exposure:1 since:3 freely:2 say:1 circulate:1 clonal:1 capsid:1 way:2 prevent:3 enter:2 damage:2 stimulate:4 removal:1 macrophage:1 coat:4 destruction:2 pathway:1 labeled:1 bacterium:2 attract:2 first:3 component:2 cascade:2 initiate:1 classical:1 killing:2 mark:1 microbe:4 ingestion:1 phagocyte:3 certain:1 secondly:1 assist:1 kill:1 combat:1 replicate:1 outside:1 link:4 agglutinate:1 least:1 carry:1 suggest:2 interacts:1 particular:3 phagocytose:1 neutrophil:1 degranulate:1 natural:1 killer:1 cytokine:3 cytotoxic:1 ultimately:1 invading:1 great:1 invoke:1 virtually:1 successful:2 eradication:1 many:5 require:2 among:1 varies:1 interact:1 estimate:2 billion:1 repertoire:1 individual:5 number:3 available:1 limited:1 genetic:2 evolve:1 pool:3 relatively:1 variability:2 show:4 pdb:2 locus:5 chromosome:3 igh:1 igl:1 igk:1 every:1 difference:2 locate:3 hv:3 support:1 within:2 conserved:1 framework:1 combine:2 array:1 cavalry:1 degree:1 discuss:1 peter:1 ed:1 garland:1 science:1 new:1 york:1 pg:1 simplistic:1 overview:1 somatic:5 generation:2 piece:1 join:1 copy:2 tandemly:1 arrange:1 genome:1 bone:1 marrow:1 develop:1 assemble:1 randomly:1 select:2 thus:6 specificity:2 cannot:1 allelic:1 exclusion:1 hypermutation:3 affinity:14 maturation:4 detail:2 topic:1 proliferate:1 rapidly:2 rate:1 point:2 shm:2 nucleotide:2 division:1 consequence:1 acquire:1 slight:1 serve:1 increase:1 impact:1 weak:2 original:1 strong:2 receive:1 survival:2 whereas:1 die:1 apoptosis:1 outcompete:1 increased:1 occur:6 dependent:1 helper:1 switch:6 c:1 initially:1 adapt:1 might:1 effectively:1 allows:1 remain:1 unchanged:1 progeny:1 antigenic:1 challenge:1 depends:1 environment:1 occurs:1 csr:1 rely:1 motif:1 dna:2 upstream:1 break:1 series:1 enzyme:1 exon:1 rejoin:1 non:2 homologous:1 joining:1 nhej:1 desire:1 medical:2 application:6 disease:10 diagnosis:3 therapy:4 detection:2 common:1 diagnostics:1 serology:1 method:3 biochemical:2 assay:1 titer:1 epstein:1 barr:1 lyme:1 person:1 infect:1 time:3 ago:1 naturally:1 decay:1 clinical:1 immunology:3 level:1 measure:1 nephelometry:1 turbidimetry:1 characterize:3 profile:1 patient:2 elevation:1 sometimes:1 useful:1 liver:1 unclear:1 elevate:3 indicate:2 alcoholic:1 cirrhosis:3 viral:2 hepatitis:3 primary:1 biliary:1 autoimmune:2 disorder:1 often:4 trace:1 test:4 hemolytic:2 anemia:1 coombs:2 screening:2 transfusion:1 preparation:1 antenatal:1 woman:1 practically:1 immunodiagnostic:1 diagnose:1 infectious:1 elisa:3 immunofluorescence:3 western:2 blot:2 immunodiffusion:1 immunoelectrophoresis:1 magnetic:2 immunoassay:2 raise:1 chorionic:1 gonadotropin:1 counter:1 pregnancy:4 monoclonal:5 employ:1 treat:3 rheumatoid:1 arthritis:1 sclerosis:1 psoriasis:1 cancer:5 hodgkin:1 lymphoma:1 colorectal:1 head:1 neck:1 deficiency:1 x:2 agammaglobulinemia:1 hypogammaglobulinemia:1 partial:1 complete:2 induce:1 short:1 term:5 achieve:1 transfer:1 animal:3 serum:3 affected:1 prenatal:2 rhesus:8 factor:1 rhd:4 positive:2 rh:10 negative:2 normal:1 childbirth:1 delivery:2 trauma:2 complication:1 mother:6 case:1 incompatible:1 child:2 consequential:1 mixing:1 sensitize:1 put:2 remainder:1 subsequent:2 risk:1 newborn:1 rho:2 anti:5 administer:1 treatment:4 regimen:1 sensitization:2 prior:1 immediately:2 destroys:1 importantly:1 maternal:1 current:1 baby:1 lead:1 underlying:1 research:3 image:2 eukaryotic:1 cytoskeleton:1 actin:1 filament:1 microtubule:1 nucleus:1 inject:2 mouse:1 rat:1 rabbit:1 quantity:2 goat:1 sheep:1 horse:1 polyclonal:3 antiserum:1 chicken:1 egg:1 yolk:1 obtain:1 secreting:1 lymphocyte:1 immortalize:1 fuse:1 fused:1 hybridoma:2 continually:1 grow:1 culture:1 dilution:1 purify:1 g:1 chromatography:1 purified:1 commonly:2 intracellular:2 extracellular:1 flow:1 cytometry:1 differentiation:1 secretable:1 immunoprecipitation:2 separate:2 anything:1 lysate:1 analysis:1 electrophoresis:1 immunohistochemistry:1 examine:2 tissue:1 section:1 assistance:1 microscope:1 quantify:1 elispot:1 technique:2 prediction:4 importance:1 health:1 care:1 biotechnology:1 industry:1 demand:1 knowledge:1 resolution:1 information:1 engineering:1 modify:1 ray:1 crystallography:2 however:2 crystallize:1 laborious:1 consuming:1 computational:2 approach:1 cheap:1 alternative:1 equivocal:1 empirical:1 online:1 web:2 server:2 modeling:2 wam:2 pig:2 enable:1 rosetta:1 novel:1 incorporate:1 sophisticated:1 minimize:1 cdr:1 optimize:1 relative:1 orientation:1 well:1 homology:1 model:1 predict:1 docking:1 rosettaantibody:1 history:2 text:1 paul:2 ehrlich:3 antikörper:2 german:1 appear:1 conclusion:1 article:1 experimental:1 study:5 publish:2 october:1 state:1 substance:2 rise:1 must:1 accept:1 propose:4 immunkörper:2 amboceptor:1 zwischenkörper:1 sensibilisatrice:1 copula:1 desmon:1 philocytase:1 fixateur:1 immunisin:1 formal:1 analogy:1 antitoxin:1 concept:1 angel:1 west:1 julian:1 voss:1 andreae:1 e:1 padlan:1 florida:1 campus:1 scripps:1 institute:1 place:1 ring:1 reference:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 vitruvian:1 man:1 highlight:1 proportion:1 emil:1 von:1 behring:2 shibasaburo:1 kitasato:2 describe:3 diphtheria:1 tetanus:1 toxin:2 forward:1 theory:3 mediator:1 could:3 react:1 idea:1 prompt:1 side:2 hypothesize:1 reaction:2 researcher:1 believe:1 almroth:1 wright:1 label:1 phagocytosis:1 opsoninization:1 michael:1 heidelberger:1 oswald:1 avery:1 observe:1 precipitate:1 go:2 late:1 john:2 marrack:1 next:1 major:2 advance:2 linus:1 pauling:1 confirm:1 chemical:1 astrid:1 fagreaus:1 discover:3 work:1 concentrate:1 discovery:1 gerald:1 edelman:2 joseph:1 gally:1 realization:1 bence:2 jones:2 henry:1 tail:1 rodney:1 porter:1 scientist:1 deduce:1 sequence:1 feat:1 jointly:1 award:1 nobel:1 prize:1 physiology:1 medicine:1 focus:1 thomas:1 tomasi:1 secretory:1 david:1 rowe:1 fahey:1 kikishige:1 ishizaka:2 teruki:1 allergic:1 basis:1 vast:1 susumu:1 tonegawa:1 mitochondrial:1 nuclear:1 immunosuppressive:1 drug:1 intravenous:1 ivig:1 nanobodies:1 secondary:1 note:1 external:1 mike:1 page:1 university:4 cambridge:1 month:1 discussion:1 data:1 bank:1 microbiology:1 textbook:1 south:1 carolina:1 hundred:1 oxford:1 lymphocytes:1 alive:1 fluorescent:1 library:1 birmingham:1 |@bigram bodily_fluid:1 immune_response:4 adaptive_immune:1 antigen_antibody:4 antigen_binding:5 igm_antibody:2 signal_transduction:1 micrometer_diameter:1 respiratory_tract:1 breast_milk:1 passive_immunity:3 humoral_immunity:3 placental_mammal:1 igg_igm:2 amino_acid:10 β_strand:1 polypeptide_chain:1 disulfide_bond:2 α_δ:2 δ_ε:1 cell_lysis:1 virus_capsid:1 capsid_protein:1 bone_marrow:1 randomly_select:1 antibody_antigen:3 helper_cell:1 epstein_barr:1 barr_virus:1 lyme_disease:1 clinical_immunology:1 autoimmune_disorder:1 hemolytic_anemia:1 blood_transfusion:1 infectious_disease:1 chorionic_gonadotropin:1 monoclonal_antibody:5 rheumatoid_arthritis:1 multiple_sclerosis:1 hodgkin_lymphoma:1 colorectal_cancer:1 breast_cancer:1 immune_deficiency:1 antigen_antigen:1 complication_pregnancy:1 goat_sheep:1 egg_yolk:1 affinity_chromatography:1 health_care:1 ray_crystallography:1 computational_modeling:1 paul_ehrlich:2 julian_voss:1 voss_andreae:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 vitruvian_man:1 von_behring:1 linus_pauling:1 nobel_prize:1 prize_physiology:1 physiology_medicine:1 allergic_reaction:1 immunosuppressive_drug:1 external_link:1 |
3,273 | Ken_Loach | Kenneth Loach (born 17 June 1936), commonly known as Ken Loach, is an English film and television director. He is known for his naturalistic, social realist directing style and for his socialist beliefs, which are evident in his film treatment of social issues such as homelessness (Cathy Come Home) and labour rights (Riff-Raff). Biography Loach was born in Nuneaton,Warwickshire, and attended King Edward VI Grammar School and following two years in the RAF read law at St Peter's College, Oxford. There he performed in the now well established comedy group, the Oxford Revue. He initially worked as an actor in repertory theatre, but in the early 1960s moved into television direction and was credited in this role on early episodes of Z-Cars in 1962. In 1966 Loach made the influential docu-drama Cathy Come Home portraying working class people affected by homelessness and unemployment, and presenting a powerful and influential critique of the workings of the Social Services. Soon afterwards with Poor Cow (1967) he started directing films for the cinema, and in 1969 made Kes, the story of a troubled boy and his kestrel, based on the novel A Kestrel for a Knave by Barry Hines. It probably remains his best known film in Britain. During the 1970s and '80s, Loach's films were less successful, often suffering from poor distribution, lack of interest and political censorship. His film The Save the Children Fund Film (1971) was commissioned by the charity, who subsequently disliked it so much they attempted to have the negative destroyed. It has never been shown in public. Loach was later commissioned by Channel 4 to make A Question of Leadership, a documentary series on the response of the British trade union movement to the challenge posed by the policies of the Thatcher government. However, the programme was not broadcast by Channel 4, a decision Loach claimed was politically motivated. Another film, "Which Side Are You On?" (1984) relating to the UK miners' strike, was commissioned by The South Bank Show, but also withdrawn before transmission. However, the 1990s saw the production of a series of critically acclaimed and popular films. During this period he was also awarded prizes at the Cannes Film Festival on three occasions. He directed the Courtroom Drama reconstructions in the Docu-film McLibel, concerning the longest libel trial in English history which became a promotional disaster for the fast food chain. On 28 May 2006, Loach won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival for his film The Wind That Shakes the Barley, a movie about the Irish War of Independence and the subsequent Irish Civil War during the 1920s. Loach lives with his family in Bath, England where he is a supporter of and shareholder in Bath City F.C. Film style Loach's film work is characterised by a particular view of realism; he strives in every area of filmmaking to emphasise genuine interplay between actors, to the point where some scenes in his films are unscripted. Rather than employing method actors, he prefers unknown talent who have had some of the actual life experience of the characters they portray - so much so that many professional actors aspiring to work with Loach will often pretend to be actual construction labourers or other working class types called for in his script. For Bread and Roses, he chose two leading actors who had experience of union organizing and life as an immigrant. The lead actress in the film, Pilar Padilla, actually had to learn English in order to play the part. He tries to make sure that actors express as genuinely as possible the feelings of their characters by filming the story in order and, crucially, not giving the actors the script until a few minutes before the filming. Frequently only some of the actors will know what is going to happen in a scene - the others will often, therefore, be able to express genuine surprise or sadness because they really are affected by the events of the scene. In Kes the boy actor, discovering the dead bird at the end, believed that the director had actually killed the bird that he had become quite close to during the filming (in fact he had used a dead bird found elsewhere). In Raining Stones one of the actresses visited at her house by a loan shark had no idea that he was going to force her to take off her wedding ring and give it to him as part payment. Ken Loach is a strong opponent of censorship within cinema and was outraged at the 18 certificate given to Sweet Sixteen. Loach himself said, Political activities A member of the Labour Party from the early 1960s, he left in the mid-1990s. Amy Raphael "The great crusader", New Statesman, 20 September 2007 In November 2004, he was elected to the national council of the Respect Coalition and has also stood for election to the European Parliament on a Respect mandate. He is a supporter of the Socialist Resistance organisation. In 2007, Loach was one of more than 100 artists and writers who signed an open letter initiated by Queers Undermining Israeli Terrorism and the South West Asian, North African Bay Area Queers (SWANABAQ) and calling on the San Francisco International LGBT Film Festival "to honour calls for an international boycott of Israeli political and cultural institutions, by discontinuing Israeli consulate sponsorship of the LGBT film festival and not cosponsoring events with the Israeli consulate." Matthew S. Bajko "Political Notebook: Queer activists reel over Israel, Frameline ties", Bay Area Reporter, 17 May 2007. "San Francisco Queers Say No Pride in Apartheid", The Electronic Intifada, 29 May 2007. Loach also joined "54 international figures in the literary and cultural fields" in signing a letter that stated, in part, "celebrating 'Israel at 60' is tantamount to dancing on Palestinian graves to the haunting tune of lingering dispossession and multi-faceted injustice". The letter was published in the International Herald Tribune on 8 May 2008.". "60 Years of Palestinian Dispossession . . . No Reason to Celebrate 'Israel at 60'!", Mr Zine (Monthly Review Press) website, 17 May 2008. Responding to a report, which he described as "a red herring", on the growth of Antisemitism since the beginning of the crisis in Gaza, he has said: "If there has been a rise I am not surprised. In fact, it is perfectly understandable because Israel feeds feelings of anti-Semitism." He added "no-one can condone violence". "EU-wide rise in anti-Semitism described as 'understandable'", EU Politics News, 4 March 2009 In May 2009, organizers of the Edinburgh International Film Festival have returned a grant from the Israeli Embassy under pressure from Ken Loach, after the director urged a boycott of the festival if the £300 grant, which was intended to enable Tali Shalom Ezer, a graduate of Tel Aviv University, to travel to Scotland for a screening of her film Surrogate, was accepted. In response, former Channel 4 chief executive Sir Jeremy Isaacs said: "Ken Loach has always been critical of censorship of his own work, albeit it was many years in the past. The idea that he should lend himself to the denial of a film-maker’s right to show her work is absolutely appalling." He was "equally horrified" that festival organisers should accept that Loach was speaking on behalf of all British film-makers. Describing Loach's intervention as an act of censorship, he said: "They must not allow someone who has no real position, no rock to stand on, to interfere with their programming." Later, a spokesman for the EIFF said that although it had returned £300 to the Israeli Embassy, the festival itself would fund Ms. Shalom-Ezer's travel to Edinburgh out of its own budget.<ref>Edinburgh film festival bows to pressure from Ken Loach over Israeli boycott , The Times], 20 may 2009</ref> Loach pressure sways Edinburgh festival Digital Spy, 20 May 2009. Edinburgh film festival refuses Israeli grant due to pressure by Ken Loach Haaretz, 20 May 2009. He is also a supporter of Chechen independence. Ken Loach and others "Letter: Chechnya needs a fair political settlement", The Guardian, 23 February 2009. Honours Loach turned down an OBE in 1977. In a Radio Times interview, published in March 2001, he said: "It's all the things I think are despicable: patronage, deferring to the monarchy and the name of the British Empire, which is a monument of exploitation and conquest." "Director Loach slams TV news", BBC News, 13 March 2001. In December 2003, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Birmingham. Oxford University awarded him an Honorary Doctor of Civil Law degree in June 2005. He is also an honorary fellow of his alma mater, St Peter's College, Oxford. Biography on Ken Loach's website. In May 2006, he was awarded the BAFTA Fellowship at the BAFTA TV Awards. References Filmography TelevisionZ Cars (series, 1962)Diary of a Young Man (1964) 3 Clear Sundays (1965) Up the Junction (1965) The End of Arthur's Marriage (1965) Coming Out Party (1965) Cathy Come Home (1966) (as Kenneth Loach) In Two Minds (1967) The Golden Vision (1968) The Big Flame (1969) The Rank and the File (1971) - part of the Play for Today series. After a Lifetime (1971) A Misfortune (1973) Days of Hope (mini-series, 1975) The Price of Coal (1977) Auditions (1980) A Question of Leadership (1981) The Red and the Blue: Impressions of Two Political Conferences - Autumn 1982 (1983) Questions of Leadership (1983) The View From the Woodpile (1989) CinemaPoor Cow (1967) Kes (1969) (as Kenneth Loach) The Save the Children Fund Film (1971)Family Life (1971) Black Jack (1979) The Gamekeeper (1980) Looks and Smiles (1981) (as Kenneth Loach) Which Side Are You On? (1984) Fatherland (1986) Hidden Agenda (1990). Cannes Special Jury Prize.Riff-Raff (1990).Raining Stones (1993). Cannes Special Jury Prize.Ladybird, Ladybird (1994) Land and Freedom (1995). FIPRESCI International Critics Prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the Cannes Film FestivalA Contemporary Case for Common Ownership (1995) Carla's Song (1996) The Flickering Flame (1997) My Name Is Joe (1998) Bread and Roses (2000) The Navigators (2001) Sweet Sixteen (2002) 11'9"01 September 11 (segment "United Kingdom") (2002) Ae Fond Kiss... (2004)Tickets (2005), along with Ermanno Olmi and Abbas KiarostamiThe Wind That Shakes the Barley (2006) Palme d'Or, CannesIt's a Free World... (2007) Screenplay Osella at 64th Venice Film FestivalLooking for Eric (2009) External links Ken Loach - Production Company and DVD box set Ken Loach Filmography Extensive Ken Loach Biography and Filmography Interview with Loach about My Name is Joe Interview with Loach from 1996 about Land and Freedom Interview with Loach from 1998 A biography Posters and Stills Gallery from the BFI Interview: Ken Loach about Media, Culture and the Prospects for a New Liberatory Project, Democracy & Nature'', Vol. 5, No.1 (March 1999). [Ken Loach was interviewed by Theodoros Papadopoulos in December 1998]. Critical article of Ken Loach containing some information about his background. A study of some major themes in Ken Loach's filmography | Ken_Loach |@lemmatized kenneth:4 loach:39 born:1 june:2 commonly:1 know:4 ken:15 english:3 film:29 television:2 director:4 naturalistic:1 social:3 realist:1 direct:3 style:2 socialist:2 belief:1 evident:1 treatment:1 issue:1 homelessness:2 cathy:3 come:4 home:3 labour:2 right:2 riff:2 raff:2 biography:4 bear:1 nuneaton:1 warwickshire:1 attend:1 king:1 edward:1 vi:1 grammar:1 school:1 follow:1 two:4 year:3 raf:1 read:1 law:2 st:2 peter:2 college:2 oxford:4 perform:1 well:1 establish:1 comedy:1 group:1 revue:1 initially:1 work:7 actor:9 repertory:1 theatre:1 early:3 move:1 direction:1 credit:1 role:1 episode:1 z:1 car:2 make:4 influential:2 docu:2 drama:2 portraying:1 class:2 people:1 affect:2 unemployment:1 present:1 powerful:1 critique:1 working:1 service:1 soon:1 afterwards:1 poor:2 cow:2 start:1 cinema:2 kes:3 story:2 troubled:1 boy:2 kestrel:2 base:1 novel:1 knave:1 barry:1 hines:1 probably:1 remain:1 best:1 britain:1 less:1 successful:1 often:3 suffer:1 distribution:1 lack:1 interest:1 political:6 censorship:4 save:2 child:2 fund:3 commission:3 charity:1 subsequently:1 dislike:1 much:2 attempt:1 negative:1 destroyed:1 never:1 show:3 public:1 later:2 channel:3 question:3 leadership:3 documentary:1 series:5 response:2 british:3 trade:1 union:2 movement:1 challenge:1 pose:1 policy:1 thatcher:1 government:1 however:2 programme:1 broadcast:1 decision:1 claim:1 politically:1 motivate:1 another:1 side:2 relate:1 uk:1 miner:1 strike:1 south:2 bank:1 also:6 withdraw:1 transmission:1 saw:1 production:2 critically:1 acclaim:1 popular:1 period:1 award:5 prize:5 cannes:5 festival:11 three:1 occasion:1 courtroom:1 reconstruction:1 mclibel:1 concern:1 long:1 libel:1 trial:1 history:1 become:2 promotional:1 disaster:1 fast:1 food:1 chain:1 may:10 win:1 palme:2 wind:2 shake:2 barley:2 movie:1 irish:2 war:2 independence:2 subsequent:1 civil:2 live:1 family:2 bath:2 england:1 supporter:3 shareholder:1 city:1 f:1 c:1 characterise:1 particular:1 view:2 realism:1 strive:1 every:1 area:3 filmmaking:1 emphasise:1 genuine:2 interplay:1 point:1 scene:3 unscripted:1 rather:1 employ:1 method:1 prefer:1 unknown:1 talent:1 actual:2 life:3 experience:2 character:2 portray:1 many:2 professional:1 aspire:1 pretend:1 construction:1 labourer:1 type:1 call:3 script:2 bread:2 rose:2 choose:1 leading:1 organizing:1 immigrant:1 lead:1 actress:2 pilar:1 padilla:1 actually:2 learn:1 order:2 play:2 part:4 try:1 sure:1 express:2 genuinely:1 possible:1 feeling:2 crucially:1 give:3 minute:1 filming:2 frequently:1 go:2 happen:1 others:2 therefore:1 able:1 surprise:1 sadness:1 really:1 event:2 discover:1 dead:2 bird:3 end:2 believe:1 kill:1 quite:1 close:1 fact:2 use:1 find:1 elsewhere:1 rain:2 stone:2 one:3 visit:1 house:1 loan:1 shark:1 idea:2 force:1 take:1 wedding:1 ring:1 payment:1 strong:1 opponent:1 within:1 outrage:1 certificate:1 sweet:2 sixteen:2 say:7 activity:1 member:1 party:2 leave:1 mid:1 amy:1 raphael:1 great:1 crusader:1 new:2 statesman:1 september:2 november:1 elect:1 national:1 council:1 respect:2 coalition:1 stand:2 election:1 european:1 parliament:1 mandate:1 resistance:1 organisation:1 artist:1 writer:1 sign:2 open:1 letter:4 initiate:1 queer:4 undermine:1 israeli:8 terrorism:1 west:1 asian:1 north:1 african:1 bay:2 swanabaq:1 san:2 francisco:2 international:6 lgbt:2 honour:2 boycott:3 cultural:2 institution:1 discontinue:1 consulate:2 sponsorship:1 cosponsor:1 matthew:1 bajko:1 notebook:1 activist:1 reel:1 israel:4 frameline:1 tie:1 reporter:1 pride:1 apartheid:1 electronic:1 intifada:1 join:1 figure:1 literary:1 field:1 state:1 celebrate:2 tantamount:1 dance:1 palestinian:2 graf:1 haunt:1 tune:1 linger:1 dispossession:2 multi:1 faceted:1 injustice:1 publish:2 herald:1 tribune:1 reason:1 mr:1 zine:1 monthly:1 review:1 press:1 website:2 respond:1 report:1 describe:3 red:2 herring:1 growth:1 antisemitism:1 since:1 beginning:1 crisis:1 gaza:1 rise:2 surprised:1 perfectly:1 understandable:2 feed:1 anti:2 semitism:2 add:1 condone:1 violence:1 eu:2 wide:1 politics:1 news:3 march:4 organizer:1 edinburgh:5 return:2 grant:3 embassy:2 pressure:4 urge:1 intend:1 enable:1 tali:1 shalom:2 ezer:2 graduate:1 tel:1 aviv:1 university:3 travel:2 scotland:1 screening:1 surrogate:1 accept:2 former:1 chief:1 executive:1 sir:1 jeremy:1 isaac:1 always:1 critical:2 albeit:1 past:1 lend:1 denial:1 maker:2 absolutely:1 appalling:1 equally:1 horrified:1 organiser:1 speak:1 behalf:1 intervention:1 act:1 must:1 allow:1 someone:1 real:1 position:1 rock:1 interfere:1 programming:1 spokesman:1 eiff:1 although:1 would:1 budget:1 ref:2 bow:1 time:2 sway:1 digital:1 spy:1 refuse:1 due:1 haaretz:1 chechen:1 chechnya:1 need:1 fair:1 settlement:1 guardian:1 february:1 turn:1 obe:1 radio:1 interview:6 thing:1 think:1 despicable:1 patronage:1 defer:1 monarchy:1 name:3 empire:1 monument:1 exploitation:1 conquest:1 slam:1 tv:2 bbc:1 december:2 honorary:3 doctorate:1 birmingham:1 doctor:1 degree:1 fellow:1 alma:1 mater:1 bafta:2 fellowship:1 reference:1 filmography:4 televisionz:1 diary:1 young:1 man:1 clear:1 sunday:1 junction:1 arthur:1 marriage:1 mind:1 golden:1 vision:1 big:1 flame:2 rank:1 file:1 today:1 lifetime:1 misfortune:1 day:1 hope:1 mini:1 price:1 coal:1 audition:1 blue:1 impression:1 conference:1 autumn:1 woodpile:1 cinemapoor:1 black:1 jack:1 gamekeeper:1 look:1 smile:1 fatherland:1 hide:1 agenda:1 special:2 jury:3 ladybird:2 land:2 freedom:2 fipresci:1 critic:1 ecumenical:1 festivala:1 contemporary:1 case:1 common:1 ownership:1 carla:1 song:1 flickering:1 joe:2 navigator:1 segment:1 united:1 kingdom:1 ae:1 fond:1 kiss:1 ticket:1 along:1 ermanno:1 olmi:1 abbas:1 kiarostamithe:1 cannesit:1 free:1 world:1 screenplay:1 osella:1 venice:1 festivallooking:1 eric:1 external:1 link:1 company:1 dvd:1 box:1 set:1 extensive:1 poster:1 still:1 gallery:1 bfi:1 medium:1 culture:1 prospect:1 liberatory:1 project:1 democracy:1 nature:1 vol:1 theodoros:1 papadopoulos:1 article:1 contain:1 information:1 background:1 study:1 major:1 theme:1 |@bigram ken_loach:15 riff_raff:2 repertory_theatre:1 docu_drama:1 soon_afterwards:1 politically_motivate:1 critically_acclaim:1 cannes_film:3 courtroom_drama:1 win_palme:1 palme_cannes:1 san_francisco:2 multi_faceted:1 herald_tribune:1 red_herring:1 anti_semitism:2 tel_aviv:1 bbc_news:1 honorary_doctorate:1 alma_mater:1 jury_cannes:1 external_link:1 |
3,274 | Occidental_language | The language Occidental, later Interlingue, is a planned language created by the Balto-German naval officer and teacher Edgar de Wahl and published in 1922. Occidental is devised with great care to ensure that many of its derived word forms reflect the similar forms common to a number of Western European languages. This was done through application of de Wahl's rule which is actually a small set of rules for converting verb infinitives into derived nouns and adjectives. The result is a language relatively easy to understand at first sight for individuals acquainted with several Western European languages. Coupled with a simplified grammar, this made Occidental exceptionally popular in Europe during the 15 years before World War II, and it is believed that it was at its height the fourth most popular planned language, after Volapük, Esperanto and perhaps Ido in order of appearance. But some have believed that its intentional emphasis on European forms coupled with a Eurocentric philosophy espoused by several of its leading lights hindered its spread elsewhere. Harlow, Don. The Esperanto Book, chapter 3: "How to Build a Language". Still, Occidental gained adherents in many nations including Asian nations. Before WWII it had grown to become the second largest international auxiliary language in numbers of adherents, after Esperanto. Esperantists at the time claimed Occidental had at least 2,000,000 adherents. Also, a majority of Ido adherents took up Occidental in place of Ido. Cosmoglotta, October 1928, Num. 53(10), p. 142, 149-152, Ido-Congress in Zürich. Occidental survived World War II, undergoing a name change to Interlingue, but gradually faded into insignificance following the appearance of a competing naturalistic project, Interlingua, in the early 1950s. However, today with the emergence of the Internet, Occidental is once again increasing in popularity. Alphabet and pronunciation The alphabet of Occidental is: A(a), B(be), C(ce), D(de), E(e), F(ef), G(ge), H(ha), I(i), J(jot), K(ka), L(el), M(em), N(en), O(o), P(pe), Q(qu), R(er), S(es), T(te), U(u), V(ve), W(duplic ve), X(ix), Y(ypsilon), Z(zet) Pronunciation: a - like father. IPA: c - before e, i, y it is ts, otherwise k. IPA: & respectively cc - before e, i, y it is kt͡s, otherwise geminated k. IPA: & respectively ch - like English sh; ch in church is also permitted but not preferred. IPA: & respectively g - like English j before e, i, y, otherwise it's hard. IPA: & respectively gg - like English j before e, i, y , otherwise a geminated g. IPA: & respectively gu - before vowels gw, otherwise gu. IPA: & respectively j - just like English. IPA: ni - before vowels like Spanish ñ, otherwise ni. IPA: & respectively ph - f qu - same as English. IPA: s - between vowels z, otherwise s. IPA: & respectively sh - English sh. IPA: sch - English sh. IPA: t - plus i and another vowel, it is like s (Such as in French), otherwise t. IPA: & respectively th - same as English. IPA: w - same as English. IPA: y - same as English. IPA: zz - tts. IPA: Example texts Li Patre nor, the Lord's Prayer, in Interlingue (ex Occidental): See also Indo-European languages Resume de gramatica de Interlingue (Occidental) in Interlingue, (e demonstration de leibilita!) Li Europan lingues Interlingua Ric Berger References External links Cosmoglotta Biblioteca- Preservation of Occidental texts. (Free registration required.) A wiki with Occidental info.Auli-Occidental Wiki William Patterson's Occidental Pages - Including the classic text Ex li paper-corb by Farfarello, from Cosmoglotta # 118, November/December 1937. An English translation of the Haas Occidental grammar, by Dave MacLeod November:Interlingue (Occidental) lingue | Occidental_language |@lemmatized language:9 occidental:17 later:1 interlingue:6 planned:2 create:1 balto:1 german:1 naval:1 officer:1 teacher:1 edgar:1 de:6 wahl:2 publish:1 devise:1 great:1 care:1 ensure:1 many:2 derive:2 word:1 form:3 reflect:1 similar:1 common:1 number:2 western:2 european:4 application:1 rule:2 actually:1 small:1 set:1 convert:1 verb:1 infinitive:1 noun:1 adjective:1 result:1 relatively:1 easy:1 understand:1 first:1 sight:1 individual:1 acquaint:1 several:2 couple:2 simplified:1 grammar:2 make:1 exceptionally:1 popular:2 europe:1 year:1 world:2 war:2 ii:2 believe:2 height:1 fourth:1 volapük:1 esperanto:3 perhaps:1 ido:4 order:1 appearance:2 intentional:1 emphasis:1 eurocentric:1 philosophy:1 espouse:1 leading:1 light:1 hinder:1 spread:1 elsewhere:1 harlow:1 book:1 chapter:1 build:1 still:1 gain:1 adherent:4 nation:2 include:2 asian:1 wwii:1 grow:1 become:1 second:1 large:1 international:1 auxiliary:1 esperantists:1 time:1 claim:1 least:1 also:3 majority:1 take:1 place:1 cosmoglotta:3 october:1 num:1 p:2 congress:1 zürich:1 survive:1 undergo:1 name:1 change:1 gradually:1 fade:1 insignificance:1 follow:1 compete:1 naturalistic:1 project:1 interlingua:2 early:1 however:1 today:1 emergence:1 internet:1 increase:1 popularity:1 alphabet:2 pronunciation:2 b:1 c:2 ce:1 e:7 f:2 ef:1 g:3 ge:1 h:1 ha:1 j:4 jot:1 k:3 ka:1 l:1 el:1 em:1 n:1 en:1 pe:1 q:1 qu:2 r:1 er:1 es:1 te:1 u:2 v:1 w:2 duplic:1 x:1 ix:1 ypsilon:1 z:2 zet:1 like:7 father:1 ipa:18 ts:1 otherwise:8 respectively:9 cc:1 kt:1 geminate:1 ch:2 english:11 sh:4 church:1 permit:1 preferred:1 hard:1 gg:1 geminated:1 gu:2 vowel:4 gw:1 ni:2 spanish:1 ñ:1 ph:1 sch:1 plus:1 another:1 french:1 th:1 zz:1 tt:1 example:1 text:3 li:3 patre:1 lord:1 prayer:1 ex:2 see:1 indo:1 resume:1 gramatica:1 demonstration:1 leibilita:1 europan:1 lingues:1 ric:1 berger:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 biblioteca:1 preservation:1 free:1 registration:1 require:1 wiki:2 info:1 auli:1 william:1 patterson:1 page:1 classic:1 paper:1 corb:1 farfarello:1 november:2 december:1 translation:1 haas:1 dave:1 macleod:1 lingue:1 |@bigram noun_adjective:1 indo_european:1 external_link:1 |
3,275 | Jewish_views_on_marriage | Jozef Israëls: A Jewish wedding 1903 Judaism traditionally considers marriage to be the ideal state of personal existence; a man without a wife, or a woman without a husband, is considered incomplete. Babylonian Talmud - Yebomoth 62b. Betrothal (shiddukhin) In Jewish law (halakha), betrothal () or engagement is defined as the mutual promise between a man and a woman to contract a marriage at some future time and the formulation of the terms on which it shall take place. The Principles of Jewish Law, Ed Menachem Elon, ISBN 0-7065-1415-7, p 353. The promise may be made by the intending parties or one made by their respective parents or other relatives on their behalf. (Kiddushin 9b) The betrothal does not in itself affect the personal status of the parties, nor does it give either party the right to claim specific performance. Traditionally, engagements for marriage are generally brought about by a third person, often a professional match-maker ("shadchan"). The process is called Shidduchim (). The shadchan receives a "brokerage-fee" fixed by law or agreed upon by custom, as a rule a small percentage of the dowry. It is paid by either of the parties, or each paid one-half, at the betrothal or after the wedding. The rabbi, as a person enjoying special confidence, is sometimes employed as an intermediary. Although the marriage preliminaries are the concern of the parents, their children are not forced into marriage over their objections, nor may a marriage be blocked as a result of the objections of one's parents. The Shidduchim system is therefore a system of arranged introductions rather than arranged marriages although in some traditional circles it comes to a system of arranged marriages. Today, in some orthodox circles many young people find their marriage partners without their parents' involvement, and even if they do follow the shidduch system, many engaged couples do not enter into formal betrothals. However, the parents of the couple are still usually involved in the marriage arrangements. Marriage (kiddushin and nissu'in) In Jewish law, marriage consists of two separate acts, called kiddushin (or erusin, the engagement ceremony) and nissu'in, the actual wedding. Kiddushin changes the couple's personal status, while nissu'in brings about the legal consequences of the change of status. In Talmudic times, these two ceremonies usually took place about a year apart. The bride lived with her parents until the actual marriage ceremony, which would take place in a room or tent that the groom had set up for her. Later in history, the two ceremonies took place as a combined ceremony, and the marriage ceremony started to be performed publicly. There are three ways for a Jewish couple to effect kiddushin (Mishna, Tractate Kiddushin 1:1): With money (kesef) or with an object of value, such as a ring or a coin, for the purpose of contracted marriage, and in the presence of two witnesses, and she actively accepts; Through a contract (shtar) in the presence of two witnesses, containing the declaration of kiddushin (see below); or By sexual intercourse with the intention of creating a bond of marriage; a method strongly discouraged by the rabbinic sages and intended only for levirate marriages. Though all methods are halachically valid, the favoured practice since ancient times has been for kiddushin to take place only with kesef (i.e. "with money") - giving an object of value - which is almost always a ring, but can be a coin. Halachically, a Jewish marriage is a personal act between a man and a woman. The actual marriage is the declaration of marriage (consecration) by the man and acceptance by the woman. The function of the rabbi is to act as the advisor to the couple, and the guests are the witnesses. The civil law of many countries requires the rabbi also to act as an agent for the State during the marriage ceremony, and for two independent witnesses to sign the wedding certificate. Wedding A traditional Jewish wedding in Eastern Europe in the 19th century. Syrian Jews at a wedding celebration in Aleppo 1904 The traditional Jewish wedding is based on the Jewish principles of contract and the transfer of property or of rights. Most Jewish marriages today use kesef ("money") for kiddushin. This involves the groom placing a ring on the bride's right index finger. The acceptance of the ring by the bride will indicate her agreement to the marriage. Traditionally there is no requirement for a verbal response by the bride. It is adequate that she signifies acceptance by closing the hand with the ring. A ketubah is read publicly and witnesses are required for both the signing of the ketubah and the ceremony. The woman in turn accepts the ring from the man, accepts the terms of the marriage contained in a ketubah ("marriage contract"). At the giving of the ring the groom (chatan) makes a declaration: Often, the two witnesses who sign the ketubah say aloud "Mekudeshet". Finally the couple are joined in matrimony under the chuppah, in the ceremony of nissuin, symbolizing their setting up house together. Very often the huppah is made of an outstretched tallit (Jewish prayer shawl), but it can be any sort of canopy. The ceremony reaches its climax with both the bride and groom drinking wine. The groom then steps on a glass to break it. The origin of this custom is shrouded in mystery, and various understandings of this custom exist: The source seems to be from the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Berakhot 31a; it has a story about the wedding of Rav Ashi's son. When the celebrants began to get carried away, Rav Ashi brought out and broke a crystal glass in front of them. The interpretation by the Tosafot (early medieval Talmudic commentators) is that even during moments of great celebration, one must maintain proper decorum. It may be related to the belief that it is best to temper one's joy, in order to avert inviting bad fortune. The breaking of the glass represents the Jewish community's continuing sorrow of the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem; no celebration is totally complete without the Temple. Among Kabbalists (adherents of Jewish mysticism), this custom is said to be a reminder of the broken fragments of Creation, and our need to engage in Tikkun Olam, the repairing of the world on a spiritual level. Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism have created new customs governing the wedding ceremony. Today, most non-orthodox Jewish women respond by giving a ring to the groom, and recite an appropriate passage, such as the famous verse from the Song of Songs, Ani l'dodi v'dodi Li ("I am for my beloved, and my beloved is for me", Song of Songs - ). Objections to the Talmudic formulation center around the idea that marriage is the acquisition of a woman by a man. Chuppah An elaborate chupah at the Sixth & I Synagogue in Washington D.C. Orthodox Jewish wedding with chupah in Vienna's first district, close to Judengasse, 2007. A chuppah (the Jewish wedding canopy) has become a traditional feature in Jewish weddings. It consists of a cloth or sheet — sometimes a tallit ("prayer shawl") — stretched or supported over four poles, and is sometimes held or carried by attendants to the ceremony location. The most popular explanation is that it symbolizes the home which the couple will build together. A traditional chuppah, especially within Orthodox Judaism, is set up so that there is open sky exactly above the chuppah. If the wedding ceremony is held indoors in a hall or a synagogue, sometimes a special opening is built to be opened during the ceremony. Many Hasidim prefer to conduct the entire ceremony outdoors. In a spiritual sense, the covering of the chuppah is meant to represent the presence of God over the covenant of marriage. As a man's kipa (skull cap) served as a reminder of the Creator above all, (also a symbol of separation from God), so the chuppah was erected to signify that the ceremony and institution of marriage has divine origins. Before going under the chuppah the groom, amidst joyous singing of the guests, covers the bride's face with a veil. This ceremony is called Badeken or Bedekung (meaning "the covering"). The origin of this tradition is in the dispute of what exactly is the chuppah. There are opinions that the chuppah means covering the bride's face, and that by this covering the couple is getting married. This opinion is based on : "Then she took her veil and covered herself" in which Rebekah meets Isaac. Some are strict to make sure that the witnesses will see the covering, for them to actually be considered as witnessing the marriage. The Ketubah A modern Jewish ketubah. The ketubah (the Jewish marriage contract) has become another feature of Jewish marriages. It lays out rights of the wife (to monetary payments upon termination of the marriage by death or divorce), and obligations of the husband (providing food, shelter, clothing, and sexual satisfaction to the wife). The over-riding purpose of the ketubah is the protection of the wife in the event of her financial support ceasing as a result of divorce or the death of the economic breadwinner. The rabbis in ancient times used to prohibit the marriage of the woman "without the protection of the ketubah". The amount stipulated in the ketubah is a replacement of the biblical dower or bride price, which was payable at the time of the marriage by the groom to the bride or her parents. See also and . The ketubah became a mechanism whereby the amount due to the wife (the dower) came to be paid in the event of the cessation of marriage, either by the death of the husband or divorce. It may be noted that the biblical bride price created a major social problem: many young prospective husbands could not raise the bride price at the time when they would normally be expected to marry. So, to enable these young men to marry, the rabbis, in effect, delayed the time that the amount would be payable, when they would be more likely to have the sum. The mechanism adopted was to provide for the bride price to be a part of the ketubah. The ketubah amount served the same purpose as the dower: the protection for the wife should her support (either by death or divorce) cease. The only difference between the two systems was the timing of the payment. It is the predecessor to the wife's present-day entitlement to maintenance in the event of the breakup of marriage. Another function performed by the ketubah amount was to provide a disincentive for the husband contemplating divorcing his wife: he would need to have the amount to be able to pay to the wife. Nowadays, Conservative Judaism incorporates in their ketubot a paragraph which allows, as an option as a "prenuptial agreement", a directive that if the couple ever gets a civil (non-religious) divorce, they must also go to a Bet Din ("Rabbinical court") and follow its directives, which may order the husband to give his wife a get, a Jewish divorce. This is known as the "Lieberman Clause." Matrimony Marital harmony Marital harmony, known as "shalom bayit," is valued in Jewish tradition. Sexual relations Sexual relations are expected between husband and wife. This obligation is known as "onah." Judaism 101: Kosher Sex A husband is responsible for providing his wife with sexual relations (Ex. 21:10), as well as anything else specified in the ketubah. On the other hand, a wife may not withhold sex or use sex as a negotiating ploy. If a man wishes to fulfill his duty, the woman must comply. See section: The Marital Relationship , Ritual purity in family life The laws of "family purity" (taharas hamishpacha) are considered an important part of an Orthodox Jewish marriage. This involves observance of the various details of the menstrual niddah laws. Orthodox brides and grooms often attend classes on this subject prior to the wedding. Controversy over intermarriage According to the National Jewish Population Survey 2000-01, 47% of marriages involving Jews in the United States between 1996 and 2001 were with non-Jewish partners. Rates of intermarriage have increased in other countries in the diaspora as well. Jewish leaders in different branches generally agree that possible assimilation is a crisis, but they differ on the proper response to intermarriage. All branches of Orthodox Judaism refuse to accept any validity or legitimacy of intermarriages. Conservative Judaism does not sanction intermarriage, but encourages acceptance of the non-Jewish spouse within the family, hoping that such acceptance will lead to conversion. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism permit total personal autonomy in interpretation of Jewish Law, and intermarriage is not discouraged. Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis are free to take their own approach to performing marriages between a Jewish and non-Jewish partner. Many but not all seek agreement from the couple that the children will be raised as Jewish. There are also differences between streams on what constitutes an intermarriage, arising from their differing criteria for being Jewish in the first place. Orthodox and Conservative streams do not accept as Jewish a person whose mother is not Jewish, nor a convert whose conversion was conducted under the authority of a more liberal stream. Marriage in Israel Civil marriage does not exist in Israel, and the only institutionalized form of Jewish marriage is the religious one, i.e. a marriage conducted under the auspices of the rabbinate. Specifically, marriage of Israeli Jews must be conducted according to halakha, as viewed by Orthodox Judaism. This implies that people who cannot get married according to Jewish law (e.g. a kohen and a divorcée, or a Jew and one who is not halachically Jewish) cannot have their union legally sanctioned. This has led for calls, mostly from the secular segment of the Israeli public, for the institution of civil marriage. There are many people affected by this law. In the Land of Israel today, there are approximately "300,000 Israelis who cannot marry because one of the partners is not Jewish, or his or her Jewishness cannot be determined." Some secular Israelis travel abroad to have civil marriages, either because they do not believe in the Orthodox view of Judaism or because their union cannot be sanctioned by halakha. These marriages are legally binding in Israel, though not recognized by the rabbinate as Jewish. While people of different religions may be citizens of the State of Israel, all legal marriages performed in Israel must be sanctioned by religious authorities of one faith or another. Couples of mixed religion, for example a Christian and a Jew, or a Muslim and a Jew, cannot legally marry in Israel. Divorce Orthodox Judaism Halakha (Jewish law) allows for divorce. The document of divorce is termed a get.The final divorce ceremony involves the husband giving the get document into the hand of the wife or her agent, but the wife may sue in rabbinical court to initiate the divorce. In such a case, a husband may be compelled to give the get, if he has violated any of his numerous obligations; this was traditionally accomplished by beating and or monetary coercion. The rationale was that since he was required to divorce his wife due to his (or her) violations of the contract, his good inclination really desires to divorce her, and we are only helping him to do what he wants to do anyway. In this case, the wife may or may not be entitled to a ketuba payment. Traditionally, when a husband fled, and could not be found, a woman was considered an agunah (literally “an anchored woman”) because her husband could not be compelled to divorce her. Recently, as a result of the haredi movement’s increasing dominance of religious law, there has been a general rejection of any sort of coercion, even that which is halachically mandated, unless it was his wife’s violation of the contract. As a result of this, there are women who cannot remarry because their husbands refuse them gittin, and the term “aguna” is now applied to them too. Even rabbanim who will use coercion when demanded by halacha, cannot because, since the enlightenment, local Jewish communities have lost their autonomous status and were assimilated into the nation in which they lived, and Jewish authorities lost their civil powers to enforce Jewish marriage and divorce laws. However, this change resulted in rabbis losing the power to force a man to give his wife a get, and Jewish law does not allow a woman to give a get to the husband. Without a get, a Jewish woman is forbidden to remarry and is therefore called an agunah (literally "an anchored woman"). Judaism recognized the right of an abused wife (rather physically or psychologically) to a divorce already by around the 12th century. Conservative Judaism Conservative Judaism follows halacha, though differently then Orthodox Judaism. The Conservative movement allows certain changes to be made in the Ketubah (wedding document) to make it egalitarian, though this is controversial. Both Conservative and Orthodox traditions have approaches to prevent the possibility that a woman might not be able to obtain a Jewish divorce from her husband. Conservative Judaism adds a clause in the ketuba to prevent any possibility of the woman ever becoming agunah (famously known as "the Lieberman clause"); Orthodox approaches favour the use of arbitration and pre-nuptial agreements After doing research on this problem in conjunction with other rabbis, Professor Lieberman developed what came to be called "the Lieberman clause", a clause added to the ketubah (Jewish wedding document). In effect it was an arbitration agreement used in the case of a divorce; if the marriage dissolved and the woman was refused a get from her husband, both the husband and wife had to go to a rabbinic court authorized by the Jewish Theological Seminary of America and heed their directives, which could (and usually did) include ordering the man to give his wife a get. At the time this clause was proposed it has some support in the Modern Orthodox community, and Orthodox leader Joseph Soloveitchik gave this proposal his approval. They began work on a joint rabbinic committee that would insure objective standards of marriage and divorce for both Orthodox and Conservative Judaism. However, objections from ultra-Orthodox rabbis torpedoed this effort at cooperation, and the proposed joint effort faltered. Most of Orthodox Judaism then rejected the Lieberman clause as a violation of Jewish law, and have devised a separate prenuptial agreement external to the ketubah which has a similar effect - this agreement states that if the husband refuses to grant the get, he will be required to pay an enormous ongoing fee until he grants the get. This agreement is done in such a way that the husband, upon granting the get, will not be considered to have done so under duress (which would invalidate the get), but instead he has a free-will choice to either grant the get or keep paying money (but the fee is usually large enough that he effectively has no choice but to grant the get, unless he wishes to go bankrupt). In addition, this agreement is considered a legal contract by civil courts, so that if the husband refuses to pay the money or grant the get, and the rabbinical courts are unable to enforce the agreement, the civil courts can enforce it. There are sources for this in ancient Tenayim documents. In a recent development the Rabbinical Assembly, the international assembly of Conservative rabbis, has also promoted the use of a separate prenuptuial agreement, to be used in place of the Lieberman clause. This is not because they have concerns about its legitimacy, but rather about its practical effectiveness. Neither of these arrangements, however, address the agunah problem in the case of a missing husband. Reform Judaism Reform Jews usually use an egalitarian form of the Ketubah at their weddings. They generally do not issue Jewish divorces, seeing a civil divorce as both necessary and sufficient; however, some Reform rabbis encourage the couple to go through a Jewish divorce procedure. Conservative and Orthodox Judaism do not recognize civil law as overriding religious law, and thus do not view a civil divorce as sufficient. Thus, a man or woman may be considered divorced by the Reform Jewish community, but still married by the Orthodox or Conservative community. See also Judaism's view Women in Judaism Shidduch (finding a marriage partner) Shalom bayit (peace and harmony in the relationship between husband and wife) Niddah (rutual purity laws) Tzniut (modest behavior) Yichud (prohibitions of seclusion with the opposite sex) Negiah (guidelines for physical contact) Rebbetzin (rabbi's wife) beshert (a person's destined soul mate) Jewish wedding Non-Jewish views Religious aspects of marriage Buddhist view of marriage Christian views of marriage Confucian view of marriage Islamic marital jurisprudence Hindu teaching and customs of marriage References External links The Jewish Wedding on Chabad.org Brief explanation of Jewish wedding Guide to Jewish Weddings Brief overview of Orthodox jewish wedding An explanation of the laws and customs of a Jewish Wedding | Jewish_views_on_marriage |@lemmatized jozef:1 israëls:1 jewish:59 wedding:19 judaism:24 traditionally:5 consider:8 marriage:57 ideal:1 state:5 personal:5 existence:1 man:11 without:6 wife:24 woman:20 husband:22 incomplete:1 babylonian:2 talmud:2 yebomoth:1 betrothal:5 shiddukhin:1 law:19 halakha:4 engagement:3 define:1 mutual:1 promise:2 contract:8 future:1 time:8 formulation:2 term:4 shall:1 take:7 place:8 principle:2 ed:1 menachem:1 elon:1 isbn:1 p:1 may:12 make:7 intending:1 party:4 one:9 respective:1 parent:7 relative:1 behalf:1 kiddushin:9 affect:2 status:4 give:11 either:6 right:5 claim:1 specific:1 performance:1 generally:3 bring:2 third:1 person:4 often:4 professional:1 match:1 maker:1 shadchan:2 process:1 call:6 shidduchim:2 receive:1 brokerage:1 fee:3 fix:1 agree:2 upon:3 custom:7 rule:1 small:1 percentage:1 dowry:1 pay:7 half:1 rabbi:12 enjoy:1 special:2 confidence:1 sometimes:4 employ:1 intermediary:1 although:2 preliminary:1 concern:2 child:2 force:2 objection:4 block:1 result:5 system:5 therefore:2 arranged:2 introduction:1 rather:3 arrange:1 traditional:5 circle:2 come:3 today:4 orthodox:22 many:7 young:3 people:4 find:3 partner:5 involvement:1 even:4 follow:3 shidduch:2 engage:2 couple:12 enter:1 formal:1 however:5 still:2 usually:5 involve:5 arrangement:2 nissu:3 consists:1 two:8 separate:3 act:4 erusin:1 ceremony:18 actual:3 change:4 brings:1 legal:3 consequence:1 talmudic:3 year:1 apart:1 bride:13 live:2 would:7 room:1 tent:1 groom:9 set:3 later:1 history:1 combined:1 start:1 perform:4 publicly:2 three:1 way:2 effect:4 mishna:1 tractate:2 money:5 kesef:3 object:2 value:3 ring:8 coin:2 purpose:3 contracted:1 presence:3 witness:8 actively:1 accept:5 shtar:1 contain:2 declaration:3 see:6 sexual:5 intercourse:1 intention:1 create:3 bond:1 method:2 strongly:1 discourage:2 rabbinic:3 sage:1 intend:1 levirate:1 though:4 halachically:4 valid:1 favoured:1 practice:1 since:3 ancient:3 e:3 almost:1 always:1 consecration:1 acceptance:5 function:2 advisor:1 guest:2 civil:11 country:2 require:4 also:7 agent:2 independent:1 sign:2 certificate:1 wed:5 eastern:1 europe:1 century:2 syrian:1 jew:6 celebration:3 aleppo:1 base:2 transfer:1 property:1 use:9 index:1 finger:1 indicate:1 agreement:11 requirement:1 verbal:1 response:2 adequate:1 signify:2 close:2 hand:3 ketubah:19 read:1 signing:1 turn:1 chatan:1 say:2 aloud:1 mekudeshet:1 finally:1 join:1 matrimony:2 chuppah:10 nissuin:1 symbolize:2 house:1 together:2 huppah:1 outstretched:1 tallit:2 prayer:2 shawl:2 sort:2 canopy:2 reach:1 climax:1 drinking:1 wine:1 step:1 glass:3 break:2 origin:3 shroud:1 mystery:1 various:2 understanding:1 exist:2 source:2 seem:1 berakhot:1 story:1 rav:2 ashi:2 son:1 celebrant:1 begin:2 get:20 carry:2 away:1 crystal:1 front:1 interpretation:2 tosafot:1 early:1 medieval:1 commentator:1 moment:1 great:1 must:5 maintain:1 proper:2 decorum:1 relate:1 belief:1 best:1 temper:1 joy:1 order:3 avert:1 invite:1 bad:1 fortune:1 breaking:1 represent:2 community:5 continue:1 sorrow:1 destruction:1 temple:2 jerusalem:1 totally:1 complete:1 among:1 kabbalist:1 adherent:1 mysticism:1 reminder:2 broken:1 fragment:1 creation:1 need:2 tikkun:1 olam:1 repairing:1 world:1 spiritual:2 level:1 conservative:13 reform:7 new:1 govern:1 non:6 respond:1 recite:1 appropriate:1 passage:1 famous:1 verse:1 song:4 ani:1 l:1 dodi:2 v:1 li:1 beloved:2 center:1 around:2 idea:1 acquisition:1 elaborate:1 chupah:2 sixth:1 synagogue:2 washington:1 c:1 vienna:1 first:2 district:1 judengasse:1 become:4 feature:2 consist:1 cloth:1 sheet:1 stretch:1 support:4 four:1 pole:1 hold:2 attendant:1 location:1 popular:1 explanation:3 home:1 build:2 especially:1 within:2 open:2 sky:1 exactly:2 indoors:1 hall:1 opening:1 hasid:1 prefer:1 conduct:4 entire:1 outdoors:1 sense:1 covering:2 mean:3 god:2 covenant:1 kipa:1 skull:1 cap:1 serve:2 creator:1 symbol:1 separation:1 erect:1 institution:2 divine:1 go:5 amidst:1 joyous:1 singing:1 cover:5 face:2 veil:2 badeken:1 bedekung:1 tradition:3 dispute:1 opinion:2 marry:6 rebekah:1 meet:1 isaac:1 strict:1 sure:1 actually:1 modern:2 another:3 lay:1 monetary:2 payment:3 termination:1 death:4 divorce:25 obligation:3 provide:4 food:1 shelter:1 clothing:1 satisfaction:1 rid:1 protection:3 event:3 financial:1 ceasing:1 economic:1 breadwinner:1 prohibit:1 amount:6 stipulate:1 replacement:1 biblical:2 dower:3 price:4 payable:2 mechanism:2 whereby:1 due:2 cessation:1 note:1 major:1 social:1 problem:3 prospective:1 could:4 raise:2 normally:1 expect:2 enable:1 men:1 delay:1 likely:1 sum:1 adopt:1 part:2 cease:1 difference:2 timing:1 predecessor:1 present:1 day:1 entitlement:1 maintenance:1 breakup:1 disincentive:1 contemplate:1 able:2 nowadays:1 incorporates:1 ketubot:1 paragraph:1 allow:4 option:1 prenuptial:2 directive:3 ever:2 religious:6 bet:1 din:1 rabbinical:4 court:6 know:4 lieberman:6 clause:8 marital:4 harmony:3 shalom:2 bayit:2 relation:3 onah:1 kosher:1 sex:4 responsible:1 ex:1 well:2 anything:1 else:1 specify:1 withhold:1 negotiating:1 ploy:1 wish:2 fulfill:1 duty:1 comply:1 section:1 relationship:2 ritual:1 purity:3 family:3 life:1 taharas:1 hamishpacha:1 important:1 observance:1 detail:1 menstrual:1 niddah:2 attend:1 class:1 subject:1 prior:1 controversy:1 intermarriage:7 accord:3 national:1 population:1 survey:1 united:1 rate:1 increase:2 diaspora:1 leader:2 different:2 branch:2 possible:1 assimilation:1 crisis:1 differ:1 refuse:5 validity:1 legitimacy:2 sanction:4 encourage:2 spouse:1 hop:1 lead:2 conversion:2 reconstructionist:2 permit:1 total:1 autonomy:1 free:2 approach:3 seek:1 stream:3 constitute:1 arise:1 differing:1 criterion:1 whose:2 mother:1 convert:1 authority:3 liberal:1 israel:7 institutionalized:1 form:2 auspex:1 rabbinate:2 specifically:1 israeli:4 view:8 imply:1 cannot:8 married:1 g:1 kohen:1 divorcée:1 union:2 legally:3 mostly:1 secular:2 segment:1 public:1 land:1 approximately:1 jewishness:1 determine:1 travel:1 abroad:1 believe:1 bind:1 recognize:3 religion:2 citizen:1 faith:1 mixed:1 example:1 christian:2 muslim:1 document:5 final:1 sue:1 initiate:1 case:4 compel:2 violate:1 numerous:1 accomplish:1 beat:1 coercion:3 rationale:1 violation:3 good:1 inclination:1 really:1 desire:1 help:1 want:1 anyway:1 entitle:1 ketuba:2 flee:1 agunah:4 literally:2 anchored:2 recently:1 haredi:1 movement:2 dominance:1 general:1 rejection:1 mandate:1 unless:2 remarry:2 gittin:1 aguna:1 apply:1 rabbanim:1 demand:1 halacha:2 enlightenment:1 local:1 lose:3 autonomous:1 assimilate:1 nation:1 power:2 enforce:3 forbidden:1 abused:1 physically:1 psychologically:1 already:1 differently:1 certain:1 egalitarian:2 controversial:1 prevent:2 possibility:2 might:1 obtain:1 add:2 famously:1 favour:1 arbitration:2 pre:1 nuptial:1 research:1 conjunction:1 professor:1 develop:1 dissolve:1 authorize:1 theological:1 seminary:1 america:1 heed:1 include:1 propose:2 joseph:1 soloveitchik:1 proposal:1 approval:1 work:1 joint:2 committee:1 insure:1 objective:1 standard:1 ultra:1 torpedoed:1 effort:2 cooperation:1 falter:1 reject:1 devise:1 external:2 similar:1 grant:6 enormous:1 ongoing:1 duress:1 invalidate:1 instead:1 choice:2 keep:1 large:1 enough:1 effectively:1 bankrupt:1 addition:1 unable:1 tenayim:1 recent:1 development:1 assembly:2 international:1 promote:1 prenuptuial:1 practical:1 effectiveness:1 neither:1 address:1 missing:1 jews:1 issue:1 necessary:1 sufficient:2 procedure:1 override:1 thus:2 peace:1 rutual:1 tzniut:1 modest:1 behavior:1 yichud:1 prohibition:1 seclusion:1 opposite:1 negiah:1 guideline:1 physical:1 contact:1 rebbetzin:1 beshert:1 destine:1 soul:1 mate:1 aspect:1 buddhist:1 confucian:1 islamic:1 jurisprudence:1 hindu:1 teaching:1 reference:1 link:1 chabad:1 org:1 brief:2 guide:1 overview:1 |@bigram babylonian_talmud:2 arranged_marriage:1 sexual_intercourse:1 rabbinic_sage:1 levirate_marriage:1 prayer_shawl:2 bride_groom:2 shroud_mystery:1 talmud_tractate:1 tikkun_olam:1 conservative_judaism:7 ketubah_amount:3 groom_bride:1 lieberman_clause:5 anything_else:1 judaism_reconstructionist:1 reconstructionist_judaism:1 reform_reconstructionist:1 legally_bind:1 physically_psychologically:1 theological_seminary:1 rabbinical_assembly:1 external_link:1 chabad_org:1 |
3,276 | Nairobi | Nairobi () is the capital and largest city of Kenya. The city and its surrounding area also forms the Nairobi Province. The name "Nairobi" comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nyirobi, which translates to "the place of cool waters". However, it is popularly known as the "Green City in the Sun". Founded in 1899 as a simple rail depot on the railway linking Mombasa to Uganda, the town quickly grew to become the capital of British East Africa in 1907 and eventually the capital of a free Kenyan republic in 1963. During Kenya's colonial period, the city became a center for the colony's coffee, tea and sisal industry. http://www.city-data.com/world-cities/Nairobi-History.html Nairobi is also the capital of the Nairobi Province and of the Nairobi District. The city lies on the Nairobi River, in the south of the nation, and has an elevation of 1795 m above sea-level. Nairobi is the most populous city in East Africa, with a current estimated population of about 3 million. According to the 1999 Census, in the administrative area of Nairobi, 2,143,254 inhabitants lived within . Nairobi is currently the 13th largest city in Africa. Nairobi is now one of the most prominent cities in Africa politically and financially. Home to many companies and organisations, including the United Nations Environment Programme and the UN Office in Africa, Nairobi is established as a hub for business and culture. The Nairobi Stock Exchange (NSE) is one of the largest in Africa, ranked fourth in terms of trading volume and capable of making 10 million trades a day. http://www.millenniumit.com/esp/news_7.php The Globalisation and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC) defines Nairobi as a prominent social centre. History Nairobi seen from Spot Satellite The area was an essentially uninhabited swamp until a supply depot of the Uganda Railway was built in 1899, which soon became the railway's headquarters. The city was named after a water hole known in Maasai as Ewaso Nyirobi, meaning "cool waters". It was completely rebuilt in the early 1900s after an outbreak of plague and the burning of the original town. The location of the Nairobi railway camp was chosen due to its central position between Mombasa and Kampala. It was also chosen because its network of rivers could supply the camp with water, and its elevation would make it cool enough for residential purposes. Furthermore, at above the sea level the temperatures are too low for the malaria mosquito to survive. In 1905, Nairobi replaced Mombasa as capital of the British protectorate, and the city grew around administration and tourism, initially in the form of big game hunting. As the British colonialists started to explore the region, they started using Nairobi as their first port of call. This prompted the colonial government to build several spectacular grand hotels in the city. The main occupants were British game hunters. Nairobi continued to grow under the British rule, and many Britons settled within the city's suburbs. The continuous expansion of the city began to anger the Maasai, as the city was devouring their land to the south. It also angered the Kikuyu people, who wanted the land returned to them. In 1919, Nairobi was declared to be a municipality. In February 1926, E.A.T. Dutton passed through Nairobi on his way to Mount Kenya, and said of the city: After the end of World War II, this friction developed into the Mau Mau rebellion. Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya's future president, was jailed for his involvement even though there was no evidence linking him to the rebellion. Pressure exerted from the locals onto the British resulted in Kenyan independence in 1963, with Nairobi as the capital of the new republic. After independence, Nairobi grew rapidly and this growth put pressure on the city's infrastructure. Power cuts and water shortages were a common occurrence, though in the past few years better city planning has helped to put some of these problems in check. The United States Embassy in Nairobi was bombed in August 1998 by Al-Qaida, as one of a series of U.S. embassy bombings. Over two hundred civilians were killed. It is now the site of a memorial park. Geography An aerial view of Nairobi, the central business district and Ngong Road The city is located at and occupies . Nairobi is situated between the cities of Kampala and Mombasa. As Nairobi is adjacent to the eastern edge of the Rift Valley, minor earthquakes and tremors occasionally occur. The Ngong hills, located to the west of the city, are the most prominent geographical feature of the Nairobi Area. Mount Kenya is situated north of Nairobi and Mount Kilimanjaro is towards the south-east. Both mountains are visible from Nairobi on a clear day. The Nairobi River and its tributaries traverse through the Nairobi Province. Nobel Peace Prize laureate Wangari Maathai has fought fiercely to save the indigenous Karura Forest in northern Nairobi which was under threat of being replaced by housing and other infrastructure. Nairobi's western suburbs stretch all the way from the Kenyatta National Hospital in the south to the UN headquarters and Gigiri in the north, a distance of about . The city is centred on the City Square, which is located in the Central Business District. The Kenyan Parliament buildings, the Holy Family Cathedral, Nairobi City Hall, Nairobi Law Courts and the Kenyatta Conference Centre all surround the square. Climate At above sea level, Nairobi enjoys a moderate climate. The altitude makes for some chilly evenings, especially in the June/July season when the temperature can drop to . The sunniest and warmest part of the year are from December to March, when temperatures average the mid-twenties during the day. The mean maximum temperature for this period is . There are two rainy seasons but rainfall can be moderate. The cloudiest part of the year is just after the first rainy season, when, until September, conditions are usually overcast with drizzle. As Nairobi is situated close to the equator, the differences between the seasons are minimal. The seasons are referred to as the wet season and dry season. The timing of sunrise and sunset varies little throughout the year, due to Nairobi's close proximity to the equator. Districts Nairobi is divided into a series of constituencies, these are Makadara, Kamukunji, Starehe, Langata, Dagoretti, Westlands, Kasarani and Embakasi. The main administrative divisions of Nairobi are Central, Dagoretti, Embakasi, Kasarani, Kibera, Makadara, Pumwani and Westlands. See: Nairobi Province Most of the upmarket suburbs are situated to the west of Nairobi, where most European settlers resided in colonial times. These include Karen, Langata, Lavington and Highridge, although Kangemi and Dagoretti are lower income areas. The city's colonial past is commemorated by many English place-names. Most low and lower-middle income estates are located in eastern Nairobi. These include Kariokor, Dandora, Kariobangi, Embakasi and Huruma. Many Somali immigrants have settled in Eastleigh, nicknamed "Little Mogadishu". Parks and gardens Nairobi skyline as seen from Uhuru Park. Nairobi has many parks and open spaces throughout the city. Most of Nairobi is green-space, and the city has dense tree-cover. The most famous park in Nairobi is Uhuru Park. The park borders the central business district and the neighbourhood Upper Hill. Uhuru (Freedom) Park is a centre for outdoor speeches, services and rallies. The park was to be built-over by former President Daniel arap Moi, who wanted his KANU party's 62-storey headquarters situated in the park. However, the park was saved by Wangari Maathai, who won a Nobel Peace Prize in 2004 for her efforts. See: Nobel Peace Prize Central Park is adjacent to Uhuru Park, and includes a memorial for Jomo Kenyatta, the first president of Kenya. Other notable open spaces include Jeevanjee Gardens, City Park and Nairobi Arboretum. Economy I&M Bank headquarters in Nairobi. Nairobi is home to the Nairobi Stock Exchange (NSE), one of Africa's largest. The NSE was officially recognised as an overseas stock exchange by the London Stock Exchange in 1953. The exchange is Africa's 4th largest (in terms of trading volumes) and 5th (in terms of Market Capitalisation as a percentage of GDP). Nairobi is the regional headquarters of several international companies and organiations. This makes it one of the most influential cities in Africa. In 2007 alone, General Electric, Young & Rubicam, Google, Coca Cola, Celtel and Cisco Systems relocated their Africanheadquarters to the city. The United Nations has strong presence in Nairobi; the United Nations Office at Nairobi hosts UNEP and UN-Habitat headquarters. Several of Africa's largest companies are headquartered in Nairobi. KenGen, which is the largest African stock outside South Africa, is based in the city. Kenya Airways, Africa's fourth largest airline, uses Nairobi's Jomo Kenyatta International Airport as a hub. Goods manufactured in Nairobi include clothing, textiles, building materials, processed foods, beverages, cigarettes. Several foreign companies have factories based in and around the city. These includes Goodyear, General Motors, Toyota Motors, and Coca Cola. Nairobi has a large tourist industry, being both a tourist destination and a transport hub. Central business district and skyline Nairobi skyline viewed from Westlands. Nairobi has grown around its central business district. It takes a rectangular shape, around the Uhuru Highway, Haille Selassie Avenue, Moi Avenue and University Way. It includes many of Nairobi's important buildings, including the City Hall and Parliament Building. The city square is also located within the perimeter. A feature of the central business district that strikes foreign tourists the most is the skyline. Nairobi's skyline has been compared to many Asian and American cities. This is due to a construction boom after independence, and another construction boom in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Most of the skyscrapers in this region are the headquarters of businesses and corporations, such as I&M and the iconic building, Kenyatta international conference center. The United States Embassy bombing took place in this district, prompting the new embassy building to be located in the suburbs. In 2006, a large beautification project took place in the CBD, as the city prepared to host the 2006 Afri-Cities summit. Iconic buildings such as the Kenyatta International Conference Centre had their exteriors cleaned and repainted. The district is bordered to the south-west by Nairobi's largest park: Uhuru Park and Central Park. The Mombasa to Kampala railway runs to the south-east of the district. Upper Hill Today, many businesses have, or are considering relocating or establishing their headquarters outside the Central Business District. This is because land is cheaper, and better facilities can be easily built and maintained elsewhere. Two areas that are seeing a growth in companies and office-space are Upper Hill, approximately from the CBD and Westlands, approximately the same distance. Companies that have moved from the CBD to Upper Hill include Citibank and in 2007, Coca Cola began construction on their East and Central African headquarters in Upper Hill, cementing the district as the preferred location for office space in Nairobi. The largest office development in this area is the Rahimtulla Tower, which is primarily occupied by British firm PriceWaterhouseCoopers. To accommodate the large demand for floorspace in Nairobi, various commercial projects are being constructed. New business parks are being built in the city, including the flagship Nairobi Business Park. Nairobi is currently being considered by a Middle-Eastern company, interested in building a high-rise headquarters in Africa. + Nairobi's tallest skyscrapers Times Tower </tr> Teleposta Towers </tr> Kenyatta International Conference Centre </tr> NSSF Building </tr> I&M Bank Tower </tr> Government Office Conference Hall </tr> Nyayo House </tr> Rahimtulla Tower </tr> Society and culture Nairobi is a cosmopolitan and multicultural city. Since its foundation, Nairobi has maintained a strong British presence, and a lasting legacy from colonial rule. This is highlighted by the number of English-named suburbs, including Hurlingham and Parklands. By the mid twentieth century, many foreigners settled in Nairobi from other British colonies, primarily India and Pakistan. These immigrants were workers who arrived to construct the Kampala - Mombasa railway, settling in Nairobi after its completion, and merchants from Gujarat. Nairobi also has established communities from Somalia and Sudan. As Nairobi has a diverse and multicultural composition, there are a number of churches, mosques, temples and gurdwaras within the city. Prominent places of worship in Nairobi include the Holy Family Basilica Cathedral, All Saints Cathedral, Ismaili Jamat Khana and Jamia Mosque. Nairobi has two informal nicknames. The first is "The Green City in the Sun", which is derived from the city's foliage and warm climate. The second is the "Safari Capital of the World", which is used due to Nairobi's prominence as a hub for safari tourism. Literature and film Kwani? is Kenya's first literary journal and was established by modern writers living in Nairobi. Nairobi's publishing houses have also produced the works of some of Kenya's best known and most respected authors, including Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, Meja Mwangi who were all part of the post-colonial writing boom. Many film makers also practice their craft out of Nairobi. Film-making is still young in the country but people like producer Njeri Karago and director Judy Kibinge are paving the way for others. Perhaps the most famous book and film set in Nairobi, is Out of Africa. The book was written by Karen Blixen (pen name Isak Dinesen), and it is her account of living in Kenya. Karen Blixen lived in the Nairobi Area from 1917 to 1931 (though the neighbourhood in which she lived, Karen, is named after her cousin Karen Melchior). In 1985, Out of Africa was made into a film, directed by Sydney Pollack. The film won 28 awards, including 7 Academy Awards. The popularity of the film prompted the opening of Nairobi's Karen Blixen Museum. Nairobi is also the setting of many of the novels of Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, Kenya's foremost writer. Nairobi has been the set of several other American and British films. The most recent of these was The Constant Gardener (2005), a large part of which was filmed in the city. The story revolves around a British diplomat in Nairobi whose wife is murdered in northern Kenya. Much of the filming was in the Kibera slum. Most new Hollywood films are nowadays screened at Nairobi's cinemas. Up to early 90s there were only few film theatres and the repertoire was scanty. There are also two drive-in cinemas in Nairobi. Music Nairobi is the centre of the Kenyan music scene. Benga is a Kenyan genre which was developed in Nairobi. The genre evolved between the 1940s and the 1960s, and by the late 1960s, it was the most popular music genre in Kenya. The genre is a fusion of jazz and Luo music forms. In the 1970s, Nairobi became the prominent centre for East and Central African music. During this period, Nairobi was established as a hub of soukous music. This genre was born in Kinshasa and Brazzaville. After the political climate in the region deteriorated, many Congolese artists relocated to Nairobi. Artists such as Orchestra Super Mazembe moved from Congo to Nairobi and found great success. Virgin records became aware of the popularity of the genre and signed recording contracts with several soukous artists. More recently, Nairobi has become the centre of the Kenyan hip hop scene. The genre has become very popular amongst the East African youth, and Nairobi acts have become some of the most popular in the region. Successful artists based in Nairobi include Jua cali Nonini and Nameless, P-Unit, Amani, Jimw@t, Mejja and record labels based in the city include Ogopa DJs, Calif Records, Jomino Records. Genge music, a subgenre of hip hop, was born in Nairobi and popularised by Calif Records hit makers Jua cali and Nonini. Hip-hop has become a major part of the youth's culture in Nairobi. While rock and alternative music have a faithful underground following. Many foreign musicians who tour Africa, perform and visit Nairobi. Bob Marley's first ever visit to Africa started in Nairobi. Acts that have performed in Nairobi recently include Shaggy, Sean Paul, Ja Rule, Morgan Heritage and Mr. Vegas who performed in December 2008 G'Pange concert. Most recently American sensation The Game performed before a packed house en route to MTV African Awards in Nigeria. Nairobi has a large fanbase of western hiphop culture. In the late 1990s, popular rappers such as Coolio and the Lost Boyz performed in the city. 2008 also saw popular underground rapper Craig G have a performance organised by Ghetto Radio, a very popular FM station playing mostly conscious and deep rooted music. Nairobi has number of nightclubs in the CBD as well as suburbs. The Nairobi Music Society in conjunction with the Nairobi Orchestra give at least three classical music concerts every year and arrange a variety of recitals and other musical events. Sport Exterior of the 60,000 capacity Moi International Sports Centre. Nairobi is East Africa's sporting centre. The premier sports facility in Nairobi is the Moi International Sports Centre in the suburb of Kasarani. The complex was completed in 1987, and was used to host the 1987 All Africa Games. The complex comprises a 60,000 seater stadium, the second largest in East Africa (after Tanzania's new national stadium), a 5,000 seater gymnasium, and a 2,000 seater aquatics centre. Coca Cola National Stadium formally known as Nyayo National Stadium is Nairobi's second largest stadium. Completed in 1983, the stadium has a capacity of 30,000. This stadium is primarily used for football. The facility is located close to the Central Business District, which makes it a convenient location for political gatherings. Nairobi City Stadium is the city's first stadium, and used for club football. Nairobi Gymkhana is the home of the Kenyan cricket team, and was a venue for the 2003 Cricket World Cup. Notable annual events staged in Nairobi include Safari Rally (although it lost its World Rally Championship status in 2003), Safari Sevens rugby union tournament, and Nairobi Marathon. Football is the most popular sport in the city by viewership and participation. This is highlighted by the number of football clubs in the city, including Mathare United, AFC Leopards, Gor Mahia and Tusker FC. There are six golf courses within a 20 km radius of Nairobi. The oldest 18-hole golf course in the city is the Royal Nairobi Golf Club, founded in 1906 by the British, just seven years after the city was founded. Other notable golf clubs include the Windsor Country Club, Karen Country Club and Muthaiga Country Club. The Kenya Open golf tournament, which is part of the Challenge Tour, takes place in Nairobi. . The Ngong Racecourse in Nairobi is the center of horse racing in Kenya The Standard, April 3, 2009: Kenya Derby is main Jockey Club of Kenya event . Tourism Nairobi is not a prime tourist destination, but it does have several tourist attractions. The most famous is the Nairobi National Park. The national park is unique, in being the only game-reserve of this nature to border a capital city, or city of this size. The park contains many animals including lions and giraffes. The park is home to over 400 species of bird. The Nairobi safari walk is a major attraction to the Nairobi national park as it offers a rare on-foot experience of the animals., . Nairobi is home to several museums. The National Museum of Kenya is the largest in the city. It houses a large collection of artefacts, including the full remains of a homo erectus boy. Other prominent museums include the Nairobi Railway Museum and the Karen Blixen Museum. Nairobi is nicknamed the Safari Capital of the World, and has many spectacular hotels to cater for safari-bound tourists. Five star hotels in Nairobi include the Nairobi Serena, Grand Regency, Windsor (Karen), Holiday Inn, East African Safari Club (Lilian Towers), The Stanley Hotel, Safari Park & Casino, InterContinental, Panari Hotel, Hilton, and the Norfolk Hotel. Nairobi is also home to the largest ice rink in Africa: the Solar Ice Rink at the Panari Sky Centre. The rink, opened in 2005, covers and can accommodate 200 people. BBC NEWS | World | Africa | East Africa's ice skating first Other notable sites include Jomo Kenyatta's mausoleum, Kenya National Theatre and the Kenya National Archives. Art galleries in Nairobi include the Rahimtulla Museum of Modern Art (Ramoma) and the Mizizi Arts Centre. Places of interest Nairobi National Park Karen Blixen Museum Bomas of Kenya Giraffe Centre Safari park Transport Airports An aerial of the cargo terminal at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, the largest and busiest airport in East Africa. Nairobi is served primarily by Jomo Kenyatta International Airport. It is the largest airport in East and Central Africa, and handled over 4.4 million passengers in 2006. The airport is a major transit hub for passengers flying to East Africa's natural attractions, and other smaller cities in East and Central Africa. The airport is situated from Nairobi's Central Business District. The airport directly serves intercontinental passengers from Europe and Asia. Wilson Airport is a small, busy airport to the south of Nairobi. It handles small aircraft that generally operate within Kenya, although some offer services to other East African destinations. Eastleigh Airport was the original landing strip in the pre-jet airline era. It was used in a landing point on the 1930s and 1940s British passenger and mail route from Southampton to Cape Town. This route was served by flying boats between Britain and Kisumu and then by land-based aircraft on the routes to the south. The airport is now a military base. Buses A Nairobi Matatu, after the regulation changes. Buses are the most common form of public transport in Nairobi. Matatus, which technically means, "three cents for a ride" (nowadays much more) are privately owned minibuses, and the most popular form of local transport, and generally seat fourteen to twenty-four. Matatus ama mathree operate within Nairobi and from Nairobi to other towns. The matatu's destination is imprinted on the side of the bus. Matatus plying specific routes have specific route numbers. Matatus were easily distinguishable by their extravagant paint schemes. Owners would paint their matatu with their favourite football team or hip hop artist. These days some even paint Barack Obama's face on their Matatu. They were notorious for their poor safety records, which was a result of overcrowding and reckless driving. Matatu drivers were pressured to make as many round trips as possible to maximise profits for their operator. They are very popular within the city. Most are equipped with high music systems and televisions which attract customers as competition is very high between matatus. The more round trips with the more customers basically means more money for the workers and the owners. However, in 2004, a law was passed requiring all matatus to include seat belts and speed governors and to be painted with a yellow stripe. At first, this caused a furore amongst Matatu operators, but they were pressured by government and the public to make the changes. Matatus are now limited to . Citi Hoppa is the newest bus fleet operating in Nairobi. Run privately, the Citi Hoppa offer relatively modern buses on many routes within the city. The Citi Hoppa buses are distinguishable by their green livery. It is now the leading bus operator in Nairobi, after Bustrack fell along with its mother company, Kenya Bus Services. Railways Nairobi was founded as a railway town, and the Kenya Railways (KR) main headquarters are still situated there, near the city centre. The line runs through Nairobi, from Mombasa to Kampala. Its main use is freight traffic, but regular nightly passenger trains connect Mombasa, Nairobi and Kisumu. A number of morning and evening commuter trains connect the centre with the suburbs, but the city has no proper light rail, tramway or subway lines. A JKI airport shuttle rail service is being contemplated. Nairobi is also the junction for a branch railway to Nanyuki. Media Nation Center, headquarters of the Nation Media Group who publish the Daily Nation. Nairobi is home to most of Kenya's news and media organisations. The city is also home to East Africa's largest newspapers: the Daily Nation and the The Standard. These are circulated within Kenya and cover a range of domestic and regional issues. Both newspapers are published in English. Kenya Broadcasting Corporation is a state-run television and radio station, is headquartered in the city. Kenya Television Network is part of the Standard Group and was Kenya's first privately owned TV station. The Nation Media Group runs NTV which is based in Nairobi. East Africa Television Channel 5 is 24 hour music channel based in Dar es Salaam Tanzania and broadcasts in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya. Several multinational media organisations have their regional headquarters in Nairobi. These include the BBC, CNN, Agence France-Presse, Reuters, and the Associated Press. The East African bureau of CNBC Africa is located in Nairobi. Kiss 100FM is one of the more popular radio stations in Nairobi. Kiss 100 FM Housing There are wide variety of standards of living in Nairobi. Most wealthy Kenyans live in Nairobi but the majority of Nairobians are poor. Half of the population have been estimated to live in slums which cover just 5% of the city area. http://www.globalurban.org/Issue1PIMag05/Sheehan%20article.htm The growth of these slums is a result of urbanisation, poor town planning and the unavailability of loans for low income earners. Kibera is the one of the largest slums in Africa, and is situated to the west of Nairobi. (Kibera comes from the Nubian word Kibra, meaning "forest" or "jungle"). http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=62409 The slums cover two square kilometres and is on government land. Kibera has been the setting for several films, the most recent being The Constant Gardener. Other notable slums include Mathare and Korogocho. Altogether, 66 areas are counted as slums within Nairobi. A middle-class Nairobi residential suburb, with the Central Business District in the distance. Many Nairobi non slum-dwellers live in relatively good housing conditions. Large houses can be found in many neighbourhoods, especially to the west of Nairobi. Historically, British immigrants have settled in Langata and Karen. Other middle and high income estates include Parklands, Westlands, Hurlingham, Milimani and Nairobi Hill. To accommodate the growing middle class, many new apartments and housing developments are being built in and around the city. The most notable development is Greenpark, at Athi River town, from Nairobi's CBD. Over 5,000 houses, villas and apartments are being constructed at this development, including leisure, retail and commercial facilities. The development is being marketed at families, as are most others within the city. Population Nairobi has experienced some of the highest growth rates of any city in Africa. Since its foundation in 1899, Nairobi has grown to become the largest city in East Africa, despite being the youngest large city in the region. The growth rate of Nairobi is currently 6.9%. Nairobi - Ethos International It is estimated that Nairobi's population will reach 5 million in 2015. Build cities to contain population explosion Year Population 1906 11,500 1911 14,000 1921 24,300 1926 29,900 1929 32,900 1931 47,800 1939 61,300 1944 108,900 1948 119,000 1955 186,000 1957 221,700 1960 251,000 1962 266,800 1965 380,000 1969 509,300 1979 827,775 1989 1,324,570 1995 1,810,000 1999 2,143,254 2005 2,750,561 Crime Throughout the 1990s, Nairobi had struggled with rising crime, earning a reputation for being a dangerous city and the nickname "Nairobbery". In 2001, the United Nations International Civil Service Commission rated Nairobi as among the most insecure cities in the world, classifying the city as "status C". In the United Nations report, it was stated that in 2001, nearly one third of all Nairobi residents experienced some form of robbery in the city. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C05E5DE143DF93AA15752C1A9679C8B63 The head of one development agency cited the "notoriously high levels of violent armed robberies, burglaries and carjackings. Crime had risen in Nairobi as a result of unplanned urbanisation, with a minimal number of police stations and a proper security infrastructure. However, many claim that the biggest factor for the city's alarming crime rate is police corruption, which leaves many criminals unpunished. As a security precaution, most large houses have a watch guard, burglar grills, and dogs to patrol their grounds during the night. Most though occur around the poor neighborhoods where it gets dangerous during night hours. In 2006, crime decreased in the city , due to increased security and an improved police presence. Despite this, in 2007, the Kenyan government and U.S. State Department has announced that Nairobi is experiencing a greater level of violent crime than in previous years. https://www.osac.gov/Reports/report.cfm?contentID=64215 Since then, the government has taken measures to combat crime with heavy police presence in and around the city while U.S. government has updated its travel warning for the country. Universities The grounds of Kenyatta University Nairobi is home to several universities. The University of Nairobi is the oldest university in Kenya. It was established in 1956, as part of the University of East Africa, but became an independent university in 1970. The university has approximately 22,000 students. Kenyatta University is situated from the centre of Nairobi. The university was established in 1985 after a long struggle for the status, which started in 1963. Strathmore University started in 1961 as an Advanced Level (UK) Sixth Form College offering Science and Arts subjects. The college started to admit accountancy students in March 1966, and thus became a university. In January 1993 Strathmore College merged with Kianda College and moved to Ole Sangale Road, Madaraka Estate, Nairobi. United States International University - Nairobi is a branch of the United States International University, which has campuses across the world. The Nairobi campus was established in 1969, with the first graduation taking place in 1979. The university has accreditation from the Western Association of Schools and Colleges, in USA and the Government of Kenya. Daystar University is a Christian liberal arts university located in Athi River, south-east of Nairobi. In 2005, The Aga Khan Hospital, Nairobi was upgraded as the only teaching hospital in East Africa, providing post graduate education in medicine and surgery including nursing education. The Catholic University of Eastern Africa - In 1989, the Institute obtained the "Letter of Interim Authority" as the first step towards its establishment as a private university. After three years of intensive negotiations between the Authority of the Graduate School of Theology (CHIEA) and the Commission for Higher Education, the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences was established. The climax of the negotiations was a granting of the Civil Charter to CHIEA on 3 November 1992. This marked the birth of the university as a private institution. Africa Nazarene University- located in Ongata Rongai, it's just minutes from the Kenyan capital Nairobi. Africa Nazarene University is a private chartered Christian university sponsored by the Church of the Nazarene International and it is a member of the worldwide family of Nazarene institutions. The mission of Africa Nazarene University is to provide a holistic education that develops individuals academically, spiritually, culturally and physically to equip them with excellent skills, competencies and Christian values which will enable them to go into the world well prepared to meet the challenges of their time. Sister Cities Denver Colorado. References External links News Daily Nation The Standard Nairobi.com Community Nairobians.Com Schools and Colleges of Nairobi Other The City Council of Nairobi (official website) Google Maps for Nairobi City Magical Kenya review of Nairobi Nairobi Stock Exchange National Geographic Feature about Nairobi FallingRain Map - elevation = 1738 m (Red dots are railways) A former resident's city guide to Nairobi August 7 Memorial Park, a tribute to the victims and survivors of the 1998 bombings be-x-old:Найробі | Nairobi |@lemmatized nairobi:185 capital:10 large:28 city:81 kenya:33 surround:2 area:10 also:14 form:7 province:4 name:6 come:2 maasai:3 phrase:1 enkare:1 nyirobi:2 translate:1 place:8 cool:3 water:5 however:4 popularly:1 know:4 green:4 sun:2 found:4 simple:1 rail:3 depot:2 railway:12 link:3 mombasa:8 uganda:3 town:7 quickly:1 grow:7 become:12 british:14 east:23 africa:39 eventually:1 free:1 kenyan:10 republic:2 colonial:6 period:3 center:4 colony:2 coffee:1 tea:1 sisal:1 industry:2 http:6 www:5 data:1 com:5 world:11 history:2 html:2 district:16 lie:1 river:5 south:10 nation:12 elevation:3 sea:3 level:6 populous:1 current:1 estimate:3 population:6 million:4 accord:1 census:1 administrative:2 inhabitant:1 live:7 within:12 currently:3 one:9 prominent:6 politically:1 financially:1 home:9 many:22 company:8 organisation:3 include:33 united:10 environment:1 programme:1 un:3 office:6 establish:9 hub:6 business:15 culture:4 stock:6 exchange:6 nse:3 rank:1 fourth:2 term:3 trading:2 volume:2 capable:1 make:8 trade:1 day:4 millenniumit:1 esp:1 php:1 globalisation:1 study:1 group:4 network:3 gawc:1 define:1 social:2 centre:19 see:5 spot:1 satellite:1 essentially:1 uninhabited:1 swamp:1 supply:2 build:8 soon:1 headquarters:13 hole:2 ewaso:1 mean:5 completely:1 rebuild:1 early:3 outbreak:1 plague:1 burning:1 original:2 location:3 camp:2 choose:2 due:5 central:18 position:1 kampala:5 could:1 would:2 enough:1 residential:2 purpose:1 furthermore:1 temperature:4 low:5 malaria:1 mosquito:1 survive:1 replace:2 protectorate:1 around:8 administration:1 tourism:3 initially:1 big:2 game:5 hunting:1 colonialist:1 start:6 explore:1 region:5 use:8 first:12 port:1 call:1 prompt:3 government:8 several:11 spectacular:2 grand:2 hotel:6 main:5 occupant:1 hunter:1 continue:1 rule:3 briton:1 settle:5 suburb:9 continuous:1 expansion:1 begin:2 anger:2 devour:1 land:5 kikuyu:1 people:3 want:2 return:1 declare:1 municipality:1 february:1 e:2 dutton:1 pass:2 way:4 mount:3 say:1 end:1 war:1 ii:1 friction:1 develop:3 mau:2 rebellion:2 jomo:6 kenyatta:13 future:1 president:3 jail:1 involvement:1 even:2 though:4 evidence:1 pressure:4 exert:1 local:2 onto:1 result:4 independence:3 new:7 rapidly:1 growth:5 put:2 infrastructure:3 power:1 cut:1 shortage:1 common:2 occurrence:1 past:2 year:9 well:3 planning:2 help:1 problem:1 check:1 state:7 embassy:4 bomb:2 august:2 al:1 qaida:1 series:2 u:3 bombing:2 two:6 hundred:1 civilian:1 kill:1 site:2 memorial:3 park:28 geography:1 aerial:2 view:2 ngong:3 road:2 locate:10 occupies:1 situate:8 adjacent:2 eastern:4 edge:1 rift:1 valley:1 minor:1 earthquake:1 tremor:1 occasionally:1 occur:2 hill:7 west:5 geographical:1 feature:3 situated:1 north:2 kilimanjaro:1 towards:2 mountain:1 visible:1 clear:1 tributary:1 traverse:1 nobel:3 peace:3 prize:3 laureate:1 wangari:2 maathai:2 fight:1 fiercely:1 save:2 indigenous:1 karura:1 forest:2 northern:2 threat:1 housing:4 western:3 stretch:1 national:12 hospital:3 gigiri:1 distance:3 square:4 parliament:2 building:8 holy:2 family:4 cathedral:3 hall:3 law:2 court:1 conference:5 climate:4 enjoy:1 moderate:2 altitude:1 chilly:1 evening:2 especially:2 june:1 july:1 season:7 drop:1 sunny:1 warm:2 part:8 december:2 march:2 average:1 mid:2 twenty:2 maximum:1 rainy:2 rainfall:1 cloudy:1 september:1 condition:2 usually:1 overcast:1 drizzle:1 close:3 equator:2 difference:1 minimal:2 refer:1 wet:1 dry:1 timing:1 sunrise:1 sunset:1 varies:1 little:2 throughout:3 proximity:1 divide:1 constituency:1 makadara:2 kamukunji:1 starehe:1 langata:3 dagoretti:3 westlands:5 kasarani:3 embakasi:3 division:1 kibera:5 pumwani:1 upmarket:1 european:1 settler:1 reside:1 time:3 karen:11 lavington:1 highridge:1 although:3 kangemi:1 income:4 commemorate:1 english:3 middle:5 estate:3 kariokor:1 dandora:1 kariobangi:1 huruma:1 somali:1 immigrant:3 eastleigh:2 nickname:4 mogadishu:1 garden:2 skyline:5 uhuru:6 open:4 space:5 dense:1 tree:1 cover:5 famous:3 border:3 neighbourhood:3 upper:5 freedom:1 outdoor:1 speech:1 service:5 rally:3 former:2 daniel:1 arap:1 moi:4 kanu:1 party:1 storey:1 win:2 effort:1 notable:6 jeevanjee:1 arboretum:1 economy:1 bank:2 officially:1 recognise:1 overseas:1 london:1 market:2 capitalisation:1 percentage:1 gdp:1 regional:3 international:14 organiations:1 influential:1 alone:1 general:2 electric:1 young:3 rubicam:1 google:2 coca:4 cola:4 celtel:1 cisco:1 system:2 relocate:3 africanheadquarters:1 strong:2 presence:4 host:3 unep:1 habitat:1 headquarter:2 kengen:1 african:8 outside:2 base:8 airway:1 airline:2 airport:13 good:3 manufacture:1 clothing:1 textile:1 material:1 process:1 food:1 beverage:1 cigarette:1 foreign:3 factory:1 goodyear:1 motor:2 toyota:1 tourist:6 destination:4 transport:4 take:6 rectangular:1 shape:1 highway:1 haille:1 selassie:1 avenue:2 university:24 important:1 perimeter:1 strike:1 compare:1 asian:1 american:3 construction:3 boom:3 another:1 late:3 skyscraper:2 corporation:2 iconic:2 beautification:1 project:2 cbd:5 prepare:1 afri:1 summit:1 exterior:2 clean:1 repaint:1 run:5 today:1 consider:2 cheap:1 facility:4 easily:2 maintain:2 elsewhere:1 approximately:3 move:3 citibank:1 cement:1 preferred:1 development:6 rahimtulla:3 tower:6 primarily:4 occupy:1 firm:1 pricewaterhousecoopers:1 accommodate:3 demand:1 floorspace:1 various:1 commercial:2 construct:3 flagship:1 interested:1 high:7 rise:3 tall:1 tr:8 teleposta:1 nssf:1 nyayo:2 house:7 society:2 cosmopolitan:1 multicultural:2 since:3 foundation:2 lasting:1 legacy:1 highlight:2 number:7 hurlingham:2 parkland:2 twentieth:1 century:1 foreigner:1 india:1 pakistan:1 worker:2 arrive:1 completion:1 merchant:1 gujarat:1 community:2 somalia:1 sudan:1 diverse:1 composition:1 church:2 mosque:2 temple:1 gurdwaras:1 worship:1 basilica:1 saint:1 ismaili:1 jamat:1 khana:1 jamia:1 informal:1 derive:1 foliage:1 second:3 safari:10 prominence:1 literature:1 film:12 kwani:1 literary:1 journal:1 modern:3 writer:2 publishing:1 produce:1 work:1 best:1 respected:1 author:1 ngũgĩ:2 wa:2 thiong:2 meja:1 mwangi:1 post:2 writing:1 maker:2 practice:1 craft:1 making:1 still:2 country:5 like:1 producer:1 njeri:1 karago:1 director:1 judy:1 kibinge:1 pave:1 others:2 perhaps:1 book:2 set:3 write:1 blixen:5 pen:1 isak:1 dinesen:1 account:1 living:2 cousin:1 melchior:1 direct:1 sydney:1 pollack:1 award:3 academy:1 popularity:2 opening:1 museum:8 setting:1 novel:1 foremost:1 recent:2 constant:2 gardener:2 story:1 revolve:1 diplomat:1 whose:1 wife:1 murder:1 much:2 filming:1 slum:8 hollywood:1 nowadays:2 screen:1 cinema:2 theatre:2 repertoire:1 scanty:1 drive:1 music:13 scene:2 benga:1 genre:7 evolve:1 popular:10 fusion:1 jazz:1 luo:1 soukous:2 bear:2 kinshasa:1 brazzaville:1 political:2 deteriorate:1 congolese:1 artist:5 orchestra:2 super:1 mazembe:1 congo:1 find:2 great:2 success:1 virgin:1 record:7 aware:1 sign:1 contract:1 recently:3 hip:4 hop:4 amongst:2 youth:2 act:2 successful:1 jua:2 cali:2 nonini:2 nameless:1 p:1 unit:1 amani:1 jimw:1 mejja:1 label:1 ogopa:1 dj:1 calif:2 jomino:1 genge:1 subgenre:1 popularise:1 hit:1 major:3 rock:1 alternative:1 faithful:1 underground:2 follow:1 musician:1 tour:2 perform:5 visit:2 bob:1 marley:1 ever:1 shaggy:1 sean:1 paul:1 ja:1 morgan:1 heritage:1 mr:1 vega:1 g:2 pange:1 concert:2 sensation:1 packed:1 en:1 route:7 mtv:1 nigeria:1 fanbase:1 hiphop:1 rapper:2 coolio:1 lose:2 boyz:1 saw:1 craig:1 performance:1 organise:1 ghetto:1 radio:3 fm:2 station:5 play:1 mostly:1 conscious:1 deep:1 root:1 nightclub:1 conjunction:1 give:1 least:1 three:3 classical:1 every:1 arrange:1 variety:2 recital:1 musical:1 event:3 sport:6 capacity:2 premier:1 complex:2 complete:2 comprise:1 seater:3 stadium:9 tanzania:3 gymnasium:1 aquatic:1 formally:1 football:5 convenient:1 gathering:1 club:9 gymkhana:1 cricket:2 team:2 venue:1 cup:1 annual:1 stag:1 championship:1 status:3 sevens:1 rugby:1 union:1 tournament:2 marathon:1 viewership:1 participation:1 mathare:2 afc:1 leopard:1 gor:1 mahia:1 tusker:1 fc:1 six:1 golf:5 course:2 km:1 radius:1 old:3 royal:1 seven:1 windsor:2 muthaiga:1 challenge:2 racecourse:1 horse:1 racing:1 standard:5 april:1 derby:1 jockey:1 prime:1 attraction:3 unique:1 reserve:1 nature:1 size:1 contain:2 animal:2 lion:1 giraffe:2 specie:1 bird:1 walk:1 offer:3 rare:1 foot:1 experience:4 collection:1 artefact:1 full:1 remains:1 homo:1 erectus:1 boy:1 cater:1 bound:1 five:1 star:1 serena:1 regency:1 holiday:1 inn:1 lilian:1 stanley:1 casino:1 intercontinental:2 panari:2 hilton:1 norfolk:1 ice:3 rink:3 solar:1 sky:1 bbc:2 news:3 skate:1 mausoleum:1 archive:1 art:5 gallery:1 ramoma:1 mizizi:1 arts:1 interest:1 bomas:1 airports:1 cargo:1 terminal:1 busy:2 serve:3 handle:2 passenger:5 transit:1 fly:2 natural:1 small:3 directly:1 europe:1 asia:1 wilson:1 aircraft:2 generally:2 operate:3 landing:2 strip:1 pre:1 jet:1 era:1 point:1 mail:1 southampton:1 cape:1 boat:1 britain:1 kisumu:2 military:1 bus:8 matatu:6 regulation:1 change:2 public:2 matatus:7 technically:1 cent:1 ride:1 privately:3 minibus:1 seat:2 fourteen:1 four:1 ama:1 mathree:1 imprint:1 side:1 ply:1 specific:2 distinguishable:2 extravagant:1 paint:4 scheme:1 owner:2 favourite:1 barack:1 obama:1 face:1 notorious:1 poor:4 safety:1 overcrowd:1 reckless:1 driving:1 driver:1 round:2 trip:2 possible:1 maximise:1 profit:1 operator:3 equip:2 television:4 attract:1 customer:2 competition:1 basically:1 money:1 require:1 belt:1 speed:1 governor:1 yellow:1 stripe:1 cause:1 furore:1 limit:1 citi:3 hoppa:3 fleet:1 relatively:2 livery:1 lead:1 bustrack:1 fell:1 along:1 mother:1 kr:1 near:1 line:2 freight:1 traffic:1 regular:1 nightly:1 train:2 connect:2 morning:1 commuter:1 proper:2 light:1 tramway:1 subway:1 jki:1 shuttle:1 contemplate:1 junction:1 branch:2 nanyuki:1 medium:5 publish:2 daily:3 newspaper:2 circulate:1 range:1 domestic:1 issue:1 broadcast:2 tv:1 ntv:1 channel:2 hour:2 dar:1 salaam:1 multinational:1 cnn:1 agence:1 france:1 presse:1 reuters:1 associated:1 press:1 bureau:1 cnbc:1 kiss:2 wide:1 wealthy:1 majority:1 nairobians:2 half:1 globalurban:1 org:2 sheehan:1 htm:1 urbanisation:2 unavailability:1 loan:1 earner:1 nubian:1 word:1 kibra:1 jungle:1 irinnews:1 report:4 aspx:1 reportid:1 kilometre:1 korogocho:1 altogether:1 count:1 class:2 non:1 dweller:1 historically:1 milimani:1 apartment:2 greenpark:1 athi:2 villa:1 leisure:1 retail:1 rate:3 despite:2 ethos:1 reach:1 explosion:1 crime:7 struggle:2 earn:1 reputation:1 dangerous:2 nairobbery:1 civil:2 commission:2 rat:1 among:1 insecure:1 classify:1 c:1 nearly:1 third:1 resident:2 robbery:2 query:1 nytimes:1 gst:1 fullpage:1 res:1 head:1 agency:1 cite:1 notoriously:1 violent:2 arm:1 burglary:1 carjacking:1 unplanned:1 police:4 security:3 claim:1 factor:1 alarm:1 corruption:1 leave:1 criminal:1 unpunished:1 precaution:1 watch:1 guard:1 burglar:1 grill:1 dog:1 patrol:1 ground:2 night:2 neighborhood:1 get:1 decrease:1 increase:1 improved:1 department:1 announce:1 previous:1 osac:1 gov:1 cfm:1 contentid:1 measure:1 combat:1 heavy:1 update:1 travel:1 warning:1 universities:1 independent:1 student:2 long:1 strathmore:2 advanced:1 uk:1 sixth:1 college:6 offering:1 science:2 subject:1 admit:1 accountancy:1 thus:1 january:1 merge:1 kianda:1 ole:1 sangale:1 madaraka:1 campus:2 across:1 graduation:1 accreditation:1 association:1 school:3 usa:1 daystar:1 christian:3 liberal:1 aga:1 khan:1 upgrade:1 teaching:1 provide:2 graduate:2 education:4 medicine:1 surgery:1 nursing:1 catholic:1 institute:1 obtain:1 letter:1 interim:1 authority:2 step:1 establishment:1 private:3 intensive:1 negotiation:2 theology:1 chiea:2 faculty:1 climax:1 granting:1 charter:1 november:1 mark:1 birth:1 institution:2 nazarene:5 ongata:1 rongai:1 minute:1 chartered:1 sponsor:1 member:1 worldwide:1 mission:1 holistic:1 individual:1 academically:1 spiritually:1 culturally:1 physically:1 excellent:1 skill:1 competency:1 value:1 enable:1 go:1 prepared:1 meet:1 sister:1 denver:1 colorado:1 reference:1 external:1 council:1 official:1 website:1 map:2 magical:1 review:1 geographic:1 fallingrain:1 red:1 dot:1 guide:1 tribute:1 victim:1 survivor:1 x:1 найробі:1 |@bigram http_www:5 stock_exchange:5 outbreak_plague:1 mau_mau:1 mau_rebellion:1 jomo_kenyatta:6 al_qaida:1 rift_valley:1 mount_kilimanjaro:1 prize_laureate:1 rainy_season:2 sunrise_sunset:1 market_capitalisation:1 coca_cola:4 tourist_destination:2 tall_skyscraper:1 twentieth_century:1 somalia_sudan:1 karen_blixen:5 sydney_pollack:1 revolve_around:1 hip_hop:4 bob_marley:1 en_route:1 seater_stadium:1 rugby_union:1 golf_course:2 golf_tournament:1 tourist_attraction:1 homo_erectus:1 holiday_inn:1 ice_rink:2 bbc_news:1 ice_skate:1 busy_airport:2 barack_obama:1 morning_evening:1 commuter_train:1 uganda_tanzania:1 agence_france:1 france_presse:1 income_earner:1 www_irinnews:1 irinnews_org:1 square_kilometre:1 query_nytimes:1 nytimes_com:1 com_gst:1 gst_fullpage:1 fullpage_html:1 html_res:1 aga_khan:1 denver_colorado:1 external_link:1 fallingrain_map:1 |
3,277 | John_Sayles | John Thomas Sayles (born September 28 1950) is an American independent film director and screenwriter who frequently plays small roles in his own and other indie films. Biography Early life Sayles was born in Schenectady, New York, the son of Mary (née Rausch), a teacher, and Donald John Sayles, a school administrator. John Sayles Biography (1950-) He was raised Catholic and took to labeling himself "a Catholic atheist". Both of Sayles' parents were of half Irish descent. John Sayles He attended Williams College, where a small incident provided an inkling as to his future career. In 1972, while participating in the school's biannual trivia contest, Sayles' team was tied with another after eight hours, forcing the game's first sudden death overtime. Sayles was able to cite a particular line of dialogue from the 1960 film The Time Machine, thus clinching that semester's championship. Career Like Martin Scorsese and James Cameron, among others, Sayles got his start in film working with Roger Corman. Sayles went on to fund his first film, Return of the Secaucus 7, with $30,000 he had in the bank from writing scripts for Corman. He set the film in a large house so that he did not have to travel to or get permits for different locations, set it over a three-day weekend to limit costume changes, and wrote about people his age so that he could have his friends act in it. In 1983, after the films Baby It's You (starring Rosanna Arquette) and Lianna (a sympathetic story in which a married woman becomes discontented with her marriage and falls in love with another woman), Sayles received a MacArthur Fellowship for $40,000 a year for a five-year term. Sayles used the money to fund the fantasy The Brother from Another Planet, a film about a black, three-toed slave who escapes from another planet and finds himself at home among the people of Harlem in New York City, largely because he is incapable of speaking. In 1989 he created and wrote the pilot episode for the short-lived television show Shannon's Deal about a down-and-out Philadelphia lawyer played by Jamey Sheridan. Sayles received a 1990 Edgar Award for his teleplay for the pilot. The show ran for only 16 episodes before being cancelled in 1991. Sayles has funded most of his films by writing genre scripts such as Piranha, Alligator, The Howling and The Challenge. Having collaborated with Joe Dante on Piranha and The Howling, Sayles acted in Dante's movie Matinee. In deciding whether to take a job, Sayles reports that he mostly is interested in whether there is the germ of an idea for a movie which he would want to watch. Sayles gets the rest of his funding by working as a script doctor; he has done rewrites for Apollo 13, The Fugitive, and Mimic, among others, and finds the job rewarding since he gets to help other writers tell their stories and also meet other directors and watch how they work. One such genre script, for an unproduced film called Night Skies, inspired the project that would eventually become the highly successful and moneymaking film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. That film's director, Steven Spielberg, later commissioned Sayles to write the script for Jurassic Park IV. He has written and directed his own films, including Lone Star, Passion Fish, Eight Men Out, The Secret of Roan Inish, and Matewan. His films tend to be politically aware; social concerns are a theme running through most of his work. He serves on the advisory board for the Austin Film Society. In November 1997 the National Film Preservation Board of the United States announced that Return of the Secaucus 7 would be one of the 25 films selected that year for preservation in the National Film Registry at the Library of Congress. Sayles works with a regular repertory of actors, most notably Chris Cooper, David Strathairn, and Gordon Clapp, each of whom has appeared in at least four of his films. In early 2003, Sayles signed the Not In Our Name "Statement of Conscience" (along with individuals such as Noam Chomsky, Steve Earle, Brian Eno, Jesse Jackson, Viggo Mortensen, Bonnie Raitt, Oliver Stone, Marisa Tomei and Susan Sarandon) which opposed the invasion of Iraq. In February 2009, Sayles was reported to be writing an upcoming HBO series based on the early life of Red Hot Chili Peppers' Anthony Kiedis. The drama, tentatively titled Scar Tissue, centers on the rocker's early years living in West Hollywood with his father. At that time, Kiedis' father, known as Spider, sold drugs (according to legend, his clients included The Who and Led Zeppelin) and mingled with rock stars on the Sunset Strip, all while aspiring to get into showbiz. http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118000444.html?categoryid=14&cs=1 Filmography Piranha (1978) (screenwriter) Alligator (1980) (screenwriter) Return of the Secaucus 7 (1980) (writer/director) The Howling (1981) (screenwriter) Lianna (1983) (writer/director) Baby It's You (1983) (writer/director) The Brother from Another Planet (1984) (writer/director) Wild Thing (1987) (screenwriter/story) Matewan (1987) (writer/director) Eight Men Out (1988) (writer/director/actor) City of Hope (1991) (writer/director) Passion Fish (1992) (writer/director) The Secret of Roan Inish (1994) (writer/director) Men of War (1994) (writer) Lone Star (1996) (writer/director) Men with Guns (1997) (writer/director) Limbo (1999) (writer/director) Sunshine State (2002) (writer/director) Casa de los Babys (2003) (writer/director) Silver City (2004) (writer/director) Honeydripper (2007) (writer/director) The Spiderwick Chronicles (2008) (co-writer) Jurassic Park IV (TBA) (screenwriter) Bibliography Union Dues (1977) (novel) Pride of the Bimbos (1975) The Anarchists Convention (1979) (short story anthology) Thinking in Pictures: The Making of the Movie \"Matewan\" (1987) (non-fiction) Los Gusanos (1991) (novel) Dillinger in Hollywood (2004) (short story anthology) Los Gusanos (2005) (novel) Music videos Bruce Springsteen - Born in the U.S.A. Bruce Springsteen - I'm on Fire Bruce Springsteen - Glory Days Awards/Nominations See also Night Skies - for a more complete history of the Close Encounters of the Third Kind sequel becomes E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial story Further reading Diane Carson and Heidi Kenaga, eds., Sayles Talk: New Perspectives on Independent Filmmaker John Sayles, Wayne State University Press, 2006 John Sayles, Thinking in Pictures: The Making of the Movie Matewan, Da Capo Press, 2003 References External links “The John Sayles Interview” by Antonino D'Ambrosio in The Believer. March 2009. Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database John Sayles Retro Interview April 2007 by Cathy Pryor in the London Independent John Sayles interview at KCRW Return of the Independent: Sayles on Sayles (5-part interview) John Sayles on "Honeydripper" at IFC News | John_Sayles |@lemmatized john:10 thomas:1 sayles:30 born:1 september:1 american:1 independent:4 film:19 director:20 screenwriter:6 frequently:1 play:2 small:2 role:1 indie:1 biography:2 early:4 life:2 bear:2 schenectady:1 new:3 york:2 son:1 mary:1 née:1 rausch:1 teacher:1 donald:1 school:2 administrator:1 raise:1 catholic:2 take:2 label:1 atheist:1 parent:1 half:1 irish:1 descent:1 attend:1 williams:1 college:1 incident:1 provide:1 inkling:1 future:1 career:2 participate:1 biannual:1 trivia:1 contest:1 team:1 tie:1 another:5 eight:3 hour:1 force:1 game:1 first:2 sudden:1 death:1 overtime:1 able:1 cite:1 particular:1 line:1 dialogue:1 time:2 machine:1 thus:1 clinch:1 semester:1 championship:1 like:1 martin:1 scorsese:1 james:1 cameron:1 among:3 others:2 get:5 start:1 work:5 roger:1 corman:2 go:1 fund:3 return:4 secaucus:3 bank:1 write:7 script:5 set:2 large:1 house:1 travel:1 permit:1 different:1 location:1 three:2 day:2 weekend:1 limit:1 costume:1 change:1 people:2 age:1 could:1 friend:1 act:2 baby:3 star:4 rosanna:1 arquette:1 lianna:2 sympathetic:1 story:6 married:1 woman:2 become:3 discontent:1 marriage:1 fall:1 love:1 receive:2 macarthur:1 fellowship:1 year:4 five:1 term:1 use:1 money:1 fantasy:1 brother:2 planet:3 black:1 toed:1 slave:1 escape:1 find:2 home:1 harlem:1 city:3 largely:1 incapable:1 speak:1 create:1 pilot:2 episode:2 short:3 live:2 television:1 show:2 shannon:1 deal:1 philadelphia:1 lawyer:1 jamey:1 sheridan:1 edgar:1 award:2 teleplay:1 run:2 cancel:1 genre:2 piranha:3 alligator:2 howling:3 challenge:1 collaborate:1 joe:1 dante:2 movie:4 matinee:1 decide:1 whether:2 job:2 report:2 mostly:1 interested:1 germ:1 idea:1 would:3 want:1 watch:2 rest:1 funding:1 doctor:1 rewrite:1 apollo:1 fugitive:1 mimic:1 reward:1 since:1 help:1 writer:19 tell:1 also:2 meet:1 one:2 unproduced:1 call:1 night:2 sky:2 inspire:1 project:1 eventually:1 highly:1 successful:1 moneymaking:1 e:2 extra:2 terrestrial:2 steven:1 spielberg:1 later:1 commission:1 jurassic:2 park:2 iv:2 direct:1 include:2 lone:2 passion:2 fish:2 men:4 secret:2 roan:2 inish:2 matewan:4 tend:1 politically:1 aware:1 social:1 concern:1 theme:1 serve:1 advisory:1 board:2 austin:1 society:1 november:1 national:2 preservation:2 united:1 state:3 announce:1 select:1 registry:1 library:1 congress:1 regular:1 repertory:1 actor:2 notably:1 chris:1 cooper:1 david:1 strathairn:1 gordon:1 clapp:1 appear:1 least:1 four:1 sign:1 name:1 statement:1 conscience:1 along:1 individual:1 noam:1 chomsky:1 steve:1 earle:1 brian:1 eno:1 jesse:1 jackson:1 viggo:1 mortensen:1 bonnie:1 raitt:1 oliver:1 stone:1 marisa:1 tomei:1 susan:1 sarandon:1 oppose:1 invasion:1 iraq:1 february:1 upcoming:1 hbo:1 series:1 base:1 red:1 hot:1 chili:1 pepper:1 anthony:1 kiedis:2 drama:1 tentatively:1 title:1 scar:1 tissue:1 center:1 rocker:1 west:1 hollywood:2 father:2 know:1 spider:1 sell:1 drug:1 accord:1 legend:1 client:1 lead:1 zeppelin:1 mingle:1 rock:1 sunset:1 strip:1 aspire:1 showbiz:1 http:1 www:1 variety:1 com:1 article:1 html:1 categoryid:1 cs:1 filmography:1 wild:1 thing:1 hope:1 war:1 gun:1 limbo:1 sunshine:1 casa:1 de:1 los:3 silver:1 honeydripper:2 spiderwick:1 chronicle:1 co:1 tba:1 bibliography:1 union:1 due:1 novel:3 pride:1 bimbo:1 anarchist:1 convention:1 anthology:2 thinking:1 picture:2 making:2 non:1 fiction:1 gusanos:2 dillinger:1 music:1 video:1 bruce:3 springsteen:3 u:1 fire:1 glory:1 nomination:1 see:1 complete:1 history:1 close:1 encounter:1 third:1 kind:1 sequel:1 far:1 reading:1 diane:1 carson:1 heidi:1 kenaga:1 eds:1 talk:1 perspective:1 filmmaker:1 wayne:1 university:1 press:2 think:1 da:1 capo:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 interview:4 antonino:1 ambrosio:1 believer:1 march:1 sens:1 cinema:1 great:1 critical:1 database:1 retro:1 april:1 cathy:1 pryor:1 london:1 kcrw:1 part:1 ifc:1 news:1 |@bigram martin_scorsese:1 roger_corman:1 macarthur_fellowship:1 steven_spielberg:1 jurassic_park:2 advisory_board:1 noam_chomsky:1 steve_earle:1 brian_eno:1 jesse_jackson:1 bonnie_raitt:1 susan_sarandon:1 hot_chili:1 chili_pepper:1 scar_tissue:1 http_www:1 bruce_springsteen:3 award_nomination:1 da_capo:1 capo_press:1 external_link:1 sens_cinema:1 |
3,278 | Ice | Ice is a solid phase, usually crystalline, of a non-metallic substance that is liquid or gas at room temperature, such as ammonia ice or methane ice. However, the word "ice" normally means water ice, technically restricted to one of the 15 known crystalline phases of water. In non-scientific contexts, it usually describes ice Ih, which is known to be the most abundant of these phases. It can appear transparent or an opaque bluish-white colour, depending on the presence of impurities such as air. The addition of other materials such as soil may further alter the appearance. The most common phase transition to ice Ih occurs when liquid water is cooled below 0 °C (273.15 K, 32 °F) at standard atmospheric pressure. It can also deposit from a vapour with no intervening liquid phase, such as in the formation of frost. Ice appears in nature in forms as varied as snowflakes and hail, icicles, glaciers, pack ice, and entire polar ice caps. It is an important component of the global climate, particularly in regard to the water cycle. Furthermore, ice has numerous cultural applications, from the ice cooling one's drink to winter sports and ice sculpture. The word is from Old English ís, in turn derived from Proto-Germanic *isaz. Characteristics As a naturally occurring crystalline solid, ice is considered a mineral consisting of hydrogen oxide. An unusual property of ice frozen at a pressure of one atmosphere is that the solid is some 9% less dense than liquid water. Ice is the only known non-metallic substance to expand when it freezes. Ice has a density of 0.9167 g/cm³ at 0 °C, whereas water has a density of 0.9998 g/cm³ at the same temperature. Liquid water is densest, essentially 1.00 g/cm³, at 4 °C and becomes less dense as the water molecules begin to form the hexagonal crystals of ice as the temperature drops to 0 °C. (In fact, the word "crystal" derives from Greek word for frost.) This is due to hydrogen bonds forming between the water molecules, which line up molecules less efficiently (in terms of volume) when water is frozen. The result of this is that ice floats on liquid water, which is an important factor in Earth's climate (if ice had sunk instead of floating, any body of water would have frozen from the bottom to the surface, killing any fish and other creatures not resistant to freezing temperatures). Density of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature (density of ice at −180 °C (93 K) is 0.9340 g/cm³). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics When ice melts, it absorbs as much heat energy (the heat of fusion) as it would take to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 °C, while its temperature remains a constant 0 °C. It is also theoretically possible to superheat ice beyond its equilibrium melting point. Simulations of ultrafast laser pulses acting on ice show it can be heated up to room temperature for an extremely short period (250 ps), without melting. Light reflecting from ice can appear blue, because ice absorbs more of the red frequencies than the blue ones. Also, icebergs containing impurities (e.g. sediments, algae, air bubbles) can appear brown, gray or green. Why some ice looks blue Slipperiness Until recently, it was widely believed that ice was slippery because the pressure of an object in contact with it caused a thin layer to melt. For example, the blade of an ice skate, exerting pressure on the ice, melted a thin layer, providing lubrication between the ice and the blade. This explanation is no longer accepted. There is still debate about why ice is slippery. The explanation gaining acceptance is that ice molecules in contact with air cannot properly bond with the molecules of the mass of ice beneath (and thus are free to move like molecules of liquid water). These molecules remain in a semiliquid state, providing lubrication regardless of pressure against the ice exerted by any object. Types Crystalline states Crystal structure of hexagonal ice. Gray dashed lines indicate hydrogen bonds Everyday ice and snow have a hexagonal crystal structure (ice Ih). Subjected to higher pressures and varying temperatures, ice can form in roughly a dozen different phases. Only a little less stable (metastable) than Ih is the cubic structure (Ic). At other temperatures and pressures, other forms of ice exist, including II, III, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, and X. With care all these types can be recovered at ambient pressure. The types are differentiated by their crystalline structure, ordering and density. There are also two metastable phases of ice under pressure, both fully hydrogen-disordered; these are IV and XII. Ice XII was discovered in 1996. In 2006, XIII and XIV were discovered. Ices XI, XIII, and XIV are hydrogen-ordered forms of ices Ih, V, and XII respectively. As well as crystalline forms, solid water can exist in amorphous states as amorphous solid water (ASW), low-density amorphous ice (LDA), high-density amorphous ice (HDA), very high-density amorphous ice (VHDA) and hyperquenched glassy water (HGW). In outer space, hexagonal crystalline ice (the predominant form found on Earth), is extremely rare. Amorphous ice is more common; however, hexagonal crystalline ice can be formed via volcanic action. [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/09/science/09ice.html?ex=1260334800&en=9326ecdbb6f20b0a&ei=5090&partner=rssuserlandAstronomers Contemplate Icy Volcanoes in Far Places], Kenneth Chang, New York Times, December 9, 2004 Formation types Rime is a type of ice formed on cold objects when drops of water crystallize on them. This can be observed in foggy weather, when the temperature drops during night. Soft rime contains a high proportion of trapped air, making it appear white rather than transparent, and giving it a density about one quarter of that of pure ice. Hard rime is comparatively denser. Aufeis is layered ice that forms in Arctic and subarctic stream valleys. Ice, frozen in the stream bed, blocks normal groundwater discharge, and causes the local water table to rise, resulting in water discharge on top of the frozen layer. This water then freezes, causing the water table to rise further and repeat the cycle. The result is a stratified ice deposit, often several meters thick. Ice can also form icicles, similar to stalactites in appearance, as water drips and re-freezes. Clathrate hydrates are forms of ice that contain gas molecules trapped within its crystal lattice. Pancake ice is a formation of ice generally created in areas with less calm conditions. Candle Ice is a form of Rotten Ice that develops in columns perpendicular to the surface of a lake. Non-water ice Some other substances (particularly solid forms of those usually found as fluids) are also called "ice": dry ice, for instance, is a popular term for solid carbon dioxide. A "magnetic analogue" of ice is also realized in some insulating magnetic materials in which the magnetic moments mimic the position of protons in water ice and obey energetic constraints similar to the Bernal-Fowler ice rules arising from the geometrical frustration of the proton configuration in water ice. These materials are called spin ice. Natural occurrence Ice appears seasonally in many parts of the world in the winter, in the form of snowflakes and hail, icicles, and frozen bodies of water. Ice is also present year-round as part of glaciers (which may be found at very high altitudes or high latitudes), permafrost, pack ice, and the polar ice caps, which extend across the Arctic and Antarctica. Ice that is found at sea may be in the form of sea ice, pack ice, or icebergs. The term that collectively describes all of the parts of the Earth's surface where water is in frozen form is the cryosphere. Ice is an important component of the global climate, particularly in regard to the water cycle. Glaciers and snowpacks are an important storage mechanism for fresh water; over time, they may sublimate or melt. Snowmelt is often an important source of seasonal fresh water. Production Ice is now mechanically produced on an large scale, but before appropriate coolants were developed ice was harvested from natural sources for human use. Ice harvesting Ice has long been valued as a means of cooling. Until recently, the Hungarian Parliament building used ice harvested in the winter from Lake Balaton for air conditioning. Icehouses were used to store ice formed in the winter, to make ice available all year long, and early refrigerators were known as iceboxes, because they had a block of ice in them. In many cities, it was not unusual to have a regular ice delivery service during the summer. For the first half of the 19th century, ice harvesting had become big business in America. Frederic Tudor, who became known as the “Ice King,” worked on developing better insulation products for the long distance shipment of ice, especially to the tropics. The advent of artificial refrigeration technology has since made delivery of ice obsolete. In 400 BC Iran, Persian engineers had already mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert. The ice was brought in during the winters from nearby mountains in bulk amounts, and stored in specially designed, naturally cooled refrigerators, called yakhchal (meaning ice storage). This was a large underground space (up to 5000 m³) that had thick walls (at least two meters at the base) made out of a special mortar called sārooj, composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in specific proportions, and which was known to be resistant to heat transfer. This mixture was thought to be completely water impenetrable. The space often had access to a Qanat, and often contained a system of windcatchers which could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels on summer days. The ice was then used to chill treats for royalty on such occasions. Commercial production Ice is now produced on an industrial scale, for uses including food storage and processing, chemical manufacturing, concrete mixing and curing, and consumer or packaged ice. ASHRAE. "Ice Manufacture". 2006 ASHRAE Handbook: Refrigeration. Inch-Pound Edition. p. 34-1. ISBN 1931862869. Most commercial ice makers produce three basic types of fragmentary ice: flake, tubular and plate, using a variety of techniques. Large batch ice makers can produce up to 75 tons of ice per day. Rydzewski, A.J. "Mechanical Refrigeration: Ice Making." Marks' Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers. 11th ed. McGraw Hill: New York. p. 19-24. ISBN 9780071428675. Ice production is a large business; in 2002, there were 426 commercial ice-making companies in the United States, with a combined value of shipments of $595,487,000. U.S. Census Bureau. "Ice manufacturing: 2002." 2002 Economic Census. For small-scale ice production, many modern home refrigerators can also make ice with a built in icemaker, which will typically make ice cubes or crushed ice. Stand-alone icemaker units that make ice cubes are often called ice machines. Uses Sports Ice also plays a role in winter recreation, in many sports such as ice skating, tour skating, ice hockey, ice fishing, ice climbing, curling, broomball and sled racing on bobsled, luge and skeleton. Many of the different sports played on ice get international attention every four years during the Winter Olympic Games. A sort of sailboat on blades gives rise to ice yachting. The human quest for excitement has even led to ice racing, where drivers must speed on lake ice, while also controlling the skid of their vehicle (similar in some ways to dirt track racing). The sport has even been modified for ice rinks. Other uses Engineers used pack ice's formidable strength when they constructed Antarctica's first floating ice pier in 1973. "Unique ice pier provides harbor for ships," Antarctic Sun. January 8, 2006; McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Such ice piers are used during cargo operations to load and offload ships. Fleet operations personnel make the floating pier during the winter. They build upon naturally-occurring frozen seawater in McMurdo Sound until the dock reaches a depth of about . Ice piers have a lifespan of three to five years. The manufacture and use of ice cubes or crushed ice is common for drinks. Structures and ice sculptures are built out of large chunks of ice. The structures are mostly ornamental (as in the case with ice castles), and not practical for long-term habitation. Ice hotels exist on a seasonal basis in a few cold areas. Igloos are another example of a temporary structure, made primarily from snow. During World War II, Project Habbakuk was a British programme which investigated the use of pykrete (wood fibres mixed with ice) as a possible material for warships, especially aircraft carriers, due to the ease with which a large deck could be constructed, but the idea was given up when there were not enough funds for construction of a prototype. Ice can be used to start a fire by carving it into a lens which will focus sunlight onto kindling. A fire will eventually start. Wildwood Survival - Fire From Ice - Rob Bicevskis Ice has even been used as the material for a variety of musical instruments, principally by percussionist Terje Isungset. Ice can be used to reduce swelling (by decreasing blood flow) and pain by pressing it against an area of the body. Ice and transportation Ice can also be an obstacle; for harbours near the poles, being ice-free is an important advantage; ideally, all year long. Examples are Murmansk (Russia), Petsamo (Russia, formerly Finland) and Vardø (Norway). Harbours which aren't ice-free are opened up using icebreakers. Ice forming on roads is a dangerous winter hazard. Black ice is very difficult to see, because it lacks the expected frosty surface. Whenever there is freezing rain or snow which occurs at a temperature near the melting point, it is common for ice to build up on the windows of vehicles. Driving safely requires the removal of the ice build-up. Ice scrapers are tools designed to break the ice free and clear the windows, though removing the ice can be a long and laborious process. Far enough below the freezing point, a thin layer of ice crystals can form on the inside surface of windows. This usually happens when a vehicle has been left alone after being driven for a while, but can happen while driving, if the outside temperature is low enough. Moisture from the driver's breath is the source of water for the crystals. It is troublesome to remove this form of ice, so people often open their windows slightly when the vehicle is parked in order to let the moisture dissipate, and it is now common for cars to have rear-window defrosters to solve the problem. A similar problem can happen in homes, which is one reason why many colder regions require double-pane windows for insulation. When the outdoor temperature stays below freezing for extended periods, very thick layers of ice can form on lakes and other bodies of water, although places with flowing water require much colder temperatures. The ice can become thick enough to drive onto with automobiles and trucks. Doing this safely requires a thickness of at least 30 centimetres (one foot). For ships, ice presents two distinct hazards. Spray, and freezing rain, can produce an ice build-up on the superstructure of a vessel sufficient to make it unstable, and to require it to be hacked off or melted with steam hoses. And icebergs — large masses of ice floating in water (typically created when glaciers reach the sea) — can be dangerous if struck by a ship when underway. Icebergs have been responsible for the sinking of many ships, the most famous probably being the Titanic. For aircraft, ice can cause a number of dangers. As an aircraft climbs, it passes through air layers of different temperature and humidity, some of which may be conducive to ice formation. If ice forms on the wings or control surfaces, this may adversely affect the flying qualities of the aircraft. During the first non-stop flight of the Atlantic, the British aviators Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown encountered such icing conditions - Brown left the cockpit and climbed onto the wing several times to remove ice which was covering the engine air intakes of the Vickers Vimy aircraft they were flying. A particular icing vulnerability associated with reciprocating internal combustion engines is the carburetor. As air is sucked through the carburettor into the engine, the local air pressure is lowered, which causes adiabatic cooling. So, in humid near-freezing conditions, the carburettor will be colder, and tend to ice up. This will block the supply of air to the engine, and cause it to fail. For this reason, aircraft reciprocating engines with carburettors are provided with carburettor air intake heaters. The increasing use of fuel injection—which does not require carburettors—has made "carb icing" less of an issue for reciprocating engines. Jet engines do not experience carb icing, but recent evidence indicates that they can be slowed, stopped, or damaged by internal icing in certain types of atmospheric conditions much more easily than previously believed. In most cases, the engines can be quickly restarted and flights are not endangered, but research continues to determine the exact conditions which produce this type of icing, and find the best methods to prevent, or reverse it, in flight. At different pressures Most liquids freeze at a higher temperature under pressure, because the pressure helps to hold the molecules together. However, the strong hydrogen bonds in water make it different: water freezes at a temperature below 0 °C under a pressure higher than 1 atm. Consequently, water also remains frozen at a temperature above 0 °C under a pressure lower than 1 atm. The melting of ice under high pressures is thought to contribute to the movement of glaciers. Ice formed at high pressure has a different crystal structure and density to ordinary ice. Ice, water, and water vapour can coexist at the triple point, which is exactly 273.16 K (by definition) at a pressure of 611.73 Pa. Phases Phase Characteristics Amorphous ice Amorphous ice is an ice lacking crystal structure. Amorphous ice exists in three forms: low-density (LDA) formed at atmospheric pressure, or below, high density (HDA) and very high density amorphous ice (VHDA), forming at higher pressures. LDA forms by extremely quick cooling of liquid water ("hyperquenched glassy water", HGW), by depositing water vapour on very cold substrates ("amorphous solid water", ASW) or by heating high density forms of ice at ambient pressure ("LDA"). Ice Ih Normal hexagonal crystalline ice. Virtually all ice in the biosphere is ice Ih, with the exception only of a small amount of ice Ic. Ice Ic A Metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice. The oxygen atoms are arranged in a diamond structure. It is produced at temperatures between 130-150 K, and is stable for up to 200 K, when it transforms into ice Ih. It is occasionally present in the upper atmosphere. Ice II A rhombohedral crystalline form with highly ordered structure. Formed from ice Ih by compressing it at temperature of 190-210 K. When heated, it undergoes transformation to ice III. Ice III A tetragonal crystalline ice, formed by cooling water down to 250 K at 300 MPa. Least dense of the high-pressure phases. Denser than water. Ice IV A Metastable rhombohedral phase. Doesn't easily form without a nucleating agent. Ice V A monoclinic crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 253 K at 500 MPa. Most complicated structure of all the phases. Ice VI A tetragonal crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 270 K at 1.1 GPa. Exhibits Debye relaxation. Ice VII A cubic phase. The hydrogen atoms positions are disordered; the material shows Debye relaxation. The hydrogen bonds form two interpenetrating lattices. Ice VIII A more ordered version of ice VII, where the hydrogen atoms assume fixed positions. Formed from ice VII, by cooling it below 5 °C. Ice IX A tetragonal metastable phase. Formed gradually from ice III by cooling it from 208 K to 165 K, stable below 140 K and pressures between 200 and 400 MPa. It has density of 1.16 g/cm³, slightly higher than ordinary ice. Ice X Proton-ordered symmetric ice. Forms at about 70 GPa. Ice XI An orthorhombic low-temperature equilibrium form of hexagonal ice. It is ferroelectric. Ice XII A tetragonal metastable dense crystalline phase. It is observed in the phase space of ice V and ice VI. It can be prepared by heating high-density amorphous ice from 77 K to about 183 K at 810 MPa. Ice XIII A monoclinic crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to below 130 K at 500 MPa. The proton-ordered form of ice V. Ice XIV An orthorhombic crystalline phase. Formed below 118 K at 1.2 GPa. The proton-ordered form of ice XII. Ice XV The predicted, but not yet proven, proton-ordered form of ice VI. Thought to be formed by cooling water to around 108-80 K at 1.1 GPa. References See also Detail of an ice cube Ice formations Amorphous solid water Anchor ice Black ice Diamond dust Firn Frazil ice Frost flowers Glacier Iceberg Icicle Ice circle Ice crystals Ice nucleus Ice spike Névé Needle ice Sea ice Slurry iceClimate Ice age Ice sports Figure skating Icebiking Ice climbing Ice hockey Tour skatingMan-made ice Ice cream Ice cube Ice hotel Pykrete Further reading Gosnell, Mariana. (2005). Ice : the nature, the history, and the uses of an astonishing substance. New York: Knoph. ISBN 9780679426080. Marling, Karal. (2008). Ice : great moments in the history of hard, cold water. St. Paul, MN : Borealis Books. ISBN 9780873516280 Petrenko, Victor F and Whitworth, Robert W. (1999). "Physics of ice." Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0 19 851895 1 External links The National Snow and Ice Data Center, based in the United States The phase diagram of water-steam-ice: WebCalculation The phase diagram of water, including the ice variants Webmineral listing for Ice MinDat.org listing and location data for Ice The physics of ice The phase diagrams of water with some high pressure diagrams A recent discovery about how ice melts 'Unfreezable' water, 'bound water' and water of hydration Electromechanical properties of ice Estimating the maximum thickness of an ice layer Sandia's Z machine creates ice in nanoseconds Amazing ice at Lac Leman The Surprisingly Cool History of Ice | Ice |@lemmatized ice:243 solid:9 phase:23 usually:4 crystalline:17 non:5 metallic:2 substance:4 liquid:9 gas:2 room:2 temperature:22 ammonia:1 methane:1 however:3 word:4 normally:1 mean:3 water:59 technically:1 restrict:1 one:7 know:5 scientific:1 context:1 describe:2 ih:9 abundant:1 appear:6 transparent:2 opaque:1 bluish:1 white:3 colour:1 depend:1 presence:1 impurity:2 air:11 addition:1 material:6 soil:1 may:6 far:5 alter:1 appearance:2 common:5 transition:1 occur:4 cool:12 c:10 k:17 f:2 standard:2 atmospheric:3 pressure:24 also:14 deposit:3 vapour:3 intervene:1 formation:5 frost:3 nature:2 form:46 vary:2 snowflake:2 hail:2 icicle:4 glacier:6 pack:4 entire:1 polar:2 cap:2 important:6 component:2 global:2 climate:3 particularly:3 regard:2 cycle:3 furthermore:1 numerous:1 cultural:1 application:1 drink:2 winter:9 sport:6 sculpture:2 old:1 english:1 ís:1 turn:1 derive:2 proto:1 germanic:1 isaz:1 characteristic:2 naturally:3 consider:1 mineral:1 consisting:1 hydrogen:9 oxide:1 unusual:2 property:2 frozen:7 atmosphere:2 less:5 dense:6 known:1 expand:1 freeze:11 density:16 g:6 whereas:1 essentially:1 become:4 molecules:1 begin:1 hexagonal:7 crystal:10 drop:3 fact:1 greek:1 due:2 bond:5 molecule:8 line:2 efficiently:1 term:4 volume:1 result:3 float:5 factor:1 earth:3 sink:1 instead:1 body:4 would:2 bottom:1 surface:6 kill:1 fish:1 creature:1 resistant:2 increase:2 slightly:3 decrease:2 crc:1 handbook:3 chemistry:1 physic:3 melt:7 absorb:1 much:3 heat:8 energy:1 fusion:1 take:1 equivalent:1 mass:3 remain:3 constant:1 theoretically:1 possible:2 superheat:1 beyond:1 equilibrium:2 melting:3 point:4 simulation:1 ultrafast:1 laser:1 pulse:1 act:1 show:2 extremely:3 short:1 period:2 p:3 without:2 light:1 reflect:1 blue:3 absorbs:1 red:1 frequency:1 icebergs:2 contain:4 e:1 sediment:1 algae:1 bubble:1 brown:3 gray:2 green:1 look:1 slipperiness:1 recently:2 widely:1 believe:2 slippery:2 object:3 contact:2 cause:6 thin:3 layer:8 example:3 blade:3 skate:2 exert:2 provide:4 lubrication:2 explanation:2 longer:1 accept:1 still:1 debate:1 gain:1 acceptance:1 cannot:1 properly:1 beneath:1 thus:1 free:4 move:1 like:1 semiliquid:1 state:5 regardless:1 type:8 structure:12 dash:1 indicate:2 everyday:1 snow:4 subject:1 high:18 roughly:1 dozen:1 different:6 little:1 stable:3 metastable:6 cubic:3 ic:3 exist:3 include:3 ii:3 iii:4 v:5 vi:4 vii:4 viii:2 ix:2 x:2 care:1 recover:1 ambient:2 differentiate:1 order:4 two:4 fully:1 disorder:2 iv:2 xii:5 discover:2 xiii:3 xiv:3 xi:2 respectively:1 well:1 amorphous:13 asw:2 low:5 lda:4 hda:2 vhda:2 hyperquenched:2 glassy:2 hgw:2 space:5 predominant:1 find:5 rare:1 via:1 volcanic:1 action:1 http:1 www:1 nytimes:1 com:1 science:1 html:1 ex:1 en:1 ei:1 partner:1 rssuserlandastronomers:1 contemplate:1 icy:1 volcano:1 place:2 kenneth:1 chang:1 new:3 york:3 time:3 december:1 rime:3 cold:4 crystallize:1 observe:2 foggy:1 weather:1 night:1 soft:1 proportion:2 trapped:1 make:15 rather:1 give:3 quarter:1 pure:1 hard:2 comparatively:1 aufeis:1 arctic:2 subarctic:1 stream:2 valley:1 bed:1 block:3 normal:2 groundwater:1 discharge:2 local:2 table:2 rise:3 top:1 repeat:1 stratified:1 often:6 several:2 meter:2 thick:4 similar:4 stalactite:1 drip:1 clathrate:1 hydrate:1 trap:1 within:1 lattice:2 pancake:1 generally:1 create:3 area:3 calm:1 condition:5 candle:1 rotten:1 develop:3 column:1 perpendicular:1 lake:4 fluid:1 call:5 dry:1 instance:1 popular:1 carbon:1 dioxide:1 magnetic:3 analogue:1 realize:1 insulating:1 moment:2 mimic:1 position:3 proton:6 obey:1 energetic:1 constraint:1 bernal:1 fowler:1 rule:1 arise:1 geometrical:1 frustration:1 configuration:1 spin:1 natural:2 occurrence:1 seasonally:1 many:7 part:3 world:2 present:3 year:5 round:1 altitude:1 latitude:1 permafrost:1 extend:2 across:1 antarctica:3 sea:4 iceberg:3 collectively:1 cryosphere:1 snowpacks:1 storage:3 mechanism:1 fresh:2 sublimate:1 snowmelt:1 source:3 seasonal:2 production:4 mechanically:1 produce:7 large:7 scale:3 appropriate:1 coolant:1 harvest:3 human:2 use:15 long:6 value:2 hungarian:1 parliament:1 building:1 balaton:1 conditioning:1 icehouse:1 store:3 available:1 early:1 refrigerator:3 icebox:1 city:1 regular:1 delivery:2 service:1 summer:3 first:3 half:1 century:1 harvesting:1 big:1 business:2 america:1 frederic:1 tudor:1 king:1 work:1 good:1 insulation:2 product:1 distance:1 shipment:2 especially:2 tropic:1 advent:1 artificial:1 refrigeration:3 technology:1 since:1 obsolete:1 bc:1 iran:1 persian:1 engineer:3 already:1 master:1 technique:2 middle:1 desert:1 bring:2 nearby:1 mountain:1 bulk:1 amount:2 specially:1 design:2 yakhchal:1 underground:1 wall:1 least:3 base:2 special:1 mortar:1 sārooj:1 compose:1 sand:1 clay:1 egg:1 lime:1 goat:1 hair:1 ash:1 specific:1 transfer:1 mixture:1 think:3 completely:1 impenetrable:1 access:1 qanat:1 system:1 windcatchers:1 could:2 easily:3 inside:2 frigid:1 level:1 day:2 chill:1 treat:1 royalty:1 occasion:1 commercial:3 industrial:1 us:3 food:1 processing:1 chemical:1 manufacturing:2 concrete:1 mixing:1 curing:1 consumer:1 package:1 ashrae:2 manufacture:2 inch:1 pound:1 edition:1 isbn:5 maker:2 three:3 basic:1 fragmentary:1 flake:1 tubular:1 plate:1 variety:2 batch:1 ton:1 per:1 rydzewski:1 j:1 mechanical:2 mark:1 ed:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 company:1 united:2 combined:1 u:1 census:2 bureau:1 economic:1 small:2 modern:1 home:2 build:6 icemaker:2 typically:2 cube:5 crush:2 stand:1 alone:2 unit:1 machine:2 play:2 role:1 recreation:1 skating:2 tour:2 hockey:2 fishing:1 climbing:1 curl:1 broomball:1 sled:1 race:2 bobsled:1 luge:1 skeleton:1 get:1 international:1 attention:1 every:1 four:1 olympic:1 game:1 sort:1 sailboat:1 yacht:1 quest:1 excitement:1 even:3 lead:1 racing:1 driver:2 must:1 speed:1 control:2 skid:1 vehicle:4 way:1 dirt:1 track:1 modify:1 rink:1 formidable:1 strength:1 construct:2 pier:5 unique:1 harbor:1 ship:5 antarctic:1 sun:1 january:1 mcmurdo:2 station:1 cargo:1 operation:2 load:1 offload:1 fleet:1 personnel:1 upon:1 seawater:1 sound:1 dock:1 reach:2 depth:1 lifespan:1 five:1 chunk:1 mostly:1 ornamental:1 case:2 castle:1 practical:1 habitation:1 hotel:2 basis:1 igloo:1 another:1 temporary:1 primarily:1 war:1 project:1 habbakuk:1 british:2 programme:1 investigate:1 pykrete:2 wood:1 fibre:1 mixed:1 warship:1 aircraft:6 carrier:1 ease:1 deck:1 idea:1 enough:4 fund:1 construction:1 prototype:1 start:2 fire:3 carve:1 lens:1 focus:1 sunlight:1 onto:3 kindle:1 eventually:1 wildwood:1 survival:1 rob:1 bicevskis:1 musical:1 instrument:1 principally:1 percussionist:1 terje:1 isungset:1 reduce:1 swell:1 blood:1 flow:1 pain:1 press:2 transportation:1 obstacle:1 harbour:2 near:3 pole:1 advantage:1 ideally:1 murmansk:1 russia:2 petsamo:1 formerly:1 finland:1 vardø:1 norway:1 open:2 icebreaker:1 road:1 dangerous:2 hazard:2 black:2 difficult:1 see:2 lack:2 expect:1 frosty:1 whenever:1 rain:2 window:6 drive:4 safely:2 require:6 removal:1 scraper:1 tool:1 break:1 clear:1 though:1 remove:3 laborious:1 process:1 freezing:2 happen:3 leave:2 outside:1 moisture:2 breath:1 troublesome:1 people:1 park:1 let:1 dissipate:1 car:1 rear:1 defroster:1 solve:1 problem:2 reason:2 colder:3 region:1 double:1 pane:1 outdoor:1 stay:1 although:1 flowing:1 automobile:1 truck:1 thickness:2 centimetre:1 foot:1 distinct:1 spray:1 superstructure:1 vessel:1 sufficient:1 unstable:1 hack:1 steam:2 hose:1 strike:1 underway:1 responsible:1 sinking:1 famous:1 probably:1 titanic:1 number:1 danger:1 climb:3 pass:1 humidity:1 conducive:1 wing:2 adversely:1 affect:1 fly:2 quality:1 stop:2 flight:3 atlantic:1 aviator:1 captain:1 john:1 alcock:1 lieutenant:1 arthur:1 whitten:1 encounter:1 icing:5 cockpit:1 cover:1 engine:8 intake:2 vickers:1 vimy:1 particular:1 vulnerability:1 associate:1 reciprocate:3 internal:2 combustion:1 carburetor:1 suck:1 carburettor:5 lower:1 adiabatic:1 cooling:2 humid:1 tend:1 supply:1 fail:1 heater:1 fuel:1 injection:1 carb:2 le:1 issue:1 jet:1 experience:1 recent:2 evidence:1 slow:1 damage:1 certain:1 previously:1 quickly:1 restart:1 endanger:1 research:1 continue:1 determine:1 exact:1 best:1 method:1 prevent:1 reverse:1 help:1 hold:1 together:1 strong:1 atm:2 consequently:1 contribute:1 movement:1 ordinary:2 coexist:1 triple:1 exactly:1 definition:1 pa:1 exists:1 forming:1 quick:1 substrate:1 virtually:1 biosphere:1 exception:1 variant:2 oxygen:1 atom:3 arrange:1 diamond:2 transform:1 occasionally:1 upper:1 rhombohedral:2 highly:1 ordered:5 compress:1 undergo:1 transformation:1 tetragonal:4 mpa:5 denser:1 nucleating:1 agent:1 monoclinic:2 complicated:1 gpa:4 exhibit:1 debye:2 relaxation:2 interpenetrating:1 version:1 assume:1 fix:1 gradually:1 symmetric:1 orthorhombic:2 ferroelectric:1 prepare:1 xv:1 predict:1 yet:1 prove:1 around:1 reference:1 detail:1 anchor:1 dust:1 firn:1 frazil:1 flower:1 circle:1 nucleus:1 spike:1 névé:1 needle:1 slurry:1 iceclimate:1 age:1 figure:1 icebiking:1 skatingman:1 cream:1 reading:1 gosnell:1 mariana:1 history:3 astonishing:1 knoph:1 marling:1 karal:1 great:1 st:1 paul:1 mn:1 borealis:1 book:1 petrenko:1 victor:1 whitworth:1 robert:1 w:1 oxford:2 university:1 external:1 link:1 national:1 data:2 center:1 diagram:4 webcalculation:1 webmineral:1 listing:2 mindat:1 org:1 location:1 discovery:1 unfreezable:1 bound:1 hydration:1 electromechanical:1 estimate:1 maximum:1 sandia:1 z:1 nanosecond:1 amazing:1 lac:1 leman:1 surprisingly:1 |@bigram ice_ih:8 atmospheric_pressure:2 proto_germanic:1 crystalline_solid:1 hexagonal_crystal:2 hydrogen_bond:4 crc_handbook:1 thin_layer:3 ice_skate:1 viii_ix:1 metastable_phase:2 xiii_xiv:2 amorphous_solid:3 http_www:1 www_nytimes:1 nytimes_com:1 en_ei:1 clathrate_hydrate:1 crystal_lattice:1 carbon_dioxide:1 lake_balaton:1 air_conditioning:1 mcgraw_hill:1 census_bureau:1 ice_cube:5 ice_hockey:2 ice_rink:1 mcmurdo_station:1 adversely_affect:1 internal_combustion:1 combustion_engine:1 adiabatic_cooling:1 reciprocate_engine:2 hydrogen_atom:2 figure_skate:1 ice_cream:1 external_link:1 mindat_org:1 |
3,279 | Demographics_of_Monaco | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Monaco, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. In 1995, Monaco's population was estimated at 30,744, with an estimated average growth rate of 0,59%. Monaco-Ville has a population of 1 151. French is the official language; Italian, English, and Monégasque also are spoken. The literacy rate is 99%. Roman Catholicism is the official religion, with freedom of other religions guaranteed by the constitution. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 32,671 (July 2007 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 15% (male 2,514, female 2,394) 15-64 years: 62.3% (male 10,047, female 10,312) 65 years and over: 22.7% (male 3 019, female 4,385) (2007 estimate) Population growth rate: 0.386% (2007 estimate) Birth rate: 9.12 births/1,000 population (2007 estimate) Death rate: 12.92 deaths/1,000 population (2007 estimate) Net migration rate: 7.65 migrants/1,000 population (2007 estimate) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.974 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.688 male(s)/female total population: 0.912 male(s)/female (2007 estimate) Infant mortality rate: 5.27 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 estimate) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 79.82 years male: 75.99 years female: 83.85 years (2007 estimate) Total fertility rate: 1.75 children born/woman (2007 estimate) Nationality: noun: Monegasque(s) or Monacan(s) adjective: Monegasque or Monacan Ethnic groups: French 47%, Monegasque 16%, Italian 16%, other 21% Religions: Roman Catholic 90%, other 10% Languages: French (official), English, Italian, Monegasque Literacy: definition: NA total population: 99% male: 99% female: 99% (2003 estimate) See also Monaco | Demographics_of_Monaco |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:13 monaco:4 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 estimate:11 estimated:1 average:1 growth:2 rate:8 ville:1 french:3 official:3 language:2 italian:3 english:2 monégasque:1 also:2 speak:1 literacy:2 roman:2 catholicism:1 religion:3 freedom:1 guarantee:1 constitution:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:1 age:1 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 monegasque:4 monacan:2 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 catholic:1 definition:1 na:1 see:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 monaco_ville:1 roman_catholicism:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 nationality_noun:1 literacy_definition:1 |
3,280 | History_of_Croatia | Croatia first appeared as a duchy in the 7th century and then as a kingdom in the 10th century. For the next ten centuries, it remained a distinct state with its ruler (ban) and parliament, but it obeyed the kings and emperors of various neighboring powers, primarily Hungary and Austria. The period from the 15th to the 17th centuries was marked by bitter struggles with the Ottoman Empire. After being incorporated in Yugoslavia for most of the 20th century, Croatia regained independence in 1991. The history of Croatia was divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the list to the right. For information on today's Croatia, see Croatia. Croatian lands before the Croats (until 7th c.) Oton Iveković, The Croats arrival at the Adriatic Sea The area known as Croatia today has been inhabited throughout the prehistoric period, since the Stone Age. In the middle Paleolithic, Neanderthals lived in Krapina and Vindija (northwest Croatia) and Mujina pećina (central Dalmatia). In the early Neolithic period, the Starčevo, Vučedol and Hvar cultures were scattered around the region. The Iron Age left traces of the Hallstatt culture (early Illyrians) and the La Tène culture (Celts). In recorded history, the area was inhabited by the Illyrians, and since the 4th century BC also colonized in the north by the Celts and along the coast by the Greeks. The Southern Illyrian kingdom, Illyris, was a sovereign state in modern day Montenegro and Albania until the Romans conquered it in 168 BC. The Western Empire organized the provinces of Pannonia and Dalmatia, which after its downfall passed to the Huns, the Ostrogoths and then to the Byzantine Empire. The forebearers of Croatia's current Slav population settled there in the early 7th century. Medieval Croatian state (until 925) The Croats arrived in what is today Croatia in the seventh century. They organized into two dukedoms: the duchy of Pannonian Croatia in the north and the duchy of Littoral Croatia in the south. The biggest part of Christianization of the Croats ended in the 9th century. Croatian duke Trpimir I (845–864), founder of Trpimirović dynasty, fought successfully against Bulgarians, and against the Byzantine strategos in Zadar. He expanded his state in the east to the Drina River. The first native Croatian ruler recognized by a pope was duke Branimir, whom Pope John VIII called dux Croatorum in 879. Croatian Coat of Arms. Kingdom of Croatia (925-1102) The first King of Croatia, Tomislav (910–928) of the Trpimirović dynasty, was crowned in 925. Tomislav, rex Croatorum, united the Pannonian and Dalmatian duchies and created a sizeable state. He defeated Bulgarian Tsar Simeon I in battle of the Bosnian Highlands. The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak during the reign of King Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074). Following the disappearance of the major native dynasty by the end of the 11th century in the Battle of Gvozd Mountain, the Croats eventually recognized the Hungarian ruler Coloman as the common king for Croatia and Hungary in a treaty of 1102 (often referred to as the Pacta conventa). Personal union with Hungary (1102–1918) The consequences of the change to the Hungarian king included the introduction of feudalism and the rise of the native noble families such as Frankopan and Šubić. The later kings sought to restore some of their previously lost influence by giving certain privileges to the towns. The primary governor of Croatian provinces was the ban. The princes of Bribir from the Šubić family became particularly influential, asserting control over large parts of Dalmatia, Slavonia and Bosnia. Later, however, the Angevines intervened and restored royal power. They also sold the whole of Dalmatia to Venice in 1409. Separate coronation as King of Croatia was gradually allowed to fall into abeyance and last crowned king is Charles Robert in 1301 after which Croatia contented herself with a separate diploma inaugurale. In 1490 the estates of Croatia declined to recognize Vladislaus II until he had taken oath to respect their liberties, and insisted upon his erasing from the diploma certain phrases which seemed to reduce Croatia to the rank of a mere province. Dispute will be solved only in 1492 R. W. SETON -WATSON:The southern Slav question and the Habsburg Monarchy page 18 As the Turkish incursion into Europe started, Croatia once again became a border area. The Croats fought an increasing number of battles and gradually lost increasing swaths of territory to the Ottoman Empire. Ban Josip Jelačić. The 1526 Battle of Mohács and the death of King Louis II meant the end of Hungarian authority over Croatia. Hungarian parliament has in 1526 elected János Szapolya for new king of Hungary. On other side Croatian parliament sitting at Cetin on January 1, 1527, unanimously elected Ferdinand Habsburg of Austria for King of Croatia R. W. SETON -WATSON:The southern Slav question and the Habsburg Monarchy page 18 . Few years afterward both crown will be again united in Habsburgs hands and union will be restored. The Ottoman Empire further expanded in the 16th century to include most of Slavonia, western Bosnia and Lika. Later in the same century, Croatia has been so weak that it's parliament has authorized Ferdinand Habsburg to carve out large areas of Croatia and Slavonia adjacent to the Ottoman Empire for creation of Military Frontier (Vojna Krajina, German Militaergrenze) which will be ruled directly from Vienna military headquarters Charles W. Ingrao:The Habsburg monarchy, 1618-1815 page 15 . The area became rather deserted and was subsequently settled by Serbs, Vlachs, Croats and Germans and others. As a result of their compulsory military service to the Habsburg Empire during conflict with the Ottoman Empire, the population in the Military Frontier was free of serfdom and enjoyed much political autonomy unlike the population living in the parts ruled by Hungary. After the Bihać fort finally fell in 1592, only small parts of Croatia remained unconquered. The Ottoman army was successfully repelled for the first time on the territory of Croatia following the battle of Sisak in 1593. The lost territory was mostly restored, except for large parts of today's Bosnia and Herzegovina. By the 1700s, the Ottoman Empire was driven out of Hungary , and Austria brought the empire under central control. Empress Maria Theresa of Austria was supported by the Croatians in the War of Austrian Succession of 1741–1748 and subsequently made significant contributions to Croatian matters. With the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797, its possessions in eastern Adriatic became subject to a dispute between France and Austria. The Habsburgs eventually secured them (by 1815) and Dalmatia and Istria became part of the empire, though they were in Cisleithania while Croatia and Slavonia were under Hungary. Croatian romantic nationalism emerged in mid-19th century to counteract the apparent Germanization and Magyarization of Croatia. The Illyrian movement attracted a number of influential figures from 1830s on, and produced some important advances in the Croatian language and culture. In the Revolutions of 1848 Croatia, driven by fear of Magyar nationalism, supported the Habsburg court against Hungarian revolutionary forces. However, despite the contributions of its ban Jelačić in quenching the Hungarian war of independence, Croatia, not treated any more favourably by Vienna than the Hungarians themselves, lost its domestic autonomy. In 1867 the Dual Monarchy was created; Croatian autonomy was restored in 1868 with the Hungarian–Croatian Settlement which was not particularly favourable for the Croatians. Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1941) Shortly before the end of the First World War in 1918, the Croatian Parliament severed relations with Austria-Hungary as the Entente armies defeated those of the Habsburgs. Croatia and Slavonia became a part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs composed out of all Southern Slavic territories of the now former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy with a transitional government headed in Zagreb. Although the state inherited much of Austro-Hungary's military arsenal, including the entire fleet, the Kingdom of Italy moved rapidly to annex the state's most western territories, promised to her by the Treaty of London of 1915. An Italian Army eventually took Istria, started to annex the Adriatic islands one by one, and even landed in Zadar. After Srijem left Croatia and Slavonia and joined Serbia together with Vojvodina, which was shortly followed by a referendum to join Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia, the People's Council (Narodno vijeće) of the state, guided by what was by that time a half a century long tradition of pan-Slavism and without sanction of the Croatian sabor, joined the Kingdom of Serbia into the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The territory of Croatia largely comprised the territories of the Sava and Littoral Banates. The Kingdom underwent a crucial change in 1921 to the dismay of Croatia's largest political party, the Croatian Peasant Party (Hrvatska seljačka stranka). The new constitution abolished the historical/political entities, including Croatia and Slavonia, centralizing authority in the capital of Belgrade. The Croatian Peasant Party boycotted the government of the Serbian People's Radical Party throughout the period, except for a brief interlude between 1925 and 1927, when external Italian expansionism was at hand with her allies, Albania, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria that threatened Yugoslavia as a whole. In the early 1920s the Yugoslav government of Serbian prime minister Nikola Pasic used police pressure over voters and ethnic minorities, confiscation of opposition pamphlets Balkan Politics, TIME Magazine, March 31, 1923 and other measures of election rigging to keep the opposition, and mainly the Croatian Peasant Party and its allies in minority in Yugoslav parliament. Elections, TIME Magazine, February 23, 1925 Pasic believed that Yugoslavia should be as centralized as possible, creating in place of distinct regional governments and identities a Greater Serbian national concept of concentrated power in the hands of Belgrade. The Opposition, TIME Magazine, April 06, 1925 In spite of ethnic tensions, Yugoslavs united in opposition to attempts by Italy's Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini to force Yugoslavia with the threat of war to allow Italians to colonize Dalmatia, which was claimed by Italian nationalists. When the Yugoslav government signed the Treaty of Nettuno that allowed Italians to freely into Dalmatia, Croats and Yugoslavs in general were infuriated with their government's decision. Large protests in Yugoslavia in 1928 where Croats and other Yugoslavs shouted "Down with Mussolini!", "Death to Fascismo!", "Down with the Treaty of Nettuno!" and "Long live King Alexander!", accusations of treason were made against the Yugoslav government and violence between opposition and government members in the Yugoslav parliament. These were followed by citizens storming the Italian embassies in Zagreb, Ragusa, and Splato, tearing down and burning pictures of Mussolini, along with burning and tearing Italian flags at the embassies. During a Parliament session in 1928, the Croatian Peasant Party's leader Stjepan Radić was mortally wounded by Puniša Račić, a deputy of the Serbian Radical People's Party, which caused further upsets among the Croatian elite. In 1929, King Aleksandar proclaimed a dictatorship and imposed a new constitution which, among other things, renamed the country the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Political parties were banned from the start and the royal dictatorship took on an increasingly harsh character. Vladko Maček, who had succeeded Radić as leader of the Croatian Peasant Party, the largest political party in Croatia, was imprisoned, and members of a newly emerging insurgent movement, the Ustaše, went into exile. According to the British historian Misha Glenny the murder in March 1929 of Toni Schlegel, editor of a pro-Yugoslavian newspaper Novosti, brought a "furious response" from the regime. In Lika and west Herzegovina in particular, which he described as "hotbeds of Croatian separatism," he wrote that the majority-Serb police acted "with no restraining authority whatsoever." Misha Glenny, The Balkans 1804-1999, Granta Books, London 1345, pp. 431-432 And in the words of a prominent Croatian writer, Shlegel's death became the pretext for terror in all forms. Politics was soon "indistinguishable from gangsterism." Josip Horvat, Politička povijest Hrvatske 1918-1929 (Political History of Croatia 1918-1929), Zagreb, 1938 Even in this oppressive climate, few rallied to the Ustaša cause and the movement was never able to organise within Croatia. But its leaders did manage to convince the Communist Party that it was a progressive movement. The party's newspaper Proleter (December 1932) stated: "[We] salute the Ustaša movement of the peasants of Lika and Dalmatia and fully support them." In 1934, King Aleksandar was assassinated abroad, in Marseille, by a coalition of the Ustaše and a similarly radical movement, the Macedonian pro-Bulgarian VMORO. The Serbian-Croatian Cvetković-Maček government that came to power, distanced Yugoslavia's former allies of France and the United Kingdom, and moved closer to Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany in the period of 1935-1941. A national Banovina of Croatia was created in 1939 out of the two Banates, as well as parts of the Zeta, Vrbas, Drina and Danube Banates. It had a reconstructed Croatian Parliament which would choose a Croatian Ban and Viceban. This Croatia included a part of Bosnia (region), most of Herzegovina and the city of Dubrovnik and the surroundings. World War II (1941-1945) The Axis occupation of Yugoslavia in 1941 allowed the Croatian radical right Ustaše to come into power, forming the "Independent State of Croatia", led by Ante Pavelić, who assumed the role of Poglavnik ("Head-man") Nezavisne Drzave Hrvatske ("Leader of the Independent State of Croatia"). Following the pattern of other fascist regimes in Europe, the Ustashi enacted racial laws, formed eight concentration camps targeting minority Serbs, Romas and Jewish populations, as well as Croatian partisans. The biggest concentration camp was Jasenovac in Croatia. The NDH had a program, formulated by Mile Budak, to purge Croatia of Serbs, by “killing one third, expelling the other third and assimilating the remaining third”. The first part of this program began during WWII with a planned genocide in Jasenovac and other locations in the NDH Glenny, Misha. Balkans: Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, 1804-1999. New York, USA: Penguin Books, 2001. Pp. 431 USTASHE. "With the financial assistance of Italian government, Pavelic set about the construction of two main training camps, one in Hungary, one in Italy..." The main targets for persecution, however, were the Serbs. 100.000s of Serbs were killed. The anti-fascist communist-led Partisan movement, based on pan-Yugoslav ideology, emerged in early 1941, under the command of Croatian-born Josip Broz Tito, spreading quickly into many parts of Yugoslavia. The 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment, often hailed as the first armed anti-fascist resistance unit in occupied Europe, was formed in Croatia, in the Brezovica forest near the town of Sisak. As the movement began to gain popularity, the Partisans gained strength from Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs, Slovenes, and Macedonians who believed in a unified, but federal, Yugoslav state. By 1943, the Partisan resistance movement had gained the upper hand, against the odds, and in 1945, with help from the Soviet Red Army (passing only through small parts such as Vojvodina), expelled the Axis forces and local supporters. The ZAVNOH, state anti-fascist council of people's liberation of Croatia, functioned since 1944 and formed an interim civil government. NDH's ministers of War and Internal Security Mladen Lorković and Ante Vokić tried to switch to Allied side. Pavelić was in the beginning supporting them but when he found that he would need to leave his position he imprisoned them in Lepoglava prison where they were executed. By the end of 1941 Ustashas seriously negotiated with the Partisans about organising combined Ustashi-Communist government but that failed when Axis states attacked SSSR. Following the defeat of the Independent State of Croatia at the end of the war a large number of Ustaše, and civilians supporting them (ranging from sympathisers, young conscripts, anti-communists, and ordinary serfs who were motivated by Partisan atrocities) attempted to flee in the direction of Austria hoping to surrender to British forces and to be given refuge. They were instead interned by British forces and then returned to the Partisans. A large number of these persons were killed in what has come to be called the Bleiburg massacre. SFR Yugoslavia (1945–1991) Croatia was a Socialist Republic part of a six-part Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia. Under the new communist system, privately owned factories and estates were nationalized, and the economy was based on a type of planned market socialism. The country underwent a rebuilding process, recovered from World War II, went through industrialization and started developing tourism. The country's socialist system also provided free apartments from big companies, which with the workers' self-management investments paid for the living spaces. From 1963, the citizens of Yugoslavia were allowed to travel to almost any country because of the neutral politics. No visas were required to travel to eastern or western countries, capitalist or communist nations. Socialism of Sorts June 10, 1966 Such free travel was unheard of at the time in the Eastern Bloc countries, and in some western countries as well (eg. Spain or Portugal, both dictatorships at the time). This proved to be very helpful for Croatia's inhabitants who found working in foreign countries more financially rewarding. Upon retirement, a popular plan was to return to live in Croatia (then Yugoslavia) to buy a more expensive property. In Yugoslavia, the people of Croatia were guaranteed free healthcare, free dental care, and secure pensions. The older generation found this very comforting as pensions would sometimes exceed their former paychecks. Free trade and travel within the country also helped Croatian industries that imported and exported throughout all the former republics. Students and military personnel were encouraged to visit other republics to learn more about the country, and all levels of education, especially secondary education and higher education, were gratis. The economy developed into a type of socialism called samoupravljanje (self-management), in which workers controlled socially-owned enterprises. This kind of market socialism created significantly better economic conditions than in the Eastern Bloc countries. Croatia went through intensive industrialization in the 1960s and 1970s with industrial output increasing several-fold and with Zagreb surpassing Belgrade for the amount of industry. Factories and other organizations were often named after Partisans who were declared national heroes. This practice also spread to street names, names of parks and buildings and some more trivial features. Tito meets with Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi in 1975. Before World War II, Croatia's industry was not significant, with the vast majority of the people employed in agriculture. By 1991 the country was completely transformed into a modern industrialized state. By the same time, the Croatian Adriatic coast had taken shape as an internationally popular tourist destination, all coastal republics (but mostly SR Croatia) profited greatly from this, as tourist numbers reached levels still unsurpassed in modern Croatia. The government brought unprecedented economic and industrial growth, high levels of social security and a very low crime rate. The country completely recovered from WW2 and achieved a very high GDP and economic growth rate, significantly higher than the present-day Republic. The constitution of 1963 balanced the power in the country between the Croats and the Serbs, and alleviated the fact that the Croats were again in a minority. Trends after 1965 (like the fall of OZNA and UDBA chief Aleksandar Ranković from power in 1966 The Specter of Separatism, TIME Magazine, February 07, 1972 ), however, led to the Croatian Spring of 1970–71, when students in Zagreb organized demonstrations for greater civil liberties and greater Croatian autonomy. The regime stifled the public protest and incarcerated the leaders, but this led to the ratification of a new Constitution in 1974, giving more rights to the individual republics. At that time, radical Ustaše cells of Croatian émigrés in Western Europe Conspiratorial Croats, TIME Magazine, June 05, 1972 planned and guerilla acts inside Yugoslavia, but they were largely countered. Battle in Bosnia, TIME Magazine, July 24, 1972 In 1980, after Tito's death, economic, political, and religious difficulties started to mount and the federal government began to crumble. The crisis in Kosovo and, in 1986, the emergence of Slobodan Milošević in Serbia provoked a very negative reaction in Croatia and Slovenia; politicians from both republics feared that his motives would threaten their republics' autonomy. With the climate of change throughout Eastern Europe during the 1980s, the communist hegemony was challenged (at the same time, the Milošević government began to gradually concentrate Yugoslav power in Serbia) and calls for free multi-party elections were becoming louder. Republic of Croatia Yugoslav Wars (1991-1995) In 1990, the first free elections were held. A people's movement called the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) won out by a relatively slim margin against the reformed communist Party of Democratic Change (SDP), led by Franjo Tuđman (former general in Tito's Partisan movement) and Ivica Račan (former president of Croatia's League of Communists, the SKH ) respectively. However, Croatia's British-style first-past-the-post election system enabled Tuđman to form the government relatively independently. The HDZ's intentions were to secure independence for Croatia, contrary to the wishes of a part of the ethnic Serbs in the republic, and official politics of Belgrade. The excessively polarized climate soon escalated into complete estrangement between the two nations and even sectarian violence. In the summer of 1990, Serbs from the mountainous areas where they constituted a majority rebelled and formed a new entity, the so-called Autonomous Region of the Serb Krajina (later the Republic of Serbian Krajina); neither were recognised by a single country outside of their proposed borders. Any intervention by the Croatian police was obstructed by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), now containing a significantly larger percentage of Serbs. The conflict culminated with the log revolution, in which the Krajina Serbs blocked the roads to the tourist destinations in Dalmatia. The civilian population fled the areas of armed conflict en masse: generally speaking, hundreds of thousands of Croats moved away from the Bosnian and Serbian border areas, while thousands of Serbs moved towards it. In many places, masses of civilians were forced out by the Yugoslav National Army (JNA), who consisted mostly of conscripts from Serbia and Montenegro, and irregulars from Serbia, in what became known as ethnic cleansing. Ethnic Serbs in Croatian-dominated parts of Croatia were similarly forced out by the Croatian army and irregular forces. The border city of Vukovar underwent a three month siege — the Battle of Vukovar — during which most of the city was destroyed and a majority of the population was forced to flee. The city fell to the Serbian forces on November 18, 1991 and the Vukovar massacre occurred.Some historians believe that the city could have been spared and defended, but was left to "fend for itself" to gain sympathy from the west. Virovitica.net Subsequent UN-sponsored cease-fires followed, and the warring parties mostly entrenched. The Yugoslav People's Army retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina where a new cycle of tensions were escalating: the Bosnian War was to start. During 1992 and 1993, Croatia also handled an estimated 700,000 refugees from Bosnia, mainly Bosnian Muslims. Armed conflict in Croatia remained intermittent and mostly on a small scale until 1995. In early August, Croatia embarked on Operation Storm, this action, though illegal under the UN, would not have been initiated if not for the approval from the United States. The Croatian attack quickly reconquered most of the territories from the Republic of Serbian Krajina authorities, leading to a mass exodus of the Serbian population. An estimated 90,000-350,000 Serbs fled shortly before Croatian report from 1995 Amnesty International report , during and after the operation. As a result of this operation, a few months later the war ended with the negotiation of the Dayton Agreement. A peaceful integration of the remaining Serbian-controlled territories in Eastern Slavonia was completed in 1998 under UN supervision. Majority of the Serbs who fled from the former Krajina have not returned due to fear of being killed, and the Croatian government has done little to encourage Serbs to return. Statement of Croatian president http://hrw.org/croatian/docs/2007/01/11/croati14916.htm Human rights report from 2006 on Croatian From an economic view, the Republic (as well as the remainder of Yugoslavia) experienced a serious depression. President Tuđman initiated the process of privatization and de-nationalization in Croatia, however, this was far from transparent and fully legal. The fact that the new government's legal system was inefficient and slow, as well as the wider context of the Yugoslav wars caused numerous incidents known collectively in Croatia as the "Privatization robbery" (Croatian: "privatizacijska pljačka"). Nepotism was endemic and during this period many influential individuals with the backing of the authorities acquired state-owned property and companies at extremely low prices, afterwards selling them off piecemeal to the highest bidder for much larger sums. This proved very lucrative for the new owners, but in the vast majority of cases this (along with the separation from the previously secured Yugoslav markets) also caused the bankruptcy of the (previously successful) firm, causing the unemployment of thousands of citizens, a problem Croatia still struggles with to this day. This was all helped, not just by the (allegedly purposeful) inadequacy of legal restrictions, but also by the apparently active support of the new Croatia's authorities, ultimately controlled by Tuđman from his strong presidential position. In the end this shed an increasingly negative light, and cast a shadow on his notable successes as a strategist and wartime statesman. Excluding the mostly rural rebel-occupied areas (the so-called Republic of Serbian Krajina), in the last two years of Tuđman's first tenure the detrimental effects of "wild" and unrestricted capitalism had become strikingly visible, with more than 400,000 unemployed citizens, and a significant drop in the GDP per capita, problems Croatia struggles with to this day. Croatia in the 1990s - Republic of Croatia The modern period in Croatian history begins in 1990 with the country's change of political and economic system as well as achieving independence from Yugoslavia in 1991. Following the end of the war, Franjo Tuđman's government started to lose popularity as it was criticized (among other things) for its involvement in suspicious privatization deals of the early 1990s. In 1995, the opposition surprisingly won in the capital of Zagreb, which led to the Zagreb Crisis when Tuđman refused to accept this victory. Croatia became a member of the Council of Europe on November 6, 1996. 1996 and 1997 were a period of post-war recovery and improving economic conditions. The remaining part of former "Krajina", areas adjacent to FR Yugoslavia, negotiated a peaceful reintegration process with the Croatian Government. The so-called Erdut Agreement made the area a temporary protectorate of the UN Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium. The area was formally re-integrated into Croatia on January 15, 1998. Post-Tuđman era Tuđman died in 1999 and in the early 2000 parliamentary elections, the nationalist HDZ government was replaced by a center-left coalition, with Ivica Račan as prime minister. At the same time, presidential elections were held which were won by a moderate, Stjepan Mesić. The new Račan government amended the Constitution, changing the political system from a presidential system to a parliamentary system, transferring most executive presidential powers from the president onto the institutions of the Parliament and the Prime Minister. The new government also started several large building projects, including state-sponsored housing and the building of the vital Zagreb-Split Highway. The country rebounded from a mild recession in 1998/1999 and achieved notable economic growth during the following years. The unemployment rate would continue to rise until 2001 when it finally started falling. Return of refugees accelerated as many homes were rebuilt by the government; most Croats had already returned (except for some in Vukovar), whereas only a third of the Serbs had done so, impeded by unfavorable property laws as well as ethnic and economic issues. The Račan government is often credited with bringing Croatia out of semi-isolation of the Tuđman era. Croatia became a World Trade Organization (WTO) member on November 30, 2000. The country signed an association agreement with the European Union in October 2001, and applied for membership in February/March 2003. Later events In late 2003, new parliamentary elections were held and a reformed HDZ party won under leadership of Ivo Sanader, who became prime minister. After some delay caused by controversy over extradition of army generals to the ICTY, in 2004 the European Commission finally issued a recommendation that the accession negotiations with Croatia should begin. Its report on Croatia described it as a modern democratic society with a competent economy and the ability to take on further obligations, provided it continued the reform process. The country was given EU applicant status on June 18, 2004 and a negotiations framework was set up in March 2005. Actual negotiations began after the capture of general Ante Gotovina in December 2005, which resolved outstanding issues with the ICTY in the Hague. Further issues notwithstanding, the Croatian government and the European Union expect Croatia to become a member of the EU between 2009 and 2010. In August 2007, Croatia experienced its worst post-war tragedy. During the fires that ravaged its coast, 12 firemen died as a result of a fire on Kornat island. See also Culture of Croatia Economy of Croatia List of rulers of Croatia History of Dalmatia History of Zagreb History of present-day nations and states History of Europe History of the Mediterranean History of the Mediterranean region History of Hungary History of the Balkans Central Europe Austria-Hungary NDH History of Yugoslavia References External links Croatian Institute of History Museum Documentation Center The Croatian History Museum Journal of Croatian Studies Short History of Croatia Overview of History, Culture, and Science Overview of History, Culture and Science of Croatia WWW-VL History:Croatia Dr. Michael McAdams: Croatia — Myth and Reality History of Croatia as an introduction to the battle of Vukovar Historical Maps of Croatia Croatia under Tomislav -from Nada Klaic book The History Files: be-x-old:Гісторыя Харватыі | History_of_Croatia |@lemmatized croatia:89 first:10 appear:1 duchy:4 century:14 kingdom:11 next:1 ten:1 remain:6 distinct:2 state:21 ruler:4 ban:6 parliament:10 obey:1 king:14 emperor:1 various:1 neighbor:1 power:10 primarily:1 hungary:13 austria:8 period:8 mark:1 bitter:1 struggle:3 ottoman:7 empire:11 incorporate:1 yugoslavia:20 regain:1 independence:4 history:21 divide:1 series:1 separate:3 historical:3 article:1 navigable:1 list:2 right:4 information:1 today:4 see:2 croatian:53 land:2 croat:17 c:1 oton:1 iveković:1 arrival:1 adriatic:4 sea:1 area:12 know:3 inhabit:2 throughout:4 prehistoric:1 since:3 stone:1 age:2 middle:1 paleolithic:1 neanderthal:1 live:3 krapina:1 vindija:1 northwest:1 mujina:1 pećina:1 central:3 dalmatia:10 early:8 neolithic:1 starčevo:1 vučedol:1 hvar:1 culture:7 scatter:1 around:1 region:4 iron:1 leave:4 trace:1 hallstatt:1 illyrian:4 la:1 tène:1 celts:1 recorded:1 bc:2 also:10 colonize:2 north:2 celt:1 along:3 coast:3 greek:1 southern:4 illyris:1 sovereign:1 modern:5 day:5 montenegro:2 albania:2 roman:1 conquer:1 western:7 organize:3 province:3 pannonia:1 downfall:1 pass:2 hun:1 ostrogoth:1 byzantine:2 forebearers:1 current:1 slav:3 population:7 settle:2 medieval:2 arrive:1 seventh:1 two:5 dukedom:1 pannonian:2 littoral:2 south:1 big:3 part:17 christianization:1 end:9 duke:2 trpimir:1 founder:1 trpimirović:2 dynasty:3 fight:2 successfully:2 bulgarian:3 strategos:1 zadar:2 expand:2 east:1 drina:2 river:1 native:3 recognize:3 pope:2 branimir:1 john:1 viii:1 call:8 dux:1 croatorum:2 coat:1 arm:3 tomislav:3 crown:2 rex:1 unite:2 dalmatian:1 create:5 sizeable:1 defeat:3 tsar:1 simeon:1 battle:8 bosnian:4 highland:1 reach:2 peak:1 reign:1 petar:1 krešimir:1 iv:1 follow:8 disappearance:1 major:1 gvozd:1 mountain:1 eventually:3 hungarian:9 coloman:1 common:1 treaty:4 often:4 refer:1 pacta:1 conventa:1 personal:1 union:5 consequence:1 change:6 include:6 introduction:2 feudalism:1 rise:2 noble:1 family:2 frankopan:1 šubić:2 late:3 seek:1 restore:5 previously:3 lose:4 influence:1 give:4 certain:2 privilege:1 town:2 primary:1 governor:1 prince:1 bribir:1 become:14 particularly:2 influential:3 assert:1 control:4 large:11 slavonia:9 bosnia:8 later:4 however:6 angevine:1 intervene:1 royal:2 sell:2 whole:2 venice:1 coronation:1 gradually:3 allow:5 fall:4 abeyance:1 last:2 crowned:1 charles:2 robert:1 content:1 diploma:2 inaugurale:1 estate:2 decline:1 vladislaus:1 ii:5 take:5 oath:1 respect:1 liberty:2 insist:1 upon:2 erase:1 phrase:1 seem:1 reduce:1 rank:1 mere:1 dispute:2 solve:1 r:2 w:3 seton:2 watson:2 question:2 habsburg:9 monarchy:5 page:3 turkish:1 incursion:1 europe:8 start:9 border:4 increase:3 number:5 swath:1 territory:9 josip:3 jelačić:2 mohács:1 death:4 louis:1 mean:1 authority:6 elect:2 jános:1 szapolya:1 new:14 side:2 sit:1 cetin:1 january:2 unanimously:1 ferdinand:2 year:3 afterward:1 united:3 habsburgs:1 hand:4 far:2 lika:3 weak:1 authorize:1 carve:1 adjacent:2 creation:1 military:6 frontier:2 vojna:1 krajina:8 german:2 militaergrenze:1 rule:2 directly:1 vienna:2 headquarters:1 ingrao:1 rather:1 desert:1 subsequently:2 serb:20 vlachs:1 others:1 result:3 compulsory:1 service:1 conflict:4 free:8 serfdom:1 enjoy:1 much:3 political:9 autonomy:5 unlike:1 living:2 bihać:1 fort:1 finally:3 fell:2 small:3 unconquered:1 army:9 repel:1 time:14 sisak:3 lost:1 mostly:6 except:3 herzegovina:5 drive:2 bring:4 empress:1 maria:1 theresa:1 support:6 war:17 austrian:1 succession:1 make:3 significant:3 contribution:2 matter:1 venetian:1 republic:17 possession:1 eastern:7 subject:1 france:2 secure:4 istria:2 though:2 cisleithania:1 romantic:1 nationalism:3 emerge:3 mid:1 counteract:1 apparent:1 germanization:1 magyarization:1 movement:11 attract:1 figure:1 produce:1 important:1 advance:1 language:1 revolution:2 fear:3 magyar:1 court:1 revolutionary:1 force:10 despite:1 quench:1 treat:1 favourably:1 domestic:1 dual:1 settlement:1 favourable:1 shortly:3 world:5 sever:1 relation:1 entente:1 slovene:3 compose:1 slavic:1 former:8 austro:2 transitional:2 government:26 head:2 zagreb:9 although:1 inherit:1 arsenal:1 entire:1 fleet:1 italy:4 move:4 rapidly:1 annex:2 promise:1 london:2 italian:8 island:2 one:5 even:3 srijem:1 join:3 serbia:7 together:1 vojvodina:2 referendum:1 people:9 council:3 narodno:1 vijeće:1 guide:1 half:1 long:2 tradition:1 pan:2 slavism:1 without:1 sanction:1 sabor:1 largely:2 comprise:1 sava:1 banates:3 undergo:2 crucial:1 dismay:1 party:16 peasant:6 hrvatska:1 seljačka:1 stranka:1 constitution:5 abolish:1 entity:2 centralize:2 capital:2 belgrade:4 boycott:1 serbian:12 radical:5 brief:1 interlude:1 external:2 expansionism:1 ally:3 romania:1 bulgaria:1 threaten:2 yugoslav:16 prime:4 minister:5 nikola:1 pasic:2 use:1 police:3 pressure:1 voter:1 ethnic:6 minority:4 confiscation:1 opposition:6 pamphlet:1 balkan:4 politics:4 magazine:6 march:4 measure:1 election:8 rig:1 keep:1 mainly:2 february:3 believe:3 possible:1 place:2 regional:1 identity:1 great:4 national:4 concept:1 concentrated:1 april:1 spite:1 tension:2 yugoslavs:1 attempt:2 fascist:6 dictator:1 benito:1 mussolini:3 threat:1 claim:1 nationalist:2 sign:2 nettuno:2 freely:1 general:4 infuriate:1 decision:1 protest:2 shout:1 fascismo:1 alexander:1 accusation:1 treason:1 violence:2 member:5 citizen:4 storm:2 embassy:2 ragusa:1 splato:1 tear:2 burn:1 picture:1 burning:1 flag:1 session:1 leader:6 stjepan:2 radić:2 mortally:1 wound:1 puniša:1 račić:1 deputy:1 cause:6 upset:1 among:3 elite:1 aleksandar:3 proclaim:1 dictatorship:3 impose:1 thing:2 rename:1 country:19 increasingly:2 harsh:1 character:1 vladko:1 maček:2 succeed:1 imprison:2 newly:1 insurgent:1 ustaše:5 go:3 exile:1 accord:1 british:4 historian:2 misha:3 glenny:3 murder:1 toni:1 schlegel:1 editor:1 pro:2 yugoslavian:1 newspaper:2 novosti:1 furious:1 response:1 regime:3 west:2 particular:1 describe:2 hotbed:1 separatism:2 write:1 majority:6 act:2 restrain:1 whatsoever:1 granta:1 book:3 pp:2 word:1 prominent:1 writer:1 shlegel:1 pretext:1 terror:1 form:7 soon:2 indistinguishable:1 gangsterism:1 horvat:1 politička:1 povijest:1 hrvatske:2 oppressive:1 climate:3 rally:1 ustaša:2 never:1 able:1 organise:2 within:2 manage:1 convince:1 communist:9 progressive:1 proleter:1 december:2 salute:1 fully:2 assassinate:1 abroad:1 marseille:1 coalition:2 similarly:2 macedonian:2 vmoro:1 cvetković:1 come:3 distance:1 close:1 nazi:1 germany:1 banovina:1 well:7 zeta:1 vrbas:1 danube:1 reconstruct:1 would:6 choose:1 viceban:1 city:5 dubrovnik:1 surroundings:1 axis:3 occupation:1 independent:3 lead:7 ante:3 pavelić:2 assume:1 role:1 poglavnik:1 man:1 nezavisne:1 drzave:1 pattern:1 ustashi:2 enact:1 racial:1 law:2 eight:1 concentration:2 camp:3 target:2 roma:1 jewish:1 partisan:10 jasenovac:2 ndh:4 program:2 formulate:1 mile:1 budak:1 purge:1 kill:4 third:4 expel:2 assimilate:1 begin:7 wwii:1 plan:3 genocide:1 location:1 york:1 usa:1 penguin:1 ustashe:1 financial:1 assistance:1 pavelic:1 set:2 construction:1 main:2 training:1 persecution:1 anti:4 base:2 ideology:1 command:1 bear:1 broz:1 tito:4 spread:2 quickly:2 many:4 detachment:1 hail:1 resistance:2 unit:1 occupied:1 brezovica:1 forest:1 near:1 gain:4 popularity:2 strength:1 bosniaks:1 unified:1 federal:2 upper:1 odds:1 help:3 soviet:1 red:1 local:1 supporter:1 zavnoh:1 liberation:1 function:1 interim:1 civil:2 internal:1 security:2 mladen:1 lorković:1 vokić:1 try:1 switch:1 allied:1 beginning:1 find:3 need:1 position:2 lepoglava:1 prison:1 execute:1 ustashas:1 seriously:1 negotiate:2 combine:1 fail:1 attack:2 sssr:1 civilian:3 range:1 sympathiser:1 young:1 conscript:2 ordinary:1 serf:1 motivate:1 atrocity:1 flee:5 direction:1 hop:1 surrender:1 refuge:1 instead:1 intern:1 return:6 person:1 bleiburg:1 massacre:2 sfr:1 socialist:3 six:1 federative:1 system:8 privately:1 factory:2 nationalize:1 economy:4 type:2 planned:1 market:3 socialism:4 rebuilding:1 process:4 recover:2 industrialization:2 develop:2 tourism:1 provide:2 apartment:1 company:2 worker:2 self:2 management:2 investment:1 pay:1 space:1 travel:4 almost:1 neutral:1 visa:1 require:1 capitalist:1 nation:3 sort:1 june:3 unheard:1 bloc:2 eg:1 spain:1 portugal:1 prove:2 helpful:1 inhabitant:1 work:1 foreign:1 financially:1 reward:1 retirement:1 popular:2 buy:1 expensive:1 property:3 guarantee:1 healthcare:1 dental:1 care:1 pension:2 old:2 generation:1 comfort:1 sometimes:1 exceed:1 paycheck:1 trade:2 industry:3 import:1 export:1 student:2 personnel:1 encourage:2 visit:1 learn:1 level:3 education:3 especially:1 secondary:1 high:5 gratis:1 samoupravljanje:1 socially:1 enterprise:1 kind:1 significantly:3 good:1 economic:9 condition:2 intensive:1 industrial:2 output:1 several:2 fold:1 surpass:1 amount:1 organization:2 name:3 declare:1 hero:1 practice:1 street:1 park:1 building:3 trivial:1 feature:1 meet:1 libyan:1 muammar:1 al:1 gaddafi:1 vast:2 employ:1 agriculture:1 completely:2 transform:1 industrialize:1 shape:1 internationally:1 tourist:3 destination:2 coastal:1 sr:1 profit:1 greatly:1 still:2 unsurpassed:1 unprecedented:1 growth:3 social:1 low:2 crime:1 rate:3 achieve:3 gdp:2 present:2 balance:1 alleviate:1 fact:2 trend:1 like:1 ozna:1 udba:1 chief:1 ranković:1 specter:1 spring:1 demonstration:1 stifle:1 public:1 incarcerate:1 ratification:1 individual:2 cell:1 émigrés:1 conspiratorial:1 guerilla:1 inside:1 counter:1 july:1 religious:1 difficulty:1 mount:1 crumble:1 crisis:2 kosovo:1 emergence:1 slobodan:1 milošević:2 provoke:1 negative:2 reaction:1 slovenia:1 politician:1 motif:1 hegemony:1 challenge:1 concentrate:1 multi:1 louder:1 hold:3 democratic:3 hdz:4 win:4 relatively:2 slim:1 margin:1 reformed:1 sdp:1 franjo:2 tuđman:10 ivica:2 račan:4 president:4 league:1 skh:1 respectively:1 style:1 past:1 post:4 enable:1 independently:1 intention:1 contrary:1 wish:1 official:1 excessively:1 polarized:1 escalate:2 complete:2 estrangement:1 sectarian:1 summer:1 mountainous:1 constitute:1 rebel:2 autonomous:1 neither:1 recognise:1 single:1 outside:1 propose:1 intervention:1 obstruct:1 jna:2 contain:1 percentage:1 culminate:1 log:1 block:1 road:1 armed:1 en:1 masse:1 generally:1 speak:1 hundred:1 thousand:3 away:1 towards:1 mass:2 consist:1 irregular:2 cleansing:1 dominated:1 vukovar:5 underwent:1 three:1 month:2 siege:1 destroy:1 november:3 occur:1 could:1 spar:1 defend:1 fend:1 sympathy:1 virovitica:1 net:1 subsequent:1 un:4 sponsored:1 cease:1 fire:3 warring:1 entrench:1 retreat:1 cycle:1 handle:1 estimate:1 refugee:2 muslim:1 intermittent:1 scale:1 august:2 embark:1 operation:3 action:1 illegal:1 initiate:2 approval:1 reconquer:1 exodus:1 estimated:1 report:4 amnesty:1 international:1 negotiation:4 dayton:1 agreement:3 peaceful:2 integration:1 controlled:1 supervision:1 due:1 little:1 serbs:1 statement:1 http:1 hrw:1 org:1 doc:1 htm:1 human:1 view:1 remainder:1 experience:2 serious:1 depression:1 privatization:3 de:1 nationalization:1 transparent:1 legal:3 inefficient:1 slow:1 wider:1 context:1 numerous:1 incident:1 collectively:1 robbery:1 privatizacijska:1 pljačka:1 nepotism:1 endemic:1 backing:1 acquire:1 extremely:1 price:1 afterwards:1 piecemeal:1 bidder:1 sum:1 lucrative:1 owner:1 case:1 separation:1 bankruptcy:1 successful:1 firm:1 unemployment:2 problem:2 allegedly:1 purposeful:1 inadequacy:1 restriction:1 apparently:1 active:1 ultimately:1 strong:1 presidential:4 shed:1 light:1 cast:1 shadow:1 notable:2 success:1 strategist:1 wartime:1 statesman:1 exclude:1 rural:1 occupy:1 tenure:1 detrimental:1 effect:1 wild:1 unrestricted:1 capitalism:1 strikingly:1 visible:1 unemployed:1 drop:1 per:1 caput:1 criticize:1 involvement:1 suspicious:1 deal:1 surprisingly:1 refuse:1 accept:1 victory:1 recovery:1 improve:1 fr:1 reintegration:1 erdut:1 temporary:1 protectorate:1 administration:1 baranja:1 sirmium:1 formally:1 integrate:1 era:2 die:2 parliamentary:3 replace:1 center:2 left:1 moderate:1 mesić:1 amend:1 transfer:1 executive:1 onto:1 institution:1 project:1 sponsor:1 housing:1 vital:1 split:1 highway:1 rebound:1 mild:1 recession:1 following:1 continue:2 accelerate:1 home:1 rebuild:1 already:1 whereas:1 impede:1 unfavorable:1 issue:4 credit:1 semi:1 isolation:1 wto:1 association:1 european:3 october:1 apply:1 membership:1 event:1 reform:2 leadership:1 ivo:1 sanader:1 delay:1 controversy:1 extradition:1 icty:2 commission:1 recommendation:1 accession:1 society:1 competent:1 ability:1 obligation:1 eu:2 applicant:1 status:1 framework:1 actual:1 capture:1 gotovina:1 resolve:1 outstanding:1 hague:1 notwithstanding:1 expect:1 bad:1 tragedy:1 ravage:1 fireman:1 kornat:1 mediterranean:2 reference:1 link:1 institute:1 museum:2 documentation:1 journal:1 study:1 short:1 overview:2 science:2 www:1 vl:1 dr:1 michael:1 mcadams:1 myth:1 reality:1 map:1 nada:1 klaic:1 file:1 x:1 гісторыя:1 харватыі:1 |@bigram ottoman_empire:6 croatia_croatian:1 adriatic_sea:1 hallstatt_culture:1 la_tène:1 tène_culture:1 coat_arm:1 pacta_conventa:1 vladislaus_ii:1 habsburg_monarchy:3 battle_mohács:1 croatia_slavonia:5 bosnia_herzegovina:3 empress_maria:1 maria_theresa:1 theresa_austria:1 romantic_nationalism:1 austria_hungary:2 slovene_croat:1 croat_serb:2 austro_hungarian:1 herzegovina_serbia:1 serb_croat:1 croat_slovene:1 romania_bulgaria:1 prime_minister:4 fascist_dictator:1 dictator_benito:1 benito_mussolini:1 embassy_zagreb:1 stjepan_radić:1 mortally_wound:1 vladko_maček:1 concentration_camp:2 josip_broz:1 broz_tito:1 sfr_yugoslavia:1 federative_republic:1 eastern_bloc:2 muammar_al:1 al_gaddafi:1 vast_majority:2 tourist_destination:2 slobodan_milošević:1 croatia_slovenia:1 franjo_tuđman:2 tito_partisan:1 sectarian_violence:1 army_jna:2 en_masse:1 hundred_thousand:1 serbia_montenegro:1 ethnic_cleansing:1 croatia_bosnia:1 amnesty_international:1 hrw_org:1 per_caput:1 presidential_election:1 stjepan_mesić:1 zagreb_split:1 unemployment_rate:1 accession_negotiation:1 external_link:1 old_гісторыя:1 |
3,281 | Commodore_1571 | The Commodore 1571 disk drive The Commodore 1571 was Commodore's high-end 5¼" floppy disk drive. With its double-sided drive mechanism, it had the ability to utilize double-sided, double-density (DS/DD) floppy disks natively. This was in contrast to its predecessors, the 1541 and 1570, which could read or write such disks only if the user manually flipped them over to access the second side. The 1571 was released to match the Commodore 128, both design-wise and feature-wise. It was announced in the summer of 1985, at the same time as the C128, and became available in quantity later that year. The later C128D had a 1571-compatible drive integrated in the system unit. A double-sided disk on the 1571 would have a capacity of 340 KB (70 tracks, 1,360 disk blocks of 256 bytes each); as 8 KB are reserved for system use (directory and block availability information) and, under CBM DOS, 2 bytes of each block serve as pointers to the next logical block, 254 x 1,328 = 337,312 B or almost 330 KB were available for user data. (However, with a program organizing disk storage on its own, all space could be used, e.g. for data disks.) Depending on format, CP/M disks would format to 360 KB, with a mechanical maximum capacity of a 400 KB format (as with DD 5.25" drives generally). The 1571 featured a "burst mode" when used in conjunction with the C128 (although not when used with the Commodore 64 or VIC-20). This mode replaced the slow bit-banging serial routines of the 1541 with a true serial shift register implemented in hardware, thus dramatically increasing the drive speed. Although this originally had been planned when Commodore first switched from the parallel IEEE-488 interface to a custom serial interface, hardware bugs in the VIC-20's 6522 VIA shift register prevented it from working properly . For compatibility with copy-protected software, the 1571 could closely emulate the 1541. This mode was the default when the drive was used in conjunction with a C64; while always being able to read and write the 1541's GCR format of 170 KB DD single-sided, in this mode it also would format disks single-sided and transfer data at 1541 speed. An undocumented command allowed the drive to format and use the second side of a disk, but only in single-sided mode. The 1571 was noticeably quieter than its predecessor and tended to run cooler as well, even though, like the 1541, it had an internal power supply (later Commodore drives, like the 1541-II and the 3½" 1581, came with external power supplies). The 1541-II/1581 power supply makes mention of a 1571-II, hinting that Commodore may have intended to release a version of the 1571 with an external power supply. However, no 1571-IIs are known to exist. The embedded OS in the 1571 was CBM DOS V3.0 1571, an improvement over the 1541's V2.6. Early 1571s had a bug in the ROM-based disk operating system that caused relative files to corrupt if they occupied both sides of the disk. A version 2 ROM was released, but though it cured the initial bug, it introduced some minor quirks of its own - particularly with the 1541 emulation. Curiously, it was also identified as V3.0. Unlike the 1541, which was limited to GCR formatting, the 1571 could do both GCR and MFM disk formats. A C128 in CP/M mode equipped with a 1571 was capable of reading and writing floppy disks formatted for many CP/M computers; specifically, the following formats: IBM PC CP/M-86 Osborne 1 Epson QX10 Kaypro II, IV CBM CP/M FORMAT SS CBM CP/M FORMAT DS Other formats were possible if their characteristics were added to the CP/M C128-specific source code and the CP/M operating system were re-assembled. With additional software, it was possible to read and write to DOS-formatted floppies as well. Numerous commercial and public-domain programs for this purpose became available, the best-known being SOGWAP's "Big Blue Reader". Although the C128 could not run any DOS-based software, this capability allowed data files to be exchanged with PC users. As with the 1541, Commodore initially could not meet demand for the 1571, and that lack of availability and the drive's relatively high price (about US$300) presented an opportunity for cloners. Two 1571 clones appeared, one from Oceanic and one from Blue Chip, but legal action from Commodore quickly drove them from the market. Commodore announced a dual-drive version of the 1571, to be called the 1572, but quickly cancelled it, reportedly due to technical difficulties with the 1572 DOS. In the 1541 format, while 40 tracks are possible for a 5.25" DD drive like the 154x/157x, only 35 tracks are used. Commodore chose not to use the upper five tracks by default (or at least to use more than 35) due to the bad quality of some of the drive mechanisms, which did not always work reliably on those tracks. By reducing the number of tracks used (and thus the capacity), Commodore could further reduce cost - in contrast to the double-density drives used e.g. in IBM PCs of the day which saved 180 KB on one side (by using a 40-track format). For compatibility and ease of implementation, the 1571's double-sided format of one logical disk side with 70 tracks was created by putting together the lower 35 physical tracks on each of the physical sides of the disk rather than using two times 40 tracks, even though there were no more quality problems with the mechanisms of the 1571 drives. External links C64 Preservation Project Discusses internal drive mechanics and copy protection References Ellinger, Rainer (1986). 1571 Internals. Grand Rapids, MI: Abacus Software (translated from the original German edition, Düsseldorf: Data Becker GmbH). ISBN 0-916439-44-5. | Commodore_1571 |@lemmatized commodore:13 disk:17 drive:17 high:2 end:1 floppy:4 double:6 side:12 mechanism:3 ability:1 utilize:1 density:2 ds:2 dd:4 natively:1 contrast:2 predecessor:2 could:7 read:4 write:4 user:3 manually:1 flip:1 access:1 second:2 release:3 match:1 design:1 wise:2 feature:2 announce:2 summer:1 time:2 become:2 available:3 quantity:1 later:2 year:1 late:1 compatible:1 integrate:1 system:4 unit:1 would:3 capacity:3 kb:7 track:10 block:4 byte:2 reserve:1 use:13 directory:1 availability:2 information:1 cbm:4 serve:1 pointer:1 next:1 logical:2 x:1 b:1 almost:1 data:5 however:2 program:2 organize:1 storage:1 space:1 e:2 g:2 depend:1 format:15 cp:8 mechanical:1 maximum:1 generally:1 burst:1 mode:6 conjunction:2 although:3 vic:2 replace:1 slow:1 bit:1 bang:1 serial:3 routine:1 true:1 shift:2 register:2 implement:1 hardware:2 thus:2 dramatically:1 increase:1 speed:2 originally:1 plan:1 first:1 switch:1 parallel:1 ieee:1 interface:2 custom:1 bug:3 via:1 prevent:1 work:2 properly:1 compatibility:2 copy:2 protect:1 software:4 closely:1 emulate:1 default:2 always:2 able:1 gcr:3 single:3 also:2 transfer:1 undocumented:1 command:1 allow:2 sided:1 noticeably:1 quiet:1 tend:1 run:2 cooler:1 well:2 even:2 though:3 like:3 internal:2 power:4 supply:4 ii:5 come:1 external:3 make:1 mention:1 hint:1 may:1 intend:1 version:3 know:2 exist:1 embedded:1 dos:1 improvement:1 early:1 rom:2 base:2 operate:2 cause:1 relative:1 file:2 corrupt:1 occupy:1 cure:1 initial:1 introduce:1 minor:1 quirk:1 particularly:1 emulation:1 curiously:1 identify:1 unlike:1 limit:1 formatting:1 mfm:1 equip:1 capable:1 many:1 computer:1 specifically:1 following:1 ibm:2 pc:3 osborne:1 epson:1 kaypro:1 iv:1 possible:3 characteristic:1 add:1 specific:1 source:1 code:1 assemble:1 additional:1 formatted:1 numerous:1 commercial:1 public:1 domain:1 purpose:1 best:1 sogwap:1 big:1 blue:2 reader:1 capability:1 exchange:1 initially:1 meet:1 demand:1 lack:1 relatively:1 price:1 u:1 present:1 opportunity:1 cloners:1 two:2 clone:1 appear:1 one:4 oceanic:1 chip:1 legal:1 action:1 quickly:2 market:1 dual:1 call:1 cancel:1 reportedly:1 due:2 technical:1 difficulty:1 choose:1 upper:1 five:1 least:1 bad:1 quality:2 reliably:1 reduce:2 number:1 far:1 cost:1 day:1 save:1 ease:1 implementation:1 create:1 put:1 together:1 low:1 physical:2 rather:1 problem:1 link:1 preservation:1 project:1 discuss:1 mechanic:1 protection:1 reference:1 ellinger:1 rainer:1 internals:1 grand:1 rapid:1 mi:1 abacus:1 translate:1 original:1 german:1 edition:1 düsseldorf:1 becker:1 gmbh:1 isbn:1 |@bigram floppy_disk:3 commodore_vic:1 ibm_pc:2 external_link:1 |
3,282 | Albert_of_Saxony | Albert (full name: Frederick Augustus Albert Anton Ferdinand Joseph Karl Maria Baptist Nepomuk Wilhelm Xaver Georg Fidelis) (Dresden, 23 April 1828 – Schloss Sibyllenort (Szczodre), 19 June 1902) was a King of Saxony and a member of the House of Wettin. He was the eldest son of Prince John, (who succeeded his brother Frederick Augustus II on the Saxon throne as King John in 1854) by his wife Amalie Auguste of Bavaria. Albert had a successful military career leading Saxon troops which participated in the First War of Schleswig, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War. His reign as king was largely uneventful. Life Military career Albert's education, as usual with German princes, concentrated to a great extent on military matters, but he attended lectures at the University of Bonn. His first experience of warfare came in 1849, when he served as a captain in the First War of Schleswig against Denmark. When the Austro-Prussian War broke out in 1866, Albert then Crown Prince (German: Kronprinz), took up the command of the Saxon forces opposing the Prussian Army of Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia. No attempt was made to defend Saxony; the Saxons fell back into Bohemia and effected a junction with the Austrians. They took a prominent part in the battles by which the Prussians forced the line of the Jizera and in the Battle of Jičín. The Crown Prince, however, succeeded in effecting the retreat in good order, and in the decisive Battle of Königgratz (3 July 1866) he held the extreme left of the Austrian position. The Saxons maintained their post with great tenacity, but were involved in the disastrous defeat of their allies. During these operations the Crown Prince won the reputation of a thorough soldier; after peace was made and Saxony had entered the North German Confederation, he gained the command of the Saxon army, which had now become the XII army corps of the North German army, and in this position carried out the necessary re-organisation. He proved a firm adherent of the Prussian alliance. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 he again commanded the Saxons, who were included in the 2nd army under Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, his old opponent. At the Battle of Gravelotte, they formed the extreme left of the German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out the attack on St Privat, the final and decisive action in the battle. In the re-organisation of the army which accompanied the march towards Paris the Crown Prince gained a separate command over the 4th army (Army of the Meuse) consisting of the Saxons, the Prussian Guard corps, and the IV (Prussian Saxony) corps. He was succeeded in command of the XII corps by his brother Prince George, who had served under him in Bohemia. Albert took a leading part in the operations which preceded the battle of Sedan, the 4th army being the pivot on which the whole army wheeled round in pursuit of Mac-Mahon; and the actions of Buzancy and Beaumont on 29 and 30 August 1870 were fought under his direction; in the Battle of Sedan itself (1 September 1870), with the troops under his orders, Albert carried out the envelopment of the French on the east and north. Albert's conduct in these engagements won for him the complete confidence of the army, and during the Siege of Paris his troops formed the north-east section of the investing force. After the conclusion of the Treaty of Frankfurt (1871), he was left in command of the German army of occupation, a position which he held till the fall of the Paris Commune. On the conclusion of peace he was made an inspector-general of the army and a field marshal. King On the death of his father King John on 29 October 1873, the Crown Prince succeeded to the throne as King Albert. His reign proved uneventful, and he took little public part in politics, devoting himself to military affairs, in which his advice and experience were of the greatest value, not only to the Saxon corps but to the German army in general. In 1877 Albert initiated the build of a Dresden suburb, the Albertstadt. At that time it was the biggest coherent barrack arrangement of Germany. Near the former suburb other buildings and places are still named after him until now: the Albertbrücke, the Alberthafen, the Albertplatz and the Albertinum. In 1879 he initiated the re-building of the Saint Afra School in Meissen. In 1897 he was appointed arbitrator between the claimants for the Principality of Lippe. Also, during his government, the Saxon monarchy became constitutional. He was the 954th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria in 1850, the 776th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1882 and the 95th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword. Marriage and Succession In Dresden on 18 June 1853 Albert married Princess Carola, daughter of Gustav, Prince of Vasa and granddaughter of Gustav IV Adolf, the last king of Sweden of the House of Holstein-Gottorp. Albert died childless and was succeeded by his brother, who became King George. Ancestors </center> Trivia The King of Saxony Bird of Paradise is named for King Albert. References External links Royal House of Saxony Royal House of Sweden | Albert_of_Saxony |@lemmatized albert:13 full:1 name:3 frederick:4 augustus:2 anton:1 ferdinand:1 joseph:1 karl:1 maria:1 baptist:1 nepomuk:1 wilhelm:1 xaver:1 georg:1 fidelis:1 dresden:3 april:1 schloss:1 sibyllenort:1 szczodre:1 june:2 king:10 saxony:6 member:1 house:4 wettin:1 eldest:1 son:1 prince:11 john:3 succeed:5 brother:3 ii:1 saxon:10 throne:2 wife:1 amalie:1 auguste:1 bavaria:1 successful:1 military:4 career:2 lead:1 troop:3 participate:1 first:3 war:6 schleswig:2 austro:2 prussian:10 franco:2 reign:2 largely:1 uneventful:2 life:1 education:1 usual:1 german:7 concentrate:1 great:3 extent:1 matter:1 attend:1 lecture:1 university:1 bonn:1 experience:2 warfare:1 come:1 serve:2 captain:1 denmark:1 break:1 crown:5 kronprinz:1 take:4 command:6 force:3 oppose:1 army:15 charles:2 prussia:2 attempt:1 make:3 defend:1 fell:1 back:1 bohemia:2 effect:2 junction:1 austrian:2 prominent:1 part:3 battle:7 line:1 jizera:1 jičín:1 however:1 retreat:1 good:1 order:5 decisive:2 königgratz:1 july:1 hold:2 extreme:2 left:2 position:3 maintain:1 post:1 tenacity:1 involve:1 disastrous:1 defeat:1 ally:1 operation:2 win:2 reputation:1 thorough:1 soldier:1 peace:2 enter:1 north:4 confederation:1 gain:2 become:3 xii:2 corp:5 carry:3 necessary:1 organisation:2 prove:2 firm:1 adherent:1 alliance:1 outbreak:1 include:1 old:1 opponent:1 gravelotte:1 form:2 guard:2 attack:1 st:1 privat:1 final:1 action:2 accompany:1 march:1 towards:1 paris:3 separate:1 meuse:1 consisting:1 iv:2 george:2 leading:1 precede:1 sedan:2 pivot:1 whole:1 wheel:1 round:1 pursuit:1 mac:1 mahon:1 buzancy:1 beaumont:1 august:1 fight:1 direction:1 september:1 envelopment:1 french:1 east:2 conduct:1 engagement:1 complete:1 confidence:1 siege:1 section:1 investing:1 conclusion:2 treaty:1 frankfurt:1 leave:1 occupation:1 till:1 fall:1 commune:1 inspector:1 general:2 field:1 marshal:1 death:1 father:1 october:1 little:1 public:1 politics:1 devote:1 affair:1 advice:1 value:1 initiate:2 build:1 suburb:2 albertstadt:1 time:1 big:1 coherent:1 barrack:1 arrangement:1 germany:1 near:1 former:1 building:2 place:1 still:1 albertbrücke:1 alberthafen:1 albertplatz:1 albertinum:1 saint:1 afra:1 school:1 meissen:1 appoint:1 arbitrator:1 claimant:1 principality:1 lippe:1 also:1 government:1 monarchy:1 constitutional:1 knight:2 golden:1 fleece:1 austria:1 garter:1 grand:1 cross:1 tower:1 sword:1 marriage:1 succession:1 marry:1 princess:1 carola:1 daughter:1 gustav:2 vas:1 granddaughter:1 adolf:1 last:1 sweden:2 holstein:1 gottorp:1 die:1 childless:1 ancestor:1 center:1 trivia:1 bird:1 paradise:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 royal:2 |@bigram house_wettin:1 eldest_son:1 austro_prussian:2 franco_prussian:2 schleswig_denmark:1 golden_fleece:1 holstein_gottorp:1 external_link:1 |
3,283 | Mode_(music) | Mode (from Latin modus, "measure, standard, manner, way") is a term from Western music theory having three definitions (Powers, 2001): the rhythmic relationship between long and short values in the late medieval period; in early medieval theory, interval; most commonly, a concept involving scale and melody type. In addition, from the end of the eighteenth century, the term began to be used in ethnomusicological contexts to describe pitch structures in non-European musical cultures, sometimes with doubtful compatibility (Powers 2001, §V,1). This article addresses the scale-like meaning. Modes and scales A "scale" is an ordered series of intervals, which, along with the key or tonic, defines the pitches. However, "mode" is usually used in the sense of "scale" applied only to the specific diatonic scales found below. "Modality" refers to the pitch relationships found in music using modes and contrasted with later tonality. The use of more than one mode makes music polymodal, such as with polymodal chromaticism. While all tonal music may technically be described as modal, music that is called modal often has less diatonic functionality and changes key less often than other music. Modern In the modern conception each mode encompasses the usual diatonic scale but with a different tonic or tonal center. On a keyboard instrument, white-note scales map onto modes as: C:Ionian, D:Dorian, E:Phrygian, F:Lydian, G:Mixolydian, A:Aeolian, B:Locrian. Although many of the names in modern music theory are the same as names used in Greece, the sequence of tones is not the same either in pitch or in interval as in the ancient Greek modes (see below). The modes can be arranged in the following sequence, where each mode has one more shortened interval in its scale than the one preceding it. mode whitenote Intervals in the modal scales prime second third fourth fifth sixth seventh octave Lydian IV F perfect major major augmented perfect major major perfect Ionian I C perfect Mixolydian V G minor Dorian II D minor Aeolian VI A minor Phrygian III E minor Locrian VII B diminished The first three modes are termed major, the remaining four minor, governed by their third scale degree. The Locrian mode is traditionally considered theoretical rather than practical because the interval between the first and fifth scale degrees is diminished rather than perfect, which creates difficulties in voice leading. However, Locrian is recognized in jazz theory as the preferred mode to play over a iiø7 chord in a minor iiø7-V7-i progression, where it is called a 'half-diminished' scale. Major modes The Ionian mode () is identical to a major scale. The Lydian mode () is a major scale with a raised fourth scale degree. The Mixolydian mode () is a major scale with a lowered seventh scale degree. Minor modes The Aeolian mode () is identical to a natural minor scale. The Dorian mode () is a natural minor scale with a raised sixth scale degree. The Phrygian mode ()is a natural minor mode with a lowered second scale degree. Diminished modes Locrian () is the only mode whose fifth is not perfect. This interval is enharmonically equivalent to the augmented fourth of the Lydian mode. The Locrian's (I)'s seventh chord is naturally a half diminished seventh which is a diminished triad with a minor seventh on top. Use Modes came back into favor some time later with the developments of impressionism, modal jazz, and more contemporary 20th century music The Ionian mode is another name for the major mode, in which much Western music is composed. The Aeolian forms the base of the most common Western minor scale; however, a true Aeolian mode composition will use only the seven notes of the Aeolian scale, while nearly every minor mode composition of the common practice period will have some accidentals on the sixth and seventh scale degrees in order to facilitate the cadences of western music. Besides the Ionian major and modern (harmonic/melodic) minor modes, the other modes have limited use in music today. Folk music is often best analysed in terms of modes. For example, in Irish traditional music the Ionian, Dorian, Aeolian and Mixolydian modes occur (in roughly decreasing order of frequency); the Phrygian mode is an important part of the flamenco sound. The Dorian mode is also found in other folk music, particularly Latin and Laotian music, while Phrygian is found in some Central European or stylized Arab music, whether as natural Phrygian or harmonic Phrygian (Phrygian Dominant), which has a raised third (the so-called "gypsy scale"). Mixolydian mode is quite common in jazz and most other forms of popular music. Because of its dream-like sound, the Lydian mode is most often heard in soundtrack and video game music. Some works by Beethoven contain modal inflections, and Chopin, Berlioz, and Liszt made extensive use of modes. They influenced nineteenth-century Russian composers, including Mussorgsky and Borodin; many twentieth-century composers drew on this earlier work in their incorporation of modal elements, including Claude Debussy, Leoš Janáček, Jean Sibelius, Ralph Vaughan Williams and others. Zoltán Kodály, Gustav Holst, Manuel de Falla use modal elements as modifications of a diatonic background, while in the music of Debussy and Béla Bartók modality replaces diatonic tonality. They have also been used in popular music, especially in rock music. While remaining relatively uncommon in modern (Western) popular music, the darker tones implied by the flatted 2nd and/or 5th degrees of (respectively) the Phrygian and Locrian modes are evident in diatonic chord progressions and melodies of many guitar-oriented rock bands, especially in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as evidenced on albums such as Metallica's "Ride the Lightning" and "Master of Puppets", among others. Chords In jazz, the modes correspond to and are played over particular chords. (This is not entirely true. For this usage, scale on a chord, the correct term is "chord scale", not mode. Ex: The dorian chord scale is commonly played over the II-7 chord in a major key. Being in the dorian mode signifies that that particular chord is the tonic chord.) The chord examples below are shown for the modes of the key of C. For example, over an Fmaj711 chord, musicians typically play notes from the F Lydian mode (a Lydian chord scale over a IVma7 chord). ModeIonianDorianPhrygianLydianMixolydianAeolianLocrianChordCmaj7Dm7Esus9 (or Em7)Fmaj711G7Am7Bø (Bm75) Although both Dorian and Aeolian can be played over a minor seventh (m7) chord, the Dorian mode is most commonly used in straightahead jazz because the Dorian mode has a whole step between the 5th and 6th scale degrees, in contrast to the more jarring half step in the Aeolian. Also note that the most common jazz cadence or chord progression is a ii-V-I which suggests Dorian mode in the case of the ii chord. Similarly, over a half-diminished (ø or m7♭5) chord, many jazz musicians will alter the Locrian mode by raising the second degree of the scale by a semitone, in order to form a major ninth over the chord (e.g. C over Bø), rather than the more dissonant minor ninth (e.g. C natural over Bø). This scale is also called the 6th mode of the melodic minor. And over the "sus9" chord, the sixth scale degree of the Phrygian mode is often raised by a semitone, in order to make a major sixth in the chord, rather than the more dissonant minor sixth. This mode is also called the 2nd mode of melodic minor. See Other modes below for more about the melodic minor modes and their associated chords. Other types In modern music theory, scales other than the major scale sometimes have the term "modes" applied to the scales which begin with their degrees. This is seen, for example, in "melodic minor" scale harmony, which is based on the seven modes of the melodic minor scale, yielding some interesting scales as shown below. The "Chord" row lists chords that can be built from the given mode. ModeIIIIIIIVVVIVIINameMelodic minorDorian 2Lydian augmentedLydian dominantMixolydian 6 or "Hindu"half-diminished (or) Locrian Natural 2ndaltered (or) diminished whole-tone (or) Super LocrianChordC-maj7D-9Emaj5F711G713Aø (or) A-75B7alt ModeIIIIIIIVVVIVIINameHarmonic minorLocrian Natural 6thHarmonic Major 5Ukrainian minorPhrygian major 3rdLydian 2Super Locrian diminished ChordC-minmaj7DøE-maj75 F-7G7A-maj7 (or) A-minmaj7B-Dim7 ModeIIIIIIIVVVIVIINameDouble harmonic scaleLydian 2 6Phrygian 4 7Hungarian gypsy scaleLocrian Nat6 3Harmonic Major 5 2Locrian 3 7ChordCmaj7Dbmaj7Edim7nat5F-maj7G7flat5Abmaj7#5Bdim7flat3 Most of these chords and modes are commonly used in jazz; the min/maj chord, 711 and alt were in common use in the bebop era (indeed, the Lydian dominant scale and 711 chord practically defined the bebop sound), while Coltrane-era and later jazz made extensive use of sus9 chords. Maj5 is less common, but appears in Wayne Shorter's compositions. The 67 is rarely seen as such. Though the term "mode" is still used in this case (and is useful in recognizing that these scales all have a common root, that is the melodic minor scale); it is more common for musicians to understand the term "mode" to refer to Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian, or Locrian scales. In everyday speech, this is the most common understanding. But in truth, any scale can be *used* as a mode by establishing its final as the tonal center and emphasizing its characteristic color pitches. However, strictly speaking, for any possible scale, the number of possible distinct melodic modes is dictated by the pattern of intervals in the scale. For scales built of a pattern of intervals that only repeats at the octave, the number of modes is the number of notes in the scale: such 6-note scales have 6 modes, 5-note scales have 5 modes, etc. Scales that repeat their interval pattern at some subdivision of the octave, however, have only as many modes as notes within that subdivision: e.g. the diminished scale, which is built of alternating whole and half steps, has only two distinct modes, since all odd-numbered modes are equivalent to the first (starting on the whole step) and all even-numbered modes are equivalent to the second (starting on the half step). These scales are sometimes referred to as modes of limited transposition. The chromatic and whole-tone scales, each containing only steps of uniform size, have only a single mode each, as any rotation of the sequence results in the same sequence. While most scales (a defined number of notes occurring in defined intervals) have commonly accepted names, most of the modal variations of the more obscure scales do not, and are instead referred to as "3rd mode of [your-scale-name-here]", etc. Greek Early Greek treatises on music do not use the term "mode" (which comes from Latin), but do describe scales (or "systems"), tonoi (the more usual term used in medieval theory for "mode"), and harmoniai—the latter subsuming the corresponding tonoi but not necessarily the converse (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(e)). These were named after one of the Ancient Greek subgroups (Dorians), one small region in central Greece (Locris), and certain neighboring (non-Greek) peoples from Asia Minor (Lydia, Phrygia). Some of these treatises also describe "melic composition"—"the employment of the materials subject to harmonic practice with due regard to the requirements of each of the subjects under consideration" (Cleonides 1965, 35)—which, together with the scales, tonoi, and harmoniai resemble elements found in medieval modal theory (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)). Scales The Greek scales in the Aristoxenian tradition were (Barbera 1984, 240; Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(d)): Mixolydian: hypate hypaton–paramese (b–b′) Lydian: parhypate hypaton–trite diezeugmenon (c′–c″) Phrygian: lichanos hypaton–paranete diezeugmenon (d′–d″) Dorian: hypate meson–nete diezeugmenon (e′–e″) Hypolydian: parhypate meson–trite hyperbolaion (f′–f″) Hypophrygian: lichanos meson–paranete hyperbolaion (g′–g″) Common, Locrian, or Hypodorian: mese–nete hyperbolaion or proslambnomenos–mese (a′–a″ or a–a′) The association of these ethnic names with the octave species appears to precede Aristoxenos, who criticized their application to the tonoi by the earlier theorists whom he called the Harmonicists (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(d)). Because scales were constructed from one of three different genera of tetrachords, the intervals in each of the seven octave species were variable. These were (1) the diatonic genus (ascending semitone–tone–tone), (2) the chromatic genus (ascending semitone–semitone–minor third, and (3) the enharmonic genus (ascending diesis–diesis–major third, where a diesis is approximately a quarter-tone) (Cleonides 1965, 35–36). The framing interval of the perfect fourth is fixed, while the two internal pitches are movable. Within the basic forms, the intervals of the chromatic and diatonic genera were varied further by three and two "shades" (chroai), respectively: mid chromatic (with small semitones and large minor third dividing the fourth in proportions of 4:4:22), hemiolic chromatic (intermediate intervals of 4.5:4.5:21), and tonic chromatic (large semitones and small minor third, 6:6:18), and mid (soft) and intense (syntonic) diatonic, the former with a small and large whole tone (6:9:15), the latter with equal whole tones (6:12:12) (Cleonides 1965, 39–40; Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(c)). Tonoi The term tonos (pl. tonoi) was used in four senses: "as note, interval, region of the voice, and pitch.… We use it of the region of the voice whenever we speak of Dorian, or Phrygian, or Lydian, or any of the other tones" (Cleonides 1965, 44). Cleonides attributes thirteen tonoi to Aristoxenos, which represent a progressive transposition of the entire system (or scale) by semitone over the range of an octave between the Hypodorian and the Hypermixolydian (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(e)). Aristoxenos's transpositional tonoi, according to Cleonides (1965, 44), were named analogously to the octave species, supplemented with new terms to raise the number of degrees from seven to thirteen. However, according to the interpretation of at least two modern authorities, in these transpositional tonoi the Hypodorian is the lowest, and the Mixolydian next-to-highest—the reverse of the case of the octave species (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(e); Solomon 1984, 244–45), with nominal base pitches as follows (descending order): f: Hypermixolydian (or Hyperphrygian) e: High Mixolydian or Hyperiastian e♭: Low Mixolydian or Hyperdorian d: Lydian c♯: Low Lydian or Aeolian c: Phrygian B: Low Phrygian or Iastian B♭: Dorian A: Hypolydian G♯: Low Hypolydian or Hypoaelion G: Hypophrygian F♯: Low Hypophrygian or Hypoiastian F: Hypodorian Ptolemy, in his Harmonics, ii.3–11, construed the tonoi differently, presenting all seven octave species within a fixed octave, through chromatic inflection of the scale degrees (comparable to the modern conception of building all seven modal scales on a single tonic). In Ptolomy's system, therefore there are only seven tonoi (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(e); Mathiesen 2001c). Harmoniai In music theory the Greek word harmonia can signify the enharmonic genus, the seven octave species, or a style of music associated with one of the ethnic types or the tonoi named by them (Mathiesen 2001b). In the Republic, Plato uses the term inclusively to encompass a particular type of scale, range and register, characteristic rhythmic pattern, textual subject, etc. (Mathiesen 2001a, 6(iii)(e)). He held that playing music in a particular harmonia would incline one towards specific behaviors associated with it, and suggested that soldiers should listen to music in Dorian or Phrygian harmoniai to help make them stronger, but avoid music in Lydian, Mixolydian or Ionian harmoniai, for fear of being softened. Plato believed that a change in the musical modes of the state would cause a wide-scale social revolution. The philosophical writings of Plato and Aristotle (c. 350 BC) include sections that describe the effect of different harmoniai on mood and character formation. For example, this quote from Aristotle's Politics (viii:1340a:40–1340b:5): Plato and Aristotle describe the modes to which a person listened as molding the person's character. The modes even made the person more or less fit for certain jobs. The effect of modes on character and mood was called the "ethos of music". Western Church There is a common misconception that the church modes (also called ecclesiastical modes) of medieval European music were directly descended from the Greek notion of modality mentioned above. In fact, the church modes originated in the 9th century. Authors from that period created confusion by trying to use a text by Boethius, a scholar from the 6th century who had translated Greek music theory treatises by Nicomachus and Ptolemy into Latin (Bower 2001), in order to defend and explain the mode of plainchant, which were a wholly different system (Palisca 1984, 222). In his De institutione musica, book 4 chapter 15, Boethius, like his Hellenistic sources, used the term "modus"—probably translating the Greek word τρόπος (tropos), which he also rendered as Latin tropus (Bower 1984, 253)—in connection with the seven diatonic octave species, so the term was simply a means of describing transposition and had nothing to do with the church modes (Powers 2001, §II.1(i)). Later, 9th-century theorists took Boethius’s terms tropus and modus and applied them (along with "tonus") to the system of church modes. The most important of these writings is the treatise De Musica (or De harmonica institutione) attributed to Hucbald, which synthesized the three previously disparate strands of modal theory: chant theory, the Byzantine oktōēchos and Boethius's account of Hellenistic theory (Powers 2001,§II.2). The later 9th-century treatise known as the Alia musica integrated the seven species of the octave with the eight church modes (Powers 2001, §II.2(ii)). Thus, the names of the modes used today do not actually reflect those used by the Greeks. The eight church modes, or Gregorian modes, can be divided into four pairs, where each pair shares the "final" note and the four notes above the final. If the "scale" is completed by adding three higher notes, the mode is termed authentic, while if the scale is completed by adding three lower notes, the mode is called plagal (from Greek πλάγιος, "oblique, sideways"). Otherwise explained: if the melody moves mostly above the final, with an occasional cadence to the sub-final, the mode is authentic. Plagal modes shift range and also explore the fourth below the final as well as the fifth above. The pairs are organized so that the modes sharing a final note are numbered together, with the odd numbers used for the authentic modes and the even numbers for the plagal modes. In addition, each mode has a "dominant" or "reciting tone", which is the tenor of the psalm tone. The reciting tones of all authentic modes began a fifth above the final, with those of the plagal modes a third above. However, the reciting tones of modes 3, 4, and 8 rose one step during the tenth and eleventh centuries with 3 and 8 moving from b to c' (half step) and that of 4 moving from g to a (whole step) (Hoppin 1978, p.67). Only one accidental is used commonly in Gregorian chant—si (B) may be lowered by a half-step. This usually (but not always) occurs in modes V and VI, as well as in the upper tetrachord of IV, and is optional in other modes except III, VII and VIII (Powers 2001, §II.3.i(b), Ex. 5). ModeIIIIIIIVVVIVIIVIIINameDorianHypodorianPhrygianHypophrygianLydianHypolydianMixolydianHypomixolydianFinal (note)DDEEFFGGFinal (solfege)reremimifafasolsolDominant (note)AFB-CACADCDominant (solfege)lafasi-doladolaredo In 1547, the Swiss theorist Henricus Glareanus published the Dodecachordon, in which he solidified the concept of the church modes, and added four additional modes: the Aeolian (mode 9), Hypoaeolian (mode 10), Ionian (mode 11), and Hypoionian (mode 12). A little later in the century, the Italian Gioseffo Zarlino at first adopted Glarean's system in 1558, but later (1571 and 1573) revised the numbering and naming conventions in a manner he deemed more logical, resulting in the widespread promulgation of two conflicting systems. Zarlino's system reassigned the six pairs of authentic–plagal mode numbers to finals in the order of the natural hexachord, C D E F G A, and transferred the Greek names as well, so that modes 1 through 8 now became C-authentic to F-plagal, and were now called by the names Dorian to Hypomixolydian. The pair of G modes were numbered 9 and 10 and were named Ionian and Hypoionian, while the pair of A modes retained both the numbers and names (11, Aeolian, and 12 Hypoaeolian) of Glarean's system (Powers 2001 §III.4(ii)(a) & §III.5(i)). Given the confusion between ancient, medieval, and modern terminology, "today it is more consistent and practical to use the traditional designation of the modes with numbers one to eight" (Knighton and Fallows 1997,), using Roman numeral (I-VIII), rather than using the pseudo-Greek naming system. Contemporary terms, also used by scholars, are simply the Greek ordinals ("first", "second", etc.), usually transliterated into the Latin alphabet: protus (πρῶτος), deuterus (δεύτερος), tritus (τρίτος), and tetrardus (τετράρδος), in practice used as: protus authentus / plagalis. Use Early music made heavy use of the Church modes. A mode indicated a primary pitch (a final); the organization of pitches in relation to the final; suggested range; melodic formulas associated with different modes; location and importance of cadences; and affect (i.e. emotional effect/character). Liane Curtis writes that "Modes should not be equated with scales: principles of melodic organization, placement of cadences, and emotional affect are essential parts of modal content" in Medieval and Renaissance music (Curtis 1997). While it is true that other technical features such as reciting tones, cadences, and expressive qualities have roles in modal theory, it was nevertheless the scalar aspect of mode—in authentic and plagal forms—that was most universally described by theorists, and which has the greatest use in Renaissance polyphony. The use of cadences on important modal steps (especially the modal final) greatly helps to establish the sound of the mode, and once that has taken place, it is natural that the inherent expressive sounds of the modes are heard. The different orders of tones and semitones were widely recognized as creating the expressive qualities of the modes. Although today the significance of mode in Renaissance polyphony is being debated, most Renaissance theorists refer to the use of mode in polyphonic composition, and the principles of diatonic scale and practice of composing music around central pitches are so common in the music of this period that it is probable that composers did directly apply the modes to their compositions. Carl Dahlhaus (1990, 192) lists "three factors that form the respective starting points for the modal theories of Aurelian of Réôme, Hermannus Contractus, and Guido of Arezzo: the relation of modal formulas to the comprehensive system of tonal relationships embodied in the diatonic scale; the partitioning of the octave into a modal framework; and the function of the modal final as a relational center." The oldest medieval treatise regarding modes is Musica disciplina by Aurelian of Réôme (dating from around 850) while Hermannus Contractus was the first to define modes as partitionings of the octave (Dahlhaus 1990, 192–91). However, the earliest Western source using the system of eight modes is the Tonary of St Riquier, dated between about 795 and 800 (Powers 2001, §II 1(ii)). Various interpretations of the "character" imparted by the different modes have been suggested. Three such interpretations, from Guido of Arezzo (995-1050), Adam of Fulda (1445-1505), and Juan de Espinoza Medrano (1632-1688), follow: NameModeD'Arezzo FuldaEspinozaExample chantDorianIseriousany feelinghappy, taming the passionsVeni sancte spiritus (listen)HypodorianIIsadsadserious and tearfulIesu dulcis amor meus (listen)PhrygianIIImysticvehementinciting angerKyrie, fons bonitatis (listen)HypophrygianIVharmonioustenderinciting delights, tempering fiercenessConditor alme siderum (listen)LydianVhappyhappyhappySalve Regina (listen)HypolydianVIdevoutpioustearful and piousUbi caritas (listen)MixolydianVIIangelicalof youthuniting pleasure and sadnessIntroibo (listen)HypomixolydianVIIIperfectof knowledgevery happyAd cenam agni providi (listen) Most of the theoretical writings on Gregorian chant modes postdate the composition of the early Gregorian chant repertoire, which was not composed with the intention of conforming to particular modes. As a result, for these chants, the application of a mode number can be only approximate. Later chants, however, were written with a conscious eye on the eight modes. Analogues in different musical traditions Echos Makam Maqam Pathet Pentatonic scale Raga Thaat See also Melody type Properties of musical modes Diatonic and chromatic Gamut (music) Raga Maqam Byzantine chant References Barbera, André (1984). "Octave Species". The Journal of Musicology 3, no. 3 (Summer): 229–41. Barker, Andrew (ed.) (1984–89). Greek Musical Writings. 2 vols. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23593-6 (v. 1) ISBN 0-521-30220-X (v. 2) Bower, Calvin M. (1984). "The Modes of Boethius". The Journal of Musicology 3, no. 3 (Summer): 252–63. Bower, Calvin (2001). "Boethius [Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius]". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Cleonides (1965). "Harmonic Introduction," translated by Oliver Strunk. In Source Readings in Music History, vol. 1 (Antiquity and the Middle Ages), edited by Oliver Strunk, 34–46. New York: W. W. Norton. Curtis, Liane (1997). "Mode". In Companion to Medieval and Renaissance Music, edited by Tess Knighton and David Fallows. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520210816. Originally published New York: Schirmer Books, Maxwell Macmillan International, 1992. Jowett, Benjamin (1937). The Dialogues of Plato, translated by Benjamin Jowett, 3rd ed. 2 vols. New York: Random House. Jowett, Benjamin (1943). Aristotle's Politics, translated by Benjamin Jowett. New York: Modern Library. Knighton, Tess, and David Fallows (eds.) (1997). Companion to Medieval and Renaissance Music. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520210816. Originally published New York: Schirmer Books, Maxwell Macmillan International, 1992. Mathiesen, Thomas J. (2001a). "Greece, §I: Ancient". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Mathiesen, Thomas J. (2001b). "Harmonia (i)". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Mathiesen, Thomas J. (2001c). "Tonos". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Palisca, Claude V. (1984). "Introductory Notes on the Historiography of the Greek Modes". The Journal of Musicology 3, no. 3 (Summer): 221–28. Powers, Harold S. (2001). "Mode". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan. Solomon, Jon (1984). "Towards a History of Tonoi". The Journal of Musicology 3, no. 3 (Summer): 242–51. Further reading Apel, Willi (1968). Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. 2nd edition. Grout, Donald; Palisca, Claude; and Burkholder, J. Peter (2006). A History of Western Music. New York: W. W. Norton. 7th edition. ISBN 0-393-97991-1. Levine, Mark (1989). The Jazz Piano Book. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co. ISBN 0-9614701-5-1. Meier, Bernhard (1988). The Modes of Classical Vocal Polyphony, Described According to the Sources, translated from the German by Ellen S. Beebe, with revisions by the author. New York: Broude Brothers. Miller, Ron (1996). Modal Jazz Composition and Harmony, Vol. 1. Rottenburg, Germany: Advance Music. Powers, Harold S. (1980). "Mode", in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan. (The classic treatment of mode in the English language.) Vieru, Anatol (1985). "Modalism-A 'Third World'". Perspectives of New Music 24, no. 1 (Fall–Winter): 62–71. Vieru, Anatol (1992). "Generating Modal Sequences (A Remote Approach to Minimal Music)". Perspectives of New Music 30, no. 2 (Summer): 178–200. da Silva, Pedro H. (2006). "Modal Relations and Classification". DMA thesis. Manhattan School of Music, 2006. | Mode_(music) |@lemmatized mode:138 latin:6 modus:3 measure:1 standard:1 manner:2 way:1 term:17 western:8 music:54 theory:14 three:9 definition:1 power:10 rhythmic:2 relationship:3 long:1 short:1 value:1 late:4 medieval:10 period:4 early:8 interval:16 commonly:6 concept:2 involve:1 scale:74 melody:4 type:5 addition:2 end:1 eighteenth:1 century:10 begin:3 use:38 ethnomusicological:1 context:1 describe:9 pitch:11 structure:1 non:2 european:3 musical:5 culture:1 sometimes:3 doubtful:1 compatibility:1 v:7 article:1 address:1 like:3 mean:2 ordered:1 series:1 along:2 key:4 tonic:5 define:4 however:9 usually:3 sense:1 apply:4 specific:2 diatonic:13 find:5 modality:3 refers:1 contrast:2 tonality:2 one:11 make:7 polymodal:2 chromaticism:1 tonal:4 may:2 technically:1 modal:22 call:10 often:5 less:4 functionality:1 change:2 modern:10 conception:2 encompass:2 usual:2 different:8 center:3 keyboard:1 instrument:1 white:1 note:18 map:1 onto:1 c:14 ionian:10 dorian:18 e:16 phrygian:16 f:11 lydian:14 g:12 mixolydian:11 aeolian:13 b:9 locrian:12 although:3 many:5 name:14 greece:3 sequence:5 tone:16 either:1 ancient:4 greek:17 see:5 arrange:1 following:1 shortened:1 preceding:1 whitenote:1 prime:1 second:5 third:9 fourth:6 fifth:5 sixth:6 seventh:7 octave:16 iv:2 perfect:7 major:19 augment:1 minor:27 ii:13 vi:2 iii:13 vii:2 diminish:9 first:6 termed:1 remain:2 four:5 govern:1 degree:14 traditionally:1 consider:1 theoretical:2 rather:5 practical:2 create:3 difficulty:1 voice:3 lead:1 recognize:3 jazz:11 preferred:1 play:6 chord:29 progression:3 half:9 identical:2 raise:6 lowered:2 modes:3 natural:9 whose:1 enharmonically:1 equivalent:3 augmented:1 naturally:1 diminished:2 triad:1 top:1 come:2 back:1 favor:1 time:1 later:6 development:1 impressionism:1 contemporary:2 another:1 much:1 compose:3 form:6 base:3 common:12 true:3 composition:8 seven:10 nearly:1 every:1 practice:4 accidental:2 order:8 facilitate:1 cadence:7 besides:1 harmonic:6 melodic:10 limit:1 today:4 folk:2 best:1 analyse:1 example:4 irish:1 traditional:2 occur:3 roughly:1 decrease:1 frequency:1 important:3 part:2 flamenco:1 sound:5 also:11 particularly:1 laotian:1 central:3 stylized:1 arab:1 whether:1 dominant:3 gypsy:2 quite:1 popular:3 dream:1 hear:2 soundtrack:1 video:1 game:1 work:2 beethoven:1 contain:2 inflection:2 chopin:1 berlioz:1 liszt:1 extensive:2 influence:1 nineteenth:1 russian:1 composer:3 include:3 mussorgsky:1 borodin:1 twentieth:1 draw:1 incorporation:1 element:3 claude:3 debussy:2 leoš:1 janáček:1 jean:1 sibelius:1 ralph:1 vaughan:1 williams:1 others:2 zoltán:1 kodály:1 gustav:1 holst:1 manuel:1 de:5 falla:1 modification:1 background:1 béla:1 bartók:1 replace:1 especially:3 rock:2 relatively:1 uncommon:1 darker:1 imply:1 flatted:1 respectively:2 evident:1 guitar:1 orient:1 band:1 evidence:1 album:1 metallica:1 ride:1 lightning:1 master:1 puppet:1 among:1 correspond:1 particular:5 entirely:1 usage:1 correct:1 ex:2 signifies:1 examples:1 show:2 musician:9 typically:1 straightahead:1 whole:8 step:11 jarring:1 suggest:4 case:3 similarly:1 ø:1 alter:1 semitone:9 ninth:2 bø:2 dissonant:2 associated:1 harmony:2 yield:1 interesting:1 row:1 list:2 build:4 give:2 modeiiiiiiivvviviinamemelodic:1 minordorian:1 augmentedlydian:1 dominantmixolydian:1 hindu:1 super:1 locrianchordc:1 modeiiiiiiivvviviinameharmonic:1 minorlocrian:1 minorphrygian:1 chordc:1 modeiiiiiiivvviviinamedouble:1 scalelydian:1 scalelocrian:1 min:1 maj:1 alt:1 bebop:2 era:2 indeed:1 practically:1 coltrane:1 appear:2 wayne:1 shorter:1 rarely:1 though:1 still:1 useful:1 root:1 understand:1 refer:4 everyday:1 speech:1 understanding:1 truth:1 used:1 establish:2 final:13 emphasize:1 characteristic:2 color:1 strictly:1 speak:2 possible:2 number:14 distinct:2 dictate:1 pattern:4 repeat:2 etc:4 subdivision:2 within:3 alternate:1 two:5 since:1 odd:2 numbered:1 start:2 even:3 limited:1 transposition:3 chromatic:8 uniform:1 size:1 single:2 rotation:1 result:3 defined:1 accept:1 variation:1 obscure:1 instead:1 treatise:6 system:12 tonoi:13 harmoniai:6 latter:2 subsume:1 corresponding:1 necessarily:1 converse:1 mathiesen:14 subgroup:1 small:4 region:3 locris:1 certain:2 neighboring:1 people:1 asia:1 lydia:1 phrygia:1 melic:1 employment:1 material:1 subject:3 due:1 regard:2 requirement:1 consideration:1 cleonides:7 together:2 resemble:1 aristoxenian:1 tradition:2 barbera:2 hypate:2 hypaton:3 paramese:1 parhypate:2 trite:2 diezeugmenon:3 lichanos:2 paranete:2 meson:3 nete:2 hypolydian:3 hyperbolaion:3 hypophrygian:3 hypodorian:4 mese:2 proslambnomenos:1 association:1 ethnic:2 specie:9 precede:1 aristoxenos:3 criticize:1 application:2 theorist:5 harmonicists:1 construct:1 genus:6 tetrachords:1 variable:1 ascend:3 enharmonic:2 diesis:3 approximately:1 quarter:1 frame:1 fix:1 internal:1 movable:1 basic:1 vary:1 shade:1 chroai:1 mid:2 large:3 divide:2 proportion:1 hemiolic:1 intermediate:1 soft:1 intense:1 syntonic:1 former:1 equal:1 tonos:2 pl:1 sens:1 whenever:1 attribute:2 thirteen:2 represent:1 progressive:1 entire:1 range:4 hypermixolydian:2 transpositional:2 accord:3 analogously:1 supplement:1 new:17 interpretation:3 least:1 authority:1 low:7 next:1 high:3 reverse:1 solomon:2 nominal:1 follow:2 descend:2 hyperphrygian:1 hyperiastian:1 hyperdorian:1 iastian:1 hypoaelion:1 hypoiastian:1 ptolemy:2 construe:1 differently:1 present:1 fixed:1 comparable:1 ptolomy:1 therefore:1 word:2 harmonia:3 signify:1 style:1 associate:3 republic:1 plato:5 inclusively:1 register:1 textual:1 hold:1 would:2 incline:1 towards:2 behavior:1 soldier:1 listen:10 help:2 strong:1 avoid:1 fear:1 soften:1 believe:1 state:1 cause:1 wide:1 social:1 revolution:1 philosophical:1 writing:4 aristotle:4 bc:1 section:1 effect:3 mood:2 character:5 formation:1 quote:1 politics:2 viii:3 person:3 mold:1 fit:1 job:1 ethos:1 church:9 misconception:1 ecclesiastical:1 directly:2 notion:1 mention:1 fact:1 originate:1 author:2 confusion:2 try:1 text:1 boethius:7 scholar:2 translate:6 nicomachus:1 bower:4 defend:1 explain:2 plainchant:1 wholly:1 palisca:3 institutione:2 musica:4 book:4 chapter:1 hellenistic:2 source:4 probably:1 τρόπος:1 tropos:1 render:1 tropus:2 connection:1 simply:2 nothing:1 take:2 tonus:1 harmonica:1 hucbald:1 synthesize:1 previously:1 disparate:1 strand:1 chant:7 byzantine:2 oktōēchos:1 account:1 know:1 alia:1 integrate:1 eight:5 thus:1 actually:1 reflect:1 gregorian:4 pair:6 share:2 complete:2 add:3 authentic:7 plagal:7 πλάγιος:1 oblique:1 sideways:1 otherwise:1 move:3 mostly:1 occasional:1 sub:1 shift:1 explore:1 well:3 organize:1 recite:4 tenor:1 psalm:1 rise:1 tenth:1 eleventh:1 hoppin:1 p:1 si:1 lower:1 always:1 upper:1 tetrachord:1 optional:1 except:1 modeiiiiiiivvviviiviiinamedorianhypodorianphrygianhypophrygianlydianhypolydianmixolydianhypomixolydianfinal:1 ddeeffggfinal:1 solfege:2 reremimifafasolsoldominant:1 afb:1 cacadcdominant:1 lafasi:1 doladolaredo:1 swiss:1 henricus:1 glareanus:1 publish:3 dodecachordon:1 solidify:1 additional:1 hypoaeolian:2 hypoionian:2 little:1 italian:1 gioseffo:1 zarlino:2 adopt:1 glarean:2 revise:1 numbering:1 naming:2 convention:1 deem:1 logical:1 widespread:1 promulgation:1 conflict:1 reassign:1 six:1 hexachord:1 transfer:1 become:1 hypomixolydian:1 retain:1 terminology:1 consistent:1 designation:1 knighton:3 fallows:1 roman:1 numeral:1 pseudo:1 ordinal:1 transliterate:1 alphabet:1 protus:2 πρῶτος:1 deuterus:1 δεύτερος:1 tritus:1 τρίτος:1 tetrardus:1 τετράρδος:1 authentus:1 plagalis:1 heavy:1 indicate:1 primary:1 organization:2 relation:3 formula:2 location:1 importance:1 affect:2 emotional:2 liane:2 curtis:3 write:2 equate:1 principle:2 placement:1 essential:1 content:1 renaissance:6 technical:1 feature:1 expressive:3 quality:2 role:1 nevertheless:1 scalar:1 aspect:1 universally:1 great:1 polyphony:3 greatly:1 place:1 inherent:1 widely:1 significance:1 debate:1 polyphonic:1 around:2 probable:1 carl:1 dahlhaus:2 factor:1 respective:1 starting:1 point:1 aurelian:2 réôme:2 hermannus:2 contractus:2 guido:2 arezzo:3 comprehensive:1 embody:1 partitioning:2 framework:1 function:1 relational:1 old:1 disciplina:1 date:2 tonary:1 st:1 riquier:1 various:1 impart:1 adam:1 fulda:1 juan:1 espinoza:1 medrano:1 namemoded:1 fuldaespinozaexample:1 chantdorianiseriousany:1 feelinghappy:1 tame:1 passionsveni:1 sancte:1 spiritus:1 hypodorianiisadsadserious:1 tearfuliesu:1 dulcis:1 amor:1 meus:1 phrygianiiimysticvehementinciting:1 angerkyrie:1 fons:1 bonitatis:1 hypophrygianivharmonioustenderinciting:1 delight:1 temper:1 fiercenessconditor:1 alme:1 siderum:1 lydianvhappyhappyhappysalve:1 regina:1 hypolydianvidevoutpioustearful:1 piousubi:1 caritas:1 mixolydianviiangelicalof:1 youthuniting:1 pleasure:1 sadnessintroibo:1 hypomixolydianviiiperfectof:1 knowledgevery:1 happyad:1 cenam:1 agni:1 providi:1 postdate:1 repertoire:1 intention:1 conform:1 approximate:1 conscious:1 eye:1 analogue:1 echo:1 makam:1 maqam:2 pathet:1 pentatonic:1 raga:2 thaat:1 property:1 gamut:1 reference:1 andré:1 journal:4 musicology:4 summer:5 barker:1 andrew:1 ed:4 vols:2 cambridge:3 york:8 university:3 press:4 isbn:6 x:1 calvin:2 anicius:1 manlius:1 severinus:1 grove:6 dictionary:7 edit:7 stanley:6 sadie:6 john:5 tyrrell:5 london:6 macmillan:8 introduction:1 oliver:2 strunk:2 reading:2 history:3 vol:2 antiquity:1 middle:1 age:1 w:4 norton:2 companion:2 tess:1 david:2 fallow:2 berkeley:2 california:2 originally:2 schirmer:2 maxwell:2 international:2 jowett:4 benjamin:4 dialogue:1 random:1 house:1 library:1 te:1 thomas:3 j:4 introductory:1 historiography:1 harold:2 jon:1 apel:1 willi:1 harvard:1 belknap:1 edition:2 grout:1 donald:1 burkholder:1 peter:1 levine:1 mark:1 piano:1 petaluma:1 ca:1 sher:1 co:1 meier:1 bernhard:1 classical:1 vocal:1 german:1 ellen:1 beebe:1 revision:1 broude:1 brother:1 miller:1 ron:1 rottenburg:1 germany:1 advance:1 classic:1 treatment:1 english:1 language:1 vieru:2 anatol:2 modalism:1 world:1 perspective:2 fall:1 winter:1 generate:1 remote:1 approach:1 minimal:1 da:1 silva:1 pedro:1 h:1 classification:1 dma:1 thesis:1 manhattan:1 school:1 |@bigram diatonic_scale:4 ionian_dorian:3 dorian_mode:6 phrygian_mode:3 modal_jazz:2 harmonic_melodic:1 nineteenth_century:1 twentieth_century:1 claude_debussy:1 jean_sibelius:1 ralph_vaughan:1 vaughan_williams:1 zoltán_kodály:1 gustav_holst:1 de_falla:1 béla_bartók:1 chord_progression:2 tonic_chord:1 wayne_shorter:1 odd_numbered:1 mathiesen_iii:9 plato_aristotle:2 de_institutione:1 plagal_mode:4 gregorian_chant:3 naming_convention:1 renaissance_polyphony:2 guido_arezzo:2 pentatonic_scale:1 journal_musicology:4 stanley_sadie:6 tyrrell_london:5 w_norton:2 york_schirmer:2 schirmer_book:2 benjamin_jowett:2 cambridge_belknap:1 belknap_press:1 da_silva:1 |
3,284 | Congregationalist_polity | Congregationalist polity, often known as congregationalism, is a system of church governance in which every local church congregation is independent, ecclesiastically sovereign, or "autonomous." Among those major Protestant Christian traditions that employ congregationalism are those Congregational Churches known by the "Congregationalist" name that descended from the Anglo-American Puritan movement of the 17th century, the Baptist churches, and most of the groups brought about by the Anabaptist movement in Germany that immigrated to the U.S. in the late 18th century. More recent generations have witnessed also a growing number of non-denominational churches, which are most often congregationalist in their governance. In Christianity, congregationalism is distinguished most clearly from episcopal polity, which is governance by a hierarchy of bishops. But it is also distinct from presbyterian polity, in which higher assemblies of congregational representatives can exercise considerable authority over individual congregations. Congregationalism is not limited only to organization of Christian congregations; the principles of congregationalism have been inherited by the Unitarian Universalist Association. Jewish synagogues and most Islamic mosques in the U.S. operate under congregational government as well, with no hierarchies. Theological foundations of congregationalism Before embarking on the theological foundations of congregationalism, it is also noteworthy that the earmarks of Congregationalism can be traced back to the Pilgrim societies of the United States in the early 1600s. Congregationalism expressed the viewpoint that (1) every local church is a full realization in miniature of the entire Church of Jesus Christ; and (2) the Church, while on earth, besides the local church, can only be invisible and ideal. While other theories may insist on the truth of the former, the latter precept of congregationalism gives the entire theory a unique character among plans of church government. There is no other reference than the local congregation for the "visible church" in Congregationalism. And yet, the connection of all Christians is also asserted, albeit in a way that defenders of this view usually decline, often intentionally, to elaborate more clearly or consistently. This first, foundational principle by which congregationalism is guided results in confining it to operate with the consent of each gathering of believers. Although "congregational rule" may seem to suggest that pure democracy reigns in congregational churches, this is seldom the case. It is granted, with few exceptions (namely in some Anabaptist churches), that God has given the government of the Church into the hands of an ordained ministry. What makes congregationalism unique is its system of checks and balances, which constrains the authority of the minister, the lay officers, and the members. Most importantly, the boundaries of the powers of the ministers and church officers are set by clear and constant reminders of the freedoms guaranteed by the Gospel to the laity, collectively and individually. With that freedom comes the responsibility upon each member to govern himself or herself under Christ. This requires lay people to exercise great charity and patience in debating issues with one another and to seek the glory and service of God as the foremost consideration in all of their decisions. The authority of all of the people, including the officers, is limited in the local congregation by a definition of union, or a covenant, by which the terms of their cooperation together are spelled out and agreed to. This might be something as minimal as a charter specifying a handful of doctrines and behavioral expectations, or even a statement only guaranteeing specific freedoms. Or, it may be a constitution describing a comprehensive doctrinal system and specifying terms under which the local church is connected to other local churches, to which participating congregations give their assent. In congregationalism, rather uniquely, the church is understood to be a truly voluntary association. Finally, the congregational theory strictly forbids ministers from ruling their local churches by themselves. Not only does the minister serve by the approval of the congregation, but committees further constrain the pastor from exercising power without consent by either the particular committee, or the entire congregation. It is a contradiction of the congregational principle if a minister makes decisions concerning the congregation without the vote of these other officers. The other officers may be called "deacons", "elders" or "session" (borrowing Presbyterian terminology), or even "vestry" (borrowing the Anglican term) — it is not their label that is important to the theory, but rather their lay status and their equal vote, together with the pastor, in deciding the issues of the church. While other forms of church government are more likely to define "tyranny" as "the imposition of unjust rule", a congregationally-governed church would more likely define tyranny as "transgression of liberty" or equivalently, "rule by one man". To a congregationalist, no abuse of authority is worse than the concentration of all decisive power in the hands of one ruling body, or one person. Following this sentiment, congregationalism has evolved over time to include even more participation of the congregation, more kinds of lay committees to whom various tasks are apportioned, and more decisions subject to the vote of the entire membership. Ministry and ordination in the Congregational Christian Churches/UCC The understanding of ministry in the Congregational Christian Churches (pre-1957) generally followed a "priesthood of all believers" model in the sense that all Christians have ministry roles within the church, but that God calls certain people to be ordained ministers. The process of calling and ordaining ministers was managed by the congregation through an established system of process, but the ordination ceremony usually involved more than just the congregation calling the pastor. Typically, neighboring congregational churches within, originally, a vicinage council or, since the early 20th century, an association were invited to lay hands on the confirmed candidate, in a ceremony of ordination. NACCC | Principles and Practice: The Congregational Way of Churches and the National Association Since the formation of the United Church of Christ in 1957, most of the former CC churches largely follow a more centralized system coordinated by their associations and conferences to help them procure pastors or send candidates into the ministry from their churches, one largely designed to ensure a professional, credentialed pool of clergy. Meanwhile, the National Association of Congregational Christian Churches and the Conservative Congregational Christian Conference, two bodies formed in reaction to the dominant liberalism (in the first instance, political; the second, theological) of the majority of Congregationalists, have retained something closer to the older, more autonomous practices where associations do not supervise clergy. Some other mainline groups governed by congregational polity, such as the American Baptist Churches USA, the Alliance of Baptists, and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), employ a system of clergy placement and supervision similar to that of the UCC. Congregationalism as a theory of union It may seem ironic given its adamant emphasis on independence, but one of the most notable characteristics of New England (or British)-heritage Congregationalism has been its consistent leadership role in the formation of "unions" with other churches. Such sentiments especially grew strong in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when ecumenism evolved out of a liberal, non-sectarian perspective on relations to other Christian groups that accompanied the relaxation of Calvinist stringencies held by earlier generations. The congregationalist theory of independence within a union has been a cornerstone of most ecumenical movements since the 18th century. An older, competing, but somewhat related theory, is sometimes called nationalism (in the Reformed churches tradition), or autocephaly (in the Eastern Orthodox Church tradition). Between these latter two there are further differences. In both nationalism and autocephaly, one unifying doctrine is given local expression, according to differences in language and customs. Autocephaly is strictly episcopal, and assures the self-government of distinct patriarchates within a structure of common doctrine, comparable practices, with some degree of mutual accountability through which they remain in communion with one another. In nationalism (in recent times, more accurately called "culturalism"), there is no institutional accountability to churches with separate general assemblies, although churches with separate histories typically form voluntary confederations with one another. Congregationalism, in contrast, guarantees a completely independent government for all of the uniting parties, down to the level of every local congregation. The congregationalist principles of complete autonomy and strictly voluntary union produces a practically indescribable diversity of beliefs within the congregational unions. The UCC is the result of a union constructed according to congregationalist theory between the Evangelical and Reformed Church and the Congregational Christian Churches. These uniting congregations were themselves the result of several previous unions. The General Council of Congregational Christian Churches was formed from a merger between the National Council of Congregational Churches and the General Convention of the Christian Church, also known as Christian Churches or Christian Connection (not to be confused with, although partially related to, the Disciples of Christ). The Evangelical and Reformed Church was the result of a partial union of the Reformed Church in the United States and the Evangelical Synod of North America (a union of Lutherans and Reformed). The UCC is by far the most diverse of the Reformed churches in the U.S. In the United Kingdom, the United Reformed Church was formed in 1972 by the merger of the Presbyterian and the Congregational churches, on presbyterian principles of union but within a continuing congregational regard for local diversity. Diversity and theology Churches such as the Unitarian Universalists and the United Church of Christ are often reported by the press as being politically liberal. However, conservatives and more orthodox believers can also be found in large numbers in other congregations (in the UCC; seldom in the UUA). In short, while the idea of congregationalism itself is tolerant of differences between congregations, this liberal theory in principle assures a place for both conservatives and liberals, as far as their uniting covenants allow. At least in principle, this kind of diversity may be regarded as both inevitable and tolerable under a congregational theory of union. In theory, the UCC is tolerant of all types of theology. Paragraph 18 of the UCC constitution is a provision that was specifically requested by the Congregational Christian Churches, and it declares, "The autonomy of the Local Church is inherent and modifiable only by its own action. Nothing in this Constitution and the Bylaws of the United Church of Christ shall destroy or limit the right of each Local Church to continue to operate in the way customary to it; nor shall be construed as giving to the General Synod, or to any Conference or Association now, or at any future time, the power to abridge or impair the autonomy of any Local Church in the management of its own affairs, which affairs include, but are not limited to, the right to retain or adopt its own methods of organization, worship and education; to retain or secure its own charter and name; to adopt its own constitution and bylaws; to formulate its own covenants and confessions of faith; to admit members in its own way and to provide for their discipline or dismissal; to call or dismiss its pastor or pastors by such procedure as it shall determine; to acquire, own, manage and dispose of property and funds; to control its own benevolences; and to withdraw by its own decision from the United Church of Christ at any time without forfeiture of ownership or control of any real or personal property owned by it. constitution of the ucc In practice, some UCC ministers and congregations embracing conservative and/or evangelical theology have criticized the denominational leaders for representing a more "progressive" national identity through the Justice and Witness Ministries, the Open and Affirming program of the UCC Coalition for Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Concerns (a lobbying group), and the "God is still Speaking" denominational advertising/identity campaign. As a result of their perceptions of the UCC, some congregations have sought refuge in other Congregationalist denominations such as the NACCC, the CCCC, the Evangelical Association of Reformed and Congregational Christian Churches, or have opted to simply operate independently. Baptist churches/Churches of Christ Contrary to the congregationalism to which the above-mentioned churches adhere, congregationalism obtains in two large fundamentalist groups mainly found in the Southern U.S. A large number of Baptist churches and the Churches of Christ are two traditions whose churches stand autonomously from each other. These churches have developed ideas about independence of congregational authority that are quite different from the UCC and its New England-heritage predecessors, usually deriving from intense convictions about supposed patterns of government among the early churches described in the New Testament. Both traditions were also shaped culturally by the agrarian traditions in the rural South from the late 19th through the middle 20th centuries, the poverty of which largely did not permit much of the population to acquire significant formal education. These conditions enabled preachers to disseminate highly sectarian viewpoints such as the Landmarkist Baptist movement and doctrinare Restorationism without significant opposition on the part of potential converts. Independent Baptist churches and Churches of Christ typically do not condone the theories of unity and "merger" outlined above, as such consolidation constitutes a threat to the sovereignty of individual congregations. Interdenominational unity is generally eschewed; calls for tolerance are almost invariably viewed as attempts to weaken their distinctive doctrines and separatist ecclesiologies. Church government beyond the level of the congregation does not exist. Even in small towns or in rural areas, most independent Baptist and Churches of Christ preachers do not meet on a regular basis. Preachers are not formally ordained in the Churches of Christ, because of the belief that performance of such a rite would constitute a transcongregational authority. Practices likely vary on this point among independent Baptists, according to local customs. The CoC base these convictions upon their general consensus that the New Testament practice of epistle-writing had some practical, doctrinal, or interpretational authority because the letters were written by apostles and/or those directly inspired by God, but do not retain similar authority in modern times. The practice of writing rather than meeting is what gave rise to a colloquial maxim that "Churches of Christ don't have Bishops; they have editors instead." These editors (usually elders) publish such magazines as the Gospel Advocate and the Herald of Truth. Other than these editors and the occasional lectureship or fellowship gathering (in which preachers from many churches come together to speak publicly on pressing issues), the only ways in which Churches of Christ generally coordinate is in disaster relief. Such rigorous independence even extends to some CoC-founded colleges, such as Florida College, which does not accept donations from churches for fear of undue influence and because the college's leaders hold to a policy that strict adherence to certain Biblical passages does not permit churches to donate money to education. However, most mainstream universities and colleges affiliated with the Church of Christ, such as Pepperdine, Harding University, and Lipscomb University, do accept money from churches; the schools, in turn, generally reflect the peculiar doctrinal platforms of those contributing churches. The Churches of Christ have steadfastly refused to organize along national or regional lines. As for Baptists, a variety of parachurch agencies and evangelical educational institutions may be supported generously or not at all, depending entirely upon the local congregation's customs and predilections. Usually doctrinal conformity is held as a first consideration when a church makes a decision to grant or decline financial contributions to such agencies, which are legally external and separate from the congregations they serve. These practices also find currency among non-denominational fundamentalist or charismatic fellowships, many of which derive from Baptist origins, culturally if not theologically. Most Southern Baptist congregations and African-American Baptist churches, by contrast, generally relate more closely to external groups such as mission agencies and educational institutions than do those of independent persuastion. However, they adhere to a very similar ecclesiology, refusing to permit outside control or oversight of local affairs. See also Baptist Church of Christ Reformed churches Restoration Movement United and uniting churches References Grudem, Wayne. Electronic Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine. Whitefish, MT, Bits & Bytes Computer Resources, 2000. Horton, Stanley M., ed. Systematic Theology, A Pentecostal Perspective, rev. Springfield, MO: Logion Press, 1994. Klaus, Byron D. Systematic Theology. Ed. Stanley M. Horton. Springfield, MI: Logion P, 2007. 567-96Dusing, Michael L. Systematic Theology. Ed. Stanley M. Horton. Springfield, MI: Logion P, 2007. 525-66 External links The Union of Welsh Independents National Association of Congregational Christian Churches The Evangelical Fellowship of Congregational Churches Conservative Congregational Church International Congregational Fellowship World Evangelical Congregational Fellowship United Church of Christ | Congregationalist_polity |@lemmatized congregationalist:9 polity:4 often:4 know:3 congregationalism:21 system:6 church:89 governance:3 every:3 local:17 congregation:23 independent:7 ecclesiastically:1 sovereign:1 autonomous:2 among:5 major:1 protestant:1 christian:18 tradition:6 employ:2 congregational:29 name:2 descend:1 anglo:1 american:3 puritan:1 movement:5 century:6 baptist:14 group:6 bring:1 anabaptist:2 germany:1 immigrate:1 u:4 late:3 recent:2 generation:2 witness:2 also:9 grow:2 number:3 non:3 denominational:4 christianity:1 distinguish:1 clearly:2 episcopal:2 hierarchy:2 bishop:1 distinct:2 presbyterian:4 high:1 assembly:2 representative:1 exercise:3 considerable:1 authority:8 individual:2 limit:4 organization:2 principle:8 inherit:1 unitarian:2 universalist:1 association:10 jewish:1 synagogue:1 islamic:1 mosque:1 operate:4 government:8 well:1 theological:3 foundation:2 embark:1 noteworthy:1 earmark:1 trace:1 back:1 pilgrim:1 society:1 united:10 state:2 early:5 express:1 viewpoint:2 full:1 realization:1 miniature:1 entire:4 jesus:1 christ:19 earth:1 besides:1 invisible:1 ideal:1 theory:12 may:7 insist:1 truth:2 former:2 latter:2 precept:1 give:7 unique:2 character:1 plan:1 reference:2 visible:1 yet:1 connection:2 assert:1 albeit:1 way:5 defender:1 view:2 usually:5 decline:2 intentionally:1 elaborate:1 consistently:1 first:3 foundational:1 guide:1 result:5 confine:1 consent:2 gathering:2 believer:3 although:3 rule:4 seem:2 suggest:1 pure:1 democracy:1 reign:1 seldom:2 case:1 grant:2 exception:1 namely:1 god:5 hand:3 ordained:1 ministry:6 make:3 check:1 balance:1 constrain:2 minister:8 lay:5 officer:5 member:3 importantly:1 boundary:1 power:4 set:1 clear:1 constant:1 reminder:1 freedom:3 guarantee:3 gospel:2 laity:1 collectively:1 individually:1 come:2 responsibility:1 upon:3 govern:3 require:1 people:3 great:1 charity:1 patience:1 debate:1 issue:3 one:9 another:3 seek:2 glory:1 service:1 foremost:1 consideration:2 decision:5 include:3 definition:1 union:13 covenant:3 term:3 cooperation:1 together:3 spell:1 agree:1 might:1 something:2 minimal:1 charter:2 specify:2 handful:1 doctrine:5 behavioral:1 expectation:1 even:5 statement:1 specific:1 constitution:5 describe:2 comprehensive:1 doctrinal:4 connect:1 participate:1 assent:1 rather:3 uniquely:1 understood:1 truly:1 voluntary:3 finally:1 strictly:3 forbid:1 serve:2 approval:1 committees:1 far:3 pastor:6 without:4 either:1 particular:1 committee:2 contradiction:1 concern:2 vote:3 call:8 deacon:1 elder:2 session:1 borrow:2 terminology:1 vestry:1 anglican:1 label:1 important:1 status:1 equal:1 decide:1 form:5 likely:3 define:2 tyranny:2 imposition:1 unjust:1 congregationally:1 would:2 transgression:1 liberty:1 equivalently:1 man:1 abuse:1 bad:1 concentration:1 decisive:1 ruling:1 body:2 person:1 follow:3 sentiment:2 evolve:2 time:5 participation:1 kind:2 various:1 task:1 apportion:1 subject:1 membership:1 ordination:3 ucc:12 understanding:1 pre:1 generally:5 priesthood:1 model:1 sense:1 role:2 within:6 certain:2 ordain:3 process:2 manage:2 established:1 ceremony:2 involve:1 typically:3 neighbor:1 originally:1 vicinage:1 council:3 since:3 invite:1 confirmed:1 candidate:2 naccc:2 practice:8 national:6 formation:2 cc:1 largely:3 centralized:1 coordinate:2 conference:3 help:1 procure:1 send:1 design:1 ensure:1 professional:1 credentialed:1 pool:1 clergy:3 meanwhile:1 conservative:5 two:4 reaction:1 dominant:1 liberalism:1 instance:1 political:1 second:1 majority:1 retain:4 closer:1 old:2 supervise:1 mainline:1 usa:1 alliance:1 disciple:2 placement:1 supervision:1 similar:3 ironic:1 adamant:1 emphasis:1 independence:4 notable:1 characteristic:1 new:4 england:2 british:1 heritage:2 consistent:1 leadership:1 especially:1 strong:1 ecumenism:1 liberal:4 sectarian:2 perspective:2 relation:1 accompany:1 relaxation:1 calvinist:1 stringency:1 hold:3 cornerstone:1 ecumenical:1 compete:1 somewhat:1 related:1 sometimes:1 nationalism:3 reformed:2 autocephaly:3 eastern:1 orthodox:2 difference:3 unifying:1 expression:1 accord:3 language:1 custom:3 assure:1 self:1 patriarchate:1 structure:1 common:1 comparable:1 degree:1 mutual:1 accountability:2 remain:1 communion:1 accurately:1 culturalism:1 institutional:1 separate:3 general:5 history:1 confederation:1 contrast:2 completely:1 uniting:4 party:1 level:2 complete:1 autonomy:3 produce:1 practically:1 indescribable:1 diversity:4 belief:2 construct:1 evangelical:8 reform:7 several:1 previous:1 merger:3 convention:1 confuse:1 partially:1 relate:2 partial:1 synod:2 north:1 america:1 lutheran:1 diverse:1 kingdom:1 continue:2 regard:2 theology:7 universalists:1 report:1 press:3 politically:1 however:3 find:3 large:3 uua:1 short:1 idea:2 tolerant:2 assures:1 place:1 allow:1 least:1 inevitable:1 tolerable:1 type:1 paragraph:1 provision:1 specifically:1 request:1 declare:1 inherent:1 modifiable:1 action:1 nothing:1 bylaw:2 shall:3 destroy:1 right:2 customary:1 construe:1 future:1 abridge:1 impair:1 management:1 affair:3 adopt:2 method:1 worship:1 education:3 secure:1 formulate:1 confession:1 faith:1 admit:1 provide:1 discipline:1 dismissal:1 dismiss:1 procedure:1 determine:1 acquire:2 dispose:1 property:2 fund:1 control:3 benevolence:1 withdraw:1 forfeiture:1 ownership:1 real:1 personal:1 embrace:1 criticize:1 leader:2 represent:1 progressive:1 identity:2 justice:1 open:1 affirm:1 program:1 coalition:1 gay:1 lesbian:1 bisexual:1 transgender:1 lobbying:1 still:1 speak:2 advertising:1 campaign:1 perception:1 refuge:1 denomination:1 cccc:1 opt:1 simply:1 independently:1 contrary:1 mentioned:1 adhere:2 obtains:1 fundamentalist:2 mainly:1 southern:2 whose:1 stand:1 autonomously:1 develop:1 quite:1 different:1 predecessor:1 derive:2 intense:1 conviction:2 suppose:1 pattern:1 testament:2 shape:1 culturally:2 agrarian:1 rural:2 south:1 middle:1 poverty:1 permit:3 much:1 population:1 significant:2 formal:1 condition:1 enable:1 preacher:4 disseminate:1 highly:1 landmarkist:1 doctrinare:1 restorationism:1 opposition:1 part:1 potential:1 convert:1 condone:1 unity:2 outline:1 consolidation:1 constitute:2 threat:1 sovereignty:1 interdenominational:1 eschew:1 tolerance:1 almost:1 invariably:1 attempt:1 weaken:1 distinctive:1 separatist:1 ecclesiology:2 beyond:1 exist:1 small:1 town:1 area:1 meet:1 regular:1 basis:1 formally:1 performance:1 rite:1 transcongregational:1 vary:1 point:1 coc:2 base:1 consensus:1 epistle:1 writing:1 practical:1 interpretational:1 letter:1 write:2 apostle:1 directly:1 inspire:1 modern:1 meeting:1 rise:1 colloquial:1 maxim:1 bishops:1 editor:3 instead:1 publish:1 magazine:1 advocate:1 herald:1 occasional:1 lectureship:1 fellowship:5 many:2 publicly:1 disaster:1 relief:1 rigorous:1 extend:1 found:1 college:4 florida:1 accept:2 donation:1 fear:1 undue:1 influence:1 policy:1 strict:1 adherence:1 biblical:2 passage:1 donate:1 money:2 mainstream:1 university:3 affiliate:1 pepperdine:1 harding:1 lipscomb:1 school:1 turn:1 reflect:1 peculiar:1 platform:1 contribute:1 steadfastly:1 refuse:2 organize:1 along:1 regional:1 line:1 variety:1 parachurch:1 agency:3 educational:2 institution:2 support:1 generously:1 depend:1 entirely:1 predilection:1 conformity:1 financial:1 contribution:1 legally:1 external:3 currency:1 charismatic:1 origin:1 theologically:1 african:1 closely:1 mission:1 persuastion:1 outside:1 oversight:1 see:1 restoration:1 grudem:1 wayne:1 electronic:1 systematic:4 introduction:1 whitefish:1 mt:1 bits:1 bytes:1 computer:1 resource:1 horton:3 stanley:3 ed:3 pentecostal:1 rev:1 springfield:3 mo:1 logion:3 klaus:1 byron:1 mi:2 p:2 michael:1 l:1 link:1 welsh:1 international:1 world:1 |@bigram non_denominational:2 episcopal_polity:1 unitarian_universalist:1 jesus_christ:1 priesthood_believer:1 congregational_polity:1 eastern_orthodox:1 unitarian_universalists:1 shall_construe:1 gay_lesbian:1 lesbian_bisexual:1 bisexual_transgender:1 seek_refuge:1 almost_invariably:1 strict_adherence:1 steadfastly_refuse:1 grudem_wayne:1 external_link:1 |
3,285 | Agglutinative_language | An agglutinative language is a language that uses agglutination extensively: most words are formed by joining morphemes together. This term was introduced by Wilhelm von Humboldt in 1836 to classify languages from a morphological point of view. It was derived from the Latin verb agglutinare, which means "to glue together." An agglutinative language is a form of synthetic language where each affix typically represents one unit of meaning (such as "diminutive," "past tense," "plural," etc.), and bound morphemes are expressed by affixes (and not by internal changes of the root of the word, or changes in stress or tone). Additionally, and most importantly, in an agglutinative language affixes do not become fused with others, and do not change form conditioned by others. Synthetic languages that are not agglutinative are called fusional languages; they sometimes combine affixes by "squeezing" them together, often changing them drastically in the process, and joining several meanings in one affix (for example, in the Spanish word comí [I ate], the suffix -í carries the meanings of indicative mood, active voice, past tense, first person singular subject and perfect aspect). Agglutinative is sometimes used as a synonym for synthetic, although it technically is not. When used in this way, the word embraces fusional languages and inflected languages in general. The distinction between an agglutinative and a fusional language is often not sharp. Rather, one should think of these as two ends of a continuum, with various languages falling more toward one end or the other. In fact, a synthetic language may present agglutinative features in its open lexicon but not in its case system: for example, German, Dutch. Agglutinative languages tend to have a high rate of affixes/morphemes per word, and to be very regular. For example, Japanese has only two irregular verbs (and not very irregular), Luganda has only one (or two, depending on how 'irregular' is defined), Turkish has only one and in Quechua all the verbs are regular. Georgian is an exception; not only is it highly agglutinative (there can be simultaneously up to 8 morphemes per word), but there are also significant number of irregular verbs, varying in degrees of irregularity. Examples of agglutinative languages Examples of agglutinative languages include Basque, Blackfoot, Georgian, the Altaic languages (see Turkish and Tatar), Japanese (sometimes grouped with Altaic), Korean (sometimes grouped with Altaic), the Malay and Indonesian, many Tibeto-Burman languages, the Dravidian languages, many Uralic languages (the largest are Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian), Inuktitut, the Bantu languages (see Luganda), the Northeast, Northwest and South Caucasian languages, and some Mesoamerican and native North American languages including Nahuatl, Huastec, and Salish. Quechua and Aymara are Native American language of South America. Much of the ancient Near East also spoke such languages, such as Sumerian, Elamite, Hurrian, Urartian, Hattic, Gutian, Lullubi, Kassite, and among Indo-European languages, Persian. Agglutination is a typological feature and does not imply a linguistic relation, but there are some families of agglutinative languages. For example, the Proto-Uralic language, the ancestor of Uralic languages, was agglutinative, and most descended languages inherit this feature. But since agglutination can arise in languages that previously had a non-agglutinative typology and it can be lost in languages that previously were agglutinative, agglutination as a typological trait cannot be used as evidence of genetic relationship to other agglutinative languages. Many separate languages developed this property through convergent evolution. There seems to exist a preferred evolutionary direction from agglutinative synthetic languages to fusional synthetic languages, and then to non-synthetic languages, which in their turn evolve into isolating languages and from there again into agglutinative synthetic languages. However, this is just a trend, and in itself a combination of the trend observable in Grammaticalization theory and that of general linguistic attrition, especially word-final apocope and elision. This phenomenon is known as language drift. Some real-world and fictional constructed languages, such as Esperanto, Newspeak, Klingon, Atlantean and Black Speech are presented as agglutinative. References Bodmer, Frederick. Ed. by Lancelot Hogben. The Loom of Language. New York, W.W. Norton and Co., 1944, renewed 1972, pages 53, 190ff. ISBN 0-393-30034-X | Agglutinative_language |@lemmatized agglutinative:19 language:41 use:4 agglutination:4 extensively:1 word:7 form:3 join:2 morpheme:4 together:3 term:1 introduce:1 wilhelm:1 von:1 humboldt:1 classify:1 morphological:1 point:1 view:1 derive:1 latin:1 verb:4 agglutinare:1 mean:2 glue:1 synthetic:8 affix:6 typically:1 represent:1 one:6 unit:1 diminutive:1 past:2 tense:2 plural:1 etc:1 bound:1 express:1 internal:1 change:4 root:1 stress:1 tone:1 additionally:1 importantly:1 become:1 fused:1 others:2 condition:1 call:1 fusional:4 sometimes:4 combine:1 squeeze:1 often:2 drastically:1 process:1 several:1 meaning:2 example:6 spanish:1 comí:1 eat:1 suffix:1 í:1 carry:1 indicative:1 mood:1 active:1 voice:1 first:1 person:1 singular:1 subject:1 perfect:1 aspect:1 synonym:1 although:1 technically:1 way:1 embrace:1 inflected:1 general:2 distinction:1 sharp:1 rather:1 think:1 two:3 end:2 continuum:1 various:1 fall:1 toward:1 fact:1 may:1 present:2 feature:3 open:1 lexicon:1 case:1 system:1 german:1 dutch:1 tend:1 high:1 rate:1 per:2 regular:2 japanese:2 irregular:4 luganda:2 depend:1 define:1 turkish:2 quechua:2 georgian:2 exception:1 highly:1 simultaneously:1 also:2 significant:1 number:1 vary:1 degree:1 irregularity:1 include:2 basque:1 blackfoot:1 altaic:3 see:2 tatar:1 group:2 korean:1 malay:1 indonesian:1 many:3 tibeto:1 burman:1 languages:1 dravidian:1 uralic:3 large:1 hungarian:1 finnish:1 estonian:1 inuktitut:1 bantu:1 northeast:1 northwest:1 south:2 caucasian:1 mesoamerican:1 native:2 north:1 american:2 nahuatl:1 huastec:1 salish:1 aymara:1 america:1 much:1 ancient:1 near:1 east:1 speak:1 sumerian:1 elamite:1 hurrian:1 urartian:1 hattic:1 gutian:1 lullubi:1 kassite:1 among:1 indo:1 european:1 persian:1 typological:2 imply:1 linguistic:2 relation:1 family:1 proto:1 ancestor:1 descended:1 inherit:1 since:1 arise:1 previously:2 non:2 typology:1 lose:1 trait:1 cannot:1 evidence:1 genetic:1 relationship:1 separate:1 develop:1 property:1 convergent:1 evolution:1 seem:1 exist:1 preferred:1 evolutionary:1 direction:1 turn:1 evolve:1 isolate:1 however:1 trend:2 combination:1 observable:1 grammaticalization:1 theory:1 attrition:1 especially:1 final:1 apocope:1 elision:1 phenomenon:1 know:1 drift:1 real:1 world:1 fictional:1 construct:1 esperanto:1 newspeak:1 klingon:1 atlantean:1 black:1 speech:1 reference:1 bodmer:1 frederick:1 ed:1 lancelot:1 hogben:1 loom:1 new:1 york:1 w:2 norton:1 co:1 renew:1 page:1 isbn:1 x:1 |@bigram von_humboldt:1 past_tense:2 bound_morpheme:1 indicative_mood:1 tibeto_burman:1 finnish_estonian:1 quechua_aymara:1 indo_european:1 proto_uralic:1 convergent_evolution:1 w_norton:1 |
3,286 | Alexios_II_Komnenos | Alexios II Komnenos or Alexius II Comnenus () (10 September 1169 – October 1183, Constantinople), Byzantine emperor (1180-1183), was the son of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos and Maria, daughter of Raymond, prince of Antioch. An alternative date of birth occasionally given is 1168 , based on William of Tyre's statement that Alexios was 13 in 1180. For discussion, concluding that 14 September 1169 is correct, see ; . He was the long-awaited male heir, and was named Alexius as a fulfilment of the AIMA prophecy. His reign and death The Empire in 1180 A.D when Alexios II became EmperorOn Manuel's death in 1180, Maria, who became a nun under the name Xene ("foreigner"), took the position of regent (according to some historians). She excluded her young son from power, entrusting it instead to Alexios the prōtosebastos (a cousin of Alexios II), who was popularly believed to be her lover. Friends of the young Alexios II now tried to form a party against the empress mother and the prōtosebastos; Alexios II's half-sister Maria, wife of Caesar John (Renier of Montferrat), stirred up riots in the streets of the capital. Their party was defeated (May 2, 1182), but Andronikos Komnenos, a first cousin of the late Emperor Manuel, took advantage of these disorders to aim at the crown, entered Constantinople, where he was received with almost divine honours, and overthrew the government. His arrival was celebrated by a massacre of 80,000 Latins in Constantinople, especially the Venetian merchants, which he made no attempt to stop. He allowed Alexios II to be crowned, but was responsible for the death of most of the young emperor's actual or potential defenders, including his mother, his half-sister and the Caesar, and refused to allow him the smallest voice in public affairs. The betrothal in 1180 of Alexios II to Agnes of France, daughter of Louis VII of France and his third wife Adèle of Champagne and at the time a child of nine, had not apparently been followed by their marriage. Andronikos was now formally proclaimed as co-emperor, and not long afterwards, on the pretext that divided rule was injurious to the Empire, he caused Alexios II to be strangled with a bow-string (October 1183). During Alexius II's reign, the Byzantine Empire was invaded by King Bela III losing Syrmia and Bosnia to the Kingdom of Hungary in AD 1181, later even Dalmatia was lost to the Venetians. Kilij Arslan II invaded the empire in AD 1182, defeating the Byzantines at the Siege of Cotyaeum resulting in the Byzantine Empire losing Cotyaeum and Sozopolis. Portrayal in fiction Alexios is a character in the historical novel Agnes of France (1980) by Greek writer Kostas Kyriazis. The novel describes the events of the reigns of Manuel I, Alexios II and Andronikos I through the eyes of Agnes. Notes References | Alexios_II_Komnenos |@lemmatized alexios:12 ii:12 komnenos:3 alexius:3 comnenus:1 september:2 october:2 constantinople:3 byzantine:4 emperor:5 son:2 manuel:4 maria:3 daughter:2 raymond:1 prince:1 antioch:1 alternative:1 date:1 birth:1 occasionally:1 give:1 base:1 william:1 tyre:1 statement:1 discussion:1 conclude:1 correct:1 see:1 long:2 await:1 male:1 heir:1 name:2 fulfilment:1 aima:1 prophecy:1 reign:3 death:3 empire:5 become:2 emperoron:1 nun:1 xene:1 foreigner:1 take:2 position:1 regent:1 accord:1 historian:1 exclude:1 young:3 power:1 entrust:1 instead:1 prōtosebastos:2 cousin:2 popularly:1 believe:1 lover:1 friend:1 try:1 form:1 party:2 empress:1 mother:2 half:2 sister:2 wife:2 caesar:2 john:1 renier:1 montferrat:1 stir:1 riot:1 street:1 capital:1 defeat:2 may:1 andronikos:3 first:1 late:1 advantage:1 disorder:1 aim:1 crown:2 enter:1 receive:1 almost:1 divine:1 honour:1 overthrow:1 government:1 arrival:1 celebrate:1 massacre:1 latin:1 especially:1 venetian:2 merchant:1 make:1 attempt:1 stop:1 allow:2 responsible:1 actual:1 potential:1 defender:1 include:1 refuse:1 small:1 voice:1 public:1 affair:1 betrothal:1 agnes:3 france:3 louis:1 vii:1 third:1 adèle:1 champagne:1 time:1 child:1 nine:1 apparently:1 follow:1 marriage:1 formally:1 proclaim:1 co:1 afterwards:1 pretext:1 divide:1 rule:1 injurious:1 cause:1 strangle:1 bow:1 string:1 invade:2 king:1 bela:1 iii:1 lose:3 syrmia:1 bosnia:1 kingdom:1 hungary:1 ad:2 later:1 even:1 dalmatia:1 kilij:1 arslan:1 siege:1 cotyaeum:2 result:1 sozopolis:1 portrayal:1 fiction:1 character:1 historical:1 novel:2 greek:1 writer:1 kostas:1 kyriazis:1 describe:1 event:1 eye:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram manuel_komnenos:1 andronikos_komnenos:1 |
3,287 | Demographics_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Population pyramid The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 4,552,198 (July 2007 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 15.5% (male 359,739/female 336,978) 15-64 years: 70.1% (male 1,590,923/female 1,564,665) 65 years and over: 14.4% (male 265,637/female 381,034) (2006 est.) Median age Total: 38.4 years Male: 37.2 years Female: 39.5 years (2006 est.) Population Growth Rate 1.35% (2006 estimate) Birth rate 12,34 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 8.27 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 13.01 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio At birth: 1.07 Under 15 years: 1.07 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.7 male(s)/female Total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2006 est) Infant mortality rate Total: 9.82 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 11.26 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 8.28 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 78 years Male: 74.39 years Female: 81.88 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 1.22 children born/woman (2006 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2001 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: 900 (2003 est.) Deaths: 100 (2001 est.) Nationality Noun: Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s) Adjective: Bosnian, Herzegovinian Ethnic groups Bosniak 49%, Serb 36%, Croat 14%, other 1% (2005) note: Bosniak has replaced Muslim as an ethnic term in part to avoid confusion with the religious term Muslim - an adherent of Islam. Religions Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, other 14% CIA World Factbook Languages Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian all co-official and mutually understandable among all 3 ethnolingual groups. Croatian is written in the Latin alphabet, whereas Bosnian and Serbian is written in both Latin and Cyrillic alphabets. Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 94.6% Male: 98.4% Female: 91.1% (2000 est.) See also Bosnia and Herzegovina Ethnic groups in Bosnia and Herzegovina Roman Catholicism in Bosnia and Herzegovina Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina Jews in Bosnia and Herzegovina List of Bosnians and Herzegovinians Serbian Orthodox Church References External links Living standard measurement survey 2001 | Demographics_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:12 bosnia:6 herzegovina:6 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:2 affiliation:1 aspect:1 cia:3 world:3 factbook:3 statistic:2 pyramid:1 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:14 age:3 structure:1 year:12 male:11 female:11 median:1 total:6 growth:1 rate:7 estimate:1 birth:7 death:6 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:5 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:2 aid:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 less:1 people:1 nationality:1 noun:1 bosnian:4 herzegovinian:2 adjective:1 ethnic:3 group:3 bosniak:2 serb:1 croat:1 note:1 replace:1 muslim:3 term:2 part:1 avoid:1 confusion:1 adherent:1 islam:2 religion:1 orthodox:2 roman:2 catholic:1 languages:1 croatian:2 serbian:3 co:1 official:1 mutually:1 understandable:1 among:1 ethnolingual:1 write:3 latin:2 alphabet:2 whereas:1 cyrillic:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 see:1 also:1 catholicism:1 jew:1 list:1 bosnians:1 herzegovinians:1 church:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 standard:1 measurement:1 survey:1 |@bigram bosnia_herzegovina:6 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:8 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 serb_croat:1 avoid_confusion:1 bosnian_croatian:1 croatian_serbian:1 cyrillic_alphabet:1 literacy_definition:1 roman_catholicism:1 external_link:1 |
3,288 | Faith_and_rationality | Faith and rationality are two modes of belief that exist in varying degrees of conflict or compatibility. Faith is belief in inspiration, revelation, or authority. Rationality is belief based on reason or evidence. Broadly speaking, there are three categories of views regarding the relationship between faith and rationality. Rationalism holds that truth should be determined by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma, or religious teaching. Fideism holds that faith is necessary, and that beliefs must be held without evidence or reason, or even in conflict with evidence and reason. Natural theology holds one can rationally infer that God exists, through inductive or deductive reasoning. The relationship between faith and reason From at least the days of the Greek Philosophers, the relationship between faith and reason has been hotly debated. Plato argued that knowledge is simply memory of the eternal. Aristotle set down rules by which knowledge could be discovered by reason. Rationalists point out that many people hold irrational beliefs, for many reasons. There may be evolutionary causes for irrational beliefs — irrational beliefs may increase our ability to survive and reproduce. Or, according to Pascal's Wager, it may be to our advantage to have faith, because faith may promise infinite rewards, while the rewards of reason are necessarily finite. Believers in faith — for example those who believe salvation is possible through faith alone — point out that everyone holds beliefs arrived at by faith, not reason. The belief that the universe is a sensible place and that our minds allow us to arrive at correct conclusions about it, is a belief we hold through faith. Beliefs held "by faith" may be seen existing in a number of relationships to rationality: Faith as underlying rationality: In this view, all human knowledge and reason is seen as dependent on faith: faith in our senses, faith in our reason, faith in our memories, and faith in the accounts of events we receive from others. Accordingly, faith is seen as essential to and inseparable from rationality. Faith as addressing issues beyond the scope of rationality: In this view, faith is seen as covering issues that science and rationality are inherently incapable of addressing, but that are nevertheless entirely real. Accordingly, faith is seen as complementing rationality, by providing answers to questions that would otherwise be unanswerable. Faith as contradicting rationality: In this view, faith is seen as those views that one holds despite evidence and reason to the contrary. Accordingly, faith is seen as pernicious with respect to rationality, as it interferes with our ability to think, and rationality is seen as the enemy of faith, since it interferes with our ability to believe. Views of the Magisterium Dei Filius was the dogmatic constitution of the First Vatican Council on the Roman Catholic faith. It was adopted unanimously on 24 April 1870 and was influenced by the philosophical conceptions of Johann Baptist Franzelin, who had written a great deal on the topic of faith and rationality. Fides et Ratio is an encyclical promulgated by Pope John Paul II on 14 September 1998. It deals primarily with the relationship between faith and reason. Reformed epistemology Faith as underlying rationality The view that faith underlies all rationality holds that rationality is dependent on faith for its coherence. Under this view, there is no way to comprehensively prove that we are actually seeing what we appear to be seeing, that what we remember actually happened, or that the laws of logic and mathematics are actually real. Instead, all beliefs depend for their coherence on faith in our senses, memory, and reason, because the foundations of rationalism cannot be proven by evidence or reason. Fideism Martin Luther taught that faith and reason were antithetical, in the sense that questions of faith could not be illuminated by reason. He wrote, "All the articles of our Christian faith, which God has revealed to us in His Word, are in presence of reason sheerly impossible, absurd, and false." Martin Luther, Werke, VIII and "[That] Reason in no way contributes to faith. [...] For reason is the greatest enemy that faith has; it never comes to the aid of spiritual things." Martin Luther, Table Talk. However, though seemingly contradictorily, he also wrote in the latter work that human reason "strives not against faith, when enlightened, but rather furthers and advances it" Martin Luther, "On Justification CCXCIV", Table Talk , bringing claims he was a fideist into dispute. The rationalist point of view In this view, there are many beliefs that are held by faith alone, that rational thought would force the mind to reject. As an example, many people believe in the Biblical story of Noah's flood: that the entire Earth was covered by water for forty days. But most plants cannot survive being covered by water for that length of time, so one must choose between accepting the story on faith and rejecting reason, or rejecting the story by reason and thus rejecting faith (in the instance). In Jewish philosophy The 14th Century Jewish philosopher Levi ben Gerson tried to reconcile faith and reason. He wrote, "The Torah cannot prevent us from considering to be true that which our reason urges us to believe." Jewish Encyclopedia, volume VIII, page 29 His contemporary Hasdai ben Abraham Crescas argued the contrary view, that reason is weak and faith strong, and that only through faith can we discover the fundamental truth that God is love, that through faith alone can we endure the suffering that is the common lot of God's chosen people. See also Faith and Reason (Fides et Ratio) Asa Gray Atheists in foxholes William Alston Alvin Plantinga Epistemology Reformed epistemology Leo Strauss Presuppositional apologetics Theory of justification Methods of obtaining knowledge Relationship between religion and science Theory of everything Value (personal and cultural) References External links Apologetics and philosophical justifications of faith as rational Faithandphilosophy.com founded by William Alston, Alvin Plantinga, Nicholas Wolterstorff, and Richard Mouw Society of Christian Philosophers founded again by William Alston, Alvin Plantinga, Nicholas Wolterstorff, and Richard Mouw Faith, Reason, and Rationality a debate between Douglas Jones and Michael Shermer from Credenda Agenda, a publication of the Presbyterian Church Faith and reason the philosophy of religion website vantil.info works by and relating to Cornelius Van Til FaithandReason.org advocates natural theology and that faith and reason can work together; maintained by the D.L. Dykes, Jr. Foundation RationalChristianity.org propounds the view that Christianity is rational, and attempts to answer alleged contradictions Neutral critiques and analysis Lecture on The Rationality of Religious Belief Contemporary Christian Philosophy, University of Texas Are Christian Beliefs Properly Basic? A critical examination of Alvin Plantinga's claim that Christian beliefs can be justified even without any evidence for them by Keith DeRose, Professor of Philosophy, Yale University Criticisms of the belief that faith is rational Irrational Faith importanceofphilosophy.com Irrational Epistemology importanceofphilosophy.com Historical overview of the relationship between faith and reason Faith and Reason Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | Faith_and_rationality |@lemmatized faith:57 rationality:18 two:1 mode:1 belief:17 exist:2 vary:1 degree:1 conflict:2 compatibility:1 inspiration:1 revelation:1 authority:1 base:1 reason:33 evidence:6 broadly:1 speak:1 three:1 category:1 view:12 regard:1 relationship:7 rationalism:2 hold:11 truth:2 determine:1 factual:1 analysis:2 rather:2 dogma:1 religious:2 teaching:1 fideism:2 necessary:1 must:2 without:2 even:2 natural:2 theology:2 one:3 rationally:1 infer:1 god:4 exists:1 inductive:1 deductive:1 reasoning:1 least:1 day:2 greek:1 philosopher:3 hotly:1 debate:2 plato:1 argue:2 knowledge:4 simply:1 memory:3 eternal:1 aristotle:1 set:1 rule:1 could:2 discover:2 rationalist:2 point:3 many:4 people:3 irrational:5 may:5 evolutionary:1 cause:1 increase:1 ability:3 survive:2 reproduce:1 accord:1 pascal:1 wager:1 advantage:1 promise:1 infinite:1 reward:2 necessarily:1 finite:1 believer:1 example:2 believe:4 salvation:1 possible:1 alone:3 everyone:1 arrive:2 universe:1 sensible:1 place:1 mind:2 allow:1 u:4 correct:1 conclusion:1 see:11 number:1 underlying:2 human:2 dependent:2 sens:2 account:1 event:1 receive:1 others:1 accordingly:3 essential:1 inseparable:1 address:2 issue:2 beyond:1 scope:1 cover:3 science:2 inherently:1 incapable:1 nevertheless:1 entirely:1 real:2 complement:1 provide:1 answer:2 question:2 would:2 otherwise:1 unanswerable:1 contradict:1 despite:1 contrary:2 pernicious:1 respect:1 interfere:2 think:1 enemy:2 since:1 magisterium:1 dei:1 filius:1 dogmatic:1 constitution:1 first:1 vatican:1 council:1 roman:1 catholic:1 adopt:1 unanimously:1 april:1 influence:1 philosophical:2 conception:1 johann:1 baptist:1 franzelin:1 write:4 great:2 deal:2 topic:1 fides:2 et:2 ratio:2 encyclical:1 promulgate:1 pope:1 john:1 paul:1 ii:1 september:1 primarily:1 reform:2 epistemology:4 underlies:1 coherence:2 way:2 comprehensively:1 prove:2 actually:3 appear:1 remember:1 happen:1 law:1 logic:1 mathematics:1 instead:1 depend:1 foundation:2 cannot:3 martin:4 luther:4 taught:1 antithetical:1 sense:1 illuminate:1 article:1 christian:5 reveal:1 word:1 presence:1 sheerly:1 impossible:1 absurd:1 false:1 werke:1 viii:2 contribute:1 never:1 come:1 aid:1 spiritual:1 thing:1 table:2 talk:2 however:1 though:1 seemingly:1 contradictorily:1 also:2 latter:1 work:3 strive:1 enlighten:1 furthers:1 advance:1 justification:3 ccxciv:1 bring:1 claim:2 fideist:1 dispute:1 rational:4 thought:1 force:1 reject:4 biblical:1 story:3 noah:1 flood:1 entire:1 earth:1 water:2 forty:1 plant:1 length:1 time:1 choose:1 accept:1 thus:1 instance:1 jewish:3 philosophy:5 century:1 levi:1 ben:2 gerson:1 try:1 reconcile:1 torah:1 prevent:1 consider:1 true:1 urge:1 encyclopedia:2 volume:1 page:1 contemporary:2 hasdai:1 abraham:1 crescas:1 weak:1 strong:1 fundamental:1 love:1 endure:1 suffering:1 common:1 lot:1 chosen:1 asa:1 gray:1 atheist:1 foxhole:1 william:3 alston:3 alvin:4 plantinga:4 leo:1 strauss:1 presuppositional:1 apologetics:2 theory:2 method:1 obtain:1 religion:2 everything:1 value:1 personal:1 cultural:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 faithandphilosophy:1 com:3 found:2 nicholas:2 wolterstorff:2 richard:2 mouw:2 society:1 douglas:1 jones:1 michael:1 shermer:1 credendum:1 agenda:1 publication:1 presbyterian:1 church:1 website:1 vantil:1 info:1 relate:1 cornelius:1 van:1 til:1 faithandreason:1 org:2 advocate:1 together:1 maintain:1 l:1 dyke:1 jr:1 rationalchristianity:1 propound:1 christianity:1 attempt:1 alleged:1 contradiction:1 neutral:1 critique:1 lecture:1 university:2 texas:1 properly:1 basic:1 critical:1 examination:1 justify:1 keith:1 derose:1 professor:1 yale:1 criticism:1 importanceofphilosophy:2 historical:1 overview:1 internet:1 |@bigram inductive_deductive:1 deductive_reasoning:1 hotly_debate:1 martin_luther:4 noah_flood:1 alvin_plantinga:4 leo_strauss:1 external_link:1 michael_shermer:1 rational_irrational:1 |
3,289 | Eli_Wallach | Eli Herschel Wallach (born December 7, 1915) is an American film, TV and stage actor, who gained fame in the late 1950s. For his performance in Baby Doll he won a BAFTA Award for Best Newcomer and a Golden Globe nomination. One of his most famous roles is that of Tuco in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. Other roles include his portrayal of Don Altobello in The Godfather Part III and Arthur Abbott in the The Holiday. Wallach has received BAFTA Awards, Tony Awards and Emmy Awards for his work. Early life Wallach was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Bertha (née Schorr) and Abraham Wallach, the only Jewish family in a predominantly Italian American neighborhood. "Eli Wallach Knows His Lines - Forward.com Eli Wallach Biography (1915-) He graduated from The University of Texas at Austin and received a Masters of Arts from The City College of New York. However, he gained his first method experience at the Neighborhood Playhouse. Wallach served as a staff sergeant in Hawaii in a military hospital in the United States Army in World War II. However, he was soon sent to Officer Candidate School in Abilene, Texas to undergo training to become a medical administrative officer. He graduated as a Second Lieutenant and was sent to Madison Barracks in New York, where he was promptly shipped to Casablanca and, later in the war, to France. It was there that a superior discovered his acting history and asked him to form a show for the patients. He and other members from his unit wrote a play called Is This the Army?, which was inspired by Irving Berlin's This is the Army. In the comedic play Wallach and the other men clowned around as various dictators, Wallach himself portraying Hitler. Career Wallach took classes in acting at the Dramatic Workshop of The New School in New York with the influential German director Erwin Piscator. Wallach made his Broadway debut in 1945 and won a Tony Award in 1951 for his performance in the Tennessee Williams play The Rose Tattoo. Additional theater credits include Mister Roberts, The Teahouse of the August Moon, Camino Real, Major Barbara, Luv, and Staircase, co-starring Milo O'Shea, which depicted an aging homosexual couple in a serious way. Wallach's film debut was in Elia Kazan's controversial Baby Doll and he went on to have a prolific career in films, although rarely in a starring role. Other early films include The Misfits, The Magnificent Seven (he portrayed a Mexican bandit) and as Tuco (the 'Ugly') in Sergio Leone's The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. Wallach is central to one of the most infamous show business legends. In 1953 he was cast as Angelo Maggio in the movie From Here to Eternity. He was abruptly replaced by Frank Sinatra before filming began. Sinatra went on to win an Oscar for the performance and revived his career. Legend has it that Sinatra used pressure from his reputed underworld connections to get the part. That story inspired a similar incident depicted in the classic 1972 film The Godfather. Wallach says he turned down the role to appear in a Tennessee Williams play: "Whenever Sinatra (who won an Academy Award for the role) saw me, he’d say, 'Hello, you crazy actor!'" In 2006, Wallach made a guest appearance on the NBC show Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip, playing a former writer who was blacklisted in the 1950s. His character was a writer on The Philco Comedy Hour, a comedy show that aired on the fictional NBS network. This is a reference to The Philco Television Playhouse, several episodes of which Wallach actually appeared on in 1955. Wallach earned a 2007 Emmy nomination for his work on the show. Before accepting a role as a villain in Leone's Once Upon a Time in the West, Henry Fonda called Wallach and asked "What the hell does he [Leone] know about the West?" Wallach assured Fonda he would be pleasantly surprised if he accepted the role. After the film's success Fonda called Wallach back to thank him. Wallach and Leone, though having built a good relationship during shooting The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, had a falling-out later on. Leone had asked Wallach to play a role in his upcoming film, A Fistful of Dynamite, but the actor explained he had a scheduling conflict. After much pleading Wallach finally relented and turned down the other offer and waited for Leone to raise enough Hollywood money for the picture. However, the studio Leone went to had an actor, Rod Steiger, with one more picture in his studio contract and the studio announced that Leone would have to use him if they were to put up any financing. Leone then called to apologize to Wallach, who remained dumbstruck on the other end of the line. After even refusing to give Wallach a token payment for losing out on two jobs the actor said "I'll sue you"—to which Leone replied, "Get in line", and slammed down the phone. In his autobiography, Wallach relates that as regrettably being the final time that the two spoke to one another. Wallach played Mr. Freeze in the 1960's Batman television series. He wrote in his autobiography that he received more fan mail about his role as Mr. Freeze than all of his other roles combined. Personal life Wallach has been married to stage actress Anne Jackson (born 1926) since March 5, 1948, and they have three children: Peter, Katherine and Roberta: the latter had an acting experience as a mentally disturbed teenager in Paul Newman's The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds. In 2005, Wallach released his autobiography The Good, the Bad and Me: In My Anecdotage. In this tome, Wallach talked about his most famous role as Tuco in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. He mentioned that he didn't realize he was going to be "blessed" with that title until he saw the film. He mentioned it was an honor to work with Clint Eastwood, whom he praised for his professionalism. Wallach mentioned, however, that director Sergio Leone was notoriously careless in ensuring the safety of his actors during dangerous scenes. It was during filming that Wallach accidentally drank from a bottle of acid that a film technician had carelessly placed next to his soda bottle. He spat it out immediately, but was furious that his vocal cords could have been damaged if he'd swallowed any of it. Leone gave him some milk to wash his mouth out with and apologized for the incident, but also commented that accidents do happen. Wallach, Eli. (2006): The Good, the Bad and Me: In My Anecdotage (Harvest Books, Fort Washington, PA) ISBN 978-0156031691, p. 255 Wallach lost sight in his left eye as the result of a stroke. According to his autobiography the incident occurred "some years ago". Filmography Film Baby Doll (1956) The Lineup (1958) Seven Thieves (1960) The Magnificent Seven (1960) The Misfits (1961) Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man (1962) How the West Was Won (1962) The Victors (1963) Act One (1963) The Moon-Spinners (1964) Kisses for My President (1964) Lord Jim (1965) Genghis Khan (1965) The Poppy Is Also a Flower (1966) How to Steal a Million (1966) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966) The Tiger Makes Out (1967) (also producer) Ace High (1968) How to Save a Marriage (and Ruin Your Life) (1968) A Lovely Way to Die (1968) The Brain (1969) Mackenna's Gold (1969) The Adventures of Gerard (1970) The Angel Levine (1970) The People Next Door (1970) Zigzag (1970) Romance of a Horsethief (1971) Long Live Your Death (1971) A Cold Night's Death (1972)(TV) Stateline Motel (1972) Cinderella Liberty (1973) Crazy Joe (1974) The Dream Factory (1975) Eye of the Cat (1975) Shoot First... Ask Questions Later (1975) L'chaim: To Life (1975) Plot of Fear (1976) Independence (1976) The Domino Principle (1976) The Sentinel (1977) The Deep (1977) Winter Kills (1977) (Released in 1979) Nasty Habits (1977) Movie Movie (1977) Girlfriends (1978) Little Italy (1978) Circle of Iron (1978) Firepower (1979) The Hunter (1980) The Salamander (1981) Sam's Son (1984) Sanford Meisner: The American Theatre's Best Kept Secret (1985) Tough Guys (1986) The Impossible Spy (1987)(TV)Hollywood Uncensored (1987)Nuts (1987)Funny (1989) The Two Jakes (1990)The Godfather: Part III Don Altobello (1990)Article 99 (1992)Mistress (1992) (Made in 1987)Night and the City (1992)Honey Sweet Love (1994)Elia Kazan: A Director's Journey (1995) (narrator)Two Much (1996)The Associate (1996)Larry's Visit (1996) Uninvited (1999) Keeping the Faith (2000) Cinerama Adventure (2002) Advice and Dissent (2002) The Root (2003) Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There (2003) Mystic River (2003) (Cameo) King of the Corner (2004) A Taste of Jupiter (2005)The Moon and the Son: An Imagined Conversation (2005)The Easter Egg Adventure (2005) (narrator)The Holiday (2006) The Hoax (2006)Constantine's Sword (2007)The War (2007) Mama's Boy (2007)Liszt For President (2008)The Toe Tactic (2008)Tickling Leo (2008)New York, I Love You (2008) Television The Philco Television Playhouse - The Beautiful Bequest (1949) Lights Out - Rappaccini's Daughter (1951) Studio One - Stan The Killer (1952) Armstrong Circle Theater - The Portrait (1952) The Web - Deadlock (1952) The Philco Television Playhouse - The Baby (1953) Goodyear Television Playhouse - The Brownstone (1953) Kraft Television Theater - Delicate Story (1954) The Philco Television Playhouse - Shadow of the Champ (1955) The Philco Television Playhouse - The Outsiders (1955) The Kaiser Aluminum Hour - A Fragile Affair (1956) Studio One - The Man Who Wasn't Himself (1957) Hallmark Hall of Fame - The Lark (1957) The Seven Lively Arts - The World of Nick Adams (1957) Climax - Albert Anastasia, His Life & Death (1958) Suspicion - The Death of Paul Dane (1958) Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse - My Father The Fool (1958) Shirley Temple's Storybook Theater - The Emperor's New Clothes (1958) Hallmark Hall of Fame - The Gift of the Magi (1958) Where Is Thy Brother (1958) Playhouse 90 - The Plot To Kill Stalin (1958) The Dupont Show of the Month - I Don Quixote (1959) Playhouse 90 - The Blue Men (1959) Playhouse 90 - For Whom The Bell Tolls (Parts 1 & 2) (1959) Play of the Week - Lullaby (1960) Naked City - A Death of Princes (1960) Naked City - A Run For The Money (1962) The Dick Powell Show - Tomorrow, The Man (1962) CBS Playhouse - Dear Friends (1967) Batman - Ice-Spy (1967) Batman - The Duo Defy (1967) The Typists (1971) The Young Lawyers - Legal Maneuvre (1971) A Cold Night's Death (1972) (TVM) Indict and Convict (1973) (TVM) Paradise Lost (1974) Great Mysteries - Compliments of the Season (1974) Kojak - A Question of Answers (1975) 20 Shades of Pink (1976) Seventh Avenue (1977) The Pirate (1978) Fugitive Family (1980) The Pride of Jesse Hallam (1980)(TVM) Skokie (1981)(TVM) Tales of the Unexpected - Shatterproof (1981) The Wall (1982) The Executioner's Song (1982) Anatomy of an Illness (1983) (TVM) Christopher Columbus (1985) Our Family Honor (1985) (TVM) Our Family Honor (1985-86) (Series) Embassy (1985) (TVM) Murder: By Reason of Insanity (1985) (TVM) Rocket to the Moon (1986) (TVM) Something In Common (1986) (TVM) Highway to Heaven - To Bind The Wounds (1986) The Impossible Spy (1987) (TVM) Highway To Heaven - A Father's Faith (1987) World's Beyond - The Black Tomb (1987) Murder She Wrote - A Very Good Year For Murder (1988) Alfred Hitchcock Presents - Kandinsky's Vault (1988) CBS Schoolbreak Special - A Matter of Conscience (1989) Vendetta : Secrets of a Mafia Bride (1991) (TVM) L.A Law - There Goes The Judge (1991) Legacy of Lies (1992) (TVM) Nonsense and Lullabyes: Nursery Rhymes (1992) Nonsense and Lullabyes: Poems (1992) Law & Order - The Working Stiff (1992) Teamster Boss: The Jackie Presser Story (1992) (TVM) Vendetta 2 - The New Mafia (1993) (TVM) Tribeca - Stepping Back (1993) Naked City - Justice With A Bullet (1998) (TVM) The Bookfair Murders (2000)(TVM) 100 Center Street - Kids : Part 1 (2001) The Education of Max Bickford - I Never Schlunged My Father (2002) The Education of Max Bickford - Genesis (2002) The Education of Max Bickford - One More Time (2002) Monday Night Mayhem (2002) (TVM) Veritas: The Quest - The Name of God (2003) Whoopi - American Woman (2003) E.R - A Boy Falling Out of the Sky (2003) Stroker and Hoop - I Saw Stroker Killing Santa (2005) Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip'' - The Wrap Party (2006) References External links The Bookwrap video interviews | Eli_Wallach |@lemmatized eli:4 herschel:1 wallach:34 born:2 december:1 american:4 film:12 tv:3 stage:2 actor:6 gain:2 fame:3 late:1 performance:3 baby:4 doll:3 win:5 bafta:2 award:6 best:2 newcomer:1 golden:2 globe:1 nomination:2 one:8 famous:2 role:11 tuco:3 good:9 bad:7 ugly:6 include:3 portrayal:1 altobello:2 godfather:3 part:5 iii:2 arthur:1 abbott:1 holiday:2 receive:3 tony:2 emmy:2 work:4 early:2 life:5 bear:1 brooklyn:1 new:8 york:5 son:3 bertha:1 née:1 schorr:1 abraham:1 jewish:1 family:4 predominantly:1 italian:1 neighborhood:2 know:2 line:3 forward:1 com:1 biography:1 graduate:2 university:1 texas:2 austin:1 master:1 art:1 city:5 college:1 however:4 first:2 method:1 experience:2 playhouse:12 serve:1 staff:1 sergeant:1 hawaii:1 military:1 hospital:1 united:1 state:1 army:3 world:3 war:3 ii:1 soon:1 send:2 officer:2 candidate:1 school:2 abilene:1 undergo:1 training:1 become:1 medical:1 administrative:1 second:1 lieutenant:1 madison:1 barrack:1 promptly:1 ship:1 casablanca:1 later:3 france:1 superior:1 discover:1 act:3 history:1 ask:4 form:1 show:7 patient:1 member:1 unit:1 write:3 play:8 call:4 inspire:2 irving:1 berlin:1 comedic:1 men:2 clown:1 around:1 various:1 dictator:1 portray:2 hitler:1 career:3 take:1 class:1 dramatic:1 workshop:1 influential:1 german:1 director:3 erwin:1 piscator:1 make:4 broadway:2 debut:2 tennessee:2 williams:2 rise:1 tattoo:1 additional:1 theater:4 credit:1 mister:1 robert:1 teahouse:1 august:1 moon:5 camino:1 real:1 major:1 barbara:1 luv:1 staircase:1 co:1 star:1 milo:1 shea:1 depict:2 age:2 homosexual:1 couple:1 serious:1 way:2 elia:2 kazan:2 controversial:1 go:5 prolific:1 although:1 rarely:1 starring:1 misfit:2 magnificent:2 seven:4 mexican:1 bandit:1 sergio:2 leone:12 central:1 infamous:1 business:1 legend:3 cast:1 angelo:1 maggio:1 movie:3 eternity:1 abruptly:1 replace:1 frank:1 sinatra:4 begin:1 oscar:1 revive:1 used:1 pressure:1 reputed:1 underworld:1 connection:1 get:2 story:3 similar:1 incident:3 classic:1 say:3 turn:2 appear:2 whenever:1 academy:1 saw:3 hello:1 crazy:2 guest:1 appearance:1 nbc:1 studio:7 sunset:2 strip:2 former:1 writer:2 blacklist:1 character:1 philco:6 comedy:2 hour:2 air:1 fictional:1 nb:1 network:1 reference:2 television:9 several:1 episode:1 actually:1 earn:1 accept:2 villain:1 upon:1 time:3 west:3 henry:1 fonda:3 hell:1 assure:1 would:2 pleasantly:1 surprised:1 success:1 back:2 thank:1 though:1 build:1 relationship:1 shoot:2 fall:2 upcoming:1 fistful:1 dynamite:1 explain:1 scheduling:1 conflict:1 much:2 pleading:1 finally:1 relent:1 offer:1 wait:1 raise:1 enough:1 hollywood:2 money:2 picture:2 rod:1 steiger:1 contract:1 announce:1 use:1 put:1 financing:1 apologize:2 remain:1 dumbstruck:1 end:1 even:1 refuse:1 give:2 token:1 payment:1 lose:3 two:4 job:1 sue:1 reply:1 slam:1 phone:1 autobiography:4 relate:1 regrettably:1 final:1 speak:1 another:1 mr:2 freeze:2 batman:3 series:2 fan:1 mail:1 combine:1 personal:1 marry:1 actress:1 anne:1 jackson:1 since:1 march:1 three:1 child:1 peter:1 katherine:1 roberta:1 latter:1 acting:1 mentally:1 disturbed:1 teenager:1 paul:2 newman:1 effect:1 gamma:1 ray:1 man:4 marigold:1 release:2 anecdotage:2 tome:1 talk:1 mention:3 realize:1 bless:1 title:1 honor:3 clint:1 eastwood:1 praise:1 professionalism:1 notoriously:1 careless:1 ensure:1 safety:1 dangerous:1 scene:1 accidentally:1 drink:1 bottle:2 acid:1 technician:1 carelessly:1 place:1 next:2 soda:1 spat:1 immediately:1 furious:1 vocal:1 cord:1 could:1 damage:1 swallow:1 milk:1 wash:1 mouth:1 also:3 comment:1 accident:1 happen:1 harvest:1 book:1 fort:1 washington:1 pa:1 isbn:1 p:1 sight:1 left:1 eye:2 result:1 stroke:1 accord:1 occur:1 year:2 ago:1 filmography:1 lineup:1 thief:1 hemingway:1 adventure:4 young:2 victor:1 spinner:1 kiss:1 president:2 lord:1 jim:1 genghis:1 khan:1 poppy:1 flower:1 steal:1 million:1 tiger:1 producer:1 ace:1 high:1 save:1 marriage:1 ruin:1 lovely:1 die:1 brain:1 mackenna:1 gold:1 gerard:1 angel:1 levine:1 people:1 door:1 zigzag:1 romance:1 horsethief:1 long:1 live:1 death:6 cold:2 night:4 stateline:1 motel:1 cinderella:1 liberty:1 joe:1 dream:1 factory:1 cat:1 question:2 l:2 chaim:1 plot:2 fear:1 independence:1 domino:1 principle:1 sentinel:1 deep:1 winter:1 kill:3 nasty:1 habit:1 girlfriend:1 little:1 italy:1 circle:2 iron:1 firepower:1 hunter:1 salamander:1 sam:1 sanford:1 meisner:1 theatre:1 kept:1 secret:2 tough:1 guy:1 impossible:2 spy:3 uncensored:1 nut:1 funny:1 jakes:1 article:1 mistress:1 honey:1 sweet:1 love:2 journey:1 narrator:2 associate:1 larry:1 visit:1 uninvited:1 keep:1 faith:2 cinerama:1 advice:1 dissent:1 root:1 mystic:1 river:1 cameo:1 king:1 corner:1 taste:1 jupiter:1 imagined:1 conversation:1 easter:1 egg:1 hoax:1 constantine:1 sword:1 mama:1 boy:2 liszt:1 toe:1 tactic:1 tickle:1 leo:1 beautiful:1 bequest:1 light:1 rappaccini:1 daughter:1 stan:1 killer:1 armstrong:1 portrait:1 web:1 deadlock:1 goodyear:1 brownstone:1 kraft:1 delicate:1 shadow:1 champ:1 outsider:1 kaiser:1 aluminum:1 fragile:1 affair:1 hallmark:2 hall:2 lark:1 lively:1 arts:1 nick:1 adam:1 climax:1 albert:1 anastasia:1 suspicion:1 dane:1 westinghouse:1 desilu:1 father:3 fool:1 shirley:1 temple:1 storybook:1 emperor:1 clothes:1 gift:1 magi:1 thy:1 brother:1 stalin:1 dupont:1 month:1 quixote:1 blue:1 bell:1 toll:1 week:1 lullaby:1 naked:3 prince:1 run:1 dick:1 powell:1 tomorrow:1 cbs:2 dear:1 friend:1 ice:1 duo:1 defy:1 typist:1 lawyer:1 legal:1 maneuvre:1 tvm:18 indict:1 convict:1 paradise:1 great:1 mystery:1 compliment:1 season:1 kojak:1 answer:1 shade:1 pink:1 seventh:1 avenue:1 pirate:1 fugitive:1 pride:1 jesse:1 hallam:1 skokie:1 tale:1 unexpected:1 shatterproof:1 wall:1 executioner:1 song:1 anatomy:1 illness:1 christopher:1 columbus:1 embassy:1 murder:4 reason:1 insanity:1 rocket:1 something:1 common:1 highway:2 heaven:2 bind:1 wound:1 beyond:1 black:1 tomb:1 alfred:1 hitchcock:1 present:1 kandinsky:1 vault:1 schoolbreak:1 special:1 matter:1 conscience:1 vendetta:2 mafia:2 bride:1 law:2 judge:1 legacy:1 lie:1 nonsense:2 lullabyes:2 nursery:1 rhyme:1 poem:1 order:1 stiff:1 teamster:1 bos:1 jackie:1 presser:1 tribeca:1 step:1 justice:1 bullet:1 bookfair:1 center:1 street:1 kid:1 education:3 max:3 bickford:3 never:1 schlunged:1 genesis:1 monday:1 mayhem:1 veritas:1 quest:1 name:1 god:1 whoopi:1 woman:1 e:1 r:1 sky:1 stroker:2 hoop:1 santa:1 wrap:1 party:1 external:1 link:1 bookwrap:1 video:1 interview:1 |@bigram baby_doll:3 bafta_award:2 golden_globe:1 globe_nomination:1 bad_ugly:5 emmy_award:1 texas_austin:1 abilene_texas:1 irving_berlin:1 camino_real:1 elia_kazan:2 starring_role:1 sergio_leone:2 frank_sinatra:1 philco_television:5 emmy_nomination:1 henry_fonda:1 finally_relent:1 rod_steiger:1 gamma_ray:1 clint_eastwood:1 vocal_cord:1 hemingway_adventure:1 genghis_khan:1 kept_secret:1 tough_guy:1 easter_egg:1 hall_fame:2 christopher_columbus:1 alfred_hitchcock:1 nursery_rhyme:1 external_link:1 |
3,290 | Microsoft_Office | Microsoft Office is an office suite of interrelated desktop applications, servers and services for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X operating systems. Microsoft Office was introduced by Microsoft in 1989 for the Mac OS, with a version for Windows in 1990. Initially a marketing term for a bundled set of applications, the first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Additionally, a "Pro" (Professional) version of Office included Microsoft Access and Schedule Plus. Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a common spell checker, OLE data integration and Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications scripting language. Microsoft also positions Office as a development platform for line-of-business software under the Office Business Applications (OBA) brand. The current versions are Office 2007 for Windows which was released on January 30, 2007, and Office 2008 for Mac OS X, released January 15, 2008. Office 2007/Office 2008 introduced a new user interface and new OOXML document formats (docx, xlsx, pptx). Consequently, Microsoft has made available, free of charge, an add-on known as the Microsoft Office Compatibility Pack to allow Office 2000-2003 for Windows and Office 2004 for Mac editions to open, edit, and save documents created under the new formats for Office 2007. History The first version of Microsoft Office was released in 1989, for the Apple Macintosh. Microsoft Office has long been the dominant player when it comes to software that offers word-processing, spreadsheet, and presentation tools. Microsoft Office still a barrier to Linux adoption- ZDNet, Aug. 22, 2002 More to Life Than the Office - Business Week - July 3, 2006 Free software battles Microsoft Office for market share - IT Pro, May 9, 2008 History of Microsoft Office for Microsoft Windows Microsoft Office 3.0 was the first version of Office to be released for the Microsoft Windows operating system. Microsoft Office 4.0 was released in 1994, containing Word 6.0, Excel 5.0, PowerPoint 4.0, Mail, and Access. Word was called Word 6.0 at this point despite the fact the previous version number was 2.0. The purpose was to use common version numbering with the Mac OS version. Microsoft Office 4.3 was the last 16-bit version, and is also the last version to support Windows 3.x, Windows NT 3.1 and Windows NT 3.5 (Windows NT 3.51 was supported up to and including Office 97). Microsoft Office 95 (Office 7.0 - The version number skipped 5.0 and 6.0 in order to show that its applications were contemporary. The previous Word 6.0 had the highest number, so 7.0 were chosen for all of them. Excel 5.0, PowerPoint 4.0, Schedule+ 1.0 and Access 2.0 were the predecessors to Office 95's applications). It was done as a fully 32-bit version to match Windows 95. Office 95 was available in two versions, Office 95 Standard and Office 95 Professional. The standard version consists of Word 7.0, Excel 7.0, PowerPoint 7.0, and Schedule+ 7.0. The professional edition contains all of the items in the standard version plus Access 7.0. If the professional version is purchased in CD-ROM form, it also includes Bookshelf. Microsoft Office 97 (Office 8.0), a major milestone release which included hundreds of new features and improvements, introduced command bars, a paradigm in which menus and toolbars were made more similar in capability and visual design. Office 97 also featured natural language systems and sophisticated grammar checking. Microsoft Office 2000 (Office 9.0) introduced adaptive menus, where little-used options were hidden from the user. It also introduced a new security feature, built around digital signatures, to diminish the threat of macro viruses. Office 2000 automatically trusts macros (written in VBA6) that were digitally signed from authors who have been previously designated as trusted.Office 2000 is the last version to support Windows 95. 2000 is also the last Office release which does not include Microsoft Product Activation. Microsoft Office XP (Office 10.0 aka Office 2002), released in conjunction with Windows XP, is a major upgrade with numerous enhancements and changes. Office XP introduced the Safe Mode feature. It allows applications such as Outlook to boot when it might otherwise fail. Safe Mode enables Office to detect and either repair or bypass the source of the problem, such as a corrupted registry or a misbehaving add-in. Smart tag is a technology delivered with Office XP. Some smart tags operate based on user activity, such as helping with typing errors. These smart tags are supplied with the products, and are not programmable. For developers, though, there is the ability to create custom smart tags. In Office XP, custom smart tags could work only in Word and Excel. Microsoft Office XP includes integrated voice command and text dictation capabilities, as well as handwriting recognition. Another feature introduced with Office XP is Product Activation, which is also implemented in Windows XP (and later versions of Windows and Office).Office XP is the last version to support Windows 98, ME and NT 4.0. Office XP is also the earliest Office reported to work well with Windows Vista - however Outlook 2002 (XP) does have some serious problems with Vista such as not remembering email account passwords. Microsoft Office 2003 (Office 11.0) was released in 2003. It features a new logo. Two new applications made their debut in Office 2003: Microsoft InfoPath and OneNote. It is the first version to use Windows XP style icons. Outlook 2003 provides improved functionality in many areas, including Kerberos authentication, RPC over HTTP, and Cached Exchange Mode. The key benefit of Outlook 2003 is the improved junk mail filter. 2003 is the last Office version to support Windows 2000. Microsoft Office 2007 (Office 12.0) was released in 2007. It includes Groove, a collaborative software application. Review: A Comprehensive Look At Microsoft Office 2007 Office 2007 contains a number of new features, the most notable of which is the entirely new graphical user interface called the Fluent User Interface The Microsoft Office Fluent user interface overview (initially referred to as the Ribbon UI), replacing the menus and toolbars that have been the cornerstone of Office since its inception with a tabbed toolbar, known as the Ribbon. Microsoft revealed the "Ribbon" UI used on new Office versions on March 9, 2006 at CeBIT, Germany. Office 2007 requires Windows XP with Service Pack 2 or 3, Windows Server 2003 with Service Pack 1 or higher, or Windows Vista. MS Office 2007 System Requirements On May 21, 2008, Microsoft announced that Office 2007 Service Pack 2 will add native support for the OpenDocument Format. Office 2007 won't support ISO's OOXML (David Worthington, SDTimes, 21 May 2008) The announced it is going to investigate Microsoft Office OpenDocument Format support. EU says to study Microsoft's open-source step Microsoft Office 2010 (Office 14.0) is currently under development. It is due to be released in 2010. http://blogs.zdnet.com/microsoft/?p=2116 Version 13.0 was skipped because of superstition relating to the number thirteen. http://www.neowin.net/index.php?act=view&id=38146 . The Technical Preview 1 (Version: 14.0.4006.1010) has been leaked on May 15th, 2009. http://www.neowin.net/news/software/09/05/11/sign-up-for-the-office-2010-technical-preview-due-in-july History of Microsoft Office for Macintosh Prior to packaging its various office-type Macintosh software applications into Office, Microsoft released Mac versions of Word 1.0 in 1984, the first year of the Macintosh computer; Excel 1.0 in 1985; and PowerPoint 1.0 in 1987. History of the Microsoft Macintosh Business Unit - Word document Microsoft does not include its Access database application in Office for Mac. Microsoft has noted that some features are added to Office for Mac before they appear in Windows versions, such as Office for Mac 2001's Office Project Gallery and PowerPoint Movie feature, which allows users to save presentations as QuickTime movies. Office Macintosh Edition: A History of "Mac-First" Technology - Microsoft Microsoft Office 2001 for Mac Available Nationwide - Microsoft Microsoft Office for Mac was introduced for Macintosh in 1989, before Office was released for Windows. Microsoft and Mac, Happy Together - Business Week It included Word 4.0, Excel 2.20 and PowerPoint 2.01. Microsoft Office 1.5 for Mac was released in 1991 and included the updated Excel 3.0, the first application to support Apple’s System 7 operating system. Microsoft Office 2.9 for Mac was released in 1992. Excel 4.0 was the first application to support the new AppleScript. Microsoft Office 4.0 for Mac was released in 1993. It was the first Office suite for the Power Macintosh. However, Microsoft later acknowledged that "(m)any customers commented that Office 4.2 wasn't enough like the Macintosh." The final release for Mac 68K: Office 4.2.1 Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition was unveiled at MacWorld Expo/San Francisco on Jan. 6, 1998. It introduced the Internet Explorer 4.0 browser and Outlook Express, an Internet e-mail client and usenet newsgroup reader. Microsoft Unveils Office 98 Macintosh Edition... - Microsoft Office 98 was re-engineered by Microsoft's Macintosh Business Unit to satisfy customers' desire for software they felt was more Mac-like. It included drag–and-drop installation, self-repairing applications and Quick Thesaurus before such features were available in a version of Office for Windows. It also was the first version to support QuickTime movies. Microsoft Office 2001, launched in 2000, was the last Office suite for pre-Mac OS X, or Classic, operating system; it required Mac OS 8, although version 8.5 or later was recommended. Office 2001 introduced Entourage, an e-mail client that included information management tools such as a calendar, an address book, task lists and notes. Microsoft Office v. X was released in 2001 for the new Mac OS X platform. Microsoft Office v. X for Mac Hits U.S. Retail Stores - Microsoft Microsoft Office 2004 for Mac was released in 2004. Work Just Got Better: Introducing Microsoft Office 2004 for Mac - Microsoft Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac was released in 2008. It is the first Office for Mac suite that is a universal binary — meaning it runs natively on both Intel- and Power PC-based Macs — and uses XML file formats. Microsoft announced on May 13, 2008, that Office 2008 was "selling faster than any previous version of Office for Mac in the past 19 years" and affirmed "its commitment to future products for the Mac." Microsoft Mac BU Delivers Strongest Launch in History of Office for Mac - Microsoft Components Desktop applications Word Microsoft Word is a word processor and was previously considered to be the main program in Office. Its proprietary DOC format is considered a de facto standard, although Word 2007 can also use a new XML-based, Microsoft Office-optimized format called .DOCX which has been standardized by ECMA as Office Open XML and its SP2 update will support ODF and PDF. Microsoft Expands List of Formats Supported in Microsoft Office Word is also available in some editions of Microsoft Works. It is available for the Windows and Mac platforms. The first version of Word, released in the fall of 1983, was for the DOS operating system and had the distinction of introducing the mouse to a broad population. Word 1.0 could be purchased with a bundled mouse, though one was not required. The following spring Apple introduced the Mac, and Microsoft released Word for the Mac, which became the most popular Mac application and which, like all Mac apps, required the use of a mouse. Excel Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program. It was originally a competitor to the dominant Lotus 1-2-3, but it eventually outsold it and became the de facto standard. It is available for the Windows and Mac platforms. The current Mac version (Office 2008) has removed Visual Basic functionality so macros cannot be used and those generated in previous iterations of Office no longer work. Microsoft announced in May 2008, that Visual Basic would be returning to Excel in future versions. Outlook/Entourage Microsoft Outlook, not to be confused with Outlook Express, is a personal information manager and e-mail communication software. The replacement for Windows Messaging, Microsoft Mail and Schedule+ (Plus) starting in Office 97, it includes an e-mail client, calendar, task manager and address book. Although historically it has been offered for the Mac, the closest to an equivalent for Mac OS X is Microsoft Entourage, which offers a slightly different feature set. PowerPoint Microsoft PowerPoint is a popular presentation program for Windows and Mac. It is used to create slideshows, composed of text, graphics, movies and other objects, which can be displayed on-screen and navigated through by the presenter or printed out on transparencies or slides. This is convenient for school or work presentations.Office Mobile for Windows Mobile 5.0 and later features a version of PowerPoint called PowerPoint Mobile. Movies, videos, sounds and music, as well as Wordart and Autoshapes can be added to slideshows. Other desktop applications (Windows version only) Microsoft Access – Database manager. Microsoft Publisher – software for creating newsletters, business cards, flyers, greeting cards or postcards. Microsoft InfoPath – an application to design rich XML-based forms. Microsoft OneNote – Note-taking software for use with tablet PCs or regular PCs. Microsoft Office SharePoint Designer – a WYSIWYG HTML editor and web design program for customizing SharePoint applications, it replaces Microsoft Office FrontPage (it is not bundled in any Office 2007 suite). Microsoft Project – Project management software to keep track of events and to create network charts and Gantt charts (it is not bundled in any Office 2007 suite). Microsoft Visio – Diagram and flowcharting software (it is not bundled in any Office 2007 suite). Microsoft Office Accounting – a tool for managing business finances (it is not bundled in any Office 2007 suite, except for the Express edition). Microsoft Office Communicator – Integrated communications client for conferences and meetings in real time (it is bundled with Office 2007 Professional Plus and Enterprise 2007. 2007 Office system suits ). Microsoft Office Document Imaging – an application that supports editing scanned documents. Microsoft Office Document Scanning – a scanning and OCR application. Microsoft Office Groove – a proprietary peer-to-peer collaboration software leveled at businesses. Microsoft Office InterConnect – Business-relationship database available only in Japan. Microsoft Office Picture Manager – Basic photo management software (similar to Google's Picasa or Adobe's Photoshop Elements). Replaced Microsoft Photo Editor. Server applications Microsoft Office SharePoint Server - collaboration server Excel Services InfoPath Forms Services Microsoft Office Communications Server (formerly Live Communications Server) - real time communications server Microsoft Office Forms Server - allows InfoPath forms to be accessed and filled out using any browser. Office Forms Server is a standalone server installation of InfoPath Forms Services. Microsoft Office Groove Server - centrally managing all deployments of Microsoft Office Groove in the enterprise Microsoft Office Project Server - project management server Microsoft Office Project Portfolio Server - allows creation of a project portfolio, including workflows, hosted centrally Microsoft Office PerformancePoint Server - allows customers to monitor, analyze, and plan their business Web services Microsoft Office Live Small Business (formerly known simply as Office Live) – Web hosting services and online collaboration tools for small businesses. Microsoft Office Live Workspace – Online storage and collaboration service for documents. Live Meeting – Web conferencing service. Microsoft Office Online – Web site. Provides support for all Microsoft Office products. Microsoft Update – Web site. Patch detection and installation service for Microsoft Office. Common features Most versions of Microsoft Office (including Office 97 and later, and possibly 4.3) use their own widget set and do not exactly match the native operating system. This is more apparent in the 2002 or XP release of Microsoft Office where the standard menus were replaced with a colored flat looking, shadowed menu style. Visual elements of Office packages' widget systems have been included in next versions of Windows systems and have offered some cues into what user interface (UI) elements a major Windows incarnation would employ in the future: The toolbar, color buttons and the usually gray-colored '3D' look of Office 4.3 were added to Windows 95; The gradient title bar and flat buttons in Windows 9x/2000. Similarly, Microsoft Office 2007 introduces a whole new widget system, dubbed "Ribbon", but now known as the "Fluent user interface". Office Fluent user interface overview The same widget used in Microsoft Office is also used in the Visual Studio product line, though the "Fluent UI" was not announced to be included in future versions of Visual Studio. Later versions of Windows thus inherit the concepts of task-based user activities and easy discoverability of program functions. Both Windows and Office use "Service Packs" to update software, Office used to release non-cumulative "Service Releases", which were discontinued after Office 2000 Service Release 1. Programs in past versions of Office often contained substantial Easter eggs. For example, Excel 97 contained a reasonably functional flight-simulator. Versions starting with Office XP have not contained any easter eggs in the name of Trustworthy Computing. Extensibility A major feature of the Office suite is the ability for users and third party companies to write add-ins that extend the capabilities of an application by adding custom commands and specialized features. The type of add-ins supported differ by Office versions: Office 97 onwards (standard Windows DLLs i.e. Word WLLs and Excel XLLs) Office 2000 onwards (COM add-ins) How to build an Office 2000 COM add-in in Visual Basic Office XP onwards (COM/OLE Automation add-ins) How To Create a Visual Basic Automation Add-in for Excel Worksheet Functions Office 2003 onwards (Managed code add-ins - VSTO solutions) Information about designing Office add-ins by using the .NET Framework Cross-platform Microsoft supports Office for Windows and Mac platforms. Beginning with Mac Office 4.2, the Mac and Windows versions of Office share the same file format. Consequently, any Mac with Office 4.2 or later can read documents created with Windows Office 4.2 or later, and vice-versa. Microsoft Office 2008 for the Mac dropped VBA support. Microsoft has replaced VBA with support for AppleScript. As a result, macros created with Office for Windows will not run on Office for the Mac, and vice versa. However the version after Microsoft Office for Mac 2008 will bring back VBA support. There were efforts in the mid 1990s to port Office to RISC processors such as NEC / MIPS and IBM / PowerPC, but they met problems such as memory access being hampered by data structure alignment requirements. Difficulties in porting Office may have been a factor in discontinuing Windows NT on non-Intel platforms. There is no mention of support for other operating systems. Support lifecycle Version Compatibility Beginning in 2002, Microsoft instituted a new support lifecycle policy. Office Family Product Support Lifecycle FAQ Microsoft Support Lifecycle Policy FAQ Versions earlier than Office 2000 are no longer supported. For current and future versions of Office mainstream support will end five years after release, or two years after the next release, whichever time is later, and extended support will end five years after that. Office versions available for Windows Windows operating system versionLast versionMainstream Support End-dateExtended Support End-date Windows NT 3.51 Office 97 August 31, 2001 February 28, 2002 Windows 95 Office 2000 June 30, 2004 July 14, 2009 Windows NT 4.0/98/Me Office XP July 11, 2006 July 12, 2011 Windows 2000 Office 2003 April 14, 2009 April 8, 2014 Windows XP/Server 2003/Vista/Server 2008 Office 2007 April 10, 2012 April 11, 2017 Office versions available for Macintosh Macintosh Operating systemLast version (68K) System 7.0-Mac OS 8.1 Office 4.2.1 (PPC) System 7.1.2 Office 4.2.1 (PPC) System 7.5-Mac OS 8.0 Office 98 (PPC) Mac OS 8.1-9.2.2 Office 2001 Mac OS X 10.1-10.5 Office v. X Mac OS X 10.2-10.5 Office 2004 Mac OS X 10.4-10.5 Office 2008 Discontinued applications and features Microsoft Binder: Incorporates several documents into one file and was originally designed as a container system for storing related documents in a single file. The complexity of use and learning curve led to little usage and was removed from releases after Office 2000. Microsoft FrontPage: Web design software (also requires its own server program for some functionality). Offered only as a stand-alone program for the 2003 version. In 2006, Microsoft announced that this was to be discontinued and to be replaced by two different software packages: Microsoft SharePoint Designer and Microsoft Expression Web. Microsoft Mail: Mail client (in old versions of Office, later replaced by Microsoft Schedule Plus and subsequently Microsoft Outlook). Microsoft PhotoDraw 2000: A graphics program that was first released as part of the Office 2000 Premium Edition. A later version for Windows XP compatibility was released, known as PhotoDraw 2000 Version 2. Microsoft discontinued the program in 2001. Microsoft Photo Editor: Photo-editing/raster-graphics software in older Office versions up to Office XP. It was supplemented by Microsoft PhotoDraw in Office 2000 Premium edition. Microsoft Schedule Plus: Released with Office 95. It featured a planner, to-do list, and contact information. Its functions were incorporated into Microsoft Outlook. Microsoft Virtual PC: Included with Microsoft Office Professional Edition 2004 for Mac. Microsoft discontinued support for Virtual PC on the Mac in 2006 owing to new Macs possessing the same Intel architecture as Windows PCs. It emulated a standard PC and its hardware. The current version (for Windows only) is Microsoft Virtual PC 2007 Microsoft Vizact 2000: A program that "activated" documents using HTML, adding effects such as animation. It allows users to create dynamic documents for the Web. Development has ended due to unpopularity. Microsoft Data Analyzer 2002: A business intelligence program for graphical visualization of data and its analysis. Office Assistant, included since Office 97 (Windows) & Office 98 (Mac) as a part of Microsoft Agent technology, is a system that uses animated characters to offer context-sensitive suggestions to users and access to the help system. The Assistant is often dubbed "Clippy" or "Clippit", due to its default to a paper clip character, coded as CLIPPIT.ACS. The latest versions that include the Office Assistant were Office 2003 (Windows) & Office 2004 (Mac). Criticisms Microsoft Office has been criticized in the past for using proprietary file formats rather than open standards, which forces users who share data into adopting the same software platform. We Can Put an End to Word Attachments - GNU Project - Free Software Foundation (FSF) However, on February 15, 2008, Microsoft made the entire documentation for the binary Office formats freely available under the Open Specification Promise. Microsoft Office Binary (doc, xls, ppt) File Formats documentation Also, Office Open XML, the document format for the latest versions of Office for Windows and Mac, has been standardized under both Ecma International and ISO. Ecma International has published the Office Open XML specification free of copyrights and Microsoft has granted patent rights to the formats technology under the Open Specification Promise Microsoft Open Specification Promise and has made available free downloadable converters for previous versions of Microsoft Office including Office 2003, Office XP, Office 2000 and Office 2004 for the Mac. Third-party implementations of Office Open XML exist on the Mac platform (iWork 08) and Linux (OpenOffice.org 3.0). Since Office XP, Microsoft productivity suite series has been criticized for having Product Activation. Microsoft Office for Mac has been long criticized for its lack of support of Unicode and BiDi languages, notably Arabic and Hebrew. This issue is yet to be addressed as of the 2008 version. Higgaion » It's official: no RTL support in Microsoft Office 2008 for Mac: Mac Mojo : “Velkommen, Tervetuloa, Velkommen” and “Bienvenue à Paris” See also List of Microsoft Office programs List of office suites Comparison of office suites Visual Studio Tools for Office (VSTO) References External links Microsoft Office (for Windows) Microsoft Office 2008 (for Mac OS X) MSDN Office Developer Center Microsoft Office Converters and Viewers - Free programs to view Microsoft Office documents. | Microsoft_Office |@lemmatized microsoft:155 office:231 suite:12 interrelated:1 desktop:3 application:25 server:19 service:15 window:50 mac:66 os:9 x:13 operate:7 system:21 introduce:13 version:61 initially:2 marketing:1 term:1 bundled:2 set:3 first:13 contain:7 word:21 excel:16 powerpoint:11 additionally:1 pro:2 professional:6 include:22 access:9 schedule:6 plus:6 year:6 grow:1 substantially:1 closer:1 share:4 feature:17 common:3 spell:1 checker:1 ole:2 data:5 integration:1 visual:10 basic:6 script:1 language:3 also:15 position:1 development:3 platform:9 line:2 business:14 software:20 oba:1 brand:1 current:4 release:32 january:2 new:16 user:15 interface:7 ooxml:2 document:14 format:14 docx:2 xlsx:1 pptx:1 consequently:2 make:5 available:12 free:6 charge:1 add:16 know:5 compatibility:3 pack:5 allow:7 edition:10 open:10 edit:3 save:2 create:9 history:6 apple:3 macintosh:14 long:2 dominant:2 player:1 come:1 offer:6 processing:1 spreadsheet:2 presentation:4 tool:5 still:1 barrier:1 linux:2 adoption:1 zdnet:2 aug:1 life:1 week:2 july:5 battle:1 market:1 may:7 mail:9 call:4 point:1 despite:1 fact:1 previous:5 number:6 purpose:1 use:21 last:7 bit:2 support:33 windows:7 nt:7 skip:2 order:1 show:1 contemporary:1 high:2 choose:1 predecessor:1 fully:1 match:2 two:4 standard:9 consist:1 item:1 purchase:2 cd:1 rom:1 form:7 bookshelf:1 major:4 milestone:1 hundred:1 improvement:1 command:3 bar:2 paradigm:1 menu:5 toolbars:2 similar:2 capability:3 design:6 featured:1 natural:1 sophisticated:1 grammar:1 checking:1 adaptive:1 little:2 option:1 hide:1 security:1 build:2 around:1 digital:1 signature:1 diminish:1 threat:1 macro:2 virus:1 automatically:1 trust:2 macros:2 write:2 digitally:1 sign:2 author:1 previously:2 designate:1 product:8 activation:3 xp:22 aka:1 conjunction:1 upgrade:1 numerous:1 enhancement:1 change:1 safe:2 mode:3 outlook:10 boot:1 might:1 otherwise:1 fail:1 enable:1 detect:1 either:1 repair:2 bypass:1 source:2 problem:3 corrupted:1 registry:1 misbehaving:1 smart:5 tag:5 technology:4 deliver:1 base:5 activity:2 help:2 typing:1 error:1 supply:1 programmable:1 developer:2 though:3 ability:2 custom:3 could:2 work:6 integrated:1 voice:1 text:2 dictation:1 well:4 handwrite:1 recognition:1 another:1 implement:1 later:9 early:1 report:1 vista:4 however:4 serious:1 remember:1 email:1 account:1 password:1 logo:1 debut:1 infopath:5 onenote:2 style:2 icon:1 provide:2 improved:2 functionality:3 many:1 area:1 kerberos:1 authentication:1 rpc:1 http:4 cache:1 exchange:1 key:1 benefit:1 junk:1 filter:1 groove:4 collaborative:1 review:1 comprehensive:1 look:3 notable:1 entirely:1 graphical:2 fluent:5 overview:2 refer:1 ribbon:4 ui:4 replace:7 cornerstone:1 since:3 inception:1 tabbed:1 toolbar:2 reveal:1 march:1 cebit:1 germany:1 require:5 requirement:2 announce:5 native:2 opendocument:2 win:1 iso:2 david:1 worthington:1 sdtimes:1 announced:1 go:1 investigate:1 eu:1 say:1 study:1 step:1 currently:1 due:4 blog:1 com:4 p:1 superstition:1 relate:1 thirteen:1 www:2 neowin:2 net:3 index:1 php:1 act:1 view:2 id:1 technical:2 preview:2 leak:1 news:1 prior:1 package:3 various:1 type:2 computer:1 unit:2 database:3 note:3 appear:1 project:8 gallery:1 movie:5 quicktime:2 nationwide:1 happy:1 together:1 update:4 operating:3 applescript:2 power:2 acknowledge:1 customer:3 comment:1 enough:1 like:3 final:1 unveil:1 macworld:1 expo:1 san:1 francisco:1 jan:1 internet:2 explorer:1 browser:2 express:3 e:5 client:5 usenet:1 newsgroup:1 reader:1 unveils:1 engineer:1 satisfy:1 desire:1 felt:1 drag:1 drop:2 installation:3 self:1 quick:1 thesaurus:1 launch:2 pre:1 classic:1 although:3 recommend:1 entourage:3 information:4 management:4 calendar:2 address:3 book:2 task:3 list:5 v:3 hit:1 u:1 retail:1 store:2 get:1 introducing:1 universal:1 binary:3 mean:1 run:2 natively:1 intel:3 pc:7 xml:7 file:6 sell:1 faster:1 past:3 affirm:1 commitment:1 future:5 bu:1 delivers:1 strongest:1 component:1 processor:2 consider:2 main:1 program:14 proprietary:3 doc:2 de:2 facto:2 optimize:1 standardize:2 ecma:3 odf:1 pdf:1 expands:1 fall:1 distinction:1 mouse:3 broad:1 population:1 one:2 following:1 spring:1 become:2 popular:2 apps:1 originally:2 competitor:1 lotus:1 eventually:1 outsell:1 remove:2 cannot:1 generate:1 iteration:1 longer:2 would:2 return:1 confuse:1 personal:1 manager:4 communication:5 replacement:1 message:1 start:2 historically:1 close:1 equivalent:1 slightly:1 different:2 slideshows:2 compose:1 graphic:2 object:1 display:1 screen:1 navigate:1 presenter:1 print:1 transparency:1 slide:1 convenient:1 school:1 mobile:3 video:1 sound:1 music:1 wordart:1 autoshapes:1 publisher:1 newsletter:1 card:2 flyer:1 greet:1 postcard:1 rich:1 taking:1 tablet:1 regular:1 sharepoint:4 designer:2 wysiwyg:1 html:2 editor:3 web:9 customize:1 frontpage:2 bundle:5 keep:1 track:1 event:1 network:1 chart:2 gantt:1 visio:1 diagram:1 flowcharting:1 accounting:1 manage:3 finance:1 except:1 communicator:1 integrate:1 conference:1 meeting:2 real:2 time:3 enterprise:2 suit:1 image:1 scan:2 scanning:1 ocr:1 peer:2 collaboration:4 level:1 interconnect:1 relationship:1 japan:1 picture:1 photo:4 google:1 picasa:1 adobe:1 photoshop:1 element:2 formerly:2 live:5 fill:1 standalone:1 centrally:2 deployment:1 portfolio:2 creation:1 workflow:1 host:1 performancepoint:1 monitor:1 analyze:1 plan:1 small:2 simply:1 hosting:1 online:3 workspace:1 storage:1 conferencing:1 site:2 patch:1 detection:1 possibly:1 widget:4 exactly:1 apparent:1 colored:1 flat:2 shadow:1 next:2 cue:1 elements:1 incarnation:1 employ:1 color:2 button:2 usually:1 gray:1 gradient:1 title:1 similarly:1 whole:1 dub:2 studio:3 late:4 thus:1 inherit:1 concept:1 easy:1 discoverability:1 function:3 non:2 cumulative:1 discontinue:5 often:2 substantial:1 easter:2 egg:2 example:1 reasonably:1 functional:1 flight:1 simulator:1 name:1 trustworthy:1 compute:1 extensibility:1 third:2 party:2 company:1 extend:2 specialized:1 differ:1 onwards:4 dlls:1 wlls:1 xlls:1 automation:2 worksheet:1 code:1 ins:1 vsto:2 solution:1 framework:1 cross:1 begin:2 read:1 vice:2 versa:2 vba:3 result:1 bring:1 back:1 effort:1 mid:1 port:2 risc:1 nec:1 mips:1 ibm:1 powerpc:1 meet:1 memory:1 hamper:1 structure:1 alignment:1 difficulty:1 factor:1 mention:1 lifecycle:4 institute:1 policy:2 family:1 faq:2 earlier:1 mainstream:1 end:6 five:2 whichever:1 versionlast:1 versionmainstream:1 dateextended:1 date:1 august:1 february:2 june:1 april:4 systemlast:1 ppc:3 binder:1 incorporate:2 several:1 container:1 related:1 single:1 complexity:1 learn:1 curve:1 lead:1 usage:1 stand:1 alone:1 expression:1 old:2 subsequently:1 photodraw:3 graphics:1 part:2 premium:2 raster:1 supplement:1 planner:1 contact:1 virtual:3 discontinued:1 owe:1 possess:1 architecture:1 pcs:1 emulate:1 hardware:1 vizact:1 activate:1 effect:1 animation:1 dynamic:1 unpopularity:1 analyzer:1 intelligence:1 visualization:1 analysis:1 assistant:3 agent:1 animated:1 character:2 context:1 sensitive:1 suggestion:1 clippy:1 clippit:2 default:1 paper:1 clip:1 cod:1 ac:1 criticism:1 criticize:3 rather:1 force:1 adopt:1 put:1 attachment:1 gnu:1 foundation:1 fsf:1 entire:1 documentation:2 freely:1 specification:4 promise:3 xl:1 ppt:1 international:2 publish:1 copyright:1 grant:1 patent:1 right:1 downloadable:1 converter:2 implementation:1 exist:1 iwork:1 openoffice:1 org:1 productivity:1 series:1 lack:1 unicode:1 bidi:1 notably:1 arabic:1 hebrew:1 issue:1 yet:1 higgaion:1 official:1 rtl:1 mojo:1 velkommen:2 tervetuloa:1 bienvenue:1 à:1 paris:1 see:1 comparison:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 msdn:1 center:1 viewer:1 |@bigram microsoft_window:3 mac_os:9 microsoft_excel:2 microsoft_powerpoint:2 spell_checker:1 user_interface:7 apple_macintosh:1 excel_powerpoint:5 windows_nt:1 window_nt:6 cd_rom:1 menu_toolbars:2 macro_virus:1 window_xp:6 smart_tag:5 handwrite_recognition:1 window_vista:1 kerberos_authentication:1 graphical_user:1 windows_server:1 windows_vista:1 opendocument_format:2 zdnet_com:1 http_www:2 index_php:1 quicktime_movie:2 macworld_expo:1 san_francisco:1 internet_explorer:1 usenet_newsgroup:1 retail_store:1 de_facto:2 excel_spreadsheet:1 peer_peer:1 adobe_photoshop:1 easter_egg:2 flight_simulator:1 vice_versa:2 risc_processor:1 raster_graphic:1 context_sensitive:1 foundation_fsf:1 openoffice_org:1 external_link:1 |
3,291 | Big_Brother_(TV_series) | Big Brother is a reality television show, where, in each series, a group of people live together in the Big Brother House, isolated from the outside world but continuously watched by television cameras. Each series lasts for around three months, and there are usually fewer than 16 participants. The housemates try to win a cash prize by avoiding periodic evictions from the house. The idea for the show came during a brainstorm session at the production house of John de Mol Produkties (an independent part of Endemol) on September 4, 1997. The first Big Brother broadcast was in the Netherlands in 1999 on the Veronica TV channel. It has been a prime-time hit in almost 70 countries. The show's name comes from George Orwell's 1949 dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (see Big Brother). Format Though each country has made its own adaptations and changes to the format, the general concept has stayed the same: "housemates" are confined to a specially designed house where their every action is recorded by cameras and microphones at all times and they are not permitted any contact with the outside world. In most versions, at regular intervals, normally once weekly (introduced in the UK version, although in most early series it was every two weeks), the housemates are invited to vote to have one of a number of nominated housemates evicted from the House. In some cases, two housemates may be evicted simultaneously (a "double eviction"), or rarely, no housemates will be removed for that week. At the end of the game, the last remaining housemate is declared winner of that particular series and receives prizes, often including a large amount of money, a car, a holiday and (in some editions) a house. From a sociological and demographic perspective, this format can be analyzed to see how people react when forced into close confinement with people who lie outside their comfort zone, since they may hold different opinions or ideals from other contestants, or simply be from a different group of people than a contestant is used to. Indeed, the format is ideally suited to such analysis because the viewer sees how a person reacts on the outside through the constant recording of their actions and also what they feel on the inside through the Diary Room. The results can often be violent or angry confrontations, providing entertainment to the public. Besides living together under continuous observation, which is the major attraction of the contest, the program relies on four basic props: the stripped-bare back-to-basics environment in which they live, the evictions, the weekly tasks set by Big Brother and the "Diary Room", in which the housemates individually convey their thoughts, feelings, frustrations and their nominees for eviction. In the first season of most series of Big Brother, the house that the housemates had to live in was very basic. Although essential amenities such as running water, furniture and a limited ration of food were provided, luxury items were often forbidden. This added an element of survival to the show, increasing the potential for tensions within the house. Nowadays almost all series provide a modern house for the contest, with a jacuzzi, sauna, VIP suite, loft and other luxuries. The housemates are required to do any housework as they see fit and are set tasks by the producers of the show, who communicate with the housemates via the omnipresent authority figure known to them only as "Big Brother". The tasks set are designed to test their team-working abilities and community spirit, and in some countries the housemates' shopping budget or weekly allowance often depends on the outcome of any set tasks. The housemates have a weekly allowance with which they can buy food and other essentials. At regular intervals, the housemates each privately nominate a number of fellow housemates that they wish to see evicted from the house. The housemates with the most nomination points are then announced and viewers are given the opportunity to vote via telephone for whom they wish to see evicted. The only known exception to this process is the American version in which the housemates themselves vote to evict each other. After the votes are tallied, the "evictee" leaves the house and is interviewed live by the host of the show, usually in front of a studio audience. The series is notable for involving the Internet. Although the show typically broadcasts daily updates in the evening (which are sometimes criticized for their heavy editing), viewers can also watch a continuous, 24-hour feed from multiple cameras on the web. These websites were highly successful, even after some national series started charging for access to the video stream. In some countries, Internet broadcasting was supplemented by updates via email, WAP and SMS. The House is even shown live on satellite television, although in some countries, such as the UK, with a 10-15 minute delay to allow libellous or unacceptable content (such as references to people who are not taking part in the program and have therefore not consented to have personal information about them broadcast) to be removed. Despite derision from many intellectuals and other critics, the show has been a commercial success around the world. More generally, the voyeuristic nature of the show, where contestants volunteer to surrender their privacy in return for minor celebrity status and a comparatively small cash prize, has attracted much scorn. On numerous occasions, participants in the various series have become sexually involved with each other, sometimes engaging in intercourse in front of Big Brother's cameras. This recorded material is typically not broadcast due to its explicit nature, as in the Australian and American editions. Other editions, however, such as the German and British versions, do broadcast it. The Internet stream also captures such moments, which has led to some controversy, with certain jurisdictions such as Greece attempting to have the show removed from the airwaves. Most international versions of the show remain quite similar to each other in that their main format remains true to the original fly on the wall, observational style, with the emphasis being on human relationships. This is taken to the extent where contestants are forbidden from discussing nominations or voting strategy altogether. The U.S. version, however, has since 2001 taken on a significantly different format from the others in their second season, with a far stronger emphasis on strategy, competition and voting. Isolation of housemates The housemates are, for the most part, isolated within the house. They are allowed no access to television, radio or the Internet and are not allowed any form of communications with the outside world (including other media). In some shows, even books and writing material are not permitted, with the exception of religious materials such as the Bible, Torah or Qur'an. Contestants are not completely isolated, however. They have regular scheduled interactions with the show's host (mostly on eviction nights), and throughout each day the program's producer, via the "Big Brother" voice, instructs the contestants in various matters and sometimes issues tasks or commands them to take certain actions. In some versions of the show, private chats with a psychologist are allowed at any time, often by means of a telephone in the Diary Room. Variations in the format Location of different versions of Big Brother. There are Six special pan-regional versions of Big Brother. All these follow the normal Big Brother rules with the exception that contestants must come from each of the different countries in the region where it airs: Africa: Angola, Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Balkans:Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia Arab States: Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Syria and Tunisia. Pacific: Chile, Ecuador and Peru. Scandinavia: Norway and Sweden . United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland: England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland In the third UK series, Big Brother set live tasks for the housemate on a Saturday night in order to win treats. This format was discontinued in the fifth series due to poor ratings. This format has been used in Australia in the form of Friday Night Live. The fifth UK edition introduced the "Evil" touch, whereby the character of Big Brother became almost a villain. Big Brother was establishing punishments and was proposing hard tasks and secret tricks. This was also seen in Australia, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Finland, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Pacific, Scandinavia, Serbia, Spain, Thailand, Philippines and Mexico. The sixth UK series introduced secret missions where housemate would be able to win luxuries if they completed a secret task set by Big Brother. In the seventh UK series, Big Brother became "twisted". Every week, housemates' mental states were put to the test as Big Brother tried to break them. As a result of this, many housemates broke down. The eighth UK series saw an all-female house. However, three days later, one male housemate entered. The same twist was used in Big Brother 4 Bulgaria The UK series always opens with a twist which have included First Night Nominations (BB4), Suit Case Nominations (BB5), Unlucky Housemate 13 (BB6), Big Brother Hood (BB7), an all-female House and the first inclusion of twins as contestants (BB8), the first couple to enter as housemates and set a secret task to hide their real relationship (BB9), Jackie Stallone entering a house containing her son's ex-wife (CBB3), entrance of a non-celebrity in a celebrity edition (CBB4) Jade Goody's family announced to be visiting. (CBB5). Other countries such as Bulgaria and the United States (and previously Australia have now started using these opening night twists. The fifth UK edition introduced "Fake evictions" where one or two housemates are "evicted"; however, unbeknownst to the housemates, they have in fact not been evicted. The housemate/s usually are put into a secret house where numerous twists happen. In the eighth UK Series one housemate was evicted, interviewed, and then sent straight back into the house. The housemates in the house got to see everything live, though. In the 5th season of the Belgian Big Brother the no-privacy-rule went even further. A new Big Brother-House was build and at the inside all the walls were made of glass. In France and Canada, the format has been developed using couples. Twelve single people stay in the same house until only the winning couple are left. Big Brother USA currently uses a different set of rules that began with the second season (the first season used the traditional format). Nominations are done by one houseguest, the Head of Household (HoH) and the houseguests vote for which nominee to evict, not the viewers. The third season introduced the Power of Veto, where a houseguest can save a nominee causing the Head of Household to name a replacement nominee. It's been adapted in Brazil and Africa and since then some countries modified their nominations rules. The eighth American season, introduced "America's Player", a houseguest that is given assignments, unknown to the other houseguests, through votes from the viewing public. Included in the public voting is which nominated houseguest America's Player should vote off and campaign to get evicted. (Dan was "America's Player" on Big Brother 10 (U.S) This was also seen in the second Teen Edition of the Philippine version as the "House Player." The third Dutch edition introduced the notion of "The Battle", in which the house is separated into a luxurious half and a poor half, with two teams of housemates constantly fighting for time in the luxurious half. Separated houses have also been used in Australia (Season 3), Brazil (Season 9, only in first week), Denmark (Season 3), Germany (Seasons 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9), Greece (Season 3), Italy (Season 6), Norway (Season 3), Poland (Season 3), Scandinavia (Season 1), Slovakia (Season 1), Slovenia (Season 2), Spain (First season VIP), Sweden (Not known season), and the UK (Season 3). Australia (Not known season), Italy (Season 7), Philippines (Season 2) and Mexico (Season 3) added punishment zones to their houses. The punishment zone has been added to the UK house as a jail for Big Brother 9. This jail is used as a punishment for things like discussing nominations outside of the nominations pod, crossing the heaven/hell divide (which has now been removed), but sometimes housemates do not need to break rules to go to jail. In some instances, like during week 6, a "proceed directly to jail card" was one of Big Brother's ever-changing prizes. Being in "jail" on nominations day, (Monday) means that you will not be able to nominate unless a "get out of jail free" card is used. In week 6, Luke was only allowed to nominate as Rebecca had used this card to get him out. However, "jail" is not the only punishment used. When Rex's girlfriend, Nicole arrived on Day 58, she had broken a fundamental rule of Big Brother by stepping over the heaven/hell divide and had her suitcase revoked from her until Day 67. In 2004, the fifth German edition was the first version to run for 365 days consecutively. In this season, the contestants were separated into three teams (rich, regular, survivor) and equivalent living areas. The ultimate winner got a prize of 1,000,000 €. Also in Germany a new version of the show started: Big Brother - Das Dorf (Big Brother - The Village). It was the sixth season and started the same day season 5 ended. This was the first version supposed to run for years (without a predetermined end). It was set in a small artificial village including a church tower, a marketplace, 3 houses, 3 working areas (farm, car garage, dressmaking and later a small hotel, where celebrities from the real world could move into), a matcharena, a pub and a fitness room. The season ended after 363 days in February 2006 because of low ratings. In season seven, RTL II switched back to a traditional version. The Voice Graph system in BB Argentina, BB Australia and BB Germany. The fourth Greek season introduced a new element: the mother. In Big Mother, nine housemates take part in the game with their mothers, with whom they must coexist during the contest. The "mamas" were not able to win the prize but they would stay with their children until their eviction. However, this proved to be a failure with the show's audience and the show switched back to the traditional Big Brother format in mid-season. This concept, in modified form, was used in the Pinoy Big Brother: Teen Edition Plus. The ninth American season, a result of the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike, added a romantic aspect to the game, by pairing the Housemates up and having them compete as couples chosen by their compatibility to each other. Big Brother Brasil has introduced a currency, the "Estaleca" (Z$), used by the housemates on the weekly shopping of groceries and other useful goods for the house. It also introduced the "Big Phone" feature, which consists on prizes or punishments to whomever answers the phone (or, if allowed, to someone else of their choice); sometimes housemates are sent straight to the elimination match just because they answered it. The ninth Brazilian season featured the "Bubble", a glass house built inside a shopping mall in Rio de Janeiro where 4 housemate-wannabes lived for a week until 2 of them were voted to enter the actual household. Later in the same season, a new "Bubble" was built inside the Big Brother household, with another 2 housemates living inside it for a week until they were voted in and the glass house dismantled. In the Brazilian version, during Carnival, it is common that one or two households be granted a night outside the house in order to watch the Samba school parade live on Rio Sambadrome. Introduced in the fifth season of the American series, several countries have included twins, and in some cases triplets, in their shows. Series that have used Housemates who are twins or triplets are: USA, 2004, Adria Montgomery-Klein and Natalie Montgomery-Carroll, 7th (Adria) and 8th (Natalie) Evicted, Used Name: "Adria". Germany, 2005, Beate and Birgit Australia, 2005, David and Greg Matthew, 14th Evicted (David) and Winner (Greg, although the prize money was split), Used Name: "Logan" (Middle name of both Twins). Bulgaria, 2006, Lyubov, Nadejda, and Vyara Stancheva, 7th (Nadejda) and 9th (Vyara) Evicted, Winner (Lyubov), Used Name: "Vyara". UK, 2007, Amanda and Sam Marchant, 2nd Place (Both were treated separately until Day 68 when they became one and became "Samanda") France, 2007, Marjorie, Cyrielle and Johanna Bluteau, Winners (They competed as a team). Spain, 2007, Conchi and Pamela De Los Santos, 2nd Place, Used Name: "Rosa". Poland, 2007, Aneta and Martyna Bielecka, 4th Evicted (They were discovered as twins), Used Name: "Martyna". India, 2008, Sana and Alina, 4th Evicted (Sana was introduced as Alina but the housemates soon found her to be different person and both were out at the eviction) Israel, 2008, Leon and Boris Schneiderovsky, 1st Evicted (Boris) and 5th Place (Leon). Big Brother Australia 2008 introduced the 'Housemate Hand Grenade'. Housemates evicted by the usual process are given the power to decide which housemate receives the penalty—or sometimes the benefit—which has been devised by Big Brother for that eviction. Sometimes, the ruling is permanent for the whole show. Special editions of Big Brother Big Brother VIP / Celebrity Big Brother The Big Brother format has been adapted in some countries in that the housemates are locally known celebrities. These shows are called Celebrity Big Brother or Big Brother VIP, depending on where the series is. In some countries, the prize money normally awarded to the winning housemate is donated to a charity, and all celebrities are paid to appear in the show as long as they do not voluntarily leave before their eviction or the end of the series. The rest of the format rules are almost the same as the ones from the original version, although in many occasions they are not so strict due to the exceptional character of the program. The series has been a prime-time hit in many countries and was aired for the first time in 2000, in the Netherlands. A second variant appeared in the Netherlands in 2006: Hotel Big Brother. A group of celebrity hoteliers and a Big Boss run a hotel, collecting money for charity without nominations, evictions or winner. A third variant appeared in the UK in early 2008: Big Brother: Celebrity Hijack, replacing the 2008 edition of Celebrity Big Brother. Instead of the celebrities playing the role of housemates, the celebrities in fact become Big Brother himself. The celebrities create tasks, hold nominations, etc. with the help of Big Brother. The housemates of the show are considered by the producers "Britain's most exceptional and extraordinary" 18-21 year olds. The prize for the winner of the series was £50,000. BREAKING BB NEWS Channel 4 - Official Big Brother UK Website Retrieved 2007-09-08 VIP Brother 3 Bulgaria introduced in 2009 an entirely new conception of the show, where the celebrities compete for charity causes, and sometimes they are allowed to leave the House in order to gain money for the given cause, which is different each week. Other editions The Big Brother format has been extensively modified in some countries, most often to the point where the housemates are either teenagers or housemates from previous seasons. The winners of these seasons are often eligible to win the prize for themselves, unlike most of the celebrity edition versions. Big Brother: Ty wybierasz (Big Brother: You Decide - Poland, season 1: 13 days; season 2: 7 days). A group of people -10 in season 1 and 6 in season 2- living together and competing for a pair of spots in the next regular season. It was made before the first two main Big Brother seasons. Without nominations or evictions. Big Brother, Tilbake I Huset (Big Brother, Back In The House - Norway, 9 days). The BB1 Norway housemates living together again. They also welcome 4 new housemates, who are competing for a spot in the next regular season. Without nominations or evictions. Big Brother Stjärnveckan (Big Brother, Week Of Stars - Sweden, 6 days); Big Brother, Reality All Star (Denmark, 32 days). Season with contestants from several reality shows, including Big Brother. Big Brother Panto (United Kingdom, 11 days). Housemate from previous series spent time in the Big Brother House in order to perform a pantomime at the end of the series. Teen Big Brother (United Kingdom, 10 days; Philippines, 42 days (Season 1), 77 days (Season 2)). Teenage housemates (18 years old and above) competing in a BB house. Big Brother: All-Stars (Belgium, 21 days; United States, 72 days). Big Brother where all the housemates come from previous seasons of the contest. Veliki Brat: Generalna Proba (Big Brother Try Out - Serbia, 7 days). Twelve Serbian contestants competing for a spot in the next Big Brother Balkans season. Without nominations or evictions. There are also "test runs" with a group of celebrities or journalists living together in the house during a few days, with the only goal being testing out the house. There are occasions where people who have auditioned for the show are also put in the house, most notably in the British edition, where many housemates claim to have met before. Series such as these are known to occur in Argentina, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Mexico, Pacific, Philippines, Spain and many other countries. In some cases, it is not broadcast, but in others, such as the US edition, it is used as a promotional tool. Big Brother series Region/Country Local Title Network Winners Main Presenters African Continent Big Brother Africa M-Net E4 (Season 1) The Africa Channel (Season 1 in 2008)Season 1, 2003: Cherise Makubale Season 2, 2007: Richard Dyle Bezuidenhout Season 3, 2008: Ricardo Venancio Season 4, 2009: Upcoming seasonMark Pilgrim (Season 1)Kabelo Ngakane (Season 2-present) Big Brother Top ChannelSeason 1, 2008: Arbër Çepani Season 2, 2009: Qetsor Ferunaj Arbana Osmani (Season 1-present) Argentina También emitido en Uruguay a través de Canal 4. Desde la segunda edición, la audiencia de> Uruguay también puede votar. El programa no ha tenido concursantes de Uruguay. Gran Hermano Web oficial Telefe Web OficialSeason 1, 2001: Marcelo Corazza Season 2, 2001: Roberto Parra Season 3, 2002-2003: Viviana Colmenero Season 4, 2007: Marianela Mirra Season 5, 2007: Esteban Morais Season 6, 2009-2010: Upcoming season Soledad Silveira <small> (2001-2003) <small> Jorge Rial <small> (2007-present) <small>Gran Hermano FamososTelefe Web OficialSeason 1, 2007: Diego Leonardi Jorge Rial <small> (2007) <small>Gran CuñadoEl TreceSeason 1, 2001: Carlos "Chacho" Álvarez Season 2, 2001: Aldo Rico Season 3, 2002: Raul Alfonsin Season 4, 2002: Adrian Suar Season 5, 2005: Mauricio Macri Season 6, 2009: Current Season Marcelo Tinelli <small> (2001-present) <small> Big Brother Australia Network Ten TV 2 (Season 1-6)Season 1, 2001: Ben Williams Season 2, 2002: Peter Corbett Season 3, 2003: Regina Bird Season 4, 2004: Trevor Butler Season 5, 2005: Greg Mathew & David Mathew (Logan) Season 6, 2006: Jamie Brooksby Season 7, 2007: Aleisha Cowcher Season 8, 2008: Terri MunroGretel Killeen (Season 1-7) Kyle Sandilands (Season 8)Jackie O (Season 8)Celebrity Big BrotherNetwork TenSeason 1, 2002: Dylan LewisBig BrotherKanaal TweeSeason 1, 2000: Steven Spillebeen Season 2, 2001: Ellen Dufour Season 3, 2002: Kelly Vandevenne Season 4, 2003: Kristof van Camp Season 5, 2006: Kirsten Janssens Season 6, 2007: Diana FerranteWalter Grootaers (All seasons)Big Brother VIPsvtmKanaal TweeSeason 1, 2001: Sam Gooris Season 2, 2006: Pim SymoensBig Brother All StarsKanaal TweeSeason 1, 2003: Heidi Zutterman Big Brother Brasil Rede Globo Globo Portugal (Season 8)Season 1, 2002: Kléber de Paula Season 2, 2002: Rodrigo Leonel Season 3, 2003: Dhomini Ferreira Season 4, 2004: Cida da Silva Season 5, 2005: Jean Wyllys Season 6, 2006: Mara Viana Season 7, 2007: Diego Gasques Season 8, 2008: Rafinha Ribeiro Season 9, 2009: Maximiliano Porto Season 10, 2010: Marisa Orth (Season 1)Pedro Bial (Season 1-present) Big Brother Nova TelevisionNova+ (Live) (Season 1-4)Diema 2 (Live) (Season 5)Season 1, 2004-2005: Zdravko Vasilev Season 2, 2005: Miroslav Atanasov Season 3, 2006: Lyubov Stancheva Season 4, 2008: Georgi Alourkov Season 5, 2009: Upcoming season Niki Kunchev (Season 1-3)Evelina Pavlova (Season 1-2)Milen Tsvetkov (Season 4) VIP Brother Nova TelevisionNova+ (Live) (Season 1-2)Diema 2 (Live) (Season 3)Season 1, 2006: Konstantin Slavov Season 2, 2007: Hristina Stefanova Season 3, 2009: Deyan Slavchev Season 4, 2010: Upcoming season Niki Kunchev (Season 1-present)Evelina Pavlova (Season 1) Loft StoryTQSSeason 1, 2003: Julie Lemay & Samuel Tissot Season 2, 2006: Mathieu Baron & Stéphanie Bélanger Season 3, 2006: Jean-Philippe Anwar & Kim Rusk Season 4, 2007: Mathieu Surprenant Season 5, 2008: Charles-Éric BoncoeurRenée-Claude Brazeau (Season 1)Philippe Fehmiu (Season 1)Isabelle Maréchal (Season 2)Virginie Coossa (Season 2-4)Marie Plourde (Season 3-5)Kim Rusk (Season 5-present)Pierre-Yves Lord (Season 6-present) Loft Story: La RevancheSeason 6, 2009: Sébastien Tremblay Gran Hermano Caracol TVSeason 1, 2003: Mónica TejónAdriana Arango (Season 1)Carlos Calero (Season 1) Big BrotherRTLSeason 1, 2004: Saša Tkalčević Season 2, 2005: Hamdija Seferović Season 3, 2006: Danijel Rimanić Season 4, 2007: Vedran Lovrenčić Season 5, 2008: Krešimir Duvančić Season 6, 2009: Upcoming seasonDaria Knez (Season 1) Antonija Blaće(Season 2-present) Celebrity Big BrotherSeason 1, 2008: Danijela DvornikAntonija Blaće (Season 1) Big Brother TV NOVASeason 1, 2005: David Šín Eva Aichmajerová (Season 1)Lejla Abbasová (Season 1)Leoš Mareš (Season 1) Big BrotherTV DanmarkSeason 1, 2001: Jill Liv Nielsen Season 2, 2001: Carsten B. Berthelsen Season 3, 2003: Johnni MadsenLisbeth Janniche (All seasons) Big Brother VIPSeason 1, 2003: Thomas Bickham Big Brother Reality All-StarsSeason 1, 2004: Jill Liv Nielsen (Big Brother) Gran Hermano EcuavisaSeason 1, 2003: David BurbanoToty Rodríguez (Season 1)Big BrotherSubSeason 1, 2005: Perttu Sirviö Season 2, 2006: Sari Nygren Season 3, 2007: Sauli Koskinen Season 4, 2008: Anniina Mustajärvi Season 5, 2009: Upcoming seasonMari Kakko (Season 1-2) Vappu Pimiä (Season 3-present)Loft StoryM6Season 1, 2001: Christophe Mercy & Loana Petrucciani Season 2, 2002: Karine Delgado & Thomas SaillofestBenjamin Castaldi (Loft Story 1-2 | Secret Story 1-present)Secret StoryTF1Season 1, 2007: Marjorie, Cyrielle and Johanna Bluteau ("Les Triplées") Season 2, 2008: Matthias Pohl Season 3, 2009:Big BrotherRTL II RTL (Season 2-3) Single TV (Season 2) Tele 5 (Season 4-6) MTV2 Pop (Season 4-5) VIVA (Season 5, 9) Premiere (Season 5-present) 9Live (Season 8)Season 1, 2000: John Milz Season 2, 2000: Alida Kurras Season 3, 2001: Karina Schreiber Season 4, 2003: Jan Geilhufe Season 5, 2004-2005: Sascha Sirtl Season 6, 2005-2006: Michael Knopf Season 7, 2007: Michael Carstensen Season 8, 2008: Silke Kaufmann, "Isi" Season 9, 2008-2009: Current seasonPercy Hoven (Season 1) Oliver Geissen (Season 2-3) Aleksandra Bechtel (Season 4) Ruth Moschner (Season 5-6) Oliver Petszokat (Season 6) Charlotte Karlinder (Season 7-8) Miriam Pielhau (Season 8-present) Greece and CyprusBig BrotherANT1Season 1, 2001: Giorgos Triantafyllidis Season 2, 2002: Alexandros Moskhos Season 3, 2003: Thodores Jspógloy Season 4, 2005: Nikos PapadopoulosAndreas Mikroutsikos (Season 1-3) Tatiana Stefanidou (Season 4) Big Brother Nagy Testvér TV2Season 1, 2002: Éva Párkányi Season 2, 2003: Zsófi HorváthClaudia Liptai (Season 1-2)Attila Till (Season 1-2) Big Brother VIP TV2Season 1, 2003: Zolee Ganxsta Bigg Boss SET (Season 1)Colors TV (Season 2-present)Season 1, 2006-2007: Rahul Roy Season 2, 2008: Ashutosh Kaushik Season 3, 2009: Upcoming season Arshad Warsi (Season 1)Shilpa Shetty (Season 2-present) Ha'Ach Ha'Gadol(האח הגדול)The Big Brother Channel 2 - Keshet Season 1, 2008: Shifra KornfeldSeason 2, 2009: Upcoming seasonErez Tal (Season 1-present)Assi Azar (Season 1-present) וואלה! ברנז'ה - קשת תשקיע 100 מליון שקל בתוכן במחצית השניה של 2008 HaAh Hagadol VIP(VIP האח הגדול)The Big Brother VIPSeason 1, 2009: Dudi MelitzGrande FratelloCanale 5 Mediaset Plus (Live) SKY Vivo (Live) SKY Show (Live) Mediaset Premium (Live) 3 (Only for Mobile)Season 1, 2000: Cristina Plevani Season 2, 2001: Flavio Montrucchio Season 3, 2003: Floriana Secondi Season 4, 2004: Serena Garitta Season 5, 2004: Jonathan Kashanian Season 6, 2006: Augusto De Megni Season 7, 2007: Milo Coretti Season 8, 2008: Mario Ferretti Season 9, 2009: Ferdi Berisa Season 10, 2010: Upcoming seasonDaria Bignardi (Season 1-2) Barbara D'Urso (Season 3-5) Alessia Marcuzzi (Season 6-present)Big Brother MéxicoTelevisaSeason 1, 2002: Rocío Cárdenas Season 2, 2003: Silvia Irabien Season 3, 2005: Evelyn NietoAdela Micha (Season 1-2) Verónica Castro (Season 3)Big Brother VIPSeason 1, 2002: Galilea Montijo Season 2, 2003: Omar Chaparro Season 3.1, 2004: Eduardo Videgaray Season 3.2, 2004: Roxanna Castellanos Season 4, 2005: Sasha SökolVíctor Trujillo (Season 1) Verónica Castro (Season 2-4) Middle EastBig BrotherالرئيسAl'RaisThe BossMBC IISeason 1, 2004: Discontinued religious protests Big BrotherVeronica (Season 1-2) Yorin (Season 3-4) Talpa (Seasonn 5-6)Season 1, 1999: Bart Spring in 't Veld Season 2, 2000: Bianca Hagenbeek Season 3, 2001: Sandy Boots Season 4, 2002: Jeanette Godefroy Season 5, 2005: Joost Hoebink Season 6, 2006: Jeroen VisserRolf Wouters (Season 1) Daphne Deckers (Season 1) Esther Duller (Season 2) Beau Van Erven Doren (Season 2) Patty Brard (Season 3) Martijn Krabbé (Season 4) Ruud de Wild (Season 5) Bridget Maasland (Season 5-6) Big Brother VIPs Veronica (Season 1)Talpa (Season 2)Season 1, 2000: No winner Season 2, 2006: No winnerCaroline Tensen (Season 2) Big Brother NigeriaM-NetSeason 1, 2006: Katung AduwakOlisa Adibua (Season 1)Michelle Dede (Season 1) Big Brother NorgeTVNSeason 1, 2001: Lars Joakim Ringom Season 2, 2002: Veronica Agnes Roso Season 3, 2003: Eva Lill BaukholArve Juritzen (Season 1-2) Trygve Rønningen (Season 3)Big Brother: Tilbake I HusetSeason 1, 2001: Leena Brekke Pacific RegionGran Hermano del Pacífico Telesistema RedTV ATVSeason 1, 2005: Juan Sebastián LópezLorena Meritano (Season 1) Regional Main Presenters Álvaro Ballera & Álvaro García Janine Leal Juan Francisco Escobar Pinoy Big BrotherABS-CBNSeason 1, 2005: Nene Tamayo Season 2, 2007: Beatriz Saw Season 3, 2009: Upcoming seasonWillie Revillame (Season 1)Toni Gonzaga (Season 1-present)Pinoy Big Brother: Celebrity EditionSeason 1, 2006: Keanna Reeves Season 2, 2007-08: Ruben GonzagaToni Gonzaga (Season 1-2)Luis Manzano (Season 1)Pinoy Big Brother: Teen EditionSeason 1, 2006: Kim Chiu Season 2, 2008: Ejay FalconMariel Rodriguez (Season 1)Toni Gonzaga (Season 2)Luis Manzano (Season 2) Big BrotherTVN (Season 1-3)TV4 (Season 4-5)Season 1, 2001: Janusz Dzięcioł Season 2, 2001: Marzena Wieczorek Season 3, 2002: Piotr Borucki Season 4, 2007: Jolanta Rutowicz Season 5, 2008: Janusz StrączekMartyna Wojciechowska (Season 1)Grzegorz Miecugow (Season 1)Andrzej Sołtysik (2001-2002)Karina Kunkiewicz (2007)Kuba Klawiter (2007-2008)Małgorzata Kosik (2008)Big Brother: Ty WybieraszTVNSeason 1, 2001: Małgorzata Maier & Sebastian Florek Season 2, 2001: Barbara Knap & Jakub JankowskiMartyna Wojciechowska (Season 1-2)Grzegorz Miecugow (Season 1-2)Big Brother VIPTV4Season 1, 2008: Jarek JakimowiczKuba Klawiter (Season 1)Małgorzata Kosik (Season 1)Big BrotherTVISeason 1, 2000-2001: Zé Maria Seleiro Season 2, 2001: Henrique Guimarães Season 3, 2001: Catarina Cabral Season 4, 2003: Nando GeraldesTeresa Guilherme (All seasons)Big Brother FamososSeason 1, 2002: Ricardo Vieira Season 2, 2002: Vítor Norte Big BrotherPrima TVSeason 1, 2003: Soso Joi Season 2, 2004: Iustin PopoviciAndreea Raicu (Season 1-2)Virgil Ianțu (Season 1-2)большой братBol'shoy BratBig BrotherTNT TET (Season 1 in 2008)Season 1, 2005: Anastasia YagaylovaIngeborga Dapkunaite (Season 1) Scandinavian Peninsula Co-produced version with Norway and Sweden taking part. Big Brother Kanal5 TVNSeason 1, 2005: Britt Goodwin Season 2, 2006: Jessica Lindgren Brita Møystad Engseth (Season 1-2) Adam Alsing (Season 1) Hannah Rosander (Season 2)Second LifeBig Brother Second LifeWorld Wide WebSeason 1, 2006: Madlen FlintBig Brother SúbojTV MarkízaSeason 1, 2005: Richard TkáčZuzana Belohorcová (Season 1)Big BrotherKanal ASeason 1, 2007: Andrej Novak Season 2, 2008: Naske MehićNina Osenar (Season 1-2)Big Brother South AfricaM-NetSeason 1, 2001: Ferdinand Rabie Season 2, 2002: Richard Cawood Mark Pilgrim (Season 1-2)Gerry Rantseli (Season 1-2)Celebrity Big BrotherSeason 1, 2002: Bill FlynnGran HermanoTelecinco Telecinco Canarias Telecinco 2 (Season 1 (R), 10-present) Telecinco Estrellas (Season 9)Season 1, 2000: Ismael Beiro Season 2, 2001: Sabrina Mahi Season 3, 2002: Javito García Season 4, 2002-2003: Pedro Oliva Season 5, 2003-2004: Nuria Yáñez Season 6, 2004: Juan José Rocamora Season 7, 2005-2006: Pepe Herrero Season 8, 2006: Naiala Melo Season 9, 2007: Judit Iglesias Season 10, 2008-2009: Iván Madrazo Season 11, 2009-2010: Upcoming season (September 2009)Mercedes Milá (Seasons 1-2 | 4-present) Pepe Navarro (Season 3)Gran Hermano VIPSeason 1, 2004: Marlene Mourreau Season 2, 2005: Ivonne ArmandJesús Vázquez (Season 1-2)Big Brother SverigeKanal5Season 1, 2000: Angelica Freij Season 2, 2002: Ulrica Andersson Season 3, 2003: Danne Sörensen Season 4, 2004: Carolina Gynning Adam Alsing (All seasons) Big Brother StjärnveckanSeason 1, 2002: Anki Lundberg (Baren)Big Brother SchweizTV3Season 1, 2000: Daniela Kanton Season 2, 2001: Christian PonleitnerDaniel Fohrler (Season 1) Karin Lanz (Season 1) Eva Wannemacher (Season 2) Yves Schifferle (Season 2)Big Brother ThailandiTVSeason 1, 2005: Nipon Perktim Season 2, 2006: Arisa SonthirodSaranyu Vonkarjun (Season 1-2)Big BrotherChannel 4E4T4 S4C M-Net TVN Lingua C21Media: Series 1, 2000: Craig Phillips Series 2, 2001: Brian Dowling Series 3, 2002: Kate Lawler Series 4, 2003: Cameron Stout Series 5, 2004: Nadia Almada Series 6, 2005: Anthony Hutton Series 7, 2006: Pete Bennett Series 8, 2007: Brian Belo Series 9, 2008: Rachel Rice Series 10, 2009: Upcoming seasonDavina McCall (Season 1-present)Celebrity Big BrotherBBC One (Season 1)Channel 4E4T4 S4CSeries 1, 2001: Jack Dee Series 2, 2002: Mark Owen Series 3, 2005: Bez Berry Series 4, 2006: Chantelle Houghton Series 5, 2007: Shilpa Shetty Series 6, 2009: Ulrika JonssonTeen Big Brother Channel 4E4 S4CSeries 1, 2003: Paul BrennanDermot O'Leary (Season 1)Big Brother: Celebrity Hijack Channel 4E4 S4CSeries 1, 2008: John LoughtonPanto Big Brother Channel 4E4 S4CSeries 1, 2004: No winnerJeff Brazier (Season 1) Big BrotherCBSShowtime 2 Global E4 (Season 4, 9)Season 1, 2000: Eddie McGee Season 2, 2001: Will Kirby Season 3, 2002: Lisa Donahue Season 4, 2003: Jun Song Season 5, 2004: Drew Daniel Season 6, 2005: Maggie Ausburn Season 8, 2007: Dick Donato Season 9, 2008: Adam Jasinski Season 10, 2008: Dan Gheesling Season 11, 2009: TBD Julie Chen (Season 1-present) Big Brother: All-StarsSeason 7, 2006: Mike "Boogie" Malin Western Balkans Veliki Brat Pink BH Pink M B92Season 1, 2006: Ivan Ljuba Season 2, 2007: Stopped Due to the car accident that killed three former housemates, Elmir Kuduzović, Stevan Zečević and Zorica Lazić, the producer decided to discontinue the series. The winning prize was divided by the remaining housemates. Season 3, 2009: Upcoming seasonMarijana Mićić (Season 1) Ana Mihajlovski (Season 2)Veliki Brat VIPSeason 1, 2007: Saša Ćurčić Season 2, 2008: Mimi Đurović Season 3, 2009: Miki ĐuričićAna Mihajlovski (Season 1-present) Milan Kalinić (Season 2-present) Housemate exchange When two seasons in different countries are taking place simultaneously, housemates are sometimes temporarily exchanged between them. Big Brother series Housemates involved Year Duration BB1 Mexico swapped with GH3 Spain Eduardo Ozorco 'El Doc' swapped with Andrés Barreiro 'Ness' 2002 7 days GH3 Argentina swapped with GH4 Spain Eduardo Carrera swapped with Inmaculada González 2003 7 days GH1 Ecuador swapped with BB2 Mexico Álvaro swapped with Eduardo Enríquez 2003 7 days BB1 Africa swapped with BB4 UK Gaetano Juko Kagwa swapped with Cameron Stout 2003 4 Days BB2 Scandinavia swapped with BB2 Thailand Anton Granlund swapped with Boo 2006 7 Days PBB2 Philippines swapped with BB1 SloveniaBruce Quebral swapped with Tina Semolič 2007 5 days GH5 Argentina swapped with GH9 Spain Soledad Melli swapped with Eneko Van Horenbeke 2007 7 days BB3 Africa swapped with BB4 Finland Munya Chidzonga swapped with Johan Grahn 2008 7 days Ex-Housemate exchange Big Brother series Housemates involved Year BB4 UK Housemate Visited BB3 Australia Annouska 2003 VIP2 Mexico swapped with GH5 Spain Isabel swapped with Aída 2003 BR1 Russia Housemate Visited GH1 Pacific Ivan swapped with Gianmarco 2005 BB5 UK Housemate Visited BB5 Australia Nadia 2005 CBB4 UK Housemate Visited BB6 Germany Chantelle 2006 GH4 Argentina swapped with BB7 Brazil Pablo swapped with Íris 2007 BB3/CBB5 UK Contestant BB2 India Jade Goody 2008 BB3 Africa Housemate Visited BB9 Brazil Ricco 2009 GF9 Italy Housemate Visited GH10 Spain DorotiLeonia 2009 Big Brother Subtitles These are some of the subtitles of Big Brother shows around the world. These are not the local title of the show. Region / Country Season Subtitle 3 Big Brother Anders 5Zero Privacy 6 1 Big Brother sees everything! 3 Expect the unexpected! VIP 2 NEW! 4 Episode 4 VIP 3 Celebrities change destinies 1 Vidi sve (Sees Everything) 2 Gola istina (Naked Truth) 3 Do kraja (To The End) 4 Bez milosti! (No Mercy!) 5 Avantura te zove! (Adventure calls you!) 4 The Battle 6 Das Dorf (The Village) 9 Reloaded 3 The Wall 4 Big Mother 3 The Battle VIP 2 Big Brother Hotel 3 The Wall Teen 2 Plus 1 Wielki Brat 2 3 Bitwa (The Battle) 1 O Grande Irmão 2 3 1 Fratele Cel Mare 2 Očekuj neočekivano (Expect the Unexpected) VIP El Desafío (The Challenge) 1Big Brother vas gleda! (Big Brother is watching you!) 2 Celebrity 1 In Aid of Comic Relief 2 View, Vote, Control Teen 1 The Experiment 5 Big Brother Gets Evil Celebrity 37 Big Brother Gets Twisted9 Zero Tolerance10 Get Ready... 4 The X-Factor 5 Project DNA - Do Not Assume 6 Summer Of Secrets 7 All-Stars 9 'Til Death Do You Part 10 Back to Basics Near-copies of Big Brother There is a number of different formats around the globe that use rules similar to Big Brother, here are the most notable: Back To Reality Za Steklom Cabin Fever Casa dos Artistas Drawn Together I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! Kafazi i Artë L-Ispjun Occupation Double Project YProtagonistas...ShatteredTaxi OrangeThe BarThe FarmDe Gouden KooiThe Surreal LifeUnan1mousUnanimousVanity LairVyVolení'' Bibliography Notes Official sites Africa Albania Argentina Australia BelgiumBrazil Bulgaria Canada Croatia FinlandFrance Germany Italy IndiaIsrael México Nigeria PacificPhilippines Poland Slovenia SpainThailand | Big_Brother_(TV_series) |@lemmatized big:132 brother:118 reality:5 television:4 show:29 series:44 group:5 people:8 live:22 together:6 house:38 isolate:2 outside:7 world:6 continuously:1 watch:4 camera:4 last:2 around:4 three:4 month:1 usually:3 participant:2 housemate:68 try:3 win:7 cash:2 prize:12 avoid:1 periodic:1 eviction:14 idea:1 come:4 brainstorm:1 session:1 production:1 john:3 de:9 mol:1 produkties:1 independent:1 part:6 endemol:1 september:2 first:12 broadcast:6 netherlands:4 veronica:3 tv:5 channel:8 prime:2 time:7 hit:2 almost:4 country:17 name:8 george:1 orwell:1 dystopian:1 novel:1 nineteen:1 eighty:1 four:2 see:11 format:16 though:2 make:3 adaptation:1 change:3 general:1 concept:2 stay:3 confine:1 specially:1 design:2 every:3 action:3 record:1 microphone:1 permit:2 contact:1 version:18 regular:6 interval:2 normally:2 weekly:5 introduce:14 uk:20 although:6 early:2 two:7 week:10 invite:1 vote:11 one:10 number:3 nominated:2 evict:16 case:4 may:2 simultaneously:2 double:2 rarely:1 remove:4 end:7 game:3 remaining:1 declared:1 winner:10 particular:1 receive:2 often:7 include:7 large:1 amount:1 money:5 car:3 holiday:1 edition:16 sociological:1 demographic:1 perspective:1 analyze:1 react:2 force:1 close:1 confinement:1 lie:1 comfort:1 zone:3 since:3 hold:2 different:10 opinion:1 ideal:1 contestant:12 simply:1 use:22 indeed:1 ideally:1 suit:2 analysis:1 viewer:4 person:2 constant:1 recording:1 also:11 feel:1 inside:5 diary:3 room:4 result:3 violent:1 angry:1 confrontation:1 provide:3 entertainment:1 public:3 besides:1 continuous:2 observation:1 major:1 attraction:1 contest:4 program:4 relies:1 basic:4 prop:1 stripped:1 bare:1 back:7 environment:1 task:10 set:10 individually:1 convey:1 thought:1 feeling:1 frustration:1 nominee:4 season:355 essential:2 amenity:1 run:5 water:1 furniture:1 limited:1 ration:1 food:2 luxury:3 item:1 forbidden:2 add:4 element:2 survival:1 increase:1 potential:1 tension:1 within:2 nowadays:1 modern:1 jacuzzi:1 sauna:1 vip:14 suite:1 loft:5 require:1 housework:1 fit:1 producer:4 communicate:1 via:4 omnipresent:1 authority:1 figure:1 know:5 test:4 team:4 work:2 ability:1 community:1 spirit:1 shopping:3 budget:1 allowance:2 depend:2 outcome:1 buy:1 privately:1 nominate:3 fellow:1 wish:2 nomination:14 point:2 announce:2 give:4 opportunity:1 telephone:2 evicted:1 known:1 exception:3 process:2 american:5 tally:1 evictee:1 leave:4 interview:2 host:2 front:2 studio:1 audience:2 notable:2 involve:3 internet:4 typically:2 daily:1 update:2 evening:1 sometimes:9 criticize:1 heavy:1 edit:1 hour:1 feed:1 multiple:1 web:4 website:2 highly:1 successful:1 even:4 national:1 start:4 charge:1 access:2 video:1 stream:2 broadcasting:1 supplement:1 email:1 wap:1 sm:1 satellite:1 minute:1 delay:1 allow:7 libellous:1 unacceptable:1 content:1 reference:1 take:7 therefore:1 consent:1 personal:1 information:1 despite:1 derision:1 many:6 intellectual:1 critic:1 commercial:1 success:1 generally:1 voyeuristic:1 nature:2 volunteer:1 surrender:1 privacy:3 return:1 minor:1 celebrity:27 status:1 comparatively:1 small:11 attract:1 much:1 scorn:1 numerous:2 occasion:3 various:2 become:6 sexually:1 involved:1 engage:1 intercourse:1 recorded:1 material:3 due:4 explicit:1 australian:1 however:7 german:2 british:2 capture:1 moment:1 lead:1 controversy:1 certain:2 jurisdiction:1 greece:4 attempt:1 airwave:1 international:1 remain:3 quite:1 similar:2 main:4 true:1 original:2 fly:1 wall:4 observational:1 style:1 emphasis:2 human:1 relationship:2 extent:1 discuss:2 strategy:2 altogether:1 u:3 significantly:1 others:2 second:6 far:2 strong:1 competition:1 voting:2 isolation:1 radio:1 form:3 communication:1 medium:1 book:1 write:1 religious:2 bible:1 torah:1 qur:1 completely:1 isolated:1 schedule:1 interaction:1 mostly:1 night:6 throughout:1 day:30 voice:2 instruct:1 matter:1 issue:1 command:1 private:1 chat:1 psychologist:1 mean:2 variation:1 location:1 six:1 special:2 pan:1 regional:2 follow:1 normal:1 rule:8 must:2 region:3 air:2 africa:9 angola:1 botswana:1 ghana:1 kenya:1 malawi:1 namibia:1 nigeria:2 south:2 tanzania:1 uganda:1 zambia:1 zimbabwe:1 balkan:3 albania:2 bosnia:1 herzegovina:1 montenegro:1 serbia:3 arab:1 state:4 bahrain:1 egypt:1 iraq:1 jordan:1 kuwait:1 lebanon:1 oman:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 somalia:1 syria:1 tunisia:1 pacific:5 chile:1 ecuador:2 peru:1 scandinavia:4 norway:5 sweden:4 united:5 kingdom:3 republic:3 ireland:3 england:1 scotland:1 wale:1 northern:1 third:4 saturday:1 order:4 treat:2 discontinue:3 fifth:5 poor:2 rating:2 australia:12 friday:1 evil:2 touch:1 whereby:1 character:2 villain:1 establish:1 punishment:6 propose:1 hard:1 secret:8 trick:1 belgium:2 bulgaria:7 canada:3 croatia:2 finland:2 italy:5 spain:9 thailand:2 philippine:6 mexico:6 sixth:2 mission:1 would:2 able:3 complete:1 seventh:1 twist:5 mental:1 put:3 break:5 eighth:3 saw:2 female:2 later:3 male:1 enter:4 always:1 open:2 unlucky:1 hood:1 inclusion:1 twin:5 couple:4 hide:1 real:2 jackie:2 stallone:1 contain:1 son:1 ex:2 wife:1 entrance:1 non:1 jade:2 goody:2 family:1 visit:7 previously:1 fake:1 unbeknownst:1 fact:2 happen:1 send:1 straight:2 get:9 everything:3 belgian:1 go:2 new:7 build:3 glass:3 france:2 develop:1 twelve:2 single:2 winning:1 usa:2 currently:1 begin:1 traditional:3 houseguest:6 head:2 household:5 hoh:1 power:2 veto:1 save:1 cause:3 replacement:1 adapt:2 brazil:4 modify:2 america:4 player:4 assignment:1 unknown:1 view:2 campaign:1 dan:2 teen:6 dutch:1 notion:1 battle:4 separate:3 luxurious:2 half:3 constantly:1 fight:1 denmark:2 germany:7 poland:4 slovakia:1 slovenia:2 jail:7 thing:1 like:2 pod:1 cross:1 heaven:2 hell:2 divide:3 need:1 instance:1 proceed:1 directly:1 card:3 ever:1 monday:1 unless:1 free:1 luke:1 rebecca:1 rex:1 girlfriend:1 nicole:1 arrive:1 fundamental:1 step:1 suitcase:1 revoke:1 consecutively:1 rich:1 survivor:1 equivalent:1 living:2 area:2 ultimate:1 da:3 dorf:2 village:3 suppose:1 year:5 without:5 predetermined:1 artificial:1 church:1 tower:1 marketplace:1 farm:1 garage:1 dressmaking:1 hotel:4 could:1 move:1 matcharena:1 pub:1 fitness:1 february:1 low:1 seven:1 rtl:2 ii:2 switch:2 graph:1 system:1 bb:5 argentina:7 fourth:1 greek:1 mother:4 nine:1 coexist:1 mama:1 child:1 prove:1 failure:1 mid:1 modified:1 pinoy:4 plus:3 ninth:2 writer:1 guild:1 strike:1 romantic:1 aspect:1 pair:2 compete:7 choose:1 compatibility:1 brasil:2 currency:1 estaleca:1 z:1 grocery:1 useful:1 good:1 phone:2 feature:2 consist:1 whomever:1 answer:2 someone:1 else:1 choice:1 sent:1 elimination:1 match:1 brazilian:2 bubble:2 mall:1 rio:2 janeiro:1 wannabe:1 actual:1 another:1 dismantle:1 carnival:1 common:1 grant:1 samba:1 school:1 parade:1 sambadrome:1 several:2 triplet:2 adria:3 montgomery:2 klein:1 natalie:2 carroll:1 beate:1 birgit:1 david:5 greg:3 matthew:1 split:1 logan:2 middle:2 lyubov:3 nadejda:2 vyara:3 stancheva:2 amanda:1 sam:2 marchant:1 place:4 separately:1 samanda:1 marjorie:2 cyrielle:2 johanna:2 bluteau:2 conchi:1 pamela:1 los:1 santos:1 rosa:1 aneta:1 martyna:2 bielecka:1 discover:1 india:2 sana:2 alina:2 soon:1 find:1 israel:1 leon:2 boris:2 schneiderovsky:1 hand:1 grenade:1 usual:1 decide:3 penalty:1 benefit:1 devise:1 ruling:1 permanent:1 whole:1 locally:1 call:2 award:1 donate:1 charity:3 pay:1 appear:3 long:1 voluntarily:1 rest:1 strict:1 exceptional:2 variant:2 hotelier:1 bos:2 collect:1 hijack:2 replace:1 instead:1 play:1 role:1 create:1 etc:1 help:1 consider:1 britain:1 extraordinary:1 old:2 news:1 official:2 retrieved:1 entirely:1 conception:1 gain:1 extensively:1 either:1 teenager:1 previous:3 eligible:1 unlike:1 ty:2 wybierasz:1 spot:3 next:3 tilbake:2 huset:1 housemates:1 welcome:1 stjärnveckan:1 star:4 panto:1 spend:1 perform:1 pantomime:1 teenage:1 veliki:3 brat:4 generalna:1 proba:1 serbian:1 journalist:1 goal:1 audition:1 notably:1 claim:1 meet:1 occur:1 czech:1 promotional:1 tool:1 local:2 title:2 network:2 presenter:2 african:1 continent:1 net:2 cherise:1 makubale:1 richard:3 dyle:1 bezuidenhout:1 ricardo:2 venancio:1 upcoming:13 seasonmark:1 pilgrim:2 kabelo:1 ngakane:1 present:25 top:1 channelseason:1 arbër:1 çepani:1 qetsor:1 ferunaj:1 arbana:1 osmani:1 también:2 emitido:1 en:1 uruguay:3 través:1 canal:1 desde:1 la:3 segunda:1 edición:1 audiencia:1 puede:1 votar:1 el:3 programa:1 ha:3 tenido:1 concursantes:1 gran:6 hermano:6 oficial:1 telefe:1 oficialseason:2 marcelo:2 corazza:1 roberto:1 parra:1 viviana:1 colmenero:1 marianela:1 mirra:1 esteban:1 morais:1 soledad:2 silveira:1 jorge:2 rial:2 famosostelefe:1 diego:2 leonardi:1 cuñadoel:1 treceseason:1 carlos:2 chacho:1 álvarez:1 aldo:1 rico:1 raul:1 alfonsin:1 adrian:1 suar:1 mauricio:1 macri:1 current:2 tinelli:1 ten:1 ben:1 williams:1 peter:1 corbett:1 regina:1 bird:1 trevor:1 butler:1 mathew:2 jamie:1 brooksby:1 aleisha:1 cowcher:1 terri:1 munrogretel:1 killeen:1 kyle:1 sandilands:1 brothernetwork:1 tenseason:1 dylan:1 lewisbig:1 brotherkanaal:1 tweeseason:3 steven:1 spillebeen:1 ellen:1 dufour:1 kelly:1 vandevenne:1 kristof:1 van:3 camp:1 kirsten:1 janssens:1 diana:1 ferrantewalter:1 grootaers:1 vipsvtmkanaal:1 gooris:1 pim:1 symoensbig:1 starskanaal:1 heidi:1 zutterman:1 rede:1 globo:2 portugal:1 kléber:1 paula:1 rodrigo:1 leonel:1 dhomini:1 ferreira:1 cida:1 silva:1 jean:2 wyllys:1 mara:1 viana:1 gasques:1 rafinha:1 ribeiro:1 maximiliano:1 porto:1 marisa:1 orth:1 pedro:2 bial:1 nova:2 televisionnova:2 diema:2 zdravko:1 vasilev:1 miroslav:1 atanasov:1 georgi:1 alourkov:1 niki:2 kunchev:2 evelina:2 pavlova:2 milen:1 tsvetkov:1 konstantin:1 slavov:1 hristina:1 stefanova:1 deyan:1 slavchev:1 storytqsseason:1 julie:2 lemay:1 samuel:1 tissot:1 mathieu:2 baron:1 stéphanie:1 bélanger:1 philippe:2 anwar:1 kim:3 rusk:2 surprenant:1 charles:1 éric:1 boncoeurrenée:1 claude:1 brazeau:1 fehmiu:1 isabelle:1 maréchal:1 virginie:1 coossa:1 marie:1 plourde:1 pierre:1 yves:2 lord:1 story:3 revancheseason:1 sébastien:1 tremblay:1 caracol:1 tvseason:2 mónica:1 tejónadriana:1 arango:1 calero:1 brotherrtlseason:1 saša:2 tkalčević:1 hamdija:1 seferović:1 danijel:1 rimanić:1 vedran:1 lovrenčić:1 krešimir:1 duvančić:1 seasondaria:2 knez:1 antonija:1 blaće:2 brotherseason:2 danijela:1 dvornikantonija:1 novaseason:1 šín:1 eva:3 aichmajerová:1 lejla:1 abbasová:1 leoš:1 mareš:1 brothertv:1 danmarkseason:1 jill:2 liv:2 nielsen:2 carsten:1 b:1 berthelsen:1 johnni:1 madsenlisbeth:1 janniche:1 vipseason:5 thomas:2 bickham:1 starsseason:2 ecuavisaseason:1 burbanototy:1 rodríguez:1 brothersubseason:1 perttu:1 sirviö:1 sari:1 nygren:1 sauli:1 koskinen:1 anniina:1 mustajärvi:1 seasonmari:1 kakko:1 vappu:1 pimiä:1 christophe:1 mercy:2 loana:1 petrucciani:1 karine:1 delgado:1 saillofestbenjamin:1 castaldi:1 les:1 triplées:1 matthias:1 pohl:1 brotherrtl:1 tele:1 pop:1 viva:1 premiere:1 milz:1 alida:1 kurras:1 karina:2 schreiber:1 jan:1 geilhufe:1 sascha:1 sirtl:1 michael:2 knopf:1 carstensen:1 silke:1 kaufmann:1 isi:1 seasonpercy:1 hoven:1 oliver:2 geissen:1 aleksandra:1 bechtel:1 ruth:1 moschner:1 petszokat:1 charlotte:1 karlinder:1 miriam:1 pielhau:1 cyprusbig:1 giorgos:1 triantafyllidis:1 alexandros:1 moskhos:1 thodores:1 jspógloy:1 nikos:1 papadopoulosandreas:1 mikroutsikos:1 tatiana:1 stefanidou:1 nagy:1 testvér:1 éva:1 párkányi:1 zsófi:1 horváthclaudia:1 liptai:1 attila:1 till:1 zolee:1 ganxsta:1 bigg:1 color:1 rahul:1 roy:1 ashutosh:1 kaushik:1 arshad:1 warsi:1 shilpa:2 shetty:2 ach:1 gadol:1 האח:2 הגדול:2 keshet:1 shifra:1 kornfeldseason:1 seasonerez:1 tal:1 assi:1 azar:1 וואלה:1 ברנז:1 ה:1 קשת:1 תשקיע:1 מליון:1 שקל:1 בתוכן:1 במחצית:1 השניה:1 של:1 haah:1 hagadol:1 dudi:1 melitzgrande:1 fratellocanale:1 mediaset:2 sky:2 vivo:1 premium:1 mobile:1 cristina:1 plevani:1 flavio:1 montrucchio:1 floriana:1 secondo:1 serena:1 garitta:1 jonathan:1 kashanian:1 augusto:1 megni:1 milo:1 coretti:1 mario:1 ferretti:1 ferdi:1 berisa:1 bignardi:1 barbara:2 urso:1 alessia:1 marcuzzi:1 méxicotelevisaseason:1 rocío:1 cárdenas:1 silvia:1 irabien:1 evelyn:1 nietoadela:1 micha:1 verónica:2 castro:2 galilea:1 montijo:1 omar:1 chaparro:1 eduardo:4 videgaray:1 roxanna:1 castellanos:1 sasha:1 sökolvíctor:1 trujillo:1 eastbig:1 brotherالرئيسal:1 raisthe:1 bossmbc:1 iiseason:1 protest:1 brotherveronica:1 yorin:1 talpa:2 seasonn:1 bart:1 spring:1 veld:1 bianca:1 hagenbeek:1 sandy:1 boot:1 jeanette:1 godefroy:1 joost:1 hoebink:1 jeroen:1 visserrolf:1 wouters:1 daphne:1 decker:1 esther:1 duller:1 beau:1 erven:1 doren:1 patty:1 brard:1 martijn:1 krabbé:1 ruud:1 wild:1 bridget:1 maasland:1 winnercaroline:1 tensen:1 nigeriam:1 netseason:2 katung:1 aduwakolisa:1 adibua:1 michelle:1 dede:1 norgetvnseason:1 lars:1 joakim:1 ringom:1 agnes:1 roso:1 lill:1 baukholarve:1 juritzen:1 trygve:1 rønningen:1 husetseason:1 leena:1 brekke:1 regiongran:1 del:1 pacífico:1 telesistema:1 redtv:1 atvseason:1 juan:3 sebastián:1 lópezlorena:1 meritano:1 álvaro:3 ballera:1 garcía:2 janine:1 leal:1 francisco:1 escobar:1 brotherabs:1 cbnseason:1 nene:1 tamayo:1 beatriz:1 seasonwillie:1 revillame:1 toni:2 gonzaga:3 editionseason:2 keanna:1 reeve:1 ruben:1 gonzagatoni:1 luis:2 manzano:2 chiu:1 ejay:1 falconmariel:1 rodriguez:1 brothertvn:1 janusz:2 dzięcioł:1 marzena:1 wieczorek:1 piotr:1 borucki:1 jolanta:1 rutowicz:1 strączekmartyna:1 wojciechowska:2 grzegorz:2 miecugow:2 andrzej:1 sołtysik:1 kunkiewicz:1 kuba:1 klawiter:2 małgorzata:3 kosik:2 wybierasztvnseason:1 maier:1 sebastian:1 florek:1 knap:1 jakub:1 jankowskimartyna:1 jarek:1 jakimowiczkuba:1 brothertviseason:1 zé:1 maria:1 seleiro:1 henrique:1 guimarães:1 catarina:1 cabral:1 nando:1 geraldesteresa:1 guilherme:1 famososseason:1 vieira:1 vítor:1 norte:1 brotherprima:1 soso:1 joi:1 iustin:1 popoviciandreea:1 raicu:1 virgil:1 ianțu:1 большой:1 братbol:1 shoy:1 bratbig:1 brothertnt:1 tet:1 anastasia:1 yagaylovaingeborga:1 dapkunaite:1 scandinavian:1 peninsula:1 co:1 produce:1 tvnseason:1 britt:1 goodwin:1 jessica:1 lindgren:1 brita:1 møystad:1 engseth:1 adam:3 alsing:2 hannah:1 rosander:1 lifebig:1 lifeworld:1 wide:1 webseason:1 madlen:1 flintbig:1 súbojtv:1 markízaseason:1 tkáčzuzana:1 belohorcová:1 brotherkanal:1 aseason:1 andrej:1 novak:1 naske:1 mehićnina:1 osenar:1 africam:1 ferdinand:1 rabie:1 cawood:1 mark:2 gerry:1 rantseli:1 bill:1 flynngran:1 hermanotelecinco:1 telecinco:3 canarias:1 r:1 estrellas:1 ismael:1 beiro:1 sabrina:1 mahi:1 javito:1 oliva:1 nuria:1 yáñez:1 josé:1 rocamora:1 pepe:2 herrero:1 naiala:1 melo:1 judit:1 iglesias:1 iván:1 madrazo:1 mercedes:1 milá:1 navarro:1 marlene:1 mourreau:1 ivonne:1 armandjesús:1 vázquez:1 angelica:1 freij:1 ulrica:1 andersson:1 danne:1 sörensen:1 carolina:1 gynning:1 stjärnveckanseason:1 anki:1 lundberg:1 baren:1 daniela:1 kanton:1 christian:1 ponleitnerdaniel:1 fohrler:1 karin:1 lanz:1 wannemacher:1 schifferle:1 thailanditvseason:1 nipon:1 perktim:1 arisa:1 sonthirodsaranyu:1 vonkarjun:1 brotherchannel:1 tvn:1 lingua:1 craig:1 phillips:1 brian:2 dowling:1 kate:1 lawler:1 cameron:2 stout:2 nadia:2 almada:1 anthony:1 hutton:1 pete:1 bennett:1 belo:1 rachel:1 rice:1 seasondavina:1 mccall:1 brotherbbc:1 jack:1 dee:1 owen:1 bez:2 berry:1 chantelle:2 houghton:1 ulrika:1 jonssonteen:1 paul:1 brennandermot:1 leary:1 loughtonpanto:1 winnerjeff:1 brazier:1 brothercbsshowtime:1 global:1 eddie:1 mcgee:1 kirby:1 lisa:1 donahue:1 jun:1 song:1 drew:1 daniel:1 maggie:1 ausburn:1 dick:1 donato:1 jasinski:1 gheesling:1 tbd:1 chen:1 mike:1 boogie:1 malin:1 western:1 pink:2 bh:1 ivan:2 ljuba:1 stop:1 accident:1 kill:1 former:1 elmir:1 kuduzović:1 stevan:1 zečević:1 zorica:1 lazić:1 seasonmarijana:1 mićić:1 ana:1 mihajlovski:2 ćurčić:1 mimi:1 đurović:1 miki:1 đuričićana:1 milan:1 kalinić:1 exchange:3 temporarily:1 duration:1 swap:21 ozorco:1 doc:1 andrés:1 barreiro:1 ness:1 carrera:1 inmaculada:1 gonzález:1 enríquez:1 gaetano:1 juko:1 kagwa:1 anton:1 granlund:1 boo:1 sloveniabruce:1 quebral:1 tina:1 semolič:1 melli:1 eneko:1 horenbeke:1 munya:1 chidzonga:1 johan:1 grahn:1 annouska:1 isabel:1 aída:1 russia:1 gianmarco:1 pablo:1 íris:1 ricco:1 dorotileonia:1 subtitle:3 anders:1 expect:2 unexpected:2 episode:1 destiny:1 vidi:1 sve:1 gola:1 istina:1 naked:1 truth:1 kraja:1 milosti:1 avantura:1 te:1 zove:1 adventure:1 reload:1 wielki:1 bitwa:1 grande:1 irmão:1 fratele:1 cel:1 mare:1 očekuj:1 neočekivano:1 desafío:1 challenge:1 va:1 gleda:1 aid:1 comic:1 relief:1 control:1 experiment:1 zero:1 ready:1 x:1 factor:1 project:2 dna:1 assume:1 summer:1 til:1 death:1 near:1 copy:1 globe:1 za:1 steklom:1 cabin:1 fever:1 casa:1 artistas:1 draw:1 kafazi:1 artë:1 l:1 ispjun:1 occupation:1 yprotagonistas:1 shatteredtaxi:1 orangethe:1 barthe:1 farmde:1 gouden:1 kooithe:1 surreal:1 lairvyvolení:1 bibliography:1 note:1 site:1 belgiumbrazil:1 finlandfrance:1 indiaisrael:1 méxico:1 pacificphilippines:1 spainthailand:1 |@bigram george_orwell:1 nineteen_eighty:1 last_remaining:1 ideally_suit:1 tanzania_uganda:1 zambia_zimbabwe:1 bosnia_herzegovina:1 herzegovina_montenegro:1 montenegro_serbia:1 saudi_arabia:1 ecuador_peru:1 saturday_night:1 heaven_hell:2 someone_else:1 shopping_mall:1 de_janeiro:1 los_santos:1 czech_republic:1 gran_hermano:5 da_silva:1 juan_sebastián:1 juan_josé:1 |
3,292 | Hi-hat | A hi-hat, or hihat, is a type of cymbal and stand used as a typical part of a drum kit by percussionists in R&B, hip-hop, disco, jazz, rock and roll, house, and other forms of contemporary popular music. The Operation 10" Mini-hats with (1) Hi-hat rod and clutch (2) Tom and cowbell holder (3) HiHat legs and pedal The hi-hat consists of two cymbals that are mounted on a stand one on top of the other and clashed together using a pedal on the stand. A narrow metal shaft or rod runs through both cymbals into a hollow tube and connects to the pedal. The top cymbal is connected to the rod with a clutch, while the bottom cymbal remains stationary resting on the hollow tube. The height of the top-cymbal (open position) is adjustable. When the foot plate of the pedal is pressed, the top cymbal crashes onto the bottom cymbal (closed hi-hat). When released, the top cymbal returns to its original position above the bottom cymbal (open hi-hat). A tension unit controls the amount of pressure required to lower the top cymbal, and how fast it returns to its open position. "Pearl Drums Hardware" 2004 History of development Initial versions of the hi-hat were called clangers, which were small cymbals mounted onto a bass drum rim and struck with an arm on the bass drum pedal. Then came snow shoes, which were two hinged boards with cymbals on the ends that were clashed together. Next was the low-boy or low-hat, similar to a modern hi-hat stand, only with cymbals close to the ground. Hi-hats that were raised and could be played by hand as well as foot may have been developed around 1926 by Barney Walberg of the drum accessory company Walberg and Auge. The Drum Book: The History of the Rock Drum Kit (Geoff Nichols, 1997), pp. 8-12 Hi-Hat Pedal & Legs Up until the late 1960s, the standard hi-hats were 14 inches, with 13 inches available as a less-common alternative in professional cymbal ranges and smaller sizes down to 12 inches restricted to children's kits. In the early 1970s, hard rock drummers (including Led Zeppelin's John Bonham) began to use 15-inch hi-hats. In the late 1980s, Zildjian released its revolutionary 10-inch Special Recording hats, which were small, heavy hi-hat cymbals intended for close miking either live or recording, and other manufacturers quickly followed suit. However, in the early to mid-1990s, Paiste offered 8-inch mini hi-hats as part of its Visions series; these were among the world's smallest hi-hats. Starting in the 1980s, a number of manufacturers also experimented with rivets in the lower cymbal. But by the end of the 1990s, the standard size was again 14 inches, with 13 inches a less-common alternative, and smaller hats mainly used for special sounds. Rivets in hi-hats failed to catch on. Modern hi-hat cymbals are much heavier than modern crash cymbals, reflecting the trend to lighter and thinner crash cymbals as well as to heavier hi-hats. The other change has been that a pair of hi-hat cymbals are no longer necessarily similar. More typically the bottom is now heavier than the top (but in some cases like the K Zildjian Steve Gadd Session Hats the pattern is reversed for a cleaner chick and cleaner sticking), and may also be vented, this being one innovation to have caught on. Some examples are Sabian's Fusion Hats with holes in the bottom of the hi-hat, and the Sabian X-cellerator, Zildjian Master Sound, Paiste Sound Edge, and Meinl Soundwave. Some drummers even use completely mismatched hi-hats from different cymbal ranges (Zildjian's K/Z hats), of different manufacturers, and even of different sizes (similar to the K Custom Session Hats where the top hat is a sixteenth of an inch smaller than the bottom). Other recent developments include the X-hat (fixed, closed, or half-open hi-hats) and cable-controlled or remote hi-hats. Sabian introduced the Triple Hi-Hat, designed by Peter Kuppers. In this variation of the hi-hat, the top cymbal moves down and the bottom cymbal moves up simultaneously while the middle cymbal remains stationary. Drop-clutches are also used to lock and release hi-hats while both feet are in use playing double bass drums. The drop clutch was invented by ragtime drummer Graig Cortelyou. Playing techniques Audio samples Component Content Audio (Ogg Vorbis)Hi-hatClosed hi-hat Open hi-hat Hi-hat being opened and closed by its foot pedal See the Drums page at Wikipedia Commons for more When struck closed or played with the pedal, the hi-hat gives a short, muted percussive sound. Adjusting the gap between the cymbals can alter the sound of the open hi-hat from a shimmering, sustained tone to something similar to a ride cymbal. When struck with a drumstick, the cymbals make either a short, snappy sound or a longer sustaining sandy sound depending on the position of the pedal. It can also be played just by lifting and lowering the foot to clash the cymbals together, a style commonly used to accent beats 2 and 4 in jazz music. In rock music, the hi-hats are commonly struck every beat or on beats 1 and 3, while the cymbals are held together. The drummer can control the sound by foot pressure. Less pressure allows the cymbals to rub together more freely, giving both greater sustain and greater volume for accent or crescendo. In shuffle time, a rhythm known as cooking is often employed. To produce this the cymbals are struck twice in rapid succession, being held closed on the first stroke and allowed to open just before the second, then allowed to ring before being closed with a chick to complete the pattern (the cymbals may or not be struck on the chick). A right-handed drummer will normally play the hi-hat pedal with his left foot, and may use one or both drumsticks. The traditional hi-hat rhythms of rock and jazz were produced by crossing the hands over, so the right stick would play the hi-hat while the left played the snare drum below it, but this is not universal. Some top modern drummers like Billy Cobham, Carter Beauford, and Simon Phillips do not cross their hands over at all, playing the hi-hat mounted on the left with the left stick rather than the right. This is called open handed playing. Some trap sets may also include an extra hi-hat on the right for right handed players, where it would be awkward to play crossed over. This is shown when drums or cymbals in the middle of the set are played with the hi-hat rhythm. The technique is common with metal genres, such as Lars Ulrich of Metallica and Mike Portnoy of Dream Theater. In both rock and jazz, often the drummer will move the same stick pattern between the hi-hat cymbal and the ride cymbal, for example using the hi-hat in the verses and the ride in the chorus of a song, or using the ride to accompany a lead break or other instrumental solo. Roger Taylor, drummer for the band Queen, plays with many unique hi-hat techniques, including involuntary opening of the hi-hat on every backbeat for a rhythm emphasis and leaving the hi-hat slightly open when hitting the snare. His trademark hi-hat beat is opening the hi-hat on first + and third +. before hitting the snare. Phil Rudd of AC/DC also uses distinct hi-hat techniques, which include very heavily accentuating the hi-hat hit on each beat and softer in between. Those playing double bass drums have also developed special techniques for using the hi-hat. In much hip-hop, the hi-hat is hit with drumsticks in a simple eighth-note pattern, although this playing is usually done by a drum machine or from an old recording from which the sound of a hi-hat is recorded and loaded into a sampler or similar recording-enabled equipment from which it is triggered. Pioneer Kurtis Mantronik was one of the first to program hi-hat patterns that employed thirty-second notes. References | Hi-hat |@lemmatized hi:51 hat:60 hihat:2 type:1 cymbal:36 stand:4 use:13 typical:1 part:2 drum:13 kit:3 percussionist:1 r:1 b:1 hip:2 hop:2 disco:1 jazz:4 rock:6 roll:1 house:1 form:1 contemporary:1 popular:1 music:3 operation:1 mini:2 rod:3 clutch:4 tom:1 cowbell:1 holder:1 leg:1 pedal:10 consist:1 two:2 mount:3 one:4 top:10 clash:3 together:5 narrow:1 metal:2 shaft:1 run:1 hollow:2 tube:2 connects:1 connect:1 bottom:7 remain:2 stationary:2 rest:1 height:1 open:11 position:4 adjustable:1 foot:7 plate:1 press:1 crash:3 onto:2 closed:1 release:3 return:2 original:1 tension:1 unit:1 control:3 amount:1 pressure:3 require:1 lower:2 fast:1 pearl:1 hardware:1 history:2 development:2 initial:1 version:1 call:2 clanger:1 small:6 bass:4 rim:1 struck:5 arm:1 come:1 snow:1 shoe:1 hinged:1 board:1 end:2 next:1 low:3 boy:1 similar:5 modern:4 close:7 ground:1 raise:1 could:1 play:12 hand:6 well:2 may:5 develop:2 around:1 barney:1 walberg:2 accessory:1 company:1 auge:1 book:1 geoff:1 nichols:1 pp:1 legs:1 late:2 standard:2 inch:9 available:1 less:3 common:4 alternative:2 professional:1 range:2 size:3 restrict:1 child:1 early:2 hard:1 drummer:8 include:5 lead:2 zeppelin:1 john:1 bonham:1 begin:1 zildjian:4 revolutionary:1 special:3 record:3 heavy:3 intend:1 miking:1 either:2 live:1 recording:2 manufacturer:3 quickly:1 follow:1 suit:1 however:1 mid:1 paiste:2 offer:1 vision:1 series:1 among:1 world:1 start:1 number:1 also:7 experiment:1 rivet:2 mainly:1 sound:9 fail:1 catch:2 much:2 reflect:1 trend:1 light:1 thin:1 heavier:1 change:1 pair:1 longer:2 necessarily:1 typically:1 case:1 like:2 k:3 steve:1 gadd:1 session:2 pattern:5 reverse:1 clean:1 chick:3 cleaner:1 stick:4 vent:1 innovation:1 example:2 sabian:3 fusion:1 hole:1 x:2 cellerator:1 master:1 edge:1 meinl:1 soundwave:1 even:2 completely:1 mismatch:1 different:3 z:1 custom:1 sixteenth:1 recent:1 fix:1 half:1 cable:1 remote:1 introduce:1 triple:1 design:1 peter:1 kuppers:1 variation:1 move:3 simultaneously:1 middle:2 drop:2 lock:1 playing:3 double:2 invent:1 ragtime:1 graig:1 cortelyou:1 technique:5 audio:2 sample:1 component:1 content:1 ogg:1 vorbis:1 hatclosed:1 see:1 page:1 wikipedia:1 give:2 short:2 mute:1 percussive:1 adjust:1 gap:1 alter:1 shimmering:1 sustain:3 tone:1 something:1 ride:4 drumstick:3 make:1 snappy:1 sandy:1 depend:1 lift:1 style:1 commonly:2 accent:2 beat:5 every:2 hold:2 allow:3 rub:1 freely:1 great:2 volume:1 crescendo:1 shuffle:1 time:1 rhythm:4 know:1 cooking:1 often:2 employ:2 produce:2 twice:1 rapid:1 succession:1 first:3 stroke:1 second:2 ring:1 complete:1 strike:1 right:5 normally:1 left:4 traditional:1 cross:3 would:2 snare:3 universal:1 billy:1 cobham:1 carter:1 beauford:1 simon:1 phillips:1 rather:1 trap:1 set:2 extra:1 player:1 awkward:1 show:1 genre:1 lars:1 ulrich:1 metallica:1 mike:1 portnoy:1 dream:1 theater:1 verse:1 chorus:1 song:1 accompany:1 break:1 instrumental:1 solo:1 roger:1 taylor:1 band:1 queen:1 many:1 unique:1 involuntary:1 opening:1 backbeat:1 emphasis:1 leave:1 slightly:1 hit:4 trademark:1 third:1 phil:1 rudd:1 ac:1 dc:1 distinct:1 heavily:1 accentuate:1 softer:1 simple:1 eighth:1 note:2 although:1 usually:1 machine:1 old:1 load:1 sampler:1 enable:1 equipment:1 trigger:1 pioneer:1 kurtis:1 mantronik:1 program:1 thirty:1 reference:1 |@bigram hi_hat:50 drum_kit:2 hip_hop:2 hat_cymbal:4 crash_cymbal:2 double_bass:2 ogg_vorbis:1 percussive_sound:1 ride_cymbal:2 clash_cymbal:1 snare_drum:1 drum_cymbal:1 lars_ulrich:1 ac_dc:1 |
3,293 | Autism | Autism is a brain development disorder characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. These signs all begin before a child is three years old. The autism spectrum disorders (ASD) also include the related conditions Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS, which have fewer signs and symptoms. Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by multigene interactions or by rare mutations. In rare cases, autism is strongly associated with agents that cause birth defects. Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes, such as heavy metals, pesticides or childhood vaccines; the vaccine hypotheses are biologically implausible and lack convincing scientific evidence. The prevalence of ASD is about 6 per 1,000 people, with about four times as many males as females. The number of people known to have autism has increased dramatically since the 1980s, partly due to changes in diagnostic practice; the question of whether actual prevalence has increased is unresolved. Autism affects many parts of the brain; how this occurs is not understood. Parents usually notice signs in the first two years of their child's life. Although early behavioral or cognitive intervention can help children gain self-care, social, and communication skills, there is no known cure. Not many children with autism live independently after reaching adulthood, though some become successful, and an autistic culture has developed, with some seeking a cure and others believing autism should be tolerated as a difference and not treated as a disorder. Characteristics Autism is a highly variable brain development disorder that first appears during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without remission. Symptoms tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form. It is distinguished not by a single symptom, but by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction; impairments in communication; and restricted interests and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis. Autism's individual symptoms occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits. Social development Social deficits distinguish autism and the related autism spectrum disorders (ASD; see Classification) from other developmental disorders. People with autism have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic Temple Grandin described her inability to understand the social communication of neurotypicals, or people with normal neural development, as leaving her feeling "like an anthropologist on Mars". Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they have less eye contact and turn taking, and are more likely to communicate by manipulating another person's hand. Three- to five-year-old autistic children are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form attachments to their primary caregivers. They display moderately less attachment security than usual, although this feature disappears in children with higher mental development or less severe ASD. Older children and adults with ASD perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition. Contrary to common beliefs, autistic children do not prefer being alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect their quality of life more deeply. There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with mental retardation, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and tantrums. A 2007 study interviewed parents of 67 children with ASD and reported that about two-thirds of the children had periods of severe tantrums and about one-third had a history of aggression, with tantrums significantly more common than in children with a history of language impairment. A 2008 Swedish study found that, of individuals aged 15 or older discharged from hospital with a diagnosis of ASD, those who committed violent crimes were significantly more likely to have other psychopathological conditions such as psychosis. Communication About a third to a half of individuals with autism do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs. Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of babbling, unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, autistic children have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Autistic children are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words (echolalia) or reverse pronouns. Joint attention seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD: for example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object, and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience. Autistic children may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language. In a pair of studies, high-functioning autistic children aged 8–15 performed equally well, and adults better than individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends. Repetitive behavior A young boy with autism, and the precise line of toys he made Autistic individuals display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) categorizes as follows. Stereotypy is repetitive movement, such as hand flapping, making sounds, head rolling, or body rocking. Compulsive behavior is intended and appears to follow rules, such as arranging objects in a certain way. Sameness is resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted. Ritualistic behavior involves the performance of daily activities the same way each time, such as an unvarying menu or dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors. Restricted behavior is limited in focus, interest, or activity, such as preoccupation with a single television program or toy. Self-injury includes movements that injure or can injure the person, such as eye poking, skin picking, hand biting, and head banging. A 2007 study reported that self-injury at some point affected about 30% of children with ASD. No single repetitive behavior seems to be specific to autism, but only autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors. Other symptoms Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family. This paper represents a consensus of representatives from nine professional and four parent organizations in the U.S. An estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious autistic savants. Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population. Unusual responses to sensory stimuli are more common and prominent in autistic children, although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders. Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements). Several studies have reported associated motor problems that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, and toe walking; ASD is not associated with severe motor disturbances. Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur; this does not appear to result in malnutrition. Although some children with autism also have gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, there is a lack of published rigorous data to support the theory that autistic children have more or different GI symptoms than usual; studies report conflicting results, and the relationship between GI problems and ASD is unclear. At some point in childhood, about two-thirds of individuals with ASD are affected by sleep problems; these most commonly include symptoms of insomnia such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis. Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of stress. Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults. Classification Autism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior. These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance. Of the five PDD forms, Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; PDD not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS; also called atypical autism) is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder. Unlike autism, Asperger's has no substantial delay in language development. The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger's and PDD-NOS often called the autism spectrum disorders (ASD) or sometimes the autistic disorders, whereas autism itself is often called autistic disorder, childhood autism, or infantile autism. In this article, autism refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, autism, ASD, and PDD are often used interchangeably. ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism phenotype (BAP), which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like traits, such as avoiding eye contact. The manifestations of autism cover a wide spectrum, ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, mentally disabled, and locked into hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, pedantic communication. Sometimes the syndrome is divided into low-, medium- or high-functioning autism (LFA, MFA, and HFA), based on IQ thresholds, or on how much support the individual requires in daily life; these subdivisions are not standardized and are controversial. Autism can also be divided into syndromal and non-syndromal autism; the syndromal autism is associated with severe or profound mental retardation or a congenital syndrome with physical symptoms, such as tuberous sclerosis. Although individuals with Asperger's tend to perform better cognitively than those with autism, the extent of the overlap between Asperger's, HFA, and non-syndromal autism is unclear. Validity of ASD subtypes: Some studies have reported diagnoses of autism in children due to a loss of language or social skills, as opposed to a failure to make progress, typically from 15 to 30 months of age. The validity of this distinction remains controversial; it is possible that regressive autism is a specific subtype, A partial update is in: or that there is a continuum of behaviors between autism with and without regression. Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subpopulations and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, neurology and pediatrics. It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior, with the name Type 1 autism denoting rare autism cases that test positive for a mutation in the CNTNAP2 gene. Causes It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms. However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur. Deletion (1), duplication (2) and inversion (3) are all chromosome abnormalities that have been implicated in autism. Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by multigene interactions or by rare mutations with major effects. Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and epigenetic factors which do not change DNA but are heritable and influence gene expression. Early studies of twins estimated heritability explains more than 90% of the risk of autism, assuming a shared environment and no other genetic or medical syndromes. However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a Mendelian (single-gene) mutation or to a single chromosome abnormality like Angelman syndrome or fragile X syndrome, and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs has been shown to selectively cause ASD. Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene. The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from copy number variations—spontaneous deletions or duplications in genetic material during meiosis. Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome. Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes, and that the symptoms may be reversed or reduced by replacing or modulating gene function after birth. All known teratogens (agents that cause birth defects) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from conception, and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, it is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development. Although evidence for other environmental causes is anecdotal and has not been confirmed by reliable studies, extensive searches are underway. Environmental factors that have been claimed to contribute to or exacerbate autism, or may be important in future research, include certain foods, infectious disease, heavy metals, solvents, diesel exhaust, PCBs, phthalates and phenols used in plastic products, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, alcohol, smoking, illicit drugs, vaccines, and prenatal stress. Although parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination, and parental concern about vaccines and autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations and higher likelihood of measles outbreaks, the theories that vaccines cause autism lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible. Vaccines and autism: Mechanism Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. Despite extensive investigation, how autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the pathophysiology of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the neuropsychological linkages between brain structures and behaviors. The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies. Pathophysiology Unlike many other brain disorders such as Parkinson's, autism does not have a clear unifying mechanism at either the molecular, cellular, or systems level; it is not known whether autism is a few disorders caused by mutations converging on a few common molecular pathways, or is (like intellectual disability) a large set of disorders with diverse mechanisms. Autism appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems, and to disturb the timing of brain development more than the final product. Neuroanatomical studies and the associations with teratogens strongly suggest that autism's mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception. This anomaly appears to start a cascade of pathological events in the brain that are significantly influenced by environmental factors. Although many major structures of the human brain have been implicated, almost all postmortem studies have been of individuals who also had mental retardation, making it difficult to draw conclusions. Brain weight and volume and head circumference tend to be greater in autistic children. The cellular and molecular bases of pathological early overgrowth are not known, nor is it known whether the overgrown neural systems cause autism's characteristic signs. Current hypotheses include: An excess of neurons that causes local overconnectivity in key brain regions. Disturbed neuronal migration during early gestation. Unbalanced excitatory–inhibitory networks. Abnormal formation of synapses and dendritic spines, for example, by modulation of the neurexin–neuroligin cell-adhesion system, or by poorly regulated synthesis of synaptic protein. Disrupted synaptic development may also contribute to epilepsy, which may explain why the two conditions are associated. Interactions between the immune system and the nervous system begin early during the embryonic stage of life, and successful neurodevelopment depends on a balanced immune response. Several symptoms consistent with a poorly regulated immune response have been reported in autistic children. It is possible that aberrant immune activity during critical periods of neurodevelopment is part of the mechanism of some forms of ASD. As autoantibodies have not been associated with pathology, are found in diseases other than ASD, and are not always present in ASD, the relationship between immune disturbances and autism remains unclear and controversial. Several neurotransmitter abnormalities have been detected in autism, notably increased blood levels of serotonin. Whether these cause structural or behavioral abnormalities is unclear. Some data suggest an increase in several growth hormones; other data argue for diminished growth factors. Also, some inborn errors of metabolism are associated with autism but probably account for less than 5% of cases. The mirror neuron system (MNS) theory of autism hypothesizes that distortion in the development of the MNS interferes with imitation and leads to autism's core features of social impairment and communication difficulties. The MNS operates when an animal performs an action or observes another animal perform the same action. The MNS may contribute to an individual's understanding of other people by enabling the modeling of their behavior via embodied simulation of their actions, intentions, and emotions. MNS and autism: Several studies have tested this hypothesis by demonstrating structural abnormalities in MNS regions of individuals with ASD, delay in the activation in the core circuit for imitation in individuals with Asperger's, and a correlation between reduced MNS activity and severity of the syndrome in children with ASD. However, individuals with autism also have abnormal brain activation in many circuits outside the MNS and the MNS theory does not explain the normal performance of autistic children on imitation tasks that involve a goal or object. Autistic individuals tend to use different areas of the brain (yellow) for a movement task compared to a control group (blue). This image was generated by fMRI, which is used in autism research to measure neural activity. ASD-related patterns of low function and aberrant activation in the brain differ depending on whether the brain is doing social or nonsocial tasks. In autism there is evidence for reduced functional connectivity of the default network, a large-scale brain network involved in social and emotional processing, with intact connectivity of the task-positive network, used in sustained attention and goal-directed thinking. In people with autism the two networks are not negatively correlated in time, suggesting an imbalance in toggling between the two networks, possibly reflecting a disturbance of self-referential thought. A 2008 brain-imaging study found a specific pattern of signals in the cingulate cortex which differs in individuals with ASD. The underconnectivity theory of autism hypothesizes that autism is marked by underfunctioning high-level neural connections and synchronization, along with an excess of low-level processes. Evidence for this theory has been found in functional neuroimaging studies on autistic individuals and by a brain wave study that suggested that adults with ASD have local overconnectivity in the cortex and weak functional connections between the frontal lobe and the rest of the cortex. Other evidence suggests the underconnectivity is mainly within each hemisphere of the cortex and that autism is a disorder of the association cortex. From studies based on event-related potentials, transient changes to the brain's electrical activity in response to stimuli, there is considerable evidence for differences in autistic individuals with respect to attention, orientiation to auditory and visual stimuli, novelty detection, language and face processing, and information storage; several studies have found a preference for non-social stimuli. For example, magnetoencephalography studies have found evidence in autistic children of delayed responses in the brain's processing of auditory signals. Neuropsychology Two major categories of cognitive theories have been proposed about the links between autistic brains and behavior. The first category focuses on deficits in social cognition. The empathizing–systemizing theory postulates that autistic individuals can systemize—that is, they can develop internal rules of operation to handle events inside the brain—but are less effective at empathizing by handling events generated by other agents. An extension, the extreme male brain theory, hypothesizes that autism is an extreme case of the male brain, defined psychometrically as individuals in whom systemizing is better than empathizing; this extension is controversial, as many studies contradict the idea that baby boys and girls respond differently to people and objects. These theories are related to the earlier theory of mind approach, which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from an inability to ascribe mental states to oneself and others. The theory of mind is supported by autistic children's atypical responses to the Sally–Anne test for reasoning about others' motivations, and is mapped well from the mirror neuron system theory of autism. The second category focuses on nonsocial or general processing. Executive dysfunction hypothesizes that autistic behavior results in part from deficits in working memory, planning, inhibition, and other forms of executive function. Tests of core executive processes such as eye movement tasks indicate improvement from late childhood to adolescence, but performance never reaches typical adult levels. A strength of the theory is predicting stereotyped behavior and narrow interests; two weaknesses are that executive function is hard to measure and that executive function deficits have not been found in young autistic children. Weak central coherence theory hypothesizes that a limited ability to see the big picture underlies the central disturbance in autism. One strength of this theory is predicting special talents and peaks in performance in autistic people. A related theory—enhanced perceptual functioning—focuses more on the superiority of locally oriented and perceptual operations in autistic individuals. These theories map well from the underconnectivity theory of autism. Neither category is satisfactory on its own; social cognition theories poorly address autism's rigid and repetitive behaviors, while the nonsocial theories have difficulty explaining social impairment and communication difficulties. A combined theory based on multiple deficits may prove to be more useful. Screening About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months. As postponing treatment may affect long-term outcome, any of the following signs is reason to have a child evaluated by a specialist without delay: No babbling by 12 months. No gesturing (pointing, waving goodbye, etc.) by 12 months. No single words by 16 months. No two-word spontaneous phrases (other than instances of echolalia) by 24 months. Any loss of any language or social skills, at any age. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that all children be screened for ASD at the 18- and 24-month well-child doctor visits, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, the UK National Screening Committee recommends against screening for ASD in the general population, because screening tools have not been fully validated and interventions lack sufficient evidence for effectiveness. Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor CHAT on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low sensitivity (many false-negatives) but good specificity (few false-positives). It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders. Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture. Genetic screening for autism is generally still impractical. Diagnosis Diagnosis is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism. Autism is defined in the DSM-IV-TR as exhibiting at least six symptoms total, including at least two symptoms of qualitative impairment in social interaction, at least one symptom of qualitative impairment in communication, and at least one symptom of restricted and repetitive behavior. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language, and persistent preoccupation with parts of objects. Onset must be prior to age three years, with delays or abnormal functioning in either social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by Rett syndrome or childhood disintegrative disorder. ICD-10 uses essentially the same definition. Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) uses observation and interaction with the child. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children. A pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated medical conditions. A pediatric neuropsychologist is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions. A differential diagnosis for ASD at this stage might also consider mental retardation, hearing impairment, and a specific language impairment such as Landau–Kleffner syndrome. Clinical genetics evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause. Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes, consensus guidelines in the U.S. and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and fragile X testing. A genotype-first model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations. As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics. Metabolic and neuroimaging tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine. ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later. In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice. A 2009 U.S. study found the average age of formal ASD diagnosis was 5.7 years, far above recommendations, and that 27% of children remained undiagnosed at age 8 years. Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits. Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases, and much of the recent increase in the number of reported ASD cases is likely due to changes in diagnostic practices. The increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has given providers incentives to diagnose ASD, resulting in some overdiagnosis of children with uncertain symptoms. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis. It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the visually impaired, partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes. Management A three-year-old with autism points to fish in an aquarium, as part of an experiment on the effect of intensive shared-attention training on language development. The main goals of treatment are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs. Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy. Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills, and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated. Available approaches include applied behavior analysis (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy. Educational interventions have some effectiveness in children: intensive ABA treatment has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing global functioning in preschool children and is well-established for improving intellectual performance of young children. Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided. It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up, and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results. Many medications are used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails. More than half of U.S. children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics. Aside from antipsychotics, there is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD. Lack of research on drug treatments: A person with ASD may respond atypically to medications, the medications can have adverse effects, and no known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments. Although many alternative therapies and interventions are available, few are supported by scientific studies. Lack of support for interventions: Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance. Scientific evidence appears to matter less to service providers than program marketing, training availability, and parent requests. Though most alternative treatments, such as melatonin, have only mild adverse effects some may place the child at risk. A 2008 study found that compared to their peers, autistic boys have significantly thinner bones if on casein-free diets; in 2005, botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old child with autism. Treatment is expensive; indirect costs are more so. For someone born in 2000, a U.S. study estimated an average lifetime cost of $ (net present value in dollars, inflation-adjusted from 2003 estimate), with about 10% medical care, 30% extra education and other care, and 60% lost economic productivity. Publicly supported programs are often inadequate or inappropriate for a given child, and unreimbursed out-of-pocket medical or therapy expenses are associated with likelihood of family financial problems; one 2008 U.S. study found a 14% average loss of annual income in families of children with ASD, and a related study found that ASD is associated with higher probability that child care problems will greatly affect parental employment. After childhood, key treatment issues include residential care, job training and placement, sexuality, social skills, and estate planning. Prognosis There is no known cure. Children recover occasionally, so that they lose their diagnosis of ASD; this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often recovery happens; reported rates in unselected samples of children with ASD have ranged from 3% to 25%. A few autistic children have acquired speech at age 5 or older. Most children with autism lack social support, meaningful relationships, future employment opportunities or self-determination. Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age. Few high-quality studies address long-term prognosis. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife. Acquiring language before age six, having an IQ above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; independent living is unlikely with severe autism. A 2004 British study of 68 adults who were diagnosed before 1980 as autistic children with IQ above 50 found that 12% achieved a high level of independence as adults, 10% had some friends and were generally in work but required some support, 19% had some independence but were generally living at home and needed considerable support and supervision in daily living, 46% needed specialist residential provision from facilities specializing in ASD with a high level of support and very limited autonomy, and 12% needed high-level hospital care. A 2005 Swedish study of 78 adults that did not exclude low IQ found worse prognosis; for example, only 4% achieved independence. A 2008 Canadian study of 48 young adults diagnosed with ASD as preschoolers found outcomes ranging through poor (46%), fair (32%), good (17%), and very good (4%); 56% of these young adults had been employed at some point during their lives, mostly in volunteer, sheltered or part-time work. Changes in diagnostic practice and increased availability of effective early intervention make it unclear whether these findings can be generalized to recently diagnosed children. Epidemiology Reports of autism cases grew dramatically in the U.S. from 1996 to 2007. It is unknown how much, if any, growth came from changes in autism's prevalence. Most recent reviews tend to estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD; because of inadequate data, these numbers may underestimate ASD's true prevalence. PDD-NOS's prevalence has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger's at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000. The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness, though unidentified contributing environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out. The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased; a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics. Boys are at higher risk for ASD than girls. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with mental retardation and more than 5.5:1 without. The risk of autism is also associated with several prenatal and perinatal risk factors. A 2007 review of risk factors found associated parental characteristics that included advanced maternal age, advanced paternal age, and maternal place of birth outside Europe or North America, and also found associated obstetric conditions that included low birth weight and gestation duration, and hypoxia during childbirth. Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism. Autism is associated with several other conditions: Genetic disorders. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable Mendelian (single-gene) condition, chromosome abnormality, or other genetic syndrome, and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders. Mental retardation. The fraction of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for mental retardation has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing autistic intelligence. For ASD other than autism, the association with mental retardation is much weaker. Anxiety disorders are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms. Epilepsy, with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of language disorder. Several metabolic defects, such as phenylketonuria, are associated with autistic symptoms. Minor physical anomalies are significantly increased in the autistic population. Preempted diagnoses. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for ADHD, Tourette syndrome, and other of these conditions are often present and these comorbid diagnoses are increasingly accepted. History A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The Table Talk of Martin Luther contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic. According to Luther's notetaker Mathesius, Luther thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil, and suggested that he be suffocated. The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair, as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance. The Wild Boy of Aveyron, a feral child caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student Jean Itard treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation. The New Latin word autismus (English translation autism) was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia. He derived it from the Greek word autos (αὐτός, meaning self), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance". The quote is a translation of Bleuler's 1910 original. The word autism first took its modern sense in 1938 when Hans Asperger of the Vienna University Hospital adopted Bleuler's terminology autistic psychopaths in a lecture in German about child psychology. Asperger was investigating a form of ASD now known as Asperger syndrome, though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981. Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first used autism in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label early infantile autism in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities. Reprinted in Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger. Kanner's reuse of autism led to decades of confused terminology like infantile schizophrenia, and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to "refrigerator mothers". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome by demonstrating that it is lifelong, distinguishing it from mental retardation and schizophrenia and from other developmental disorders, and demonstrating the benefits of involving parents in active programs of therapy. As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; now it is thought to be one of the most heritable of all psychiatric conditions. Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have deeply affected how we view ASD, parents continue to feel social stigma in situations where their autistic children's behaviors are perceived negatively by others, and many primary care physicians and medical specialists still express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research. The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find so hard to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely. Sociological and cultural aspects of autism have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that autism is simply another way of being. References External links | Autism |@lemmatized autism:136 brain:27 development:13 disorder:29 characterize:2 impaired:2 social:34 interaction:10 communication:16 restrict:5 repetitive:11 behavior:32 sign:8 begin:3 child:70 three:8 year:18 old:10 spectrum:5 asd:70 also:14 include:15 related:7 condition:10 asperger:12 syndrome:17 pdd:8 symptom:37 strong:3 genetic:16 basis:2 although:20 genetics:6 complex:4 unclear:7 whether:10 explain:7 multigene:2 rare:5 mutation:7 case:14 strongly:2 associate:20 agent:3 cause:21 birth:5 defect:3 controversy:1 surround:1 propose:4 environmental:6 heavy:2 metal:2 pesticide:2 childhood:14 vaccine:6 hypothesis:3 biologically:3 implausible:2 lack:10 convincing:1 scientific:4 evidence:16 prevalence:8 per:6 people:11 four:3 time:5 many:20 male:3 female:1 number:8 know:8 increase:14 dramatically:3 since:1 partly:3 due:5 change:11 diagnostic:10 practice:6 question:1 actual:1 unresolved:1 affect:10 part:6 occur:7 understood:2 parent:11 usually:1 notice:3 first:13 two:13 life:10 early:16 behavioral:5 cognitive:7 intervention:10 help:8 gain:2 self:8 care:8 skill:12 known:4 cure:4 live:2 independently:2 reach:2 adulthood:2 though:7 become:5 successful:2 autistic:56 culture:3 develop:6 seek:4 others:10 believe:3 tolerate:1 difference:4 treat:3 characteristic:6 highly:4 variable:1 appear:10 infancy:1 generally:5 follow:3 steady:1 course:1 without:5 remission:1 tend:6 continue:4 often:19 muted:1 form:10 distinguish:6 single:8 triad:2 impairment:13 interest:5 aspect:3 atypical:3 eating:3 common:11 essential:1 diagnosis:23 individual:32 general:4 population:4 sharp:1 line:2 separate:3 pathologically:1 severe:8 trait:3 deficit:7 see:2 classification:2 developmental:9 intuition:1 take:5 grant:1 note:1 temple:1 grandin:1 describe:4 inability:3 understand:2 neurotypicals:1 normal:2 neural:5 leave:1 feeling:1 like:6 anthropologist:1 mar:1 unusual:6 apparent:1 infant:3 show:7 less:17 attention:9 stimulus:4 smile:1 look:2 respond:4 name:3 toddler:2 differ:2 strikingly:1 norm:2 example:11 eye:5 contact:3 turn:3 taking:1 likely:9 communicate:3 manipulate:1 another:3 person:3 hand:5 five:4 exhibit:2 understanding:3 approach:5 spontaneously:1 imitate:1 emotion:3 nonverbally:1 however:4 attachment:3 primary:3 caregiver:2 display:2 moderately:1 security:1 usual:2 feature:2 disappear:1 high:14 mental:11 adult:14 perform:6 worse:1 test:12 face:2 recognition:1 contrary:1 belief:2 prefer:1 alone:1 make:8 maintain:1 friendship:3 prove:2 difficult:3 quality:6 friend:3 predict:4 lonely:1 feel:2 functional:7 result:12 invitation:1 party:1 may:29 deeply:2 anecdotal:2 report:16 systematic:2 study:36 aggression:3 violence:1 limited:4 data:7 suggest:14 retardation:9 destruction:1 property:1 tantrum:3 interview:3 third:5 period:2 one:9 history:4 significantly:5 language:18 swedish:2 find:17 age:19 discharge:1 hospital:4 commit:1 violent:1 crime:1 psychopathological:1 psychosis:1 half:3 enough:1 natural:1 speech:5 meet:4 daily:4 need:5 present:5 delayed:2 onset:2 babbling:3 gesture:2 diminish:1 responsiveness:1 vocal:1 pattern:5 synchronize:1 second:2 frequent:2 diverse:2 consonant:1 word:9 combination:1 integrate:2 request:2 share:5 experience:2 simply:2 repeat:1 echolalia:2 reverse:2 pronoun:1 joint:2 seem:3 necessary:1 point:7 instead:3 pointed:1 object:6 consistently:1 fail:1 order:1 comment:1 difficulty:7 imaginative:2 play:2 symbol:1 pair:1 functioning:5 equally:1 well:12 good:7 individually:1 match:1 control:3 basic:2 task:7 involve:5 vocabulary:1 spelling:1 group:2 bad:2 figurative:1 comprehension:1 inference:1 size:1 initially:1 speak:1 overestimate:1 audience:1 comprehends:1 young:5 boy:7 precise:1 toy:2 scale:3 revise:2 rbs:1 r:2 categorize:1 stereotypy:1 movement:5 flapping:2 sound:1 head:3 rolling:1 body:1 rocking:1 compulsive:1 intend:1 rule:5 arrange:1 certain:2 way:4 sameness:3 resistance:1 insist:1 furniture:1 move:1 refuse:1 interrupt:1 ritualistic:1 performance:5 activity:8 unvarying:1 menu:1 dress:1 ritual:2 closely:2 independent:3 validation:1 combine:1 factor:11 limit:2 focus:9 preoccupation:2 television:1 program:9 injury:2 injure:2 poking:1 skin:1 picking:1 biting:1 banging:1 specific:6 elevated:1 occurrence:2 severity:4 family:8 paper:2 represent:1 consensus:2 representative:1 nine:1 professional:2 organization:2 u:7 estimated:2 ability:2 range:5 splinter:1 memorization:1 trivia:1 extraordinarily:1 talent:2 prodigious:1 savant:1 superior:1 perception:1 relative:2 response:7 sensory:2 prominent:1 differentiate:1 great:4 responsivity:2 walk:1 thing:1 distress:2 loud:1 noise:1 sensation:1 rhythmic:1 several:14 associated:3 motor:3 problem:9 poor:5 muscle:1 tone:1 planning:3 toe:1 walking:1 disturbance:7 quarter:1 extent:2 formerly:1 indicator:1 selectivity:1 food:2 refusal:1 malnutrition:1 gastrointestinal:1 gi:3 publish:1 rigorous:1 support:11 theory:22 different:3 conflict:2 relationship:4 sleep:2 commonly:3 insomnia:1 fall:1 asleep:1 nocturnal:1 awakening:2 morning:1 stress:3 clinical:7 level:11 sibling:4 admiration:2 affected:2 risk:11 negative:2 pervasive:1 widespread:1 abnormality:7 severely:2 restricted:1 imply:1 sickness:1 fragility:1 emotional:4 close:3 rett:2 disintegrative:3 unrelated:1 otherwise:1 specify:1 call:3 diagnose:8 criterion:5 unlike:2 substantial:2 delay:5 terminology:3 bewilder:1 sometimes:7 whereas:1 infantile:3 article:1 refers:1 classic:1 use:18 interchangeably:1 subset:1 broad:1 phenotype:1 bap:1 avoid:1 manifestation:1 cover:1 wide:2 silent:1 mentally:1 disabled:1 lock:1 rock:1 active:2 distinctly:1 odd:1 narrowly:1 focused:1 verbose:1 pedantic:1 divide:3 low:7 medium:1 function:7 lfa:1 mfa:1 hfa:2 base:6 iq:4 threshold:1 much:4 require:2 subdivision:1 standardize:1 controversial:4 syndromal:4 non:3 profound:1 congenital:1 physical:2 tuberous:1 sclerosis:1 cognitively:1 overlap:2 validity:3 subtypes:1 loss:3 oppose:1 failure:1 progress:1 typically:3 month:10 distinction:1 remain:3 possible:2 regressive:1 subtype:1 partial:1 update:1 continuum:1 regression:1 research:8 hamper:1 identify:2 meaningful:2 subpopulation:1 traditional:1 boundary:1 discipline:1 psychiatry:2 psychology:2 neurology:1 pediatrics:2 classify:1 type:2 denote:1 positive:4 gene:9 long:4 presume:1 suspicion:1 whose:1 core:6 distinct:1 co:1 deletion:2 duplication:2 inversion:1 chromosome:4 implicate:2 major:3 effect:5 complexity:2 arises:2 among:3 multiple:3 environment:3 epigenetic:1 dna:1 heritable:3 influence:3 expression:1 twin:1 estimate:5 heritability:1 assume:1 medical:6 cannot:2 trace:1 mendelian:2 angelman:1 fragile:2 x:2 none:1 asds:1 selectively:1 numerous:1 candidate:1 locate:1 small:1 attributable:2 particular:1 large:3 unaffected:1 member:1 copy:2 variation:4 spontaneous:2 material:1 meiosis:1 hence:1 fraction:2 traceable:1 inherit:1 parental:4 genome:2 replacement:1 mouse:1 relate:3 later:4 step:1 depend:4 synapsis:2 dependent:1 reduce:2 replace:1 modulate:1 teratogen:2 act:1 eight:1 week:2 conception:2 exclude:2 possibility:2 initiate:1 arise:1 confirm:1 reliable:2 extensive:2 search:1 underway:1 claim:3 contribute:4 exacerbate:1 important:1 future:2 infectious:1 disease:2 solvent:1 diesel:1 exhaust:1 pcbs:1 phthalates:1 phenol:1 plastic:1 product:2 brominate:1 flame:1 retardant:1 alcohol:1 smoking:1 illicit:1 drug:6 prenatal:2 aware:1 around:2 routine:2 vaccination:1 concern:2 lead:5 rate:2 immunization:1 likelihood:2 measles:1 outbreak:1 convince:1 mechanism:7 maturation:1 various:2 system:9 despite:1 investigation:2 area:2 pathophysiology:2 structure:4 process:3 neuropsychological:2 linkage:1 pathophysiologies:1 parkinson:1 clear:1 unifying:1 either:2 molecular:3 cellular:2 converge:1 pathway:1 intellectual:2 disability:2 set:1 disturb:1 timing:1 final:1 neuroanatomical:1 association:3 alteration:1 soon:1 anomaly:2 start:2 cascade:1 pathological:2 event:4 human:1 almost:2 postmortem:1 draw:1 conclusion:2 weight:2 volume:1 circumference:1 overgrowth:1 overgrown:1 current:1 excess:2 neuron:3 local:2 overconnectivity:2 key:2 region:2 disturbed:1 neuronal:1 migration:1 gestation:2 unbalanced:1 excitatory:1 inhibitory:1 network:6 abnormal:3 formation:1 dendritic:1 spine:1 modulation:1 neurexin:1 neuroligin:1 cell:1 adhesion:1 poorly:4 regulate:2 synthesis:1 synaptic:2 protein:1 disrupt:1 epilepsy:3 immune:5 nervous:1 embryonic:1 stage:2 neurodevelopment:2 balance:1 consistent:2 aberrant:2 critical:1 autoantibody:1 pathology:1 always:1 neurotransmitter:1 detect:1 notably:2 blood:1 serotonin:1 structural:2 growth:3 hormone:1 argue:1 diminished:1 inborn:1 error:1 metabolism:1 probably:1 account:3 mirror:2 mn:8 hypothesizes:2 distortion:1 interfere:2 imitation:4 operate:1 animal:2 performs:1 action:3 observe:2 enable:1 modeling:1 via:2 embodied:1 simulation:1 intention:1 demonstrate:4 mns:1 activation:3 circuit:2 correlation:1 outside:3 goal:3 yellow:1 compare:2 blue:1 image:1 generate:2 fmri:1 measure:3 nonsocial:3 reduced:1 connectivity:2 default:1 processing:4 intact:1 sustained:2 direct:2 thinking:1 negatively:2 correlate:1 imbalance:1 toggle:1 possibly:1 reflect:1 referential:1 thought:1 imaging:1 signal:2 cingulate:1 cortex:5 differs:1 underconnectivity:3 mark:1 underfunctioning:1 connection:2 synchronization:1 along:2 neuroimaging:2 wave:2 weak:3 frontal:1 lobe:1 rest:1 mainly:1 within:1 hemisphere:1 potential:1 transient:1 electrical:1 stimuli:1 considerable:2 respect:1 orientiation:1 auditory:2 visual:1 novelty:1 detection:1 information:1 storage:1 preference:1 magnetoencephalography:1 neuropsychology:1 category:4 link:3 cognition:2 empathize:3 systemize:2 postulate:1 internal:1 operation:2 handle:3 inside:1 effective:2 extension:2 extreme:2 hypothesize:4 define:3 psychometrically:1 systemizing:1 contradict:1 idea:1 baby:1 girl:2 differently:1 mind:2 ascribe:1 state:1 oneself:1 sally:1 anne:1 reason:3 motivation:1 map:2 executive:5 dysfunction:1 work:4 memory:1 inhibition:1 indicate:1 improvement:3 late:3 adolescence:1 never:1 typical:2 strength:2 stereotyped:1 narrow:1 weakness:1 hard:4 central:2 coherence:1 big:1 picture:1 underlie:1 special:2 peak:1 enhance:2 perceptual:2 superiority:1 locally:1 orient:1 neither:1 satisfactory:1 address:2 rigid:1 combined:1 useful:1 screen:4 fifth:1 postpone:1 treatment:19 term:3 outcome:2 following:1 evaluate:1 specialist:4 gesturing:1 goodbye:1 etc:1 phrase:1 instance:1 american:1 academy:1 recommends:2 doctor:1 visit:1 formal:2 screening:7 contrast:1 uk:3 national:2 committee:1 recommend:3 tool:4 fully:1 validate:1 sufficient:1 effectiveness:6 modified:1 checklist:1 chat:3 questionnaire:1 inventory:1 initial:1 predecessor:1 best:2 setting:1 sensitivity:1 false:2 specificity:1 accurate:1 precede:2 broadband:1 screener:1 design:2 inappropriate:2 still:3 impractical:1 dsm:2 iv:2 tr:1 least:4 six:2 total:1 qualitative:2 sample:2 reciprocity:1 stereotype:1 idiosyncratic:1 persistent:1 must:2 prior:1 symbolic:1 icd:1 us:1 essentially:1 definition:1 instrument:1 available:4 adi:1 semistructured:1 observation:3 schedule:1 ado:1 rating:1 car:1 widely:2 assess:5 pediatrician:1 preliminary:1 physically:1 examine:1 warrant:1 evaluation:2 conduct:1 standardized:1 pediatric:1 neuropsychologist:1 ask:1 aid:1 educational:2 differential:1 might:1 consider:1 hear:1 landau:1 kleffner:1 particularly:2 already:1 technology:1 allow:1 geneticist:1 guideline:1 resolution:1 genotype:1 model:2 would:2 routinely:1 new:2 ethical:1 legal:1 issue:2 emerge:1 commercial:1 availability:4 adequate:1 give:4 metabolic:2 helpful:1 increasingly:2 stable:1 plan:1 complete:1 assessment:1 quickly:1 average:4 far:1 recommendation:1 undiagnosed:1 miss:1 employer:1 adjustment:1 location:1 living:3 allowance:1 benefit:3 underdiagnosis:1 overdiagnosis:2 marginal:1 recent:2 popularity:1 option:2 expansion:1 provider:2 incentive:1 uncertain:1 conversely:1 cost:3 challenge:1 obtain:1 payment:1 inhibit:1 visually:1 vision:1 blindness:1 management:1 fish:1 aquarium:1 experiment:1 intensive:4 training:2 main:1 lessen:1 independence:4 tailor:1 methodological:2 prevent:1 definitive:1 efficacy:1 psychosocial:1 preferable:1 review:3 mostly:2 tentative:1 little:3 education:3 therapy:8 acquire:3 job:2 improve:2 decrease:1 maladaptive:1 crucial:1 substantiate:1 applied:1 analysis:1 aba:2 teaching:1 occupational:1 global:1 preschool:1 establish:2 educator:1 gap:1 provide:1 significant:1 grow:2 residential:3 mixed:1 medication:4 home:2 school:1 fails:1 prescribe:1 psychoactive:1 anticonvulsant:1 class:1 antidepressant:1 stimulant:1 antipsychotic:2 aside:1 scant:1 safety:1 adolescent:1 atypically:1 adverse:2 relieve:1 alternative:2 empirical:1 context:1 success:1 predictive:1 real:2 world:1 relevance:1 matter:1 service:2 marketing:1 train:1 melatonin:1 mild:1 place:2 peer:1 thinner:1 bone:1 casein:1 free:1 diet:1 botch:1 chelation:1 kill:1 expensive:1 indirect:1 someone:1 bear:1 lifetime:1 net:1 value:1 dollar:1 inflation:1 adjust:1 extra:1 lose:2 economic:1 productivity:1 publicly:1 inadequate:2 unreimbursed:1 pocket:1 expense:1 financial:1 annual:1 income:1 probability:1 greatly:2 employment:2 placement:1 sexuality:1 estate:1 prognosis:3 recover:1 occasionally:1 recovery:1 happen:1 unselected:1 opportunity:1 determination:1 persist:1 modest:1 decline:1 midlife:1 marketable:1 unlikely:1 british:1 achieve:2 supervision:1 provision:1 facility:1 specialize:1 autonomy:1 canadian:1 preschooler:1 outcomes:1 fair:1 employ:1 volunteer:1 shelter:1 increased:1 finding:1 generalize:1 recently:1 diagnosed:1 epidemiology:1 unknown:1 come:1 underestimate:1 true:2 roughly:1 reported:1 largely:1 referral:1 public:1 awareness:1 unidentified:1 fund:1 toward:1 sex:1 ratio:1 modify:1 perinatal:1 advanced:1 maternal:3 advance:1 paternal:1 europe:1 north:1 america:1 obstetric:1 duration:1 hypoxia:1 childbirth:1 race:1 ethnicity:1 socioeconomic:1 background:1 identifiable:1 anywhere:1 illustrate:1 intelligence:1 anxiety:2 firm:1 phenylketonuria:1 minor:1 preempt:1 concurrent:1 full:1 adhd:1 tourette:1 comorbid:1 accept:1 table:1 talk:1 martin:1 luther:3 contain:1 story:1 accord:1 notetaker:1 mathesius:1 think:2 soulless:1 mass:1 flesh:1 possess:1 devil:1 suffocate:1 document:1 hugh:1 blair:3 detail:1 court:1 brother:1 successfully:1 petition:1 annul:1 marriage:1 inheritance:1 wild:1 aveyron:1 feral:1 caught:1 student:1 jean:1 itard:1 induce:1 latin:1 autismus:1 english:2 translation:2 coin:1 swiss:1 psychiatrist:1 eugen:1 bleuler:3 schizophrenia:3 derive:2 greek:1 auto:1 αὐτός:1 mean:2 morbid:1 refer:1 withdrawal:1 patient:1 fantasy:1 becomes:1 intolerable:1 quote:1 original:1 modern:2 sense:2 han:1 vienna:1 university:1 adopt:1 psychopath:1 lecture:1 german:1 investigate:1 recognize:1 leo:1 kanner:4 john:1 hopkins:1 introduce:1 label:1 striking:1 similarity:1 reprint:1 subject:1 aloneness:1 insistence:1 regard:1 reuse:1 decade:1 confused:1 deprivation:1 misconception:1 refrigerator:1 mother:1 lifelong:1 mid:1 role:1 psychiatric:1 rise:1 destigmatization:1 view:1 stigma:1 situation:1 perceive:1 physician:1 express:1 outdated:1 internet:1 bypass:1 nonverbal:1 cue:1 sharing:1 deal:1 online:1 community:2 remotely:1 sociological:1 cultural:1 reference:1 external:1 |@bigram repetitive_behavior:8 autism_spectrum:3 unclear_whether:3 male_female:1 infancy_childhood:1 primary_caregiver:1 mental_retardation:9 loud_noise:1 fall_asleep:1 rett_syndrome:2 mentally_disabled:1 chromosome_abnormality:3 autistic_symptom:5 closely_relate:1 infectious_disease:1 flame_retardant:1 illicit_drug:1 excitatory_inhibitory:1 cell_adhesion:1 immune_response:2 inborn_error:1 mn_mn:1 self_referential:1 cingulate_cortex:1 frontal_lobe:1 response_stimuli:1 childhood_adolescence:1 dsm_iv:2 diagnostic_criterion:2 visually_impaired:1 occupational_therapy:1 psychoactive_drug:1 adverse_effect:2 self_determination:1 cognitive_impairment:1 anxiety_disorder:2 tourette_syndrome:1 martin_luther:1 symptom_schizophrenia:1 deeply_affected:1 external_link:1 |
3,294 | Fundamentalism | Fundamentalism refers to a belief in, and strict adherence to a set of basic principles (often religious in nature), sometimes as a reaction to perceived doctrinal compromises with modern social and political life. Beit-Hallahmi, Bennjamin. "Fundamentalism", Global Policy Forum (with "consultative status at the UN"), May 2000, Accessed 14-05-2008. thefreedictionary.com: "Fundamentalism", Accessed 14-05-2008. Google define:fundamentalism Marsden, George M. "Fundamentalism and American Culture", Oxford University Press US (1980/rev.2006) The term fundamentalism was originally coined to describe a narrowly defined set of beliefs that developed into a movement within the Protestant community of the United States in the early part of the 20th century, and that had its roots in the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy of that time. Until 1950, there was no entry for fundamentalism in the Oxford English Dictionary; the derivative fundamentalist was added only in its second 1989 edition. Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, 1989 The term fundamentalist has since been generalized to mean strong adherence to any set of beliefs in the face of criticism or unpopularity, but has by and large retained religious connotations. Fundamentalism is often used as a pejorative term, particularly when combined with other epithets (as in the phrase "Muslim fundamentalists" and "right-wing/left wing fundamentalists"). Richard Dawkins has used the term to characterize religious advocates as clinging to a stubborn, entrenched position that defies reasoned argument or contradictory evidence. Others in turn, such as Christian theologian Alister McGrath, have used the term fundamentalism to characterize atheism as dogmatic. Alister McGrath and Joanna Collicutt McGrath, The Dawkins Delusion? Atheist Fundamentalism and the Denial of the Divine, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK), February 15, 2007, ISBN 978-0-281-05927-0 History Christian origins Fundamentalism as a movement arose in the United States, starting among conservative Presbyterian academics and theologians at Princeton Theological Seminary in the first decade of the Twentieth Century. It soon spread to conservatives among the Baptists and other denominations during and immediately following the First World War. The movement's purpose was to reaffirm orthodox Protestant Christianity and zealously defend it against the challenges of liberal theology, German higher criticism, Darwinism, and other "-isms" which it regarded as harmful to Christianity. The term "fundamentalism" has its roots in the Niagara Bible Conference (1878–1897) which defined those things that were fundamental to Christian belief. The term was also used to describe "The Fundamentals", a collection of twelve books on five subjects published in 1910 and funded by Milton and Lyman Stewart . This series of essays came to be representative of the "Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy" which appeared late in the 19th century within the Protestant churches of the United States, and continued in earnest through the 1920s. The first formulation of American fundamentalist beliefs can be traced to the Niagara Bible Conference and, in 1910, to the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church which distilled these into what became known as the "five fundamentals": Origin of "five fundamentals" documented at Presbyterian conference of 1910 The inspiration of the Bible by the Holy Spirit and the inerrancy of Scripture as a result of this. The virgin birth of Christ. The belief that Christ's death was the atonement for sin. The bodily resurrection of Christ. The historical reality of Christ's miracles. By the late 1910s, theological conservatives rallying around the Five Fundamentals came to be known as "fundamentalists." Since then, the focus of the movement, the meaning of the term Fundamentalism, and the ranks of those who willingly use it to identify themselves, have gone through several phases of re-definition, though maintaining the central commitment to its orthodoxy. Later usage The Iran hostage crisis of 1979-80 marked a major turning point in the use of the term "fundamentalism". The media, in an attempt to explain the ideology of Ayatollah Khomeini and the Iranian Revolution to a Western audience which had little familiarity with Islam, came to describe it as a "fundamentalist version of Islam" by way of analogy to the Christian fundamentalist movement in the U.S. Thus was born the term "Islamic fundamentalist", which would come to be one of the most common usages of the term in the following years. The fundamentalist phenomenon The pattern of the conflict between Fundamentalism and Modernism in Protestant Christianity has parallels in other religious communities, and in its use as a description of these corresponding aspects in otherwise diverse religious movements the term "fundamentalist" has become more than only a term either of self-description or of derogatory contempt. Fundamentalism is therefore a movement through which the adherents attempt to rescue religious identity from absorption into modern, Western culture, where this absorption appears to the enclave to have made irreversible progress in the wider religious community, necessitating the assertion of a separate identity based upon the fundamental or founding principles of the religion. This formation of a separate identity is deemed necessary on account of a perception that the religious community has surrendered its ability to define itself in religious terms. The "fundamentals" of the religion have been jettisoned by neglect, lost through compromise and inattention, so that the general religious community's explanation of itself appears to the separatist to be in terms that are completely alien and fundamentally hostile to the religion itself. Some fundamentalist movements, therefore, claim to be founded upon the same religious principles as the larger group, but the fundamentalists more self-consciously attempt to build an entire approach to the modern world based on strict fidelity to those principles, to preserve a distinctness both of doctrine and of life. Basic beliefs of religious fundamentalists For religious fundamentalists, sacred scripture is considered the authentic and authoritative word of their religion's god or gods. This does not necessarily require that all portions of scripture be interpreted literally rather than allegorically or metaphorically - for example, see the distinction in Christian thought between Biblical infallibility, Biblical inerrancy and Biblical literalism. Fundamentalist beliefs depend on the twin doctrines that their god or gods articulated their will clearly to prophets, and that followers also have an accurate and reliable record of that revelation. Since a religion's scripture is considered the word of its god or gods, fundamentalists believe that no person is right to change it or disagree with it. Within that though, there are many differences between different fundamentalists. For example, many Christian fundamentalists believe in free will, that every person is able to make their own choices, but with consequence. The appeal of this point of view is its simplicity: every person can do what they like, as much as they are able, but their god or gods will bring those who disobey without repentance ("turning away from sin") to justice. This is made clear by the commands of Jesus in the New Testament concerning any kind of revenge ("Vengeance is Mine, sayeth the Lord" for one). The Judaist belief is similar, but they do not believe that it is wrong to take vengeance. The fundamentalist insistence on strict observation of religious laws may lead to an accusation of legalism in addition to exclusivism in the interpretation of metaphysical beliefs. Buddhism Nichiren The Japanese Nichiren sect of Buddhism, which believes that other forms of Buddhism are heretical, is also sometimes labelled fundamentalist. However, Nichiren Buddhism contains influences from Shintō and a strong nationalistic streak. Tibetan Buddhism The 14th Dalai Lama has agreed that there exist also extremists and fundamentalists in Buddhism, arguing that fundamentalists are not even able to pick up the idea of a possible dialogue. Interview with HH the Dalai Lama by Raimondo Bultrini, Engl. Trans. by Alison Duguid, Merigar, Dzogchen Community Italy, 2005 The Dalai Lama has thus far refused to engage in dialogue with Dorje Shugden practitioners, a justification cited by the Western Shugden Society for their recent protests. Tibetan sects protest in US against Dalai Lama NewsX, 2008-07-12, retrieved 2008-12-01 For example, the Dalai Lama has never responded to Geshe Kelsang Gyatso's open letter that was sent to him in 1997. Open Letter to H.H. the Dalai Lama by Geshe Kelsang Gyatso In an interview in 2005 the Dalai Lama referred to radical Dorje Shugden followers who, according to him, "were strongly suspected of having killed a lama who was very dear to me, the director of the School of Tibetan Dialectics in Dharamsala, and two monks, translators who were playing an important role in interpreting with the Chinese." He states that "These same people have beaten up and threatened other Tibetans in the name of their vision, which I would define as Buddhist integralism." In 2007 Interpol issued red notices to China for extraditing Lobsang Chodak and Tenzin Chozin, who are accused of the "ritualistic killing" of those three monks. The Times, June 22, 2007, Interpol on trail of Buddhist killers, Jane Macartney in Beijing, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1968987.ece A decade ago, in 1997, at the height of the Dorje Shugden controversy, Robert Thurman claimed: "It would not be unfair to call Shugdens the Taliban of Tibetan Buddhism," referring to the Muslim extremists of Afghanistan. Newsweek, April 28, 1997, This characterization was repeated in other newspapers in 2002 when reporting about death threats against the 14th Dalai Lama in Dharamsala, northern India. "Death threats to Dalai Lama blamed on rival Bhuddist sect", The Sidney Morning Herald, November 16, 2002 Washington Times, "Dalai Lama faced with death threats", 23 November 2002 In September 2008, the Western Shugden Society wrote an open letter, Official Website Western Shugden Society, Open Letter to Robert Thurman, 10 September 2008, challenging Thurman to justify his 10-year-old claim: "You should show your evidence publicly through the internet before 25 October 2008. If your evidence does not appear by this date then we will conclude that you have lied publicly and are misleading people." As of November 2008, there has been no response by Thurman on his website. http://bobthurman.com/ New Kadampa Tradition The alleged connection between NKT and radical Indian and Nepali Shugden groups was strongly rejected by Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, founder of the New Kadampa Tradition (aka NKT), arguing: "The NKT is completely independent from Shugden groups in India..." and "This really is a false accusation against innocent people. We have never done anything wrong. We simply practise our own religion, as passed down through many generations," Reply to Newsweek, Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, 1997, CESNUR In an open letter to the Washington Times, Open letter from Geshe Kelsang Gyatso to Wesley Pruden, editor in chief, http://www.send2press.com/PRnetwire/pr_02_1125-dalailama.shtml he stated "In October 1998 we decided to completely stop being involved in this Shugden issue ... everyone knows the NKT and myself completely stopped being involved in this Shugden issue at all levels. I can guarantee that the NKT and myself have never performed inappropriate actions and will never do so in the future, this is our determination. We simply concentrate on the flourishing of holy Buddhadharma throughout the world - we have no other aim. I hope people gradually understand our true nature and function." The editor of the Washington Times article retracted the claim about the relationship between Shugden groups from India and Nepal and the British-based New Kadampa Tradition. The Washington Times, "Dalai Lama faced with death threats", November 23, 2002 David Kay argued in his doctoral research that the New Kadampa Tradition fit into the criteria of Robert Lifton’s definition of the fundamentalist self. Kay, D. N. (2004). Tibetan and Zen Buddhism in Britain: Transplantation, development and adaptation. RoutledgeCurzon critical studies in Buddhism. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-29765-6. p. 110. However, most scholars do not agree with this characterization. Inken Prohl expresses hesitation over Kay's use of the word fundamentalist in regards to the NKT because of "the vague and, at the same time, extremely political implications of this term." Book Review: Tibetan and Zen Buddhism in Britain. Inken Prohl, Free University of Berlin. retrieved 2008-12-09. Likewise, Paul Williams prefers the word traditionalist over fundamentalist in describing the NKT and other Dorje Shugden followers. Reacting to the charge that the NKT is a 'fundamentalist movement,' Robert Bluck said, "Again a balanced approach is needed here: the practitioner’s confident belief may appear as dogmatism to an unsympathetic observer." Bluck, R. (2006). British Buddhism: Teachings, practice and development. Routledge critical studies in Buddhism. London: Routledge. p. 129. Protestant Christian views Christian fundamentalists see the Bible (both the Old Testament and the New Testament) as infallible and historically accurate. It is important to distinguish between the "literalist" and "Fundamentalist" groups within the Christian community. Literalists, as the name indicates, hold that the Bible should be taken literally in every part. It would appear that there is no significant Christian denomination which is "literalist" in the sense that they believe that the Bible contains no figurative or poetic language. As the term is commonly used, "literalists" are those Christians who are more inclined to believe that portions of scripture (most particularly parts of the Book of Revelation) which most Christians read in a figurative way are in fact intended to be read in a literal way. Many Christian Fundamentalists, on the other hand, are for the most part content to hold that the Bible should be taken literally only where there is no indication to the contrary. As William Jennings Bryan put it, in response to Clarence Darrow's questioning during the Scopes Trial (1925): "I believe that everything in the Bible should be accepted as it is given there; some of the Bible is given illustratively. For instance: 'Ye are the salt of the earth.' I would not insist that man was actually salt, or that he had flesh of salt, but it is used in the sense of salt as saving Ebba's people." Still, the tendency toward a literal reading of the Bible is criticized by mainline Protestant scholars and others. http://www.mckenziestudycenter.org/bible/articles/interp.html Fundamentalism The World of Fundamentalism According to anthropologist Lionel Caplan, "In the Protestant milieu of the USA, fundamentalism crystallized in response to liberals' eagerness to bring Christianity into the post-Darwinian world by questioning the scientific and historical accuracy of the scripture. Subsequently, the scourge of evolution was linked with socialism, and during the Cold War period, with communism. This unholy trinity came to be regarded as a sinister, atheistic threat to Christian America...Bruce [Chpt. 9 of Caplan 1987] suggests that to understand the success of the Moral Majority, an alliance between the conservative forces of the New Right and the fundamentalist wings on the mainly Southern Baptist Churches, we have to appreciate these fears, as well as the impact of a host of unwelcome changes - in attitudes to 'morality', family, civil and women's rights, and so on - which have, in the wake of economic transformations since the Second World War, penetrated especially the previously insular social and cultural world of the American South." (Caplan 1987: 6) The term fundamentalist has historically referred specifically to members of the various Protestant denominations who subscribed to the five "fundamentals", rather than fundamentalists forming an independent denomination. This wider movement of Fundamentalist Christianity has since broken up into various movements which are better described in other terms. Early "fundamentalists" included J. Gresham Machen and B.B. Warfield, men who would not be considered "Fundamentalists" today. Over time the term came to be associated with a particular segment of Evangelical Protestantism, who distinguished themselves by their separatist approach toward modernity, toward aspects of the culture which they feel typify the modern world, and toward other Christians who did not similarly separate themselves. The term fundamentalist is difficult to apply unambiguously, especially when applied to groups outside the USA, which are typically far less dogmatic. Many self-described Fundamentalists would include Jerry Falwell in their company, but would not embrace Pat Robertson as a fundamentalist because of his espousal of charismatic teachings. Fundamentalist institutions include Pensacola Christian College, and Bob Jones University, but classically Fundamentalist schools such as Fuller Theological Seminary and Biola University no longer describe themselves as Fundamentalist, although in the broad sense described by this article they are fundamentalist (better, Evangelical) in their perspective. (The forerunner to Biola U. - the Bible Institute of Los Angeles - was founded under the financial patronage of Lyman Stewart, with his brother Milton, underwrote the publication of a series of 12 books jointly entitled The Fundamentals between 1909 and 1920.) See also: Independent Fundamental Baptist. Hinduism Hinduism, being a conglomerate of religious traditions, contains a very diverse range of philosophical viewpoints and is generally considered as being doctrinally tolerant of varieties of both Hindu and non-Hindu beliefs. India and Hinduism "In principle, Hinduism incorporates all forms of belief and worship without necessitating the selection or elimination of any. The Hindu is inclined to revere the divine in every manifestation, whatever it may be, and is doctrinally tolerant, leaving others - including both Hindus and non-Hindus - whatever creed and worship practices suit them best. " Although related, Hinduism and Hindutva are different. Hinduism is a religion while Hindutva is a political ideology. . Some sections of the leftists and opponents of Hindutva, use the term "Hindu Taliban" to describe the supporters of the Hindutva movement. Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize-winning Indian sociologist and cultural and political critic Ashis Nandy argued "Hindutva will be the end of Hinduism." Islamic views Muslims believe that their religion was revealed by God (Allah in Arabic) to Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, the final Prophet delivered by God. However, the Muslims brand of conservatism which is generally termed Islamic fundamentalism encompasses all the following: It describes the beliefs of traditional Muslims that they should restrict themselves to literal interpretations of their sacred texts, the Qur'an and Hadith. This may describe the private religious attitudes of individuals and have no relationship with larger social groups. It describes a variety of religious movements and political parties in Muslim communities. As opposed to the above two usages, in the West "Islamic fundamentalism" is most often used to describe Muslim individuals and groups which advocate Islamism, a political ideology calling for the replacement of state secular laws with Islamic law. In all the above cases, Islamic fundamentalism represents a conservative religious belief, as opposed to liberal movements within Islam. Jewish views Most Jewish denominations believe that the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible or Old Testament) cannot be understood literally or alone, but rather needs to be read in conjunction with additional material known as the Oral Torah; this material is contained in the Mishnah, Talmud, Gemara and Midrash. While the Tanakh is not read in a literal fashion, Orthodox Judaism does view the text itself as divine, infallible, and transmitted essentially without change, and places great import in the specific words and letters of the Torah. As well, adherents of Orthodox Judaism, especially Haredi Judaism, see the Mishnah, Talmud and Midrash as divine and infallible in content, if not in specific wording. Hasidic Jews frequently ascribe infallibility to their Rebbe's interpretation of the traditional sources of truth. Mormon views Mormon fundamentalism is a conservative movement of Mormonism that believes or practices what its adherents consider to be the fundamental aspects of Mormonism. Most often, Mormon fundamentalism represents a break from the form of Mormonism practiced by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and a return to Mormon doctrines and practices which adherents believe the LDS Church has wrongly abandoned, such as plural marriage, the Law of Consecration, the Adam-God theory, blood atonement, the Patriarchal Priesthood, elements of the Mormon Endowment ritual, and often the exclusion of Blacks from the priesthood. Mormon fundamentalists have formed numerous sects, many of which have established small, cohesive, and isolated communities in areas of the Western United States and Canada, often within or near the Mormon Corridor. Common aspects Fundamentalists believe their cause to have grave and even cosmic importance. They see themselves as protecting not only a distinctive doctrine, but also a vital principle, and a way of life and of salvation. Community, comprehensively centered upon a clearly defined religious way of life in all of its aspects, is the promise of fundamentalist movements, and it therefore appeals to those adherents of religion who find little that is distinctive, or authentically vital in their previous religious identity. The fundamentalist "wall of virtue", which protects their identity, is erected against not only other religions, but also against the modernized, nominal version of their own religion. In Christianity, fundamentalists can be known as "born again" and "Bible-believing" Protestants, as opposed to "mainline", "liberal", "modernist" Protestants. In Islam there are ((religious) enclaves with connotations of close fellowship) fundamentalists self-consciously engaged in jihad (struggle) against the Western culture that suppresses authentic Islam (submission) and the God-given (Shari'ah) way of life. In Judaism fundamentalists are Haredi "Torah-true" Jews. There are fundamentalist equivalents in Hinduism and other world religions. These groups insist on a sharp boundary between themselves and the faithful adherents of other religions, and finally between a "sacred" view of life and the "secular" world and "nominal religion". Fundamentalists direct their critiques toward and draw most of their converts from the larger community of their religion, by attempting to convince them that they are not experiencing the authentic version of their professed religion. Many scholars see most forms of fundamentalism as having similar traits. This is especially obvious if modernity, secularism or an atheistic perspective is adopted as the norm, against which these varieties of traditionalism or supernaturalism are compared. From such a perspective, Peter Huff wrote in the International Journal on World Peace: "According to Antoun, fundamentalists in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, despite their doctrinal and practical differences, are united by a common worldview which anchors all of life in the authority of the sacred and a shared ethos that expresses itself through outrage at the pace and extent of modern secularization." Parallels in Muslim, Christian, and Jewish Fundamentalism Non-religious "fundamentalism" Some refer to any literal-minded philosophy with pretense of being the sole source of objective truth as fundamentalist, regardless of whether it is usually called a religion. For instance, theologian Alister McGrath has compared Richard Dawkins' atheism to religious fundamentalism, and the Archbishop of Wales has criticized "atheistic fundamentalism" more broadly. Yr Eglwys yng Nghymru | The Church in Wales BBC NEWS | Wales | 'Atheistic fundamentalism' fears Others, including the blogger Austin Cline of atheism.about.com, argue that fundamentalist atheism does not exist, because it cannot exist on the grounds that atheism has no fundamental doctrines, and that fundamentalism is not a personality type. "Fundamentalist Atheists, Fundamentalist Atheism: They Don't Exist" Richard Dawkins has stated that, unlike religious fundamentalists, he would willingly change his mind if new evidence challenged his current position. Richard Dawkins, "How dare you call me a fundamentalist: The right to criticize ‘faith-heads’," The Times, May 12, 2007 In The New Inquisition, Robert Anton Wilson lampoons the members of skeptical organizations like the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP - now the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry) as fundamentalist materialists, alleging that they dogmatically dismiss any evidence that conflicts with materialism as hallucination or fraud. Robert Anton Wilson, The New Inquisition: Irrational Rationalism and the Citadel of Science. 1986. 240 pages. ISBN 1-56184-002-5 In France, the imposition of restrictions on public display of religion has been labeled by some as "Secular Fundamentalism." "Secular fundamentalism," International Herald Tribune, DECEMBER 19, 2003 "Headscarf ban sparks new protests," BBC News, January 17, 2004 Intolerance of women wearing the hijab (Islamic headcovering) and political activism by Muslims also has been labeled "secular fundamentalism" by some Muslims in the United States. Ayesha Ahmad, Muslim Activists Reject Secular Fundamentalism, IslamOnline, April 22, 1999. See also Minaret of Freedom 5th Annual Dinner, Edited Transcript, Minaret of Freedom Institute website. The term "fundamentalism" is sometimes self-applied to signify a rather counter-cultural fidelity to some noble, simple, but overlooked principle, as in Economic fundamentalism; but the same term can be used in a critical way. Roderick Hindery first lists positive qualities attributed to political, economic, or other forms of cultural fundamentalism. They include "vitality, enthusiasm, willingness to back up words with actions, and the avoidance of facile compromise." Then, negative aspects are analyzed, such as psychological attitudes, occasionally elitist and pessimistic perspectives, and in some cases literalism. State atheism State atheism is the official rejection of religion in all forms by a government in favor of atheism. When Albania under Enver Hoxha declared itself an atheist state, Sang M. Lee writes that Albania was "[o]fficially an atheist state under Hoxha..." Restructuring Albanian Business Education Infrastructure August 2000 (Accessed 6 June 2007) Representations of Place: Albania, Derek R. Hall, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 165, No. 2, The Changing Meaning of Place in Post-Socialist Eastern Europe: Commodification, Perception and Environment (Jul., 1999), pp. 161-172, Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) David Binder, "Evolution in Europe; Albanian Leader Says the Country Will Be Democratized but Will Retain Socialism," The New York Times, May 14, 1990 it was deemed by some to be a kind of fundamentalist atheism and where Stalinism was like the state religion which replaced other religions and political ideologies. See also North Korea, China and Vietnam. Atheistic fundamentalism The term "atheistic fundamentalism" is controversial. In an hour-long documentary entitled The Trouble with Atheism, Rod Liddle criticized atheism, arguing that it is becoming just as dogmatic as religion. Johns, Ian (2006). Atheism gets a kick in the fundamentals. The Times. David Chater, "Viewing guide: The Trouble with Atheism," The Times, December 18, 2006 Sam Wollaston, "Last night's TV," The Guardian, 16 December 2006 In The Dawkins Delusion? Christian theologian Alister McGrath and psychologist Joanna Collicutt McGrath compare Richard Dawkins' "total dogmatic conviction of correctness" to "a religious fundamentalism which refuses to allow its ideas to be examined or challenged." Sam Harris has been criticized by some of his fellow contributors at The Huffington Post. In particular, RJ Eskow has accused him of fostering an intolerance towards faith, potentially as damaging as the religious fanaticism which he opposes. RJ Eskow, 2005. "Blind Faith: Sam Harris Attacks Islam." The Huffington Post. RJ Eskow, 2006. "Reject Arguments For Intolerance – Even From Atheists." The Huffington Post. In December 2007, the Archbishop of Wales Barry Morgan criticized what he referred to as "atheistic fundamentalism", claiming that it advocated that religion has no substance and "that faith has no value and is superstitious nonsense." He claimed it led to situations such as councils calling Christmas "Winterval", schools refusing to put on nativity plays and crosses removed from chapels, though others have disputed this. Sorry to disappoint, but it's nonsense to suggest we want to ban Christmas | Special reports | Guardian Unlimited Richard Dawkins has rejected the charge of "fundamentalism," arguing that critics mistake his "passion" - which he says may match that of evangelical Christians - for an inability to change his mind. Dawkins asserts that the atheists' position is not a set of fundamental beliefs, but one held based on the verifiable evidence - as he puts it: "The true scientist, however passionately he may “believe”, in evolution for example, knows exactly what would change his mind: evidence! The fundamentalist knows that nothing will." Philosophical fundamentalism Although fundamentalism is often related to religions, there is a development to focus more and more on philosophy. In a way the philosophical part of religions is set apart. Fundamentalism is not only found in religious beliefs, but also in philosophical base principles that matches with those religious beliefs. An example of this can be found in [Bellevarde] philosophy. Criticism of fundamentalist positions Many criticisms of fundamentalist positions have been offered. One of the most common is that some claims made by a fundamentalist group cannot be proven, and are irrational, demonstrably false, or contrary to scientific evidence. For example, some of these criticisms were famously asserted by Clarence Darrow in the Scopes Monkey Trial. Sociologist of religion Tex Sample asserts that it is a mistake to refer to a Muslim, Jewish, or Christian Fundamentalist. Rather, a fundamentalist's fundamentalism is their primary concern, over and above other denominational or faith considerations. Tex Sample. Public Lecture, Faith and Reason Conference, San Antonio, TX. 2006. A criticism by Elliot N. Dorff: "In order to carry out the fundamentalist program in practice, one would need a perfect understanding of the ancient language of the original text, if indeed the true text can be discerned from among variants. Furthermore, human beings are the ones who transmit this understanding between generations. "Even if one wanted to follow the literal word of God, the need for people first to understand that word necessitates human interpretation. Through that process human fallibility is inextricably mixed into the very meaning of the divine word. As a result, it is impossible to follow the indisputable word of God; one can only achieve a human understanding of God's will." Dorff, Elliot N. and Rosett, Arthur, A Living Tree; The Roots and Growth of Jewish Law, SUNY Press, 1988. A criticism of fundamentalism is the claim that fundamentalists are selective in what they believe. For instance, the book of Genesis dictates that when a man's brother dies, he must marry his widowed sister-in-law. BLB (KJV) Gen 38 Yet fundamentalist Christians do not adhere to this doctrine, despite the fact that it is not contradicted in the New Testament. However, according to New Testament theology, large parts, if not all of the Mosaic Law, are not normative for modern Christians. They may cite passages such . "When you were dead in your sins and in the uncircumcision of your sinful nature, God made you alive with Christ. He forgave us all our sins, having canceled the written code, with its regulations, that was against us and that stood opposed to us; he took it away, nailing it to the cross. And having disarmed the powers and authorities, he made a public spectacle of them, triumphing over them by the cross. Therefore do not let anyone judge you by what you eat or drink, or with regard to a religious festival, a New Moon celebration or a Sabbath day. These are a shadow of the things that were to come; the reality, however, is found in Christ. Do not let anyone who delights in false humility and the worship of angels disqualify you for the prize. Such a person goes into great detail about what he has seen, and his unspiritual mind puffs him up with idle notions. He has lost connection with the Head, from whom the whole body, supported and held together by its ligaments and sinews, grows as God causes it to grow. Since you died with Christ to the basic principles of this world, why, as though you still belonged to it, do you submit to its rules: "Do not handle! Do not taste! Do not touch!"? These are all destined to perish with use, because they are based on human commands and teachings. Such regulations indeed have an appearance of wisdom, with their self-imposed worship, their false humility and their harsh treatment of the body, but they lack any value in restraining sensual indulgence." Howard Thurman was interviewed in the late 1970s for a BBC feature on religion. He told the interviewer, "I say that creeds, dogmas, and theologies are inventions of the mind. It is the nature of the mind to make sense out of experience, to reduce the conglomerates of experience to units of comprehension which we call principles, or ideologies, or concepts. Religious experience is dynamic, fluid, effervescent, yeasty. But the mind can't handle these so it has to imprison religious experience in some way, get it bottled up. Then, when the experience quiets down, the mind draws a bead on it and extracts concepts, notions, dogmas, so that religious experience can make sense to the mind. Meanwhile religious experience goes on experiencing, so that by the time I get my dogma stated so that I can think about it, the religious experience becomes an object of thought." An Interview With Howard Thurman and Ronald Eyre in Theology Today, Volume 38, Issue 2 (July 1981). http://theologytoday.ptsem.edu/jul1981/v38-2-criticscorner1.htm American futurist John Renesch expands upon this notion by stating, "For me, fundamentalism is an attempt to comprehend that which cannot be comprehended, to rationalize the unfathomable, “effing” the ineffable. It is similar to trying to measure the immeasurable or the “indefinitely extensive.” It is the human mind doing what it is supposed to do, making sense of things. But some things are ineffable and attempts to make sense of them are fruitless unless one is willing to settle for any explanation just to have one. Influential criticisms of Fundamentalism include James Barr's books on Christian Fundamentalism and Bassam Tibi's analysis of Islamic Fundamentalism. Controversy over use of the term The Associated Press' AP Stylebook recommends that the term fundamentalist not be used for any group that does not apply the term to itself. Many scholars, however, use the term in the broader descriptive sense to refer to various groups in various religious traditions, and the five-volume study The Fundamentalism Project by Martin Marty, et al., from the University of Chicago takes this approach. See, for example, Marty, M. and Appleby, R.S. eds. (1993). Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance. John H. Garvey, Timur Kuran, and David C. Rapoport, associate editors, Vol 3, The Fundamentalism Project. University of Chicago Press. In popular discussions, the term fundamentalist is frequently used improperly to refer to a broad range of conservative, orthodox, or militiant religious movements. Christian fundamentalists, who generally consider the term to be pejorative when used to refer to themselves, often object to the placement of themselves and Islamist groups into a single category given that the fundamentals of Christianity are different than the fundamentals of Islam. They feel that characteristics based on the new definition are wrongly projected back onto Christian fundamentalists by their critics. Many Muslims protest the use of the term when referring to Islamist groups, and object to being placed in the same category as Christian fundamentalists, whom they see as theologically incomplete. Unlike Christian fundamentalist groups, Islamist groups do not use the term fundamentalist to refer to themselves. Shia groups which are often considered fundamentalist in the western world generally are not described that way in the Islamic world. See also Evangelicalism Faith-sufferer Fundamentalist Christianity Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy Fundie Historical-grammatical method Haredi Judaism Ideologies Independent Fundamental Baptist Indoctrination Islamic fundamentalism Islamism Jack Chick Jesus Camp, Award-winning documentary on Evangelical Christian conservative children in the United States Pentecostalism Sectarianism Seventh-day Adventism Catholic Traditionalism Citations and Footnotes References Appleby, R. Scott, Gabriel Abraham Almond, and Emmanuel Sivan (2003). Strong Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-01497-5 Armstrong, Karen (2001). The Battle for God: A History of Fundamentalism. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-39169-1 Brasher, Brenda E. (2001). The Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92244-5 Caplan, Lionel. (1987). "Studies in Religious Fundamentalism". London: The MacMillan Press Ltd. Dorff, Elliot N. and Rosett, Arthur, A Living Tree; The Roots and Growth of Jewish Law, SUNY Press, 1988. Gorenberg, Gershom. (2000). The End of Days: Fundamentalism and the Struggle for the Temple Mount. New York: The Free Press. Hindery, Roderick. 2001. Indoctrination and Self-deception or Free and Critical Thought? Mellen Press: aspects of fundamentalism, pp. 69–74. Lawrence, Bruce B. Defenders of God: The Fundamentalist Revolt against the Modern Age. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1989. Marsden; George M. (1980). Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelicalism, 1870-1925 Oxford University Press, Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelicalism, 1870-1925 Marty, Martin E. and R. Scott Appleby (eds.). The Fundamentalism Project. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (1991). Volume 1: Fundamentalisms Observed. ISBN 0-226-50878-1 (1993). Volume 2: Fundamentalisms and Society. ISBN 0-226-50880-3 (1993). Volume 3: Fundamentalisms and the State. ISBN 0-226-50883-8 (1994). Volume 4: Accounting for Fundamentalisms. ISBN 0-226-50885-4 (1995). Volume 5: Fundamentalisms Comprehended. ISBN 0-226-50887-0 Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992. Ruthven, Malise (2005). "Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning". Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280606-8 Torrey, R.A. (ed.). (1909). The Fundamentals. Los Angeles: The Bible Institute of Los Angeles (B.I.O.L.A. now Biola University). ISBN 0-8010-1264-3 "Religious movements: fundamentalist." In Goldstein, Norm (Ed.) (2003). The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law 2003 (38th ed.), p. 218. New York: The Associated Press. ISBN 0-917360-22-2. External links The Appeal-and Peril-of FUNDAMENTALISM by Dr. Bert B. Beach REVIEW: The Clash of Fundamentalisms The Fundamentals Thoughts on "Religious Fundamentalism" Identity International Coalition Against Political Islam Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) No to Political Islam Psychological Issues of Former Members of Restrictive Religious Groups by Jim Moyers, MA, MFT; originally written for psychotherapists working with ex-fundamentalists Q & A on Islamic Fundamentalism www.blessedquietness.com a conservative Christian website, maintained by Steve van Natten Mid-Acts Dispensational Fundamentals Reality With Bite A site highlighting the danger of religious fundamentalism, especially how it affects women. Women Against Fundamentalism (UK) The Rise of Religious Violence Life to the full - fundamentalism An investigation into the original meaning of the term Yahya Abdul Rahman's Take On Fundamentalists And Fundamentalism Universal Declaration of Independence from Fundamentalism Roots of Fundamentalism Found, Harvard University, November 7, 2007. The Fundamentalist Distortion of the Islamic Message by Syed Manzar Abbas Saidi, published in Athena Intelligence Journal Overcoming Fundamentalism in Business, by John Renesch, FutureShapers Monthly, August 2006 issue | Fundamentalism |@lemmatized fundamentalism:81 refers:1 belief:17 strict:3 adherence:2 set:5 basic:3 principle:10 often:9 religious:42 nature:4 sometimes:3 reaction:1 perceive:1 doctrinal:2 compromise:3 modern:7 social:3 political:11 life:8 beit:1 hallahmi:1 bennjamin:1 global:1 policy:1 forum:1 consultative:1 status:1 un:1 may:10 access:3 thefreedictionary:1 com:5 google:1 define:5 marsden:2 george:2 american:6 culture:7 oxford:7 university:13 press:15 u:7 rev:1 term:35 originally:2 coin:1 describe:13 narrowly:1 defined:1 develop:1 movement:18 within:6 protestant:10 community:11 united:7 state:20 early:2 part:6 century:5 root:5 fundamentalist:86 modernist:4 controversy:5 time:13 entry:1 english:2 dictionary:2 derivative:1 add:1 second:2 edition:2 since:6 generalize:1 mean:2 strong:3 face:3 criticism:8 unpopularity:1 large:5 retain:2 connotation:2 use:21 pejorative:2 particularly:2 combine:1 epithet:1 phrase:1 muslim:13 right:5 wing:3 leave:2 richard:6 dawkins:9 characterize:2 advocate:3 cling:1 stubborn:1 entrench:1 position:5 defies:1 reason:2 argument:2 contradictory:1 evidence:8 others:5 turn:3 christian:30 theologian:4 alister:4 mcgrath:6 atheism:14 dogmatic:4 joanna:2 collicutt:2 delusion:2 atheist:6 denial:1 divine:5 society:6 promote:1 knowledge:1 spck:1 february:1 isbn:14 history:3 origins:1 arose:1 start:1 among:3 conservative:9 presbyterian:3 academic:1 princeton:1 theological:3 seminary:2 first:5 decade:2 twentieth:3 soon:1 spread:1 baptist:4 denomination:5 immediately:1 follow:3 world:15 war:3 purpose:1 reaffirm:1 orthodox:4 christianity:10 zealously:1 defend:1 challenge:4 liberal:4 theology:4 german:1 high:1 darwinism:1 ism:1 regard:4 harmful:1 niagara:2 bible:15 conference:4 thing:4 fundamental:20 also:12 collection:1 twelve:1 book:7 five:6 subject:1 publish:3 fund:1 milton:2 lyman:2 stewart:2 series:2 essay:1 come:7 representative:1 appear:6 late:3 church:7 continue:1 earnest:1 formulation:1 trace:1 general:2 assembly:1 distil:1 become:4 know:7 origin:1 document:1 inspiration:1 holy:2 spirit:1 inerrancy:2 scripture:6 result:2 virgin:1 birth:1 christ:8 death:5 atonement:2 sin:4 bodily:1 resurrection:1 historical:3 reality:3 miracle:1 rally:1 around:1 focus:2 meaning:4 rank:1 willingly:2 identify:1 go:3 several:1 phase:1 definition:3 though:4 maintain:2 central:1 commitment:1 orthodoxy:1 later:1 usage:3 iran:1 hostage:1 crisis:1 mark:2 major:1 point:2 medium:2 attempt:6 explain:1 ideology:6 ayatollah:1 khomeini:1 iranian:1 revolution:1 western:8 audience:1 little:2 familiarity:1 islam:11 version:3 way:10 analogy:1 thus:2 bear:2 islamic:12 would:11 one:10 common:4 following:2 year:2 phenomenon:1 pattern:1 conflict:2 modernism:1 parallel:2 description:2 corresponding:1 aspect:7 otherwise:1 diverse:2 either:1 self:8 derogatory:1 contempt:1 therefore:4 adherent:6 rescue:1 identity:6 absorption:2 enclave:1 make:10 irreversible:1 progress:1 wider:1 necessitate:3 assertion:1 separate:3 base:7 upon:4 founding:1 religion:28 formation:1 deem:2 necessary:1 account:1 perception:2 surrender:1 ability:1 jettison:1 neglect:1 lose:2 inattention:1 explanation:2 separatist:2 completely:4 alien:1 fundamentally:1 hostile:1 claim:8 found:2 group:18 consciously:2 build:1 entire:1 approach:4 fidelity:2 preserve:1 distinctness:1 doctrine:6 sacred:4 consider:7 authentic:3 authoritative:1 word:10 god:19 necessarily:1 require:1 portion:2 interpret:2 literally:4 rather:5 allegorically:1 metaphorically:1 example:7 see:12 distinction:1 thought:4 biblical:3 infallibility:2 literalism:2 beliefs:1 depend:1 twin:1 articulate:1 clearly:2 prophet:3 follower:3 accurate:2 reliable:1 record:1 revelation:2 believe:15 person:4 change:7 disagree:1 many:10 difference:2 different:3 free:4 every:4 able:3 choice:1 consequence:1 appeal:3 view:8 simplicity:1 like:3 much:1 bring:2 disobey:1 without:3 repentance:1 away:2 justice:1 clear:1 command:2 jesus:3 new:20 testament:6 concern:2 kind:2 revenge:1 vengeance:2 mine:1 sayeth:1 lord:1 judaist:1 similar:3 wrong:2 take:6 insistence:1 observation:1 law:9 lead:2 accusation:2 legalism:1 addition:1 exclusivism:1 interpretation:4 metaphysical:1 buddhism:12 nichiren:3 japanese:1 sect:4 form:8 heretical:1 labelled:1 however:7 contains:1 influence:1 shintō:1 nationalistic:1 streak:1 tibetan:7 dalai:11 lama:12 agree:2 exist:4 extremist:2 argue:5 even:4 pick:1 idea:2 possible:1 dialogue:2 interview:4 hh:1 raimondo:1 bultrini:1 engl:1 trans:1 alison:1 duguid:1 merigar:1 dzogchen:1 italy:1 far:2 refuse:3 engage:2 dorje:4 shugden:12 practitioner:2 justification:1 cite:2 recent:1 protest:4 newsx:1 retrieve:1 never:4 respond:1 geshe:5 kelsang:5 gyatso:5 open:6 letter:7 send:1 h:3 refer:11 radical:2 accord:4 strongly:2 suspect:1 kill:2 dear:1 director:1 school:3 dialectic:1 dharamsala:2 two:2 monk:2 translator:1 play:2 important:2 role:1 chinese:1 people:6 beat:1 threaten:1 name:2 vision:1 buddhist:2 integralism:1 interpol:2 issue:6 red:1 notice:1 china:2 extradite:1 lobsang:1 chodak:1 tenzin:1 chozin:1 accuse:2 ritualistic:1 three:1 june:2 trail:1 killer:1 jane:1 macartney:1 beijing:1 http:5 www:4 timesonline:1 co:1 uk:2 tol:1 news:3 asia:1 ece:1 ago:1 height:1 robert:6 thurman:6 unfair:1 call:6 shugdens:1 taliban:2 afghanistan:2 newsweek:2 april:2 characterization:2 repeat:1 newspaper:1 report:2 threat:5 northern:1 india:4 blame:1 rival:1 bhuddist:1 sidney:1 morning:1 herald:2 november:5 washington:4 september:2 write:5 official:2 website:4 justify:1 old:3 show:1 publicly:2 internet:1 october:2 date:1 conclude:1 lie:1 mislead:1 response:3 bobthurman:1 kadampa:4 tradition:6 allege:2 connection:2 nkt:8 indian:2 nepali:1 reject:4 founder:1 aka:1 arguing:2 independent:4 really:1 false:4 innocent:1 anything:1 simply:2 practise:1 pass:1 generation:2 reply:1 cesnur:1 wesley:1 pruden:1 editor:3 chief:1 prnetwire:1 dalailama:1 shtml:1 decide:1 stop:2 involve:2 everyone:1 level:1 guarantee:1 perform:1 inappropriate:1 action:2 future:1 determination:1 concentrate:1 flourishing:1 buddhadharma:1 throughout:1 aim:1 hope:1 gradually:1 understand:4 true:4 function:1 article:3 retract:1 relationship:2 nepal:1 british:3 david:4 kay:3 doctoral:1 research:1 fit:1 criterion:1 lifton:1 n:4 zen:2 britain:2 transplantation:1 development:3 adaptation:1 routledgecurzon:2 critical:4 study:4 london:3 p:3 scholar:4 inken:2 prohl:2 express:2 hesitation:1 vague:1 extremely:1 implication:1 review:2 berlin:1 retrieved:1 likewise:1 paul:1 williams:1 prefers:1 traditionalist:1 react:1 charge:2 bluck:2 say:4 balanced:1 need:4 confident:1 dogmatism:1 unsympathetic:1 observer:1 r:6 teaching:3 practice:6 routledge:3 infallible:3 historically:2 distinguish:2 literalist:2 literalists:2 indicate:1 hold:3 significant:1 sense:8 contain:3 figurative:2 poetic:1 language:2 commonly:1 inclined:1 read:4 fact:2 intend:1 literal:6 hand:1 content:2 indication:1 contrary:2 william:1 jennings:1 bryan:1 put:3 clarence:2 darrow:2 question:2 scope:2 trial:2 everything:1 accept:1 give:4 illustratively:1 instance:3 ye:1 salt:4 earth:1 insist:2 man:2 actually:1 flesh:1 save:1 ebba:1 still:2 tendency:1 toward:5 reading:1 criticize:6 mainline:2 mckenziestudycenter:1 org:1 interp:1 html:1 anthropologist:1 lionel:2 caplan:4 milieu:1 usa:2 crystallize:1 eagerness:1 post:5 darwinian:1 scientific:3 accuracy:1 subsequently:1 scourge:1 evolution:3 link:2 socialism:2 cold:1 period:1 communism:1 unholy:1 trinity:1 sinister:1 atheistic:7 america:1 bruce:2 chpt:1 suggest:2 success:1 moral:1 majority:1 alliance:1 force:1 mainly:1 southern:1 appreciate:1 fear:2 well:4 impact:1 host:1 unwelcome:1 attitude:3 morality:1 family:1 civil:1 woman:5 wake:1 economic:3 transformation:1 penetrate:1 especially:5 previously:1 insular:1 cultural:4 south:1 specifically:1 member:3 various:4 subscribe:1 wide:1 break:2 include:7 j:1 gresham:1 machen:1 b:5 warfield:1 men:1 today:2 associate:2 particular:2 segment:1 evangelical:4 protestantism:1 modernity:2 feel:2 typify:1 similarly:1 difficult:1 apply:4 unambiguously:1 outside:1 typically:1 less:1 described:1 jerry:1 falwell:1 company:1 embrace:1 pat:1 robertson:1 espousal:1 charismatic:1 institution:1 pensacola:1 college:1 bob:1 jones:1 classically:1 full:2 biola:3 longer:1 although:3 broad:3 perspective:4 forerunner:1 institute:4 los:3 angeles:3 financial:1 patronage:1 brother:2 underwrite:1 publication:1 jointly:1 entitle:2 hinduism:8 conglomerate:2 range:2 philosophical:4 viewpoint:1 generally:4 doctrinally:2 tolerant:2 variety:3 hindu:6 non:3 incorporate:1 worship:4 selection:1 elimination:1 incline:1 revere:1 manifestation:1 whatever:2 creed:2 suit:1 best:1 related:1 hindutva:5 section:1 leftist:1 opponent:1 supporter:1 fukuoka:1 asian:1 prize:2 win:2 sociologist:2 critic:3 ashis:1 nandy:1 end:2 reveal:1 allah:1 arabic:1 muhammad:1 final:1 deliver:1 brand:1 conservatism:1 encompass:1 traditional:2 restrict:1 text:4 qur:1 hadith:1 private:1 individual:2 party:1 oppose:5 west:1 islamism:2 replacement:1 secular:6 case:2 represent:2 jewish:6 tanakh:2 hebrew:1 cannot:4 alone:1 conjunction:1 additional:1 material:2 oral:1 torah:3 mishnah:2 talmud:2 gemara:1 midrash:2 fashion:1 judaism:6 transmit:2 essentially:1 place:4 great:2 import:1 specific:2 haredi:3 wording:1 hasidic:1 jew:2 frequently:2 ascribe:1 rebbe:1 source:2 truth:2 mormon:7 mormonism:3 latter:1 day:4 saint:1 lds:2 return:1 wrongly:2 abandon:1 plural:1 marriage:1 consecration:1 adam:1 theory:1 blood:1 patriarchal:1 priesthood:2 element:1 endowment:1 ritual:1 exclusion:1 black:1 numerous:1 establish:1 small:1 cohesive:1 isolated:1 area:1 canada:2 near:1 corridor:1 cause:2 grave:1 cosmic:1 importance:1 protect:2 distinctive:2 vital:2 salvation:1 comprehensively:1 center:1 promise:1 find:5 authentically:1 previous:1 wall:1 virtue:1 erect:1 modernized:1 nominal:2 enclaves:1 close:1 fellowship:1 fundamentalists:1 jihad:1 struggle:2 suppress:1 submission:1 shari:1 ah:1 equivalent:1 sharp:1 boundary:1 faithful:1 finally:1 direct:1 critique:1 draw:2 convert:1 convince:1 experience:10 professed:1 trait:1 obvious:1 secularism:1 adopt:1 norm:2 traditionalism:2 supernaturalism:1 compare:3 peter:1 huff:1 international:3 journal:3 peace:1 antoun:1 despite:2 practical:1 unite:1 worldview:1 anchor:1 authority:2 share:1 ethos:1 outrage:1 pace:1 extent:1 secularization:1 mind:11 philosophy:3 pretense:1 sole:1 objective:1 regardless:1 whether:1 usually:1 archbishop:2 wale:3 broadly:1 yr:1 eglwys:1 yng:1 nghymru:1 bbc:3 wales:1 blogger:1 austin:1 cline:1 ground:1 personality:1 type:1 unlike:2 current:1 dare:1 faith:7 head:2 inquisition:2 anton:2 wilson:2 lampoon:1 skeptical:2 organization:1 committee:2 investigation:2 paranormal:1 csicop:1 inquiry:1 materialist:1 dogmatically:1 dismiss:1 materialism:1 hallucination:1 fraud:1 irrational:2 rationalism:1 citadel:1 science:1 page:1 france:1 imposition:1 restriction:1 public:3 display:1 label:2 tribune:1 december:4 headscarf:1 ban:2 spark:1 january:1 intolerance:3 wear:1 hijab:1 headcovering:1 activism:1 ayesha:1 ahmad:1 activist:1 islamonline:1 minaret:2 freedom:2 annual:1 dinner:1 edit:1 transcript:1 signify:1 counter:1 noble:1 simple:1 overlook:1 roderick:2 hindery:2 list:1 positive:1 quality:1 attribute:1 vitality:1 enthusiasm:1 willingness:1 back:2 avoidance:1 facile:1 negative:1 analyze:1 psychological:2 occasionally:1 elitist:1 pessimistic:1 rejection:1 government:1 favor:1 albania:3 enver:1 hoxha:2 declare:1 sing:1 lee:1 fficially:1 restructuring:1 albanian:2 business:2 education:1 infrastructure:1 august:2 representation:1 derek:1 hall:1 geographical:2 vol:2 socialist:1 eastern:1 europe:2 commodification:1 environment:1 jul:1 pp:2 blackwell:1 behalf:1 royal:1 geographer:1 binder:1 leader:1 country:1 democratize:1 york:5 stalinism:1 replace:1 north:1 korea:1 vietnam:1 controversial:1 hour:1 long:1 documentary:2 trouble:2 rod:1 liddle:1 john:4 ian:1 get:3 kick:1 chater:1 guide:1 sam:3 wollaston:1 last:1 night:1 tv:1 guardian:2 psychologist:1 total:1 conviction:1 correctness:1 allow:1 examine:1 harris:2 fellow:1 contributor:1 huffington:3 rj:3 eskow:3 foster:1 towards:1 potentially:1 damaging:1 fanaticism:1 blind:1 attack:1 barry:1 morgan:1 claiming:1 substance:1 value:2 superstitious:1 nonsense:2 situation:1 council:1 christmas:2 winterval:1 nativity:1 cross:3 remove:1 chapel:1 dispute:1 sorry:1 disappoint:1 want:2 special:1 unlimited:1 mistake:2 passion:1 match:2 inability:1 assert:3 held:1 verifiable:1 scientist:1 passionately:1 exactly:1 nothing:1 relate:1 apart:1 bellevarde:1 offer:1 prove:1 demonstrably:1 famously:1 monkey:1 tex:2 sample:2 primary:1 denominational:1 consideration:1 lecture:1 san:2 antonio:1 tx:1 elliot:3 dorff:3 order:1 carry:1 program:1 perfect:1 understanding:3 ancient:1 original:2 indeed:2 discern:1 variant:1 furthermore:1 human:6 process:1 fallibility:1 inextricably:1 mixed:1 impossible:1 indisputable:1 achieve:1 rosett:2 arthur:2 living:2 tree:2 growth:2 suny:2 selective:1 genesis:1 dictate:1 dy:1 must:1 marry:1 widowed:1 sister:1 blb:1 kjv:1 gen:1 yet:1 adhere:1 contradict:1 mosaic:1 normative:1 passage:1 dead:1 uncircumcision:1 sinful:1 alive:1 forgive:1 cancel:1 code:1 regulation:2 stand:1 nail:1 disarm:1 power:1 spectacle:1 triumph:1 let:2 anyone:2 judge:1 eat:1 drink:1 festival:1 moon:1 celebration:1 sabbath:1 shadow:1 delight:1 humility:2 angel:1 disqualify:1 detail:1 unspiritual:1 puff:1 idle:1 notion:3 whole:1 body:2 support:1 together:1 ligament:1 sinew:1 grow:2 die:1 belong:1 submit:1 rule:1 handle:2 taste:1 touch:1 destine:1 perish:1 appearance:1 wisdom:1 impose:1 harsh:1 treatment:1 lack:1 restrain:1 sensual:1 indulgence:1 howard:2 feature:1 tell:1 interviewer:1 dogma:3 invention:1 reduce:1 unit:1 comprehension:1 concept:2 dynamic:1 fluid:1 effervescent:1 yeasty:1 imprison:1 bottle:1 quiet:1 bead:1 extract:1 meanwhile:1 think:1 object:3 ronald:1 eyre:1 volume:7 july:1 theologytoday:1 ptsem:1 edu:1 htm:1 futurist:1 renesch:2 expand:1 comprehend:3 rationalize:1 unfathomable:1 eff:1 ineffable:2 try:1 measure:1 immeasurable:1 indefinitely:1 extensive:1 suppose:1 fruitless:1 unless:1 willing:1 settle:1 influential:1 james:1 barr:1 bassam:1 tibi:1 analysis:1 associated:3 ap:1 stylebook:2 recommend:1 descriptive:1 project:4 martin:2 marty:3 et:1 al:1 chicago:6 appleby:3 ed:4 remaking:1 polity:1 economy:1 militance:1 garvey:1 timur:1 kuran:1 c:1 rapoport:1 popular:1 discussion:1 improperly:1 militiant:1 placement:1 islamist:3 single:1 category:2 characteristic:1 onto:1 theologically:1 incomplete:1 shia:1 evangelicalism:3 sufferer:1 fundie:1 grammatical:1 method:1 indoctrination:2 jack:1 chick:1 camp:1 award:1 child:1 pentecostalism:1 sectarianism:1 seventh:1 adventism:1 catholic:1 citation:1 footnote:1 reference:1 scott:2 gabriel:1 abraham:1 almond:1 emmanuel:1 sivan:1 armstrong:1 karen:1 battle:1 ballantine:1 brasher:1 brenda:1 e:2 encyclopedia:1 macmillan:1 ltd:1 gorenberg:1 gershom:1 temple:1 mount:1 deception:1 mellen:1 lawrence:1 defender:1 revolt:1 age:1 francisco:1 harper:1 row:1 shaping:2 eds:1 observe:1 accounting:1 noll:1 grand:1 rapid:1 eerdmans:1 ruthven:1 malise:1 search:1 torrey:1 l:1 goldstein:1 briefing:1 external:1 peril:1 dr:1 bert:1 beach:1 clash:1 coalition:1 revolutionary:1 association:1 rawa:1 former:1 restrictive:1 jim:1 moyers:1 mft:1 psychotherapist:1 work:1 ex:1 q:1 blessedquietness:1 steve:1 van:1 natten:1 mid:1 act:1 dispensational:1 bite:1 site:1 highlight:1 danger:1 affect:1 rise:1 violence:1 yahya:1 abdul:1 rahman:1 universal:1 declaration:1 independence:1 harvard:1 distortion:1 message:1 syed:1 manzar:1 abbas:1 saidi:1 athena:1 intelligence:1 overcome:1 futureshapers:1 monthly:1 |@bigram strict_adherence:1 thefreedictionary_com:1 richard_dawkins:6 alister_mcgrath:4 theological_seminary:2 twentieth_century:3 holy_spirit:1 atonement_sin:1 bodily_resurrection:1 hostage_crisis:1 ayatollah_khomeini:1 biblical_inerrancy:1 nichiren_buddhism:1 tibetan_buddhism:2 dalai_lama:11 dorje_shugden:4 geshe_kelsang:5 kelsang_gyatso:5 http_www:3 www_timesonline:1 timesonline_co:1 uk_tol:1 tol_news:1 morning_herald:1 zen_buddhism:2 jennings_bryan:1 clarence_darrow:2 mainline_protestant:1 protestant_denomination:1 evangelical_protestantism:1 jerry_falwell:1 pat_robertson:1 biola_university:2 los_angeles:3 hinduism_hinduism:1 islamic_fundamentalism:6 qur_hadith:1 tanakh_hebrew:1 hebrew_bible:1 oral_torah:1 mishnah_talmud:2 haredi_judaism:2 talmud_midrash:1 mormon_fundamentalism:2 jesus_christ:1 lds_church:2 mormon_fundamentalist:1 shari_ah:1 atheistic_fundamentalism:5 bbc_news:2 anton_wilson:2 skeptical_inquiry:1 herald_tribune:1 albania_enver:1 enver_hoxha:1 huffington_post:3 potentially_damaging:1 guardian_unlimited:1 san_antonio:1 antonio_tx:1 n_dorff:1 suny_press:2 marry_widowed:1 tell_interviewer:1 et_al:1 jack_chick:1 mellen_press:1 san_francisco:1 harper_row:1 rapid_eerdmans:1 press_stylebook:1 external_link:1 abdul_rahman:1 declaration_independence:1 |
3,295 | Chain_rule | In calculus, the chain rule is a formula for the derivative of the composite of two functions. In intuitive terms, if a variable, y, depends on a second variable, u, which in turn depends on a third variable, x, then the rate of change of y with respect to x can be computed as the rate of change of y with respect to u multiplied by the rate of change of u with respect to x. Schematically, Informal discussion For an explanation of notation used in this section, see Function composition. The chain rule states that, under appropriate conditions, which in short form is written as Alternatively, in the Leibniz notation, the chain rule is The chain rule can be applied to as many composed functions as needed: In integration, the counterpart to the chain rule is the substitution rule. Theorem The chain rule in one variable may be stated more completely as follows. Let g be a real-valued function on (a,b) which is differentiable at c ∈ (a,b); and suppose that f is a real-valued function defined on an interval I containing the range of g and suppose further that g(c) is an interior point of I. If f is differentiable at g(c), then is differentiable at x = c, and Examples Example I Suppose that a mountain climber ascends at a rate of 0.5 kilometers per hour. The temperature is lower at higher elevations; suppose the rate by which it decreases is 6 °C per kilometer. To calculate the decrease in air temperature per unit time that the climber experiences, one multiplies 6 °C per kilometer by 0.5 kilometer per hour, to obtain 3 °C per hour. This calculation is a typical chain rule application. Example II Consider the function f(x) = (x2 + 1)3. Since f(x) = h(g(x)) where g(x) = U = x2 + 1 and h(U) = U3 it follows from the chain rule that {| |- | | | | |- | | |} In order to differentiate the trigonometric function one can write f(x) = h(g(x)) with h(x) = sin x and g(x) = x2. The chain rule then yields since h′(g(x)) = cos(x2) and g′(x) = 2x. Example III Differentiate arctan(sin x). Thus, by the chain rule, and in particular, Chain rule for several variables The chain rule works for functions of more than one variable. Consider the function z = f(x, y) where x = g(t) and y = h(t), and g(t) and h(t) are differentiable with respect to t, then Suppose that each argument of z = f(u, v) is a two-variable function such that u = h(x, y) and v = g(x, y), and that these functions are all differentiable. Then the chain rule would look like: If we considered above as a vector function, we can use vector notation to write the above equivalently as the dot product of the gradient of f and a derivative of : More generally, for functions of vectors to vectors, the chain rule says that the Jacobian matrix of a composite function is the product of the Jacobian matrices of the two functions: Proof of the chain rule Let f and g be functions and let x be a number such that f is differentiable at g(x) and g is differentiable at x. Then by the definition of differentiability, where ε(δ) → 0 as δ → 0. Similarly, where η(α) → 0 as α → 0. Define also To see that this is needed, suppose for example that g is a constant function. that Now {| |- | | |- | | |} where Observe that as δ → 0, αδ / δ → g′(x) and αδ → 0, and thus η(αδ) → 0. It follows that The fundamental chain rule The chain rule is a fundamental property of all definitions of derivative and is therefore valid in much more general contexts. For instance, if E, F and G are Banach spaces (which includes Euclidean space) and f : E → F and g : F → G are functions, and if x is an element of E such that f is differentiable at x and g is differentiable at f(x), then the derivative (the Fréchet derivative) of the composition g o f at the point x is given by Note that the derivatives here are linear maps and not numbers. If the linear maps are represented as matrices (namely Jacobians), the composition on the right hand side turns into a matrix multiplication. A particularly clear formulation of the chain rule can be achieved in the most general setting: let M, N and P be Ck manifolds (or even Banach-manifolds) and let f : M → N and g : N → P be differentiable maps. The derivative of f, denoted by df, is then a map from the tangent bundle of M to the tangent bundle of N, and we may write In this way, the formation of derivatives and tangent bundles is seen as a functor on the category of C∞ manifolds with C∞ maps as morphisms. Tensors and the chain rule See tensor field for an advanced explanation of the fundamental role the chain rule plays in the geometric nature of tensors. Higher derivatives Faà di Bruno's formula generalizes the chain rule to higher derivatives. The first few derivatives are See also Inverse chain rule Triple product rule Derivative Leibniz integral rule Leibniz rule (generalized product rule) References External links MIT Mathematics video lecture on the chain rule | Chain_rule |@lemmatized calculus:1 chain:23 rule:28 formula:2 derivative:12 composite:2 two:3 function:18 intuitive:1 term:1 variable:7 depend:2 second:1 u:7 turn:2 third:1 x:28 rate:5 change:3 respect:4 compute:1 multiply:2 schematically:1 informal:1 discussion:1 explanation:2 notation:3 use:2 section:1 see:5 composition:3 state:2 appropriate:1 condition:1 short:1 form:1 write:4 alternatively:1 leibniz:3 apply:1 many:1 composed:1 need:2 integration:1 counterpart:1 substitution:1 theorem:1 one:4 may:2 completely:1 follow:3 let:5 g:24 real:2 value:2 b:2 differentiable:10 c:9 suppose:6 f:19 define:2 interval:1 contain:1 range:1 far:1 interior:1 point:2 examples:1 example:4 mountain:1 climber:2 ascend:1 kilometer:4 per:6 hour:3 temperature:2 low:1 high:3 elevation:1 decrease:2 calculate:1 air:1 unit:1 time:1 experience:1 obtain:1 calculation:1 typical:1 application:1 ii:1 consider:3 since:2 h:8 order:1 differentiate:2 trigonometric:1 sin:2 yield:1 co:1 iii:1 arctan:1 thus:2 particular:1 several:1 work:1 z:2 argument:1 v:2 would:1 look:1 like:1 vector:4 equivalently:1 dot:1 product:4 gradient:1 generally:1 say:1 jacobian:2 matrix:4 proof:1 number:2 definition:2 differentiability:1 ε:1 δ:4 similarly:1 η:2 α:2 also:2 constant:1 observe:1 αδ:3 fundamental:3 property:1 therefore:1 valid:1 much:1 general:2 context:1 instance:1 e:3 banach:2 space:2 include:1 euclidean:1 element:1 fréchet:1 give:1 note:1 linear:2 map:5 represent:1 namely:1 jacobians:1 right:1 hand:1 side:1 multiplication:1 particularly:1 clear:1 formulation:1 achieve:1 setting:1 n:4 p:2 ck:1 manifold:3 even:1 denote:1 df:1 tangent:3 bundle:3 way:1 formation:1 functor:1 category:1 morphisms:1 tensor:3 field:1 advanced:1 role:1 play:1 geometric:1 nature:1 faà:1 di:1 bruno:1 generalize:2 first:1 inverse:1 triple:1 integral:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 mit:1 mathematics:1 video:1 lecture:1 |@bigram trigonometric_function:1 jacobian_matrix:2 ε_δ:1 banach_space:1 fréchet_derivative:1 tangent_bundle:3 functor_category:1 external_link:1 |
3,296 | Transport_in_Jamaica | Transport in Jamaica consists of roadways, railways, ship and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island's internal transport system. Roadways The Jamaican road network consists of almost 21,000 kilometres of roads, of which over 15,000 kilometres is paved The CIA World Factbook - Jamaica Retrieved June 27 2007 . The Jamaican Government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system of freeways, the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centres of the island. This project has so far seen the completion of 33 kilometres of freeway. The Highway 2000 project, which seeks ultimately to link Kingston with Montego Bay and the north coast, is currently undergoing a series of phases/legs. Phase 1 is the highway network between Kingston and Mandeville which itself has been divided into sub-phases: Phase 1a (Kingston-Bushy Park (in actuality, Kingston-Sandy Bay) highway and the upgrade of the Portmore Causeway) which was completed June 2006, and Phase 1b (Sandy Bay-Williamsfield). Phase 2a is the highway between Old Harbour and Ocho Rios, and Phase 2b is the highway between Mandeville and Montego Bay Highway 2000: Project Schedule Retrieved March 25 2007 . total: 18,700 km. paved: 13,100 km. unpaved: 5,600 km (1997 est.). Railways Railways in Jamaica, as in many other countries, no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport. Of the 272 kilometres of railway found in Jamaica, only 57 kilometres remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite. In 2008, with increasing traffic congestion, moves are being made to reconstruct old railway lines Rail Page Australia and New Zeland Jamaica - News . http://www.railpage.com.au/f-t11306494.htm total: 370 km standard gauge: 370 km gauge. Of these, 207 km belong to the Jamaica Railway Corporation in common carrier service but are no longer operational. The other 163 km is privately owned and used to transport bauxite. Air Transport There are two international airports in Jamaica with modern terminals, long runways, and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the large jet aircraft used in modern air travel: Norman Manley International Airport in Kingston and Sangster International Airport in the resort town of Montego Bay. Both airports are home to the country's national airline, Air Jamaica. In addition there are local commuter airports at Tinson Pen (Kingston), Port Antonio, Ocho Rios, Mandeville, and Negril which cater to internal flights only. Many other small, rural centres are served by private fields on sugar estates or bauxite mines. Airports: 36 (1999 est.) Airports - with paved runways: total: 11 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 3 under 914 m: 5 (1999 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 25 914 to 1,523 m: 2 under 914 m: 23 (1999 est.) Ports and Shipping Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in the shipping lane to the Panama Canal and relative proximity to large markets in North America and emerging markets in Latin America, Jamaica receives high container traffic. The container terminal at the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as that which is projected in coming years The Jamaica Observer Retrieved June 27 2007 . There are several other ports positioned around the island, including the alumina ports, Port Esquivel in St. Catherine (WINDALCO), Rocky Point in Clarendon and Port Kaiser in St. Elizabeth. Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay is responsible for transporting bauxite dried at the adjacent Kaiser plant. Reynolds Pier in Ocho Rios is responsible for exporting sugar. Montego Freeport in Montego Bay also handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products. Boundbrook Port in Port Antonio exports bananas. There are also three cruise ship piers along the island, in Ocho Rios, Montego Bay and Port Antonio. The Kingston port is situated in the Kingston Harbour which is the 7th largest natural (ie not man made) harbour in the world. Merchant marine Total: 1 ship (with a volume of or over) totalling /. Ships by type: petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.). Lighthouses As the island is a large exporter of bauxite, there is considerable freighter traffic. To aid navigation, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses: Onshore: 7. Offshore: 2. Pipelines Petroleum products: 10 km. See also Jamaica References Annual Transport Statistics Report: Jamaica in Figures 2003-2004, Ministry of Transport and Works, July 2005. | Transport_in_Jamaica |@lemmatized transport:10 jamaica:13 consists:1 roadway:4 railway:5 ship:5 air:4 form:1 backbone:1 island:6 internal:2 system:2 roadways:1 jamaican:2 road:2 network:2 consist:1 almost:1 kilometre:5 pave:2 cia:1 world:2 factbook:1 retrieve:3 june:3 government:1 since:1 late:1 cooperation:1 private:2 investor:1 embark:1 campaign:1 infrastructural:1 improvement:1 project:5 one:1 include:2 creation:1 freeway:2 first:1 access:1 control:1 kind:1 connect:1 main:1 population:1 centre:2 far:1 see:2 completion:1 highway:6 seek:1 ultimately:1 link:1 kingston:10 montego:6 bay:8 north:2 coast:1 currently:2 undergo:1 series:1 phase:7 leg:1 mandeville:3 divide:1 sub:1 bushy:1 park:1 actuality:1 sandy:2 upgrade:1 portmore:1 causeway:1 complete:1 williamsfield:1 old:2 harbour:3 ocho:4 rio:4 schedule:1 march:1 total:6 km:8 unpaved:2 est:5 railways:1 many:2 country:2 longer:2 enjoy:1 prominent:1 position:2 largely:1 replace:1 primary:1 mean:1 find:1 remain:1 operation:1 use:3 bauxite:5 increase:1 traffic:3 congestion:1 move:1 make:2 reconstruct:1 line:1 rail:1 page:1 australia:1 new:1 zeland:1 news:1 http:1 www:1 railpage:1 com:1 au:1 f:1 htm:1 standard:1 gauge:2 belong:1 corporation:1 common:1 carrier:1 service:1 operational:1 privately:1 two:1 international:3 airport:8 modern:2 terminal:2 long:1 runway:3 navigational:1 equipment:1 require:1 accommodate:1 large:5 jet:1 aircraft:1 travel:1 norman:1 manley:1 sangster:1 resort:1 town:1 home:1 national:1 airline:1 addition:1 local:1 commuter:1 tinson:1 pen:1 port:13 antonio:3 negril:1 cater:1 flight:1 small:1 rural:1 serve:1 field:1 sugar:2 estate:1 mine:1 paved:1 owe:1 location:1 caribbean:1 sea:1 shipping:1 lane:1 panama:1 canal:1 relative:1 proximity:1 market:2 america:2 emerge:1 latin:1 receives:1 high:1 container:2 undergone:1 expansion:1 capacity:1 recent:1 year:2 handle:2 growth:1 already:1 realise:1 well:1 come:1 observer:1 several:1 around:1 alumina:1 esquivel:1 st:2 catherine:1 windalco:1 rocky:1 point:1 clarendon:1 kaiser:2 elizabeth:1 rhoades:1 discovery:1 responsible:2 dry:1 adjacent:1 plant:1 reynolds:1 pier:2 export:2 freeport:1 also:3 variety:1 cargo:1 like:1 though:1 limited:1 mainly:1 agricultural:1 product:2 boundbrook:1 banana:1 three:1 cruise:1 along:1 situate:1 natural:1 ie:1 man:1 merchant:1 marine:1 volume:1 type:1 petroleum:2 tanker:1 lighthouses:1 exporter:1 considerable:1 freighter:1 aid:1 navigation:1 operate:1 nine:1 lighthouse:1 onshore:1 offshore:1 pipeline:1 reference:1 annual:1 statistic:1 report:1 figure:1 ministry:1 work:1 july:1 |@bigram montego_bay:5 ocho_rio:4 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 traffic_congestion:1 http_www:1 airport_paved:1 paved_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 shipping_lane:1 panama_canal:1 merchant_marine:1 petroleum_tanker:1 |
3,297 | Colorado_Rockies | The Colorado Rockies are a Major League Baseball team based in Denver, Colorado. Established in 1993, the Rockies play in the West Division of the National League. The team is named after the Rocky Mountains, which pass through Colorado, just west of Denver. The Rockies play their home games at Coors Field in downtown Denver. Following multiple losing seasons, the Rockies won the National League pennant for the first time in franchise history during the 2007 season. The Rockies and the Florida Marlins are the only two teams in Major League Baseball to have never won division titles. History Creation of the Rockies After previous failed attempts to bring the Major League Baseball to Colorado (most notably the Pittsburgh Pirates nearly relocating to Denver following the Pittsburgh drug trials in 1985), by the early 1990s a team seemed to be a possibility in Denver. The Colorado Baseball Commission, led by banking executive Larry Varnell, was successful in getting Denver voters to approve a 0.1 percent sales tax to help finance a new baseball stadium. Also, an advisory committee was formed in 1990 by then-Governor of Colorado Roy Romer to recruit an ownership group. The group selected was led by John Antonucci, an Ohio beverage distributor, and Michael I. Monus, the head of the Phar-Mor drugstore chain. Local and regional companies—such as Erie Lake, Hensel Phelps Construction, KOA Radio, and the Rocky Mountain News—rounded out the group. On July 5, 1991, the National League approved Denver and Miami, Florida, as the sites for two expansion teams to begin play in 1993. The Rockies joined the National League in 1993, along with the Southern Florida franchise, the Florida Marlins. The Rockies' first pick in the expansion draft was pitcher David Nied from the Atlanta Braves organization. Nied pitched 4 seasons for the Rockies. Inaugural season The first game in Rockies history was played on April 5, 1993, against the New York Mets at Shea Stadium. David Nied was the starting pitcher in a game the Rockies lost, 3-0. The franchise's first home game at Mile High Stadium, and first win in franchise history, came four days later with an 11-4 win over the Montreal Expos. One of the most memorable plays in the game, and in team history, occurred in the bottom of the first inning when Eric Young of the Rockies hit a leadoff home run. The Official Site of The Colorado Rockies: News: Colorado Rockies News The game was played before more than 80,000 fans, to date the largest crowd to see a single regular-season Major League Baseball game. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20070721&content_id=2101421&vkey=news_col&fext=.jsp&c_id=col As is the case with many expansion teams, the Rockies struggled in their first year. During one stretch in May, the team went 2-17. The team did not experience its first winning month until September, when they went 17-9. Still, the team finished the season with 67 wins, setting a record for a National League expansion franchise. In addition, despite the losses, the club saw a home attendance of 4,483,350 for the season, setting a Major League record that stands to this day. Rockies first baseman Andrés Galarraga won the batting title after hitting .370 for the season after Manager Don Baylor persuaded Galarraga to change from a standard batting stance into an open one in which he squarely faced the pitcher, allowing him to see incoming pitches properly. Ownership issues After a 1992 accounting and embezzlement scandal at Phar-Mor tarnished the reputation of Monus, both Monus and Antonucci were forced to sell their stakes in the franchise. Trucking-company executive Jerry McMorris became head of the ownership group and served as the initial public face of management. His relationship with the other partners was somewhat poor, and his role in the leadership of the franchise diminished over time, until he was finally bought out in 2005 (his situation was not helped by the 1999 failure of his trucking firm and subsequent related legal issues). The team is currently controlled by chief executive officer Charlie Monfort (a former executive with his family's beef-exporting firm and also with ConAgra), and his brother Dick Monfort, who both bought out McMorris' stake. The mid-1990s The mascot "Dinger" dinosaur. On April 17, 1994, the Rockies beat Montreal 6-5, moving the team's record to 6-5—the first time in franchise history that the club had a winning record. However, that would be the only time during that season that the club would have a record over .500, finishing at 53-64 and in last place in the National League West in the strike-shortened season. Despite the club's poor record, several Rockies hitters gained notoriety for their exploits at the plate, assisted by the thin and dry air of Denver, which allows balls to carry farther than they would at sea-level ballparks. Andres Galarraga, a year after winning the batting title, hit 31 homers, and teammate Dante Bichette hit 27; projected over a 162-game season, the two would have hit 43 and 37 homers, respectively. The park's characteristics did not affect just home runs either: 33-year-old outfielder Mike Kingery, a career .252 hitter who did not play in the majors in 1993, batted .349 in 301 at-bats. The club once again led the majors in attendance, drawing 3,281,511 fans for the season. 1995 playoff run and the opening of Coors Field Prior to the 1995 season, the Rockies acquired free-agent outfielder Larry Walker, previously of the Montreal Expos. He would form the group known as the "Blake Street Bombers"—named after the street on which the new ballpark (Coors Field) was located—along with Galarraga, Bichette, and third baseman Vinny Castilla, who had played sparingly with the major-league club during the previous season. The quartet combined to hit 139 homers in the 1995 season, with Bichette leading the way with 40 (45 projected over a 162-game season.) The team debuted in its new ballpark on April 26, 1995, in an 11-9 win over the New York Mets, and proceeded to win seven of their first eight games in the new season. The season ended with a 77-67 record, good for second place in the West division and the club's first playoff appearance as the Wild Card winner. Although much of the attention focused on the power-hitting lineup, much of the club's success was due to a strong bullpen, as relievers Darren Holmes, Curt Leskanic, Steve Reed, and Bruce Ruffin all posted earned-run averages below 3.40. The pitching staff's ERA of 4.97 was the lowest in club history until the 2006 team had a 4.66 ERA. The Rockies lost in the NLDS to the eventual 1995 World Series champion Atlanta Braves, 3 games to 1. The Rockies once again led the league in attendance for the season. Post-1995 In 1996, with all four Blake Street Bombers returning, the Rockies expected to contend, but an injury to Walker hurt the team. Walker played in only 83 games and batted .276 with 18 homers. However, outfielder Ellis Burks picked up the slack with an All-Star season, batting .344 with 40 homers and 128 RBI—one of three Rockies to hit forty or more homers that season, along with Galarraga and Castilla. The team set a major-league record by scoring 658 runs at home on the season, and Burks and Bichette became the first pair of teammates since Darryl Strawberry and Howard Johnson of the 1987 New York Mets to both steal 30 bases and hit 30 homers in the same season. However, the pitching staff—a strong point for the team in 1995—was beset by injuries: Bill Swift, who went 9-3 in 1995, started just three games, and the staff ERA ballooned to 5.60. As a result, the Rockies fell back to third place in the West with an 83-79 record. A healthy Walker became the first player in club history to win the NL Most Valuable Player award in 1997, batting .366 with 49 homers and 130 RBI. Walker came very close to winning the Triple Crown that year, leading the league in home runs but finishing second to Tony Gwynn in batting average and third in RBI (teammate Galarraga led the league.) Once again, three Rockies (Walker, Galarraga, and Castilla) hit 40 or more homers; Walker also won the first Gold Glove in franchise history. As in 1996, though, the team's pitchers struggled in the high elevation and had a 5.25 ERA, and the Rockies could not improve upon their finish from the previous season. The beginning of the Helton era Left to right, Troy Tulowitzki, Todd Helton, and Jamey Carroll in 2007. Colorado Rockies celebrate their second straight victory against the New York Yankees in Coors Field on June 19, 2007. The Rockies were broken up after the 1997 season when an aging Galarraga signed with the Atlanta Braves as a free agent. His replacement was Todd Helton, who had been the club's first-round draft pick in 1995 out of the University of Tennessee. After a 4-1 start, the club lost its next eight games and struggled to a 77-85 record, finishing only ahead of the expansion Arizona Diamondbacks in the NL West. Pitcher Darryl Kile, signed as a free agent in the offseason, struggled in Colorado, going 13-17 with a 5.20 ERA—a far cry from his numbers the prior year as a member of the Houston Astros, when he went 19-7 with a 2.57 ERA. Kile would become one of a long line of free-agent pitchers who struggled after signing with the Rockies. The team's struggles led to the firing of manager Don Baylor, the only manager in franchise history, following the season. Jim Leyland, a two-time NL Manager of the Year who had won the World Series with the Florida Marlins two years earlier, was expected to bring the Rockies back into contention in 1999. Instead, the Rockies dropped even further, finishing 72-90 and in last place in the West as the Diamondbacks won the division in just their second year of existence. Helton was blossoming into a young developed hitter, batting .320 with 35 homers and 113 RBI; Castilla, Walker, and Bichette also hit more than 30 homers each. Once again, though, the team's pitching was a glaring weakness, as the staff had an ERA of 6.02. Kile, who was being paid over $8 million for the season, struggled mightily, going 8-13 with a 6.61 ERA, and he wound up being traded to the St. Louis Cardinals following the season. Interestingly, Kile would go on to finish fifth in voting for the Cy Young Award the following year, as he had in 1997 (the year before he joined the Rockies), and was later found dead in a Chicago hotel room in 2002. The Leyland era lasted just one year, as a frustrated Leyland retired following the season, not to manage in the majors again until 2006, when he won an AL Pennant with the Detroit Tigers. On April 4, 1999, the Rockies made history as they played their Opening Day game against the defending National League champion San Diego Padres at Estadio de Beisbol Monterrey in Monterrey, Mexico - marking the first time Major League Baseball opened the regular season outside the United States or Canada. The Official Site of Major League Baseball: Events: Opening Day ESPN - Baseball Tonight Clubhouse: Looking Up - MLB BASEBALL; Bichette and Castilla Spark Rockies in Opener in Mexico - New York Times Colorado beat San Diego, 8–2, in front of a crowd of 27,104 people. Only a little over 2 weeks later, the Columbine High School massacre postponed a home game with the Montreal Expos (it was made up as part of a doubleheader in August). The Dan O'Dowd era Team warming up in the Coors Field before a game On August 20, 1999, Bob Gebhard, the only general manager in franchise history, announced his resignation. A month later, the Rockies named Dan O'Dowd as his replacement. After hiring Buddy Bell as the club's third manager, O'Dowd proceeded to make a series of offseason deals that would change the face of the franchise. Popular outfielder Dante Bichette was traded to the Cincinnati Reds. Later, he traded Kile to the Cardinals and, in a four-team trade, sent Vinny Castilla to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. With those two deals, Larry Walker remained as the only player from the Blake Street Bombers still with the team. Walker wound up playing in only 87 games in 2000 due to injuries and hit just nine homers, as the Rockies had a completely different look from prior years. Perhaps not surprisingly given the injury to Walker and the trading of two of the team's most popular players, the Rockies finished third in the National League in attendance in 2000, marking the first time in club history that it did not lead the league in attendance. Despite the major changes made to the team in the offseason, the team wound up with its first winning season since 1997. Helton, in his third full year in the majors, was becoming a bona fide superstar, winning the batting title with a .372 average and also leading the league with 147 RBI while hitting 42 homers. However, he finished just fifth in MVP voting, perhaps because the team finished fourth in the division and also possibly due to bias by voters because he played half of his games in hitter-friendly Coors Field. 2000 also marked the first of five consecutive All-Star Game appearances for Helton. The pitching staff also improved its ERA to 5.26, helping the team to an 82-80 record. Although previous big-name pitchers, including Bill Swift, Bret Saberhagen, and Darryl Kile, had struggled in Colorado, following the 2000 season O'Dowd made two very splashy signings in the free-agent market, signing Denny Neagle to a five-year contract worth $51 million, followed five days later by signing Mike Hampton to an eight-year, $121 million contract. Two years earlier, Hampton had won 22 games and finished second in voting for the Cy Young Award as a member of the Houston Astros, while Neagle had been a 20-game winner in 1997 for the Atlanta Braves and had won fifteen games in 2000. The two star pitchers were expected by the Rockies to change the team's fortunes. Instead, the two flopped, much as their predecessors had. Hampton, after a strong first half in 2001, completely fell apart in 2002, going 7-15 with a 6.15 ERA and demanding a trade following the season. Neagle went 19-23 in three years with the Rockies; he was injured in 2003 and never pitched in the majors again before the Rockies released him after the 2004 season. The Rockies went 73-89 in both years that Hampton and Neagle were in Colorado, and the amount of money owed them (the Rockies paid a sizable portion of Hampton's salary even after he was traded to the Atlanta Braves) crippled the team for the next several years. Under previous general manager Gebhard, the Rockies had largely neglected their farm system and mostly relied on signing veteran free agents from other clubs; this was possible due to the high attendance numbers in the club's first few years of attendance. However, as attendance began to dwindle -- the Rockies fell to just sixth in the National League in attendance in 2002, and ninth in 2003 and 2004 -- the club could no longer afford to build through big-name free agents. In 1999, the Rockies spent their first-round draft pick on Baylor University pitcher Jason Jennings; three years later, Jennings went 16-8 with a 4.52 ERA. In the process, Jennings became the first Rockies player to win the National League Rookie of the Year award. With Hampton out of town and Neagle injured much of the year, Jennings became the centerpiece of the Rockies' pitching staff in 2003. Despite a fourth straight All-Star season by Helton and 36 homers by outfielder Preston Wilson, the Rockies finished just 74-88. In addition to Jennings, though, young pitchers Shawn Chacon and Aaron Cook showed promise. In 2004, the Rockies acquired Vinny Castilla, who had been with the club for its inaugural 1993 season, once again, and he hit 35 homers. However, Wilson and Larry Walker spent much of the season on the disabled list, forcing the Rockies to play Matt Holliday, who had been slated to start the season at Triple-A. While the Rockies struggled to a 68-94 record -- the second worst record in club history -- the club's Triple-A affiliate, the Colorado Springs Sky Sox, went 78-65. Declining attendance meant that the club's payroll could no longer support a franchise stocked largely with veterans from other clubs. In addition, Walker, who had been with the team since 1995 and was widely regarded as the best player in team history, was now 37 years old, and injuries prevented him from playing much of the time. Because he could still be useful to a contending team, the Rockies traded him to the St. Louis Cardinals in August for three minor-leaguers. Generation-R Clint Hurdle making a pitching change. Colorado Rockies on June 19, 2007 in Coors Field. The trade of Walker set in motion a series of moves that would lead to a complete overhaul of the club's roster. Castilla and Jeromy Burnitz, who led the team with 37 homers in 2004, were allowed to leave as free agents following the season. Catcher Charles Johnson, who had been acquired along with Wilson in the Hampton trade, was traded to the Boston Red Sox. Royce Clayton, the club's starting shortstop in 2004, also was allowed to leave. Along with Holliday, who had performed ably while Wilson and Walker were out, the club promoted Garrett Atkins, Brad Hawpe, Clint Barmes, and J.D. Closser, who spent most of 2004 in Triple-A. Jennings and Chacon combined with Joe Kennedy, Byung-Hyun Kim, and top prospect Jeff Francis to form the team's starting rotation. Other than Helton and Wilson, virtually all of the team's regular players were under the age of 30; the Rockies dubbed this group "Generation-R." The result of all the moves was a 67-95 record in 2005, which tied for the worst record in franchise history, as the young players -- many of whom had never been everyday players in the majors prior to that season -- struggled. Helton and Wilson -- virtually the only experienced players on the team -- struggled as well; Helton hit just 20 homers, the fewest of his career, and missed the All-Star Game for the first time since 1999 and also went on the disabled list for the first time in his career. Wilson also spent time on the disabled list and, as the Rockies fell out of contention, was traded to the Washington Nationals. After starting the season 15-35, though, the team had some success later in the year, going a respectable 30-28 in August and September as the youngsters became more experienced. However, perhaps because of the trade of Walker and several consecutive losing seasons, the team fell all the way to fourteenth in the National League in attendance; for the first time in team history, the Rockies drew under 2 million fans for the season. The 2006 season started with some promise; the Rockies were 44-43 in the first half of the season and were in contention in the NL West for much of the season. However, the team faded in the second half and wound up at 76-86, tied for fourth place in the division. Despite this, several of the young players showed promise. Matt Holliday hit 34 homers and was named to the All-Star Game; Garrett Atkins batted .329 and hit 29 homers. In addition, the pitching staff posted a 4.66 ERA -- the best in team history -- and starters Jason Jennings, Aaron Cook, and Jeff Francis had good seasons. 2007: "Rocktober" - A World Series berth The Rockies trailed the Los Angeles Dodgers, the Arizona Diamondbacks and the San Diego Padres for most of 2007 Major League Baseball season season - however - by August, Colorado showed a steady series of wins, while the Division-leading Dodgers began to struggle. By September, the Dodgers were eliminated by the Rockies from playoff contention, and the Diamondbacks were expected to clinch the National League West division title. The Padres held a steady lead on the National League wild card spot. The Diamondbacks eventually clinched the NL West division title, but the Rockies shot up with one of the greatest comebacks in baseball history. They were a major-league best 20–8 in September, after trailing 6 games on September 1st. The Official Site of The Colorado Rockies: News: Rockies month-by-month recap Padres-Rockies Preview - MLB - Yahoo! Sports They won their last 14 of 15 games, including 11 in a row, the most of any team in the 2007 season and an all-time franchise record. The Official Site of The Colorado Rockies: News: Rockies' hard work rewarded big-time ESPN - Recapping the Rockies' run to the World Series - MLB ESPN - Rockies 11-game winning streak has city thinking playoffs - MLB The only loss during that streak was to the Arizona Diamondbacks, a loss that clinched the Diamondbacks' playoff spot. Their 90-73 regular season mark set a franchise record. They also finished ahead of the Dodgers in the division for the first time in franchise history. The Official Site of The Colorado Rockies: News: Colorado Rockies News Furthermore, Colorado set the single-season MLB record for fielding percentage by one team (.98925). Sure hands + strong arms = winning edge : Rockies : The Rocky Mountain News Despite the Rockies record-setting performance, the National League coaches and players didn't vote in any of Colorado's players for the NL Gold Glove award. The two most puzzling omissions were first baseman Todd Helton and shortstop Troy Tulowitzki. Both players had a better fielding percentage, more total chances, better zone rating, more putouts, more double plays turned, better range factor and more assists than their counterparts who won the award instead (Chicago Cubs first baseman Derrek Lee and Philadelphia Phillies shortstop Jimmy Rollins). Helton also had fewer errors (2) than Lee (7), while Tulowitzki had as many errors as Rollins (11), but did so on 834 total chances compared to Rollins' 717. ESPN - MLB Baseball Fielding Statistics and League Leaders - Major League Baseball Todd Helton another prominent hitter and first baseman in the team averaging above .320 in his career. As a result of the Rockies' remarkable September run, the team finished the regular season tied with the Padres for the National League wild card spot in the playoffs. The two teams played a wild card tie-breaker game at Coors Field on October 1 to determine the wild card. The game lasted 13 innings, and although the Padres got two runs off of a Scott Hairston home run in the top of the 13th inning to break a 6–6 tie, the Rockies came back in the bottom of the 13th by scoring three runs off of closer Trevor Hoffman to win 9–8. ESPN - Padres vs. Rockies - Recap - October 01, 2007 The Official Site of The Colorado Rockies: News: Colorado Rockies News Second baseman Kazuo Matsui started off the inning by hitting a double. Tulowitzki followed with a double of his own, thus, allowing Matsui to score. Left fielder Matt Holliday then came up to bat and hit a triple, scoring Tulowitzki. After an intentional walk to Helton, the Padres pitched to utility infielder Jamey Carroll, who then hit a sacrifice fly, allowing Holliday to score from third base. Holliday's winning run came off of a controversial slide in which home plate umpire Tim McClelland called Holliday safe, despite replays being inconclusive as to whether Holliday had actually touched the plate. The Rockies completed the fifth greatest regular season comeback in Major League Baseball history. Nate Silver, "The Greatest Pennant Race Comebacks," BaseballProspectus.com, October 4, 2007. With the win, the Rockies made the playoffs for the first time since 1995, and went on to face the Philadelphia Phillies in the NLDS. Colorado won the first game in Philadelphia, 4-2. The Rockies also won the second game in Philadelphia, 10-5, with the help of Kazuo Matsui's 4th inning grand slam. On October 6, 2007, the Rockies completed a three-game sweep of the Phillies by winning 2-1 in Colorado. The three-game sweep was Colorado's first post-season series win in team history. ESPN - Phillies vs. Rockies - Recap - October 06, 2007 The Rockies went on to play in the NLCS against the Arizona Diamondbacks, who swept their own NLDS against the Chicago Cubs. Colorado won the first two games of the NLCS against the Diamondbacks in Phoenix, then won their third game against the Diamondbacks in Denver on Sunday, October 14th. That pushed the Rockies' combined late-season (September 16 and after) and post-season run to 20 wins and just 1 loss, the single loss coming against Arizona on September 28, 2007 - the 160th game of the regular season. This made Colorado only the third team in the last half-century, and the first in the National League since the 1936 New York Giants, to have a 20-1 stretch at any point of a season. The fourth game of the NLCS was won by the Rockies by a score of 6–4, completing a four-game sweep of Arizona. Holliday was named the NLCS MVP, as he hit .333 with two home runs and four RBIs during the series. ESPN - Rockies receive many contributions, but Holliday tops - MLB The NLCS sweep earned the Rockies their first National League pennant in franchise history. The Rockies became the first team ever to sweep both the division series and league championship series in the same postseason. The club moved to 21–1 over all games played after September 15. The Rockies faced the Boston Red Sox in the 2007 World Series, and were swept in four games; the first game was 13–1, the second game was 2–1, the third game was 10–5, and the fourth and final game was 4–3. Baseball America named the Colorado Rockies the "Organization of the Year" for their accomplishments during the 2007 season. 2007's organization of the year : Rockies : The Rocky Mountain News "We knew they were bringing great talent through their farm system, but we certainly didn't expect it to pay off with big-league success so quickly," said Will Lingo, editor of Baseball America. "They won with homegrown players, have more talent on the way and have maintained stability in their front office, so they had pretty much everything we look for in an organization." 2008: Defending the National League crown Some of the starters of the 2008 season: Ian Stewart, Troy Tulowitzki, Garrett Atkins and Willy Taveras The Colorado Rockies began the 2008 season after few offseason changes from the National League champion squad of 2007. Major losses were all to free agency (second baseman Kaz Matsui went to the Houston Astros and pitcher Josh Fogg went to the Cincinnati Reds). The Rockies season was scheduled to begin on March 31 against the St. Louis Cardinals at St. Louis, however, the game was rescheduled to the next day because of foul weather. ESPN - Rockies vs. Cardinals - Recap - March 31, 2008 Colorado began the season on a high note, winning their opener on April 1, in a 2-1 comeback victory over the Cardinals. ESPN - Rockies vs. Cardinals - Recap - April 01, 2008 On April 17, 2008, Colorado beat the San Diego Padres, 2–1, in a 22-inning road game that spanned 6 hours and 16 minutes. ESPN - Rockies vs. Padres - Recap - April 17, 2008 It was the longest game in Rockies history, in terms of both total innings and total length of time. 659 total pitches were thrown in the game by 15 different pitchers (eight Rockies pitchers and seven Padres pitchers). ESPN - Weary Rockies hang on vs. Padres in 22nd inning for historic win - MLB The 22-inning affair was the longest since August 31, 1993, when the Minnesota Twins, at home, defeated the Cleveland Indians, 5-4, in 22 innings. August 31, 1993 Cleveland Indians at Minnesota Twins Box Score and Play by Play - Baseball-Reference.com On July 1, 2008, the Rockies defeated the San Diego Padres, 4–0, in the shortest nine-inning game in Coors Field history - one hour and 58 minutes. ESPN - Padres vs. Rockies - Recap - July 01, 2008 On July 4, 2008, Colorado defeated the Florida Marlins, 18-17, after at one point being down, 13-4. The nine-run deficit that the Rockies overcame made it the largest comeback win in team history. ESPN - Marlins vs. Rockies - Recap - July 04, 2008 The Rockies ended the season finishing third in the National League West with a 74-88 record, failing to make the playoffs. The team got rid of hitting coach Alan Cockrell, third base coach Mike Gallego and bench coach Jamie Quirk after the disappointing season. http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=3631604 The Rockies also traded away Matt Holliday to the Oakland Athletics for pitchers Huston Street and Greg Smith, and outfielder Carlos González. Rockies, A's complete Holliday deal Controversies 2006 controversy over Christian rules On June 1, 2006, USA Today reported that Rockies management, including manager Clint Hurdle, had instituted an explicitly Christian code of conduct for the team's players, banning men's magazines (such as Maxim and Playboy) and sexually explicit music from the team's clubhouse. The newspaper reported: Behind the scenes, [the Rockies] quietly have become an organization guided by Christianity — open to other religious beliefs but embracing a Christian-based code of conduct they believe will bring them focus and success. From ownership on down, it's an approach the Rockies are proud of — and something they are wary about publicizing. "We're nervous, to be honest with you," Rockies general manager Dan O'Dowd says. "It's the first time we ever talked about these issues publicly. The last thing we want to do is offend anyone because of our beliefs." The article sparked controversy, including criticism in a column from The Nation, which stated: San Francisco Giants first baseman-outfielder Mark Sweeney, who spent 2003 and 2004 with the Rockies, said, "You wonder if some people are going along with it just to keep their jobs. Look, I pray every day. I have faith. It's always been part of my life. But I don't want something forced on me. Do they really have to check to see whether I have a Playboy in my locker?" Soon after the USA Today article appeared, The Denver Post published an article featuring many Rockies players contesting the claims made in the USA Today article. Former Rockies pitcher Jason Jennings said: "[The article in USA Today] was just bad. I am not happy at all. Some of the best teammates I have ever had are the furthest thing from Christian," Jennings said. "You don't have to be a Christian to have good character. They can be separate. [The article] was misleading." 2007 World Series ticket controversy On October 17, 2007, a week before the first game of the 2007 World Series against the Boston Red Sox, the Colorado Rockies announced that tickets would be made available to the general public via online sales only, despite prior arrangements to sell the tickets at local retail outlets. Five days later on October 22, California-based ticket vendor Paciolan, Inc., the sole contractor authorized by the Colorado Rockies to distribute tickets, was forced to suspend sales after less than an hour due to an overwhelming number of attempts to purchase tickets. An official release from the baseball organization claimed that they were the victims of a denial of service attack. These claims, however, were unsubstantiated and neither the Rockies nor Paciolan have sought investigation into the matter. The United States Federal Bureau of Investigation started its own investigation into the claims. FBI Looking Into 'Malicious Attack' During Ticket Sales - Denver Sports News Story - KMGH Denver ESPN - FBI opens investigation into 'attack' on Rockies ticket system - MLB Ticket sales resumed the next day, with all three home games selling out within two and a half hours. As a result of the decision to sell tickets solely online, local fans of the Rockies were placed at a disadvantage, forced to compete with ticket brokers and ticket scalpers from around the world. Also at a disadvantage were the disabled and those unable to access or afford an internet connection. Within an hour of tickets selling out, the average price had inflated to over five times face value, and by the next day, soared to over 100 times face value. Season record Quick facts Founded: 1991 Began play: 1993 (National League expansion) Uniform colors: Black, Purple, Silver, and White Logo design: Purple mountain with baseball Team motto: R you in? Team mascot: Dinger, a purple anthropomorphized triceratops Playoff appearances (2): 1995, 2007 Owners: Linda G. Alvarado, Pete Coors, Lee Larson, Marne Obernauer Sr., Marne Obernauer Jr., Denver Newspaper Agency, Coors Brewing Co., Clear Channel Communications, and Beverage Distributors Corp. Chairman & CEO: Charles Monfort Vice Chairman: Richard Monfort President: Keli McGregor General Manager: Dan O'Dowd Local Television: FSN Rocky Mountain Spring Training Facility: Hi Corbett Field, Tucson, AZ Baseball Hall of Famers As of the 2009 Baseball Hall of Fame election, no inducted members have played or managed for the Rockies. Retired numbers Image:RockiesRetired42.PNG<b>JackieRobinsonRetiredby all of MLBRetired 1997 Jackie Robinson's number was retired throughout Major League Baseball. Current roster Championships | colspan = 3 align = center | National League Champions |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:St. Louis Cardinals | width = 40% align = center | 2007 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by:Philadelphia Phillies |- | colspan = 3 align = center | National League Wild Card Winners |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:None (First) | width = 40% align = center | 1995 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by:Los Angeles Dodgers |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:Los Angeles Dodgers | width = 40% align = center | 2007 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by:Milwaukee Brewers |- Minor league affiliations AAA: Colorado Springs Sky Sox, Pacific Coast League AA: Tulsa Drillers, Texas League Advanced A: Modesto Nuts, California League A: Asheville Tourists, South Atlantic League Short A: Tri-City Dust Devils, Northwest League Rookie: Casper Ghosts, Pioneer League Rookie: VSL Rockies, Venezuelan Summer League Radio and television , Rockies' flagship radio station is KOA 850AM, with some late-season games broadcast on KKZN 760AM due to conflicts with Denver Broncos games. Jeff Kingery and Jack Corrigan are the radio announcers. The Rockies Radio Network is composed of 38 affiliate stations in eight states. As of 2009, all games will be produced and televised by FSN Rocky Mountain. All 150 games produced by FSN Rocky Mountain will be broadcast in HD. Jeff Huson, Drew Goodman and George Frazier form the TV broadcast team. See also Rockies statistical records and milestone achievements List of Colorado Rockies broadcasters Managers and ownership of the Colorado Rockies 2007 Colorado Rockies season References External links Colorado Rockies official web site Current records and standings Colorado Rockies news | Colorado_Rockies |@lemmatized colorado:42 rockies:127 major:22 league:53 baseball:23 team:57 base:6 denver:14 establish:1 play:21 west:11 division:11 national:24 name:8 rocky:7 mountain:8 pass:1 home:13 game:56 coors:11 field:11 downtown:1 follow:10 multiple:1 lose:4 season:69 win:40 pennant:4 first:44 time:21 franchise:18 history:26 florida:6 marlin:4 two:17 never:3 title:6 creation:1 previous:5 fail:2 attempt:2 bring:4 notably:1 pittsburgh:2 pirate:1 nearly:1 relocate:1 drug:1 trial:1 early:1 seem:1 possibility:1 commission:1 lead:14 bank:1 executive:4 larry:4 varnell:1 successful:1 get:3 voter:2 approve:2 percent:1 sale:5 tax:1 help:4 finance:1 new:10 stadium:3 also:17 advisory:1 committee:1 form:4 governor:1 roy:1 romer:1 recruit:1 ownership:5 group:6 select:1 john:1 antonucci:2 ohio:1 beverage:2 distributor:2 michael:1 monus:3 head:2 phar:2 mor:2 drugstore:1 chain:1 local:4 regional:1 company:2 erie:1 lake:1 hensel:1 phelps:1 construction:1 koa:2 radio:5 news:15 round:3 july:5 miami:1 site:8 expansion:6 begin:7 join:2 along:6 southern:1 pick:4 draft:3 pitcher:16 david:2 nied:3 atlanta:5 brave:5 organization:6 pitch:7 inaugural:2 april:8 york:6 mets:3 shea:1 start:10 mile:1 high:5 come:6 four:6 day:10 later:9 montreal:4 expo:3 one:10 memorable:1 occur:1 bottom:2 inning:11 eric:1 young:7 hit:21 leadoff:1 run:15 official:8 fan:4 date:1 large:2 crowd:2 see:4 single:3 regular:7 http:2 mlb:12 com:4 article:7 jsp:2 ymd:1 vkey:1 fext:1 col:1 case:1 many:5 struggle:12 year:27 stretch:2 may:1 go:20 experience:1 month:4 september:9 still:3 finish:15 set:6 record:23 addition:4 despite:8 loss:6 club:26 saw:1 attendance:11 stand:1 baseman:8 andrés:1 galarraga:8 batting:5 manager:11 baylor:3 persuade:1 change:6 standard:1 stance:1 open:4 squarely:1 face:7 allow:6 incoming:1 properly:1 issue:3 accounting:1 embezzlement:1 scandal:1 tarnish:1 reputation:1 force:5 sell:5 stake:2 truck:1 jerry:1 mcmorris:2 become:10 serve:1 initial:1 public:2 management:2 relationship:1 partner:1 somewhat:1 poor:2 role:1 leadership:1 diminish:1 finally:1 buy:2 situation:1 failure:1 trucking:1 firm:2 subsequent:1 related:1 legal:1 currently:1 control:1 chief:1 officer:1 charlie:1 monfort:4 former:2 family:1 beef:1 exporting:1 conagra:1 brother:1 dick:1 mid:1 mascot:2 dinger:2 dinosaur:1 beat:3 move:4 winning:2 however:11 would:10 last:7 place:6 strike:1 shorten:1 several:4 hitter:5 gain:1 notoriety:1 exploit:1 plate:3 assist:2 thin:1 dry:1 air:1 ball:1 carry:1 farther:1 sea:1 level:1 ballpark:3 andres:1 homer:19 teammate:4 dante:2 bichette:7 project:2 respectively:1 park:1 characteristic:1 affect:1 either:1 old:2 outfielder:7 mike:3 kingery:2 career:4 bat:8 draw:3 playoff:9 opening:3 prior:5 acquire:3 free:9 agent:8 walker:16 previously:1 know:2 blake:3 street:5 bomber:3 locate:1 third:12 vinny:3 castilla:8 sparingly:1 quartet:1 combine:3 way:3 debut:1 proceed:2 seven:2 eight:5 end:2 good:5 second:11 appearance:3 wild:6 card:6 winner:3 although:3 much:8 attention:1 focus:2 power:1 hitting:1 lineup:1 success:4 due:6 strong:4 bullpen:1 reliever:1 darren:1 holmes:1 curt:1 leskanic:1 steve:1 reed:1 bruce:1 ruffin:1 post:6 earn:2 average:5 pitching:5 staff:7 era:15 low:1 nlds:3 eventual:1 world:8 series:14 champion:4 return:1 expect:5 contend:1 injury:5 hurt:1 elli:1 burk:2 slack:1 star:6 rbi:6 three:10 forty:1 score:7 pair:1 since:7 darryl:3 strawberry:1 howard:1 johnson:2 steal:1 point:3 beset:1 bill:2 swift:2 balloon:1 result:4 fell:5 back:3 healthy:1 player:17 nl:6 valuable:1 award:6 close:1 triple:5 crown:2 tony:1 gwynn:1 gold:2 glove:2 though:4 elevation:1 could:4 improve:2 upon:1 beginning:1 helton:14 leave:4 right:1 troy:3 tulowitzki:6 todd:4 jamey:2 carroll:2 celebrate:1 straight:2 victory:2 yankee:1 june:3 break:2 age:2 sign:6 replacement:2 university:2 tennessee:1 next:5 ahead:2 arizona:6 diamondback:10 kile:6 offseason:4 far:2 cry:1 number:5 member:3 houston:3 astros:3 long:3 line:1 firing:1 jim:1 leyland:3 marlins:1 earlier:2 contention:4 instead:3 drop:1 even:2 existence:1 blossom:1 developed:1 glaring:1 weakness:1 pay:3 million:4 mightily:1 wind:4 trade:13 st:5 louis:5 cardinal:8 interestingly:1 fifth:3 voting:2 cy:2 following:1 find:1 dead:1 chicago:3 hotel:1 room:1 frustrated:1 retire:2 manage:2 al:1 detroit:1 tiger:1 make:12 defending:1 san:6 diego:5 padre:13 estadio:1 de:1 beisbol:1 monterrey:2 mexico:2 mark:5 outside:1 united:2 state:4 canada:1 event:1 espn:15 tonight:1 clubhouse:2 look:5 spark:2 opener:2 front:2 people:2 little:1 week:2 columbine:1 school:1 massacre:1 postpone:1 part:2 doubleheader:1 august:7 dan:4 dowd:6 warm:1 bob:1 gebhard:2 general:5 announce:2 resignation:1 hire:1 buddy:1 bell:1 deal:3 popular:2 cincinnati:2 red:4 send:1 tampa:1 bay:1 devil:2 ray:1 remain:1 playing:1 nine:3 completely:2 different:2 perhaps:3 surprisingly:1 give:1 trading:1 full:1 bona:1 fide:1 superstar:1 mvp:2 fourth:5 possibly:1 bias:1 half:6 friendly:1 five:5 consecutive:2 big:4 include:4 bret:1 saberhagen:1 splashy:1 signing:1 market:1 denny:1 neagle:5 contract:2 worth:1 hampton:7 vote:2 fifteen:1 fortune:1 flop:1 predecessor:1 apart:1 demand:1 injure:1 release:2 amount:1 money:1 owe:1 sizable:1 portion:1 salary:1 cripple:1 largely:2 neglect:1 farm:2 system:3 mostly:1 rely:1 veteran:2 possible:1 dwindle:1 sixth:1 ninth:1 longer:2 afford:2 build:1 spend:5 jason:3 jennings:9 process:1 rookie:3 town:1 injured:1 centerpiece:1 preston:1 wilson:7 shawn:1 chacon:2 aaron:2 cook:2 show:3 promise:3 disabled:4 list:4 matt:4 holliday:12 slat:1 worst:1 affiliate:2 spring:3 sky:2 sox:5 decline:1 mean:1 payroll:1 support:1 stock:1 widely:1 regard:1 best:4 prevent:1 useful:1 contending:1 minor:2 leaguers:1 generation:2 r:3 clint:3 hurdle:2 motion:1 complete:5 overhaul:1 roster:2 jeromy:1 burnitz:1 catcher:1 charles:2 boston:3 royce:1 clayton:1 shortstop:3 perform:1 ably:1 promote:1 garrett:3 atkins:3 brad:1 hawpe:1 barmes:1 j:1 closser:1 joe:1 kennedy:1 byung:1 hyun:1 kim:1 top:3 prospect:1 jeff:4 francis:2 rotation:1 virtually:2 dub:1 tie:5 bad:2 everyday:1 experienced:2 well:2 miss:1 washington:1 respectable:1 youngster:1 losing:1 fourteenth:1 fade:1 starter:2 rocktober:1 berth:1 trail:2 los:3 angeles:3 dodger:6 steady:2 eliminate:1 clinch:3 hold:1 spot:3 eventually:1 shoot:1 great:4 comeback:5 recap:9 padres:1 preview:1 yahoo:1 sport:3 row:1 hard:1 work:1 reward:1 streak:2 city:2 thinking:1 furthermore:1 percentage:2 sure:1 hand:1 arm:1 edge:1 setting:1 performance:1 coach:4 puzzling:1 omission:1 fielding:2 total:5 chance:2 zone:1 rating:1 putout:1 double:3 turn:1 range:1 factor:1 counterpart:1 cub:2 derrek:1 lee:3 philadelphia:5 phillies:5 jimmy:1 rollins:3 error:2 compare:1 statistic:1 leader:1 another:1 prominent:1 remarkable:1 breaker:1 october:8 determine:1 scott:1 hairston:1 closer:1 trevor:1 hoffman:1 vs:7 kazuo:2 matsui:4 thus:1 fielder:1 intentional:1 walk:1 utility:1 infielder:1 sacrifice:1 fly:1 controversial:1 slide:1 umpire:1 tim:1 mcclelland:1 call:1 safe:1 replay:1 inconclusive:1 whether:2 actually:1 touch:1 nate:1 silver:2 race:1 baseballprospectus:1 grand:1 slam:1 sweep:7 nlcs:5 phoenix:1 sunday:1 push:1 late:2 century:1 giant:2 receive:1 contribution:1 ever:3 championship:2 postseason:1 final:1 america:2 accomplishment:1 talent:2 certainly:1 quickly:1 say:5 lingo:1 editor:1 homegrown:1 maintain:1 stability:1 office:1 pretty:1 everything:1 defend:1 ian:1 stewart:1 willy:1 taveras:1 squad:1 agency:2 kaz:1 josh:1 fogg:1 reds:1 schedule:1 march:2 reschedule:1 foul:1 weather:1 note:1 road:1 span:1 hour:5 minute:2 term:1 length:1 throw:1 weary:1 hang:1 v:1 historic:1 affair:1 minnesota:2 twin:2 defeat:3 cleveland:2 indian:2 box:1 reference:2 short:2 deficit:1 overcome:1 rid:1 alan:1 cockrell:1 gallego:1 bench:1 jamie:1 quirk:1 disappointing:1 story:2 id:1 away:1 oakland:1 athletics:1 huston:1 greg:1 smith:1 carlos:1 gonzález:1 controversy:4 christian:5 rule:1 usa:4 today:4 report:2 institute:1 explicitly:1 code:2 conduct:2 ban:1 men:1 magazine:1 maxim:1 playboy:2 sexually:1 explicit:1 music:1 newspaper:2 behind:1 scene:1 quietly:1 guide:1 christianity:1 religious:1 belief:2 embrace:1 believe:1 approach:1 proud:1 something:2 wary:1 publicize:1 nervous:1 honest:1 talk:1 publicly:1 thing:2 want:2 offend:1 anyone:1 criticism:1 column:1 nation:1 francisco:1 sweeney:1 wonder:1 keep:1 job:1 pray:1 every:1 faith:1 always:1 life:1 really:1 check:1 locker:1 soon:1 appear:1 publish:1 feature:1 contest:1 claim:4 happy:1 furthest:1 character:1 separate:1 mislead:1 ticket:13 available:1 via:1 online:2 arrangement:1 retail:1 outlet:1 california:2 vendor:1 paciolan:2 inc:1 sole:1 contractor:1 authorize:1 distribute:1 suspend:1 less:1 overwhelming:1 purchase:1 victim:1 denial:1 service:1 attack:3 unsubstantiated:1 neither:1 seek:1 investigation:4 matter:1 federal:1 bureau:1 fbi:2 malicious:1 kmgh:1 resume:1 within:2 decision:1 solely:1 disadvantage:2 compete:1 broker:1 scalper:1 around:1 unable:1 access:1 internet:1 connection:1 price:1 inflate:1 value:2 soar:1 quick:1 fact:1 found:1 uniform:1 color:1 black:1 purple:3 white:1 logo:1 design:1 motto:1 anthropomorphized:1 triceratops:1 owner:1 linda:1 g:1 alvarado:1 pete:1 larson:1 marne:2 obernauer:2 sr:1 jr:1 brew:1 co:1 clear:1 channel:1 communication:1 corp:1 chairman:2 ceo:1 vice:1 richard:1 president:1 keli:1 mcgregor:1 television:2 fsn:3 training:1 facility:1 hi:1 corbett:1 tucson:1 az:1 hall:2 famers:1 fame:1 election:1 inducted:1 retired:1 image:1 png:1 b:1 jackierobinsonretiredby:1 mlbretired:1 jackie:1 robinson:1 throughout:1 current:2 colspan:2 align:11 center:11 width:9 precede:3 succeed:3 none:1 milwaukee:1 brewer:1 affiliation:1 aaa:1 pacific:1 coast:1 aa:1 tulsa:1 drillers:1 texas:1 advance:1 modesto:1 nut:1 asheville:1 tourist:1 south:1 atlantic:1 tri:1 dust:1 northwest:1 casper:1 ghost:1 pioneer:1 vsl:1 venezuelan:1 summer:1 flagship:1 station:2 broadcast:3 kkzn:1 conflict:1 bronco:1 jack:1 corrigan:1 announcer:1 network:1 compose:1 produce:2 televise:1 hd:1 huson:1 goodman:1 george:1 frazier:1 tv:1 statistical:1 milestone:1 achievement:1 broadcasters:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 standing:1 |@bigram colorado_rockies:20 league_baseball:10 denver_colorado:2 rocky_mountain:7 coors_field:9 florida_marlin:3 pittsburgh_pirate:1 advisory_committee:1 miami_florida:1 atlanta_brave:5 shea_stadium:1 montreal_expo:3 mlb_mlb:1 jsp_ymd:1 ymd_vkey:1 vkey_fext:1 fext_jsp:1 tarnish_reputation:1 gain_notoriety:1 third_baseman:1 pitching_staff:3 homer_rbi:3 darryl_strawberry:1 batting_average:1 gold_glove:2 todd_helton:4 draft_pick:2 arizona_diamondback:4 houston_astros:3 florida_marlins:1 cy_young:2 detroit_tiger:1 san_diego:5 diego_padre:4 monterrey_mexico:1 tampa_bay:1 bona_fide:1 mvp_voting:1 bret_saberhagen:1 mike_hampton:1 jason_jennings:3 matt_holliday:4 colorado_spring:2 red_sox:3 byung_hyun:1 hyun_kim:1 los_angeles:3 angeles_dodger:3 playoff_contention:1 espn_rockies:5 fielding_percentage:1 chicago_cub:2 philadelphia_phillies:3 kazuo_matsui:2 intentional_walk:1 nate_silver:1 grand_slam:1 nlcs_mvp:1 cincinnati_reds:1 minnesota_twin:2 oakland_athletics:1 sexually_explicit:1 san_francisco:1 retail_outlet:1 bureau_investigation:1 chairman_ceo:1 hall_famers:1 hall_fame:1 jackie_robinson:1 align_center:11 width_align:9 milwaukee_brewer:1 affiliation_aaa:1 denver_bronco:1 milestone_achievement:1 external_link:1 |
3,298 | Druid | Two druids, from an 1845 publication, based on a bas-relief found at Autun, France. A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class active in Gaul, and perhaps in Celtic culture more generally, during the final centuries BCE. They were suppressed by the Roman government from the 1st century CE and disappeared from the written record by the 2nd century, although there may have been later survivals in Britain and Ireland, since druids feature prominently in Irish mythology. Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007 p. xii Little contemporary evidence about druids exists, and thus little can be said regarding them with assurance. It is known that they held the cultural repository of knowledge in an oral tradition, using poetic verse as a mnemonic device and to ensure the fidelity of the transmission of knowledge over time. Most of what is known about them comes from the Roman writers. Similar to the monks of the Christian era following, they combined the duties of priest, judge, scholar, and teacher. Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: HambledonContinuum, 2007) p2 The core points of druidic doctrine known to us from Roman sources is their belief in metempsychosis, and their practice of human sacrifice. However, reports of atrocities used to justify imperial conquest are to be considered critically throughout history. Their reported reverence for various aspects of the natural world, such as the ritual of oak and mistletoe described by Pliny the Elder, has also been associated with animism. Mac Mathúna, Liam (1999) "Irish Perceptions of the Cosmos" Celtica vol. 23 (1999), pp.174-187 The earliest record of the name druidae () is reported from a lost work of the Greek doxographer Sotion of Alexandria (early second 2nd BCE), who was cited by Diogenes Laertius in the 3rd century CE. Diogenes Laertius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers Introduction, Chapters 1 and 5 (Book A 1 and 6 in the Greek text). Modern attempts at reconstructing, reinventing or reimagining the practices of the druids in the wake of Celtic revivalism are known as Neo-druidism. Etymology The English word druid derives from Latin druides (), which is the same as the term used by Greek ethnographers, (druidēs). Pokorny's Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, see also American Heritage Dictionary (4th ed.), Δρυίδης The Latin and Greek terms are loans from a Proto-Celtic stem *druwid-, which combines the Proto-Indo-European roots *deru- and *weid-. The word was etymologized (as per Aristides) as containing δρύς "oak tree"), and the Greek suffix -ιδης. *deru- is indeed the Indo-European "oak" word (cognate to English tree), but the root has a wider array of meanings related to "to be firm, solid, steadfast" (whence e.g. English true), The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition, 2000 Indo-European Roots: deru- and it isn't clear whether the term was originally derived from a meaning involving "oak", or the wider meaning of "true, solid". *weid- is the Indo-European root for "to see" The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition, 2000 Indo-European Roots: weid- and, by extension and figurative use, also referred to knowledge, as in English wit, wisdom, Latin vision or Sanskrit veda. The Old Celtic (Gaulish) term from which the Greek and Latin druides was derived has survived in its Insular Celtic form, in Old Irish druídecht (/), which yields Modern Irish draoiocht (/), "magic." The Welsh dryw (//), "seer", may be cognate. The Modern Irish for druid is drúa (//), from Old Irish druí (//); which also produced Irish draoi (//), "magician" and Modern Gaelic druidh (//), meaning "enchanter" and draoidh (//), "magician." Doctrine As Ronald Hutton points out, "we can know virtually nothing of certainty about the ancient Druids, so that—although they certainly existed—they function more or less as legendary figures." Training Pomponius Mela Pomponius Mela iii.2.18-19. is the first author who says that the druids' instruction was secret, and was carried on in caves and forests. Druidic lore consisted of a large number of verses learned by heart, and Caesar remarked that it could take up to twenty years to complete the course of study. There is no historic evidence during the period when Druidism was flourishing to suggest that Druids were other than male. Hutton, Ronald (1993). The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy. ISBN 0-631-18946-7 p.171 What was taught to Druid novices anywhere is conjecture: of the druids' oral literature, not one certifiably ancient verse is known to have survived, even in translation. All instruction was communicated orally, but for ordinary purposes, Caesar reports, Gallic Wars vi.14.3. the Gauls had a written language in which they used Greek characters. In this he probably draws on earlier writers; by the time of Caesar, Gaulish inscriptions had moved from the Greek script to the Latin script. As a result of this prohibition — and of the decline of Gaulish in favour of Latin — no druidic documents, if there ever were any, have survived. Ritual and sacrifice Roman writers regularly discuss the practice of human sacrifice. Gruesome reports of druidic practices appear in Latin histories and poetry, including Lucan, Caesar, Suetonius and Cicero Lucan, Pharsalia i.450-58; Caesar, Gallic Wars vi.16, 17.3-5; Suetonius, Claudius 25; Cicero, Pro Font. 31; Cicero, De Rep. 9 (15);cited after Norman J. DeWitt, "The Druids and Romanization" Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 69 (1938:319-332) p 321 note 4. Human sacrifice was the reason why druidism, unlike other national religions within the empire, was outlawed under Tiberius. Diodorus Siculus asserts, on unnamed sources, that a sacrifice acceptable to the Celtic gods had to be attended by a druid, for they were the intermediaries. He also claims that before a battle they often threw themselves between two armies to bring about peace. Diodorus remarks upon the importance of prophets in druidic ritual: "These men predict the future by observing the flight and calls of birds and by the sacrifice of holy animals: all orders of society are in their power... and in very important matters they prepare a human victim, plunging a dagger into his chest; by observing the way his limbs convulse as he falls and the gushing of his blood, they are able to read the future." Archaeological excavations at Ribemont in Picardy, France and at Gournay-sur-Aronde carried out by Jean-Louis Brunaux in the late 1990s were interpreted by Brunaux as human sacrifices, but the British archaeologist Martin Brown has suggested that these might be war memorials honouring the dead for their courage. Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007 pp.133-134 At a bog in Lindow, Cheshire, England was discovered a body, designated the "Lindow Man", which may also have been the victim of a druidic ritual, but it is just as likely that he was an executed criminal or a victim of violent crime. Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007 pp.132 The body is now on display at the British Museum, London. Philosophy Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor referred to the Druids as philosophers and called their doctrine of the immortality of the soul and reincarnation or metempsychosis "Pythagorean": "The Pythagorean doctrine prevails among the Gauls' teaching that the souls of men are immortal, and that after a fixed number of years they will enter into another body." "The principal point of their doctrine", says Caesar, "is that the soul does not die and that after death it passes from one body into another" (see metempsychosis). Caesar wrote: This led Diodorus Siculus and others to the unlikely conclusion that the druids may have been influenced by the teachings of Pythagoras, Diodorius Siculus v.28.6; Hippolytus Philosophumena i.25. One modern scholar has speculated that Buddhist missionaries had been sent by the Indian king Ashoka. Donald A.Mackenzie, Buddhism in pre-Christian Britain (1928:21). Others have invoked common Indo-European parallels. Isaac Bonewits, Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism, Citadel, 2006. Role in Gaulish society Caesar notes that all men of any rank and dignity in Gaul were included either among the druids or among the nobles (equites), indicating that they formed two classes. The druids constituted the learned priestly class (disciplina), and as guardians of the unwritten ancient customary law, they had the power of executing judgments, among which exclusion from society was the most dreaded. Druids were not a hereditary caste, though they enjoyed exemption from military service as well as from payment of taxes. The course of training to which a novice had to submit was protracted. Writers such as Diodorus Siculus and Strabo, with less firsthand experience than Caesar and relying on lost writings, wrote about the role of druids in Gallic society. Diodorus divided the learned classes into bards, soothsayers and druids (whom he said were philosophers and theologians). Strabo echoed this division, labeling them druids (moral philosophy and the workings of nature), bards, and vates (soothsayers, and experts in natural science). It was these different roles that lie behind the name of the Neo-Druid organisation OBOD (Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids). Both reported that Druids were held in such respect that if they intervened between two armies they could stop the battle. Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007 p44–45 In Strabo, we find the druids still acting as arbiters in public and private matters, but they no longer dealt with cases of murder. Strabo suggests that druids were "the most just of men." Rutherford, Ward The Druids and their Heritage pg 78 Caesar noted the druidic doctrine of the original ancestor of the tribe, whom he referred to as Dispater, or Father Hades. Caesar also reported that druids could punish members of Celtic society by a form of "excommunication", preventing them from attending religious festivals. History Early records There is no evidence of druids predating the 2nd century BCE. Greek and Roman writers on the Celts commonly made at least passing reference to Druids, though before Caesar's report merely as "barbarian philosophers". Twenty references were presented in tabular form by Jane Webster, "At the End of the World: Druidic and Other Revitalization Movements in Post-Conquest Gaul and Britain" Britannia 30 (1999:1-20):2-4; they ran from the lost Magikos of Sotion of Alexandria, cited as by Aristotle (died 332 BCE) in Diogenes Laertius' vita, to Ausonius in the fourth century CE. These writers were not concerned with ethnology or comparative religion, Stuart Piggott, examining the folklore connection of "The Druids and Stonehenge" in The South African Archaeological Bulletin 9 No. 36 (December 1954:138-140) saw the Greek viewpoint "rather as a colonial administrator sixty or seventy years ago might have recorded a few of the more startling facts about the witch-doctors or medicine men he had heard of or encountered on Africa or the Orient." (p. 138). and consequently our historical knowledge of druids is very limited. Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico, book VI, published in the 50s or 40s BCE, gives the first surviving The ethnographic account in a continuation of Polybius' history of Rome written by the Stoic scholar Posidonius, on which Caesar and other writers seem to have depended, is lost; see Daphne Nash, "Reconstructing Poseidonios' Celtic Ethnography: Some Considerations", Britannia 1976:111-26. Posidonius' consideration of Gaulish society was presented in book xxiii of his History, as the backdrop for the First Transalpine War, against the Celtic Ligurians of the Maritime Alps, 125–21 BCE. and the fullest account of the druids, whom, in an apparent contradiction of the social importance he alleges for them, he has scarcely any occasion to mention elsewhere, Not even Diviacus is mentioned by Caesar as a druid. though Caesar is generally at pains to explain political situations that affected the progress of his narrative. A point made, in noting the discrepency, by Norman J. DeWitt, "The Druids and Romanization" Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 69 (1938:322f). In his single excursus on druids, based in part on Eratosthenes and other Greeks, Caesar, Gallic Wars vi.24.2. Many historians argue See, e.g. Jane Webster 1999:6-8 "Caesar's Druids: an anachronism?" that Caesar's description of the role of druids in Gaulish society may report an idealised tradition, based on the society of the 2nd century BCE, before the pan-Gallic confederation led by the Arverni was smashed in 121 BCE, followed by the invasions of Teutones and Cimbri, rather than on the demoralised and disunited Gaul of his own time, Norman J. DeWitt surmised. DeWitt 1938:324f. John Creighton has speculated that in Britain the druidic social influence was already in decline by the mid-first century BCE, in conflict with emergent new power structures embodied in paramount chieftains, Creighton, "Visions of power: imagery and symbols in Late Iron Age Britain" Britannia 26 (1995:285-301) especially p 296f. while others e.g. Jane Webster, in "At the End of the World: Druidic and Other Revitalization Movements in Post-Conquest Gaul and Britain" Britannia 30 (1999:1-20 and full bibliography). find the decline in the context of Roman conquest itself. Other historians argue Dewitt, Norman The Druids and Romanization, p. 323 that despite Caesar's execution of Dumnorix, his problem dealt with anti-Romans and not just druids. Historically speaking, the brother of Dumnorix, Diviciacus, was a good friend to Cicero and Rome. Diviciacus was the only specifically identified individual druid in any classical literary source. Cicero remarks on the existence among the Gauls of augurs or soothsayers, known by the name of druids; he had made the acquaintance of one Diviciacus, an Aeduan also known to Caesar. Cicero, De Divinatione 1.41 Prohibition and decline under Roman rule Druids were seen as essentially non-Roman: a prescript of Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practice "druidical" rites. Under Tiberius, Pliny reported, Pliny's Natural History xxx.4. the druids were suppressed—along with diviners and physicians— by a decree of the Senate, but this had to be renewed by Claudius in 54 CE. Tacitus, in describing the attack made on the island of Mona (Anglesey, Ynys Môn in Welsh) by the Romans under Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being awestruck on landing by the appearance of a band of druids, who, with hands uplifted to the sky, poured forth terrible imprecations on the heads of the invaders. He states that these "terrified our soldiers who had never seen such a thing before..." The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame such fears, according to the Roman historian; the Britons were put to flight, and the sacred groves of Mona were cut down. Tacitus is also the only primary source that gives accounts of Druidism in Britain, but maintains a hostile point of view. Druids in the eyes of Tacitus were seen as ignorant savages<ref>Rutherford, Ward The Druids and their Heritage' pg 45</ref> who "deemed it indeed a duty to cover their altars with the blood of captives and to consult their deities through human entrails." Professor Ronald Hutton points out that there "is no evidence that Tacitus ever used eye-witness reports" and casts doubt upon the reliability of Tacitus's report. Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007 pp.3-5 After the first century CE the continental druids disappeared entirely and were referred to only on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for one instance, apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a "race of druids". Phillip Freeman, a classics professor, discusses a later reference to Dryades, which he translates as Druidesses, writing that "The fourth century A.D. collection of imperial biographies known as the Historia Augusta contains three short passages involving Gaulish women called "Dryades" ("Druidesses")." He points out that "In all of these, the women may not be direct heirs of the Druids who were supposedly extinguished by the Romans—but in any case they do show that the druidic function of prophesy continued among the natives in Roman Gaul." Freeman, Phillip,War, Women & Druids: Eyewitness Reports and Early Accounts, University of Texas Press, ISBN 978-0292725454 pp. 49-50 Additionally, Druidesses are mentioned in later Irish mythology, including the legend of Fionn mac Cumhaill, who, according to the 12th century The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn, is raised by the druidess Bodhmall and a wise-woman. Jones, Mary. "The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn mac Cumhaill". From maryjones.us. Retrieved July 22, 2008. Parkes, "Fosterage, Kinship, & Legend", Cambridge University Press, Comparative Studies in Society and History (2004), 46: 587-615 Possible late survival of Insular druidism The best evidence of a druidic tradition in the British Isles is the independent cognate of the Celtic *druwid- in Insular Celtic: The Old Irish draoiocht survives in the meaning of "magic", and the Welsh dryw in the meaning of "seer". Although there are no contemporary records of Insular druidism in antiquity other than the account by Tacitus, there is some evidence that the druidic tradition in Ireland may have survived until as late as the 7th century: in the De Mirabilibus Sacrae Scripturae of Augustinus Hibernicus (f. 655), there is mention of local magi who teach a doctrine of reincarnation in the form of birds. The word magus was often used in Hiberno-Latin works for a translation of druid. Augustinus Hibernicus. "De Mirabilibus Sacrae Scripturae". King of Mysteries: Early Irish Religious Writings edited by John Carey. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2000. Medieval bardic tradition in Wales and the mystic visions of seers () as late as the time of Owain Glyndŵr has been taken as evidence of continuity of druidic tradition from antiquity by some writers. Purges of bards during the Welsh campaigns of Edward I supposedly culminated with the legendary suicide of The Last Bard (c.1283). Archaeological evidence Druidic associations with the ritual deaths of some of the bog bodies recovered in the British Isles and northern Europe from the Netherlands to Denmark, presented by Anne Ross Anne Ross, "Lindow Man and the Celtic tradition", in I.M. Stead, J.B. Bourke and D. Brothwell, Lindow Man; The Body in the Bog, 1986:162-69; Anne Ross and Don Robins, The Life and Death of a Druid Prince 1989. is resisted by some historians, such as Jane Webster, who asserted in 1999, "individual druids (let alone druid princes) are unlikely to be identified archaeologically" Webster 1999:6. A.P. Fitzpatrick, in examining astral symbolism on Late Iron Age swords Fitzpatrick, "Night and Day: the symbolism of astral signs on Late Iron Age anthropomorphic short swords", Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 62 pp 373-98.1996: has expressed difficulties in relating any material culture, even the Coligny calendar, with druidic culture. Slain bodies as far east as Celtic Galatia and elsewhere in Northern and Western Europe are widely cited as evidence of human sacrifice. Freeman, Philip The Philosopher and the Druids p. 161 2006 Simon and Schuster Legacy and reception Irish mythology The most important documents of Old Irish literature are contained in manuscripts of the 12th century, but many of the texts themselves date back to as early as the 8th century. In these stories, druids usually act as advisers to kings. They were said to have the ability to foretell the future (Bec mac Dé, for example, predicted the death of Diarmait mac Cerbaill more accurately than three Christian saints) and there is little reference to their religious function. They do not appear to form any corporation, nor do they seem to be exempt from military service. In the Ulster Cycle, Cathbad, chief druid at the court of Conchobar, king of Ulster, is accompanied by a number of youths (100 according to the oldest version) who are desirous of learning his art. Cathbad is present at the birth of the famous tragic heroine Deirdre, and prophesies what sort of a woman she will be, and the strife that will accompany her, although Conchobar ignores him. The following description of the band of Cathbad's druids occurs in the epic tale, the Táin Bó Cúailnge: The attendant raises his eyes towards the heavens and observes the clouds and answers the band around him. They all raise their eyes towards the heavens, observe the clouds, and hurl spells against the elements, so that they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire are driven towards the camp of the men of Ireland. We are further told that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak before the druids had spoken. Also in the Táin Bó Cúailnge, before setting out on her great expedition against Ulster, Medb, queen of Connacht, consults her druids regarding the outcome of the war. They hold up the march by two weeks, waiting for an auspicious omen. Druids were also said to have magical skills: when the hero Cúchulainn returned from the Other World, after having been enticed there by a fairy woman or goddess, named Fand, whom he is now unable to forget, he is given a potion by some druids, which banishes all memory of his recent adventures and which also rids his wife Emer of the pangs of jealousy. More remarkable still is the story of Étaín. This lady, later the wife of Eochaid Airem, High King of Ireland, was in a former existence the beloved of the god Midir, who again seeks her love and carries her off. The king has recourse to his druid, Dalgn, who requires a whole year to discover the haunt of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of yew inscribed with ogham characters. In other texts the druids are able to produce insanity. Mug Ruith, a legendary druid of Munster, wore a hornless bull's hide and an elaborate feathered headdress and had the ability to fly and conjure storms. Christian historiography and hagiography The story of Vortigern, as reported by Nennius, provides one of the very few glimpses of druidic survival in Britain after the Roman conquest: unfortunately, Nennius is noted for mixing fact and legend in such a way that it is now impossible to know the truth behind his text. For what it is worth, he asserts that, after being excommunicated by Germanus, the British leader Vortigern invited twelve druids to assist him. In the lives of saints and martyrs, the druids are represented as magicians and diviners. In Adamnan's vita of Columba, two of them act as tutors to the daughters of Lóegaire mac Néill, the High King of Ireland, at the coming of Saint Patrick. They are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of Patrick and Saint Columba by raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a druid made an airbe drtiad (fence of protection?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely meant by the phrase is unclear. The Irish druids seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word druí is always used to render the Latin magus, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ as his druid. Similarly, a life of St Beuno states that when he died he had a vision of 'all the saints and druids'. Sulpicius Severus' Vita of Martin of Tours relates how Martin encountered a peasant funeral, carrying the body in a winding sheet, which Martin mistook for some druidic rites of sacrifice, "because it was the custom of the Gallic rustics in their wretched folly to carry about through the fields the images of demons veiled with a white covering." So Martin halted the procession by raising his pectoral cross: "Upon this, the miserable creatures might have been seen at first to become stiff like rocks. Next, as they endeavored, with every possible effort, to move forward, but were not able to take a step farther, they began to whirl themselves about in the most ridiculous fashion, until, not able any longer to sustain the weight, they set down the dead body." Then discovering his error, Martin raised his hand again to let them proceed: "Thus," the hagiographer points out," he both compelled them to stand when he pleased, and permitted them to depart when he thought good." Hagiography. Romanticism and modern revivals "Arch-Druid in his full Judicial Costume" etching from Charles Knight, Old England: A Pictorial Museum (1845) A group of Neo-druids in England. From the 18th century, England and Wales experienced a revival of interest in the druids. John Aubrey (1626–1697) had been the first modern writer to connect Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments with the druids; since Aubrey's views were confined to his notebooks, the first wide audience for the misconception were readers of William Stukeley (1687–1765). The modern career of this imagined connection of druids and Stonehenge was traced and dispelled in T.D. Kendrick, The Druids: A Study in Keltic Prehistory (London: Methuen) 1927. John Toland (1670-1722) shaped ideas about the druids current during much of the 19th century and founded the Ancient Druid Order, which existed from 1717 until it split into two groups in 1964. The order never used the title "Archdruid" for any member, but in retrospect credited William Blake as having been its "Chosen Chief" from 1799 to 1827, without corroboration in Blake's numerous writings or among modern Blake scholars. Blake's bardic mysticism derives instead from the pseudo-Ossianic epics of Macpherson; his friend Frederick Tatham's depiction of Blake's imagination, "clothing itself in the dark stole of mural sanctity"— in the precincts of Westminster Abbey— "it dwelt amid the Druid terrors", is generic rather than specifically neo-Druidic. Tatham is quoted by C. H. Collins Baker, "William Blake, Painter", The Huntington Library Bulletin, No. 10 [October 1936:135-148] p. 139. John Toland was fascinated by Aubrey's Stonehenge theories, and wrote his own book about the monument without crediting Aubrey. Toland founded the Ancient Druid Order in London in 1717. The nineteenth-century idea, gained from uncritical reading of the Gallic Wars, that under cultural-military pressure from Rome, the druids formed the core of first-century BCE resistance among the Gauls was examined and dismissed before World War II, Norman J. DeWitt, "The Druids and Romanization" Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 69 (1938:319-332): "Few historians now believe that the Druids, as a corporation, constituted an effective anti-Roman element during the period of Caesar's conquests and in the period of early Roman Gaul;" his inspection of the seemingly contradictory literary sources reinforced the stated conclusion. though it remains current in folk history. Druids began to figure widely in popular culture with the first advent of Romanticism. Chateaubriand's novel Les Martyrs (1809) narrated the doomed love of a druid priestess and a Roman soldier; though Chateaubriand's theme was the triumph of Christianity over Pagan druids, the setting was to continue to bear fruit. Opera provides a barometer of well-informed popular European culture in the early 19th century: in 1817 Giovanni Pacini brought druids to the stage in Trieste with an opera to a libretto by Felice Romani about a druid priestess, La Sacerdotessa d'Irminsul ("The Priestess of Irminsul"). The most famous druidic opera, Vincenzo Bellini's Norma was a fiasco at La Scala, when it premiered the day after Christmas, 1831; but in 1833 it was a hit in London. For its libretto, Felice Romani reused some of the pseudo-druidical background of La Sacerdotessa to provide colour to a standard theatrical conflict of love and duty. The story was similar to that of Medea, as it had recently been recast for a popular Parisian play by Alexandre Soumet: the diva of Norma's hit aria, "Casta Diva", is the moon goddess, being worshipped in the "grove of the Irmin statue". A central figure in 19th century Romanticist Neo-Druidism is the Welshman Edward Williams, better known as Iolo Morganwg. His writings, published posthumously as The Iolo Manuscripts (1849) and Barddas (1862), are not considered credible by contemporary scholars. Williams claimed to have collected ancient knowledge in a "Gorsedd of Bards of the Isles of Britain" he had organized. Many scholars deem part or all of Williams's work to be fabrication, and purportedly many of the documents are of his own fabrication, but a large portion of the work has indeed been collected from meso-pagan sources dating from as far back as 600 A.D. Regardless, it has become impossible to separate the original source material from the fabricated work, and while bits and pieces of the Barddas still turn up in some "Neo-druidic" works, the documents are considered irrelevant by most serious scholars. T.D. Kendrick's dispelled (1927) the pseudo-historical aura that had accrued to druids, T.D. Kendrick, The Druids: A Study in Keltic Prehistory (London: Methuen) 1927. asserting that "a prodigious amount of rubbish has been written about druidism"; Kendrick 1927:viii Neo-druidism has nevertheless continued to shape public perceptions of the historical druids. The British Museum website is suitably blunt: Some strands of contemporary Neodruidism, like the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids (OBOD), are a continuation of the 18th-century revival and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and after by second-hand sources and theorists. Some are monotheistic. Members of other Neo-druid groups may be Neopagan, occultist, Reconstructionist or non-specifically spiritual. References Further reading Aldhouse-Green, Miranda J., Exploring the World of the Druids (London: Thames and Hudson, 1997) Ellis, Peter, B., "The Druids" (William B. Eerdmans, 1994) Fitzpatrick, A. P,. Who were the Druids? (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997) Hutton, Ronald, The Druids: A History (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2008) Hutton, Ronald, Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain (Yale University Press, 2009) Piggott, Stuart, The Druids'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 1975) See also | Druid |@lemmatized two:7 druid:107 publication:1 base:3 bas:1 relief:1 find:3 autun:1 france:2 member:4 priestly:2 learn:4 class:4 active:1 gaul:11 perhaps:1 celtic:13 culture:5 generally:2 final:1 century:22 bce:10 suppress:2 roman:19 government:1 ce:5 disappear:2 write:8 record:5 although:4 may:8 late:9 survival:3 britain:10 ireland:5 since:2 feature:1 prominently:1 irish:13 mythology:3 hutton:11 ronald:11 london:15 hambledon:6 continuum:6 p:10 xii:1 little:3 contemporary:4 evidence:9 exists:1 thus:3 say:6 regard:2 assurance:1 know:11 hold:3 cultural:2 repository:1 knowledge:5 oral:2 tradition:7 use:9 poetic:1 verse:3 mnemonic:1 device:1 ensure:1 fidelity:1 transmission:1 time:4 come:2 writer:9 similar:2 monk:1 christian:4 era:1 follow:2 combine:2 duty:3 priest:1 judge:1 scholar:7 teacher:1 hambledoncontinuum:1 core:2 point:8 druidic:21 doctrine:7 u:2 source:8 belief:1 metempsychosis:3 practice:5 human:7 sacrifice:9 however:2 report:13 atrocity:1 justify:1 imperial:2 conquest:6 consider:3 critically:1 throughout:1 history:10 reported:1 reverence:1 various:1 aspect:1 natural:3 world:6 ritual:5 oak:4 mistletoe:2 describe:2 pliny:3 elder:1 also:13 associate:1 animism:1 mac:6 mathúna:1 liam:1 perception:2 cosmos:1 celtica:1 vol:1 pp:6 early:9 name:4 druidae:1 lost:1 work:6 greek:11 doxographer:1 sotion:2 alexandria:2 second:2 cite:4 diogenes:3 laertius:3 life:4 opinion:1 eminent:1 philosopher:5 introduction:1 chapter:1 book:4 text:4 modern:9 attempt:1 reconstruct:2 reinvent:1 reimagining:1 wake:1 revivalism:1 neo:8 druidism:10 etymology:1 english:6 word:5 derive:3 latin:9 druides:2 term:4 ethnographer:1 druidēs:1 pokorny:1 indogermanisches:1 etymologisches:1 wörterbuch:1 see:10 american:6 heritage:5 dictionary:3 ed:1 δρυίδης:1 loan:1 proto:2 stem:1 druwid:2 indo:6 european:7 root:5 deru:3 weid:3 etymologize:1 per:1 aristides:1 contain:3 δρύς:1 tree:2 suffix:1 ιδης:1 indeed:3 cognate:3 wide:2 array:1 meaning:6 relate:3 firm:1 solid:2 steadfast:1 whence:1 e:3 g:3 true:2 language:3 fourth:4 edition:2 clear:1 whether:1 originally:1 involve:2 wider:1 extension:1 figurative:1 refer:4 wit:1 wisdom:1 vision:4 sanskrit:1 veda:1 old:7 gaulish:7 survive:5 insular:4 form:7 druídecht:1 yield:1 draoiocht:2 magic:2 welsh:4 dryw:2 seer:3 drúa:1 druí:2 produce:3 draoi:1 magician:3 gaelic:1 druidh:1 enchanter:1 draoidh:1 virtually:1 nothing:1 certainty:1 ancient:7 certainly:1 exist:2 function:3 le:2 legendary:3 figure:3 train:1 pomponius:2 mela:2 iii:1 first:10 author:1 instruction:2 secret:1 carry:5 cave:1 forest:1 lore:1 consist:1 large:2 number:3 heart:1 caesar:22 remark:3 could:3 take:3 twenty:2 year:4 complete:1 course:2 study:4 historic:1 period:3 flourish:1 suggest:3 male:1 pagan:3 religion:3 british:7 isle:4 nature:2 legacy:2 isbn:2 teach:2 novice:2 anywhere:1 conjecture:1 literature:2 one:9 certifiably:1 even:3 translation:2 communicate:1 orally:1 ordinary:1 purpose:1 gallic:7 war:9 vi:4 character:2 probably:1 draw:1 inscription:1 move:2 script:2 result:1 prohibition:2 decline:4 favour:1 document:4 ever:2 regularly:1 discuss:2 gruesome:1 appear:2 poetry:1 include:3 lucan:2 suetonius:3 cicero:6 pharsalia:1 claudius:2 pro:1 font:1 de:5 rep:1 norman:5 j:6 dewitt:6 romanization:4 transaction:3 proceeding:4 philological:3 association:4 note:5 reason:1 unlike:1 national:1 within:1 empire:1 outlaw:1 tiberius:2 diodorus:5 siculus:4 asserts:1 unnamed:1 acceptable:1 god:2 attend:2 intermediary:1 claim:2 battle:3 often:2 throw:1 army:3 bring:2 peace:1 upon:3 importance:2 prophet:1 men:6 predict:2 future:3 observe:4 flight:2 call:3 bird:2 holy:1 animal:1 order:6 society:10 power:4 important:2 matter:2 prepare:1 victim:3 plunge:1 dagger:1 chest:1 way:2 limbs:1 convulse:1 fall:1 gushing:1 blood:3 able:4 read:1 archaeological:3 excavation:1 ribemont:1 picardy:1 gournay:1 sur:1 aronde:1 jean:1 louis:1 brunaux:2 interpret:1 archaeologist:1 martin:6 brown:1 might:3 memorial:1 honour:1 dead:2 courage:2 bog:3 lindow:4 cheshire:1 england:4 discover:3 body:9 designate:1 man:3 likely:1 executed:1 criminal:1 violent:1 crime:1 display:1 museum:3 philosophy:2 alexander:1 cornelius:1 polyhistor:1 immortality:1 soul:3 reincarnation:2 pythagorean:2 prevail:1 among:8 teaching:2 immortal:1 fixed:1 enter:1 another:2 principal:1 die:3 death:4 pass:2 lead:2 others:3 unlikely:2 conclusion:2 influence:2 pythagoras:1 diodorius:1 v:1 hippolytus:1 philosophumena:1 speculate:2 buddhist:1 missionary:1 send:1 indian:1 king:7 ashoka:1 donald:1 mackenzie:1 buddhism:1 pre:1 invoke:1 common:1 parallel:1 isaac:1 bonewits:2 essential:1 guide:1 citadel:1 role:4 rank:1 dignity:1 either:1 noble:1 equites:1 indicate:1 constitute:2 disciplina:1 guardian:1 unwritten:1 customary:1 law:1 execute:1 judgment:1 exclusion:1 dreaded:1 hereditary:1 caste:1 though:5 enjoy:1 exemption:1 military:3 service:2 well:2 payment:1 tax:1 training:1 submit:1 protract:1 strabo:4 less:1 firsthand:1 experience:2 rely:1 lose:3 writing:5 divide:1 learned:1 bard:7 soothsayer:3 theologian:1 echoed:1 division:1 label:1 moral:1 working:1 vates:1 expert:1 science:1 different:1 lie:1 behind:2 organisation:1 obod:2 ovates:2 respect:1 intervene:1 stop:1 still:3 act:3 arbiter:1 public:2 private:1 longer:1 deal:1 case:2 murder:1 rutherford:2 ward:2 pg:2 original:2 ancestor:1 tribe:1 dispater:1 father:1 hades:1 punish:1 excommunication:1 prevent:2 religious:3 festival:1 predate:1 celt:1 commonly:1 make:5 least:1 reference:5 druids:1 merely:1 barbarian:1 present:4 tabular:1 jane:4 webster:5 end:2 revitalization:2 movement:2 post:2 britannia:4 run:1 magikos:1 aristotle:1 vita:3 ausonius:2 concern:1 ethnology:1 comparative:2 stuart:2 piggott:2 examine:3 folklore:1 connection:2 stonehenge:4 south:1 african:1 bulletin:2 december:1 saw:1 viewpoint:1 rather:3 colonial:1 administrator:1 sixty:1 seventy:1 ago:1 startling:1 fact:2 witch:1 doctor:1 medicine:1 hear:1 encounter:2 africa:1 orient:1 consequently:1 historical:3 limited:1 julius:1 commentarii:1 bello:1 gallico:1 publish:2 give:3 ethnographic:1 account:5 continuation:2 polybius:1 rome:3 stoic:1 posidonius:2 seem:3 depend:1 daphne:1 nash:1 poseidonios:1 ethnography:1 consideration:2 xxiii:1 backdrop:1 transalpine:1 ligurians:1 maritime:1 alp:1 full:3 apparent:1 contradiction:1 social:2 allege:1 scarcely:1 occasion:2 mention:4 elsewhere:2 diviacus:1 pain:1 explain:1 political:1 situation:1 affect:1 progress:2 narrative:1 discrepency:1 single:1 excursus:1 part:2 eratosthenes:1 many:4 historian:5 argue:2 anachronism:1 description:2 idealised:1 pan:1 confederation:1 arverni:1 smash:1 invasion:1 teutones:1 cimbri:1 demoralise:1 disunite:1 surmise:1 john:5 creighton:2 already:1 mid:1 conflict:2 emergent:1 new:1 structure:1 embody:1 paramount:1 chieftain:1 imagery:1 symbol:1 iron:3 age:3 especially:1 bibliography:1 context:1 despite:1 execution:1 dumnorix:2 problem:1 dealt:1 anti:2 historically:1 speak:3 brother:1 diviciacus:3 good:3 friend:2 specifically:3 identify:2 individual:2 classical:1 literary:2 existence:2 augur:1 acquaintance:1 aeduan:1 divinatione:1 rule:1 essentially:1 non:2 prescript:1 augustus:1 forbade:1 citizens:1 druidical:2 rite:2 xxx:1 along:1 diviner:2 physician:1 decree:1 senate:1 renew:1 tacitus:6 attack:1 island:1 mona:2 anglesey:1 ynys:1 môn:1 paulinus:1 represent:3 legionary:1 awestruck:1 landing:1 appearance:1 band:3 hand:3 uplift:1 sky:1 pour:1 forth:1 terrible:1 imprecation:1 head:1 invader:1 state:2 terrify:1 soldier:2 never:2 thing:1 soon:1 overcame:1 fear:1 accord:3 briton:1 put:1 sacred:1 grove:2 cut:1 primary:1 maintain:1 hostile:1 view:2 eye:4 ignorant:1 savage:1 ref:2 deem:2 cover:1 altar:1 captive:1 consult:2 deity:1 entrails:1 professor:2 witness:1 cast:1 doubt:1 reliability:1 continental:1 entirely:1 rare:1 instance:1 apostrophize:1 rhetorician:1 attius:1 patera:1 sprung:1 race:1 phillip:2 freeman:3 classic:1 dryad:2 translate:1 druidesses:3 collection:1 biography:1 historia:1 augusta:1 three:2 short:2 passage:2 woman:6 direct:1 heir:1 supposedly:2 extinguish:1 show:1 prophesy:1 continue:3 native:1 eyewitness:1 university:3 texas:1 press:4 additionally:1 later:2 legend:3 fionn:3 cumhaill:2 boyhood:2 deed:2 raise:6 druidess:1 bodhmall:1 wise:1 jones:1 mary:1 maryjones:1 retrieve:1 july:1 parkes:1 fosterage:1 kinship:1 cambridge:1 possible:2 best:1 independent:1 survives:1 antiquity:2 mirabilibus:2 sacrae:2 scripturae:2 augustinus:2 hibernicus:2 f:1 local:1 magi:1 magus:2 hiberno:1 mystery:1 edit:1 carey:1 dublin:1 four:2 court:3 medieval:1 bardic:2 wale:2 mystic:1 owain:1 glyndŵr:1 continuity:1 purge:1 campaign:1 edward:2 culminate:1 suicide:1 last:1 c:2 recover:1 northern:2 europe:2 netherlands:1 denmark:1 anne:3 ross:3 stead:1 b:3 bourke:1 brothwell:1 robin:1 prince:2 resist:1 assert:3 let:2 alone:1 archaeologically:1 fitzpatrick:3 astral:2 symbolism:2 sword:2 night:1 day:2 sign:1 anthropomorphic:1 prehistoric:1 express:1 difficulty:1 material:2 coligny:1 calendar:1 slain:1 far:4 east:1 galatia:1 western:1 widely:2 philip:1 simon:1 schuster:1 reception:1 manuscript:2 date:2 back:2 story:4 usually:1 adviser:1 ability:2 foretell:1 bec:1 dé:1 example:1 diarmait:1 cerbaill:1 accurately:1 saint:5 corporation:2 exempt:1 ulster:3 cycle:1 cathbad:3 chief:2 conchobar:3 accompany:2 youth:1 version:1 desirous:1 art:1 birth:1 famous:2 tragic:1 heroine:1 deirdre:1 prophesies:1 sort:1 strife:2 ignore:1 following:1 occur:1 epic:2 tale:1 táin:2 bó:2 cúailnge:2 attendant:1 towards:3 heaven:2 cloud:4 answer:1 around:2 hurl:1 spell:1 element:2 arouse:1 amongst:1 fire:1 drive:1 camp:1 tell:1 right:1 set:2 great:1 expedition:1 medb:1 queen:1 connacht:1 outcome:1 march:1 week:1 wait:1 auspicious:1 omen:1 magical:1 skill:1 hero:1 cúchulainn:1 return:1 entice:1 fairy:1 goddess:2 fand:1 unable:1 forget:1 potion:1 banish:1 memory:1 recent:1 adventure:1 rid:1 wife:2 emer:1 pang:1 jealousy:1 remarkable:1 étaín:1 lady:1 eochaid:1 airem:1 high:2 former:1 beloved:1 midir:1 seek:1 love:3 recourse:1 dalgn:1 require:1 whole:1 haunt:1 couple:1 accomplish:1 mean:2 wand:1 yew:1 inscribe:1 ogham:1 insanity:1 mug:1 ruith:1 munster:1 wear:1 hornless:1 bull:1 hide:1 elaborate:1 feathered:1 headdress:1 fly:1 conjure:1 storm:1 historiography:1 hagiography:2 vortigern:2 nennius:2 provide:3 glimpse:1 unfortunately:1 mix:1 impossible:2 truth:1 worth:1 excommunicate:1 germanus:1 leader:1 invite:1 twelve:1 assist:1 martyr:2 adamnan:1 columba:3 tutor:1 daughter:1 lóegaire:1 néill:1 patrick:2 endeavour:1 mist:1 culdremne:1 airbe:1 drtiad:1 fence:1 protection:1 round:1 precisely:1 phrase:1 unclear:1 peculiar:1 tonsure:1 always:1 render:1 st:2 speaks:1 christ:1 similarly:1 beuno:1 sulpicius:1 severus:1 tour:1 peasant:1 funeral:1 winding:1 sheet:1 mistook:1 custom:1 rustic:1 wretched:1 folly:1 field:1 image:1 demon:1 veil:1 white:1 covering:1 halt:1 procession:1 pectoral:1 cross:1 miserable:1 creature:1 become:2 stiff:1 like:2 rock:1 next:1 endeavor:1 every:1 effort:1 forward:1 step:1 begin:2 whirl:1 ridiculous:1 fashion:1 long:1 sustain:1 weight:1 error:1 proceed:1 hagiographer:1 compel:1 stand:1 please:1 permit:1 depart:1 think:1 romanticism:2 revival:3 arch:1 judicial:1 costume:1 etch:1 charles:1 knight:1 pictorial:1 group:3 interest:1 aubrey:4 connect:1 megalithic:1 monument:2 confine:1 notebook:1 audience:1 misconception:1 reader:1 william:4 stukeley:1 career:1 imagined:1 trace:1 dispel:2 kendrick:4 keltic:2 prehistory:2 methuen:2 toland:3 shape:2 idea:2 current:2 much:1 found:2 split:1 title:1 archdruid:1 retrospect:1 credit:2 blake:6 chosen:1 without:2 corroboration:1 numerous:1 mysticism:1 derives:1 instead:1 pseudo:3 ossianic:1 macpherson:1 frederick:1 tatham:2 depiction:1 imagination:1 clothe:1 dark:1 stole:1 mural:1 sanctity:1 precinct:1 westminster:1 abbey:1 dwell:1 amid:1 terror:1 generic:1 quote:1 h:1 collins:1 baker:1 painter:1 huntington:1 library:1 october:1 fascinate:1 theory:1 nineteenth:1 gain:1 uncritical:1 reading:2 pressure:1 resistance:1 dismiss:1 ii:1 believe:1 effective:1 inspection:1 seemingly:1 contradictory:1 reinforce:1 stated:1 remain:1 folk:1 popular:3 advent:1 chateaubriand:2 novel:1 narrate:1 doom:1 priestess:3 theme:1 triumph:1 christianity:1 setting:1 bear:1 fruit:1 opera:3 barometer:1 inform:1 giovanni:1 pacini:1 stage:1 trieste:1 libretto:2 felice:2 romani:2 la:3 sacerdotessa:2 irminsul:2 vincenzo:1 bellini:1 norma:2 fiasco:1 scala:1 premier:1 christmas:1 hit:2 reuse:1 background:1 colour:1 standard:1 theatrical:1 medea:1 recently:1 recast:1 parisian:1 play:1 alexandre:1 soumet:1 diva:2 aria:1 casta:1 moon:1 worship:1 irmin:1 statue:1 central:1 romanticist:1 welshman:1 williams:3 iolo:2 morganwg:1 posthumously:1 barddas:2 credible:1 collect:2 gorsedd:1 organize:1 fabrication:2 purportedly:1 portion:1 meso:1 regardless:1 separate:1 fabricated:1 bit:1 piece:1 turn:1 irrelevant:1 serious:1 aura:1 accrue:1 prodigious:1 amount:1 rubbish:1 viii:1 nevertheless:1 website:1 suitably:1 blunt:1 strand:1 neodruidism:1 build:1 largely:1 theorist:1 monotheistic:1 neopagan:1 occultist:1 reconstructionist:1 spiritual:1 aldhouse:1 green:1 miranda:1 explore:1 thames:2 hudson:2 elli:1 peter:1 eerdmans:1 weidenfeld:1 nicolson:1 yale:1 |@bigram bas_relief:1 hutton_ronald:9 ronald_druid:7 london_hambledon:6 hambledon_continuum:6 pliny_elder:1 diogenes_laertius:3 neo_druidism:3 indogermanisches_etymologisches:1 etymologisches_wörterbuch:1 proto_celtic:1 proto_indo:1 indo_european:6 wit_wisdom:1 insular_celtic:2 ronald_hutton:2 pomponius_mela:2 caesar_gallic:2 philological_association:3 diodorus_siculus:3 archaeological_excavation:1 lindow_man:3 immortality_soul:1 isaac_bonewits:1 bonewits_essential:1 guide_druidism:1 neo_druid:3 bard_ovates:2 ovates_druid:2 sixty_seventy:1 julius_caesar:1 caesar_commentarii:1 commentarii_de:1 de_bello:1 bello_gallico:1 suetonius_paulinus:1 historia_augusta:1 fionn_mac:2 mac_cumhaill:2 owain_glyndŵr:1 archaeological_evidence:1 coligny_calendar:1 simon_schuster:1 táin_bó:2 bó_cúailnge:2 saint_columba:1 st_columba:1 st_beuno:1 sulpicius_severus:1 pectoral_cross:1 megalithic_monument:1 london_methuen:2 westminster_abbey:1 neo_druidic:2 nineteenth_century:1 opera_libretto:1 vincenzo_bellini:1 la_scala:1 publish_posthumously:1 thames_hudson:2 london_weidenfeld:1 weidenfeld_nicolson:1 |
3,299 | Kerameikos | Reconstructed monuments in Kerameikos Kerameikos is an area of Athens, Greece, located to the northwest of the Acropolis, which includes an extensive area both within and outside the city walls, on both sides of the Dipylon Gate and by the banks of the Eridanos River. It was the potters' quarter of the city, from which the English word "ceramic" is derived, and was also the site of an important cemetery and numerous funerary sculptures erected along the road out of the city. History and description Grave shrine from Kerameikos - Aristonautes as warrior - ca. 330-310 B.C. marble h. 2.91m Grave relief of Dexileos, son of Lysanias, of Thorikos. Kerameikos museum ca. 390 B.C. The area took its name from the city quarter or dēmos of Kerameis, which in turn derived its name from the word κέραμος (keramos, "pottery clay") from which the English word "ceramic" is derived. Hans Rupprecht Goette, Athens, Attica and the Megarid: An Archaeological Guide, p. 59 The "Inner Kerameikos" was the former "potter's quarter" of the city and "Outer Kerameikos" covers the cemetery and also the dēmosion sēma (a public burial monument) where Pericles delivered his funeral oration in 431 BC. The cemetery was also where the Iera Odos (the Sacred Way, i.e. the road to Eleusis) began, along which the procession moved for the Eleusinian Mysteries. The area has undergone a number of archaeological excavations in recent years, though the excavated area covers only a small portion of the ancient dēmos. It was originally an area of marshland along the banks of the Eridanos river which was used as a cemetery as long ago as the third millennium BC. It became the site of an organised cemetery from about 1200 BC; numerous cist graves and burial offerings from the period have been discovered by archaeologists. Houses were constructed on the higher drier ground to the south. During the Archaic period increasingly large and complex grave mounds and monuments were built along the south bank of the Eridanos, lining the Sacred Way. The building of the new city wall in 478 BC, following the Persian sack of Athens in 480 BC, fundamentally changed the appearance of the area. At the suggestion of Themistocles, all of the funerary sculptures were built into the city wall and two large city gates facing north-west were erected in the Kerameikos. The Sacred Way ran through the Sacred Gate, on the southern side, to Eleusis. On the northern side a wide road, the Dromos, ran through the double-arched Dipylon Gate (also known as the Thriasian Gate) and on to the Platonic Academy a few miles away. State graves were built on either side of the Dipylon Gate, interring heroes of Athens such as notable warriors and statesmen, including Pericles and Cleisthenes. After the construction of the city wall, the Sacred Way and a forking street known as the Street of the Tombs again became lined with imposing sepulchral monuments belonging to the families of rich Athenians, dating to before the late fourth century BC. The construction of such mausolea was banned by a decree in 317 BC, following which only small columns or inscribed square marble blocks were permitted as grave stones. The Roman occupation of Athens led to a resurgence of monument-building, although little is left of them today. During the Classical period an important public building, the Pompeion, stood inside the walls in the area between the two gates. This served a key function in the procession (pompē) in honour of Athena during the Panathenaic Festival. It consisted of a large courtyard surrounded by columns and banquet rooms, where the nobility of Athens would eat the sacrificial meat for the festival. According to ancient Greek sources, a hecatomb (a sacrifice of 100 cows) was carried out for the festival and the people received the meat in the Kerameikos, possibly in the Dipylon courtyard; excavators have found heaps of bones in front of the city wall. The Pompeion and many other buildings in the vicinity of the Sacred Gate were razed to the ground by Sulla's forces during his sacking of Athens in 86 BC, in an episode that Plutarch described as a bloodbath. During the second century AD, a storehouse was constructed on the site of the Pompeion but was destroyed during the invasion of the Heruli in 267 AD. The ruins became the site of potters' workshops until about 500 AD, when two parallel colonnades were built behind the city gates, overrunning the old city walls. A new Festival Gate was constructed to the east with three entrances leading into the city. This was in turn destroyed in raids by the invading Avars and Slavs at the end of the sixth century, and the Kerameikos fell into obscurity. It was not rediscovered until a Greek worker dug up a stele in April 1863. Archaeology Archaeological excavations in the Kerameikos began in 1870 under the auspices of the Greek Archaeological Society. They have continued from 1913 to the present day under the German Archaeological Institute at Athens. During the construction of Kerameikos station for the expanded Athens Metro, a plague pit and approximately 1,000 tombs from the 4th and 5th century BC were discovered. Thucydides describes the panic caused by the plague, possibly an epidemic of typhoid which struck the besieged city in 430 BC. The epidemic lasted for two years and killed an estimated one third of the population. He wrote that bodies were abandoned in temples and streets, to be subsequently collected and hastily buried. The disease reappeared in the winter of 427 BC. The Greek archaeologist Efi Baziotopoulou-Valavani, who excavated the site, has dated the grave to between 430 and 426 BC. Latest findings in the Kerameikos include the excavation of a 2.1 m tall Kouros, a work of the so-called Dipylon sculptor unearthed by the German Archaeological Institute at Athens under the direction of Professor Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier. Metro Station As of spring 2007 Keramikos is the name given to the metro station which belongs to Line 3 of the Athens Metro is adjacent to the Technopolis of Gazi. References Sources Ursula Knigge: Der Kerameikos von Athen. Führung durch Ausgrabungen und Geschichte. Krene-Verl., Athen 1988. Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier: Der Kuros vom Heiligen Tor. Überraschende Neufunde archaischer Skulptur im Kerameikos in Athen. Zabern, Mainz 2002. (Zaberns Bildbände zur Archäologie) ISBN 3-8053-2956-3 Akten des Internationalen Symposions Die Ausgrabungen im Kerameikos, Bilanz und Perspektiven. Athen, 27.–31. Januar 1999. Zabern, Mainz am Rhein 2001. (Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung, 114) ISBN 3-8053-2808-7 External links Kerameikos, Hellenic Ministry of Culture A Mycenaean Fountain on the Athenian Acropolis by Oscar Broneer Kerameikos, Ergebnisse Der Ausgrabungen by Wilhelm Kraiker, Karl Kubler | Kerameikos |@lemmatized reconstruct:1 monument:5 kerameikos:17 area:8 athens:11 greece:1 locate:1 northwest:1 acropolis:2 include:3 extensive:1 within:1 outside:1 city:14 wall:7 side:4 dipylon:5 gate:10 bank:3 eridanos:3 river:2 potter:3 quarter:3 english:2 word:3 ceramic:2 derive:3 also:4 site:5 important:2 cemetery:5 numerous:2 funerary:2 sculpture:2 erect:2 along:4 road:3 history:1 description:1 grave:5 shrine:1 aristonautes:1 warrior:2 ca:2 b:2 c:2 marble:2 h:1 relief:1 dexileos:1 son:1 lysanias:1 thorikos:1 museum:1 take:1 name:3 dēmos:2 kerameis:1 turn:2 κέραμος:1 keramos:1 pottery:1 clay:1 han:1 rupprecht:1 goette:1 attica:1 megarid:1 archaeological:6 guide:1 p:1 inner:1 former:1 outer:1 cover:2 dēmosion:1 sēma:1 public:2 burial:2 pericles:2 deliver:1 funeral:1 oration:1 bc:12 iera:1 odo:1 sacred:6 way:4 e:1 eleusis:2 begin:2 procession:2 move:1 eleusinian:1 mystery:1 undergone:1 number:1 excavation:3 recent:1 year:2 though:1 excavated:1 small:2 portion:1 ancient:2 originally:1 marshland:1 use:1 long:1 ago:1 third:2 millennium:1 become:3 organised:1 cist:1 graf:2 offering:1 period:3 discover:2 archaeologist:2 house:1 construct:3 high:1 drier:1 ground:2 south:2 archaic:1 increasingly:1 large:3 complex:1 mound:1 build:4 line:3 building:4 new:2 follow:2 persian:1 sack:1 fundamentally:1 change:1 appearance:1 suggestion:1 themistocles:1 two:4 face:1 north:1 west:1 run:2 southern:1 northern:1 wide:1 dromos:1 double:1 arch:1 know:2 thriasian:1 platonic:1 academy:1 mile:1 away:1 state:1 either:1 inter:1 hero:1 notable:1 statesman:1 cleisthenes:1 construction:3 forking:1 street:3 tomb:2 impose:1 sepulchral:1 belong:2 family:1 rich:1 athenian:2 date:2 late:2 fourth:1 century:4 mausoleum:1 ban:1 decree:1 column:2 inscribe:1 square:1 block:1 permit:1 stone:1 roman:1 occupation:1 lead:2 resurgence:1 although:1 little:1 leave:1 today:1 classical:1 pompeion:3 stand:1 inside:1 serve:1 key:1 function:1 pompē:1 honour:1 athena:1 panathenaic:1 festival:4 consist:1 courtyard:2 surround:1 banquet:1 room:1 nobility:1 would:1 eat:1 sacrificial:1 meat:2 accord:1 greek:4 source:2 hecatomb:1 sacrifice:1 cow:1 carry:1 people:1 receive:1 possibly:2 excavator:1 find:1 heap:1 bone:1 front:1 many:1 vicinity:1 raze:1 sulla:1 force:1 sacking:1 episode:1 plutarch:1 describe:2 bloodbath:1 second:1 ad:3 storehouse:1 destroy:2 invasion:1 heruli:1 ruin:1 workshop:1 parallel:1 colonnade:1 behind:1 overrun:1 old:1 east:1 three:1 entrance:1 raid:1 invading:1 avars:1 slav:1 end:1 sixth:1 fell:1 obscurity:1 rediscover:1 worker:1 dig:1 stele:1 april:1 archaeology:1 auspex:1 society:1 continue:1 present:1 day:1 german:2 institute:2 station:3 expand:1 metro:4 plague:2 pit:1 approximately:1 thucydides:1 panic:1 cause:1 epidemic:2 typhoid:1 strike:1 besiege:1 last:1 kill:1 estimated:1 one:1 population:1 write:1 body:1 abandon:1 temple:1 subsequently:1 collect:1 hastily:1 bury:1 disease:1 reappear:1 winter:1 efi:1 baziotopoulou:1 valavani:1 excavate:1 finding:1 tall:1 kouros:1 work:1 call:1 sculptor:1 unearth:1 direction:1 professor:1 wolf:2 dietrich:2 niemeier:2 spring:1 keramikos:1 give:1 adjacent:1 technopolis:1 gazi:1 reference:1 ursula:1 knigge:1 der:3 von:1 athen:4 führung:1 durch:1 ausgrabungen:3 und:2 geschichte:1 krene:1 verl:1 kuros:1 vom:1 heiligen:1 tor:1 überraschende:1 neufunde:1 archaischer:1 skulptur:1 im:2 zabern:2 mainz:2 zaberns:1 bildbände:1 zur:1 archäologie:1 isbn:2 akten:1 de:2 internationalen:1 symposions:1 die:1 bilanz:1 perspektiven:1 januar:1 rhein:1 mitteilungen:1 deutschen:1 archäologischen:1 instituts:1 athenische:1 abteilung:1 external:1 link:1 hellenic:1 ministry:1 culture:1 mycenaean:1 fountain:1 oscar:1 broneer:1 ergebnisse:1 wilhelm:1 kraiker:1 karl:1 kubler:1 |@bigram funeral_oration:1 eleusinian_mystery:1 archaeological_excavation:2 millennium_bc:1 und_geschichte:1 external_link:1 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.