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Marxismâ%80%93Leninism
Marx, Engels and Lenin Marxism-Leninism is a communist ideological stream that emerged as the mainstream tendency among the Communist parties in the 1920s as it was adopted as the ideological foundation of the Communist International during Stalin's era. However, in various contexts, different (and sometimes opposing) political groups have used the term "Marxism-Leninism" to describe the ideology that they claimed to be upholding. History of the term Within 5 years of Lenin's death, Joseph Stalin completed his rise to power in the Soviet Union. According to G. Lisichkin, Marxism-Leninism as a separate ideology was compiled by Stalin basically in his "The questions of Leninism" book Г. Лисичкин, Мифы и реальность, Новый мир, 1989, № 3, с. 59 (in Russian) . During the period of Stalin's rule in the Soviet Union, Marxism-Leninism was proclaimed the official ideology of the state Александр Бутенко, Социализм сегодня: опыт и новая теория// Журнал Альтернативы, №1, 1996, с. 3-4 (in Russian) . Whether Stalin's practices actually followed the principles of Karl Marx and Lenin is still a subject of debate among historians and political scientists Александр Бутенко, Социализм сегодня: опыт и новая теория// Журнал Альтернативы, №1, 1996, с. 2-22 (in Russian) . Trotskyists in particular believe that Stalinism contradicted authentic Marxism and Leninism Лев Троцкий, Сталинская школа фальсификаций, М. 1990, с. 7-8(in Russian) , and they initially used the term "Bolshevik-Leninism" to describe their own ideology of anti-Stalinist (and later anti-Maoist) communism. Left communists rejected "Marxism-Leninism" as an anti-Marxist current. The term Marxism-Leninism is most often used by those who believe that Lenin's legacy was successfully carried forward by Joseph Stalin (Stalinists). However, it is also used by some who repudiate Stalin, such as the supporters of Nikita Khrushchev . After the Sino-Soviet split, communist parties of the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China each claimed to be the sole intellectual heir to Marxism-Leninism. In China, they claim that Mao had "adapted Marxism-Leninism to Chinese conditions" evolved into the idea that he had updated it in a fundamental way applying to the world as a whole; consequently, the term "Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought" (commonly known as Maoism) was increasingly used to describe the official Chinese state ideology as well as the ideological basis of parties around the world who sympathized with the Communist Party of China (such as the Communist Party of the Philippines, Marxist-Leninist/Mao Zedong Thought, founded by Jose Maria Sison in 1968). Following the death of Mao, Peruvian Maoists associated with the Communist Party of Peru (Sendero Luminoso) subsequently coined the term Marxism-Leninism-Maoism, arguing that Maoism was a more advanced stage of Marxism. Following the Sino-Albanian split, a small portion of Marxist-Leninists began to downplay or repudiate the role of Mao Zedong in the International Communist Movement in favor of the Party of Labor of Albania and a stricter adherence to Stalin. In North Korea, Marxism-Leninism was officially superseded in 1977 by Juche, in which concepts of class and class struggle, in other words Marxism itself, play no significant role. However, the government is still sometimes referred to as Marxist-Leninist - or, more commonly, Stalinist - due to its political and economic structure (see History of North Korea). In the other three "communist states" existing today - Cuba, Vietnam, and Laos - the ruling Parties hold Marxism-Leninism as their official ideology, although they give it different interpretations in terms of practical policy. Current usage Some contemporary communist parties continue to regard Marxism-Leninism as their basic ideology, although some have modified it to adapt to new and local political circumstances. In party names, the appellation 'Marxist-Leninist' is normally used by a communist party who wishes to distinguish itself from some other (and presumably 'revisionist') communist party in the same country. Popular confusion abounds concerning the complex terminology describing the various schools of Marxist-derived thought. The appellation 'Marxist-Leninist' is often used by those not familiar with communist ideology in any detail (e.g. many newspapers and other media) as a synonym for any kind of Marxism. References be-x-old:Марксізм-ленінізм
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3,101
Economy_of_Gibraltar
The economy of Gibraltar is managed and controlled by the Government of Gibraltar. Whilst being part of the European Union, Gibraltar has a separate legal jurisdiction from the United Kingdom and enjoys a different tax system. Gibraltar Taxation home page The role of the UK Ministry of Defence, which at one time was the main source of income, has declined, with today's economy based on shipping, tourism, finance centre activities, and the Internet. In his June 2005, budget speech, Chief Minister Peter Caruana noted that Gibraltar's Finance Centre continues to grow and remains in healthy shape despite the challenges brought by both the EU's insistence that the territory change its offshore tax regime and the Savings Tax Directive. Gibraltar will soon have a functioning stock exchange, the GibEX. Gibraltar Stock exchange In December 2008 in a landmark decision the European Court of Justice ruled that the Court finds that the competent Gibraltar authorities which have devised the tax reform have, from a constitutional point of view, a political and administrative status separate from that of the central government of the United Kingdom. =rechercher&numaff=T-211/04 ECJ ruling on regional selectivity This allows the implementation of a new low tax system. Shipping Situated at the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea, adjacent to one of the world's busiest shipping lanes (the Strait of Gibraltar) and with more than 7,000 ship calls each year, Gibraltar is home to a wealth of shipping expertise and to many specialist companies offering a comprehensive range of support services, most notably the dockyard of Cammell Laird Gibraltar. The Port of Gibraltar website Finance Gibraltar is a constituent part of the European Union as a Special Member State territory, having joined the European Economic Community with the United Kingdom in 1973, under the provisions of the Treaty of Rome relating to European dependent territories. However, it is exempt of the Common External Tariff, the Common Agricultural Policy and the requirement to levy Value Added Tax. Gibraltar's EU status Financial institutions operating in Gibraltar are regulated by the Financial Services Commission. Financial Services Regulator Subject to notifying the Commissioner, who must be satisfied that they meet certain criteria in accordance with the relevant EU Directive, Gibraltar licensed or authorised financial institutions can provide services throughout the EU and European Economic Area without having to seek separate licences or authorisation in the host Member State. This is known as the passporting of financial services. FSC Overview Referred to as an International Finance Centre, Gibraltar Financial Services Commission Building a good reputation Gibraltar was among 35 jurisdictions identified by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development as a tax haven in June 2000. OECD, March 2002 Gibraltar Commits to Co-operate with OECD to Address Harmful Tax Practices. Retrieved on July 2006 However, the list's disclaimer states: OECD issues a disclaimer on outdated report As a result of having made a commitment in accordance with the OECD's 2001 Progress Report on the OECD's Project on Harmful Tax Practices, Gibraltar is not included in the OECD's list of uncooperative tax havens. It has also never been listed on the FATF Blacklist of uncooperative countries in the fight against money laundering. It may also be referred to as an Offshore Financial Centre, by international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund. IMF, June 4, 2006 Offshore Financial Centers (OFCs): IMF Staff Assessments. Retrieved July 2006 Fiscal advantages, including no tax on capital income, are offered to a maximum of 8,464 offshore qualified companies incorporated in Gibraltar. GibraltarOffshore.com Gibraltar Exempt Company Registration Changes. Retrieved on July 2006 After an agreement with the European Union in 2005, this tax exempt regime is due to disappear on the 31 December 2010. A 2007 IMF report on the regulatory environment and anti-money laundering has once again endorsed Gibraltar’s robust regulatory environment. According to the report: http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/gov_depts/finance/IMF_Reports/Assessment_of_Financial_Sector_Supervision_and_Regulation..pdf http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/gov_depts/finance/IMF_Reports/Detailed_Assessment_Report_on_Anti-Money_Laundering_and_Combating_the_Financing_of_Terrorism.pdf http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/gov_depts/finance/IMF_Reports/Detailed_Assessment_Report_of_Observance_of_the_Insurance_Core_Principles.pdf http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/gov_depts/finance/IMF_Reports/Detailed_Assessment_Report_of_Observance_of_the_Basel_Core_Principles.pdf In 2008 Gibraltar was listed for the first time in the Global Financial Centres Index published by the City of London Corporation. The Rock was ranked 26th in a list of 69 leading finance centres around the world based on an online survey of 1236 business professionals, who provided a total of 18,878 assessments. Global Financial Centres Index Gibraltar was also ranked in the top 20 centres for e-readiness, coming 20th after major capitals and leading offshore centres. Gibraltar Chronicle Story Tourism Gibraltar has recently invested in a new cruise ship terminal and is increasingly popular with this trade. Its coach park is popular with day-trippers mainly from Spain. The Gibraltar Airport is serviced daily by flights from the UK and certain charter flights. In 2005 an estimated 6,000,000 tourists visited Gibraltar. Internet business Gibraltar offers a favourable tax system, good internet connectivity along with a well developed regulatory system. All gambling operations in Gibraltar require licensing under the Gambling Act 2005. The Gibraltar Regulatory Authority is the Gambling Commissioner under the Gambling Act 2005, and therefore the regulatory body. The Gibraltar Regulator Good regulation, and being part of the EU is seen as a strong advantange by large legitimate operators. The UK has published plans to protect online gamblers from crime and exploitation by banning gambling adverts from poorly regulated countries UK Gambling ad ban plans published which specifically mention Gibraltar as an approved location. Defence spending The UK's Ministry of Defence was originally the mainstay of Gibraltar's economy but this has greatly reduced to around 6% of the GDP. In 2006 the MoD announced that it would contractorise the provision of services to the military base to make further cost savings. Economy in detail Gibraltar benefits from an extensive shipping trade, a well regulated international finance center, tourism, and has become a global leader in the virtual gaming industry. FCO company profile Gibraltar proves a winning bet The British military presence has been sharply reduced and now only contributes about 6% of the local economy. The financial sector accounts for 20% of GDP; tourism (about 6,000,000 visitors in 2005), shipping service fees, and duties on consumer goods also generate revenue. In recent years, Gibraltar has seen major structural change from a public to a private sector economy, but changes in government spending still have an impact on the level of employment, currently running at some 2%. Average earnings have risen by more than 30% since 1996. GDP: purchasing power parity - $500 million (1997 est.) GDP - real growth rate: NA% GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $17,500 (1997 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: NA% industry NA% services NA% Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.5% (1998) Labor force: 14,800 (including non-Gibraltar laborers) Labor force - by occupation: services 60%, industry 40%, agriculture NEGL% Unemployment rate 2% (2001) Budget revenues $307 million expenditures $284 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY00/01) Industries tourism, banking and finance, ship repairing, tobacco Industrial production growth rate NA% Electricity - production 100 GWh (2001) Electricity - production by source fossil fuel 100% hydro 0% nuclear 0% other 0% (2001) Electricity - consumption 93 GWh (2001) Electricity - exports 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports 0 kWh (1998) Oil - production 0 barrel/day (2001 est.) Oil - consumption 42,000 barrel/day (6,700 m³/d) 2001 Oil - exports NA (2001) Oil - imports NA (2001) Agriculture - products none Exports $81.1 million (f.o.b., 1997) Exports - commodities (principally reexports) petroleum 51%, manufactured goods 41%, other 8% Exports - partners UK, Morocco, Portugal, Netherlands, Spain, US, Germany Imports $492 million (c.i.f., 1997) Imports - commodities Fuels, manufactured goods, and foodstuffs Imports - partners UK, Spain, Japan, Netherlands Currency 1 Gibraltar pound = 100 pence Exchange rates Gibraltar uses the Gibraltar pound (GIP), pegged at a 1:1 exchange rate with the UK pound sterling. The pound sterling is also legal tender in Gibraltar. Gibraltar pounds per US$1 - 0.0661 (2002), 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); Fiscal year 1 July - 30 June Taxation Gibraltar is a well known and regulated international finance centre and has been a popular jurisdiction for European offshore companies. The law of Gibraltar is based on English law, but is separate from the UK legal system. Tax exempt companies, which must not trade or conduct any business locally, are taxed at a flat rate of up to £300 a year. Gibraltar has not signed any Double Taxation Treaties. Non-resident businesses do not pay income tax unless the source of this income is Gibraltar proper. There is no tax on capital income. In Gibraltar there is no capital gains tax, wealth tax, sales tax or value added tax. Import duty is payable on most items at 12% The main tax for companies is income tax, and Social insurance contributions. There are also stamp duties on certain transactions, and property taxes ('rates'). Non-resident companies can take advantage of a number of offshore regimes in order to reduce taxation, although in line with the elimination of unfair tax practices this is being phased out. Individuals pay quite high taxes on their income in Gibraltar unless they are able to take advantage of High net worth individual status or gain exemption as an expatriate executive. There is a moderately high estate duty, and import duties are quite high on some items. Assessment and collection of tax is administered by the Commissioner of Income Tax; the tax year runs from first July to the following 30 June. Tax rate information Disclaimer: Tax rates may vary and information here may be incorrect or out of date. For the latest data see the Government of Gibraltar website listed in external links. Value added tax Gibraltar is a VAT free jurisdiction. Gaming tax (Online gaming) Levied at the rate of 1% of relevant income (gaming yield for online casinos and bets placed for online bookmakers), capped at £425,000 with a minimum payable of 20% of the cap figure. Import duties Levied on goods imported into Gibraltar, mostly at 12%. Excise duties Levied mainly on spirits, wines, tobacco and mineral oils. Social insurance, 2005 Employed persons contributions Contributor typeEmployee Employer Total Men aged between 18 & 64 20.75 26.20 46.95Women aged between 18 & 59 20.75 26.20 46.95Persons aged between 15 & 17 19.02 24.48 43.50Men age 65 and over 0 26.20 26.20Women age 60 and over 0 26.20 26.20 Corporation tax Resident Companies Full Rate 33% Small companies Rate 20% Marginal relief 7.5% Small companies’ rate applies if taxable profits do not exceed £35,000 and the company derives at least 80% of its turnover from trading. Between £35,000 and £105,000 the full rate applies less marginal relief on the difference between £105,000 and taxable profits. Withholding tax On dividends 0% On interest paid to resident individuals 30% On interest paid to resident companies 35% On interest paid to non-residents 0% In addition, no tax is payable on dividends between Gibraltar companies Companies Special Status Exempt Status Company Tax rate/amount (irrespective of profits) Ordinarily resident Flat rate of £225 per annum Non-resident companies Non-resident Flat rate of £200 per annum Non-resident owned and controlled companies incorporated in Gibraltar which do not trade, earn or remit income to Gibraltar are not liable to corporation tax. Capital taxation Estate Duty - There is no Estate duty in Gibraltar Capital Gains Tax - There is no Capital Gains Tax in Gibraltar. Other Capital Taxes - There are no wealth, gift or other capital taxes Income tax rates Bands £ Tax Rate 0 - 4,00017% (reduced rate) 4,001 - 10,000 30% (standard rate) 10,001 - 15,000 35% Over - 15,000 42% Stamp duty Duty is on a scale as follows: Property worth up to £160,000 - stamp duty abolished. Property work more than £160,000 but not exceeding £250,000 - duty stays at 1.26%. Property value above £250,000 but does not exceed £350,000 – duty rises to 1.6%. Property value exceeds £350,000 - duty rises to 2.5%. Stamp Duty on mortgages above £200,000 rises to 0.20%. 2007 Budget The following was announced in the 2007 budget session of the Gibraltar Parliament: The Gibraltar Chronicle 1. Personal Tax System Top Rate reduced from 42% to 40 % (7,000 taxpayers). Standard Rate (30%) band widened by £3,000, to £16,000. (7,000 taxpayers) Existing Low Income Tax Credit of £275 per annum for those who earn less than £8,000 per annum is increased to £595 per annum and will now be paid through the PAYE Code. No person earning less than £7,000 per annum will pay any tax. Low Income Tax Credit extended to those who earn between £8,000 and £19,500. In combination with widening the Standard Rate band, all these taxpayers (13,300) will receive a benefit of at least £300 per annum, mostly through PAYE Code. 2. New Gross Income Based System Every taxpayer may choose between the normal system and this new Gross Income Based system and pay under whichever results in the lower tax. Gross Income Based system has no allowances and tax rates of :- 20% on first £25,000 income 30% on next £75,000 40% above £100,000 (6,500 local taxpayers will be significantly better off under this new system). Rules relating to the Gross Income Based system will prevent one family member benefiting from the new system and another getting the benefits of the allowances (e.g. mortgage interest etc) under the other system. Under this GIB System NO taxpayer with income below £25,000 per annum will pay more than 20% tax. NO taxpayer with income below £50,000 per annum will pay more than 25% tax. Various economic indicators by national origin Due to their business culture, the average annual earnings of Indo-Gibraltarians is nearly twice that of the rest of Gibraltarian people and approximately 1.5 times that of immigrants in the UK, thus making people of Indian descent by far the most economically affluent ethnic group in Gibraltar. Government of Gibraltar Website Rank National Origin Average annualearnings</tr> 1 Indian £32,585</tr> 2 UK British £22,011</tr> 3 Other £20,613</tr> 4 All other nationals £20,414</tr> 5 National average £19,383</tr> 6 Gibraltarian £18,934</tr> 7 Spanish £13,359</tr> 8 Moroccan £12,933</tr> Rank Origin Hourly pay</tr> 1 Indian £14.73</tr> 2 UK British £11.30</tr> 3 Other EU £10.58</tr> 4 All other nationals £10.48</tr> 5 National average £10.03</tr> 6 Gibraltarian £9.46</tr> 7 Spanish £6.86</tr> 8 Moroccan £6.64</tr> Rank Origin Unemploymentrate</tr> 1 Moroccan 7.3%</tr> 2 Spanish 2.8%</tr> 3 National average 2%</tr> 4 Gibraltarian 2%</tr> 5 UK British 1.4%</tr> 6 Other EU 1.4%</tr> 7 All other nationals 0.7%</tr> 8 Indian 0.4%</tr> Rank Origin Average monthlyearnings</tr> 1 Indian £2,455.61</tr> 2 UK British £1,818.57</tr> 3 Other EU £1,715.89</tr> 4 All other nationals £1,628.83</tr> 5 National average £1,627.49</tr> 6 Gibraltarian £1,625.49</tr> 7 Spanish £1,171.22</tr> 8 Moroccan £1,148.04</tr> Rank Origin % in higher managerialand professional occupations</tr> 1 Indian 20.3%</tr> 2 UK British 12.6%</tr> 3 Other EU 11.8%</tr> 4 All other nationals 9.5%</tr> 5 National average 9.0%</tr> 6 Gibraltarian 8.4%</tr> 7 Spanish 5.9%</tr> 8 Moroccan 4.4%</tr> External links The Gibraltar Government website The Financial Services Commission The Gibraltar regulatory authority Government revenue and expenditure 2006 - pdf References
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3,102
Anatole_France
Anatole France (16 April 1844—12 October 1924), born François-Anatole Thibault, was a French poet, journalist, and novelist. He was born in Paris, and died in Saint-Cyr-sur-Loire. He was a successful novelist, with several best-sellers. Ironic and skeptical, he was considered in his day the ideal French man of letters. He was a member of the Académie française, and won the Nobel Prize for Literature. Early life The son of a bookseller, France spent most of his life around books. His father's bookstore, called the Librairie France, specialized in books and papers on the French Revolution and was frequented by many notable writers and scholars of the day. w:fr:Anatole France Anatole France studied at the Collège Stanislas and after graduation he helped his father by working at his bookstore. After several years he secured the position of a cataloguer at Bacheline-Deflorenne and at Lemerre. In 1876 he was appointed a librarian for the French Senate. Medical anomaly Anatole France had a brain just two-thirds the normal size, but this had no recorded effect on his life in any way. Ross, Philip E. (2006-01). "Half-Brained Schemes," Scientific American. Retrieved on 2008-11-04. Literary career Anatole France began his career as a poet and a journalist. In 1869, Le Parnasse Contemporain published one of his poems, La Part de Madeleine. In 1875, he sat on the committee which was in charge of the third Parnasse Contemporain compilation. He moved Paul Verlaine and Mallarmé aside of this Parnasse. As a journalist, since 1867, he wrote a lot of articles and notices. He became famous with the novel Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard (1881). Its protagonist, skeptical old scholar Sylvester Bonnard, embodied France's own personality. The novel was praised for its elegant prose and won him a prize from the French Academy. In La Rotisserie de la Reine Pedauque (1893) Anatole France ridiculed belief in the occult; and in Les Opinions de Jerome Coignard (1893), France captured the atmosphere of the fin de siècle. He was elected to the Académie française in 1896. France took an important part in the Dreyfus Affair. He signed Emile Zola's manifesto supporting Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer who had been falsely convicted of espionage. France wrote about the affair in his 1901 novel Monsieur Bergeret. France's later works include L'Île des Pingouins (1908) which satirizes human nature by depicting the transformation of penguins into humans - after the animals have been baptized in error by the nearsighted Abbot Mael. La Revolte des Anges (1914) is often considered France's most profound novel. It tells the story of Arcade, the guardian angel of Maurice d'Esparvieu. Arcade falls in love, joins the revolutionary movement of angels, and towards the end realizes that the overthrow of God is meaningless unless "in ourselves and in ourselves alone we attack and destroy Ialdabaoth." He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. He died in 1924 and is buried in the Neuilly-sur-Seine community cemetery near Paris. In the 1920s, France's writings were put on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (Prohibited Books Index) of the Roman Catholic Church. Works, partial list Les Légions de Varus, poem published in 1867 in the Gazette rimée. Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard (The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard), 1881 The Amethyst Ring Thaïs, 1890 Le Jongleur de Notre Dame, 1892 La Rotisserie de la Reine Pedauque (At the Sign of the Web-Footed Queen), 1892 Les Opinions de Jerome Coignard (1893) Le Lys Rouge (The Red Lily), 1894 Epicure's Garden, 1895 L'Humaine Tragedie (The Human Tragedy) Crainquebille; Putois; Riquet; et Plusieurs Autres Recits Profitables Les Sept Femmes de la Barbe-Bleue et Autres Contes Merveilleux (The Seven Wives of Bluebeard, and Other Marvelous Stories) Monsieur Bergeret á Paris, 1901 Le Procurateur de Judée (The Procurator of Judaea), 1902 Sur la Pierre Blanche, 1905 The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife L'Île des Pingouins (Penguin Island), 1908 The Life of Joan of Arc, 1908 Mother of Pearl Les Dieux Ont Soif (The Gods Are Thirsty), 1912 La Revolte des Anges (The Revolt of the Angels), 1914 Famous sayings "I prefer the folly of enthusiasm to the indifference of wisdom." "The law, in its majestic equality, forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal their bread." (Le Lys Rouge) "To accomplish great things, we must not only act but also dream, not only plan but also believe." "Irony is the gaiety of reflection and the joy of wisdom." "Wandering re-establishes the original harmony which once existed between man and the universe." "For every monarchy overthrown the sky becomes less brilliant, because it loses a star. A republic is ugliness set free." "She fought him off vigorously, scratched, cried that she will die before she submits, but the chevalier paid no attention to her words and took her. Afterwards, she smiled coyly and told him: "Do not think, dear chevalier, that you won me against my will. Better thank our good preacher who reminded me that we are mortal, and a pleasure missed today is missed forever. Now we can proceed, for I missed too many pleasures while being too prudent for my own good." (Fable by Anatole France.) "Nine tenths of education is encouragement." "All religions breed crime." (Thaïs) "The people who have no weaknesses are terrible: there is no way of taking advantage of them." (The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard) "It is human nature to think wisely and act in an absurd fashion." "The whole art of teaching is only the art of awakening the natural curiosity of young minds for the purpose of satisfying it afterwards" "Until one has loved an animal, a part of one's soul remains unawakened" "Stupidity is far more dangerous than evil, for evil takes a break from time to time, stupidity does not" Notes External links Anatole France Biography at LitWeb Anatole France, Nobel Prize Winner by Herbert S. Gorman, The New York Times, 20 November 1921 Correspondence with architect Jean-Paul Oury at Syracuse University The Seven Wives of Bluebeard (English) by Anatole France The Story of the Duchess of Cicogne and of Monsieur de Boulingrin (English) by Anatole France Works by Anatole France at Internet Archive be-x-old:Анатоль Франс
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3,103
Grandmaster_(chess)
The title Grandmaster is awarded to extremely strong chess masters by the world chess organization FIDE. Apart from "World Champion", Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain. Once achieved, the title is held for life. In chess literature it is usually abbreviated to GM (similarly, FM stands for FIDE Master and IM for International Master). The abbreviation IGM for International Grandmaster can also sometimes be found, particularly in older literature. GM, IM, and FM are open to both men and women. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earned the GM title. Since about 2000, most of the top 10 women have held the GM title. A separate gender-segregated title, WGM for Woman Grandmaster, is also available, but is something of a misnomer. It is awarded to women who attain a level of skill between that of a FIDE Master and an International Master. FIDE also awards separate Grandmaster titles to composers and solvers of chess problems, see list of grandmasters of the FIDE for chess compositions. International Correspondence Chess Federation awards the title of International Correspondence Chess Grandmaster (ICCGM). History The first known use of the term grandmaster in connection with chess was in an 1838 issue of Bell's Life, in which a correspondent referred to William Lewis as "our past grandmaster". Lewis himself later referred to Philidor as a grandmaster, and the term was also applied to a few other players. Early tournament use Siegbert Tarrasch Akiba Rubinstein Mikhail Botvinnik, one of the first FIDE grandmasters In the Ostend tournament of 1907 the term "grandmaster" (Großmeister in German) was used. The tournament was divided into two sections: the Championship Tournament and the Masters' Tournament. The Championship section was for players who had previously won an international tournament. Siegbert Tarrasch won the Championship section, over Carl Schlechter, Dawid Janowski, Frank Marshall, Amos Burn, and Mikhail Chigorin, so these players were described as grandmasters for the purposes of the tournament. The San Sebastián 1912 tournament won by Akiba Rubinstein was a designated grandmaster event. Rubinstein won with 12½ points out of 19. Tied for second with 12 points were Aron Nimzowitsch and Rudolf Spielmann. Crosstable San Sebastian 1912 By some accounts, in the St. Petersburg 1914 chess tournament, the title "Grandmaster" was formally conferred by Russian Tsar Nicholas II, who had partially funded the tournament. The Tsar reportedly awarded the title to the five finalists: Emanuel Lasker, José Raúl Capablanca, Alexander Alekhine, Siegbert Tarrasch, and Frank Marshall (respectively, the World Champion, the next two World Champions, and two players who had lost World Championship matches to Lasker). Chess historian Edward Winter has questioned this, stating that the earliest known sources that support this story are an article by Robert Lewis Taylor in the June 15, 1940 issue of The New Yorker and Marshall's autobiography My 50 Years of Chess (1942). Chess Note 5144, by Edward Winter Non-standard and Soviet usage before 1950 Before 1950, the term "Grandmaster" was sometimes informally applied to other world class players. The Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE, or World Chess Federation) was formed in Paris in 1924, but did not get around to formulating criteria on who should earn the title. In 1927, the Soviet Union's Chess Federation established the title of Grandmaster of the Soviet Union, for their own players, since at that time Soviets were not competing outside their own country. This title was abolished in 1931, after having been awarded to Boris Verlinsky, who won the 1929 Soviet Championship. The title was brought back in 1935, and awarded to Mikhail Botvinnik, who thus became the first "official" Grandmaster of the USSR. Verlinsky did not get his title back. Id. at 28–29. Official status (1950 onwards) When FIDE reorganized after World War II it adopted regulations concerning the award of international titles. Titles were awarded by a resolution of the FIDE General Assembly and the Qualification Committee. FIDE first awarded the Grandmaster title in 1950 to 27 players. These players were: The top players of the day: world champion Botvinnik, and those who had qualified for (or been seeded into) the inaugural Candidates Tournament in 1950: Boleslavsky, Bondarevsky, Bronstein, Euwe, Fine, Flohr, Keres, Kotov, Lilienthal, Najdorf, Reshevsky, Smyslov, Ståhlberg, and Szabó. Players still living who, though past their best in 1950, were recognised as having been world class when at their peak: Bernstein, Duras, Grünfeld, Kostić, Levenfish, Maróczy, Mieses, Ragozin, Rubinstein, Sämisch, Tartakower, and Vidmar. Since FIDE did not award the grandmaster title retroactively, world-class players who died prior to 1950, including World Champions Steinitz, Lasker, Capablanca, and Alekhine, never received the title. 1953 regulations Title awards under the original regulations were subject to political concerns. Efim Bogoljubov, who had emigrated from the Soviet Union to Germany, was not entered in the first class of Grandmasters, even though he had played two matches for the World Championship with Alekhine. He received the title in 1951, by a vote of thirteen to eight with five abstentions. Yugoslavia supported his application, but all other Communist countries opposed it. In 1953, FIDE abolished the old regulations, although a provision was maintained that allowed older masters who had been overlooked to be awarded titles. The new regulations awarded the title of International Grandmaster of the FIDE to players meeting any of the following criteria: The world champion. Masters who have the absolute right to play in the World Championship Candidates Tournament, or any player who replaces an absent contestant and earns at least a 50 percent score. The winner of an international tournament meeting specified standards, and any player placing second in two such tournaments within a span of four years. The tournament must be at least eleven rounds with seven or more players, 80 percent or more being International Grandmasters or International Masters. Additionally, 30 percent of the players must be Grandmasters who have the absolute right to play in the next World Championship Candidates Tournament, or who have played in such a tournament in the previous ten years. A player who demonstrates ability manifestly equal to that of (3) above in an international tournament or match. Such titles must be approved by the Qualification Committee with the support of at least five members. 1957 regulations After FIDE issued the 1953 title regulations, it was recognized that they were somewhat haphazard, and work began to revise the regulations. The FIDE Congress in Vienna in 1957 adopted new regulations, called the FAV system, in recognition of the work done by International Judge Giovanni Ferrantes (Italy), Alexander (probably Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander), and Giancarlo Dal Verme (Italy). Under the 1957 regulations, the title of International Grandmaster of the FIDE was automatically awarded to: The world champion. Any player qualifying from the Interzonal tournament to play in the Candidates Tournament, even if he did not play in the Candidates for any reason. Any player who would qualify from the Interzonal to play in the Candidates but who was excluded because of a limitation on the number of participants from his Federation. Any player who actually plays in a Candidates Tournament and scores at least 33⅓ percent. The regulations also allowed titles to be awarded by a FIDE Congress on recommendation by the Qualification Committee. Recommendations were based on performance in qualifying tournaments, with the required score depending on the percentage of Grandmasters and International Masters in the tournament. 1965 regulations Concerns were raised that the 1957 regulations were too lax. At the FIDE Congress in 1961, GM Milan Vidmar said that the regulations "made it possible to award international titles to players without sufficient merit". At the 1964 Congress in Tel Aviv, a subcommittee was formed to propose changes to the regulations. The subcommittee recommended that the automatic award of titles be abolished, criticized the methods used for awarding titles based on qualifying performances, and called for a change in the makeup of the Qualification Committee. Several delegates supported the subcommittee recommendations, including GM Miguel Najdorf who felt that existing regulations were leading to an inflation of international titles. At the 1965 Congress in Wiesbaden FIDE raised the standards required for international titles. The International Grandmaster title regulations were: 1. Any World Champion is automatically awarded the GM title 2a. Anyone who scores at least 40 percent in a quarter-final match in the Candidates Tournament 2b. Scores at least the number of points in a tournament corresponding to the total of a 55 percent score against grandmasters plus 75 percent against International Masters (IM) plus 85 percent against other players (a GM "norm"). To fulfill requirement 2b, the candidate must score one GM norm in a category 1a tournament or two norms within a three year period in two Category 1b tournaments, or one Category 2a tournament and one Category 1b tournament. The categories of tournaments are: 1a—at least sixteen players, at least 50 percent are GMs, and 70 percent at least IMs 1b—at least twelve players, at least 33⅓ percent GMs and 70 percent IMs 2a—at least fifteen players, at least 50 percent IMs 2b—ten to fourteen players, at least 50 percent IMs. Since FIDE titles are for life, a GM or IM does not count for the purposes of this requirement if he had not had a GM or IM result in the five years prior to the tournament. In addition, no more than 50 percent plus one of the players can be from the same country for tournaments of 10 to 12 players, or no more than 50 percent plus two for larger tournaments. Seventy-four GM titles were awarded in 1951 through 1968. During that period, ten GM titles were awarded in 1965, but only one in 1966 and in 1968. Current regulations The requirements for becoming a Grandmaster are somewhat complex. A player must have an Elo rating of at least 2500 at one time (although they need not maintain this level to keep the title). A rating of 2400 or higher is required to become an International Master. In addition, at least two favorable results (called norms) in tournaments involving other Grandmasters, including some from countries other than the applicant's, are usually required before FIDE will confer the title on a player. There are other milestones a player can achieve to get the title, such as winning the Women's World Championship, the World Junior Championship, or the World Senior Championship. Current regulations may be found in the FIDE Handbook. Title inflation In 1972 there were only 88 GMs with 33 representing the USSR. In July 2005, the FIDE ratings list included over 900 grandmasters; see list of chess players and chess grandmasters for some of them. This huge increase is primarily because FIDE ratings (used in the calculation of title norms and thresholds) have an inherent inflationary effect, making grandmaster norms much easier to achieve. According to one researcher, ratings inflated by about 100 points between 1985 and 2000. For example, Nigel Short was rated the third best player in the world in 1989 with a rating of 2650; in the 21st century such a rating would only be good enough for a player to reach the top 50 or 60, with the third best player in world usually rated around 2750. Other minor factors come into play: there are more tournaments worldwide and cheaper air travel makes them more accessible to globe-trotting chess professionals, who include many players from the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe whose movements are no longer as restricted as they were before the 1990s. Additionally, players can make norms in tournaments that would have been previously considered too short for norms, making norms easier to get and allowing for more norm tournaments to be held. The grandmaster title still retains some of its prestige because it represents a very high level of chess performance against other titled players. A chess master is typically in the top 2 percent of all tournament players. A grandmaster is typically in the top 0.02 percent at the time he or she earns the title. However, only the top handful of current grandmasters are as dominant as the five original Grandmasters were in their day. Lasker, Capablanca and Alekhine were all World Champions, and both Tarrasch and Marshall were strong enough to play world title matches (both losing against Lasker). In order to restore the full prestige of the GM title, it is sometimes suggested that it ought to be reserved for those who, at some time in their lives, become serious contenders for the World Championship, or who have actually held that title. December 2008 saw a record number of GMs (1,192) and IMs (2,916) causing some FIDE officials to suggest that FIDE should consider an "elite grandmaster" title. http://www.fide.com/info/fide-commissions/3616-acp-report-by-gm-bartlmiej-m The proportion of titled players is actually growing smaller due to the rise in the number of all chess players worldwide who have FIDE ratings. In response, one member of the FIDE Titles & Ratings Committee observed that it is now more common for weaker players to get FIDE ratings, so the comparison of Grandmasters as a proportion of all rated players is not really helpful. Remarks on the ACP's FIDE Congress report, Nick Faulks, Chessbase, December 24 2008 Nigel Short has suggested that the title should be abolished altogether since it no longer helps to distinguish between true championship contenders and much lower-rated players who have no serious chance of challenging for the world title. Short says: "Just get rid of stupid titles." "Super-grandmasters" Due to this title inflation, most grandmasters today are not world-class players, and there is a wide disparity in playing strength between the highest-rated (around 2800 Elo rating) and lowest-rated grandmasters (around 2500, and often lower for elderly grandmasters). Hooper and Whyld write that in the early 20th century, "a grandmaster was someone who might sensibly be considered as a challenger for the world championship, but 80 years later some to whom the world champion could give odds bear that name." Hooper & Whyld 1992, p. 156. In order to differentiate the best players from lesser grandmasters, a top-level grandmaster is sometimes informally called a "super-grandmaster". The term is unofficial, and has no generally accepted definition.One possible definition of a "super-grandmaster" is one who is rated above 2700. See also Comparing top chess players throughout history List of chess grandmasters List of youngest grandmasters Notes References External links What is a Grandmaster article
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3,104
Politics_of_Burma
The government of Burma (also known as Myanmar) is an authoritarian dictatorial regime which is controlled by the military (Tatmadaw) in the form of the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). A parliamentary government was elected in 1990, but the military prevented it from convening. Political conditions Historically, Burma was a monarchy ruled by various dynasties prior to the 19th century. The British colonized Burma in the late 19th century, and it was under the jurisdiction of the British Raj until 1937. Burma was ruled as a British colony from the 1820’s until 1948. While the Bamar heartland was directly administered (first as a part of India and then, from 1937, as British Burma), ethnic regions outside the heartland were allowed some measure of self-rule along the lines of the Princely States of India. This led to split loyalties among the various ethnic groups to outside powers (either to the British or Japanese) as well between the indigenous people in Burma. The dominant ethnic group in Burma are the Bamar, who make up approximately sixty-eight percent of the population. During World War II , many members of the Bamar ethnic group volunteered to fight alongside the Japanese in hopes of overthrowing the occupying British forces. Meanwhile, many other ethnic groups supported the Allied forces in combating the Japanese and Burman forces. This conflict would come to be very significant in the aftermath of World War Two when Burma was granted its independence from Great Britain in 1948. By granting independence to Burma, the British government gave the new ruler, Aung San, control over areas that were not traditionally controlled by the Bamar. This conglomeration of formerly British-owned land created a state that is home to over twenty distinct minority ethnic groups. From the time of the signing of the Burmese Constitution in 1948, ethnic minorities have been denied Constitutional rights, access to lands that were traditionally controlled by their peoples and participation in the government. The various minority ethnic groups have been consistently oppressed by the dominant Burman majority, but have also suffered at the hands of warlords and regional ethnic alliances. Religion also plays a role in the ethnic conflicts that have taken place. Muslims, Hindus, Christians and Buddhists all live in Burma. These religious differences have led to several incidents that have impacted hundreds of thousands of citizens in Burma. In 1991, approximately 250,000 Muslim Rohingyas (an ethnic group from southwestern Burma) were forced from their homes by Burman forces p. 385 in: Selth, Andrew. Even Paranoids Have Enemies: “Cyclone Nargis and Myanmar’s Fears of Invasion.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 30.3 (2008): p. 379-402. . They crossed the border into Bangladesh, where they were given refugee status and aid from the international community that was not available to them inside Burma. The current government of Burma is led by Prime Minister (and General) Thein Sein. This current regime has been responsible for the displacement of several hundred thousand citizens, both inside and outside of Burma. The Karen, Karenni, and Mon ethnic groups have been forced to seek asylum in neighboring Thailand, where they are also abused by an unfriendly and unsympathetic government. These groups are perhaps more fortunate than the Wa and Shan ethnic groups who have become Internally Displaced Peoples in their own state since being removed from lands by the military junta in 2000. There are reportedly 600,000 of these Internally Displaced Peoples living in Burma today. Many are trying to escape forced labor in the military or for one of the many state-sponsored drug cartels. This displacement of peoples has led to both human rights violations as well as the exploitation of minority ethnic groups at the hands of the dominant Burman group. The primary actors in these ethnic struggles include but are not limited to the Government of Burma (junta), the Karen National Union and the Mong Tai Army. Independence era On January 4 1948, Burma achieved independence from Britain, and became a democracy based on the parliamentary system. ytryrtyjgn[[jg6t87<s>57hfghgng'Bold textjgdjdghj'''</s>]] In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities. The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British. AFPFL/Union Government In 1961, U Thant, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years. Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi. Military socialist era In 1962, General Ne Win led a coup d'état and established a nominally socialist military government that sought to follow the "Burmese Way to Socialism." The military expropriated private businesses and followed an economic policy of autarky, or economic isolation. SPDC era The current Head of State is Senior General Than Shwe who holds the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council." His appointed prime minister was Khin Nyunt until 19 October 2004, when he was forcibly deposed in favor of Gen. Soe Win. Almost all cabinet offices are held by military officers. US and European government sanctions against the military government, combined with consumer boycotts and shareholder pressure organized by Free Burma activists, have succeeded in forcing most western corporations to withdraw from Burma. However, some western oil companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. For example, the French oil company Total S.A. and the American oil company Chevron continue to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand. Total (formerly TotalFinaElf) is the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged complicity in human rights abuses along the gas pipeline. Before it was acquired by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount. Asian businesses, such as Daewoo, continue to invest in Burma, particularly in natural resource extraction. The United States and European clothing and shoe industry became the target of Free Burma activists for buying from factories in Burma that were wholly or partly owned by the government or the military. Many stopped sourcing from Burma after protests, starting with Levi Strauss in 1992. From 1992 to 2003, Free Burma activists successfully forced dozens of clothing and shoe companies to stop sourcing from Burma. These companies included Eddie Bauer, Liz Claiborne, Macy's, J. Crew, JoS. A. Banks, Children's Place, Burlington Coat Factory, Wal-Mart, and Target. The U.S. government banned all imports from Burma as part of the "Burmese Freedom and Democracy Act" of 2003. Sanctions have been criticized for their adverse effects on the civilian population. However, Burmese democracy movement leader Aung San Suu Kyi has repeatedly credited sanctions for putting pressure on the ruling military regime. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have documented egregious human rights abuses by the military government. There is no independent judiciary in Burma and the military government suppresses political activity. The government restricts Internet access, including blocking of Google, Gmail, Yahoo, and Hotmail. Times of India article The government uses software-based filtering from US company Fortinet to limit the materials citizens can access on-line, including free email services, free web hosting and most political opposition and pro-democracy pages. In 2001, the government permitted NLD office branches to re-open throughout Burma. However, they were shut down or heavily restricted beginning 2004, as part of a government campaign to prohibit such activities. In 2006, many members resigned from NLD, citing harassment and pressure from the Tatmadaw (Armed Forces) and the Union Solidarity and Development Association. The military government placed Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest again on May 31, 2003, following an attack on her convoy in northern Burma by a mob reported to be in league with the military. The regime extended her house arrest for yet another year in late November 2005. Despite a direct appeal by Kofi Annan to Than Shwe and pressure from ASEAN, the Burmese government extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006. The junta faces increasing international isolation. Burma's situation was referred to at the UN (United Nations) Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Burma's government. However, China and Russia continue to support the junta. Both countries vetoed a UN Security Council resolution on Burma in January 2007. According to Human Rights Defenders and Promoters (HRDP), on April 18, 2007, several of its members (Myint Aye, Maung Maung Lay, Tin Maung Oo and Yin Kyi) were met by approximately a hundred people led by a local USDA Secretary U Nyunt Oo and beaten up. Due to the attack, Myint Hlaing and Maung Maung Lay were badly injured and are now hospitalized. The HRDP believes that this attack was condoned by the authorities and vows to take legal action. Human Rights Defenders and Promoters was formed in 2002 to raise awareness among the people of Burma about their human rights. New constitution Myanmar's army-drafted constitution was overwhelmingly approved (by 92.4% of the 22 million voters with alleged voter turnout of 99%) on May 10 in the first phase of a two-stage referendum amid Cyclone Nargis. It was the first national vote since the 1990 election. Multi-party elections in 2010 would end 5 decades of military rule, as the new charter gives the military an automatic 25% of seats in parliament. NLD spokesman Nyan Win, inter alia, criticized the referendum: "This referendum was full of cheating and fraud across the country; In some villages, authorities and polling station officials ticked the ballots themselves and did not let the voters do anything." Reuters, Cyclone-hit Myanmar says 92 percent back charter The constitution would bar Aung San Suu Kyi, from public office. 5 million citizens will vote May 24 in Yangon and the Irrawaddy delta, worst hit by Cyclone Nargis. www.gmanews.tv, Myanmar OKs charter amid cyclone disaster Executive branch |Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council |Than Shwe | |April 23 1992 |- |Prime Minister |Thein Sein | |24 October 2007 The Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council is both the chief of state and de facto head of government. The council oversees the cabinet, presided by the prime minister. Members of Government of Burma Office Name SincePrime MinisterTHEIN SEIN, Gen.Min. of Agriculture & IrrigationHTAY OO, Maj. Gen.Min. of Commerce TIN NAING THEIN, Brig. Gen.Min. of Communications, Post, & Telegraph THEIN ZAW, Brig. Gen.Min. of Construction SAW TUN, Maj. Gen.Min. of Cooperatives TIN HTUT, Maj. Gen.Min. of Culture KHIN AUNG MYINT, Maj. Gen.Min. of Defense THAN SHWE, Sr. Gen.Min. of Education CHAN NYEIN, Dr.Min. of Electric Power 1 ZAW MIN, Col.Min. of Electric Power 2 KHIN MYAUNG MYINT, Maj. Gen.Min. of Energy LUN THI, Brig. Gen.Min. of Finance & Revenue HLA TUN, Maj. Gen.Min. of Foreign Affairs NYAN WIN, Maj. Gen.Min. of Forestry THEIN AUNG, Brig. Gen.Min. of Health KYAW MYINT, Dr.Min. of Home Affairs MAUNG OO, Maj. Gen.Min. of Hotels & Tourism SOE NAING, Maj. Gen.Min. of Immigration & Population SAW LWIN, Maj. Gen.Min. of Industry 1 AUNG THAUNGMin. of Industry 2 SOE THEIN, Vice Adm.Min. of Information KYAW HSAN, Brig. Gen.Min. of Labor AUNG KYIMin. of Livestock Breeding & Fisheries MAUNG MAUNG THEIN, Brig. Gen.Min. of Mines OHN MYINT, Brig. Gen.Min. of National Planning & Economic Development SOE THAMin. of Progress of Border Areas, National Races, & Development Affairs THEIN NYUNT, Col.Min. of Rail Transport AUNG MIN, Maj. Gen.Min. of Religious Affairs THURA MYINT MAUNG, Brig. Gen.Min. of Science & Industry THAUNGMin. of Social Welfare, Relief, & Resettlement MAUNG MAUNG SWE, Maj. Gen.Min. of Sports THURA AYE MYINT, Brig. Gen.Min. for Transport THEIN SWE, Maj. Gen. Legislative branch A unicameral People's Assembly (Pyithu Hluttaw), in which 492 seats are elected by popular vote in four-year terms, has never convened. The last elections were held May 271990. 1990 People's Assembly election results</tr> Party Votes Seats %</tr> Pop. Seats</tr> National League for Democracy (NLD) 7,943,622 392 58.7 79.7</tr> Shan Nationalities League for Democracy (SNLD) 222,821 23 1.7 4.7</tr> Minor parties and independents 1,606,858 12 12.1 2.4</tr> Arakan feague for Democracy (AfD) 160,783 11 1.2 2.2</tr> National Unity Party (NUP) 2,805,559 10 2.1 2.0</tr> Mon National Democratic Front (MNDF) 138,572 5 1.0 1.0</tr> National Democratic Party for Human Rights 128,129 4 1.0 0.8</tr> Chin National feague for Democracy 51,187 3 0.4 0.1</tr> Kachin State National Congress for Democracy 13,994 3 0.1 0.1</tr> Party for National Democracy 72,672 3 0.5 0.1</tr> Union Pa-O National Organisation 35,389 3 0.3 0.1</tr> Democratic Organisation for Kayah National Unity 16,553 2 0.1 -</tr> Kayah State Nationalities League for Democracy 11,664 2 0.1 -</tr> Naga Hills Regional Progressive Party 10,612 2 0.1 -</tr> Ta-ang (Palaung) National League for Democracy 16,553 2 0.1 -</tr> Zomi National Congress (ZNC) 18,638 2 0.1 -</tr> Total valid votes (87.7% of total cast) 13,253,606 492 100.0 Invalid votes 1,858,918 </tr> Valid votes (72.6% turnout) 15,112,524 </tr> Eligible voters 20,818,313 </tr> Source: psephos.adam-carr.net Judicial system Burma's judicial system is limited. British-era laws and legal systems remain much intact, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial. The judiciary is not independent of the executive branch. Burma does not accept compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction. Chief Justice of Supreme Court: AUNG TOE Attorney General: AYE MAUNG Wareru dhammathat Wareru dhammathat was the earliest law-book in Burma. It consists of laws ascribed to the ancient Indian sage, Manu, and brought to Burma by Hindu colonists. The collection was made at Wareru’s command, by monks from the writings of earlier Mon scholars preserved in the monasteries of his kingdom. (Wareru seized Martaban in 1281 and obtained the recognition of China as the ruler of Lower Burma and founded a kingdom which lasted until 1539. Martaban was its first capital, and remained so until 1369. It stretched southwards as far as Tenasserim.) BURMA, D. G . E. HALL, M.A., D.LIT., F.R.HIST.S., Professor Emeritus of the University of London and formerly Professor of History in the University of Rangoon, Burma.Third edition 1960. Page 34 Dammazedi pyatton Mon King Dammazedi (1472-92) was the greatest of the Mon rulers of Wareru’s line. He was famous for his wisdom and the collection of his rulings were recorded in the Kalyani stone inscriptions and known as the Dammazedi pyatton. BURMA, D. G . E. HALL, M.A., D.LIT., F.R.HIST.S. Professor Emeritus of the University of London and formerly Professor of History in the University of Rangoon, Burma. Third edition 1960. Page 35-36 Administrative divisions Burma is divided into seven divisions (taing) and seven states (pyi-nè''), classified by ethnic composition. The seven divisions are Ayeyarwady Division, Bago Division, Magway Division, Mandalay Division, Sagaing Division, Tanintharyi Division and Yangon Division; the seven states are Chin State, Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah State, Mon State, Rakhine State and Shan State. International organization participation AsDB, ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, GJC Burmese Democracy and Human Rights online media There are a number of web sites for more information, you can start off at the following: Globalissues,HumanRights Abuses in Burma. '''globalissues.org/HumanRights/Abuses/Myanmar. Burma Digest Irrawaddy, English. Irrawaddy, Burmese. Mizzima News in English Mizzima News in Burmese Mizzima TV DVB Democratic Voice of Burma. Khit Pyaing, The New Era Journal.(Burmese) Khit Pyaing, The New Era Journal.(English) Moe Maka, Burmese. Burmanet news. References Sources CIA World Factbook
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3,105
Brit_milah
Brit milah (Hebrew: [b'rīt mī'lā], Sephardi pronunciation, berit milah; Ashkenazi pronunciation, bris milah, "covenant of circumcision"; Yiddish, bris) is a religious ceremony within Judaism to welcome infant Jewish boys into a covenant between God and the Children of Israel through ritual circumcision performed by a mohel ("circumciser"). This happens on the eighth day of the child's life unless health reasons or certain specific conditions pertaining to the date, time, and conditions of birth vis-a-vis the Sabbath and/or holidays force a delay, in the presence of family and friends, followed by a celebratory meal (seudat mitzvah). Biblical origin "Isaac's Circumcision", Regensburg Pentateuch, c1300 According to the Hebrew Bible () circumcision was enjoined when God said "Walk before Me and be perfect" to the Biblical patriarch Abraham to be followed by his descendants as "a token of the covenant" concluded with him by God for all generations. It is also when his name is changed from "Abram" to "Abraham" by God: Abram was 99 years old. God appeared to him and said, 'I am God Almighty. Walk before Me and be perfect. I will make a covenant between Me and you, and I will increase your numbers very much.' Abram fell on his face. God spoke to him [again], saying, 'As far as I am concerned, here is My covenant with you: You shall be the father of a horde of nations. No longer shall you be called Abram. Your name shall become Abraham, for I have set you up as the father of a horde of nations. I will increase your numbers very, very much, and I will make you into nations — kings will be your descendants. I will sustain My covenant between Me and between you and your descendants after you throughout their generations, an eternal covenant; I will be a God to you and to your offspring after you. To you and your offspring I will give the land where you are now living as a foreigner. The whole land of Canaan shall be [your] eternal heritage, and I will be a God to [your descendants].' God [then] said to Abraham, 'As far as you are concerned, you must keep My covenant — you and your offspring throughout their generations. This is My covenant between Me, and between you and your offspring that you must keep: You must circumcise every male. You shall be circumcised through the flesh of your foreskin. This shall be the mark of the covenant between Me and you. 'Throughout all generations, every male shall be circumcised when he is eight days old. [This shall include] those born in your house, as well as [slaves] bought with cash from an outsider, who is not your descendant. [All slaves,] both houseborn and purchased with your money must be circumcised. This shall be My covenant in your flesh, an eternal covenant. The uncircumcised male whose foreskin has not been circumcised, shall have his soul cut off from his people; he has broken My covenant. () http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=17 As well as in : On the eighth day, [the child's] foreskin shall be circumcised. http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=3&CHAPTER=12 The penalty of non-observance is karet, "excision" from the people or being cut off from the community by God, as noted in . Conversion to Judaism for non-Israelites in Biblical times necessitated circumcision otherwise one could not partake in the Passover offering (). Today, as in the time of Abraham, it is required of converts in Orthodox and Conservative Judaism. (). Origin Traditional view According to rabbinic opinion, circumcision existed as a rite since the time of Abraham, and the present form of circumcision (Milah, pri'ah, metziztah) was introduced in the Oral Torah - Rabbi Chaim Chizkiyahu Midini. Mereches Hameztiztah from the Sdei Chemed , Shailos and Teshuvos Yehuda Ya'aleh - Rabbi Yehuda Assad, Shailos and Teshuvos Maharam Shick - Rabbi Moshe Shick, Shailos and Teshuvos Binyan Tzion - Rabbi Yaakov Etlinger - Vol 1:23 & 24. Importance As found in Genesis 17:1-14, Brit milah is considered to be so important that should the eighth day fall on the Sabbath, actions that would normally be forbidden because of the sanctity of the day are permitted in order to fulfill the requirement to circumcise. Ceremonial Kvatter Set of implements used in the performance of brit milah, displayed in the Göttingen city museum The name of Kvatter or Kvatterin (female) among Ashkenazi Jews is for the person who carries the baby from the mother to the father, who in turn carries him to the mohel. This honor is usually given to a couple without children, as a merit or charm that they should have children of their own. The origins of the term may simply be a corruption of "Gevatter", an archaic German word for godfather http://beritmila.org/Glossary.html , but it is also said to be a Yiddish erroneous combination of the words "Kavod" ("honor" in Hebrew) and "Tor" ("door" in Yiddish), meaning "The person honored by bringing the baby". Another source is a mix of Hebrew and Yiddish meaning 'like the father'. Metzitzah Tools of the trade: the hemostat (center) is used to keep the two layers of the foreskin together so that they are cut and removed as one. The guard (top center) is slid over the foreskin as close to the glans as possible to allow for maximum removal of the former without any injury to the latter. The scalpel is used to detach the foreskin, and the underlying blue bag is a sterilization pouch for the metal tools. While some mohelim (ritual circumcisors) do not wear gloves, other do: this mohel wears sterile surgical gloves in size 7. Lastly, the tube (center left) was used for metzitzah and still contains some blood. Less commonly practised, and more controversial, is metzitzah b'peh, (alt. mezizah), or oral suction, where the mohel sucks blood from the circumcision wound. The traditional reason for this procedure is to promote healing, Talmud Bavli Tractate Shabbos 133b: Rav Pappa said, “A mohel who does not perform metzitzah endangers the baby and is dismissed.” although the practice has been implicated in the spreading of herpes to the infant. Metzitzah b'peh ("suction by mouth") is a practice in certain Haredi and Hasidic circles in which, after removing the foreskin, the mohel sucks out the blood from the wound to clean it. The mohel spits the blood into a receptacle provided. Afterwards the circumcised penis is bandaged, and the brit is considered complete. Because the practice may spread diseases to the babies from the mohel's mouth (such as herpes), most mohelim ensure that their mouths are sanitized and washed out by rinsing with alcohol to disinfect the mouth. Cp. Shabtai, David and Raymond Sultan "Medical Risk Taking in Halacha" in Journal of Halacha and Contemporary Society, 2006. See also the rabbinic principle, The Lord protects the simple. However, because alcohol may not kill a virus such as herpes, washing the mouth with alcohol alone is not regarded as a sufficient protective measure. Today, if it is performed, the mohel generally uses a sterilized glass tube. However, the practice has become a controversy in both secular and Jewish medical ethics. The foundation for the ritual of metzitzah is found in Mishnah Shabbat 19:2, which lists metzitzah as one of the four steps involved in the circumcision rite. Rabbi Moses Sofer (known as the "Chasam Sofer") observed that the Talmud states that the rationale for this part of the ritual was hygienic — i.e., to protect the health of the child. As a result of these texts, the Chasam Sofer contended that Jewish tradition instituted metzitzeh solely to prevent danger to the infant and stated that metzitzah was not required to be applied orally, but nevertheless made the leniency conditional upon doctors testifying that the metzitzah with a sponge would accomplish the same purpose as oral suction. His letter was published in Kochvei Yitzchok. http://www.thejewishweek.com/top/editletcontent.php3?artid=4591 On the other hand, Rabbi Moshe Schick, the Maharam Shik, one of the most prominent students of the Chasam Sofer, states in his book of Responsa, She’eilos U’teshuvos Maharam Shik (Orach Chaim 152,) that the Chasam Sofer gave the ruling in that specific instance only and that it may not be applied elsewhere. He also states (Yoreh Deah 244) that the practice is possibly a Sinaitic tradition, i.e., Halacha l'Moshe m'Sinai (law of Moses from Sinai), and one is required to have Mesiras nefesh for the practice. In addition, Rabbi Chaim Chizkiya HaLevi Medini, the Sdei Chemed, printed a 50 page section called Ma'areches Hametzitzah, also claiming the practice to be Halacha l'Moshe m'Sinai, quoting R' Yehudah Assad and others. He also elaborates more on what prompted the Chasam Sofer to give the above ruling: Sdei Chemed vol.8 page 238 . He tells the story that a student of the Chasam Sofer - Rabbi Elazer Hurvitz, The author of responsa Yad Elazer and Chief Rabbi of Vienna at the time, (The incident is mentioned in responsa 54)- needed the ruling in defense of a governmental attempt to ban bris milah completely if it included Metztitzah b'peh, because of the concern of spreading disease to the baby. He therefore asked the Chasam Sofer to give him permission to do Brit milah without metzitzah b’peh. When he presented the defense in court, they erroneously recorded his testimony to mean that the Chasam Sofer stated it as a general ruling. He then adds, "Nevertheless it is my opinion that the Chasam Sofer never even wrote this letter. It is a forgery, in my opinion, and even if the letter was written by the Chasam Sofer, he certainly didn’t state it as a general ruling, given that it was not printed in his book of halachic responsa, as was the custom with all halachic rulings intended for the public." Included in the Kuntres Hamiliuim at the end of Ma'areches Hametzitah is a pronouncement by several hundred noted Hungarian and Russian Rabbis not to change the procedure, as well as statements by doctors at that time (circa 1890), that Metzitzah was not a danger if performed as prescribed in Shulchan Aruch. Medical controversy "Chair of Elijah" used during the brit milah ceremony Metzitzah b'peh was implicated in the transfer of herpes from mohelim to eight Israeli infants, one of whom suffered brain damage. Rare Circumcision Ritual Carries Herpes Risk When three New York City infants contracted herpes after metzizah b'peh by one mohel and one of them died, New York authorities took out a restraining order against the mohel requiring use of a sterile glass tube, or pipette. However, the mohel's attorney argued that the New York Department of Health had not supplied conclusive medical evidence linking his client with the disease. In September 2005, the city withdrew the restraining order and turned the matter over to a chasidic rabbinical court. In February 2006, after the rabbinical court had not met a deadline of 1 December 2005 for a decision on this case, Dr. Thomas Frieden, the Health Commissioner of New York City, wrote, "There exists no reasonable doubt that ‘metzitzah b'peh’ can and has caused neonatal herpes infection.…The Health Department recommends that infants being circumcised not undergo metzitzah b'peh." In May 2006, the Department of Health for New York State, issued a protocol for the performance of metzitzah b'peh. Dr. Antonia C. Novello, Commissioner of Health for New York State, together with a board of rabbis and doctors, worked, she said, to "allow the practice of metzizah b'peh to continue while still meeting the Department of Health's responsibility to protect the public health." By tube In three medical papers done in Israel, Canada, and the USA, oral suction following circumcision has been suggested as a cause in 11 cases of neonatal herpes. Rubin LG, Lanzkowsky P. Cutaneous neonatal herpes simplex infection associated with ritual circumcision. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal. 2000. 19(3) 266-267. Distel R, Hofer V, Bogger-Goren S, Shalit I, Garty BZ. Primary genital herpes simplex infection associated with Jewish ritual circumcision. Israel Medical Association Journal. 2003 Dec;5(12):893-4 Because of the risk of infection, some rabbinical authorities have ruled that the traditional practice of direct contact should be replaced by using a glass tube between the wound and the mohel's mouth, so there is no direct oral contact. The Rabbinical Council of America, the largest group of Modern Orthodox rabbis, endorses this method. Metzitza Be'Peh - Halachic Clarification Regarding Metzitza Be'Peh, RCA Clarifies Halachic Background to Statement of March 1, 2005 The RCA paper states: "Rabbi Schachter even reports that Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik reports that his father, Rav Moshe Soloveitchik, would not permit a mohel to perform metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact, and that his grandfather, Rav Chaim Soloveitchik, instructed mohelim in Brisk not to do metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact. However, although Rav Yosef Dov Soloveitchik also generally prohibited metzitza be’peh with direct oral contact, he did not ban it by those who insisted upon it,...". The sefer Mitzvas Hametzitzah The book was originally published in German, Die Ausübung der Mezizo, Frankfurt a.M. 1906; It was subsequently translated into Hebrew, reprinted in Jerusalem in 1966 under the title "Mitzvas Hametzitzah" and appended to the back of Dvar Sinai, a book written by the author's grandson, Sinai Adler. by Rabbi Sinai Schiffer of Baden, Germany, states that he is in possession of letters from 36 major Russian (Lithuanian) rabbis that categorically prohibit Metzitzah with a sponge and require it to be done orally. Among them is Rabbi Chaim Halevi Soloveitchik of Brisk. Conversion and exceptions A Brit milah could be circumvented with Dam Brit, or foregone altogether with a Milah L'Shem Giur: Medical considerations If a boy is born prematurely or has some other serious medical condition the Bris is generally postponed. The brit may only take place when a doctor or the parents deem the child healthy enough. Additionally, the Talmud explicitly notes that a male child is relieved of his responsibility to undergo circumcision if he has had three older brothers die due to complications from the procedure. This is mentioned specifically in the context of some sacrifices in which a priest was prohibited from participating if he was uncircumcised for this reason. An Israeli study found that circumcisions performed by mohels led to a high rate of urinary tract infections among babies. The researchers believed that the infections were caused by the bandage left on the penis after circumcision which did not allow the baby to urinate completely. This is particularly problematic if the circumcision occurs just before the Sabbath, when the baby may go two days before the mohel removes the bandage. Hatafat dam brit Circumcision alone, in the absence of the brit milah ceremony, does not fulfill the requirements of the mitzvah. In the case of a Jew who was circumcised outside of a brit milah, or an already-circumcised convert, the mohel draws a symbolic drop of blood from the penis. Hatafat dam brit (heb. דם ברית "Drop of the blood [of the] Covenant") refers to the fulfillment of the mitzvah of a brit milah. Blood A brit milah is not considered complete unless blood is actually drawn. This is not the intentional spilling of blood. The standard medical methods of circumcision through constriction do not meet the requirements of the halakhah for brit milah, because they cause hemostasis, i.e., they stop the flow of blood. A brit milah, to be conducted properly, requires the use of a specialized surgical knife, called an izmel, which does allow for dam brit. Unlike the traditional Jewish method, when circumcision is performed by a urologist or other surgeon the foreskin is removed by constriction, either with the use of clamps or a synthetic ring. This non-Jewish method works by crushing the skin until it is severed. The nerve endings and the blood vessels are severed in the same manner, causing pain and hemostasis. The expressly ritual element of circumcision in Judaism, as distinguished from its non-ritual requirement in Islam, is shown by the requirement that a child who either is born aposthetic (without a foreskin) or who has been circumcised without the ritual must nevertheless undergo a Brit milah in which a drop of blood (hatafat-dam, הטפת דם) is drawn from the penis at the point where the foreskin would have been or was attached. Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah, 263:4 Role in conversion A circumcision is not possible if a convert was already circumcised prior to conversion, in which case a single drop of blood is extracted in a practice called hatafat dam brit (Hebrew:). A man with a medical condition (such as hemophilia) which would cause a circumcision to endanger his life, however, cannot become Jewish, as there is no provision in Jewish law for exemption in such a situation. Milah l'shem giur A Milah L'shem giur is a "Circumcision for the purpose of conversion". In Orthodox Judaism, this procedure is usually done by adoptive parents for adopted boys who are being converted as part of the adoption or by families with young children converting together. The conversion of a minor is valid in both Orthodox and Conservative Judaism until a child reaches the age of majority (13 for a boy, 12 for a girl); at that time the child has the option of renouncing his conversion and Judaism, and the conversion will then be considered retroactively invalid. He must be informed of his right to renounce his conversion if he wishes. If he does not make such a statement it is accepted that the boy is halakhically Jewish. Orthodox rabbis will generally not convert a non-Jewish child raised by a mother who has not converted to Judaism. Rabbi Paysach J. Krohn, Bris Milah Mesorah Publications Ltd, 1985, pp.103-105 The laws of conversion and conversion-related circumcision in Orthodox Judaism have numerous complications, and authorities recommend that a rabbi be consulted well in advance. In Conservative Judaism, the Milah l'Shem giur procedure is also performed for a boy whose mother has not converted, but with the intention that the child be raised Jewish. This conversion of a child to Judaism without the conversion of the mother is allowed by Conservative interpretations of halakha ("Jewish law"). Conservative Rabbis will authorize it only under the condition that the child be raised as a Jew in a single-faith household. Should the mother convert, and if the boy has not yet reached his third birthday, the child may be immersed in the mikveh with the mother, after the mother has already immersed, to become Jewish. If the mother does not convert, the child may be immersed in a mikveh, or body of natural waters, to complete the child's conversion to Judaism. This can be done before the child is even one year old. If the child did not immerse in the mikveh, or the boy was too old, then the child may choose of their own accord to become Jewish at age 13 as a Bar Mitzvah, and complete the conversion then. Rabbi Avram Israel Reisner, On the conversion of adoptive and patrilineal children, Rabbinical Assembly Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, 1988 It does not have to be performed on a particular day. The ceremony does not override and is not performed on Shabbat or Jewish Holidays. In Orthodox Judaism, there is a split of authorities on whether the child receives a Hebrew name at the Brit ceremony or upon immersion in the Mikvah. According to Zichron Brit LeRishonim, naming occurs at the Brit with a different formula than the standard Brit Milah. The more common practice among Ashkenazic Jews follows Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, with naming occurring at immersion. Where the procedure was performed but not followed by immersion or other requirements of the conversion procedure (e.g., in Conservative Judaism, where the mother has not converted), if the boy chooses to complete the conversion at Bar Mitzvah, a Milah l'shem giur performed when the boy was an infant removes the obligation to undergo either a full brit milah or hatafat dam brit. Social context According to the Hebrew Bible, it was "a reproach" for an Israelite to be uncircumcised (Joshua 5:9.) The name arelim ("uncircumcised" [plural]) is used opprobriously, denoting the Philistines and other non-Israelites (I Samuel 14:6, 31:4; II Samuel 1:20) and used synonymously with tameh (unclean) for heathen (Isaiah 52:1). The word arel ("uncircumcised" [singular]) is also employed for "unclean" (Leviticus 26:41, "their uncircumcised hearts"; compare Jeremiah 9:25; Ezekiel 44:7,9); it is even applied to the first three years' fruit of a tree, which is forbidden (Leviticus 19:23). However, the Israelites born in the wilderness after the Exodus from Egypt were not circumcised. Joshua 5:2-9, explains, "all the people that came out" of Egypt were circumcised, but those "born in the wilderness" were not. Therefore Joshua, before the celebration of the Passover, had them circumcised at Gilgal specifically before they entered Canaan. Abraham, too, was circumcised when he moved into Canaan. Deuteronomy 10:16 says: "Circumcise the foreskin of your heart," suggesting that ethical acts (among people) are as important as spiritual acts (between people and God). The prophetic tradition emphasizes that God expects people to be good as well as pious, and that non-Jews will be judged based on their ethical behavior. Thus, Jeremiah 9:25-26 says that circumcised and uncircumcised will be punished alike by the Lord; for "all the nations are uncircumcised, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart." Reform Judaism In contrast with traditional Orthodox, Conservative and Masorti Judaism, denominations within Progressive Judaism, consistent with their view that traditional ritual law imposes no obligations binding on modernity, have generally made this a recommendation as opposed to an obligation or requirement, consistent with the movement's stressing of autonomy of its members and clergy. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have often accepted medical circumcisions performed by doctors as sufficient to fulfill the commandment of brit milah. In recent years a traditionalist element within these movements has begun stressing the religious and ritual nature of circumcision, as part of a growing trend towards wider acceptance of tradition, and as an example Reform Judaism has started training their own experts (mohalim) in this ritual. Academic opinions The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion, hypothesizes that the present form of circumcision, involving periah (peeling back the foreskin), was commenced during the Second Temple period. According to this hypothesis, Jewish hellenists, wanting to assimilate into Greek society, obliterated the sign of their circumcisions by finding ways to lengthen them, to make it look as if they had not been circumcised at all. Werblowsky, R.J. Zwi & Wigoder, Geoffrey (1997) The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press This practice was unacceptable to the Jewish community at large, and led to the complete removal of the foreskin to expose the glans. The frenulum may also be cut away at the same time, in a procedure called frenectomy. Talmud professor Daniel Boyarin has proposed two explanations for circumcision. One is that it is a literal inscription on the Jewish body of the name of God in the form of the letter "yud" (from yesod"). The second is that the act of bleeding represents a feminization of Jewish men, significant in the sense that the covenant represents a marriage between Jews and (a symbolically male) God. Boyarin, Daniel. "`This We Know to Be the Carnal Israel': Circumcision and the Erotic Life of God and Israel," Critical Inquiry. (Spring, 1992), 474-506. In Of the Special Laws, Book 1, the Jewish philosopher Philo (20 BC - AD 50) gives six reasons for the practice of circumcision. He notes that four of the reasons had been passed down by Jewish religious scholars. These include the idea that circumcision 1) protects against disease, 2) secures cleanliness "in a way that is suited to the people consecrated to God", 3) causes the circumcised portion of the penis to resemble a heart, thereby representing a physical connection between the "breath contained within the heart [that] is generative of thoughts, and the generative organ itself [that] is productive of living beings", and 4) promotes prolificness by removing impediments to the flow of semen. To these, Philo added two of his own reasons, including the idea that circumcision 5) "signified figuratively the excision of all superfluous and excessive pleasure" and 6) symbolically removes the "grievous malady of conceit" that humans can procreate the "fairest of creatures, man" in the absence of God. Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides: The Rambam) (1135-1204), who was one of the greatest Torah scholars of all time, an important Jewish physician, philosopher, and theologian, listed repression of sexual pleasure as "the strongest of the reasons for circumcision"; this was echoed by his disciple Isaac ben Yediah, who contrasted the sexual experiences with and without circumcision by using much more graphic language. The anti-circumcision movement and brit shalom The genital integrity movement, which condemns circumcision as genital mutilation, has not made significant inroads into any of the Jewish denominations with the notable historical exception of Reform Judaism. Many founding leaders of the Reform movement took a very rejectionist view of Jewish practice and discarded traditions and rituals, including ceasing circumcision, which was decried as barbaric. Some contemporary Jews choose not to circumcise their sons. They are assisted by a small number of Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis, and have developed a welcoming ceremony that they call the brit shalom ("Covenant [of] Peace") for such children, also accepted by Humanistic Judaism. This ceremony of brit shalom is not officially approved of by the Reform or Reconstructionist rabbinical organizations, who make the recommendation that male infants should be circumcised, as well as all men who convert into Judaism, though circumcision of converts is not mandatory in either movement. However, the connection of the Reform movement to an anti-circumcision, pro-symbolic stance is a historical one. From the early days of the movement in Germany, some classical Reformers hoped to replace ritual circumcision "with a symbolic act, as has been done for other bloody practices, such as the sacrifices." Katz, Jacob (1998) Divine Law in Human Hands: Case Studies in Halakhic Flexibility. Jerusalem: Hebrew University ISBN 978-9652239808 As a result, many European Jewish fathers during the nineteenth century chose not to circumcise their sons, including Theodore Herzl. Stewart, Desmond (1974) Theodore Herzl. New York: Doubleday ISBN 978-0385088961 In the US, an official Reform resolution in 1893 abolished circumcision for converts, Meyer, Michael "Berit Mila within the History of the Reform Movement" in Barth, Lewis (1990) Berit Mila in the Reform Context. New York: Berit Milah Board of reform Judaism and this ambivalence towards the practice has carried over to classical-minded Reform Jews today. In Rabbi Elyse Wechterman's essay A Plea for Inclusion, she argues that, even in the absence of circumcision, committed Jews should never be turned away, especially by a movement "where no other ritual observance is mandated". She goes on to advocate for an alternate covenant ceremony, brit atifah, for both boys and girls as a welcoming ritual into Judaism. Mark, Elizabeth Wyner (2003) The Covenant of Circumcision. Lebanon, NH: Brandeis ISBN 1-58465-307-8 With a continuing negativity towards circumcision still present within a minority of modern-day Reform, Judaic scholar Jon Levenson has warned that if they "continue to judge brit milah to be not only medically unnecessary but also brutalizing and mutilating...the abhorrence of it expressed by some early Reform leaders will return with a vengeance", proclaiming that circumcision will be "the latest front in the battle over the Jewish future in America." Levenson, Jon (March 2000) "The New Enemies of Circumcision", Commentary References External links CircCentral, an online museum of circumcision tools Jewish Encyclopedia entry Everything you need to know, plus all relevant prayers and blessings. The Initiation Society - The regulatory body for mohelim in the UK. Information on the ceremony and naming of the child, as well as a list of mohelim Bris Milah in the UK Jewish Ritual Circumcision (About.com) Circumcision (Jewish Virtual Library) Bris milah - Beautiful or barbaric? (Aish.com) (Orthodox perspective) Brit Milah - Ritual Circumcision in Judaism (Chabad.org) Rabbi Avram Reisner, on the conversion of adoptive and patrilineal children (Responsum adopted by Conservative Judaism's Rabbinical Assembly regarding Conservative policy on infant conversions) Advocating Circumcision Today - A pro-circumcision site containing details about the ceremony of Brit Milah and its history. Circlist.org- A pro-circumcision site with a cultural examination of a bris. Brit Yosef Yitzchak - Misc practical resources for parents or adults seeking a Brit Milah; Overview of Bris Milah ceremony and laws; Pro-circumcision articles and information. Worldwide volunteer network of Mohalim. Metzizah b'peh City Risking Babies' Lives… - Controversy over metzitza be'peh. City questions circumcision ritual after baby dies New York Times article Anne Miller, Staff writer, Times Union, "Rabbis, state sign health rules Safety protocol agreed to for ultra-Orthodox Jewish circumcision ritual", 13 June 2006, excerpt at Rabbi Yonason Binyomin Goldberger. Translated by Rabbi Avrohom Marmorstein. Sanctity and Science - Metziza B'peh. Feldheim. 1991. ISBN 0-87306-807-6 (Haredi perspective. According to the publisher, "Contains a review of the latest scientific research demonstrating the safety and desirability of b'rit milah as performed by the traditional method.") N. Daniel Korobkin. "Metzitzah B’peh Controversy: Rabbinic Polemics and Applying the Lessons of History". Jewish Action, Winter 2006/5767 - Volume 67, No. 2. Mordechai Halperin. "Metzitzah B’peh Controversy: The View from Israel". Jewish Action, Winter 2006/5767 - Volume 67, No. 2.
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3,106
Henry_Fielding
Henry Fielding (22 April 1707 – 8 October 1754) was an English novelist and dramatist known for his rich earthy humour and satirical prowess, and as the author of the novel Tom Jones. Aside from his literary achievements, he has a significant place in the history of law-enforcement, having founded (with his half-brother John) what some have called London's first police force, the Bow Street Runners, using his authority as a magistrate. Biography Fielding was educated at Eton College, where he established a lifelong friendship with William Pitt the Elder. His younger sister, Sarah, also became a successful writer. After a romantic episode with a young woman that ended in his getting into trouble with the law, he went to London where his literary career began. In 1728, he traveled to Leiden to study classics and law at the University. However, due to lack of money he was obliged to return to London and he began writing for the theatre, some of his work being savagely critical of the contemporary government under Sir Robert Walpole. The Theatrical Licensing Act of 1737 is alleged to be a direct result of his activities. The particular play that triggered the Licensing Act was The Vision of the Golden Rump, but Fielding's satires had set the tone. Once the Licensing Act passed, political satire on the stage was virtually impossible, and playwrights whose works were staged were viewed as suspect. Fielding therefore retired from the theatre and resumed his career in law and, in order to support his wife Charlotte Cradock and two children, he became a barrister. His lack of money sense meant that he and his family often endured periods of poverty, but he was also helped by Ralph Allen, a wealthy benefactor who later formed the basis of Squire Allworthy in Tom Jones. After Fielding's death, Allen provided for the education and support of his children. Fielding never stopped writing political satire and satires of current arts and letters. His Tragedy of Tragedies of Tom Thumb (for which Hogarth designed the frontispiece) was, for example, quite successful as a printed play. He also contributed a number of works to journals of the day. He wrote for Tory periodicals, usually under the name of "Captain Hercules Vinegar". As Justice of the Peace he issued a warrant for the arrest of Colley Cibber for "murder of the English language". During the late 1730s and early 1740s Fielding continued to air his liberal and anti-Jacobite views in satirical articles and newspapers. Almost by accident, in anger at the success of Richardson's Pamela, Fielding took to writing novels in 1741 and his first major success was Shamela, an anonymous parody of Samuel Richardson's melodramatic novel. It is a satire that follows the model of the famous Tory satirists of the previous generation (Jonathan Swift and John Gay, in particular). He followed this up with Joseph Andrews (1742), an original work supposedly dealing with Pamela's brother, Joseph. Although also begun as a parody, this work developed into an accomplished novel in its own right and is considered to mark Fielding's debut as a serious novelist. In 1743, he published a novel in the Miscellanies volume III (which was the first volume of the Miscellanies). This was The History of the Life of the Late Mr Jonathan Wild the Great. This novel is sometimes thought of as his first because he almost certainly began composing it before he wrote Shamela and Joseph Andrews. It is a satire of Walpole that draws a parallel between Walpole and Jonathan Wild, the infamous gang leader and highwayman. He implicitly compares the Whig party in Parliament with a gang of thieves being run by Walpole, whose constant desire to be a "Great Man" (a common epithet for Walpole) should culminate only in the antithesis of greatness: being hanged. His anonymously-published The Female Husband of 1746 is a fictionalized account of a notorious case in which a female transvestite was tried for duping another woman into marriage. Though a minor item in Fielding's total oeuvre, the subject is consistent with his ongoing preoccupation with fraud, sham, and masks. His greatest work was Tom Jones (1749), a meticulously constructed picaresque novel telling the convoluted and hilarious tale of how a foundling came into a fortune. Charlotte, on whom he later modeled the heroines of both Tom Jones and Amelia, died in 1744. Three years later Fielding - disregarding public opinion - married Charlotte's former maid, Mary, who was pregnant. Despite this, his consistent anti-Jacobitism and support for the Church of England led to him being rewarded a year later with the position of London's Chief Magistrate, and his literary career went from strength to strength. Joined by his younger half-brother John, he helped found what some have called London's first police force, the Bow Street Runners in 1749. According to the historian G.M. Trevelyan, they were two of the best magistrates in eighteenth-century London, and did a great deal to enhance the cause of judicial reform and improve prison conditions. His influential pamphlets and enquiries included a proposal for the abolition of public hangings. This did not, however, imply opposition to capital punishment as such—as evident, for example, in his presiding in 1751 over the trial of the notorious criminal James Field, finding him guilty in a robbery and sentencing him to hang. Despite being now blind, John Fielding succeeded his older brother as Chief Magistrate and became known as the 'Blind Beak' of Bow Street for his ability to recognise criminals by their voice alone. Words, Words, Words, From the Beginnings to the 18th Century, La Spiga languages, 2003 In January 1752, Fielding started a biweekly periodical titled The Covent-Garden Journal, which he would publish under the pseudonym of "Sir Alexander Drawcansir, Knt. Censor of Great Britain" until November of the same year. In this periodical, Fielding directly challenged the "armies of Grub Street" and the contemporary periodical writers of the day in a conflict that would eventually become the Paper War of 1752-1753. Fielding's ardent commitment to the cause of justice as a great humanitarian in the 1750s, coincided with a rapid deterioration in his health to such an extent that he went abroad to Portugal in 1754 in search of a cure. Gout, asthma and other afflictions meant that he had to use crutches. He died in Lisbon two months later and his tomb in the city English Cemetery (a.k.a. "Os Cyprestes") may be visited, which also has the St. George's Church (Anglican church for Lisbon) inside the cemetery. Fielding called Lisbon "the nastiest city in the world." Literary style Whereas Defoe and Richardson both attempt to hide the fictional nature of their work under the guise of 'memoirs' and 'letters' respectively, Henry Fielding adopted a position which represented a new departure in terms of prose fiction—in no way do his novels constitute an effort to disguise literary devices. In fact, he was the first major novelist to openly admit that his prose fiction was pure artefact. Also, in comparison with his arch rival and contemporary, Richardson, Fielding presents his reader with a much wider range of characters taken from all social classes. Fielding's lack of psychological realism (i.e. the feelings and emotions of his characters are rarely explored in any depth) can perhaps be put down to his overriding concern to reveal the universal order of things. It can be argued that his novel Tom Jones reflects its author's essentially neoclassical outlook—character is something the individual is blessed with at birth, a part of life's natural order or pattern. Characters within Fielding's novels also correspond largely to types; e.g. Squire Western is a typically boorish and uncultivated Tory squire, obsessed with fox hunting, drinking and acquiring more property. So Fielding's comic epic contains a range of wonderful—but essentially static—characters whose motives and behaviour are largely predetermined. There is little emotional depth to his portrayal of them, and the complex realities of interactive human relationships that are so much a part of the modern novel are of negligible importance to him. Perhaps the character we come to know best is the figure of the omniscient narrator himself (i.e. Fielding) whose company some of his readers come to enjoy. In popular culture Fielding, played by John Sessions, satirically narrates the 1997 television adaptation of his own work The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling. His brother John Fielding also appears as the magistrate at Jones' trial. Fielding is the central character in the 2008 Channel 4 historical drama City of Vice, an account on the early cases of the Bow Street runners, which used Fielding's diaries as a source. Fielding was played by character actor Ian McDiarmid. Fielding is portrayed in the 2006 BBC drama by David Warner, Sweeney Todd starring Ray Winstone as Sweeney Todd and Essie Davis. In Joe Wright's 2007 film adaptation of "Atonement" (novel by Ian Mcewan), Cecilia admits to Robbie that she "prefers Fielding anyday; he's much more passionate" as opposed to the other 18th century Romantic writers." Partial list of works The Masquerade - a poem (Fielding's first publication) Love in Several Masques - play, 1728 Rape upon Rape - play, 1730. Adapted by Bernard Miles as Lock Up Your Daughters! in 1959, filmed in 1974 The Temple Beau - novel, 1730 The Author's Farce - play, 1730 The Tragedy of Tragedies; or, The Life and Death of Tom Thumb - play, 1731 Grub-Street Opera - play, 1731 The Modern Husband - play, 1732 The Covent Garden Tragedy - play, 1732 Pasquin - play, 1736 The Historical Register for the Year 1736 - play, 1737 An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews - novel, 1741 The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and his Friend, Mr. Abraham Abrams - novel, 1742 The Life and Death of Jonathan Wild, the Great - novel, 1743, ironic treatment of Jonathan Wild, the most notorious underworld figure of the time. Published as Volume 3 of Miscellanies. Miscellanies - collection of works, 1743, contained the poem Part of Juvenal's Sixth Satire, Modernized in Burlesque Verse The Female Husband or the Surprising History of Mrs Mary alias Mr George Hamilton, who was convicted of having married a young woman of Wells and lived with her as her husband, taken from her own mouth since her confinement - pamphlet, fictionalized report, 1746 The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling - novel, 1749 A Journey from this World to the Next - 1749 Amelia - novel, 1751 The Covent Garden Journal - periodical, 1752 Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon - travel narrative, 1755 Tom Thumb N.D. References Bibliography The first collected edition of Fielding was Works (London, 1762); other editions are those edited respectively by Scott and Roscoe (Edinburgh, 1840), by Browne (London, 1871), by Gosse (New York, 1898), and by Saintbury (New York and London, 1902). Fielding's first biographer was Arthur Murray, whose essay on Fielding's life and genius was introduced in the first collected series. (See above). The best life is that of Martin Battestin and Ruthe Battestin, Henry Fielding: A Life (London & New York: Routledge, 1989). Lawrence, Life and Times of Fielding (London, 1855) Leslie Stephen's admirable essay on Fielding in Hours in a Library (London, 1874-79) Linder, Henry Fielding's Dramatische Werke (Dresden, 1895) A survey of Fielding scholarship and criticism by H. George Hahn, "Henry Fielding: An Annotated Bibliography" (Metuchen, NJ and London: Scarecrow Press, 1979). Full and excellent critical introductions to each of Fielding's important works will be found in G. E. Saintbury's edition of the Works (ten volumes, London, 1898). External links Works by Henry Fielding in e-book Famous Quotes by Henry Fielding
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Programming_language
A programming language is a machine-readable artificial language designed to express computations that can be performed by a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that specify the behavior of a machine, to express algorithms precisely, or as a mode of human communication. Many programming languages have some form of written specification of their syntax and semantics, since computers require precisely defined instructions. Some (such as C) are defined by a specification document (for example, an ISO Standard), while others (such as Perl) have a dominant implementation. The earliest programming languages predate the invention of the computer, and were used to direct the behavior of machines such as automated looms and player pianos. Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computer field, As of May 2006 The Encyclopedia of Computer Languages by Murdoch University, Australia lists 8,512 computer languages. with many more being created every year. Definitions Traits often considered important for constituting a programming language: Function: A programming language is a language used to write computer programs, which involve a computer performing some kind of computation , The scope of SIGPLAN is the theory, design, implementation, description, and application of computer programming languages - languages that permit the specification of a variety of different computations, thereby providing the user with significant control (immediate or delayed) over the computer's operation. or algorithm and possibly control external devices such as printers, robots, and so on. Target: Programming languages differ from natural languages in that natural languages are only used for interaction between people, while programming languages also allow humans to communicate instructions to machines. Some programming languages are used by one device to control another. For example PostScript programs are frequently created by another program to control a computer printer or display. Constructs: Programming languages may contain constructs for defining and manipulating data structures or controlling the flow of execution. Expressive power: The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing. All Turing complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, yet often called programming languages. , Charity is a categorical programming language..., All Charity computations terminate. Some authors restrict the term "programming language" to those languages that can express all possible algorithms; In mathematical terms, this means the programming language is Turing-complete sometimes the term "computer language" is used for more limited artificial languages. Non-computational languages, such as markup languages like HTML or formal grammars like BNF, are usually not considered programming languages. A programming language (which may or may not be Turing complete) may be embedded in these non-computational (host) languages. Usage A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data. A programmer uses the abstractions present in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. These concepts are represented as a collection of the simplest elements available (called primitives). Programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent to be understood. However, figuratively speaking, computers "do exactly what they are told to do", and cannot "understand" what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program. Programs for a computer might be executed in a batch process without human interaction, or a user might type commands in an interactive session of an interpreter. In this case the "commands" are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language is used to give commands to a software application (such as a shell) it is called a scripting language. Many languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, combined with other languages, and eventually fallen into disuse. Although there have been attempts to design one "universal" computer language that serves all purposes, all of them have failed to be generally accepted as filling this role. IBM in first publishing PL/I, for example, rather ambitiously titled its manual The universal programming language PL/I (IBM Library; 1966). The title reflected IBM's goals for unlimited subsetting capability: PL/I is designed in such a way that one can isolate subsets from it satisfying the requirements of particular applications. (). Ada and UNCOL had similar early goals. The need for diverse computer languages arises from the diversity of contexts in which languages are used: Programs range from tiny scripts written by individual hobbyists to huge systems written by hundreds of programmers. Programmers range in expertise from novices who need simplicity above all else, to experts who may be comfortable with considerable complexity. Programs must balance speed, size, and simplicity on systems ranging from microcontrollers to supercomputers. Programs may be written once and not change for generations, or they may undergo nearly constant modification. Finally, programmers may simply differ in their tastes: they may be accustomed to discussing problems and expressing them in a particular language. One common trend in the development of programming languages has been to add more ability to solve problems using a higher level of abstraction. The earliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer. As new programming languages have developed, features have been added that let programmers express ideas that are more remote from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the complexity of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer. This lets them write more functionality per time unit. Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.: The Mythical Man-Month, Addison-Wesley, 1982, pp. 93-94 Natural language processors have been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. Edsger Dijkstra took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs, and dismissed natural language programming as "foolish". Dijkstra, Edsger W. On the foolishness of "natural language programming." EWD667. Alan Perlis was similarly dismissive of the idea. Perlis, Alan, Epigrams on Programming. SIGPLAN Notices Vol. 17, No. 9, September 1982, pp. 7-13 Elements All programming languages have some primitive building blocks for the description of data and the processes or transformations applied to them (like the addition of two numbers or the selection of an item from a collection). These primitives are defined by syntactic and semantic rules which describe their structure and meaning respectively. Syntax Parse tree of Python code with inset tokenization Syntax highlighting is often used to aid programmers in recognizing elements of source code. The language above is Python. A programming language's surface form is known as its syntax. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, there are some programming languages which are more graphical in nature, using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program. The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either formal or hard-coded in a reference implementation). Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax. Programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of regular expressions (for lexical structure) and Backus-Naur Form (for grammatical structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on Lisp: expression ::= atom | list atom ::= number | symbol number ::= [+-]?['0'-'9']+ symbol ::= ['A'-'Z''a'-'z'].* list ::= '(' expression* ')' This grammar specifies the following: an expression is either an atom or a list; an atom is either a number or a symbol; a number is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign; a symbol is a letter followed by zero or more of any characters (excluding whitespace); and a list is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more expressions inside it. The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: '12345', '()', '(a b c232 (1))' Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit undefined behavior. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it. Using natural language as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false: "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously." is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted meaning. "John is a married bachelor." is grammatically well-formed but expresses a meaning that cannot be true. The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs an operation that is not semantically defined (because p is a null pointer, the operations p->real and p->im have no meaning): complex *p = NULL; complex abs_p = sqrt (p->real * p->real + p->im * p->im); The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the Chomsky hierarchy. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are context-free grammars. Section 2.2: Pushdown Automata, pp.101–114. Static semantics The static semantics defines restrictions on the structure of valid texts that are hard or impossible to express in standard syntactic formalisms. The most important of these restrictions are covered by type systems. Type system A type system defines how a programming language classifies values and expressions into types, how it can manipulate those types and how they interact. This generally includes a description of the data structures that can be constructed in the language. The design and study of type systems using formal mathematics is known as type theory. Typed versus untyped languages A language is typed if the specification of every operation defines types of data to which the operation is applicable, with the implication that it is not applicable to other types. For example, "this text between the quotes" is a string. In most programming languages, dividing a number by a string has no meaning. Most modern programming languages will therefore reject any program attempting to perform such an operation. In some languages, the meaningless operation will be detected when the program is compiled ("static" type checking), and rejected by the compiler, while in others, it will be detected when the program is run ("dynamic" type checking), resulting in a runtime exception. A special case of typed languages are the single-type languages. These are often scripting or markup languages, such as Rexx or SGML, and have only one data type—most commonly character strings which are used for both symbolic and numeric data. In contrast, an untyped language, such as most assembly languages, allows any operation to be performed on any data, which are generally considered to be sequences of bits of various lengths. High-level languages which are untyped include BCPL and some varieties of Forth. In practice, while few languages are considered typed from the point of view of type theory (verifying or rejecting all operations), most modern languages offer a degree of typing. Many production languages provide means to bypass or subvert the type system. Static versus dynamic typing In static typing all expressions have their types determined prior to the program being run (typically at compile-time). For example, 1 and (2+2) are integer expressions; they cannot be passed to a function that expects a string, or stored in a variable that is defined to hold dates. Statically typed languages can be either manifestly typed or type-inferred. In the first case, the programmer must explicitly write types at certain textual positions (for example, at variable declarations). In the second case, the compiler infers the types of expressions and declarations based on context. Most mainstream statically typed languages, such as C++, C# and Java, are manifestly typed. Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with less mainstream languages, such as Haskell and ML. However, many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference; for example, Java and C# both infer types in certain limited cases. Specifically, instantiations of generic types are inferred for certain expression forms. Type inference in Generic Java—the research language that provided the basis for Java 1.5's bounded parametric polymorphism extensions—is discussed in two informal manuscripts from the Types mailing list: Generic Java type inference is unsound (Alan Jeffrey, 17 December 2001) and Sound Generic Java type inference (Martin Odersky, 15 January 2002). C#'s type system is similar to Java's, and uses a similar partial type inference scheme. Dynamic typing, also called latent typing, determines the type-safety of operations at runtime; in other words, types are associated with runtime values rather than textual expressions. As with type-inferred languages, dynamically typed languages do not require the programmer to write explicit type annotations on expressions. Among other things, this may permit a single variable to refer to values of different types at different points in the program execution. However, type errors cannot be automatically detected until a piece of code is actually executed, making debugging more difficult. Ruby, Lisp, JavaScript, and Python are dynamically typed. Weak and strong typing Weak typing allows a value of one type to be treated as another, for example treating a string as a number. This can occasionally be useful, but it can also allow some kinds of program faults to go undetected at compile time and even at run time. Strong typing prevents the above. An attempt to perform an operation on the wrong type of value raises an error. Strongly typed languages are often termed type-safe or safe. An alternative definition for "weakly typed" refers to languages, such as Perl and JavaScript, which permit a large number of implicit type conversions. In JavaScript, for example, the expression 2 * x implicitly converts x to a number, and this conversion succeeds even if x is null, undefined, an Array, or a string of letters. Such implicit conversions are often useful, but they can mask programming errors. Strong and static are now generally considered orthogonal concepts, but usage in the literature differs. Some use the term strongly typed to mean strongly, statically typed, or, even more confusingly, to mean simply statically typed. Thus C has been called both strongly typed and weakly, statically typed. Execution semantics Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. The execution semantics of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. For example, the semantics may define the strategy by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which control structures conditionally execute statements. Core library Most programming languages have an associated core library (sometimes known as the 'Standard library', especially if it is included as part of the published language standard), which is conventionally made available by all implementations of the language. Core libraries typically include definitions for commonly used algorithms, data structures, and mechanisms for input and output. A language's core library is often treated as part of the language by its users, although the designers may have treated it as a separate entity. Many language specifications define a core that must be made available in all implementations, and in the case of standardized languages this core library may be required. The line between a language and its core library therefore differs from language to language. Indeed, some languages are designed so that the meanings of certain syntactic constructs cannot even be described without referring to the core library. For example, in Java, a string literal is defined as an instance of the java.lang.String class; similarly, in Smalltalk, an anonymous function expression (a "block") constructs an instance of the library's BlockContext class. Conversely, Scheme contains multiple coherent subsets that suffice to construct the rest of the language as library macros, and so the language designers do not even bother to say which portions of the language must be implemented as language constructs, and which must be implemented as parts of a library. Practice A language's designers and users must construct a number of artifacts that govern and enable the practice of programming. The most important of these artifacts are the language specification and implementation. Specification The specification of a programming language is intended to provide a definition that the language users and the implementors can use to determine whether the behavior of a program is correct, given its source code. A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following: An explicit definition of the syntax, static semantics, and execution semantics of the language. While syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in natural language (e.g., the C language), or a formal semantics (e.g., the Standard ML and Scheme specifications). A description of the behavior of a translator for the language (e.g., the C++ and Fortran specifications). The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or a formal language. A reference or model implementation, sometimes written in the language being specified (e.g., Prolog or ANSI REXX ANSI — Programming Language Rexx, X3-274.1996 ). The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation. Implementation An implementation of a programming language provides a way to execute that program on one or more configurations of hardware and software. There are, broadly, two approaches to programming language implementation: compilation and interpretation. It is generally possible to implement a language using either technique. The output of a compiler may be executed by hardware or a program called an interpreter. In some implementations that make use of the interpreter approach there is no distinct boundary between compiling and interpreting. For instance, some implementations of the BASIC programming language compile and then execute the source a line at a time. Programs that are executed directly on the hardware usually run several orders of magnitude faster than those that are interpreted in software. One technique for improving the performance of interpreted programs is just-in-time compilation. Here the virtual machine, just before execution, translates the blocks of bytecode which are going to be used to machine code, for direct execution on the hardware. History A selection of textbooks that teach programming, in languages both popular and obscure. These are only a few of the thousands of programming languages and dialects that have been designed in history. Early developments The first programming languages predate the modern computer. The 19th century had "programmable" looms and player piano scrolls which implemented what are today recognized as examples of domain-specific programming languages. By the beginning of the twentieth century, punch cards encoded data and directed mechanical processing. In the 1930s and 1940s, the formalisms of Alonzo Church's lambda calculus and Alan Turing's Turing machines provided mathematical abstractions for expressing algorithms; the lambda calculus remains influential in language design. Benjamin C. Pierce writes: "... the lambda calculus has seen widespread use in the specification of programming language features, in language design and implementation, and in the study of type systems." In the 1940s, the first electrically powered digital computers were created. The first high-level programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkül, developed for the German Z3 by Konrad Zuse between 1943 and 1945. However, it was not implemented until much later because of wartime damage. Programmers of early 1950s computers, notably UNIVAC I and IBM 701, used machine language programs, that is, the first generation language (1GL). 1GL programming was quickly superseded by similarly machine-specific, but mnemonic, second generation languages (2GL) known as assembly languages or "assembler". Later in the 1950s, assembly language programming, which had evolved to include the use of macro instructions, was followed by the development of "third generation" programming languages (3GL), such as FORTRAN, LISP, and COBOL. 3GLs are more abstract and are "portable", or at least implemented similar on computers that do not support the same native machine code. Updated versions of all of these 3GLs are still in general use, and each has strongly influenced the development of later languages. At the end of the 1950s, the language formalized as Algol 60 was introduced, and most later programming languages are, in many respects, descendants of Algol. The format and use of the early programming languages was heavily influenced by the constraints of the interface. Frank da Cruz. IBM Punch Cards Columbia University Computing History. Refinement The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use, though many aspects were refinements of ideas in the very first Third-generation programming languages: APL introduced array programming and influenced functional programming. Richard L. Wexelblat: History of Programming Languages, Academic Press, 1981, chapter XIV. PL/I (NPL) was designed in the early 1960s to incorporate the best ideas from FORTRAN and COBOL. In the 1960s, Simula was the first language designed to support object-oriented programming; in the mid-1970s, Smalltalk followed with the first "purely" object-oriented language. C was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a systems programming language, and remains popular. . This comparison analyzes trends in number of projects hosted by a popular community programming repository. During most years of the comparison, C leads by a considerable margin; in 2006, Java overtakes C, but the combination of C/C++ still leads considerably. Prolog, designed in 1972, was the first logic programming language. In 1978, ML built a polymorphic type system on top of Lisp, pioneering statically typed functional programming languages. Each of these languages spawned an entire family of descendants, and most modern languages count at least one of them in their ancestry. The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of structured programming, and whether programming languages should be designed to support it. Edsger Dijkstra, in a famous 1968 letter published in the Communications of the ACM, argued that GOTO statements should be eliminated from all "higher level" programming languages. The 1960s and 1970s also saw expansion of techniques that reduced the footprint of a program as well as improved productivity of the programmer and user. The card deck for an early 4GL was a lot smaller for the same functionality expressed in a 3GL deck. Consolidation and growth The 1980s were years of relative consolidation. C++ combined object-oriented and systems programming. The United States government standardized Ada, a systems programming language derived from Pascal and intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so-called "fifth generation" languages that incorporated logic programming constructs. Tetsuro Fujise, Takashi Chikayama Kazuaki Rokusawa, Akihiko Nakase (December 1994). "KLIC: A Portable Implementation of KL1" Proc. of FGCS '94, ICOT Tokyo, December 1994. KLIC is a portable implementation of a concurrent logic programming language KL1. The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp. Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the ideas invented in the previous decade. One important trend in language design during the 1980s was an increased focus on programming for large-scale systems through the use of modules, or large-scale organizational units of code. Modula-2, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, although other languages, such as PL/I, already had extensive support for modular programming. Module systems were often wedded to generic programming constructs. The rapid growth of the Internet in the mid-1990s created opportunities for new languages. Perl, originally a Unix scripting tool first released in 1987, became common in dynamic Web sites. Java came to be used for server-side programming. These developments were not fundamentally novel, rather they were refinements to existing languages and paradigms, and largely based on the C family of programming languages. Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and research. Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity (mixins, delegates, aspects), and database integration such as Microsoft's LINQ. The 4GLs are examples of languages which are domain-specific, such as SQL, which manipulates and returns sets of data rather than the scalar values which are canonical to most programming languages. Perl, for example, with its 'here document' can hold multiple 4GL programs, as well as multiple JavaScript programs, in part of its own perl code and use variable interpolation in the 'here document' to support multi-language programming. Wall, Programming Perl ISBN 0-596-00027-8 p.66 Measuring language usage It is difficult to determine which programming languages are most widely used, and what usage means varies by context. One language may occupy the greater number of programmer hours, a different one have more lines of code, and a third utilize the most CPU time. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications. For example, COBOL is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large mainframes; FORTRAN in engineering applications; C in embedded applications and operating systems; and other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications. Various methods of measuring language popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured, have been proposed: counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language Survey of Job advertisements mentioning a given language the number of books sold that teach or describe the language Counting programming languages by book sales estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language—which may underestimate languages not often found in public searches Bieman, J.M.; Murdock, V., Finding code on the World Wide Web: a preliminary investigation, Proceedings First IEEE International Workshop on Source Code Analysis and Manipulation, 2001 counts of language references (i.e., to the name of the language) found using a web search engine. Combining and averaging information from various internet sites, langpop.com claims that Programming Language Popularity in 2008 the 10 most cited programming languages are (in alphabetical order): C, C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, and SQL. Taxonomies There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages. A given programming language does not usually have a single ancestor language. Languages commonly arise by combining the elements of several predecessor languages with new ideas in circulation at the time. Ideas that originate in one language will diffuse throughout a family of related languages, and then leap suddenly across familial gaps to appear in an entirely different family. The task is further complicated by the fact that languages can be classified along multiple axes. For example, Java is both an object-oriented language (because it encourages object-oriented organization) and a concurrent language (because it contains built-in constructs for running multiple threads in parallel). Python is an object-oriented scripting language. In broad strokes, programming languages divide into programming paradigms and a classification by intended domain of use. Paradigms include procedural programming, object-oriented programming, functional programming, and logic programming; some languages are hybrids of paradigms or multi-paradigmatic. An assembly language is not so much a paradigm as a direct model of an underlying machine architecture. By purpose, programming languages might be considered general purpose, system programming languages, scripting languages, domain-specific languages, or concurrent/distributed languages (or a combination of these). Some general purpose languages were designed largely with educational goals. A programming language may also be classified by factors unrelated to programming paradigm. For instance, most programming languages use English language keywords, while a minority do not. Other languages may be classified as being esoteric or not. See also Computer programming Lists of programming languages Comparison of programming languages Comparison of basic instructions of programming languages Educational programming language Invariant based programming Literate programming Programming language dialect Programming language theory Pseudocode Computer science and List of basic computer science topics Software engineering and List of software engineering topics References Further reading Daniel P. Friedman, Mitchell Wand, Christopher Thomas Haynes: Essentials of Programming Languages, The MIT Press 2001. David Gelernter, Suresh Jagannathan: Programming Linguistics, The MIT Press 1990. Shriram Krishnamurthi: Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation, online publication. Bruce J. MacLennan: Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation, Oxford University Press 1999. John C. Mitchell: Concepts in Programming Languages, Cambridge University Press 2002. Benjamin C. Pierce: Types and Programming Languages, The MIT Press 2002. Ravi Sethi: Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley 1996. Michael L. Scott: Programming Language Pragmatics, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 2005. Richard L. Wexelblat (ed.): History of Programming Languages, Academic Press 1981. External links 99 Bottles of Beer A collection of implementations in many languages. Syntax Patterns for Various Languages
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Geography_of_Albania
+Albania Continent Europe Subregion Southeast Europe Geographic coordinates Area - Total  - Water Ranked 143rd28,748 km² 1,350- km² (2.30%) Coastline 362 km Land boundaries 720 km Countries bordered Greece 282 km, Montenegro 172 km, Macedonia 151 km, Kosovo 115 km Maritime claims 12 nm Highest point Golem Korab, 2,754 m Lowest point Adriatic Sea, 0 m Longest river Drin River, 335 km Largest inland body of water Lake Shkodër 530 km² Land Use - Arable land - Permanent   crops - Other 20.1 %4.21 %75.69 % (2005 est.) Irrigated Land 3,530km² Climate: Mild temperate to cool Terrain: Mountains, hills, small plains Natural resources petroleum, natural gas, bauxite, chromite, copper, iron ore, nickel, salt, timber, hydropower Natural hazards earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, drought Environmental issues deforestation, soil erosion, water pollution Albania has a total area of . It shares a border with Montenegro to the northwest, a border with Kosovo to the northeast, a border with Macedonia to the north and east, and a border with Greece to the south and southeast. Its coastline is long. The lowlands of the west face the Adriatic Sea and the strategically important Strait of Otranto, which puts less than of water between Albania and the heel of the Italian "boot" (links Adriatic Sea to Ionian Sea and Mediterranean Sea). Albania has coastline on the Adriatic Sea and the Ionian Sea. Borders Satellite image of Albania. With the exception of the coastline, all Albanian borders are artificial. They were established in principle at the 1912-1913 conference of ambassadors in London. The country was occupied by Italian, Serbian, Greek, and French forces during World War I, but the 1913 boundaries were essentially reaffirmed by the victorious states in 1921. The original principle was to define the borders in accordance with the best interests of the Albanian people and the nationalities in adjacent areas. The northern and eastern borders were intended, insofar as possible, to separate the Albanians from the Serbs and Montenegrins; the southeast border was to separate Albanians and Greeks; the valuable western Macedonia lake district was to be divided among the three states-- Albania, Greece, and Yugoslavia --whose populations shared the area. When there was no compromise involving other factors, borderlines were chosen to make the best possible separation of national groups, connecting the best marked physical features available. Allowance was made for local economic situations, for example, to prevent separation of a village from its animals' grazing areas or the markets for its produce. Political pressures also were a factor in the negotiations, but the outcome was subject to approval by powers having relatively abstract interests, most of which involved the balance of power rather than specific economic ambitions. Division of the lake district among three states required that each of them have a share of the lowlands in the vicinity. Such an artificial distribution, once made, necessarily affected the borderlines to the north and south. The border that runs generally north from the lakes, although it follows the ridges of the eastern highlands, stays sixteen to thirty-two kilometers west of the watershed divide. Because negotiators at the London conference declined to use the watershed divide as the northeast boundary of the new state of Albania, the Albanian population of Kosovo was incorporated into Serbia. In Albania's far north and the northeast mountainous sections, the border connects high points and follows mountain ridges through the largely inaccessible Prokletije, and further south Bjeshkët e Namuna (The Accursed Mountains). For the most part, there is no natural boundary from the highlands to the Adriatic, although Lake Shkodër and a portion of the Buna River south of it were used to mark Albania's northwest border. From the lake district south and southwest to the Ionian Sea, the country's southeast border goes against the grain of the land, crossing a number of ridges instead of following them. Climate With its coastline facing the Adriatic and Ionian seas, its highlands backed upon the elevated Balkan landmass, and the entire country lying at a latitude subject to a variety of weather patterns during the winter and summer seasons, Albania has a high number of climatic regions for so small an area. The coastal lowlands have typically Mediterranean weather; the highlands have a Mediterranean continental climate. In both the lowlands and the interior, the weather varies markedly from north to south. Coastline in southern Albania. The lowlands have mild winters, averaging about . Summer temperatures average , humidity is high, and the weather tends to be oppressively uncomfortable. In the southern lowlands, temperatures average about higher throughout the year. The difference is greater than during the summer and somewhat less during the winter. Inland temperatures are affected more by differences in elevation than by latitude or any other factor. Low winter temperatures in the mountains are caused by the continental air mass that dominates the weather in Eastern Europe and the Balkans. Northerly and northeasterly winds blow much of the time. Average summer temperatures are lower than in the coastal areas and much lower at higher elevations, but daily fluctuations are greater. Daytime maximum temperatures in the interior basins and river valleys are very high, but the nights are almost always cool. Average precipitation is heavy, a result of the convergence of the prevailing airflow from the Mediterranean Sea and the continental air mass. Because they usually meet at the point where the terrain rises, the heaviest rain falls in the central uplands. Vertical currents initiated when the Mediterranean air is uplifted also cause frequent thunderstorms. Many of these storms are accompanied by high local winds and torrential downpours. When the continental air mass is weak, Mediterranean winds drop their moisture farther inland. When there is a dominant continental air mass, cold air spills onto the lowland areas, which occurs most frequently in the winter. Because the season's lower temperatures damage olive trees and citrus fruits, groves and orchards are restricted to sheltered places with southern and western exposures, even in areas with high average winter temperatures. Lowland rainfall averages from 1,000 millimeters to more than 1,500 millimeters annually, with the higher levels in the north. Nearly 95% of the rain falls in the winter. Rainfall in the upland mountain ranges is heavier. Adequate records are not available, and estimates vary widely, but annual averages are probably about 1,800 millimeters and are as high as 2,550 millimeters in some northern areas. The seasonal variation is not quite as great in the coastal area. The higher inland mountains receive less precipitation than the intermediate uplands. Terrain differences cause wide local variations, but the seasonal distribution is the most consistent of any area. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecAvg low (°C) 2,0 2,0 5,0 8,0 12,0 16,0 17,0 17,0 14,0 10,0 8,0 5,0Avg high (°C) 12,0 12,0 15,0 18,0 23,0 28,0 31,0 31,0 27,0 23,0 17,0 14,0Humidity in % 71 69 68 69 70 62 57 57 64 67 75 73Sunshine (h/day) 4 4 5 7 8 10 12 11 9 7 3 3 Precipitation in days 13 13 14 13 12 7 5 4 6 9 16 17 Spring: Climate data Terrain Topographic map of Albania. The 70% of the country that is mountainous is rugged and often inaccessible. The remainder, an alluvial plain, receives precipitation seasonally, is poorly drained, and is alternately arid or flooded. Much of the plain's soil is of poor quality. Far from offering a relief from the difficult interior terrain, the alluvial plain is often as inhospitable as the mountains. Good soil and dependable precipitation, however, are found in intermontane river basins, in the lake district along the eastern frontier, and in a narrow band of slightly elevated land between the coastal plains and the interior mountains. In the far north, the mountains are an extension of the Dinaric Alps and, more specifically, the Montenegrin limestone plateau. Albania's northern mountains are more folded and rugged, however, than most of the plateau. The rivers have deep valleys with steep sides and arable valley floors. Generally unnavigable, the rivers obstruct rather than encourage movement within the alpine region. Roads are few and poor. Lacking internal communications and external contacts, a tribal society flourished in this area for centuries. Only after World War II were serious efforts made to incorporate the people of the region into Albanian national life. A low coastal belt extends from the northern boundary southward to the vicinity of Vlorë. On average, it extends less than sixteen kilometers inland, but widens to about in the Elbasan area in central Albania. In its natural state, the coastal belt is characterized by low scrub vegetation, varying from barren to dense. There are large areas of marshlands and other areas of bare, eroded badlands. Where elevations rise slightly and precipitation is regular--in the foothills of the central uplands, for example--the land is highly arable. Marginal land is reclaimed wherever irrigation is possible. Just east of the lowlands, the central uplands, called Çermenikë by Albanians, are an area of generally moderate elevations, between , with a few points reaching above . Shifting along the faultline that roughly defines the western edge of the central uplands causes frequent, and occasionally severe, earthquakes. Mount Çikë in the south. Although rugged terrain and points of high elevation mark the central uplands, the first major mountain range inland from the Adriatic is an area of predominantly serpentine rock (which derives its name from its dull green color and often spotted appearance), extending nearly the length of the country, from the Prokletije to the Greek border south of Korçë. Within this zone, there are many areas in which sharp limestone and sandstone outcroppings predominate, although the ranges as a whole are characterized by rounded mountains. The mountains east of the serpentine zone are the highest in Albania, exceeding in the Mount Korab (Mali Korabit) range at Korabi's Peak (Maja e Korabit). Together with the Prokletije and the serpentine zone, the eastern highlands are the most rugged and inaccessible of any terrain on the Balkan Peninsula. The three lakes of easternmost Albania, Lake Ohrid (Liqeni Ohrit), Big Prespa Lake (Prespa e Madhe), and Small Prespa Lake (Prespa e Vogël), are remote and picturesque. Much of the terrain in their vicinity is not overly steep, and it supports a larger population than any other inland portion of the country. Albania's eastern border passes through Lake Ohrid; all but a small tip of Prespa e Vogël is in Greece; and the point at which the boundaries of three states meet is in Lake Prespa. Each of the two larger lakes has a total surface areas of about 260 square kilometers, and Prespa e Vogël is about one-fifth as large. The surface elevation is about for Lake Ohrid and for the other two lakes. The southern mountain ranges are more accessible than the serpentine zone, the eastern highlands, or the Prokletije. The transition to the lowlands is less abrupt, and the arable valley floors are wider. Limestone, the predominant mineral, is responsible for the cliffs and clear water of the coastline southeast of Vlorë. Erosion of a blend of softer rocks has provided the sediment that has caused wider valleys to form in the southern mountain area than those characteristic of the remainder of the country. This terrain encouraged the development of larger landholding, thus influencing the social structure of southern Albania. Islands Lakes Mountains Rivers Seas Drainage River in the south.Map of major rivers. Nearly all of the precipitation that falls on Albania drains into the rivers and reaches the coast without even leaving the country. In the north, only one small stream escapes Albania. In the south, an even smaller rivulet drains into Greece. Because the topographical divide is east of the Albanian border with its neighbors, a considerable amount of water from other countries drains through Albania. An extensive portion of the basin of the White Drin river (Drini i Bardhë), basin is in the Rrafshi i Dukagjinit area, across Albania's northeastern border. The three eastern lakes that Albania shares with its neighboring countries, as well as the streams that flow into them, drain into the Black Drin river (Drini i Zi). The watershed divide in the south also dips nearly into Greece at one point. Several tributaries of the Vjosa River rise in that area. With the exception of the Black Drin, which flows northward and drains nearly the entire eastern border region before it turns westward to the sea, most of the rivers in northern and central Albania flow fairly directly westward to the sea. In the process, they cut through the ridges rather than flow around them. This apparent geological impossibility occurs because the highlands originally were lifted without much folding. The streams came into existence at that time. The compression and folding of the plateau into ridges occurred later. The folding process was rapid enough in many instances to dam the rivers temporarily. The resulting lakes existed until their downstream channels became wide enough to drain them. This sequence created the many interior basins that are typically a part of the Albanian landform. During the lifetime of the temporary lakes, enough sediment was deposited in them to form the basis for fertile soils. Folding was rarely rapid enough to force the streams into radically different channels. The precipitous fall from higher elevations and the highly irregular seasonal flow patterns that are characteristic of nearly all streams in the country reduce the economic value of the streams. They erode the mountains and deposit the sediment that created the lowlands and continues to augment them, but the rivers flood when there is local rainfall. When the lands are parched and need irrigation, the rivers usually are dry. Their violence when they are full makes them difficult to control, and they are unnavigable. The Buna River is an exception. It is dredged between Shkodër River and the Adriatic Sea and can be navigated by small ships. In contrast to their history of holding fast to their courses in the mountains, the rivers constantly change channels on the lower plains, making waste of much of the land they create. The Drin River is the largest and most constant stream. Fed by melting snows from the northern and eastern mountains and by the more evenly distributed seasonal precipitation of that area, its flow does not have the extreme variations characteristic of nearly all other rivers in the country. Its normal flow varies seasonally by only about one-third. Along its length of about , it drains nearly within Albania. As it also collects from the Adriatic portion of Kosovo's watersheds and the three border lakes (Big Lake Prespa drains to Lake Ohrid via an underground stream), its total basin encompasses about . The Semani and Vjosa are the only other rivers that are more than long and have basins larger than . These rivers drain the southern regions and, reflecting the seasonal distribution of rainfall, are torrents in winter and nearly dry in the summer, in spite of their length. This variable nature also characterizes the many shorter streams. In the summer, most of them carry less than a tenth of their winter averages, if they are not altogether dry. Although the sediment carried by the mountain torrents continues to be deposited, new deposits delay exploitation. Stream channels rise as silt is deposited in them and eventually become higher than the surrounding terrain. Shifting channels frustrate development in many areas. Old channels become barriers to proper drainage and create swamps or marshlands. It is difficult to build roads or railroads across the lowlands or otherwise use the land. Notes and references Notes: a. References: Much of the material in this article comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 of Albania. See also Tourism in Albania List of cities in Albania Geography of Europe
Geography_of_Albania |@lemmatized albania:28 continent:1 europe:4 subregion:1 southeast:5 geographic:1 coordinate:1 area:25 total:4 water:6 rank:1 coastline:7 km:7 land:11 boundary:6 country:13 border:20 greece:6 montenegro:2 macedonia:3 kosovo:4 maritime:1 claim:1 nm:1 high:17 point:8 golem:1 korab:2 low:9 adriatic:9 sea:13 long:3 river:25 drin:5 large:8 inland:7 body:1 lake:22 shkodër:3 use:4 arable:4 permanent:1 crop:1 est:1 irrigate:1 climate:4 mild:2 temperate:1 cool:2 terrain:10 mountain:20 hill:1 small:7 plain:6 natural:5 resource:1 petroleum:1 gas:1 bauxite:1 chromite:1 copper:1 iron:1 ore:1 nickel:1 salt:1 timber:1 hydropower:1 hazard:1 earthquake:2 tsunami:1 flood:3 drought:1 environmental:1 issue:1 deforestation:1 soil:4 erosion:2 pollution:1 share:4 northwest:2 northeast:3 north:8 east:4 south:11 lowland:12 west:2 face:2 strategically:1 important:1 strait:1 otranto:1 put:1 less:6 heel:1 italian:2 boot:1 link:1 ionian:4 mediterranean:6 satellite:1 image:1 exception:3 albanian:9 artificial:2 establish:1 principle:2 conference:2 ambassador:1 london:2 occupy:1 serbian:1 greek:3 french:1 force:2 world:3 war:2 essentially:1 reaffirm:1 victorious:1 state:6 original:1 define:2 accordance:1 best:3 interest:2 people:2 nationality:1 adjacent:1 northern:6 eastern:10 intend:1 insofar:1 possible:3 separate:2 serb:1 montenegrins:1 valuable:1 western:3 district:4 divide:5 among:2 three:6 yugoslavia:1 whose:1 population:3 compromise:1 involve:2 factor:3 borderline:2 choose:1 make:6 separation:2 national:2 group:1 connect:1 marked:1 physical:1 feature:1 available:2 allowance:1 local:4 economic:3 situation:1 example:2 prevent:1 village:1 animal:1 graze:1 market:1 produce:1 political:1 pressure:1 also:6 negotiation:1 outcome:1 subject:2 approval:1 power:2 relatively:1 abstract:1 balance:1 rather:3 specific:1 ambition:1 division:1 require:1 vicinity:3 distribution:3 necessarily:1 affect:2 run:1 generally:3 although:5 follow:3 ridge:5 highland:7 stay:1 sixteen:2 thirty:1 two:3 kilometer:3 watershed:4 negotiator:1 decline:1 new:2 incorporate:2 serbia:1 far:5 mountainous:2 section:1 connects:1 largely:1 inaccessible:3 prokletije:4 bjeshkët:1 e:6 namuna:1 accurse:1 part:2 portion:4 buna:2 mark:2 southwest:1 go:1 grain:1 cross:1 number:2 instead:1 back:1 upon:1 elevated:1 balkan:3 landmass:1 entire:2 lie:1 latitude:2 variety:1 weather:5 pattern:2 winter:9 summer:6 season:2 climatic:1 region:5 coastal:6 typically:2 continental:5 interior:5 varies:2 markedly:1 southern:7 average:10 temperature:8 humidity:1 tend:1 oppressively:1 uncomfortable:1 throughout:1 year:1 difference:3 great:3 somewhat:1 elevation:7 cause:5 air:6 mass:4 dominate:1 northerly:1 northeasterly:1 wind:3 blow:1 much:7 time:2 daily:1 fluctuation:1 daytime:1 maximum:1 basin:7 valley:5 night:1 almost:1 always:1 precipitation:8 heavy:3 result:2 convergence:1 prevail:1 airflow:1 usually:2 meet:2 rise:4 rain:2 fall:4 central:7 upland:6 vertical:1 current:1 initiate:1 uplift:1 frequent:2 thunderstorm:1 many:6 storm:1 accompany:1 torrential:1 downpour:1 weak:1 drop:1 moisture:1 dominant:1 cold:1 spill:1 onto:1 occur:3 frequently:1 damage:1 olive:1 tree:1 citrus:1 fruit:1 grove:1 orchard:1 restrict:1 shelter:1 place:1 exposure:1 even:3 rainfall:4 millimeter:4 annually:1 level:1 nearly:9 range:5 adequate:1 record:1 estimate:1 vary:2 widely:1 annual:1 probably:1 seasonal:5 variation:3 quite:1 receive:2 intermediate:1 wide:2 consistent:1 jan:1 feb:1 mar:1 apr:1 may:1 jun:1 jul:1 aug:1 sep:1 oct:1 nov:1 decavg:1 c:2 h:1 day:2 spring:1 data:1 topographic:1 map:2 rugged:4 often:3 remainder:2 alluvial:2 seasonally:2 poorly:1 drain:10 alternately:1 arid:1 poor:2 quality:1 offer:1 relief:1 difficult:3 inhospitable:1 good:1 dependable:1 however:2 find:1 intermontane:1 along:3 frontier:1 narrow:1 band:1 slightly:2 elevate:1 extension:1 dinaric:1 alp:1 specifically:1 montenegrin:1 limestone:3 plateau:3 folded:1 deep:1 steep:2 side:1 floor:2 unnavigable:2 obstruct:1 encourage:2 movement:1 within:3 alpine:1 road:2 lack:1 internal:1 communication:1 external:1 contact:1 tribal:1 society:1 flourish:1 century:1 ii:1 serious:1 effort:1 life:1 belt:2 extend:3 southward:1 vlorë:2 widen:1 elbasan:1 characterize:3 scrub:1 vegetation:1 barren:1 dense:1 marshland:2 bare:1 erode:2 badlands:1 regular:1 foothill:1 highly:2 marginal:1 reclaim:1 wherever:1 irrigation:2 call:1 çermenikë:1 moderate:1 reach:2 shift:2 faultline:1 roughly:1 edge:1 uplands:1 occasionally:1 severe:1 mount:2 çikë:1 first:1 major:2 predominantly:1 serpentine:4 rock:2 derive:1 name:1 dull:1 green:1 color:1 spot:1 appearance:1 length:3 korçë:1 zone:4 sharp:1 sandstone:1 outcropping:1 predominate:1 whole:1 rounded:1 exceed:1 mali:1 korabit:2 korabi:1 peak:1 maja:1 together:1 peninsula:1 easternmost:1 ohrid:4 liqeni:1 ohrit:1 big:2 prespa:8 madhe:1 vogël:3 remote:1 picturesque:1 overly:1 support:1 pass:1 tip:1 surface:2 square:1 one:4 fifth:1 accessible:1 transition:1 abrupt:1 wider:2 predominant:1 mineral:1 responsible:1 cliff:1 clear:1 blend:1 softer:1 provide:1 sediment:4 form:2 characteristic:3 development:2 landholding:1 thus:1 influence:1 social:1 structure:1 island:1 lakes:1 seas:1 drainage:2 coast:1 without:2 leave:1 stream:10 escape:1 rivulet:1 topographical:1 neighbor:1 considerable:1 amount:1 extensive:1 white:1 drini:2 bardhë:1 rrafshi:1 dukagjinit:1 across:2 northeastern:1 neighboring:1 well:1 flow:7 black:2 zi:1 dip:1 several:1 tributary:1 vjosa:2 northward:1 turn:1 westward:2 fairly:1 directly:1 process:2 cut:1 around:1 apparent:1 geological:1 impossibility:1 originally:1 lift:1 folding:4 come:2 existence:1 compression:1 later:1 rapid:2 enough:4 instance:1 dam:1 temporarily:1 exist:1 downstream:1 channel:6 become:3 sequence:1 create:4 landform:1 lifetime:1 temporary:1 deposit:5 basis:1 fertile:1 rarely:1 radically:1 different:1 precipitous:1 irregular:1 reduce:1 value:1 continue:2 augment:1 parch:1 need:1 dry:3 violence:1 full:1 control:1 dredge:1 navigate:1 ship:1 contrast:1 history:1 hold:1 fast:1 course:1 constantly:1 change:1 waste:1 constant:1 feed:1 melt:1 snow:1 evenly:1 distribute:1 extreme:1 normal:1 third:1 collect:1 via:1 underground:1 encompasses:1 semani:1 reflect:1 torrent:2 spite:1 variable:1 nature:1 short:1 carry:2 tenth:1 altogether:1 delay:1 exploitation:1 silt:1 eventually:1 surround:1 frustrate:1 old:1 barrier:1 proper:1 swamp:1 build:1 railroad:1 otherwise:1 note:2 reference:2 material:1 article:1 cia:1 factbook:1 see:1 tourism:1 list:1 city:1 geography:1 |@bigram geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 adriatic_sea:5 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 est_irrigate:1 iron_ore:1 earthquake_tsunami:1 deforestation_soil:1 soil_erosion:1 strategically_important:1 albania_albanian:1 coastal_lowland:1 olive_tree:1 citrus_fruit:1 seasonal_variation:1 jan_feb:1 feb_mar:1 mar_apr:1 jun_jul:1 jul_aug:1 aug_sep:1 sep_oct:1 oct_nov:1 topographic_map:1 alluvial_plain:2 coastal_plain:1 dinaric_alp:1 rugged_terrain:1 limestone_sandstone:1 balkan_peninsula:1 lake_prespa:4 square_kilometer:1 sediment_deposit:1 fertile_soil:1 evenly_distribute:1 silt_deposit:1
3,109
Transport_in_the_Dominican_Republic
Roadways There are five main highways (DR-1, DR-2, DR-3, DR-4, DR-5) they are in good condition in the Dominican Republic connecting its biggest cities and tourist centers. There are nearly of highways and roads, 6,224 being paved and (1996 est.) unpaved. Like any underdeveloped nation, the Dominican Republic suffers from lack of good paved roads to connect smaller towns and less populated areas, major town roads however are in good condition. Public transport Buses The Dominican Republic has a bus system that is rather reliable, and most of these public transportation vehicles are fairly comfortable. The fare is generally inexpensive, and there are bus terminals and stops in most of the island's major cities. Public Cars (Carros Públicos/ Carros de "conchar") The Public Car (“Carros Públicos”) system are privately owned passenger cars that transit a specific route daily and passengers pay a certain fee with the convenience of stopping anywhere. This comprises one of the main ways of transportation inside the capital city of Santo Domingo, as well as other major cities. This system though is not very reliable and lacks discipline, the high number of public cars that transit the roads, and the fact that they do not lend itself to regulation or central control, which causes frequent transit problems among city roads. They may also be somewhat uncomfortable, since they try to fit as much people as possible inside them (EG:9 people in an old 5 passenger car) Mass Transit The Santo Domingo Metro is the first mass transit system in the country, and second in the Caribbean & Central American nations after San Juan's Tren Urbano. On Feb 27th 2008 the incumbent president Leonel Fernandez test rode the system for the first time ever. But the commercial service started on January 30th, 2009. The Santiago light rail system is a planned light rail system in the Dominican Republic's second largest city, still in developing stages it was said to start on mid 2008 but right now is currently on hold due to lack of approval and of central government funds. Specifications http://www.railpage.com.au/f-t11318713.htm Gauge: Voltage: 1500 V DC overhead Railways Rail operations are provided by one state owned operator and several private operators (mainly for sugar mills): Central Romana Railroad was established in 1911 in the sugarcane fields. The total length of the line is , being the standard gauge. The Dominican Republic Government Railway is a narrow gauge railway. There are operated by other sugarcane companies in various gauges: , , gauges (1995) There are no connections with Haiti Ports and harbours Major ports and harbours in the Dominican Republic: Azua de Compostela Bajos de Haina Baní Boca Chica Casa de Campo Marina Caucedo - www.Caucedo.com La Romana Luperón Harbor Manzanillo (Pepillo Salcedo) Marina Punta Cana Punta Caucedo Samana San Felipe de Puerto Plata San Pedro de Macorís Santa Cruz de Barahona Santo Domingo A local ferry service runs daily between the Samaná and Sabana del Mar ports. Merchant marine Total: 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,587 GRT/ Ships by type: cargo 1 (1999 est.) Entering the Ports Boaters and sailors who with to dock in any of DR's ports must follow certain entry requirements: Upon approaching the port, ships must display a quarantine flag, which has the letter 'Q' on it, and wait for admittance into the port. The passengers of the vessel must pay a fee, get a tourist card, and show proper identification including a valid passport. Military officials must sometimes grant the passengers clearance to come ashore. Airports Boeing 737-800 at Cibao International Airport in Santiago, DR There are 5 major and 27 minor airports in the DR (1999): Las Américas International Airport, Santo Domingo Punta Cana International Airport, Punta Cana / Higüey Cibao International Airport, Santiago Gregorio Luperón International Airport, Puerto Plata La Romana International Airport, La Romana City, La Romana Airports - with paved runways Total: 10 (1999 est.) Over 3,047 m: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 3 under 914 m: 2 Airports - with unpaved runways Total: 15 (1999 est.) 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 4 under 914 m: 9 National Airline Dominicana de Aviacion used to be the country's national airline for a large period of time. Due to economic crisis, however, this title has been passed on to various other companies after Dominicana stopped flying. Currently, the national flag carrier is Caribair. The new Flag Carrier for the DR is Air Dominicana, created in May, 2006 by the government, some Dominican investors and the airline Air Europa from Spain. Flights There are direct flights to and from Dominican Republic From United States, Cuba, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Argentina, Brazil, Europe and the Caribbean. See also Dominican Republic Puerto Plata Airport External links Dominican Republic - Ministry of Tourism, Official Site References
Transport_in_the_Dominican_Republic |@lemmatized roadway:1 five:1 main:2 highway:2 dr:9 good:3 condition:2 dominican:10 republic:9 connect:2 big:1 city:7 tourist:2 center:1 nearly:1 road:5 pave:3 est:4 unpaved:2 like:1 underdeveloped:1 nation:2 suffers:1 lack:3 small:1 town:2 less:1 populated:1 area:1 major:5 however:2 public:5 transport:1 bus:3 system:7 rather:1 reliable:2 transportation:2 vehicle:1 fairly:1 comfortable:1 fare:1 generally:1 inexpensive:1 terminal:1 stop:3 island:1 car:5 carros:3 públicos:2 de:8 conchar:1 privately:1 passenger:5 transit:5 specific:1 route:1 daily:2 pay:2 certain:2 fee:2 convenience:1 anywhere:1 comprise:1 one:2 way:1 inside:2 capital:1 santo:4 domingo:4 well:1 though:1 discipline:1 high:1 number:1 fact:1 lend:1 regulation:1 central:4 control:1 cause:1 frequent:1 problem:1 among:1 may:2 also:2 somewhat:1 uncomfortable:1 since:1 try:1 fit:1 much:1 people:2 possible:1 eg:1 old:1 mass:2 metro:1 first:2 country:2 second:2 caribbean:2 american:1 san:3 juan:1 tren:1 urbano:1 feb:1 incumbent:1 president:1 leonel:1 fernandez:1 test:1 rode:1 time:2 ever:1 commercial:1 service:2 start:2 january:1 santiago:3 light:2 rail:3 planned:1 large:2 still:1 develop:1 stage:1 say:1 mid:1 right:1 currently:2 hold:1 due:2 approval:1 government:3 fund:1 specification:1 http:1 www:2 railpage:1 com:2 au:1 f:1 htm:1 gauge:5 voltage:1 v:1 dc:1 overhead:1 railway:3 operation:1 provide:1 state:2 operator:2 several:1 private:1 mainly:1 sugar:1 mill:1 romana:5 railroad:1 establish:1 sugarcane:2 field:1 total:5 length:1 line:1 standard:1 narrow:1 operate:1 company:2 various:2 connection:1 haiti:1 port:7 harbour:2 azua:1 compostela:1 bajos:1 haina:1 baní:1 boca:1 chica:1 casa:1 campo:1 marina:2 caucedo:3 la:4 luperón:2 harbor:1 manzanillo:1 pepillo:1 salcedo:1 punta:4 cana:3 samana:1 felipe:1 puerto:3 plata:3 pedro:1 macorís:1 santa:1 cruz:1 barahona:1 local:1 ferry:1 run:1 samaná:1 sabana:1 del:1 mar:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:3 grt:2 type:1 cargo:1 enter:1 boater:1 sailor:1 dock:1 must:4 follow:1 entry:1 requirement:1 upon:1 approach:1 display:1 quarantine:1 flag:3 letter:1 q:1 wait:1 admittance:1 vessel:1 get:1 card:1 show:1 proper:1 identification:1 include:1 valid:1 passport:1 military:1 official:2 sometimes:1 grant:1 clearance:1 come:1 ashore:1 airport:11 boeing:1 cibao:2 international:6 minor:1 las:1 américas:1 higüey:1 gregorio:1 runway:2 national:3 airline:3 dominicana:3 aviacion:1 use:1 period:1 economic:1 crisis:1 title:1 pass:1 fly:1 carrier:2 caribair:1 new:1 air:2 create:1 investor:1 europa:1 spain:1 flight:2 direct:1 united:1 cuba:1 canada:1 mexico:1 venezuela:1 colombia:1 argentina:1 brazil:1 europe:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 ministry:1 tourism:1 site:1 reference:1 |@bigram dominican_republic:9 santo_domingo:4 san_juan:1 http_www:1 narrow_gauge:1 gauge_railway:1 de_compostela:1 punta_cana:3 puerto_plata:3 san_pedro:1 de_macorís:1 santa_cruz:1 merchant_marine:1 ship_grt:1 grt_total:1 total_grt:1 grt_ship:1 gregorio_luperón:1 pave_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 venezuela_colombia:1 external_link:1
3,110
Call_of_Cthulhu_(role-playing_game)
Call of Cthulhu is a horror fiction role-playing game based on H. P. Lovecraft's story of the same name and the associated Cthulhu Mythos. The game, often abbreviated as CoC, is published by Chaosium. It has won several major awards. Setting The setting of Call of Cthulhu is a darker version of our world, based on H. P. Lovecraft's observation (from his short essay, Supernatural Horror in Literature) that "The oldest and strongest emotion of mankind is fear, and the strongest kind of fear is fear of the unknown." There are three primary eras of the original (BRP) game: the 1920s, the setting of many of Lovecraft's stories; the 1890s Gaslight supplements, a blend of occult and Holmesian mystery and mostly set in England; and modern conspiracy (Cthulhu Now). Recent additions include 1000 AD (Cthulhu: Dark Ages), 23rd Century (Cthulhu Rising) and Roman times (Cthulhu Invictus). The protagonists may also travel to places that are not of this earth, represented in the Dreamlands (which can be accessed through dreams as well as being physically connected to the earth), as well as travel to other planets or the voids of space. Gameplay experience The players take the roles of ordinary people drawn into the realm of the mysterious: detectives, criminals, scholars, artists, war veterans, etc. Often, happenings begin innocently enough, until more and more of the workings behind the scenes are revealed. As the characters learn more of the true horrors of the world and the irrelevance of humanity, their sanity inevitably withers away. The game includes a mechanism for determining how damaged a character's sanity is at any given point; encountering the horrific beings usually triggers a loss of points of SAN. Also, to gain the tools they need to defeat the horrors – mystic knowledge and magic – the characters must be willing to give up some of their sanity. Call of Cthulhu has a reputation as a game in which it is quite common for a player character to die in gruesome circumstances or end up in a mental institution. Rules For as long as they stay healthy (or at least functional), characters may be developed. Call of Cthulhu does not use levels, but is completely skill-based, with player characters getting better with their skills by succeeding at them. History Origins The original conception of Call of Cthulhu was Dark Worlds, a game commissioned by the publisher Chaosium but never published. Sandy Petersen, now best known for his work on the Doom computer game, contacted them regarding writing a supplement for their popular fantasy game RuneQuest set in Lovecraft's Dreamlands. He took over the writing of Call of Cthulhu, and the game was released in 1981, using a simplified version of the Basic Role-Playing system used in RuneQuest. The game won three major awards in the following year. Editions Since Petersen's departure, continuing development of Call of Cthulhu has passed to Lynn Willis, who since the fifth edition has been credited as co-author. The game is now in its sixth edition, but the rules have changed little over the years. In 2002, the Call of Cthulhu 20th Anniversary Edition won the Origins Award for Best Graphic Presentation of a Book Product 2001. Call of Cthulhu, 1st Edition (1981) Call of Cthulhu Designer's Edition (1982) Call of Cthulhu, 2nd Edition (1983) Call of Cthulhu, 3rd Edition (1986) Call of Cthulhu, 4th Edition (1989) Call of Cthulhu, 5th Edition (1992) Call of Cthulhu 5.5 (1998) Call of Cthulhu 5.6 (2000) Call of Cthulhu 20th anniversary edition (2001) Call of Cthulhu Miskatonic University edition (2001) Call of Cthulhu, 6th Edition (2004) Call of Cthulhu 25th anniversary edition (2006) Early releases Given its roots in the RPG tradition, many of the early releases for Call of Cthulhu were still based in the framework set down by Dungeons & Dragons. They often involved the characters wandering through caves and fighting different types of horrible monsters. Nonetheless, the emphasis on real-life settings, character research, and thinking one's way around trouble gave it a wide audience. The first book of Call of Cthulhu adventures was Shadows of Yog-Sothoth. In this work, the characters come upon a secret society's foul plot to destroy mankind, and pursue it first near to home and then in a series of exotic locations. This template was to be followed in many subsequent campaigns, including Fungi from Yuggoth (later known as Curse of Cthulhu and Day of the Beast), Spawn of Azathoth, and possibly the most highly acclaimed, Masks of Nyarlathotep. Many of these seem closer in tone to the pulp adventures of Indiana Jones than H. P. Lovecraft, but they are nonetheless beloved by many gamers. Shadows of Yog-Sothoth is important not only because it represents the first published addition to the boxed first edition of Call of Cthulhu, but because its format defined a new way of approaching a campaign of linked RPG scenarios involving actual clues for the would-be detectives amongst the players to follow and link in order to uncover the dastardly plots afoot. Its format has been used by every other campaign-length Call of Cthulhu publication. The standard of CoC scenarios was well-received by independent reviewers. The Asylum and Other Tales, a series of stand alone articles released in 1983, rated an overall 9/10 in Issue 47 of White Dwarf magazine. The standard of the included 'clue' material varies from scenario to scenario, but reached its zenith in the original boxed versions of the Masks of Nyarlathotep and Horror on the Orient Express campaigns. Inside these one could find matchbooks and business cards apparently defaced by non-player characters, newspaper cuttings and (in the case of Orient Express) period passports to which players could attach their photographs, bringing a Live Action Role Playing feel to a tabletop game. Indeed, during the period that these supplements were produced, third party campaign publishers strove to emulate the quality of the additional materials, often offering separately-priced 'deluxe' clue packages for their campaigns. Additional milieu were provided by Chaosium with the release of Dreamlands, a boxed supplement containing additional rules needed for playing within the Lovecraft Dreamlands, a large map and a scenario booklet, and Cthulhu By Gaslight, another boxed set which moved the action from the 1920s to the 1890s. Cthulhu Now In 1987 Chaosium issued the supplement titled Cthulhu Now, a collection of rules, supplemental source materials and scenarios for playing Call of Cthulhu in the present day. This proved to be a very popular alternative milieu, so much so that much of the supplemental material is now included in the core rule book. Pagan Publishing has released a series of supplements in a similar vein, by the name Delta Green, that is also set in the present day. Lovecraft Country Lovecraft Country was a line of supplements for Call of Cthulhu released in 1990. These supplements were overseen by Keith Herber and provided backgrounds and adventures set in Lovecraft's fictional towns of Arkham, Kingsport, Innsmouth, Dunwich, and their environs. The intent was to give investigators a common base, as well as to center the action on well-drawn characters with clear motivations. With the departure of Herber, Chaosium's line ended. Recent history In the last eight years, since the collapse of the Mythos CCG, the release of CoC books has been very sporadic with up to a year between releases. Chaosium struggled with near bankruptcy for many years before finally starting their upward climb again. 2005 was their busiest year for many years with ten releases for the game and many more scheduled for release in the near future. Chaosium has recently taken to marketing "monographs"—short books by individual writers with editing and layout provided out-of-house—directly to the consumer. This allows the company to gauge market response to possible new works, though the long-term effects of this program remain uncertain. The range of times and places in which the horrors of the Mythos can be encountered was also expanded in late 2005 onwards with the addition of Cthulhu Dark Ages by Stéphane Gesbert, which gives a framework for playing games set in eleventh-century Europe, Secrets of Japan by Michael Dziesinski for gaming in modern day Japan, and Secrets of Kenya by David Conyers for gaming in interwar period Africa. Licenses Chaosium has licensed other publishers to create supplements using their rule system, notably including Delta Green by Pagan Publishing. Other licensees have included Theater of the Mind Enterprises, Triad Entertainment, Games Workshop Games Workshop was active with Chaosium from 1983-1987 - mostly publishing the BRP games in hardback bookform but producing some material, notably Green and Pleasant Land (1987) by Marc Gascoigne, Bryan Ansell and others , Fantasy Flight Games, RAFM, and Grenadier Models. These supplements may be set in different time frames or even different game universes from the original game. d20 Call of Cthulhu In 2001, a stand-alone version of Call of Cthulhu was released by Wizards of the Coast, for the d20 system. Intended to preserve the feeling of the original game, the d20 conversion of the game rules were supposed to make the game more accessible to the large D&D player base. The d20 system also made it possible to use Dungeons & Dragons characters in Call of Cthulhu, as well as to introduce the Cthulhu Mythos into Dungeons & Dragons games. The d20 version of the game is no longer supported by Wizards as per their contract with Chaosium. Chaosium included d20 stats as an appendix in three releases (see Lovecraft Country), but have since dropped the "dual stat" idea. Trail of Cthulhu In February 2008, Pelgrane Press published Trail of Cthulhu, a stand-alone game created by Kenneth Hite using the GUMSHOE system developed by Robin Laws. Shadows of Cthulhu In September 2008, Reality Deviant Publications published Shadows of Cthulhu, a supplement that brings Lovecraftian gaming to Green Ronin's True20 system. Card Games Mythos was a collectible card game (CCG) based on the Cthulhu Mythos that Chaosium produced and marketed during the mid-Nineties. While generally praised for its fast gameplay and unique mechanics, it ultimately failed to gain a very large market presence. It bears mention because its eventual failure brought the company to hard times that affected its ability to produce material for Call of Cthulhu. Call of Cthulhu, the Living Card Game is a second collectible card game; currently it is produced by Fantasy Flight Games. See also Call of Cthulhu: Dark Corners of the Earth video game. Call of Cthulhu Collectible Card Game - CCG based on the Cthulhu Mythos and the Chaosium pulp horror setting. Delta Green - alternate setting for Call of Cthulhu. Cthulhu Live - a live action role-playing game version of Call of Cthulhu. Arkham Horror - a cooperative board game based on the Mythos. References Review External links Chaosium "The Call of Cthulhu," H. P. Lovecraft's original story which inspired the Call of Cthulhu RPG. Cthulhu Rising (Website for Cthulhu RPG in the 23rd century) Yog-Sothoth, A CoC fansite with a mostly-complete listing of all products produced for the game
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History_of_the_Isle_of_Man
The Isle of Man has been the scene of human occupation since the end of the last glacial period over 10,000 years ago. The island has been visited by various raiders and trading peoples over the years. After being settled by people from Ireland in the first millennium, the Isle of Man was subject first to Christianity and then to raids by Vikings from Norway. After becoming subject to suzerainty to Norway as part of the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles, the Isle of Man later became a possession of the Scottish and then English crowns. Since 1866, the Isle of Man has been a Crown Dependency and has democratic self-government. Prehistory Ogham stone from the Isle of Man showing the droim in centre. Text reads BIVAIDONAS MAQI MUCOI CUNAVA[LI]; in English: Of Bivaidonas, son of the tribe Cunava[li]. The Isle of Man effectively became an island around 85,000 years ago when rising sea levels caused by the melting glaciers cut Mesolithic Britain off from continental Europe for the last time. A land bridge had existed between the Isle of Man and Cumbria prior to this date, although the location and opening of the land-bridge remains poorly understood. A New History of the Isle of Man Volume 1 - The Evolution of the Natural Landscape. edited by Richard Hiverrell and Geoffrey Thomas pp295-296 (1st Edition)(2006) Liverpool University Press ISBN 0-85323-587-2 The earliest traces of people on the Isle of Man can be found as far back as the Mesolithic Period, also known as the Middle Stone Age. The first residents lived in small natural shelters, hunting, gathering and fishing for their food. They used small tools made of flint or bone, which have been found near the coast. Representatives of these artifacts are kept at the Manx National Heritage museum. The Neolithic Period marked the coming of knowledge of farming, better stone tools and pottery. It was during this period that Megalithic Monuments began to appear around the island. Examples from this period can be found at Cashtal yn Ard near Maughold, King Orry's Grave in Laxey, Meayll Circle near Cregneash, and Ballaharra Stones in St. John's. The Megaliths were not the only culture during this time; there were also the local Ronaldsway and Bann cultures. During the Bronze Age, the large communal tombs of the Megaliths were replaced with smaller burial mounds. Bodies were put in stone lined graves along with ornamental containers. The Bronze Age burial mounds created long lasting markers about the countryside. British and Irish Celtic dominance The Iron Age marked the beginning of Celtic cultural influence. Large hill forts appeared on hill summits, and smaller promontory forts along the coastal cliffs, whilst large timber-framed roundhouses were built. It is likely that the first Celts to inhabit the Island were Brythonic tribes from mainland Britain. The secular history of the Isle of Man during the Brythonic period remains mysterious. It is not known if the Romans ever made a landing on the island, if they did they certainly never conquered it. It has been speculated that the island may have become a haven for Druids and other refugees from Anglesey after the Sacking of Mona in AD60. The best record of any event before the incursions of the Northmen, are attributed to Báetán mac Cairill, king of Ulster, at the end of the 6th century (though some have thought this event may refer to Manau Gododdin between the Firths of Clyde and Forth). Even if the supposed conquest of the Menavian islands - Mann and Anglesey - by Edwin of Northumbria, in 616, did take place, it could not have led to any permanent results; for, when the English were driven from the coasts of Cumberland and Lancashire soon afterwards, they could not well have retained their hold on the island to the west of these coasts. One can speculate, however, that when Ecfrid's Northumbrians laid Ireland waste from Dublin to Drogheda in 684, they temporarily occupied Mann. Manx kings do appear in Welsh genealogies throughout the Dark Ages and in particular Merfyn ap Gwriad of Man was able to usurp the throne of Gwynedd in 825. It is generally assumed that Irish invasion or immigration formed the basis of the modern Manx language and Irish migration to the island probably began in the 5th Century AD. This is evident in the change in language used in Ogham inscriptions. The transition between Manx Brythonic (like Welsh) and Manx Gaelic (a Goidelic language which remains closely related to Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic) may have been gradual. One big historical argument addresses whether the present Manx language survived from pre-Norse days, or whether it reflects a linguistic reintroduction after the Norse invasion. Evidence may yet be forthcoming to shed further light on this area of debate from the study of the landscape, place names and land tenure. Tradition attributes the island's conversion to Christianity to St Maughold (Maccul), an Irish missionary who gives his name to a parish. The island's name derives from Manannán, the Brythonic and Gaelic sea god. Scandinavian dominance During the period of Scandinavian domination there are two main epochs – one before the conquest of Mann by Godred Crovan in 1079, and the other after it. Warfare and unsettled rule characterize the earlier epoch; the later saw comparatively more peace. Between about A.D. 800 and 815 the Vikings came to Mann chiefly for plunder; between about 850 and 990, when they settled in it, the island fell under the rule of the Scandinavian Kings of Dublin; and between 990 and 1079, it became subject to the powerful Earls of Orkney. There was a mint producing coins on Mann between c.1025 and c.1065. These Manx coins were minted from an imported type 2 Hiberno-Norse penny die from Dublin. Hiberno-Norse coins were first minted under Sihtric, King of Dublin. This illustrates that Mann may have in fact been under the thumb of Dublin at this time. The conqueror Godred Crovan was evidently a remarkable man, though little information about him is attainable. According to the Chronicon Manniae he subdued Dublin, and a great part of Leinster, and held the Scots in such subjection that no one who built a vessel dared to insert more than three bolts. The memory of such a ruler would be likely to survive in tradition, and it seems probable therefore that he is the person commemorated in Manx legend under the name of King Gorse or Orry. He created the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles in around 1079; it included the south-western islands of Scotland (Sodor) until 1164, when two separate kingdoms were formed from it. The islands which were under his rule were called the Suðr-eyjar (Sudreys or the south isles, in contradistinction to the Norðr-eyjar, or the "north isles," i.e. the Orkneys and Shetlands, and they consisted of the Hebrides, and of all the smaller western islands of Scotland, with Mann. At a later date his successors took the title of (King of Mann and the Isles). The kingdom's capital was on St Patrick's Isle, where Peel Castle was built on the site of a Celtic monastery. Olaf, Godred's son, exercised considerable power, and according to the Chronicle, maintained such close alliance with the kings of Ireland and Scotland that no one ventured to disturb the Isles during his time (1113 - 1152). His son, Godred (reigned 1153 - 1158), who for a short period ruled over Dublin also, as a result of a quarrel with Somerled (the ruler of Argyll) in 1156 lost the smaller islands off the coast of Argyll. An independent sovereignty thus appeared between the two divisions of his kingdom. In the 1130s the Church sent a small mission to establish the first bishopric on the Isle of Man, and appointed Wimund as the first Bishop. He soon after gave up his role as fisher of men, and became the hunter of men, embarking with a band of followers on a career of murder and looting throughout Scotland and the surrounding islands. Early in the 13th century, when Ragnald (reigned 1187 - 1229) paid homage to King John of England (reigned 1199 - 1216), we hear for the first time of English intervention in the affairs of Mann. But a period of Scots domination would precede the establishment of full English control. During the whole of the Scandinavian period the isles remained nominally under the suzerainty of the kings of Norway, but the Norwegians only occasionally asserted it with any vigour. Harold Haarfager did so first about 885, then came Magnus Barfod about 1100: both of these conquered the isles. From the middle of the 12th century till 1217 the suzerainty, because Norway had become a prey to civil dissensions, had remained of a very shadowy character. But after that date it became a reality and Norway consequently came into collision with the growing power of Scotland. Scottish interludes Finally, in 1261, Alexander III of Scotland sent envoys to Norway to negotiate for the cession of the isles, but their efforts led to no result. He therefore initiated hostilities which terminated in the indecisive Battle of Largs against of the Norwegian fleet in 1263. However the Norwegian king Haakon Haakonsson died the following winter, and this allowed king Alexander to bring the war to a successful conclusion. Magnus, King of Mann and the Isles (reigned 1252 - 1265), who had fought on the Norwegian side, had to surrender all the islands over which he had ruled, except Mann, for which he did homage. Two years later Magnus died and in 1266 King Magnus VI of Norway ceded the islands, including Mann, to Scotland in the Treaty of Perth in consideration of the sum of 4,000 marks (known as in Scotland) and an annuity of 100 marks. But Scotland's rule over Mann did not become firmly established till 1275, when the Manx suffered defeat in the decisive Battle of Ronaldsway, near Castletown. English dominance In 1290 King Edward I of England was in possession of Mann, and it remained in English hands till 1313, when Robert Bruce took it after besieging Castle Rushen for five weeks. Then, until 1346, when the Battle of Neville's Cross decided the long struggle between England and Scotland in England's favour, there followed a confused period when Mann sometimes experienced English rule and sometimes Scottish. About 1333 King Edward III of England granted Mann to William de Montacute, 3rd Baron Montacute, (later the 1st Earl of Salisbury), as his absolute possession, without reserving any service to be rendered to him. In 1392 his son sold the island including sovereignty to Sir William le Scrope. In 1399 King Henry IV brought about the beheading of Le Scrope, who had taken the side of Richard II. The island then came into the possession of the Crown, which granted it to Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland, but following his attainder, Henry IV, in 1405, made a lifetime grant of it, with the patronage of the bishopric, to Sir John Stanley. In 1406 this grant was extended – on a feudatory basis under the English Crown – to Sir John's heirs and assigns, the feudal fee being the service of rendering homage and two falcons to all future Kings of England on their coronations. With the accession of the Stanleys to the throne there begins a more settled epoch in Manx history. Though the island's new rulers rarely visited its shores, they placed it under governors, who, in the main, seem to have treated it with the justice of the time. Of the thirteen members of the family who ruled in Mann, the second Sir John Stanley (1414 - 1432), James, the 7th Earl (1627 - 1651), and the 10th Earl of the same name (1702-1736) had the most important influence on it. The first curbed the power of the spiritual barons, introduced trial by jury, instead of trial by battle, and ordered the laws to be written. The second, known as the Great Stanley, and his wife, Charlotte de la Tremoille (or Tremouille), are probably the most striking figures in Manx history. English Civil War and Interregnum In 1643 Charles I ordered James Stanley, 7th Earl of Derby to go to Mann, where the people, who were no doubt influenced by what was taking place in England, threatened to revolt. Stanley's arrival, with English soldiers, soon put a stop to anything of this kind. He conciliated the people by his affability, brought in Englishmen to teach various handicrafts and tried to help the farmers by improving the breed of Manx horses, and, at the same time, he restricted the exactions of the Church, but the Manx people never had less liberty than under his rule. They were heavily taxed; troops were quartered upon them; and they also had the more lasting grievance of being compelled to accept leases for three lives instead of holding their land by the straw tenure which they considered to be equivalent to a customary inheritance. Six months after the death of Charles (30 January 1649), Stanley received a summons from General Ireton to surrender the island, which he haughtily declined. In August 1651 he went to England with some of his troops, among whom were 300 Manxmen, to join King Charles II, and he and they shared in the decisive defeat of the Royalists at the Battle of Worcester. He was captured, imprisoned in Chester Castle and then tried by court-martial and executed at Bolton. Rebellion Soon after Stanley's death, the Manx Militia, under the command of William Christian (known by his Manx name of Illiam Dhone), rose against the Countess and captured all the insular forts except Rushen and Peel. They were then joined by a Parliamentary force under Colonel Duckenfield, to whom the Countess surrendered after a brief resistance. Oliver Cromwell had appointed Thomas Fairfax Lord of Mann and the Isles in September, so that Mann continued under a monarchical government and remained in the same relation to England as before. Restoration of the Stanleys The restoration of Stanley government in 1660 therefore caused as little friction and alteration as its temporary cessation had. One of the first acts of the new Lord, Charles Stanley, 8th Earl of Derby, was to order Christian to be tried. He was found guilty and executed. Of the other persons implicated in the rebellion only three were excepted from the general amnesty. But by Order-in-Council, Charles II pardoned them, and the judges responsible for the sentence on Christian were punished. Charles Stanley's next act was to dispute the permanency of the tenants' holdings, which they had not at first regarded as being affected by the acceptance of leases, a proceeding which led to an almost open rebellion against his authority and to the neglect of agriculture, in lieu of which the people devoted themselves to the fisheries and to contraband trade. Charles Stanley, who died in 1672, was succeeded firstly by his son William Richard George Stanley, 9th Earl of Derby until his death in 1702. The agrarian question subsided only in 1704, when James, William's brother and successor, largely through the influence of Bishop Wilson, entered into a compact with his tenants, which became embodied in an act, called the Act of Settlement. Their compact secured the tenants in the possession of their estates in perpetuity on condition of a fixed rent, and a small fine on succession or alienation. From the great importance of this act to the Manx people it has been called their Magna Carta. As time went on, and the value of the estates increased, the rent payable to the Lord became so small in proportion as to be almost nominal, being extinguished by purchase in 1916. Revestment James died in 1736, and the suzerainty of the isle passed to James Murray, 2nd Duke of Atholl, his first cousin and heir-male. In 1764 he was succeeded by his only surviving child Charlotte, Baroness Strange, and her husband, John Murray, who (in right of his wife) became Lord of Mann. About 1720 the contraband trade greatly increased. In 1726 Parliament checked it somewhat for a time, but during the last ten years of the Atholl regime (1756 - 1765) it assumed such proportions that, in the interests of the Imperial revenue, it became necessary to suppress it. With a view to so doing, Parliament passed the Isle of Man Purchase Act 1765 (commonly called the Revestment Act by the Manx), under which it purchased the rights of the Atholls as Lords of Mann including the customs revenues of the Island for the sum of £70,000 sterling, and granted an annuity to the Duke and Duchess. The Atholls still retained their manorial rights, the patronage of the bishopric, and certain other perquisites, until they sold them for the sum of £417,144 in 1828. Up to the time of the revestment, Tynwald had passed laws concerning the government of the island in all respects and had control over its finances, subject to the approval of the Lord of Mann. After the revestment, or rather after the passage of the Smuggling Act 1765 (commonly called the Mischief Act by the Manx), the Parliament at Westminster legislated with respect to customs, harbours and merchant shipping, and, in measures of a general character, it occasionally inserted clauses permitting the enforcement in the island of penalties in contravention of the acts of which they formed part. It also assumed the control of the insular customs duties. Such changes, rather than the transference of the full suzerainty to the King of Great Britain and Ireland, modified the (unwritten) constitution of the Isle of Man. Its ancient laws and tenures remained untouched, but in many ways the revestment affected it adversely. The hereditary Lords of Mann seldom, if ever, functioned as model rulers, but most of them had taken some personal share in its government, and had interested themselves in the well-being of its inhabitants. But now the whole direction of its affairs became the work of officials who regarded the island as a pestilent nest of smugglers, from which it seemed their duty to extract as much revenue as possible. Some alleviation of this state of things happened between 1793 and 1826 when John Murray, 4th Duke of Atholl served as Governor, since, though he quarrelled with the House of Keys and unduly cared for his own pecuniary interests, he did occasionally exert himself to promote the welfare of the island. After his departure the English officials resumed their sway, but they showed more consideration than before. Moreover, since smuggling, which the Isle of Man Purchase Act had only checked – not suppressed – had by that time almost disappeared, and since the Manx revenue had started to produce a large and increasing surplus, the authorities looked more favourably on the Isle of Man, and, thanks to this fact and to the representations of the Manx people to British ministers in 1837, 1844 and 1853, it obtained a somewhat less stringent customs tariff and an occasional dole towards erecting its much neglected public works. Modern period After 1866, when the Isle of Man obtained a measure of at least nominal Home Rule, the Manx people have made remarkable progress, and at the present day form a prosperous community, with tax haven status and a declining tourist industry. The Isle of Man was used as a base for Alien Civilian Internment camps in both the First World War (1914-18) and the Second World War (1939-45). During the First World War there were two camps, one a requisitioned holiday camp in Douglas and the other a purpose built camp at Knockaloe in the parish of Patrick. During the Second World War there were a number of smaller camps in Douglas, Peel, Port Erin and Ramsey. The early 20th century saw a revival of music, dance, and the Manx language, but this proved only partially successful, as the last native speaker of Manx died in the 1970s. In the middle part of the twentieth century, the Taoiseach Éamon de Valera visited, and became so distressed at the lack of support for Manx that he immediately had two recording vans sent over. As the century progressed, the Manx tourist economy declined greatly, as the English and Irish started flying to Spain for package holidays. The Manx government responded to this situation by making the island an off-shore financial centre, and although it has been accused of being a tax haven, it has avoided being placed on a UK black list of tax havens . The financial centre has had its detractors who have pointed to the the potential for money laundering . This has given the biggest impetus to Manx nationalism in recent years, spawning the parties Mec Vannin and the Manx National Party, as well as the now defunct (literally 'Underground'), which mounted a direct-action campaign of spray-painting and attempted house-burning. The 1990s and early 21st century have seen a greater recognition of indigenous Manx culture, such as the first Manx language primary school, as well as a general re-evaluation of the island's economy. See also King of Mann and the Isles (1079 - 1164) King of Mann (1164 - 1504) Lord of Mann (1504 - 1765) Act of Settlement 1703 Governor of the Isle of Man (1696 - 1828) Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man (1773 - present) Wimund - 12th century, first Bishop of the Isle of Man, war-lord Internment camps in the Isle of Man Extinct animals from the Isle of Man References Sources External links The Story of Mann - Government site with a collections of links on Isle of Man history. manx geneaology - information about the geneaology of the Isle of Man from isleofman.com the manx notebook - A vast electronic compendium of all matters, past and present regarding the Isle of Man at isleofman.com History of Isle of Man
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external_link:1
3,112
Foreign_relations_of_Lebanon
The foreign policy of Lebanon reflects its geographic location, the composition of its population, and its reliance on commerce and trade. Until 2005, Lebanon's foreign policy had been heavily influenced by Syria. The framework for relations was first codified in May 1991, when Lebanon and Syria signed a treaty of mutual cooperation. This treaty came out of the Taif Agreement, which stipulated that "Lebanon is linked to Syria by distinctive ties deriving strength from kinship, history, and common interests." The Lebanese-Syria treaty calls for "coordination and cooperation between the two countries" that would serve the "interests of the two countries within the framework of sovereignty and independence of each." Numerous agreements on political, economic, security, and judicial affairs have followed over the years. After Syria's military withdrawal in 2005, Lebanon's foreign policy charted a more independent course. Although its current government's policy can be considered Western-leaning if not pro-Western, the political opposition led by Hezbollah and the Free Patriotic Movement advocate a foreign policy more in line with that of Iran and Syria. Multilateral relations European Union Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002, the accord becoming known as the EU-Lebanon Association Agreement. The EU-Lebanon Action Plan from 19 January 2007 gave a new impetus to bilateral relations in the framework of the European Neighborhood Policy. Lebanon is one of the main Mediterranean beneficiaries of community assistance and the EU through its various instruments is Lebanon’s leading donor. Starting from 2007 financial support is channeled through the European Neighborhood Policy Instrument. A Lebanon Country Strategy Paper 2007-2013 and a National Indicative Program 2007-2010 have been adopted by the EU. The assistance provided was refocused after the Second Lebanon War in order to engage in real help for the government and the society in reconstruction and reform of the country. Republic of Lebanon. European Commission: External Relations Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is in the process of accession to the World Trade Organization. Arab world Lebanon traditionally enjoys warm relations with other pro-Western Arab states. At various times, however, it has seen tension with Egypt, Syria, Iraq, the Palestinians, and Libya. In March 2002, in honor of the expulsion of Israeli troops from the South of the country, the Arab League met in Lebanon for the first time since 1967. Lebanon also is a member of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference. Hezbollah maintains a close relationship with Iran, largely centered on Shi'a Muslim links and animosity towards Israel. Bilateral relations Armenia Australia Brazil France Greece Iraq Israel Pakistan Palestinian Authority Syria United States Israel Israeli troops in southern Lebanon between June 1982 and May 2000; Syrian troops in northern, central, and eastern Lebanon since October 1976 not at Lebanese government request. Syrian troops left in April 2005. Lebanon claims Israeli controlled Shebaa Farms in southern Syria. According to the current prime minister Lebanese officials, Lebanon will be the last Arab country to sign a peace treaty with Israel as the two states are officially in a state of war. The already strained relations between the two countries have deteriorated to an abysmal point in the 2006 war, a move which many believe to have strained US-Lebanese relations. Lebanon effectively denies entry to travelers with Israeli stamps on their passports a moves which harms both states as those wishing to visit both Lebanon and Israel cannot do so and must ultimately choose one destination. Iraq Despite similarities in language and religion, and mutual support for each other in conflicts, Lebanon's relations with Iraq have at most times been cold. Issues include the Lebanese Government's strong material and political assistance of Hezbollah and ongoing clashes in Baghdad between the Sunnis and Shias. Despite this tension, the two nations have embassies in each of their capital cities. Syria inconsequential producer of hashish; some heroin processing mostly in the Bekaa valley; a Lebanese/Syrian eradication campaign started in the early 1990s has practically eliminated the opium and cannabis crops. A 2002/2003 campaign has eliminated nearly all hashish production United States The United States' interaction with Lebanon extends back to events such as the 1958 Lebanon crisis, which it sent in troops to fortify the government's position. Lebanon's southern neigbor, Israel, has also sent troops on several occasions, and attacked into Lebanon in response to Hezbollah kidnapping two Israeli soldiers. A possible source of friction between the U.S. and Lebanon is that most of Israel's weaponry is American-made, arguing possible American complicity in Israel's attacks. See also Diplomatic missions of Lebanon List of diplomatic missions in Lebanon References and footnotes External links 1983 Israel-Lebanon agreement Embassy of Lebanon in Washington DC Amb. Farid Abboud profileThe Washington Diplomat serves the diplomatic community with columns focusing on international news and events. Representations of foreign nations in Lebanon Delegation of the European Commission in Lebanon United States Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon Farid Abboud: Lebanese Ambassador to Tunisia
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3,113
Ibizan_Hound
The Ibizan Hound, pronounced "I-bee-zan" or "I-beeth-an", is an agile, deer-like dog of the hound family. There are two hair types of the breed: smooth and wire. The more commonly seen type is the smooth. Some consider there to be a third type, long, but most consider the longhair to be a variation of the wire. Description Appearance The Ibizan Hound is an elegant and agile breed with an athletic and attractive outline and a ground-covering springy trot. Though graceful in appearance, it has good bone girth and is a rugged/hardy breed. Its large upright ears - a hallmark of the breed - are broad at the base and frame a long and elegant headpiece. The neck is long and lean. It has a unique front assembly with well laid back shoulders and straight upper arm. In this way it is different from most other sighthound breeds in construction. It comes in both smooth and wire coated varieties. It is either red or white or a combination of red and white. Its nose is flesh colored, as are its ears, eye rims, and pads of feet. Its eyes are a striking amber color and have an alert and intelligent expression. The Ibizan may range in height from 24 to 29 inches (61 to 74 cm) and weigh from 45 to 65 pounds (20 to 29 kg), males being larger than females. Temperament Ibizan Hounds are very intelligent, active, and engaging by nature. They rank 53rd in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs, being of above average working/obedience intelligence. They are true "clowns" of the dog world, delighting in entertaining their people with their antics. Though somewhat independent and stubborn at times, they do take well to training if positive methods are used, but will balk at punitive training methods. They are generally quiet, but will alarm bark if necessary, so they make good watch dogs. They are sensitive hounds, and very good around children and other dogs alike. They generally make good house dogs, but are active and athletic, therefore need a lot of daily exercise. They do not make good kennel dogs. Ibizan Hounds are "escapologists." They are able to jump incredible heights from a stand still. As such, they need very tall fences. They also have been known to climb. They have a strong prey drive, therefore they cannot be trusted off lead unless in a safely enclosed area. Health The Ibizan Hound is typical of the Hound Group in that it rarely suffers from hereditary illness. Minor health concerns for the breed include seizures and allergies; very rarely, one will see axonal dystrophy, cataract, retinal dysplasia and deafness in the breed. Ibizan Hound owners should have their dogs' eyes tested by a veterinarian before breeding. Ibizan Hounds are sensitive to barbiturate anesthesia, and typically live between 12 and 14 years. Coile, Caroline, Ph.D., Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds, Barron's Educational Series, 2005. Page 80. History & Use This breed originates in the island of Eivissa and has been traditionally used in the Catalan speaking areas of Spain and France to hunt rabbits and other small game. The Ibizan Hound is a fast dog that can hunt on all types of terrain, working by scent, sound and sight. Hunters run these dogs in mostly female packs, with perhaps a male or two, as the female is considered the better hunter. The Ibizan hound authority Miquel Rosselló has provided a detailed description of a working trial which characterises their typical hunting technique and action Cà Eivessenc: l’Alternativa/Podenco Ibicenco: La Alternativa. Palma de Mallorca: Caixa de Balears Sa Nostra 1987 , strikingly illustrated with action photos by Charles Camberoque which demonstrate hunt behaviour and typical hunt terrain. While local hunters will at times use one dog or a brace, and frequently packs of 6-8 or as many as 15, the working trial requires an evaluation of one or two braces. A brace is called a colla. The couples should be tested on at least 2 to 5 rabbits (not hares) without the use of any other hunting aid. An inspection and evaluation of the exterior, fitness, character and obedience of the dogs is recommended prior to the hunt. The trial is qualified as having 5 parts. The dogs should show: (1) careful tracking and scenting of the rabbit, without being distracted in the least, 0-30 points.(2) correct signalling of the game, patient stand, strong jump into the air, obedience 0-10 points. (3) chase, giving tongue, speed, sureness, anticipation 0-30 points. (4) putting the game to cover at close quarters, listening, waiting, obedience, correct attack 0-10 points. (5) good catch, or correct indication of the game’s location, retrieval, obedience 0-20 points. Individual dogs are expected to show a great degree of discipline, obedience and co-operation. They should be extremely agile, have good speed and a powerful vertical jump from a stationary position in rough and often heavily covered ground. They should have excellent scent-tracking abilities, give tongue at the right time when approaching the game closely, and otherwise be silent so that they can locate the game by sound. Female Ibizan Hound The Ibizan Hound is similar in function and type to several breeds such as the Pharaoh Hound, the Cirneco dell'Etna, the Portuguese Podengo, and the Podenco Canario. The Ibizan Hound is the largest of these breeds, classified by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale as primitive types. This breed is considered by most experts one of the most ancient dog breeds. It is believed the Ibizan Hound evolves from the tesem, the ancient Egypt hunting dog. Representations of this dog on the walls of ancient tombs show a striking similarity to the modern Ibizan Hound . These dogs would have been brought to the island of Eivissa by the Phoenicians, who founded settlements there as early as the VIII Century BC . A recent DNA analysis did not find support for this opinion and did not include the Ibizan Hound among their identified ancient dog breeds. A more recent article argues that continued trait selective breeding may be behind this lack of support. Heidi G. Parker, the lead author of the original study has stated recently that indeed their original findings do not imply that the Ibizan Hound is not an ancient breed and that with better tools they would in all likelihood be able to trace a continous lineage of thousands of years for many dog breeds and add them to their group of ancient dogs . The Ibizan Hound breed is recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale, Continental Kennel Club, American Kennel Club, United Kennel Club, Kennel Club of Great Britain, Canadian Kennel Club, National Kennel Club, New Zealand Kennel Club, Australian National Kennel Council, America's Pet Registry, and American Canine Registry. It was fully recognized by the American Kennel Club in 1979. In folk culture According to journalist Norman Lewis, when an owner no longer wants to own one of these dogs (having too much of an appetite, for instance), it is considered very bad luck to kill the dog. Instead, they release the dog on the other side of the island, so that someone else might 'adopt' the animal. References External links Ibizan Hound Photos Charles Camberoque: photos of Ibizans at work Video: How Ibizans hunt Ibizan Hound at Dog Breed Info Ibizan Hound Club (Eivissa) Norwegian Ibizan Hound Club Swiss Ibizan Hound Club German Ibizan Hound Club Ibizan Hound Rescue in Spain Additional information on the German language Wikipedia.(In German: "Podenco Ibicenco")
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3,114
Rockwell_B-1_Lancer
The B-1 Lancer is a strategic bomber used by the United States Air Force. First envisioned in the 1960s as a supersonic bomber with sufficient range and payload to replace the B-52 Stratofortress, it developed primarily into a low-level penetrator with long-range and capable of supersonic speed. Its development was stopped and restarted multiple times over its history, as the theory of strategic balance changed from flexible response to mutually assured destruction and back again. It eventually entered service more than 20 years after first being studied. The B-1B production version has been in service with the United States Air Force (USAF) since 1986. The Lancer serves as the supersonic component of the USAF's long-range bomber force, along with the subsonic B-52 and B-2 Spirit. The bomber is commonly called the "Bone" (originally from "B-One"). With the retirement of the EF-111 Raven in 1998 and the F-14 Tomcat in 2006, the B-1B is the U.S. military's only variable-sweep wing aircraft. Development Background In December 1957, U.S. Air Force selected North American Aviation's proposal to replace the B-52 Stratofortress. This would lead to the B-70 Valkyrie. Jenkins 1999, pp. 12–13. The Valkyrie was a six-engine bomber that could fly very high at Mach 3 to avoid interceptor aircraft, the only effective anti-bomber weapon in the 1950s. At the time, Soviet interceptors were unable to intercept the high-flying Lockheed U-2; Rich, Ben and Leo Janos. Skunk Works. Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1994. ISBN 0-316-74300-3. the Valkyrie was to fly at similar altitudes and much higher speeds. But by the late 1950s, anti-aircraft surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) could threaten high-altitude aircraft, Jenkins 1999, p. 21. as demonstrated by the 1960 downing of Gary Powers' U-2. Recognizing this, the USAF Strategic Air Command had begun moving to low-level penetration before the U-2 downing. This greatly reduces radar detection distances while at that time SAMs were ineffective and interceptors less effective against low-flying aircraft. Spick 1986, pp. 6–7. Also the flight path to a target could be routed around known anti-aircraft sites, and the landscape could be used to the bomber's advantage to stay out of the radar's line-of-sight operation. Aircraft speed became much less important. The targets themselves often had defenses located nearby to prevent this sort of approach all the way in, but stand-off weapons such as the AGM-69 SRAM provided an attack capability from outside the defensive missile's range. Low-altitude flight also made the bombers very difficult to detect from aircraft at higher altitudes, including interceptors, as radar systems of that generation could not "look down" due to the clutter that resulted from ground reflections. Operations at low levels would limit the B-70 to subsonic speed, while dramatically decreasing its range due to much higher fuel requirements. The result would be an aircraft with similar speed but much less range than the B-52 it would have replaced. The Mach 2 B-58 was similarly limited to subsonic speeds at low altitudes. Unsuited for this new role, the viability of the B-70 as a bomber was questioned. Citing high cost, a growing ICBM force, and poor survivability against missiles, North American Rockwell, NASA-CR-115702, B-70 Aircraft Study Final Report, Vol. I, p. I-38, NASA, 1972. the operational bomber fleet was canceled in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy, and the program was changed to a supersonic research program with two XB-70 prototype aircraft. Jenkins 1999, pp. 11–19. Although never intended for the low-level role, the B-52's flexibility allowed it to outlast its intended successor as the nature of the air war environment changed. The B-52's large airframe and ample internal room made it relatively simple to add greatly improved electronic countermeasures suites. The "big belly" modifications increased the B-52's bomb load to 60,000 pounds (27,215 kg) Knaack 1988, p. 256. during the Vietnam War. That was not to say the B-52 was a perfect aircraft. Higher speed would aid even a low-level approach in the strategic role, something the F-111 was taking advantage of. In the high-load tactical role the B-52 was limited to a small number of airfields due to its long takeoff distance. By the early 1960s the state of the art in engine and airframe design had improved considerably; an aircraft designed to match the B-52 in performance could meet both of these additional requirements as well. Design studies The first post-B-70 study was known as the Subsonic Low Altitude Bomber (SLAB), which was completed in 1961. This was followed by the similar Extended Range Strike Aircraft (ERSA), which added a Variable-sweep wing planform, something then very much in vogue in the aviation industry. Rockwell B-1A, J Baugher, 10 October 2001. ERSA envisioned a relatively small aircraft with a 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) load and a range of 8,750 nautical miles (16,200 km), with 2,500 nmi (4,600 km) being flown at low altitudes. In August 1963 the similar Low-Altitude Manned Penetrator (LAMP) design was completed, which called for an aircraft with a 20,000 lb (9,000 kg) load and somewhat shorter range of 7,150 nautical miles (13,200 km). These all culminated in the October 1963 Advanced Manned Precision Strike System (AMPSS), which led to industry studies at Boeing, General Dynamics, and North American. In mid-1964, the USAF had revised its requirements and retitled the project as Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft (AMSA), which differed from AMPSS primarily in that it also demanded a high-speed high-altitude capability, albeit slower than the Valkyrie at about Mach 2. B-1A background, Globalsecurity.org. Given the lengthy series of design studies, Rockwell engineers joked that the new name actually stood for "America's Most Studied Aircraft". "The Evolution of a Strategic Bomber" The cancellation of the B-70 project had led some to question the need for a new strategic bomber at all. The Air Force was adamant about retaining bombers as part of the nuclear triad concept that included bombers, SLBMs, and ICBMs in a combined package that complicated any potential defense. The arguments for keeping the bombers, however, were hotly debated. The original argument was that the bombers could be kept in the air during times of increased defensive posture, where they would be difficult to attack. Missiles of the era, like the Atlas and Redstone, required a lengthy fuelling procedure immediately before launch, and were therefore vulnerable to air attack while still on the ground. They also had low accuracy; enough to attack cities as a strategic deterrent, but not enough to attack hardened military targets. To attack these targets, the bombers were required. In the early 1960s newer generations of missiles with solid rocket motors were being introduced that could be launched quickly, even faster than bombers, and were sited in underground silos for protection. Sneak attacks on these weapons would be very difficult for the USSR, which lacked the required accuracy in their own weapons and would have to use their bombers in order to be effective against them. US air defenses would have made such an attack extremely unlikely to succeed. Accuracy of the new weapons was so improved that direct attacks against similar weapons in the USSR were a real possibility, and attacks on other military bases were now possible. Making matters more troublesome for the Air Force was the introduction and rapid improvement of the U.S. Navy's SLBM force, which had considerably better survivability than either bombers or hardened missile silos. After this period the Air Force used a number of different arguments to make its case for the strategic bomber, including the conventional role and "recall-ability", but these arguments were much less convincing. One of the biggest critics of the bomber portion of the triad was Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara who preferred ICBMs over bombers for the Air Force side of the deterrent force. In testimony before Congress, McNamara said, "The strategic missile forces for 1967-71 will provide more force than is required for 'Assured Destruction' ... a new advanced strategic aircraft does not at this time appear justified." B-1A page, fas.org. Retrieved: 20 March 2008. His opposition led to the AMSA program being limited to studies in 1964. The program was revived only a few years later however, and in 1968 an advanced development contract was issued to IBM and North American Rockwell. McNamara remained opposed to the program in favor of upgrading the existing B-52 fleet, and adding just under 300 FB-111s for shorter range roles then being filled by the B-58. He again vetoed the AMSA program and did not fund aircraft development. B-1A program A B-1A in flight showing its underside, 1981. President Richard Nixon re-established the program after taking office, in keeping with his administration's flexible response strategy that required a broad range of options short of general nuclear war. Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird reviewed the programs and decided to lower the numbers of FB-111s, claiming it lacked the required range, and recommended that the AMSA design studies be accelerated. In April 1969 the program officially became the B-1A. This was the first entry in the new bomber designation series, first created in 1962. After the prolonged development period, the production contract was finally awarded in 1970. The original program called for two test airframes, five flyable aircraft, and 40 engines. This was cut in 1971 to one ground- and three flight test aircraft (74-0158 through 0160). First flight was set for April 1974. The company changed its name to Rockwell International and named its aircraft division North American Aircraft Operations in 1973. Rockwell International history 1970-1986 A fourth prototype (76-1074) was ordered in the FY 1976 budget. This fourth aircraft was to be built to production standards. At one time, some 240 B-1As planned to be built, with initial operational capability set for 1979. Rockwell's design featured a number of features common to 1960s U.S. designs. These included the use of variable-sweep wings in order to provide both high lift during takeoff and landing, and low drag during a high-speed dash phase. With the wings set to their widest position the aircraft had considerably better lift and power than the B-52, allowing it to operate from a much wider variety of bases. Penetration of the USSR's defenses would take place in a dash, crossing them as quickly as possible before entering into the less defended "heartland" where speeds could be reduced again. The large size and fuel capacity of the design would allow this dash portion of the flight to be relatively long. USAF Rockwell B-1B Lancer arrives at RIAT 2008 In order to achieve the required Mach 2 performance at high altitudes, the air intake inlets were variable. In addition, the exhaust nozzles were fully variable. Initially, it had been expected that a Mach 1.2 performance could be achieved at low altitude, which required that titanium be used in critical areas in the fuselage and wing structure. However, this low altitude performance requirement was lowered to only Mach 0.85, reducing the amount of titanium, and the overall cost. Crew escape was provided for using an escape pod that ejected a portion of the entire cockpit with both pilots inside, as opposed to the more conventional ejection seats; it was felt that egress during a high-speed, high-altitude dash would be too dangerous without pressurization. A pair of small canards mounted near the nose are part of an active vibration damping system that smooths out the otherwise bumpy low-altitude ride, reducing crew fatigue and improving airframe life. An extensive suite of electronics was planned, including a Litton LN-15 inertial navigation system, a Doppler radar altimeter, a Hughes forward-looking infrared, a General Electric APQ-114 forward-looking radar and a Texas Instruments APQ-146 terrain-following radar. The terrain-following radar, in particular, would allow the B-1 to fly at much lower altitudes during the "dash" phase of the mission than the B-52, which relied on older systems that demanded higher minimum altitudes during bad weather. Overall it had a range similar to that of the B-52, although more of the flight could be low-level. A combination of flying lower due to better navigation systems and a greatly reduced radar cross section made it much safer from attack by missiles, and the latter also improved its odds against fighters as well. In situations where fighters were the expected competition (i.e. outside the USSR), its high-speed dash was a potentially useful technique the B-52 could not match. A convincing B-52 replacement had arrived. New problems The B-1A mockup review occurred in late October 1971. There were 297 requests for alterations. The first of four prototype B-1A models (s/n 74-0158) flew on 23 December 1974. B-1B Background information from Boeing As the program continued the per-unit cost continued to rise. In 1970, the estimated per-unit price was $40 million, and by 1972, the cost had risen slightly to $45.6 million. By 1975, this figure had climbed to $70 million. In 1976 Viktor Belenko defected to Japan with his MiG-25 "Foxbat". During debriefing he described a new "super-Foxbat" (almost certainly referring to the MiG-31) that had look-down/shoot-down radar systems in order to attack cruise missiles. This would also make any low-level penetration aircraft "visible" and easy to attack. Countering this problem would require another upgrade to the electronic countermeasures suite, already one of the most complex and expensive ever fitted. The debate over the need for the bomber opened anew, and this time the reduced low-speed dash was a particular target. Given the performance and the armament suite that was similar to the B-52, the program was increasingly questioned as a very expensive solution that appeared to have limited benefits over the existing fleet. The program remained highly controversial. In particular, Senator William Proxmire continually derided it in public, arguing it was an outlandishly expensive dinosaur. During the 1976 federal election campaign, Jimmy Carter made it one of the Democratic Party's platforms, saying "The B-1 bomber is an example of a proposed system which should not be funded and would be wasteful of taxpayers' dollars." Carter's Big Decision: Down Goes the B-1, Here Comes the Cruise Cancellation The Rockwell B-1A, 1984. When Carter took office in 1977 he ordered a review of the entire program. By this point the projected cost of the program had risen to over $100 million per aircraft, although this was lifetime cost over 20 years. He was informed of the relatively new work on stealth aircraft that had started in 1975, and decided that this was a far better avenue of approach than the B-1. Pentagon officials also stated that the ALCM (Air Launched Cruise Missile) launched from the existing B-52 fleet would give the USAF equal capability of penetrating Soviet airspace. With a range of 1,500 miles (2,400 km), the ALCM could be launched well outside the range of any Soviet defenses, and penetrate at low altitude just like a bomber, but in much greater numbers. A small number of B-52 operating outside interception range could launch hundreds of ALCMs, saturating the defense. A program to improve the B-52 and develop and deploy the ALCM would cost perhaps 20% of the price to deploy the planned 244 B-1As. On 30 June 1977 Carter announced that the B-1A would be canceled in favor of ICBMs, SLBMs, and a fleet of modernized B-52s armed with ALCMs. Carter called it "one of the most difficult decisions that I've made since I've been in office." No mention of the stealth work was made public, the program being top secret, but today it is known that he authorized the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) project in early 1978, which eventually led to the B-2 Spirit. Northrop B-2A Spirit, J Baugher, 16 October 2001. Unsurprisingly, the reaction to the cancellation was split along partisan lines. Robert Dornan claimed, "They're breaking out the vodka and caviar in Moscow." In contrast, it appears the Soviets were not at all excited by this development, considering a large number of ALCMs represented a much greater threat than a smaller number of B-1s. Tass commented that "the implementation of these militaristic plans has seriously complicated efforts for the limitation of the strategic arms race." Western military leaders were generally happy with the decision. Alexander Haig, then commanding NATO, described the ALCM as an "attractive alternative" to the B-1. French General Georges Buis stated "The B-1 is a formidable weapon, but not terribly useful. For the price of one bomber, you can have 200 cruise missiles." Flight tests of the four B-1A prototypes for the B-1A program continued through April 1981. The program included 70 flights totalling 378 hours. A top speed of Mach 2.22 was reached by the second B-1A. Engine testing also continued during this time with the YF101 engines totalling almost 7,600 hours. Jenkins 1999, p. 46. Shifting priorities It was during this period that the Soviets, also acting in proxy through Cuba, started to exert themselves in several new theaters of action, in particular the Cuban support in Angola starting in 1975 and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. The U.S. strategy to this point was containment and a conventional and nuclear war in Europe, which almost all military planning had been focused on. These newer actions revealed that the military was simply incapable of supporting any sort of effort outside these narrow confines. Long-Range Combat Aircraft and Rapid Deployment Forces The Army responded by accelerating its Rapid Deployment Force concept, but suffered from major problems with airlift and sealift capability. While gaming a USSR-led invasion of Iran from Afghanistan, then considered (incorrectly) to be a major Soviet goal, it was discovered that only small numbers of units could be in the field in anything close to a week. In order to slow an advance while this happened they relied on air power, but critically the Iran-Afghanistan border was outside the U.S. Navy's range, leaving this role to the Air Force. They, in turn, had limited capability to offer ground support in many areas that were outside the range of friendly airbases. Although the B-52 had the range to support on-demand global missions, the B-52's long runway requirements dramatically limited the forward basing possibilities. In real-world scenarios the capabilities of this force against any given potential target was limited, something the B-1 would be better prepared to handle due to its better takeoff performance and range. During the 1980 presidential campaign, Ronald Reagan campaigned heavily on the platform that Carter was weak on defense, using the cancellation of the B-1 program as a prime example, a theme he continued using into the 1980s. Reagan's Radio Address to the Nation on Foreign Policy, 20 October 1984 During this time Carter's defense secretary, Harold Brown, announced the stealth bomber project, apparently implying that this was the reason for the B-1 cancellation. Brown later denied this claim, stating Carter was simply opposed to any military buildup. Although Reagan's primary attack on Carter's decision was now rendered moot, he immediately changed his complaint saying that Carter was giving away secrets and politicizing the Pentagon, charges that led to a round of sparring between Brown and Reagan in the press. Interestingly, it was Brown that had led the original AMSA program, but later came to prefer the cruise missile after taking the job of Defense Secretary in 1977. B-1B program First B-1B debuted outside a hangar in Palmdale, California, 1984 On taking office, Reagan was faced with the same decision as Carter before; whether to continue with the B-1 for the short term, or to wait for the development of the ATB, a much more advanced aircraft. He decided to do both. Air Force studies suggested that the existing B-52 fleet with ALCM would remain a credible threat until 1985 , as it was predicted that 75% of the B-52 force would survive to attack its targets. Bomber Options for Replacing B-52s After this period the introduction of the SA-10 missile, MiG-31 interceptor and the first Soviet AWACS systems would make them increasingly vulnerable. During the FY81 budget funds were given to a new study for a bomber for the 1990s time-frame. These studies led to the Long-Range Combat Aircraft (LRCA) project which compared the B-1, F-111 and ATB as possible solutions. An emphasis was placed on the design being multi-role, as opposed to a purely strategic weapon. At the time it was believed the B-1 could be in operation before the B-2, covering the time period between the B-52s increasing vulnerability and the introduction of the ATB. Reagan decided the best solution was to purchase both the B-1 and ATB, and this eventually led to Reagan's 2 October 1981 announcement that a new version of the B-1 was being ordered to fill the LRCA role. Numerous changes were made to the design to better fit it to real-world missions, resulting in the new B-1B. These changes included a reduction in maximum speed, which allowed the variable-aspect intake ramps to be replaced by simpler fixed geometry intake ramps in the newer design. This reduced the B version's radar signature because the compressor faces of the engines, major radar reflectors, would be partially hidden. Low-altitude speed was somewhat improved, from about Mach 0.85 to 0.92. Goebel, Greg."The Rockwell B-1, B-1B Described", Vectorsite.net, 1 July 2006. This left the B-1B with the capability for speeds of about Mach 1.25 "at altitude", a reduction from the B-1A's Mach 2 performance. The B-1B's maximum takeoff weight was increased to 477,000 lb (216,000 kg) from the B-1A's 395,000 lb (179,000 kg). The weight increase was to allow for takeoffs with full fuel tanks and for weapons to be carried externally. Rockwell engineers were able to reinforce critical areas and lighten non-critical areas of the airframe so the increase in empty weight was minimal. Spick 1986, p. 28. In order to deal with the introduction of the MiG-31 and other aircraft with look-down capability, the B-1B's electronic warfare suite was significantly upgraded. These changes, along with the rampant inflation of the U.S. economy during the time, dramatically increased the nominal price to about $200 million total projected lifetime cost per completed airframe. B-1B banking during a demonstration in 2004. Opposition to the plan was widespread within Congress. Critics pointed out that many of the original problems with the concept remained. In particular it seemed the B-52 fitted with electronics similar to the B-1B would be equally able to avoid interception, as the speed advantage of the B-1 was now minimal. It also appeared that the "interim" time frame served by the B-1B would be less than a decade, being rendered obsolete shortly after introduction by the much more capable ATB design. The primary argument in favor of the B-1 was its large conventional payload, and that its takeoff performance allowed it to operate with a credible bombload from a much wider variety of airfields. The debate remained rancorous. But the Air Force very astutely spread production subcontracts across many congressional districts, making the aircraft more popular on Capitol Hill. The first production model of the revised B-1B first flew in October 1984, and the first B-1B, "The Star of Abilene", was delivered to Dyess Air Force Base, Abilene, Texas, in June 1985, with initial operational capability on 1 October, 1986. The 100th and final B-1B was delivered 2 May 1988. Design B-1B Lancer|B-1B at RIAT 2004. The B-1 has a blended wing body configuration, with variable-sweep wing, triangular fin control surfaces and four turbofan engines, to improve range and speed with enhanced survivability. Forward-swept wing settings are used for takeoff, landings and high-altitude maximum cruise. Aft-swept wing settings are used in high subsonic and supersonic flight. The wings of the B-1B originally were cleared for use at settings of 15, 25, 55, and 67.5 degrees. The 45-degree setting was later cleared in 1998–99 timeframe. The length of the aircraft presented a serious flexing problem due to air turbulence at low altitude. To alleviate this, Rockwell included small canards near the nose on the B-1. An accelerometer would actuate the canards automatically to counteract turbulence and smooth out the ride. "AIAA-1972-772, B-1 Structural Mode Control System", American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), 9 August 1972. B-1B Cockpit at night. Unlike the B-1A, the B-1B made no attempt at Mach 2+ speeds. Its maximum speed at altitude is Mach 1.25 (about 950 mph or 1,530 km/h), Jenkins 1999, p. 60. but its low-level speed increased to Mach 0.92 (700 mph, 1,130 km/h). Pace 1998, p. 64. Technically, the current version of the aircraft can exceed its speed restriction, but not without risking potential damage to its structure and air intakes. The B-1A's engine was modified slightly to produce the F101-102, with an emphasis on durability, and increased efficiency. Spick 1987, p. 498. The core of this engine has since been re-used in several other engine designs, including the F110 which has seen use in the F-14 Tomcat, F-15K/SG variants and most recent versions of the F-16 Fighting Falcon. It is also the basis for the non-afterburning F118 used in the B-2 Spirit bomber and the U-2S. However its greatest success was forming the core of the extremely popular CFM56 civil engine, which can be found on some versions of practically every small-to-medium sized airliner. The nose gear cover door has controls for the auxiliary power units (APUs), main gear doors and nearby entry ladder. Pace 1998, p. 44. One of controls there allows for quick starts of the APUs upon order to scramble. Spick 1986, p. 44. The B-1's offensive avionics include the Westinghouse (now Northrop Grumman) AN/APQ-164 forward-looking offensive passive electronically scanned array radar set with electronic beam steering (and a fixed antenna pointed downward for reduced radar observability), synthetic aperture radar, ground moving target indicator (MTI), and terrain-following radar modes, Doppler navigation, radar altimeter, and an inertial navigation suite. From 1995 on, the B-1B Block D upgrade added a Global Positioning System receiver. B-1B releasing bombs and ejecting a MJU 23 decoy flare. The B-1's defensive electronics include the Eaton AN/ALQ-161 radar warning and defensive jamming equipment, linked to a total of eight AN/ALE-49 flare dispensers located on top behind the canopy, which are handled by the AN/ASQ-184 avionics management system. The AN/ALE-49 dispenser has a capacity of 12 MJU-23A/B flares each. The MJU-23A/B flare is one of the world's largest infrared countermeasure flares having a gross weight of ~1170 g. J. A. Humphries and D. E. Miller. AIAA-1997-2963: B-1B/MJU-23 flare strike test program. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, 33rd, Seattle, WA, 6 - 9 July 1997. The cylindrical Magnesium/Teflon/Viton pellet has a net weight of ~1470 g. The Plans for a defensive systems upgrade program (DSUP) were canceled for budgetary reasons. The B-1 has also been equipped to carry the ALE-50 Towed Decoy System. B-1B USAF fact sheet, U.S. Air Force. The Lancer has an additional Doppler tail-warning radar to detect aircraft or missiles approaching from the rear. Also aiding the B-1's survivability is its relatively low radar cross-section (RCS). Although not technically a stealth aircraft in a comprehensive sense, thanks to the aircraft's structure, serpentine intake paths and use of radar-absorbent material its RCS is about 1/50th that of the B-52 (probably about 26 ft² or 2.4 m²), although the Lancer is not substantially smaller in mass than the Stratofortress. The B-1 has been upgraded since production through the "Conventional Mission Upgrade Program". This multi-stage program added a new MIL-STD-1760 smart-weapons interface that enables the use of the Joint Direct Attack Munition and other precision-guided conventional weapons, such as the Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD), the AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW), and the AGM-158 JASSM (Joint Air to Surface Standoff Munition). Future precision munitions include the GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb. Wicke, Russell. "ACC declares small diameter bomb initially operational", U.S. Air Force, 5 October 2006. These and other improvements are intended to ensure that the B-1 will be viable through approximately 2020. In addition, the Air Force has recently announced a program to keep the aircraft flying until at least 2040. Operational history The USAF Strategic Air Command (SAC) had B-1 Lancers in service from 1986 through 1992, when SAC was re-organized out of existence. During that time the "Bone" was on limited alert, and the backbone of SAC's alert bombers remained B-52H models. In late 1990 engine fires in two Lancers caused the grounding of the fleet. The cause was traced back to problems in the first-stage fan. Aircraft were placed on "limited alert", meaning they were grounded unless a nuclear war broke out. They were returned to duty one-at-a-time starting in January 1991 as they were inspected and repaired. It was not until mid-April that the fleet was once again declared airworthy. Although officially named the "Lancer", B-1 crews almost never refer to the aircraft by this name. Crews prefer to call the B-1 the "Bone". Origins of the "Bone" nickname are disputed, but appear to stem from an early newspaper article about the aircraft wherein its name was phonetically spelled out as "B-ONE" and inadvertently omitted the hyphen. Jenkins 1999, p. 67. Crews, who generally felt the "Lancer" moniker was unappealing, quickly latched onto the "Bone" nickname. Originally designed strictly for nuclear war, the B-1's development as an effective conventional bomber was delayed until the 1990s. By 1991, the B-1 had a fledgling conventional capability, forty of them able to drop the 500 lb (230 kg) Mk-82 General Purpose (GP) bomb, although mostly from low altitude. Although cleared for this role, the problems with the engines precluded their use in Operation Desert Storm. Also, B-1s were reserved for strategic nuclear strike missions at this time. Rockwell B-1B Lancer, J Baugher, 12 October 2001. After the absorption of Strategic Air Command (SAC) into Air Combat Command (ACC) in 1992, the B-1 began to truly develop conventionally. A key part of this development was the start-up of the B-1 Weapons School Division, also in 1992. By the mid-1990s, the B-1 could employ GP weapons as well as various CBUs. By the end of the 1990s, with the advent of the "Block D" upgrade, the B-1 boasted a full array of guided and unguided munitions. This development has continued through the present. The B-1B no longer carries nuclear weapons, and the B-1 fleet did not have nuclear capability by 1995 with the removal of nuclear arming and fuzing hardware. Jenkins 1999, p. 141. Crew members transfer a 2,000 pound (900 kg) GBU-31 Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) to a lift truck for loading onto a B-1B on 29 March 2007, in Southwest Asia in support of combat operations. Operationally, the B-1 was first used in combat in support of operations against Iraq during Operation Desert Fox in December 1998, employing unguided GP weapons. B-1s have been subsequently used in Operation Allied Force (Kosovo) and most notably in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In both conflicts, the B-1 employed its full array of conventional weapons, most notably the GBU-31, 2,000 lb (900 kg) Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM). During OEF, the B-1 improved its mission capable rate to 79%. The B-1 continues to be used in combat to the present day. The most recent addition to its arsenal is the GBU-38, a 500 lb (230 kg) JDAM. The use of the GBU-38 reduces undesired collateral damage and is very useful in urban Close Air Support. The B-1 now fills an important niche in the Air Force inventory. The project finished on budget, and the B-1 has higher survivability and speed when compared to the older B-52, which it was intended to replace. With the arrival of limited numbers of B-2s in the 1990s and the continuing use of B-52s, its value has been questioned. However, the capability of a high-speed strike with a large bomb payload for time-sensitive operations is useful, and no new strategic bomber is on the immediate horizon. The B-1 holds several FAI world records for speed, and time-to-climb in different aircraft weight classes. Jenkins 1999, Appendix E. The National Aeronautic Association recognized the B-1B for completing one of the 10 most memorable record flights for 1994. Recent developments A B-1B flying over the Pacific. A total of 100 B-1Bs were produced with 93 bombers remaining in 2000 after losses in accidents. In 2003, following the removal of the B-1B from two bomb wings in the Air National Guard, the USAF decided to retire 33 of the B-1Bs to concentrate its budget on maintaining availability of the remaining aircraft, although in 2004 a new appropriations bill called for some of the retired aircraft to return to service. In 2004, the USAF returned seven of the mothballed bombers to service, giving a total force of 67 aircraft, Mehuron, Tamar A., Assoc. Editor. 2005 USAF Almanac: Facts and Figures" (data as of 30 Sept. 2004). Air Force Magazine, May 2005. with the rest cannibalized for spares. Five of the seven that were brought back to service went to Dyess AFB in Texas, one to Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, and another to Edwards AFB, California. On 14 July 2007, the Associated Press reported on the growing USAF presence in Iraq as a result of "surge" in forces. Also mentioned is the reintroduction of B-1Bs to be a close-at-hand "platform" to support Coalition ground forces. Associated Press. Air Force Quietly Building Iraq Presence,14 July 2007. As of 2008, the B-1 is being used in Iraq in close support of ground troops by delivering guided bombs. "B-1 performs as never envisioned after 20 years", US Air Force, 17 April 2008. On 19 March 2008, a B-1B from Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, became the first US Air Force aircraft to fly at supersonic speed using a synthetic fuel during a flight over Texas and New Mexico. The B-1B is undergoing flight testing using a 50/50 mix of synthetic and petroleum fuel as part of an ongoing Air Force testing program. Bates, Matthew. "B-1B achieves first supersonic flight using synthetic fuel". Air Force News, 20 March 2008. On 4 August 2008, a B-1B flew the first Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod equipped combat sortie where the crew successfully targeted enemy ground forces and dropped a GBU-38 guided bomb in Afghanistan. Pate, Capt. Kristen. "Sniper ATP-equipped B-1B has combat first", US Air Force, 11 August 2008. Variants B-1A/B The B-1A was original B-1 design with variable engine intakes and Mach 2.2 top speed. Four prototypes were built. The B-1B is the improved B-1 design with reduced radar signature and a top speed of Mach 1.25. A total of 100 B-1Bs were produced. B-1R The B-1R is a proposed replacement for the B-1B fleet. Lewis, Paul and Simonsen, Erik. "Offering Unique Solutions for Global Strike Force". All Systems Go (Boeing) Vol. 2, Issue 2, 2004. Retrieved: 18 July 2006. Boeing's director of global strike integration, Rich Parke, was first quoted about the "B-1R" bomber in Air Force Magazine. Hebert, Adam J. "Long-Range Strike in a Hurry". Air Force Magazine. Parke said the B-1R (R stands for "regional") would be a Lancer with advanced radars, air-to-air missiles, and Pratt & Whitney F119 engines (originally developed for the F-22 Raptor). Its new top speed of Mach 2.2 would be purchased at the price of a 20% reduction of the B-1B's combat range. This proposal would involve modifying existing aircraft. The FB-22 and YF-23-based design are alternative proposals. Boeing's proposal appears to modify the B-1B into a design able to serve these two purposes. For the bomb-truck role Boeing proposes the modification of existing external hardpoints to allow them to carry multiple conventional warheads, dramatically improving overall warload. For the air-to-air role, both defensive and offensive, they propose to add active electronically-scanned array radar and allow some of the hardpoints to carry anti-aircraft missiles. Even with its somewhat reduced range as compared to the original B-1B, its fuel capacity remains quite large. This would allow it to escape from unfavorable air-to-air encounters by simply running away; there are few enough aircraft capable of Mach 2+ performance in general, and those that are deployed can maintain these speeds for only very short periods of time. In general terms the B-1R most closely resembles the original F-111 concept, as opposed to a pure bomber role. However, it would be able to carry out these missions at ranges even greater than the F-111. Upgrades "Sniper pod" hangs from the chin of an Edwards AFB based B-1. The Conventional Mission Upgrade Program (CMUP) will enhance the airplane's effectiveness as a conventional weapons carrier. Capability will be delivered in blocks attained by hardware modifications and software updates. B-1B Variants and upgrade blocks, Globalsecurity.org, retrieved 12 September 2007. Block A: Standard design of the B-1B with the capability to deliver non-precision Mk-82 500 lb gravity bombs. Before CMUP all B-1Bs were designated as "Block A" models. Block B: Improved Synthetic Aperture Radar, as well as some upgrades to the Defensive Countermeasures System. This upgrade reached the field in 1995. Block C: "Enhanced Capability" provided for delivery of up to 30 Cluster Bomb Units (CBUs) per sortie. The upgrade consists of modification for B-1B bomb module from the original configuration of 28 x 500 lb bombs per unit to 10 x 1,000 lb cluster bombs per bomb rack. The modifications were made to 50 bomb racks. This capability was completed in August 1997. Block D: "Near Precision Capability" gives B-1 aircrews increased abilities to accurately put bombs on target with improved weapons and targeting systems, as well as giving them advanced secure communications capabilities. The first part of the electronic countermeasures upgrade, addition of Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM), ALE-50 Towed Decoy System, and anti-jam radios are also included. Boeing Block D Upgrades, Boeing, 4 December 1998. Block E: This upgrade covers improvements to the avionics computers. This package also incorporates the Wind-Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD), the Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) and the Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM), substantially improving the bomber's capability. Upgrades were completed in September 2006. Boeing 2006 Block E Upgrades, Boeing, 27 September 2006. Block F: The Defensive Systems Upgrade Program (DSUP) improves the aircraft's electronic countermeasures and jamming capabilities. This includes the Towed Decoy System (TDS). Upgrades were canceled in December 2002 due to cost overruns and schedule slips. Block F Upgrades, US Air Force, 21 January 2003. After the CMUP program, upgrades will provide for better network centric capability. A program was begun in 2005 to provide integrated data linking and upgraded crew station displays. Young, Susan H. "Gallery of USAF Weapons". Air Force Magazine, May 2009. Integration of the Sniper targeting pod is underway. The pod is mounted on an external hardpoint at the aircraft's chin near the forward bomb bay. Hernandez, Jason. "419th FLTS demonstrates Sniper pod capability", US Air Force, 23 February 2007. Due to accelerated testing the Sniper pod La Rue, Nori. "B-1 Sniper pod aims to hit summer target", US Air Force, 4 June 2008. was fielded in summer 2008. Operators A 28th Bomb Wing B-1B on the ramp in the early morning at Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota. A B-1B makes a high-speed pass at the Pensacola Beach air show, 2003. A B-1B on display for family and friends at Ellsworth AFB, 2003. U.S. Air Force 96th Bombardment Wing, Dyess Air Force Base, Abilene, Texas (1984-1992) 4018th Combat Crew Training Squadron (CCTS) (1984-1985) 338th Bombardment Squadron (1985-1992) 337th Bombardment Squadron (1985-1992) 7th Bomb Wing, Dyess AFB, Abilene, Texas 9th Bomb Squadron (1992-present) 13th Bomb Squadron (2000-2005) 28th Bomb Squadron (1994-present) 28th Bomb Wing, Ellsworth AFB, Rapid City, South Dakota 34th Bomb Squadron (2002-present) 37th Bomb Squadron (1986-present) 77th Bomb Squadron (1986-1995, 1996-2002) 319th Bombardment Wing, Grand Forks Air Force Base, Grand Forks, North Dakota (1986-1994) 46th Bomb Squadron (1986-1994) 384th Bombardment Wing, McConnell AFB, Wichita, Kansas (1987-1994) 28th Bomb Squadron (1987-1994) 366th Wing, Mountain Home Air Force Base, Mountain Home, Idaho (1994-2002) 34th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth Air Force Base (1994-1997), Mountain Home Air Force Base (1997-2002) 184th Bomb Wing, Kansas Air National Guard, McConnell AFB, Wichita, Kansas (1994-2002) 127th Bomb Squadron, Kansas Air National Guard (1994-2002) 116th Bomb Wing, Georgia Air National Guard, Robins AFB, Georgia (1995-2002) 128th Bomb Squadron, Georgia Air National Guard (1995-2002) 53d Wing, Eglin AFB, Florida 337th Test and Evaluation Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas 57th Wing, Nellis AFB, Nevada B-1 Division, USAF Weapons School, Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota (1992-2002) 77th Weapons Squadron, USAF Weapons School, Dyess AFB, Texas (2002-present) 412th Test Wing, Edwards AFB, California 6510th Test Squadron (1989-1992) Survivors The first B-1A (s/n 74-0158) was disassembled and used for radar testing at the Rome Air Development Center, New York. Jenkins 1999, pp. 70–74 The second B-1A (s/n 74-0159) flew for the subsequent B-1B program, but crashed on 29 August 1984 (see below). The third B-1A (s/n 74-0160) is on display at Wings Over the Rockies Museum in Denver, Colorado. The fourth and last B-1A (s/n 74-0174) was on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio for many years before moving to the Strategic Air and Space Museum in Ashland, Nebraska. This aircraft has conventional ejection seats and other features distinctive to the B-1B variant instead of the B-1A. B-1B (s/n 83-0069, Lot II) is on display the the Museum of Aviation at Robins Air Force Base in Warner Robins, GA. This aircraft was the sixth B-1 produced, and was delivered to the 96th Bomb Wing at Dyess AFB Texas on March 13, 1986. The aircraft was originally given the name Silent Penetrator, but was later named Rebel and painted with the nose art of a WWII B-29 Superfortress assigned to the 497 Bomb Group. This aircraft arrived at Robins Air Force Base in September 2002 from Dyess Air Force Base in Texas. As of May 31, 1992, the aircraft had accumulated 1393.0 flight hours. The aircraft is displayed outside the museum entrance near the parking lot. B-1B (s/n 84-0051, Lot III) is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. It is displayed in the Museum's Cold War Gallery, and replaces the B-1A (74-0174) formerly on display. Accidents and incidents Between 1984 and 2001, 17 people have been killed in B-1 crashes. Notable accidents and incidents On 29 August 1984, B-1A (s/n 74-0159) stalled and crashed while performing minimum control speed tests at low altitude. B-1A accident in 1984, thexhunters.com. The crew used the escape capsule to leave the bomber, but the parachute deployed improperly and the pilot, Doug Benefield, was killed on impact. The Crash of the B-1A (29 August 1984), Check-Six.com. In September 1987, B-1B (s/n 84-0052) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 338th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB crashed near La Junta, Colorado, while flying on a low-level training route. This was the only B-1B crash to occur with six crew members aboard. The two crew members in jump seats, and one of the four crew members in ejection seats perished. The crash investigation revealed that malfunctioning logic chips may have caused the fourth ejection seat to fail. The root cause of the accident was thought to be a bird strike on a wing's leading edge during the low-level flight. The impact was severe enough to sever the fuel and hydraulic lines running along the forward spar that served that side of the aircraft, whereas the other side and its two engines functioned long enough to enable the three crew members to eject. The B-1B fleet was later modified to protect the various supply lines, which lie along the edge. Jenkins 1999, p. 114–116. In November 1988, B-1B (s/n 85-0063) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB crashed near Tye, Texas after a fire broke out above left engines. All four crew members successfully ejected from the aircraft. In November 1988, B-1B (s/n 85-0076) from the 28th Bomb Wing, 37th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth AFB crashed short of the runway at Ellsworth AFB during adverse weather. All four crew members successfully ejected from the aircraft. In October, 1989, B-1B (s/n 85-0070) was forced to make an emergency landing at Edwards AFB when the nose gear would not lower. After multiple attempts to "bounce" the nose gear down, (via hard touch & gos on the main gear), the aircraft diverted to Edwards. The crew were able to make a nose-gear up landing so that the aircraft suffered only minor damage. http://www.targetlock.org.uk/b-1/service-part1.html In October 1990, while flying in a training route in eastern Colorado, B-1B (s/n 86-0128) from the 384th Bomb Wing, 28th Bomb Squadron, McConnell AFB, experienced an explosion as the engines reached military power. Fire on the aircraft's left was spotted. The #1 engine was shut down and its fire extinguisher was activated. The accident investigation determined that the engine had suffered catastrophic failure, in which engine blades cut through the engine mounts, causing the engine to detach from the aircraft. In December 1990, B-1B (s/n 83-0071) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas experienced a jolt and the #3 engine was shut down with its fire extinguisher activating. This event, coupled with the October 1990 engine incident, led to a 50+ day grounding of the B-1Bs not on nuclear alert. The problem was eventually traced back to problems in the first-stage fan, and all B-1Bs were equipped with modified engines. In November 1992, B-1B (s/n 86-0106) from the 7th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas flying on a low-level training flight crashed into a mountain near Van Horn, Texas. All four members of the crew were killed. The cause was attributed to pilot error. In September 1997, B-1B (s/n 85-0078) from the 28th Bomb Wing, 37th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, flying in the Powder River Military Operating Area crashed near Alzada, Montana, approximately 80 miles north of Rapid City, South Dakota. All four members of the crew were killed. "4 die in crash of B-1 bomber in Montana, Air Force moves up stand down to Monday", CNN, 19 September 1997. The review board found the bomber struck the ground while decreasing speed and making an abrupt turn to evade a threat. In February 1998, B-1B (s/n 84-0057) from the 7th Bomb Wing, Dyess AFB, Texas crashed near Marion, Kentucky when a fire detected by a cockpit instrument panel shut down the aircraft's power. All four crew members were able to eject and were rescued safely. "Crew parachutes from B-1B bomber just before crash", CNN, 18 February 2002. In response to a warning light on the #3 engine, the crew shut down the fuel pumps to that engine. However, a panel electrical short caused a fire that shut down fuel to all the engines and prevented them from being restarted. B-1B emergency landing In December 2001, B-1B (s/n 86-0114) from the 28th Bomb Wing, 37th Bomb Squadron, Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, was lost over the Indian Ocean. All four crew members successfully ejected and were rescued. The bomber (of the 28th Bomb Wing, IN BRIEF News in Brief, 16 January 2001 Retrieved: 18 July 2006. designated ICECUBE 44) was approximately 100 miles north of its Diego Garcia departure point, flying en route to a long-range combat mission over Afghanistan, when the crew declared an in-flight emergency. Details remain classified. The pilot, Capt. William Steele, attributed the crash to "multiple malfunctions" causing the bomber to go "out of control". Associated Press. "Bomber Crew Rescued from Sea". USA Today, 12 December 2001. Retrieved 18 July 2006. Further information from maintenance specialists related the aircraft mishap to the aircrew experiencing electrical bus failures that contributed to an instrument blackout affecting both primary and backup instruments. With no visual reference of level flight available to the aircrew, the four crew members ejected safely. Because of the depth of the water in which the aircraft crashed, the structural data collector (SDC) or "Black Box" was not recovered from the wreckage and the nature of the cause was not positively determined. The aircraft had recently returned from Ellsworth AFB from a routine Phase Inspection, and was on its first combat mission after returning to Diego Garcia. The crew spent two hours in the water before being rescued by a launch from the USS Russell. This was the first B-1B to be lost in combat operations since the model became operational in 1986. On 15 September 2005 B-1B (s/n 85-0066) was extensively damaged by fire while landing at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam. The investigation into the incident concluded that leaking hydraulic fluid and sparks from a wheel being gouged caused a fire to start in the aircraft's right main landing gear as it touched down. The resulting fire damaged the B-1's right wing, nacelle, airframe and landing gear, leading to an estimated repair cost of more than $32 million. Squadron Service - 2001 to present, retrieved 12 January 2007. In May 2006, B-1B (s/n 86-0132) from the 7th Bomb Wing, 9th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas, landed "gear-up" during recovery from an 11-hour ferry flight to Diego Garcia. A resulting fire was quickly extinguished and the crew escaped through the top hatch. The copilot suffered a minor back injury; the three other crew members were not injured. The Air Force investigation concluded that the pilots disabled the aural tone generator circuit breaker which creates audiable warning signals and then "forgot to lower the landing gear". Damage to the aircraft and runway totaled approximately $8 million. Report: pilot error caused B-1B crash, Air Combat Command Public Affairs , USAF, 18 September 2006. Retrieved: 1 December 2006. Four days later the aircraft was raised and its landing gear deployed. The B-1B returned to normal service in 2007. Recovery of B-1B "SLIP 57", zianet.com. Retrieved: 1 December 2006. In August 2007, a B-1B had an engine fire and made an emergency landing at Kandahar airport in Afghanistan. Crews removed the damaged engine and flew the aircraft out in October. Making a Three Engine B-1 Take Off, StrategyPage.com, 31 October 2007. On 4 April 2008, a B-1B lost hydraulic power while taxiing, then crashed into a concrete barrier and caught fire at Al Udeid AB,Qatar. The crew safely evacuated the aircraft. The plane was carrying multiple bombs at the time, all but two of which detonated during the fire. The aircraft was a total loss. "Brake failure caused B-1B crash in Qatar", Air Force Times accident report, 6 October 2008. Includes photographs and video. Specifications (B-1B) B-1A orthographic projection. Popular culture The B-1 and B-52 bombers have been featured frequently in author Dale Brown's books. A B-1 carries the President to NORAD, during an alien invasion in the Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle science fiction novel Footfall. The unofficial 1983 James Bond film Never Say Never Again features a cruise missile launch from a B-1 (although a sequence in which cruise missiles are loaded onto the B-1 was filmed with a Concorde SST substituting for the B-1's undercarriage). Concorde archive In the 1985 film Real Genius, the laser weapon that is developed by Chris Knight is mounted in a B-1's bomb bay. Gallery See also References Notes Bibliography Jenkins, Dennis R. B-1 Lancer, The Most Complicated Warplane Ever Developed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. ISBN 0-07-134694-5. Pace, Steve. Boeing North American B-1 Lancer. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 1998. ISBN 1-58007-012-4. Spick, Mike. Modern Fighting Aircraft, B-1B. New York: Prentice Hall, 1986. ISBN 0-13-055237-2. Spick, Mike, ed. The Great Book of Modern Warplanes, First edition. New York: Salamander Books, 1987. ISBN 0-517-63367-1. Winchester, Jim, ed. "Rockwell B-1A." Military Aircraft of the Cold War (The Aviation Factfile). London: Grange Books plc, 2006. ISBN 1-84013-929-3. External links B-1B Fact Sheet and B-1 System Program Office on USAF web site B-1B product page and B-1B history page on Boeing.com B-1 history page on NASA/Langley Research Center site B-1 page on GlobalSecurity.org, Detailed History, Development and Data B-1B Lancer USAF 20-year history article Boeing Wins $45 Million U.S. Air Force B-1B Upgrade Contract be-x-old:Rockwell B-1
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3,115
List_of_Governors_of_Alabama
The Governor of Alabama is the head of the executive branch of Alabama's government and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Alabama Legislature, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment. AL Const. art. V The first constitution of 1819 created the office of governor, to serve a term of two years and no more than four out of every six years. 1819 Const. art. IV, § 4 This remained in place until the constitution of 1868, which simply allowed governors to serve terms of two years. 1868 Const. art. V, § 2 The current constitution of 1901 increased this to four years, AL Const. art. V, § 114 but forbid governors from succeeding themselves. AL Const. art. V, § 116 Amendment 282 to the constitution, passed in 1968, allowed governors to succeed themselves once. AL Const. amendment 282 The constitution had no set date for the commencement of the governor's term until 1901, when it was set at the first Monday after the second Tuesday in the January following an election. The office of lieutenant governor was created in 1868, 1868 Const. art. V, § 1 abolished in the 1875 constitution, 1875 Const. art. V, § 1 and recreated in 1901. AL Const. art. V, § 112 According to the current constitution, should the governor be out of the state for more than 20 days, the lieutenant governor becomes acting governor, and if the office of governor becomes vacant the lieutenant governor fully becomes governor. AL Const. art. V, § 127 Earlier constitutions said the powers of the governor devolved upon the successor, rather than them necessarily becoming governor, 1819 Const. art. IV, § 18; 1861 Const. art. IV, § 18; 1865 Const. art V, § 19; 1868 Const. art. V, § 15; 1875 Const. art. V § 15 but the official listing includes these as full governors. The governor and lieutenant governor are not elected on the same ticket. There have officially been 52 governors of the state of Alabama; this official numbering skips acting and military governors. In addition, the first governor, William Wyatt Bibb, also served as the only governor of Alabama Territory. Five people have served as acting governor, bringing the total number of people serving as governor to 57, spread over 62 distinct terms. Four governors have served multiple non-consecutive terms: Bibb Graves, James E. Folsom, Sr., and Forrest H. "Fob" James each served two terms, and George Wallace served three. Officially, these non-consecutive terms are numbered only with the number of their first term. William D. Jelks also served non-consecutive terms, but his first term was in an acting capacity. The longest-serving governor was George Wallace, who served twelve years over three terms. The shortest term for a non-acting governor was that of Hugh McVay, who served four and a half months after replacing the resigning Clement C. Clay. Lurleen Wallace, wife of George Wallace, was the first and so far only woman to serve as governor of Alabama, and only the third woman to serve as governor of any state. The current governor is Bob Riley, who took office in 2003; his term will expire in January 2011. Governors The land that became Alabama was mostly obtained by the United States in the American Revolution. The bulk was initially part of the state of Georgia, while the southern bit was part of the Spanish colony of West Florida. Georgia sold its land to the federal government following the Yazoo land scandal, and Mississippi Territory was formed from that area in 1798. West Florida was controlled in 1810 by the self-proclaimed Republic of West Florida, but it was soon annexed by the United States and a portion added to Mississippi Territory in 1810. Alabama Territory was split from Mississippi Territory in 1817. For the period before Alabama Territory was formed, see the list of Governors of Mississippi Territory. Governor of Alabama Territory Alabama Territory was formed on March 3, 1817 from Mississippi Territory. It had only one governor before it became a state; he later became the first state governor. GovernorTook officeLeft officeAppointed byWilliam Wyatt BibbMarch 6, 1817December 14, 1819James Monroe Governors of Alabama Alabama was admitted to the Union on December 14, 1819. It seceded from the Union on January 11, 1861 and was a founding member of the Confederate States of America on February 4, 1861; there was no Union government in exile, so there was a single line of governors. Following the end of the American Civil War during Reconstruction, it was part of the Third Military District, which exerted some control over governor appointments and elections. Alabama was readmitted to the Union on July 14, 1868. Alabama was a strongly Democratic state before the Civil War, electing only candidates from the Democratic-Republican and Democratic parties. It had two Republican governors following Reconstruction, but after the Democratic Party established control, 119 years passed before voters chose another Republican. William Wyatt Bibb, 1st Governor of Alabama Benjamin Fitzpatrick, 11th Governor of Alabama, and president pro tempore of the U.S. Senate Thomas H. Watts, 18th Governor of Alabama, and Attorney General of the Confederacy Rufus W. Cobb, 25th Governor of Alabama B. B. Comer, 33rd Governor of Alabama George Wallace, 45th Governor of Alabama #GovernorTerm startTerm endPartyLt. GovernorTerms The fractional terms of some governors are not to be understood absolutely literally; rather, they are meant to show single terms during which multiple governors served, due to resignations, deaths and the like. 1 William Wyatt BibbDecember 14, 1819July 10, 1820Democratic-RepublicanNone½ Died in office 2Thomas BibbJuly 10, 1820November 9, 1821Democratic-RepublicanNone½ As president of the state senate, filled unexpired term 3Israel PickensNovember 9, 1821November 25, 1825Democratic-RepublicanNone24John MurphyNovember 25, 1825November 25, 1829Jackson DemocratNone25Gabriel MooreNovember 25, 1829March 3, 1831Jackson DemocratNone½ Resigned to take an elected seat in the United States Senate 6Samuel B. MooreMarch 3, 1831November 26, 1831DemocraticNone½7John GayleNovember 26, 1831November 21, 1835DemocraticNone28Clement C. ClayNovember 21, 1835July 17, 1837DemocraticNone½9Hugh McVayJuly 17, 1837November 30, 1837DemocraticNone½10Arthur P. BagbyNovember 30, 1837November 22, 1841DemocraticNone211Benjamin FitzpatrickNovember 22, 1841December 10, 1845DemocraticNone212Joshua L. MartinDecember 10, 1845December 16, 1847IndependentNone113Reuben ChapmanDecember 16, 1847December 17, 1849DemocraticNone114Henry W. CollierDecember 17, 1849December 20, 1853DemocraticNone215John A. WinstonDecember 20, 1853December 1, 1857DemocraticNone216Andrew B. MooreDecember 1, 1857December 2, 1861DemocraticNone217John Gill ShorterDecember 2, 1861December 1, 1863DemocraticNone118Thomas H. WattsDecember 1, 1863May 1, 1865DemocraticNone½19Lewis E. ParsonsJune 21, 1865December 13, 1865DemocraticNone½20Robert M. PattonDecember 13, 1865July 24, 1868DemocraticNone1—Wager SwayneMarch 2, 1867July 14, 1868MilitaryNone—21William H. SmithJuly 24, 1868November 26, 1870RepublicanNone1 Andrew J. Applegate22Robert B. LindsayNovember 26, 1870November 17, 1872DemocraticEdward H. Moren123David P. LewisNovember 17, 1872November 24, 1874RepublicanAlexander McKinstry124George S. HoustonNovember 24, 1874November 28, 1878DemocraticRobert F. Ligon2None25Rufus W. CobbNovember 28, 1878December 1, 1882DemocraticNone226Edward A. O'NealDecember 1, 1882December 1, 1886DemocraticNone227Thomas SeayDecember 1, 1886December 1, 1890DemocraticNone228Thomas G. JonesDecember 1, 1890December 1, 1894DemocraticNone229William C. OatesDecember 1, 1894December 1, 1896DemocraticNone130Joseph F. JohnstonDecember 1, 1896December 1, 1900DemocraticNone2—William D. JelksDecember 1, 1900December 26, 1900DemocraticNone⅓31William J. SamfordDecember 1, 1900June 11, 1901DemocraticNone⅓32William D. JelksJune 11, 1901January 14, 1907DemocraticNone1⅓ As president of the state senate, filled unexpired term, and was subsequently elected in his own right The 1901 constitution increased term lengths from two to four years; Jelks' first term was filling out Samford's two-year term, and he was elected in 1902 for a four-year term. Russell M. Cunningham—Russell M. CunninghamApril 25, 1904March 5, 1905Democraticacting as governor—33B. B. ComerJanuary 14, 1907January 17, 1911DemocraticHenry B. Gray134Emmet O'NealJanuary 17, 1911January 18, 1915DemocraticWalter D. Seed, Sr.135Charles HendersonJanuary 18, 1915January 20, 1919DemocraticThomas Kilby136Thomas KilbyJanuary 20, 1919January 15, 1923DemocraticNathan Lee Miller137William W. BrandonJanuary 15, 1923January 17, 1927DemocraticCharles S. McDowell1—Charles S. McDowellJuly 10, 1924July 11, 1924Democraticacting as governor—38Bibb GravesJanuary 17, 1927January 19, 1931DemocraticWilliam C. Davis139Benjamin M. MillerJanuary 19, 1931January 14, 1935DemocraticHugh D. Merrill138Bibb GravesJanuary 14, 1935January 17, 1939DemocraticThomas E. Knight140Frank M. DixonJanuary 17, 1939January 19, 1943DemocraticAlbert A. Carmichael141Chauncey SparksJanuary 19, 1943January 20, 1947DemocraticLeven H. Ellis142James E. Folsom, Sr.January 20, 1947January 15, 1951DemocraticJames C. Inzer143Gordon PersonsJanuary 15, 1951January 17, 1955DemocraticJames Allen142James E. Folsom, Sr.January 17, 1955January 19, 1959DemocraticWilliam G. Hardwick144John PattersonJanuary 19, 1959January 14, 1963DemocraticAlbert Boutwell145George WallaceJanuary 14, 1963January 16, 1967DemocraticJames Allen146Lurleen WallaceJanuary 16, 1967May 7, 1968DemocraticAlbert Brewer½47Albert BrewerMay 7, 1968January 18, 1971Democraticvacant½ As lieutenant governor, filled unexpired term 45George WallaceJanuary 18, 1971January 15, 1979DemocraticJere Beasley2—Jere BeasleyJune 5, 1972July 7, 1972Democraticacting as governor—48Forrest H. "Fob" James Jr.January 15, 1979January 17, 1983DemocraticGeorge McMillan145George WallaceJanuary 17, 1983January 19, 1987DemocraticBill Baxley149H. Guy HuntJanuary 19, 1987April 22, 1993RepublicanJames E. Folsom, Jr.1½50James E. Folsom, Jr.April 22, 1993January 16, 1995Democraticvacant½48Forrest H. "Fob" James Jr.January 16, 1995January 18, 1999RepublicanDon Siegelman151Don SiegelmanJanuary 18, 1999January 20, 2003DemocraticSteve Windom152Bob RileyJanuary 20, 2003incumbentRepublicanLucy Baxley2 Governor Riley's second term expires on January 17, 2011; he is term limited. James E. Folsom, Jr. Other high offices held This is a table of congressional, confederate and other federal offices held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Alabama except where noted. GovernorGubernatorial termU.S. HouseU.S. SenateOther offices heldSources1817–1820——U.S. Representative and Senator† from Georgia 1821–1825—SU.S. Representative from North Carolina 1825–1829H— 1829–1831HS* 1831–1835H— 1835–1837HS* 1837–1841—SU.S. Minister to Russia 1841–1845—SPresident pro tempore of the U.S. Senate 1845–1847H— 1847–1849H— 1853–1857——Elected to the U.S. Senate but was refused his seat 1861–1863——Provisional Confederate Deputy† 1863–1865——Attorney General of the Confederate States 1865——Elected to the U.S. Senate but was refused his seat 1872–1874——Provisional Confederate Deputy 1874–1878HS 1896–1900—S 1900–1901H— 1907–1911—S 2003–presentH— Living former governors , six former governors were alive. The most recent death of a former governor was that of H. Guy Hunt (1987–1993), who died on January 30, 2009. GovernorGubernatorial termDate of birthJohn Patterson1959–1963Albert Brewer1968–1971Jere Beasley1972 (acting)Forrest H. "Fob" James Jr.1979–1983, 1995–1999James E. Folsom, Jr.1993–1995Don Siegelman1999–2003 Notes References General Constitutions Specific External links Office of the Governor of Alabama
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3,116
Gravitational_redshift
The gravitational redshift of a light wave as it moves upwards against a gravitational field (caused by the yellow star below). In physics, light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation of a certain wavelength originating from a source placed in a region of stronger gravitational field (and which could be said to have climbed "uphill" out of a gravity well) will be found to be of longer wavelength when received by an observer in a region of weaker gravitational field. If applied to optical wave-lengths this manifests itself as a change in the colour of the light as the wavelength is shifted toward the red (making it less energetic, longer in wavelength, and lower in frequency) part of the spectrum. This effect is called gravitational redshift and other spectral lines found in the light will also be shifted towards the longer wavelength, or "red," end of the spectrum. This shift can be observed along the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Light that has passed "downhill" into a region of stronger gravity shows a corresponding increase in energy, and is said to be gravitationally blueshifted. Definition Redshift is often denoted with the variable . See for example equation 29.3 of "Gravitation" by Misner, Thorne and Wheeler. Where: is the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation (photon) as measured by the observer. is the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation (photon) when measured at the source of emission. Gravitational redshift, the displacement of light towards the red, can (for the case of a star) be predicted using the formula provided in the theory of General Relativity (Albert Einstein: Relativity - Appendix - Appendix III - The Experimental Confirmation of the General Theory of Relativity): where: is the displacement of spectral lines due to gravity as viewed by a far away observer in free space. is Newton's gravitational constant (the variable used by Einstein himself). is the mass of the body which the light is escaping. is the speed of light. is the radius of star emitting the light. GM/r is the gravitational potential at distance r, so the redshift is seen to be directly proportional to the gravitational potential. Using the energy-momentum equation relating energy and wavelength of a photon, the gravitational redshift is equivalent to a loss of energy of the photon. History The gravitational weakening of light from high-gravity stars was predicted by John Michell in 1783 and Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1796, using Isaac Newton's concept of light corpuscles (see: emission theory) and who predicted that some stars would have a gravity so strong that light would not be able to escape. The effect of gravity on light was then explored by Johann Georg von Soldner (1801), who calculated the amount of deflection of a light ray by the sun, arriving at the Newtonian answer which is half the value predicted by general relativity. All of this early work assumed that light could slow down and fall, which was inconsistent with the modern understanding of light waves. Once it became accepted that light is an electromagnetic wave, it was clear that the frequency of light should not change from place to place, since waves from a source with a fixed frequency keep the same frequency everywhere. The only way around this conclusion would be if time itself was altered--- if clocks at different points had different rates. This was precisely Einstein's conclusion in 1911. He considered an accelerating box, and noted that according to the special theory of relativity, the clock rate at the bottom of the box was slower than the clock rate at the top. Nowadays, this can be easily shown in accelerated coordinates. The metric tensor in units where the speed of light is one is: and for an observer at a constant value of r, the rate at which a clock ticks, R(r), is the square root of the time coefficient, R(r)=r. The acceleration at position r is equal to the curvature of the hyperbola at fixed r, and like the curvature of the nested circles in polar coordinates, it is equal to 1/r. So at a fixed value of g, the fractional rate of change of the clock-rate, the percentage change in the ticking at the top of an accelerating box vs at the bottom, is: The rate is faster at larger values of R, away from the apparent direction of acceleration. The rate is zero at r=0, which is the location of the acceleration horizon. Using the principle of equivalence, Einstein concluded that the same thing holds in any gravitational field, that the rate of clocks R at different heights was altered according to the gravitational field g. When g is slowly varying, it gives the fractional rate of change of the ticking rate. If the ticking rate is everywhere almost this same, the fractional rate of change is the same as the absolute rate of change, so that: Since the rate of clocks and the gravitational potential have the same derivative, they are the same up to a constant. The constant is chosen to make the clock rate at infinity equal to 1. Since the gravitational potential is zero at infinity: where the speed of light has been restored to make the gravitational potential dimensionless. The coefficient of the in the metric tensor is the square of the clock rate, which for small values of the potential is given by keeping only the linear term: and the full metric tensor is: where again the c's have been restored. This expression is correct in the full theory of general relativity, to lowest order in the gravitational field, and ignoring the variation of the space-space and space-time components of the metric tensor, which only affect fast moving objects. Using this approximation, Einstein reproduced the incorrect Newtonian value for the deflection of light in 1909. But since a light beam is a fast moving object, the space-space components contribute too. After constructing the full theory of general relativity in 1916, Einstein solved for the space-space components in a post-Newtonian approximation, and calculated the correct amount of light deflection--- double the Newtonian value. Einstein's prediction was confirmed by many experiments, starting with Arthur Eddington's 1919 solar eclipse expedition. The changing rates of clocks allowed Einstein to conclude that light waves change frequency as they move, and the frequency/energy relationship for photons allowed him to see that this was best interpreted as the effect of the gravitational field on the mass-energy of the photon. To calculate the changes in frequency in a nearly static gravitational field, only the time component of the metric tensor is important, and the lowest order approximation is accurate enough for ordinary stars and planets, which are much bigger than their Schwartzschild radius. Important things to stress The receiving end of the light transmission must be located at a higher gravitational potential in order for gravitational redshift to be observed. In other words, the observer must be standing "uphill" from the source. If the observer is at a lower gravitational potential than the source, a gravitational blueshift can be observed instead. Tests done by many universities continue to support the existence of gravitational redshift. Gravitational redshift is not only predicted by general relativity. Other theories of gravitation require gravitational redshift, although their detailed explanations for why it appears vary. (Any theory that includes conservation of energy and mass-energy equivalence must include gravitational redshift.) Gravitational redshift does not assume the Schwarzschild metric solution to Einstein's field equation - in which the variable cannot represent the mass of any rotating or charged body. Initial verification A number of experimenters initially claimed to have identified the effect using astronomical measurements, and the effect was eventually considered to have been finally identified in the spectral lines of the star Sirius B by W.S. Adams in 1925. However, measurements of the effect before the 1960s have been critiqued by (e.g., by C.M. Will), and the effect is now considered to have been definitively verified by the experiments of Pound, Rebka and Snider between 1959 and 1965. The Pound-Rebka experiment of 1959 measured the gravitational redshift in spectral lines using a terrestrial 57Fe gamma source. This was documented by scientists of the Lyman Laboratory of Physics at Harvard University. A commonly-cited experimental verification is the Pound-Snider experiment of 1965. More information can be seen at Tests of general relativity. Application Gravitational redshift is studied in many areas of astrophysical research. Exact Solutions A table of exact solutions of the Einstein field equations consists of the following: Non-rotating Rotating Uncharged Schwarzschild Kerr Charged Reissner-Nordström Kerr-Newman The more often used exact equation for gravitational redshift applies to the case outside of a non-rotating, uncharged mass which is spherically symmetric. The equation is: , where is the gravitational constant, is the mass of the object creating the gravitational field, is the radial coordinate of the observer (which is analogous to the classical distance from the center of the object, but is actually a Schwarzschild coordinate), and is the speed of light. Gravitational redshift versus gravitational time dilation When using special relativity's relativistic Doppler relationships to calculate the change in energy and frequency (assuming no complicating route-dependent effects such as those caused by the frame-dragging of rotating black holes), then the Gravitational redshift and blueshift frequency ratios are the inverse of each other, suggesting that the "seen" frequency-change corresponds to the actual difference in underlying clockrate. Route-dependence due to frame-dragging may come into play, which would invalidate this idea and complicate the process of determining globally-agreed differences in underlying clock rate. While gravitational redshift refers to what is seen, gravitational time dilation refers to what is deduced to be "really" happening once observational effects are taken into account. See also Tests of general relativity Equivalence principle Gravitational time dilation Redshift Notes Primary sources Albert Einstein, "The effect of gravity on light" (1911) Albert Einstein, "Relativity: the Special and General Theory." (@Project Gutenberg). R.V. Pound and G.A. Rebka, Jr. "Gravitational Red-Shift in Nuclear Resonance" Phys. Rev. Lett. 3 439–441 (1959) R.V. Pound and J.L. Snider "Effect of gravity on gamma radiation" Phys. Rev. 140 B 788–803 (1965) R.V. Pound, "Weighing Photons" Classical and Quantum Gravity 17 2303–2311 (2000) References
Gravitational_redshift |@lemmatized gravitational:40 redshift:19 light:27 wave:6 move:2 upwards:1 field:11 cause:2 yellow:1 star:7 physic:2 form:1 electromagnetic:5 radiation:4 certain:1 wavelength:8 originate:1 source:7 place:3 region:3 strong:3 could:2 say:2 climb:1 uphill:2 gravity:9 well:1 find:2 long:2 receive:2 observer:7 weak:1 apply:1 optical:1 length:1 manifest:1 change:12 colour:1 shift:4 toward:1 red:4 make:3 less:1 energetic:1 longer:1 low:4 frequency:10 part:1 spectrum:3 effect:11 call:1 spectral:4 line:4 also:2 towards:2 end:2 observe:3 along:1 entire:1 pass:1 downhill:1 show:2 corresponding:1 increase:1 energy:9 gravitationally:1 blueshifted:1 definition:1 often:2 denote:1 variable:3 see:8 example:1 equation:6 gravitation:2 misner:1 thorne:1 wheeler:1 photon:7 measure:3 emission:2 displacement:2 case:2 predict:5 use:10 formula:1 provide:1 theory:9 general:9 relativity:12 albert:3 einstein:12 appendix:2 iii:1 experimental:2 confirmation:1 due:2 view:1 far:1 away:2 free:1 space:8 newton:2 constant:5 mass:6 body:2 escape:2 speed:4 radius:2 emit:1 gm:1 r:17 potential:8 distance:2 directly:1 proportional:1 momentum:1 relate:1 equivalent:1 loss:1 history:1 weakening:1 high:2 john:1 michell:1 pierre:1 simon:1 laplace:1 isaac:1 concept:1 corpuscle:1 would:4 able:1 explore:1 johann:1 georg:1 von:1 soldner:1 calculate:4 amount:2 deflection:3 ray:1 sun:1 arrive:1 newtonian:4 answer:1 half:1 value:7 early:1 work:1 assume:3 slow:2 fall:1 inconsistent:1 modern:1 understanding:1 become:1 accepted:1 clear:1 since:4 fixed:3 keep:2 everywhere:2 way:1 around:1 conclusion:2 time:7 alter:2 clock:11 different:3 point:1 rate:19 precisely:1 consider:3 accelerating:1 box:3 note:2 accord:2 special:3 bottom:2 top:2 nowadays:1 easily:1 accelerated:1 coordinate:4 metric:6 tensor:5 unit:1 one:1 tick:2 square:2 root:1 coefficient:2 acceleration:3 position:1 equal:3 curvature:2 hyperbola:1 like:1 nested:1 circle:1 polar:1 g:5 fractional:3 percentage:1 ticking:2 accelerate:1 v:4 faster:1 large:1 apparent:1 direction:1 zero:2 location:1 horizon:1 principle:2 equivalence:3 conclude:2 thing:2 hold:1 height:1 slowly:1 varying:1 give:2 almost:1 absolute:1 derivative:1 choose:1 infinity:2 restore:2 dimensionless:1 small:1 linear:1 term:1 full:3 c:2 expression:1 correct:2 order:3 ignore:1 variation:1 component:4 affect:1 fast:2 moving:2 object:4 approximation:3 reproduce:1 incorrect:1 beam:1 contribute:1 construct:1 solve:1 post:1 double:1 prediction:1 confirm:1 many:3 experiment:4 start:1 arthur:1 eddington:1 solar:1 eclipse:1 expedition:1 allow:2 relationship:2 best:1 interpret:1 nearly:1 static:1 important:2 accurate:1 enough:1 ordinary:1 planet:1 much:1 big:1 schwartzschild:1 stress:1 transmission:1 must:3 locate:1 word:1 stand:1 blueshift:2 instead:1 test:3 university:2 continue:1 support:1 existence:1 require:1 although:1 detailed:1 explanation:1 appear:1 vary:1 include:2 conservation:1 schwarzschild:3 solution:3 cannot:1 represent:1 rotating:2 charge:2 initial:1 verification:2 number:1 experimenter:1 initially:1 claim:1 identify:2 astronomical:1 measurement:2 eventually:1 finally:1 sirius:1 b:2 w:1 adam:1 however:1 critique:1 e:1 definitively:1 verify:1 pound:6 rebka:3 snider:3 terrestrial:1 gamma:2 document:1 scientist:1 lyman:1 laboratory:1 harvard:1 commonly:1 cite:1 information:1 application:1 study:1 area:1 astrophysical:1 research:1 exact:3 table:1 consist:1 following:1 non:2 rotate:3 uncharged:2 kerr:2 reissner:1 nordström:1 newman:1 applies:1 outside:1 spherically:1 symmetric:1 create:1 radial:1 analogous:1 classical:2 center:1 actually:1 versus:1 dilation:3 relativistic:1 doppler:1 complicate:2 route:2 dependent:1 frame:2 dragging:2 black:1 hole:1 ratio:1 inverse:1 suggest:1 correspond:1 actual:1 difference:2 underlying:1 clockrate:1 dependence:1 may:1 come:1 play:1 invalidate:1 idea:1 process:1 determine:1 globally:1 agree:1 underlie:1 refers:2 deduce:1 really:1 happen:1 observational:1 take:1 account:1 primary:1 project:1 gutenberg:1 jr:1 nuclear:1 resonance:1 phys:2 rev:2 lett:1 j:1 l:1 weigh:1 quantum:1 reference:1 |@bigram gravitational_redshift:16 electromagnetic_radiation:3 electromagnetic_spectrum:1 albert_einstein:3 appendix_appendix:1 simon_laplace:1 isaac_newton:1 johann_georg:1 electromagnetic_wave:1 metric_tensor:5 clock_tick:1 polar_coordinate:1 fast_moving:2 arthur_eddington:1 solar_eclipse:1 reissner_nordström:1 spherically_symmetric:1 special_relativity:1 relativity_relativistic:1 relativistic_doppler:1 frame_dragging:2 black_hole:1 project_gutenberg:1 phys_rev:2 rev_lett:1 gamma_radiation:1 quantum_gravity:1
3,117
Franz_Mesmer
Franz Anton Mesmer (born Friedrich Anton Mesmer; May 23, 1734 – March 5, 1815) was a German physician and astrologist, who discovered what he called magnétisme animal (animal magnetism The use of the (conventional) English term "animal magnetism" to translate Mesmer's magnétism animal is extremely misleading for three reasons: Mesmer chose his term to clearly distinguish his variant of "magnetic" force from those which were referred to, at that time, as "mineral magnetism", "cosmic magnetism" and "planetary magnetism". Mesmer felt that this particular force/power only resided in the bodies of humans and animals. Mesmer chose the word "animal", for its root meaning (from Latin animus = "soul") specifically to identify his force/power as a quality that belonged in all animate beings (humans and animals.) ) and other spiritual forces often grouped together as mesmerism. The evolution of Mesmer's ideas and practices led Scottish surgeon James Braid to develop hypnosis in 1842. Mesmer's name is the root of the English verb "mesmerize". Early life Mesmer was born in the village of Izang, on the shore of Lake Constance in Swabia, Germany. After studying at the Jesuit universities of Dillingen and Ingolstadt, he took up the study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1759. In 1766 he published a doctoral dissertation with the Latin title De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum (On the Influence of the Planets on the Human Body), which discussed the influence of the Moon and the planets on the human body and on disease. This was not medical astrology—relying largely on Newton's theory of the tides, Mesmer expounded on certain tides in the human body that might be accounted for by the movements of the sun and moon. Bloch, xiii . Evidence assembled by Frank A. Pattie suggests that Mesmer plagiarized Pattie, 13ff. his dissertation from a work De Imperio Solis ac Lunae in Corpora Humana et Morbis inde Oriundis (On the Influence of the Sun and Moon upon Human Bodies and the Diseases Arising Therefrom.(1704). See Pattie, 16. by Richard Mead, an eminent English physician and Newton's friend. That said, in Mesmer's day doctoral theses were not expected to be original. Pattie, 13 In January 1768, Mesmer married a wealthy widow and established himself as a physician in the Austrian capital Vienna. He lived on a splendid estate and became a patron of the arts. In 1768, when court intrigue prevented the performance of La Finta Semplice (K. 51) for which a twelve-year-old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart had composed 500 pages of music, Mesmer is said to have arranged a performance in his garden of Mozart's Bastien und Bastienne (K. 50), a one-act opera Pattie, 30 , though Mozart's biographer Nissen has stated that there is no proof that this performance actually took place. Mozart later immortalized his former patron by including a comedic reference to Mesmer in his opera Così fan tutte. De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum. The advent of animal magnetism In 1774, Mesmer produced an "artificial tide" in a patient by having her swallow a preparation containing iron, and then attaching magnets to various parts of her body. She reported feeling streams of a mysterious fluid running through her body and was relieved of her symptoms for several hours. Mesmer did not believe that the magnets had achieved the cure on their own. He felt that he had contributed animal magnetism, which had accumulated in his work, to her. He soon stopped using magnets as a part of his treatment. In 1775, Mesmer was invited to give his opinion before the Munich Academy of Sciences on the exorcisms carried out by Johann Joseph Gassner, a priest and healer. Mesmer said that while Gassner was sincere in his beliefs, his cures were due to the fact that he possessed a high degree of animal magnetism. This confrontation between Mesmer's secular ideas and Gassner's religious beliefs marked the end of Gassner's career as well as, according to Henri Ellenberger, the emergence of dynamic psychiatry. The scandal which followed Mesmer's unsuccessful attempt to treat the blindness of an 18-year-old musician, Maria Theresia Paradis, led him to leave Vienna in 1777. The following year Mesmer moved to Paris, rented an apartment in a part of the city preferred by the wealthy and powerful, and established a medical practice. Paris soon divided into those who thought he was a charlatan who had been forced to flee from Vienna and those who thought he had made a great discovery. In his first years in Paris, Mesmer tried and failed to get either the Royal Academy of Sciences or the Royal Society of Medicine to provide official approval for his doctrines. He found only one physician of high professional and social standing, Charles d'Eslon, to become a disciple. In 1779, with d'Eslon's encouragement, Mesmer wrote an 88-page book Mémoire sur la découverte du magnétisme animal, to which he appended his famous 27 Propositions. These propositions outlined his theory at that time. According to d'Eslon, Mesmer understood health as the free flow of the process of life through thousands of channels in our bodies. Illness was caused by obstacles to this flow. Overcoming these obstacles and restoring flow produced crises, which restored health. When Nature failed to do this spontaneously, contact with a conductor of animal magnetism was a necessary and sufficient remedy. Mesmer aimed to aid or provoke the efforts of Nature. To cure an insane person, for example, involved causing a fit of madness. The advantage of magnetism involved accelerating such crises without danger. Procedure Mesmer treated patients both individually and in groups. With individuals he would sit in front of his patient with his knees touching the patient's knees, pressing the patient's thumbs in his hands, looking fixedly into the patient's eyes. Mesmer made "passes", moving his hands from patients' shoulders down along their arms. He then pressed his fingers on the patient's hypochondrium region (the area below the diaphragm), sometimes holding his hands there for hours. Many patients felt peculiar sensations or had convulsions that were regarded as crises and supposed to bring about the cure. Mesmer would often conclude his treatments by playing some music on a glass armonica. Bakken glass harmonica By 1780 Mesmer had more patients than he could treat individually and he established a collective treatment known as the "baquet". An English physician who observed Mesmer described the treatment as follows: In the middle of the room is placed a vessel of about a foot and a half high which is called here a "baquet". It is so large that twenty people can easily sit round it; near the edge of the lid which covers it, there are holes pierced corresponding to the number of persons who are to surround it; into these holes are introduced iron rods, bent at right angles outwards, and of different heights, so as to answer to the part of the body to which they are to be applied. Besides these rods, there is a rope which communicates between the baquet and one of the patients, and from him is carried to another, and so on the whole round. The most sensible effects are produced on the approach of Mesmer, who is said to convey the fluid by certain motions of his hands or eyes, without touching the person. I have talked with several who have witnessed these effects, who have convulsions occasioned and removed by a movement of the hand... Investigation In 1784, without Mesmer requesting it, King Louis XVI appointed four members of the Faculty of Medicine as commissioners to investigate animal magnetism as practiced by d'Eslon. At the request of these commissioners the King appointed five additional commissioners from the Royal Academy of Sciences. These included the chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, the astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly, and the American ambassador Benjamin Franklin. The commission conducted a series of experiments aimed, not at determining whether Mesmer's treatment worked, but whether he had discovered a new physical fluid. The commission concluded that there was no evidence for such a fluid. Whatever benefit the treatment produced was attributed to "imagination." In 1785 Mesmer left Paris. In 1790 he was in Vienna again to settle the estate of his deceased wife Maria Anna. When he sold his house in Vienna in 1801 he was in Paris. Mesmer was driven into exile soon after the investigations on animal magnetism. His exact activities during the last twenty years of his life are largely unknown. He died in 1815. Mesmer's grave. See also Mesmer, a 1994 film written by Dennis Potter, directed by Roger Spottiswoode, and starring Alan Rickman as Mesmer. Works De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum (Über den Einfluss der Gestirne auf den menschlichen Körper; "The Influence of the Planets on the Human Body"; 1766). Sendschreiben an einen auswärtigen Arzt über die Magnetkur (1775). Mesmerismus oder System der Wechsel-beziehungen. Theorie und Andwendungen des tierischen Magnetismus (1814). Other Among Mesmer's followers was Armand-Marc-Jacques Chastenet, Marquis de Puységur (1751-1825), who discovered induced or artificial somnambulism. Mesmer and his technique are key elements in Kiyoshi Kurosawa's film Cure. In his early writings, F. Anton Mesmer used a way of exposing his ideas very similar to the way of writing of the ancient alchemists. His way of thinking shows clearly the influence of the alchemists' ideas. He sees three basic elements: God, Energy (movement), Matter (on the top left in the guide), analog to Sulphur, Mercury and Salt, (Soul, spirit and body) of the alchemists. Some of his writings used therefore symbols to represent these and other meaningful concepts. He used over 100 symbols in a text sometimes, making it difficult, if not impossible, to read without a guide to the symbols. The idea behind it is that images are the basis for a true understanding while instead words can lead to many different and opposite meanings. The multiplayer online role-playing game series Guild Wars features a profession called the Mesmer, which focuses on illusion and hypnotic spells. A magical ability in the Artemis Fowl series of novels is named after Mesmer. Footnotes References Bloch, G.J. ed. & trans, Mesmerism: A Translation of the Original Medical and Scientific Writings of F.A. Mesmer, M.D., Los Altos, California, William Kaufmann, Inc., 1980. Henri Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, (Basic Books, 1970). Frank A. Pattie, Mesmer and Animal Magnetism: A Chapter in the History of Medicine, (Edmonston Publishing, Inc, 1994). Darnton, Robert, Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France, (Schocken Books 1970, and Harvard University Press 1968). Gould, Stephen Jay, "The Chain of Reason versus the Chain of Thumbs" in Bully for Brontosaurus (Penguin, 1991) "Report of the Commissioners charged by the King in the examination of Animal Magnetism" (originally published 1784), English translation in Skeptic magazine of the Skeptic society, vol 4 no 3 1996. External links Mesmer's 27 Propositions (Via archive.org) Pictorial web-exhibit based on a handful of works from the Bakken’s extensive collection of books, pamphlets, manuscripts, and journals documenting the mesmerist movement. Memoires de Mesmer digitalized copy of Mesmer's memoirs written by himself (original version - in French) Deleuze's account of Mesmer's experiments
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Chicago_White_Sox
The Chicago White Sox are a Major League Baseball team based in Chicago, Illinois. The White Sox play in the American League's Central Division. Since , the White Sox have played in U.S. Cellular Field, which was originally called New Comiskey Park and nicknamed The Cell by local fans. The White Sox are one of two major league clubs based in Chicago, the other being the Chicago Cubs of the National League. They last won the World Series in 2005. One of the American League's eight charter franchises, the Chicago team was established as a major league baseball club in . The club was originally called the Chicago White Stockings, after the nickname abandoned by the Cubs, and the name was soon shortened to Chicago White Sox. At this time, the team played their home games at South Side Park. In , the team moved into historic Comiskey Park, which they would inhabit for more than eight decades. The Chicago White Sox are most prominently nicknamed "the South Siders", differentiating them from the North Side Chicago Cubs. Other nicknames include "the Pale Hose" and sometimes "the ChiSox", a combination of "Chicago" and "Sox" (as opposed to the BoSox). This is seldom used by the team's fans and mostly by the national media. Other nicknames include "the Go-Go Sox", a reference to 1959 AL champions, who got that nickname; "the Good Guys", a reference to the team's one-time motto "Good guys wear black", coined by Ken "Hawk" Harrelson; and "the Black Sox," the name attributed to the scandal-tainted 1919 team. Most fans refer to the team as simply "the Sox". The Spanish language media sometimes refer to the team as Medias Blancas for "White Stockings." Franchise history 1901–14: Early years The team began as the minor league Sioux City Cornhuskers and played in the Western League. The WL reorganized itself in November , with Ban Johnson as President. Johnson, a Cincinnati-based reporter, had been recommended by his friend Charles Comiskey, former major league star with the St. Louis Browns in the 1880s, who was then managing the Cincinnati Reds. After the season, when Comiskey's contract with the Reds was up, he decided to take his chances at ownership. He bought the Sioux City team and transferred it to Saint Paul, Minnesota, where it enjoyed some success over the next five seasons. In , the Western League changed its name to the American League. It was still officially a minor league, subject to the governing National Agreement and an underling of the National League. The NL actually gave permission to the AL to put a team in Chicago, provided he not use the city name in the team's branding. Comiskey moved his St. Paul club to the Near South Side and renamed it the White Stockings, grabbing a nickname that had once been used by the Chicago Cubs. The White Stockings won the 1900 American League pennant, the final WL/AL championship season as a minor league. White Sox Significant Dates | WhiteSox.com: History After the season, the AL declined to renew its membership in the National Agreement and declared itself a major league. After acquiring a number of stars from the older league, including pitcher and manager Clark Griffith, the White Stockings also captured the AL's first major-league pennant the next year, in . Headline editors at the Chicago Tribune sports department immediately began shortening the name to "White Sox," and the team officially adopted the shorter name in . The name change to the White Sox was brought on after scorekeeper Christoph Hynes wrote White Sox at the top of a scorecard rather than White Stockings, this scorecard was then seen by the press. The White Sox would continue to be built on pitching and defense in the following years, led by pitching workhorse Ed Walsh, who routinely pitched over 400 innings each season in his prime.. 1903–16: The Hitless Wonders Walsh, Doc White and Nick Altrock paced the White Sox to their pennant and faced the crosstown rival Cubs in the 1906 World Series. The Cubs had won a then-record 116 regular-season games and were an overwhelming favorite to defeat the White Sox, especially since the White Sox had the lowest team batting average in the American League that year. However, in a stunning upset, the White Sox took the Series, and intracity bragging rights, in six games. To this day, the 1906 White Sox are known as "the Hitless Wonders." The White Sox spent the next decade alternating between solid and mediocre seasons. During this time, however, they acquired a solid core of players such as catcher Ray Schalk, shortstop / third baseman Buck Weaver, and pitchers Eddie Cicotte, Red Faber and Reb Russell. The 1917 World Champions In , Pants Rowland became the manager and the White Sox added outfielder Shoeless Joe Jackson, second baseman Eddie Collins and outfielder Happy Felsch to the line-up. The White Sox finished in 3rd place with a record of 93-61. In , the White Sox acquired pitcher Lefty Williams and finished 2nd at 89-65. In , the White Sox put the final pieces of the puzzle together with the addition of first baseman Chick Gandil and shortstop Swede Risberg. Weaver was moved over to third base. The White Sox roared through the American League in with a record of 100-54--still a franchise record for wins and winning percentage--and won the pennant by 9 games over the Boston Red Sox. Their offense, led by Collins (.289, 91 runs), Felsch (.308, 102 RBI) and Jackson (.301, 91 runs), was 1st in runs scored. The White Sox pitching staff, led by Eddie Cicotte (28-12 1.53 ERA), Williams (17-8 2.97 ERA), Red Faber (16-13 1.92 ERA) and Reb Russell (15-5 1.95 ERA), ranked 1st with a 2.16 ERA. The White Sox faced the 98-56 New York Giants in the World Series. The White Sox won Game 1 of the Series in Chicago 2-1 behind a complete game by Cicotte. Felsch hit a home run in the 4th inning that provided the winning margin. The White Sox beat the Giants in Game 2 by a score of 7-2 behind another complete game effort by Faber to take a 2-0 lead in the series. Back in New York for Game 3, Cicotte again threw a complete game, but the White Sox could not muster a single run against Giants starter Rube Bensen and lost 2-0. In Game 4 the White Sox were shut out again 5-0 by Ferdie Schupp. Faber threw another complete game, but the Series was going back to Chicago even at 2-2. Reb Russell started Game 5 in Chicago, but only faced 3 batters before giving way to Cicotte. Going into the bottom of the 7th inning, Chicago was down 5-2, but they rallied to score 3 in the 7th and 3 in the 8th to win 8-5. Red Faber pitched the final 2 innings for the win. In Game 6 the White Sox took an early 3-0 lead and on the strength of another complete game victory from Faber (his third of the Series) won 4-2 and clinched the World Championship. Eddie Collins was the hitting hero, batting .409 over the 6 game series while Cicotte and Faber combined to pitch 50 out of a total 52 World Series innings to lead the staff. 1918–20: "The Eight Men Out" After an off-year in the war-shortened season of , the club bounced back to win the pennant in 1919 and entered the World Series heavily favored to defeat the Cincinnati Reds. However, just before the Series, it became known that some big money was being bet on the Reds, fueling talk that the Series was fixed. The White Sox lost to the Reds in eight games. Rumors of a fix continued unabated through the campaign, even as the White Sox roared through the season and appeared on their way to a third pennant in four years. The team's pitching was particularly strong that year; the 1920 White Sox pitching staff was the first in the majors to feature four 20-game winners. In September 1920, an investigation into a fixed Cubs game eventually turned in the direction of the 1919 Series. During the investigation, Cicotte and Jackson confessed. Comiskey, who himself had turned a blind eye to the rumors previously, was compelled to suspend the remaining seven players (Gandil, eventually perceived as the ringleader, the one "connected" to the gamblers, had retired after the 1919 season) before their last season series against the St. Louis Browns. The suspensions ground the team to a halt; they lost two out of three games to the Browns and finished second, two games behind the Cleveland Indians. However, the evidence of their involvement (signed confessions) disappeared from the Cook County courthouse, and lacking that tangible evidence, a criminal trial (whose scope was limited to the question of defrauding the public) ended in acquittals of all the players. Regardless, with the public's trust of the game of baseball at stake, newly-installed Commissioner of Baseball Kenesaw Mountain Landis banned all the accused from baseball for life. 1922–50: The lean years From 1901 to 1920, the White Sox won five out of a possible 19 pennants. However, they were severely crippled by the loss of seven of their best players in their prime. With a depleted roster, the White Sox dropped into seventh place in and would not contend again until . During that stretch, only the and teams even managed to top .500. During this period, the White Sox featured stars such as third baseman Willie Kamm, shortstop Luke Appling, outfielder Leo Najo and pitcher Ted Lyons. However, an outstanding team was never developed around them, or a deep pitching staff. Ironically, the White Sox almost landed Babe Ruth; they offered to trade Jackson to the Red Sox for Ruth after owner Harry Frazee put his troublemaking star on the market. The White Sox offered Jackson and $60,000; however, the New York Yankees offered an all-cash deal of $100,000. Between the dumping of star players by the Philadelphia Athletics and the Red Sox, and the decimation of the White Sox, a "power vacuum" was created in the American League, into which the Yankees would soon move. The White Sox finally became competitive again under popular manager Jimmy Dykes, who led them from 1934 to 1946 – still the longest managerial tenure in team history. However, the White Sox did not completely recover from their malaise until the team was rebuilt in the 1950s under managers Paul Richards, Marty Marion, and Al Lopez. 1950–67: "Go-Go Sox" and the Bridesmaid Years Following Charles Comiskey's death in 1931, the team continued to be operated by his family – first by his son Louis, then by Louis' widow Grace, and finally by their daughter Dorothy Rigney. Not until did the team pass out of the family (thanks in part to a feud between Dorothy and her brother Chuck) to a new ownership group, led by Bill Veeck, who had previously run both the Cleveland Indians and the St. Louis Browns; it has been rumored that Veeck also tried to buy the Philadelphia Phillies during World War II, with the stated intention of stocking the team with players from the Negro Leagues, but was rejected. Due to Veeck's arrival in 1959, Comiskey Park instantly became a ballpark filled with a series of promotional stunts which helped draw record crowds, the most obvious being the exploding fireworks Veeck installed in the scoreboard to celebrate home runs and victories. Unlike Charles Comiskey, Veeck was also considered a player-friendly owner, and players enjoyed playing for him. During the 1950s, the team had begun to restore its respectability utilizing an offensive philosophy emphasizing speed and a spectacular style of defense. Perennial All-Star Minnie Miñoso, a former Negro Leaguer who became the White Sox' first black player in , personified both aspects, leading the league in stolen bases while hitting over .300 and providing terrific play in left field. The additions of rookie shortstop Luis Aparicio in 1956 and manager Al Lopez in 1957 continued the strengthening of the team, joining longtime team standouts such as Nellie Fox at second base, pitchers Billy Pierce and Virgil Trucks, and catcher Sherm Lollar. In 1959, the team won its first pennant in 40 years, thanks to the efforts of several eventual Hall of Famers – Lopez, Aparicio, Fox (the league MVP), and pitcher Early Wynn, who won the Cy Young Award at a time when only one award was presented for both leagues. The White Sox would also acquire slugger Ted Kluszewski, a local area native, from the Pittsburgh Pirates for the final pennant push. Kluszewski gave the team a much-needed slugger for the stretch run, and he hit nearly .300 for the White Sox in the final month. Lopez had also managed the Cleveland Indians to the World Series in 1954, making him the only manager to interrupt the New York Yankees pennant run between 1949 and 1964. After the pennant-clinching victory, Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley, a life-long White Sox fan, ordered his fire chief to set off the city's air raid sirens. Many Chicagoans became fearful and confused since 1959 was the height of the Cold War; however, they relaxed somewhat upon realizing it was part of the White Sox' celebration. The White Sox won Game 1 of the World Series 11-0 on the strength of Kluszewski's two home runs, their last postseason home win until 2005. The Los Angeles Dodgers, however, won three of the next four games and captured their first World Series championship since moving to the west coast in 1958. 92,706 fans witnessed Game 5 of the World Series at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, the most ever to attend a World Series game, or for that matter any non-exhibition major league baseball game. The White Sox won that game 1-0 over the Dodgers' 23-year-old pitcher Sandy Koufax, but the Dodgers clinched the series by beating the White Sox 9-3 two days later at Comiskey Park. Although the White Sox had winning records every season from 1951 through 1967, the Yankees dynasty of the era often left the White Sox frustrated in second place; they were league runner-up 5 times between 1957 and 1965. Health problems forced Veeck to sell the team to brothers Arthur and John Allyn in , and while the team continued to play well, many of the ballpark thrills seemed to be missing. The White Sox had several outstanding pitching staffs in the 1960s, with pitchers who had the best ERA in four different seasons -- Frank Baumann, 2.67 (), Gary Peters, 2.33 (), and again with 1.98 () and finally Joe Horlen, 2.06 (). The season was especially frustrating, as the team won 98 games, four more than 1959, including their last nine in a row – yet finished one game behind the pennant-winning Yankees, who had a late-season eleven-game win streak that opened up just enough room to stave off the White Sox's final charge. The White Sox were also involved in one of the closest pennant races in history in 1967. After leading the American League for most of the season, on the final weekend, the White Sox, Red Sox, Minnesota Twins and Detroit Tigers all had a shot at the pennant. However, the Red Sox would assert themselves in the final weekend, beating the Twins to take the pennant by a single game. The White Sox finished in 4th at 89-73, three games behind. 1968–75: Going somewhere? In , Bud Selig, a former minority owner of the Milwaukee Braves who had been unable to stop the relocation of his team three years earlier, contracted with the Allyn brothers to host nine home games (one against each of the other American League clubs) at Milwaukee County Stadium as part of an attempt to attract an expansion franchise to Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The experiment was staggeringly successful - those nine games drew 264,297 fans. In Chicago that season, the White Sox drew 539,478 fans to their remaining 58 home dates (72 games, 14 doubleheaders). In just a handful of games, the Milwaukee crowds accounted for nearly one-third of the total attendance at White Sox games. In , the league expanded from 10 teams to 12, and the White Sox schedule in Milwaukee was likewise expanded to include 11 home games (again, one against every opponent). Although those games were attended by slightly fewer fans (198,211 fans, for an average of 18,019) they represented a greater percentage of the total White Sox attendance than the previous year - over one-third of the fans who went to White Sox games did so at Milwaukee County Stadium. In the remaining 59 home dates in Chicago (70 games, 11 doubleheaders), the White Sox drew 391,335 for an average of 6,632 per date. Selig was denied an expansion franchise at the 1968 owners' meetings, and turned his efforts toward purchasing and relocating an existing club. His search began close to home, with the White Sox themselves. According to Selig, he had a handshake agreement with Arthur Allyn in early 1969 to purchase a majority stake in the Pale Hose and move them north to the Cream City. The American League, however, blocked the sale, unwilling to give up its presence in a major city. Allyn instead sold his shares to his brother John, who agreed to stay in Chicago. Selig would go on to buy the Seattle Pilots and move them to Milwaukee instead. The White Sox had a brief resurgence in , with slugger Dick Allen winning the MVP award; but injuries, especially to popular third baseman Bill Melton, took their toll and the team finished 5½ games behind Oakland, the eventual world champion. Several lawsuits against Major League Baseball from Seattle over the move of the Pilots to Milwaukee, Wisconsin almost resulted in the White Sox being moved to the Emerald City in . An elaborate scheme for a franchise shuffle soon came to light. The White Sox were to be moved to Seattle, then the Oakland Athletics were to take the White Sox's place in Comiskey Park. Oakland owner Charlie Finley was from nearby La Porte, Indiana. His A's had not drawn well during their Championship years in Oakland, California, and he wanted to bring them to Chicago. However, the shuffle collapsed when owner John Allyn sold the team to the physically-rehabilitated Bill Veeck. In , the Seattle Mariners were created, thus restoring the major leagues' presence in the Pacific Northwest. 1976–81: The Return of Veeck and the South Side Hitmen On December 10, , Bill Veeck regained ownership of the team, and he vowed to make the White Sox an exciting team again. Besides his customary promotions, Veeck introduced retro uniforms and shorts. But the team was one of the worst White Sox teams ever fielded, winning only 64 games (.398), drawing fewer than 915,000 fans, and the team was ridiculed for wearing uniforms which featured shorts. Veeck's strategy to make the team competitive quickly, dubbed "rent-a-player" by sports writers, involved acquiring star players in the final year of their contracts. The theory was that the players would strive to put up huge numbers in hopes of getting a big contract at the end of the season, and carry the club with them. The first of these acquisitions were made prior to the 1977 season and the last prior to the 1978 season. While this approach had the virtue of not having been tried, it was unsustainable. The Sox had to give up several young prospects in exchange for veteran players who invariably signed with other clubs after their single season in Chicago. There was also a singular focus on power hitters in these acquisitions while pitching and defense were ignored. The Sox scored a lot of runs, but they also lost many high-scoring games during this period. The 1977 season was a memorable one for the South Siders, led by off-season acquisitions Oscar Gamble (.297 avg, 31 hr, 83 rbi), Richie Zisk (.290 avg, 30 hr, 101 rbi) and American League Comeback Player of the Year Eric Soderholm (.280 avg, 25 hr, 67 rbi). The team, known by the press and fans as the "South Side Hitmen" hit a since-broken team record 192 home runs and were in first place in the American League West as late as August enroute to a third place finish (90-72). They also drew a team-record 1,657,135 fans to Comiskey (since broken as well). Manager Bob Lemon was named AL Manager of the Year by UPI for his efforts. Chicago White Sox logo from 1976 to 1990 After the end of the season Gamble and Zisk signed with other teams - Gamble with the San Diego Padres and Zisk with the Texas Rangers. Veeck's attempt to replace them with Bobby Bonds and Ron Blomberg fizzled as the team lost 90 games. Bonds was dealt to the Texas Rangers during the season, and Blomberg's major league career ended with the season's final game. Two tough years followed: 87 losses in (including the infamous July 12 forfeit on Disco Demolition Night; see Steve Dahl) and 90 losses in . During this time the Sox acquired several players who were once stars but were past their primes. One was Don Kessinger, a shortstop who had his best years with the crosstown Cubs. Kessinger served as a player-manager in 1979. Another was outfielder Ralph Garr, who had his best seasons with the Atlanta Braves. Since the Sox didn't have the revenue of the wealthier clubs, Veeck looked for any edge he could find. The club held open tryouts during spring training in 1978. They looked at pretty much anyone who showed up. Each player's name was sewn on his uniform, ostensibly to prove that the tryouts were legitimate and not just a stunt. This approach was the subject of an article in Sports Illustrated. Veeck began building a farm system that produced several noteworthy players including Harold Baines and Britt Burns. But Veeck could not compete in the free agent market or afford what he called "the high price of mediocrity." By 1980, the White Sox were looking for new ownership. Veeck favored Ohio real estate tycoon Edward J. DeBartolo Sr., who tried to buy several teams and move them to New Orleans. But he pleaded to buy the White Sox and promised to stay in the South Side. The only person blocking the transaction was baseball commissioner Bowie Kuhn, who thought DeBartolo would be bad for baseball. Instead, Veeck sold the team to an ownership group headed by Jerry Reinsdorf and Eddie Einhorn. The new owners moved quickly to show that they were committed to winning by signing All-Star catcher Carlton Fisk from the Red Sox during the 1980-81 offseason. They also retained the club's young, relatively unknown manager Tony La Russa. Perhaps to placate the fans, the owners launched a uniform design contest. The fans were given the opportunity to vote on the finalists. The winning design featured red, white, and blue with large bars. 1982–87: "Winning Ugly" 1983 In , the White Sox enjoyed their best success in a generation. After a mediocre first half, they went 60-25 to close out the season, clinching the AL West title, which earned Manager Tony La Russa his first Manager of the Year award. Doug Rader, then manager of the Texas Rangers, derisively accused the team of "winning ugly" for their style of play, which reflected a tendency to win games through scrappy play rather than strong hitting or pitching. Rader also thought that if the White Sox played in the Eastern Division, they would finish 5th behind powerhouses such as Baltimore, New York, and Milwaukee. Chicago media and White Sox fans picked up on the phrase, and turned "Winning Ugly" into the team slogan. While they had a great run in the regular season, they were not able to carry that over into the postseason as they lost to a powerful Baltimore Orioles team 3 games to 1 in the AL Championship Series. Hoyt led the White Sox to a 2-1 victory in Game 1, but the Orioles clinched the series with a 3-0 ten-inning victory in Game 4. White Sox pitcher Burns pitched a "gutsy" game, throwing 9⅓ shutout innings before a home run by Tito Landrum broke up the game and the hearts of the South Side faithful. 1985–1986 The club slid back into mediocrity for the rest of the 1980s, contending only in . Before the 1985 season began, the White Sox traded pitcher LaMarr Hoyt to the San Diego Padres in exchange for flashy shortstop Ozzie Guillén. Guillen would win the AL Rookie Of The Year award. In 1986, broadcaster-turned-general manager Ken "Hawk" Harrelson fired La Russa after a poor start. The club wouldn't contend again until 1990, the final year in Old Comiskey Park. 1987-89: New Comiskey Park/U.S. Cellular Field In the late 1980s, the franchise threatened to relocate to Tampa Bay (as did the San Francisco Giants), but frantic lobbying on the part of the Illinois governor and state legislature resulted in approval (by one vote) of public funding for a new stadium. Although designed primarily as a baseball stadium (as opposed to a "multipurpose" stadium) New Comiskey Park (redubbed U.S. Cellular Field in 2003) was built in a 1960s style similar to Dodger Stadium and Kauffman Stadium. It opened in to positive reviews; many praised its wide open concourses, excellent sight lines, and natural grass (unlike other stadiums of the era such as Rogers Centre in Toronto). However, it was quickly overshadowed in the public imagination by the wave of "nostalgia" or "retro" ballparks, beginning with Oriole Park at Camden Yards. The park's inaugural season drew 2,934,154 fans - at the time, an all-time attendance record for any Chicago baseball team. View from the upper deck of U.S. Cellular Field in 2006 Despite a number of innovations in its original construction - including a lower deck concourse that circumscribes the entire stadium, allowing a view of the game from any location - the park was often criticized for its sterile appearance and steep upper deck. In recent years, money accrued from the sale of naming rights to U.S. Cellular has been allocated for renovations to make the park more aesthetically appealing and fan friendly. Notable renovations of early phases included: re-orientation of the bullpens parallel to the field of play (thus decreasing slightly the formerly symmetrical dimensions of the outfield); filling seats in up to and shortening the outfield wall; ballooning foul-line seat sections out toward the field of play; creating a new multi-tiered batter's eye, allowing fans to see out through one-way screens from the center-field vantage point, and complete with concession stand and bar-style seating on its 'fan deck'; renovating all concourse areas with brick, historic murals, and new concession stand ornaments to establish a more friendly feel. The stadium's steel and concrete was repainted dark gray and black. The scoreboard Jumbotron was also replaced with a new Mitsubishi Diamondvision HDTV giant screen. More recently, the top third of the upper deck was removed in and a black wrought metal roof was placed over it, covering all but the first eight rows of seats. This decreased seating capacity from 47,000 to 40,615. 2005 also saw the introduction of the Scout Seats, redesignating (and re-upholstering) 200 lower deck seats behind home plate as an exclusive area, with seat-side waitstaff and a complete restaurant located underneath the concourse. The most significant structural addition besides the new roof was 's FUNdamentals Deck, a multi-tiered structure on the left field concourse containing batting cages, a small Tee Ball field, and several other child-themed activities intended to entertain and educate young fans. This structure was used during the 2005 playoffs by ESPN and Fox Broadcasting Company as a broadcasting platform. Designed as a 5-phase plan, the renovations were completed after the season with the 5th and final phase. The most visible renovation in this final phase was replacing the original blue seats with green seats. The upper deck already had new green seats, put in before the beginning of the 2006 season. Beginning with the season a new luxury seating section was added in the former press box. This section has amenities similar to those of the Scout Seats section. 1990s: "Good Guys Wear Black" Alternate logo, introduced in 1990That season, most of their young talent blossomed. Closer Bobby Thigpen established a then record of 57 saves. In addition to that, first baseman Frank Thomas, pitchers Alex Fernandez and Jack McDowell, and third baseman Robin Ventura would make their presences felt in the South Side. The White Sox of won 94 games, but finished 9 games behind the powerful Oakland Athletics. On July 11, as part of the celebration of Comiskey Park, the White Sox played a Turn Back the Clock game against the Milwaukee Brewers; the Brewers won 12-9 in 13 innings after posting a 6-run rally in the 8th inning to tie the game. The White Sox wore their 1917 home uniforms. This was the first Turn Back the Clock game in the major leagues and started what has become a popular promotion. New Comiskey park opened in 1991, and was completed at a cost of $167 million. 1993 The team reached the ALCS in . The White Sox were led by Thomas, Ventura, multi-sport star Bo Jackson, Cy Young Award winner McDowell and All-Star closer Roberto Hernández and won the last AL West before realignment with a 94-68 record. However, the White Sox were a big disappointment in the ALCS, losing to the defending World Champion Toronto Blue Jays in six games. The Jays would go on to win the World Series again in 1993. The White Sox led the new American League Central at the time of the 1994 players' strike. 2000: The Kids Can Play Under Manuel, the White Sox fielded a talented but chronically under-achieving team. In , however, the White Sox had one of their best teams since the 1983 club. This team, whose slogan was "The Kids Can Play," won 95 games en route to an AL Central division title. The team scored runs at a blistering pace, which enabled them to win all of these games despite a mediocre pitching staff led by Mike Sirotka and James Baldwin. Frank Thomas nearly won his third MVP award with his offensive output; he was helped by good offensive years from Magglio Ordóñez, Paul Konerko, Carlos Lee and José Valentín. As in 1983 and 1993, this 2000 team could not carry its success over into the postseason, getting swept by the wild-card Seattle Mariners in the Division Series. Despite new club records for hits (1,615), runs scored (978), RBI (926), home runs (216), and doubles (325), the White Sox managed to hit only .185 in the ALDS and failed to score a run after the third inning in any of the three games. In 2003, Comiskey park was re-named after cell phone company U.S. Cellular bought the naming rights at $68 million over 20 years. 2005–Present: "Win Or Die Trying" 2005: World Series Champions The changes made an immediate impact on the team. In , the White Sox posted the best record in the major leagues for much of the year, before a late season slump saw the St. Louis Cardinals overtake them (100 wins vs. 99 wins). Though a serious challenge for their dominance of the division was mounted late in the year by the Cleveland Indians (the Tribe actually reduced what was once a 15 game lead for the White Sox down to 1½ games at one point), Chicago scored a 4-2 victory over the Detroit Tigers on September 29 to win their first AL Central Division title since 2000. Finishing at 99-63 (.611) tied their 1983 record, and won the division by six games. The last time they had a higher percentage than that was 1920 , when they finished second in the league thanks to the late-season "Black Sox" suspensions. The combination of the league's best record with the American League victory in the All-Star Game gave the White Sox the home field advantage throughout the 2005 postseason (perhaps unnecessary as the White Sox won every post-season road game they played in 2005). Among the other changes that occurred in 2005 (and still seen in 2006) was the creation of a new marketing campaign, referring to the team's new style of play. 2005 saw a much-reduced reliance on power hitting (even though the team still hit over 200 home runs on the season), and a move toward speed and defense. This culminated in what locally became known as "Ozzieball" or "Grinderball". As part of the marketing campaign, the White Sox began inventing "The Grinder Rules", a list of fictitious "rules" created as a part of an advertising campaign, and a way of reminding fans about the changes to the team, and the success it was bringing. The first Grinder Rule became the team's motto for the 2005 season: "Win or die trying!" The rules themselves are an "incomplete" list, as the numbers are somewhat random. They are collected from print, billboard, television, and radio advertisements, as well as advertising at U.S. Cellular Field, where the White Sox play their home games. 2005 ALDS In the first round of the 2005 playoffs, the White Sox took on the wild-card winning Red Sox, the defending World Series champions. However, the White Sox overpowered the Red Sox, defeating the Red Sox in a three-game sweep. They won the first two games (scoring a 14-2 victory in the first game – their first postseason win at home since 1959 – and 5-4 in the second) of the series at home before going to Fenway Park and claiming a 5-3 victory. The ALDS also set the tone for what would be an unusually suspenseful post-season; while their first game was considered a blow-out, the remaining games saw the White Sox making the most of rare opportunities and hanging on to narrow leads. In the first inning of game 1, the White Sox put up 5 runs, and never looked back. A late inning three-run home run by Scott Podsednik - his first home run of the season, was the icing on the cake in the game 1 blowout. In Game 2, the White Sox were actually down 4-2 when Red Sox second baseman Tony Graffanino, formerly playing for the White Sox, let Juan Uribe's potential inning-ending, double-play grounder go through his legs; one out later, Tadahito Iguchi hit a three-run homer to left that clinched the game for the White Sox. In Game 3, Orlando Hernández entered the game with the bases loaded and nobody out with the White Sox ahead by only one run in the bottom of the sixth inning. Based on their regular season performance, it was later calculated that the Red Sox's probability of winning at that point was .662, even though they were trailing by one run. Instead, the first two batters, Jason Varitek and Tony Graffanino, both popped out, and Johnny Damon struck out swinging on a breaking ball. Hernandez went on to retire six of the next seven batters, and the White Sox's rookie reliever Bobby Jenks closed out the game. 2005 ALCS The White Sox then moved on to face the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in the ALCS. The Angels won Game 1, 3-2. In Game 2 on October 12, the teams were involved in one of the most controversial endings in baseball playoff history. With the score tied 1-1 with two outs in the bottom of the ninth, A. J. Pierzynski apparently struck out to end the inning. At first Pierzynski headed back to the dugout but ran to first base upon realizing that umpire Doug Eddings had ruled that Angels catcher Josh Paul (a former White Sox player) did not field the ball cleanly, meaning he would have to either tag the batter or throw to the first baseman to record the out (see uncaught third strike). Despite vehement protests from various members of the Angels, including manager Mike Scioscia, Pierzynski was awarded first base. Pinch-runner Pablo Ozuna replaced Pierzynski and stole second base. Third baseman Joe Crede then delivered a double on the third pitch to give the White Sox a 2-1 win. Overshadowed by that play was the 1-run, 5-hit complete game pitched by Mark Buehrle. Buehrle's excellent effort allowed the White Sox to capture their first-ever home victory in ALCS history. Buoyed by their win, the White Sox traveled to Anaheim, California, where starters Jon Garland, Freddy García, and José Contreras (who had dropped Game 1 to the Angels in Chicago) pitched three more complete game victories consecutively over the Angels, giving the White Sox their first American League pennant since 1959. White Sox slugger Paul Konerko was named the ALCS MVP, on the strength of his two home runs, 7 RBI, and .286 average. Especially in light of the evolution of the game, the White Sox four straight complete games was considered an unbelievable achievement. In fact, since José Contreras pitched 8⅓ innings in game 1, the White Sox bullpen saw a total of ⅔ of an inning pitched (by Neal Cotts) in the entire series. The last time four consecutive complete games had been pitched in a championship series was in the 1956 World Series between the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Yankees, and the 1928 Yankees were the last team to win four consecutive complete games in a championship series. In fact, the last time any major league pitching staff had hurled four straight complete game victories was near the end of the 1983 regular season, when the Texas Rangers accomplished the feat. 2005 World Series The White Sox now advanced to the World Series, where they would take on the National League champion Houston Astros. The White Sox' appearance in the World Series was bittersweet for longtime franchise star Frank Thomas. One of the most popular and productive players in the franchise's long history, Thomas would finally be going to a World Series in his 16th major league season. However, due to injury, Thomas would be unable to participate except as an observer, and his contributions to the White Sox in 2005 were limited. Champions Plaza, U.S. Cellular Field - Chicago, Illinois Game 1 saw Astros' ace Roger Clemens leave the game with a hamstring injury, and Chicago took advantage of its opponents' weakness, winning 5-3. Joe Crede especially made an impressive showing with his stellar defensive plays at third base. Game 2 of the Series, as in the ALCS, saw the White Sox again involved in a controversial play. With the White Sox down 4-2 in the seventh with two outs and two runners on base, the home plate umpire ruled that Jermaine Dye had been hit by a pitch, while the Astros argued (and TV replays confirmed) that the ball had actually hit the bat. Dye was given a free pass to first, and the next batter, Paul Konerko, launched a grand slam into left field to give Chicago a 6-4 lead. Houston tied the game on a two-run single with two outs in the top of the ninth, but in the bottom of the ninth, Scott Podsednik hit a walk-off solo home run off Brad Lidge to give the White Sox a thrilling 7-6 victory and a 2-0 lead in the Series. Podsednik was the first player in major league history to hit a home run in the World Series after not having hit any during the regular season. (He did, however, have a home run in Game 1 of the ALDS against Boston, making the World Series home run his second of the playoffs.) The World Series then shifted to Houston for Game 3, in which Astros' starter and NLCS MVP Roy Oswalt cruised with a 4-0 lead until the wheels totally came off for him with a five-run fifth by the White Sox. The Astros managed to tie the game in the eighth, but repeatedly blew scoring opportunities in the next few innings. Finally, in the top of the 14th, former (and current) Astro Geoff Blum hit a tie-breaking home run; the White Sox took a commanding 3-0 Series lead with a 7-5 victory in the longest World Series game in history (in terms of time; tied for most innings). Ozzie Guillén sent Mark Buehrle in to get the last out in the bottom of the 14th to get the save after he had started Game 2, and later remarked that he was set to send Pablo Ozuna (a position player) in to pitch if the Astros somehow extended the game. Game 4 was a pitcher's duel between Freddy García and Brandon Backe. The game was scoreless until Jermaine Dye singled to center off of Brad Lidge, driving in Willie Harris for what turned out to be the winning run. This was the second game of the series in which Lidge had given up the game winning run (Podesednik's home run in Game 2). Game 4 also saw a spectacular defensive play by Juan Uribe, as the Chicago shortstop fell two rows into the stands in order to retire Chris Burke for the second out in the bottom of the ninth. Uribe also earned the assist in the final out of the Series on the next play, as he narrowly threw Orlando Palmeiro out at first to give the White Sox their first World Series crown since 1917. Dye was named the World Series MVP in the four-game sweep.The White Sox' World Series Trophy on display at U.S. Cellular Field during the 2006 season The White Sox championship run can be considered one for the ages. Apart from a brief shaky stretch in early September, the White Sox team displayed sheer dominance as evident by the wire-to-wire first place in American League. Only the 1927 Yankees and the 1984 Detroit Tigers were able to achieve such a feat. Their 11-1 postseason record was tied with 1999 Yankees as the best single post season mark. (Only Cincinnati Reds in 1976 had a better winning percentage by going 7-0.) Also, their 8 game winning streak (the four wins over the Angels and the sweep against the Astros) is tied with the Boston Red Sox (who won 8 games in a row en route to their 2004 World Series championship) for the longest postseason winning streak in Major League History. The White Sox also became the only team to win all three post-season victories on the road. Amazingly, despite their 105 year history, this was only the franchise's third World Series championship, (following victories in 1917 and 1906). It also marked their first pennant since the advent of divisional play in 1969 (the White Sox won the inaugural American League pennant in 1901, but this was 2 years prior to the first modern World Series). 2006 season After leading the wild card race for much of the season, the White Sox faltered, losing 15 of 24 at the beginning of September to eliminate them from playoff contention, ending their chances of becoming the first repeat winner of the World Series since the New York Yankees in 1999 and 2000. They nonetheless finished with a 90-72 record, the season's best record by a non-playoff team. Despite missing the playoffs, the team enjoyed numerous successes during the year. Following the Fourth of July weekend, the White Sox won both crosstown interleague series against the rival Cubs, taking the first two games of each series at U.S. Cellular Field and Wrigley Field. The White Sox finished interleague play with a record of 14-4, including a 7-2 mark in National League parks. This was the first year a White Sox manager had led the AL All-Star squad since 1960, when Al Lopez led the team. In addition to manager Ozzie Guillén, the White Sox had six representatives at the 77th All-Star Game at PNC Park in Pittsburgh, the most among any club: starting pitcher Mark Buehrle, closer Bobby Jenks, catcher A. J. Pierzynski, first basemen Paul Konerko and Jim Thome, and right fielder Jermaine Dye. José Contreras was originally selected to pitch in the All-Star Game, but was replaced by Francisco Liriano. Guillen removed Contreras from the roster after a 117-pitch performance in a 19-inning game against Boston on the last day before the All-Star Break. As a result of Contreras not pitching during the break, he would set an unusual modern-day mark in Major League Baseball by starting two consecutive games. Pierzynski was the last White Sox to be named to the team after winning the year's Final Vote, in which the fans select the 32nd and final player on both the AL and NL squads. Pierzynski is the second White Sox to be selected, following Scott Podsednik's nomination in 2005. Dye competed in the 2006 CENTURY 21 Home Run Derby; he managed to hit 7 home runs in the first round, but David Ortiz and Ryan Howard both surpassed that total to knock Dye out of the competition. Dye was only the fourth White Sox to compete in the Derby, joining Carlton Fisk (1985), Konerko (2002), and Frank Thomas (1994, 1995). The White Sox drew 2,957,414 fans for an average of 36,511, third in the AL. There were a total of 52 sellouts, breaking the previous team record of 18. The White Sox also drew 75 crowds in excess of 30,000, another franchise record. The White Sox had just one game with a crowd below 25,000: April 18 against the Kansas City Royals. On August 9 against the New York Yankees, the White Sox surpassed 2 million fans for the eighth time in franchise history and for the second consecutive year (1983, 1984, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, and 2005). Also, on August 30 versus the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, the team surpassed 2.5 million fans for the first time since 1993, and for only the fourth time in franchise history: 1991, 1992, and 1993. It is their 25th consecutive one million-plus attendance season and 46th overall. 2007 Season During Spring Training, Toby Hall dislocated his shoulder while trying to make a diving play at first base. This presented a problem as Hall was the backup to A. J. Pierzynski, and now would be out for an indeterminate amount of time. As a result of the injury, the White Sox were forced to bring up catching prospect Gustavo Molina. There was a competition for the fifth starter's role between newly-acquired rookies Gavin Floyd and John Danks. Danks would ultimately win the role with a good spring showing. At the conclusion of spring training, the White Sox opened the 2007 season at home against the Cleveland Indians. José Contreras would start the opener, marking the first time since 2001 that Mark Buehrle did not pitch the season opener. Contreras would be ineffective, giving up 8 runs (7 earned) on 7 hits over 1-plus innings in an eventual 12-5 loss. On April 15, White Sox pitching held the Cleveland Indians to two unearned runs and a hit, but the White Sox would lose 2-1, raising concerns about the usually potent offense. Scott Podsednik, the White Sox' best hitter with a .303 average, would be placed on the disabled list with an adductor pull, compounding the White Sox' offensive woes. On April 18, Buehrle pitched a no-hitter against the Texas Rangers, 6-0. Buehrle's only blemish was a walk to Sammy Sosa in the fifth, but Buehrle would promptly pick Sosa off during the next at-bat. Buehrle secured his spot in the MLB record books when he forced Rangers catcher Gerald Laird to ground out to third baseman Joe Crede at 9:14 P.M. CDT, sending the crowd of 25,390 at U.S. Cellular Field into a frenzy. He would face the minimum of 27 batters using 106 pitches (66 strikes), with the one walk to Sosa and eight strikeouts. This was the first no-hitter by a White Sox pitcher since Wilson Alvarez did it against the Baltimore Orioles on August 11, , the first no-hitter at home since Joel Horlen's no-hitter on September 10, , and the first no-hitter in the American League since April 27, , when then-Boston Red Sox starter Derek Lowe no-hit the Tampa Bay Devil Rays 10-0. Jermaine Dye hit a grand slam and Jim Thome added two solo homers in the history-making night. On July 6, the White Sox announced the signing of Mark Buehrle to a contract extension worth $56 million over four years. The move came after weeks of rumors of Buehrle possibly being traded. Overall, the White Sox season was hampered by injuries and a team-wide hitting slump. However, the season was not a complete failure with Mark Buehrle's no hitter, Jim Thome's 500th home run, and closer Bobby Jenks 41 consecutive batters retired (tying Jim Barr's all-time record and breaking the American League record.) Jenks would later fall short of the all time record when Kansas City Royal's player Joey Gathright slapped a ground ball into left field just out of the reaches of third baseman Josh Fields and shortstop Juan Uribe. The White Sox finished the season fourth in their division with a 72-90 record, behind the Cleveland Indians, Detroit Tigers, and Minnesota Twins. 2008 Season: Central Champs Again And A Blackout Game On July 31, the day of the trade deadline, the White Sox traded relief pitcher Nick Masset and minor leaguer 2nd baseman Danny Richar for Ken Griffey Jr. of the Cincinnati Reds http://www.local12.com/content/breaking_news/story.aspx?content_id=b91cb11a-b7f2-4c06-a821-3a0ede26aa07 . On September 29, 2008, Ramirez hit his fourth grand slam of the season, setting a major-league single-season record for a rookie, off of Detroit Tigers pitcher Gary Glover in an 8–2 White Sox victory to qualify the White Sox for a one-game playoff against the Minnesota Twins for the AL Central title. This also broke the team record for most grand slams in a single season. At the end of the season, the team was half a game behind the Minnesota Twins at the top of the American League Central standings -- as a result, a game against the already-eliminated Detroit Tigers that had been postponed due to inclement weather was played on September 29, 2008. The White Sox won, necessitating a one-game playoff with the Twins to determine the division winner on September 30, 2008. Chicago White Sox celebrate after winning a tiebreaker game against the Minnesota Twins on September 30th, 2008 On September 30, 2008, the White Sox won a tiebreaker 1–0 against the Minnesota Twins for the American League playoff spot after a diving catch from Brian Anderson. A game saving throw to home plate from center-fielder Ken Griffey Jr. to catcher A. J. Pierzynski on a flyout to keep Michael Cuddyer from scoring would keep the Twins scoreless through the top of the 5th inning. John Danks pitched on only three days rest and threw 103 pitches for 2 hits and no runs in eight innings. Bobby Jenks would close the game with a perfect 9th. The only run of the game came from a Jim Thome home run, the 541st of his career. This was the lowest scoring tiebreaker game in MLB history. The White Sox are also the only team in MLB history to beat three different teams on three consecutive days: the Cleveland Indians, Detroit Tigers, and Minnesota Twins. They lost to the Tampa Bay Rays in the ALDS, 3 games to 1. History of White Sox uniforms Over the years the White Sox have become noted for many of their uniform innovations and changes. In 1960, the White Sox became the first team in the major sports to put players' last names on jerseys. Although the uniforms in the very early days of the franchise featured a block "C" in red, the uniforms' primary color switched to a navy or midnight blue (on white) after a couple of years. Again, a block "C" was often the only adornment. 1912-1917, 1919-1929, 1931, and 1936-1938 Chicago White Sox logoIn 1912, however, the White Sox debuted one of the most enduring and famous logos in baseball -- a large "S" in a Roman-style font, with a small "O" inside the top loop of the "S" and a small "X" inside the bottom loop. This is the logo associated with the 1917 World Series championship team and the 1919 Black Sox. With a couple of brief interruptions, the dark blue logo with the large "S" lasted through 1938 (but continued in a modified block style into the '40s). Through the 1940s, the White Sox team colors were primarily navy blue trimmed with red. The White Sox logo in the '50s and '60s (actually beginning in the 1949 season) was the word "SOX" in an Old English font, diagonally arranged, with the "S" larger than the other two letters. From 1949 through 1963, the primary color was black (trimmed with red after 1951). The Old English "SOX" in black lettering is the logo associated with the Go-Go Sox era. In 1964, the primary color went back to navy blue, and the road uniforms changed from gray to pale blue. In 1971, the team's primary color changed from royal blue to red, with the color of their pinstripes and caps changing to red. Curiously, the 1971-1975 uniform included red socks. In 1976 the team's uniforms changed again. The team's primary color changed back from red to navy. The team based their uniforms on a style worn in the early days of the franchise, with white jerseys worn at home, blue on the road. The team also had the option to wear blue or white pants with either jersey. Additionally the teams "SOX" logo was changed to a modern-looking "SOX" in a bold font, with 'CHICAGO' written across the jersey. Finally, the team's logo featured a silhouette of a batter over the words "SOX". The new uniforms also featured collars and were designed to be worn untucked - both unprecedented. Yet by far the most unusual wrinkle was the option to wear shorts, which the White Sox did for the first game of a doubleheader against the Kansas City Royals in 1976. After being ridiculed by fans and pundits, and an opponent calling the White Sox "the sweetest team we have ever played," the White Sox retired the shorts, wearing pants in the nightcap and thereafter. The Hollywood Stars of the Pacific Coast League had tried the same concept at one time, and it was also poorly received. Apart from aesthetic issues, as a practical matter shorts are not conducive to sliding, due to the likelihood of significant abrasions. Upon taking over the team in 1980 new owners Eddie Einhorn and Jerry Reinsdorf announced a contest where fans were invited to create new uniforms for the White Sox. The winning entry was submitted by a fan where the word "SOX" was written across the front of the jersey, in the same font as a cap, inside of a large blue stripe trimmed with red. The red and blue stripes were also on the sleeves, and the road jerseys were gray to the home whites. It was in those jerseys that the White Sox won 99 games and the AL West championship in 1983, the best record in the majors. After five years those uniforms were retired and replaced with a more basic uniform which had "White Sox" written across the front in script, with "Chicago" on the front of the road jersey. The cap logo was also changed to a cursive "C", although the batter logo was retained for several years. For a mid-season 1990 game at Comiskey Park the White Sox appeared one time in a uniform based on that of the 1917 White Sox. The White Sox then switched their regular uniform style one more time. In September, for the final series at Old Comiskey Park, the old English "SOX" logo (a slightly simplified version of the 1949-63 logo) was restored, and the new uniform also had the black pinstripes restored. The team's primary color changed back to black -- this time with silver trim. With minor modifications (i.e., occasionally wearing vests, black game jerseys) the White Sox have used this style ever since. Spring training history The White Sox have held spring training in Excelsior Springs, Missouri. (1901-1902); Mobile (1903); Marlin Springs, Texas (1904); New Orleans, Louisiana (1905-1906); Mexico City (1907); Los Angeles (1908); San Francisco (1909-1910); Mineral Wells, Texas (1911, 1916-1919); Waco, Texas (1912, 1920); Paso Robles, California (1913-1915); Waxahachie, Texas (1921); Seguin, Texas (1922-1923); Winter Haven, Florida. (1924); Shreveport, Louisiana (1925-1928); Dallas, Texas (1929); San Antonio, Texas (1930-1932); Pasadena, California (1933-1942, 1946-1950); French Lick, Indiana (1943-1944); Terre Haute, Indiana (1945); Palm Springs, California (1951); El Centro, California (1952-1953); Tampa (1954-1959); and Sarasota (1960-1997). Since 1998 the White Sox and Arizona Diamondbacks have shared Tucson Electric Park in Tucson, Arizona for Spring Training in the Cactus League. Spring Training History On November 19, 2007, the cities of Glendale, Arizona and Phoenix, Arizona broke ground on the Cactus League’s newest Spring Training facility. Camelback Ranch, the $76 million two-team facility will be the new home of both the White Sox and the Los Angeles Dodgers for their Spring Training programs. Aside from state-of-the-art baseball facilities at the 10,000-seat stadium the location will include residential, restaurant and retail development, a 4-star hotel and 18-hole golf course. Other amenities include of Major and minor league clubhouses for the two teams, four Major League practice fields and eight minor league practice fields, two practice infields and parking to accommodate 5,000 vehicles. Let's Play Ball! Rivalries and fan base Crosstown Classic The Chicago Cubs are the crosstown rivals of the White Sox, a rivalry that some made fun of prior to the White Sox's 2005 title due to the fact that both of them had extremely long championship droughts. The nature of the rivalry is unique; with the exception of the 1906 World Series, in which the White Sox upset the favored Cubs, the teams never met in an official game until , when interleague play was introduced. In the intervening time, the two teams sometimes met for exhibition games. An example of this volatile rivalry is the game played between the White Sox and the Chicago Cubs at U.S. Cellular Field on May 20, . White Sox catcher A. J. Pierzynski was running home on a sacrifice fly by center fielder Brian Anderson and smashed into Cubs catcher Michael Barrett, who was blocking home plate. Pierzynski lost his helmet in the collision, and slapped the plate as he rose. Barrett stopped him and, after exchanging a few words, punched Pierzynski in the face, causing a melee to ensue. Brian Anderson and Cubs first baseman John Mabry got involved in a separate confrontation, although it was later determined that Mabry was attempting to be a peacemaker. After ten minutes of conferring following the fight, the umpires ejected Pierzynski, Barrett, Anderson, and Mabry. As Pierzynski entered his dugout, he pumped his arms, causing the soldout crowd at U.S. Cellular Field to erupt in cheers. When play resumed, White Sox second baseman Tadahito Iguchi blasted a grand slam to put the White Sox up 5-0 on their way to a 7-0 win over their crosstown rivals. While there are other major league cities and metropolitan areas in which two teams co-exist, all of the others feature at least one team which began playing there in or later, whereas the White Sox and Cubs have been competing for their city's fans since 1901. The teams have competed fairly equally for local fans for much of their co-existence. Through 2005, the Cubs have drawn greater attendance 60 times, and the White Sox 45 times, but the difference is primarily a recent effect, as the White Sox have only outdrawn the Cubs twice since 1984 (1991-92, the first two years after the current ballpark opened). The Cubs' attendance advantage in the last two decades can partly be attributed to the fact that their games began being broadcast nationally on WGN in 1978, creating a national following for the team and establishing Wrigley Field as a tourist destination, while the White Sox only returned to WGN in 1990 after a 22-year absence. (The Tribune Company, parent company of WGN, purchased the Cubs in 1981. Additionally, far fewer White Sox games were initially shown on WGN after their return to the station.) Divisional The White Sox enjoy healthy divisional rivalries. The Detroit Tigers are led by former White Sox player Magglio Ordóñez. The Minnesota Twins are high profile rivals as well, with fans of both teams showing up to US Cellular Field in healthy numbers. Chicago's biggest and longest division rivals though, are the Cleveland Indians who always enjoy a large away contingent at U.S. Cellular Field. The rivalry first started upon the creation of the AL Central in 1994. On July 15, 1994 an umpire confiscated Albert Belle's bat, presuming that it was corked. They put it in the umpire's room at Comiskey Park. However, Indians pitcher Jason Grimsley climbed through the ceiling from the visitor's clubhouse and stole the bat. The theft was discovered and Belle was suspended; Grimsley later owed up to the theft. Belle further inflamed matters by spurning the Indians and signing a large free agent contract with the White Sox in 1997. Historical A historical regional rival was the St. Louis Browns. Through the 1953 season, the 2 teams were located pretty close to each other (including the 1901 season when the Browns were the Milwaukee Brewers), and could have been seen as the American League equivalent of the Cardinals–Cubs rivalry, being that Chicago and St. Louis have for years been connected by the same highway (U.S. Route 66 and now Interstate 55). The current Milwaukee Brewers franchise was also a primary White Sox rival, due the to proximity of the two cities, and with the teams competing in the same division for the 1970 and 1971 seasons, and then again from 1994-1997. The rivalry died down, however, when the Brewers moved to the National League in 1998. Mascots From 1981 until 1988, the White Sox employed a twosome, called Ribbie and Roobarb, as their team mascots. In the early 1990s the White Sox had a cartoon mascot named, 'Waldo The White Sox Wolf' that advertised the ‘Silver and Black Pack’, the team kid's club at the time. The team's current mascot is called SouthPaw. Quick facts Founded: 1893, as the Sioux City, Iowa franchise in the minor Western League. Moved to Saint Paul, Minnesota in 1895, then to Chicago in 1900 when that league was renamed the American League, and which became a major league in 1901. Formerly known as: Sioux City Cornhuskers, 1894. St. Paul Saints, 1895-1899. "White Sox". Home ballpark: U.S. Cellular Field, Chicago. (This park, originally known as "New Comiskey Park", was opened in 1991; the original Comiskey Park was in use from mid-1910 to 1990. The original home field in Chicago was South Side Park. The previous home field in St. Paul was Lexington Park). Uniform colors: Black, Silver, and White Logo design: the letters "SOX", interlocked in Old English Script font Current Team motto: Share The Passion. Show the Swagger. 2005 World Series Championship Season Motto: Grinder Rule No. 1, "Win or Die Trying" Fight Song: "Let's Go, Go-Go White Sox" by Captain Stubby and the Buccaneers All-time regular season record (through 2008): 8461 wins - 8256 losses - 101 ties - 3 no-decisions Local Television: Comcast SportsNet Chicago, WGN, WCIU Local Radio: WSCR 670AM "The Score" Mascot: Southpaw Television Announcers: Ken Harrelson, Steve Stone Radio Announcers: Ed Farmer, Darrin Jackson Rivals: Detroit Tigers, Chicago Cubs, Minnesota Twins, Cleveland Indians Spring Training Facility: Camelback Ranch, Glendale, Arizona Retired numbers The White Sox have retired nine numbers. <b>NellieFox2B: 1950-63Retired 1976<b>HaroldBainesRF:1980-89DH:1996-97,2000-01Coach:2004-Retired 1989<b>LukeApplingSS:1930-50Retired 1975<b>MinnieMiñosoLF:1951-57,60-61,76,80Retired 1983<b>LuisAparicioSS:1956-62,68-70Retired 1984<b>TedLyonsP:1923-46M:1946-48Retired 1983<b>BillyPierceP:1949-61Retired 1983<b>CarltonFiskC:1981-93Retired 1997<b>JackieRobinsonRetired by allof MLBRetired 1997| Baseball Hall of Famers Current roster Minor league affiliates AAA: Charlotte Knights, International League AA: Birmingham Barons, Southern League Advanced A: Winston-Salem Dash, Carolina League A: Kannapolis Intimidators, South Atlantic League Rookie-Advanced: Bristol White Sox, Appalachian League Rookie-Advanced: Great Falls Voyagers, Pioneer Baseball League Radio and television As of 2006, the White Sox' flagship radio station was WSCR, 670 AM, known to Chicago listeners as The Score. Starting in 2009, Ed Farmer (play-by-play) and Darrin "DJ" Jackson (color commentator) will be calling every White Sox game, with Jackson moving from TV to radio, and Steve Stone moving from radio to TV. Chris Rongey remains in the Chicago studios during broadcasts, where he hosts the pre- and post-game shows. Television broadcasts are split three ways: WGN (both the local feed and WGN America), WCIU-TV (a local independent station) and Comcast SportsNet Chicago. The announcers are the same wherever the game is televised: Ken "Hawk" Harrelson on play-by-play and Steve Stone on color. Occasionally, well-known former White Sox players such as "Black Jack" McDowell, Robin Ventura and Moose Skowron fill in as substitutes in the broadcast booth. In an interesting note, Harrelson left the booth in 1986 to become the White Sox' general manager. Inept in the front office, Harrelson was summarily fired from the front office at the conclusion of the 1986 campaign and returned to the booth for the 1990 season, where he has worked ever since. Games shown on WCIU are produced by WGN; the WGN logo on the time and score bug is replaced by "SoxNet." The games are filmed through TrioVideo of Chicago, IL. DVD Releases In May 2009, a DVD of Chicago White Sox Memories will be released, via Shout! Factory. It will include a complete history of the team, as well as interviews with some of the greatest White Sox players. See also Chicago White Sox all-time roster List of Chicago White Sox Nicknames -- list of colorful and memorable White Sox nicknames from past and present List of Chicago White Sox people White Sox award winners and league leaders White Sox statistical records and milestone achievements List of MLB franchise post-season droughts White Sox broadcasters and media White Sox managers and ownership White Sox-Cubs rivalry Disco Demolition Night - a notoriously failed 1979 promotion 2005 World Series 1959 World Series 1919 World Series 1917 World Series 1906 World Series References External links Official site of the Chicago White Sox Chicago White Sox history National Baseball Hall of Fame: Chicago White Sox Baseball-Reference.com: Chicago White Sox team index - year-by-year season records White Sox Interactive Chicago White Sox Video on ESPN Video Archive Championship Navigation Boxes
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3,119
Ball
A ball is a round object with various uses. It is usually spherical but can be ovoid. It is used in ball games, where the play of the game follows the state of the ball as it is hit, kicked or thrown by players. Balls can also be used for simpler activities, such as catch, marbles and juggling. Balls made from hard-wearing metal are used in engineering applications to provide very low friction bearings, known as ball bearings. Although many types of balls are today made from rubber, this form was unknown outside the Americas until after the voyages of Columbus. The Spanish were the first Europeans to see bouncing rubber balls (albeit solid and not inflated) which were employed most notably in the Mesoamerican ballgame. Balls used in various sports in other parts of the world prior to Columbus were made from other materials such as animal bladders or skins, stuffed with various materials. Etymology The first known use of the word ball in English in the sense of a globular body that is played with was in 1205 in in the phrase, "" The word came from the Middle English bal (inflected as ball-e, -es, in turn from Old Norse böllr (; compare Old Swedish baller, and Swedish boll) from Proto-Germanic ballu-z, (whence probably Middle High German bal, ball-es, Middle Dutch bal), a cognate with Old High German ballo, pallo, Middle High German balle from Proto-Germanic *ballon (weak masculine), and Old High German ballâ, pallâ, Middle High German balle, Proto-Germanic *ballôn (weak feminine). No Old English representative of any of these is known. (The answering forms in Old English would have been beallu, -a, -e -- compare bealluc, ballock.) If ball- was native in Germanic, it may have been a cognate with the Latin foll-is in sense of a "thing blown up or inflated." In the later Middle English spelling balle the word coincided graphically with the French balle "ball" and "bale" which has hence been erroneously assumed to be its source. French balle (but not boule) is assumed to be of Germanic origin, itself, however. Images See also Super Ball football (ball) Penny floater Prisoner Ball Shuttlecock Marbles Buckminster Fullerene "Bucky balls"
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3,120
Baltimore_Orioles
The Baltimore Orioles are a professional baseball team based in Baltimore, Maryland. They are a member of the Eastern Division of Major League Baseball's American League. Since , the Orioles have played their home games at Oriole Park at Camden Yards. The "Orioles" name refers to the official state bird of Maryland. Nicknames for the team include the O's and the Birds. One of the American League's eight charter franchises, it was established as a major league club in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in . The Milwaukee Brewers, as they were originally known, moved to St. Louis in and became the St. Louis Browns. After spending 52 years in St. Louis, the Browns moved to Baltimore in and adopted the Orioles name which had been used previously by various Baltimore baseball clubs. Milwaukee Brewers The modern Orioles franchise can trace its roots back to the original Milwaukee Brewers of the minor Western League, beginning in 1894 when the league reorganized. The Brewers were there when the WL renamed itself the American League in 1900. At the end of the 1900 season, the American League removed itself from baseball's National Agreement (the formal understanding between the NL and the minor leagues). Two months later, the AL declared itself a competing major league. As a result of several franchise shifts, the Brewers were one of only two Western League teams that didn't either fold or move (the other being the Detroit Tigers). During the first American League season in 1901, they finished last (8th place) with a record of 48–89. During its lone Major League season, the team played at Lloyd Street Grounds, between 16th and 18th Streets in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. St. Louis Browns In 1902 the team moved to St. Louis, where it became the "Browns," in reference to the original name of the 1880s club that by 1900 was known as the Cardinals. They even built a new park on the site of the old Browns' former home, Sportsman's Park. In their first St. Louis season, the Browns finished second. Although the Browns usually fielded terrible or mediocre teams (they had only four winning seasons from 1902 to 1922), they were very popular at the gate during their first two decades in St. Louis, and trounced the Cardinals in attendance. In , the Browns rebuilt Sportsman's Park as the third concrete-and-steel park in the majors. During this time, the Browns were best-known for their role in the race for the 1910 American League batting title. Ty Cobb took the last game of the season off, believing that his slight lead over Nap Lajoie would hold up unless Lajoie had a near-perfect day at the plate. However, Cobb was one of the most despised players in baseball, and Browns catcher-manager Jack O'Connor ordered third baseman Red Corriden to station himself in shallow left field for the season-ending doubleheader between the Browns and the Cleveland Naps. Lajoie bunted five straight times down the third base line and made it to first easily. On his last at-bat, Lajoie reached base on an error – officially giving him a hitless at-bat. O'Connor and coach Harry Howell tried to bribe the official scorer, a woman, to change the call to a hit – even offering to buy her a new wardrobe. Cobb won the batting title by just a few thousandths of a point over Lajoie (though it later emerged that one game may have been counted twice in the statistics). The resulting outcry triggered an investigation by American League president Ban Johnson. At his insistence, Browns owner Robert Lee Hedges BIOPROJ.SABR.ORG :: The Baseball Biography Project fired O'Connor and Howell; both men were informally banned from baseball for life. In 1916, Hedges sold the Browns to Philip DeCatesby Ball, who owned the St. Louis Terriers in the by-then-defunct Federal League. Four years later, Ball allowed the Cardinals to move out of dilapidated Robison Field and share Sportsman's Park with the Browns. This move was one of many that eventually doomed the Browns; Cardinals owner Sam Breadon and General Manager Branch Rickey (a former Browns manager) used the proceeds from the Robison Field sale to build baseball's first modern farm system. This effort eventually produced several star players that brought the Cardinals more drawing power than the Browns. The 1922 Browns excited their owner by almost beating the Yankees to a pennant. The club was boasting the best players in franchise history, including future Hall of Famer George Sisler and an outfield trio of Ken Williams, Baby Doll Jacobson, and Jack Tobin that batted .300 or better from 1919–23 and in 1925. In 1922, Williams became the first player in Major League history to hit 30 home runs and steal 30 bases in a season, something that would not be done again in the Majors until 1956. Ball confidently predicted that there would be a World Series in Sportsman's Park by 1926. In anticipation, he increased the capacity of his ballpark from 18,000 to 30,000. Ball was right, as there was a World Series in Sportsman's Park in 1926 – the Cardinals upset the Yankees. St. Louis had been considered a "Browns town" until then; after their 1926 series victory, however, the Cardinals dominated St. Louis baseball while still technically tenants of the Browns. Meanwhile, the Browns rapidly fell into the cellar. War Era During the war, the Browns won their only St. Louis-based American League pennant, in 1944. Some critics called it a fluke, as most major league stars voluntarily joined or were drafted into the military; however, many of the Browns' best players were classified 4-F: unfit for military service. They faced their local rivals, the incredibly successful Cardinals, in the 1944 World Series, the last World Series to date played entirely in one stadium. However, they lost the series in six games. In 1945, the Browns posted an 81–75 record and fell to third place, 6 games out, again with less than top-ranked talent. The 1945 season may be best remembered for the Browns' signing of utility outfielder Pete Gray, the only one-armed major league position player in history. 1945 proved to be the Browns' last hurrah; they would never have another winning season in St. Louis. In fact, 1944 and 1945 were two of only eight winning seasons they enjoyed in the 31 years after nearly winning the pennant in 1922. Veeck Era In 1951, Bill Veeck, the colorful former owner of the Cleveland Indians, purchased the Browns. In St. Louis, he extended the promotions and wild antics that had made him famous and loved by many and loathed by many others. His most notorious stunt in St. Louis came on August 19, 1951, when he sent Eddie Gaedel, a 3-foot 7-inch, 65-pound midget, to bat as a pinch hitter. When Gaedel stepped to the plate he was wearing a Browns uniform with the number 1/8, and little slippers turned up at the end like elf's shoes. With no strike zone to speak of, Gaedel walked on four straight pitches, as he was ordered to not swing at any pitch. The stunt infuriated American League President Will Harridge, who voided Gaedel's contract the next day. After the 1951 season, Veeck made Ned Garver the highest-paid member of the Browns. Garver remains the last pitcher to win 20 games for a team that lost 100 games in a season. He was the second pitcher in history to accomplish the feat. Veeck also brought Satchel Paige back to major league baseball to pitch for the Browns. Veeck had previously signed the former Negro League great to a contract in Cleveland in 1948 at age 42, amid much criticism. At 45, Paige's re-appearance in a Browns uniform did nothing to win Veeck friends among baseball's owners. Nonetheless, Paige ended the season with a respectable 3–4 record and a 4.79 ERA. Veeck believed that St. Louis was too small for two franchises and planned to drive the Cardinals out of town. He signed many of the Cardinals' most popular ex-players and, as a result, brought many of the Cards' fans in to see the Browns. Notably, Veeck inked former Cardinals great Dizzy Dean to a broadcasting contract and tapped Rogers Hornsby as manager. He also re-acquired former Browns fan favorite Vern Stephens and signed former Cardinals pitcher Harry Brecheen, both of whom had starred in the all-St. Louis World Series in 1944. Veeck also stripped Sportsman's Park of any Cardinals material and dressed it exclusively in Browns memorabilia, even moving his family to an apartment under the stands. Although the Browns fielded hideous teams during this time, Veeck's showmanship and colorful promotions made attendance at Browns games more fun and unpredictable than the conservative Cardinals were willing to offer. Veeck's all-out assault on the Cardinals came during a downturn in the Cardinals' fortunes after Rickey left them for the Brooklyn Dodgers in . Indeed, when Cardinals' owner Fred Saigh was convicted of massive tax evasion late in 1952, it looked almost certain that the Cardinals were leaving town, as most of the top bids came from non-St. Louis interests. However, Saigh accepted a much lower bid from Anheuser-Busch, whose president August Busch, Jr. immediately announced that he had no intention of moving the Cardinals. Veeck quickly realized the Cardinals now had more resources than he could ever hope to match and decided to move the Browns. Veeck attempted to move the Browns back to Milwaukee (where he had owned the Brewers of the American Association in the 1940s), but the move was blocked by the other American League owners, seemingly for reasons that were more personal than business-related. An undaunted Veeck then tried to move the Browns to Baltimore, but was again rebuffed by the owners, still seething at the publicity stunts he had pulled at Browns home games. Meanwhile, Sportsman's Park had slipped into disrepair, and Veeck was forced to sell it to the Cardinals since he could not afford to make the necessary improvements to bring it up to code. With his only leverage gone and facing threats of the liquidation of his franchise, Veeck was all but forced to sell the Browns to a group of Baltimore-based investors led by attorney Clarence Miles. With Veeck "out of the way," the American League owners quickly approved the relocation of the team to Baltimore for the 1954 season on September 29, 1953. Miles became the franchise's chairman of the board and president. Legacy Unlike other clubs that had relocated in the 1950s, retaining their nickname and a sense of continuity with their past (such as the Brooklyn-Los Angeles Dodgers, New York-San Francisco Giants, Boston-Milwaukee Braves, and Philadelphia-Kansas City Athletics), the St. Louis Browns were renamed the Baltimore Orioles upon their transfer, implicitly distancing themselves at least somewhat from their history. In December 1954, the Orioles further distanced themselves from their Browns past by making a 17-player trade with the New York Yankees that included most former Browns of note still on the Baltimore roster. Though the deal did little to improve the short-term competitiveness of the club, it helped establish a fresh identity for the Orioles franchise. Indeed, to this day, the Orioles make almost no mention of their past as the Browns. The Orioles finally cut the last ties to the Browns era in August 1979. In 1936, the Browns sold 20,000 shares of stock to the public at $5 a share--an unusual practice for a sports franchise even today. In 1979, new owner Edward Bennett Williams bought back those shares, making the franchise privately held once again. Although the buyout price is not known, it is assumed that given the Orioles' prosperity over their then 25 years in Baltimore, the owners made a handsome return on their investment. The Browns, along with the Washington Senators, were mostly associated with losing, as both franchises seemed to be the American League's perennial doormats. The Senators became the butt of a well-known vaudeville joke, "First in war, first in peace, and last in the American League" (a twist on the famous "Light Horse Harry" Lee eulogy for George Washington: "First in war, first in peace and first in the hearts of his countrymen"). A spin-off joke was coined for the Browns: "First in shoes, first in booze, and last in the American League." Many older fans in St. Louis remember the Browns fondly, and some have formed societies to keep the memory of the team alive; also, it is not uncommon to see sporting goods stores in the St. Louis area stock Browns shirts and hats. The club was in St. Louis for 52 years. As of the 2006 season, the club had been in Baltimore longer than they were in St. Louis. Believed to be the oldest former major leaguer, the Browns' Rollie Stiles, 100, died July 22, 2007 in St. Louis County. http://sports.aol.com/moresports/story/_a/ex-brown-stiles-dies-at-100-was-oldest/n20070723110709990028 AP Sports, retrieved 2007-07-23 Baltimore Orioles As mentioned above, the Miles-Hofberger group renamed their new team the Baltimore Orioles soon after taking control of the franchise. The name has a rich history in Baltimore, having been used by Baltimore baseball teams since the late 19th century. In the 1890s, a powerful and innovative National League Orioles squad included several future Hall of Famers, such as "Wee" Willie Keeler, Wilbert Robinson, Hughie Jennings, and John McGraw. They won three straight pennants, and participated in all four of the Temple Cup Championship Series, winning the last two of them. That team had started as a charter member of the American Association in 1882. Despite its on-field success, it was one of the four teams contracted out of existence by the National League after the 1899 season. Its best players (and its manager, Ned Hanlon) regrouped with the Brooklyn Dodgers, turning that team into a contender. In 1901, Baltimore and McGraw were awarded an expansion franchise in the growing American League, but again the team was sacrificed in favor of a New York City franchise, as the team was transferred to the city in 1903. After some early struggles, that team eventually became baseball's most successful franchise - the New York Yankees. As a member of the high-minor league level International League, the Orioles competed at what is now known as the AAA level from 1903–1953. Baltimore's own Babe Ruth pitched for the Orioles before being sold to the AL Boston Red Sox in 1914. The Orioles of the IL won nine league championships, first in 1908, followed by a lengthy run from 1919 to 1925, and then dramatically in 1944, after they had lost their home field Oriole Park in a disastrous mid-season fire. The huge post-season crowds at their temporary home, Municipal Stadium, caught the attention of the big league brass and helped open the door to the return of major league baseball to Baltimore. Thanks to the big stadium, that "Junior World Series" easily outdrew the major league World Series which, coincidentally, included the team that would move to Baltimore ten years later and take up occupancy in the rebuilt version of the big stadium. Seeds of success (1954–1959) After starting the 1954 campaign with a two-game split against the Tigers in Detroit, the Orioles returned to Baltimore on April 15 to a welcoming parade that wound through the streets of downtown, with an estimated 350,000 spectators lining the route. In its first-ever home opener at Memorial Stadium later in the afternoon, they treated a sellout crowd of 46,354 to a 3–1 victory over the Chicago White Sox. The remainder of the season wouldn't be as pleasant, with the team enduring 100 losses while avoiding the AL cellar by only three games. With fellow investors both frustrated with his domination of the franchise's business operations and dissatisfied with yet another seventh place finish, Clarence Miles resigned in early November, 1955. Real estate developer James Keelty Jr. succeeded him as president with investment banker Joseph Iglehart the new board chairman. The seeds of long-term success were planted on September 14, 1954 when the Orioles hired Paul Richards to become the ballclub's manager and general manager. He laid the foundation for what would years later be called the Oriole Way. The instruction of baseball fundamentals became uniform in every detail between all classes within the organization. Players were patiently refined until fundamentally sound instead of being hastily advanced to the next level. For the remainder of the 1950s, the Orioles crawled up the standings, reaching as high as fifth place with a 76–76 record in 1957. Richards succeeded in stocking the franchise with a plethora of young talent which included Dave Nicholson, Pete Ward, Ron Hansen (1960 AL Rookie of the Year), Milt Pappas, Jerry Adair, Steve Barber (20 wins in 1963), Boog Powell, Dave McNally and Brooks Robinson. Unfortunately, Richards also had the tendency to recklessly spend money on individuals with dubious baseball skills. This became a major problem as bidding wars between the ballclubs to land the best amateur players escalated signing bonuses. The solution came on November 5, 1958 when Lee MacPhail was appointed general manager, allowing Richards to focus on his managerial duties. MacPhail added much needed discipline to the scouting staff by establishing cross-checkers who thoroughly evaluated young hopefuls to determine whether they were worthy of being tendered a contract. He also accepted the title of president after Keelty resigned in mid-December, 1959. Pennant contenders (1960–1965) One month prior to the end of the 1961 season, Richards resigned as the team's skipper to become the general manager of the expansion Houston Colt 45s. A year earlier, he succeeded in establishing the Orioles as a legitimate contender when they stood atop the AL standings as late as early September before finishing in second place at 89–65. In 1964, the Birds, piloted by Hank Bauer in his first year of managing the ballclub, were involved in a tight pennant race against the Yankees and White Sox. They ended up in third with a 97–65 record, only two games out. It has been suggested that they would likely have advanced to the Fall Classic had it not been for a minor wrist injury that sidelined Powell for two weeks in late August. Halberstam, David. October 1964. New York: Villard Books, 1994. Nevertheless, Robinson enjoyed a breakout season with a league-high 118 runs batted in (RBI) and winning the AL Most Valuable Player Award. CBS' purchase of a majority stake in the Yankees on September 9 of that same year resulted in a change to the ownership situation in Baltimore. Iglehart, the Orioles' largest shareholder at 32% and owner of a sizable amount of CBS stock, straightened out his conflict of interest issues on May 25, 1965 by selling his 64,000 shares in the ballclub to the National Brewing Company, an original team investor which finally had controlling interest at 65%. Brewery president Jerold Hoffberger became the Orioles' new chairman of the board. With the benefit of a deep talent pool and superior scouts, the franchise continued to make improvements at the major league level. Three months before the start of the 1963 season, the Orioles stabilized its infield by acquiring Luis Aparicio in a transaction that involved sending a trio of homegrown players (Hansen, Nicholson and Ward) to the White Sox. They also scoured the minor leagues for selections in the Rule 5 draft (Paul Blair from the Mets in 1962, Moe Drabowsky from the Cardinals in 1965) and claims off waivers (Curt Blefary, 1965 AL Rookie of the Year, from the Yankees in 1963). Milt Pappas for Frank Robinson On December 9, 1965, the Orioles traded pitcher Milt Pappas (and several others) to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for slugging outfielder Frank Robinson. The following year, Robinson won the American League Most Valuable Player award, thus becoming the first (and so far only) man to win the MVP in each league (Robinson won the NL MVP in 1961, leading the Reds to the pennant). In addition to winning the 1966 MVP, Robinson also won the Triple Crown (leading the American League in batting average, home runs, and runs batted in.) The Orioles won their first ever American League championship in 1966, and in a major upset, swept the World Series by out-dueling the Los Angeles Dodgers aces Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale. The only home run ball ever hit completely out of Memorial Stadium was slugged by Robinson on Mother's Day in 1966, off Cleveland Indians pitcher Luis Tiant. It cleared the left field single-deck portion of the grandstand. A flag was later erected near the spot the ball cleared the back wall, with simply the word "HERE" upon it. The flag is now in the Baltimore Orioles museum. Pappas went 30–29 in a little over two years with the Reds before being traded. Although he would go on to have back-to-back 17-win seasons for the Chicago Cubs in 1971 and 1972, including a no-hitter in the latter season, this did not help the Reds, who ended up losing the 1970 World Series to Robinson and the Orioles. This trade has become renowned as one of the most lopsided in baseball history, including a mention by Susan Sarandon in her opening soliloquy in the 1988 film Bull Durham: "Bad trades are a part of baseball. I mean, who can forget Frank Robinson for Milt Pappas?" Glory Years (1966–1983) In the 1960s, the Orioles farm system produced a number of high-quality players and coaches and laid the foundation for two decades of on-field success. This period included eighteen consecutive winning seasons (1968–1985)-- an unprecedented run of success which saw the Orioles become the envy of the league, and the winningest team in baseball. During this period, the Orioles played baseball the Oriole Way, an organizational ethic best described by longtime farm hand and coach Cal Ripken, Sr.'s phrase "perfect practice makes perfect!" The Oriole Way was a belief that hard work, professionalism, and a strong understanding of fundamentals were the keys to success at the major league level. It was based on the belief that if every coach, at every level, taught the game the same way, the organization could produce "replacement parts" that could be substituted seamlessly into the big league club with little or no adjustment. It began in 1966 after the Robinson for Pappas deal as Robinson won the Triple Crown Award. His Orioles would easily sweep the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 1966 World Series. After a mediocre 1967 season, Hank Bauer would be replaced by Earl Weaver halfway into 1968. The Orioles would finish 2nd in the American League. This would only be a prelude to 1969 where the Orioles won 109 games and easily won the newly-created American League East division title. Mike Cuellar shared the Cy Young Award with Detroit's Denny McLain. After sweeping Minnesota in the American League Championship Series, Baltimore was shocked by losing to the New York Mets in a five-game World Series. The next year, Boog Powell won the MVP and the Orioles won another 108 games. After sweeping the Twins once again in the ALCS, the Orioles win the 1970 World Series by defeating the Cincinnati Reds' Big Red Machine. In 1971, the Orioles won another division title thanks to having four 20-game winners on their pitching staff (Cuellar, Jim Palmer, Pat Dobson, and Dave McNally). After defeating the young Oakland A's in the ALCS, the Orioles would lose a heartbreaking seven-game World Series to the Pittsburgh Pirates. The Orioles would miss the playoffs in 1972, but rebounded to win the division in 1973 and 1974. Each time, they would lose to Oakland in the ALCS. During this stretch, the Orioles began to phase out their veteran infield by replacing Davey Johnson and Brooks Robinson with younger stars Bobby Grich and Doug DeCinces, respectively. Johnson would be dealt along with Johnny Oates to the Atlanta Braves for catcher Earl Williams. Although Williams would hit 63 home runs in two seasons with Atlanta, he would only hit 36 homers in two seasons with the Orioles. In 1975, Jim Palmer won the Cy Young Award, but the Orioles lost the division title to the Boston Red Sox and their mega-rookies Fred Lynn and Jim Rice. The 1976 season brought Reggie Jackson, Ken Holtzman, and Lee May from trades with Oakland and Houston, but the Orioles only won 83 games. It was this season when the Orioles made a trade that brought them players such as Tippy Martinez and Rick Dempsey. This young foundation, along with the departures of the unhappy Jackson and Holtzman, would create the basis for 1977. The "No Name Orioles," along with Rookie of the Year Eddie Murray won 97 games and finished tied for second place with Boston. After finishing fourth in 1978, the Orioles finally won the division in 1979 thanks to strong play from Ken Singleton and Cy Young Winner Mike Flanagan. The Orioles defeated the Angels in the ALCS, but they lost to Pittsburgh in another stunning World Series. This started a period of heartbreak for Baltimore. The Orioles won 100 games in 1980 thanks to Cy Young Winner Steve Stone, but the Yankees won 103 games. Although Baltimore had the best overall record in the AL East in 1981, they finished second in each half. As a result, they were out of the playoffs. 1982 had Baltimore eliminated on the final weekend of the season when the Milwaukee Brewers defeated them. Earl Weaver retired and Joe Altobelli took over for 1983. Altobelli would lead the Orioles to 98 games and a division title thanks to MVP Cal Ripken, Jr.. The Orioles defeated the Chicago White Sox in the ALCS thanks to a 10th-inning homer by Tito Landrum in the deciding game. The Orioles won the World Series in 5 games by defeating the Philadelphia Phillies. During this stretch, three different Orioles were named Most Valuable Player (Frank Robinson in 1966; Boog Powell in 1970; and Cal Ripken, Jr. in 1983). The pitching staff was phenomenal, with four pitchers winning six Cy Young Awards (Mike Cuellar in 1969; Jim Palmer in 1973, 1975, and 1976; Mike Flanagan in 1979; and Steve Stone in 1980). In 1971, the team's four starting pitchers, McNally, Cuellar, Palmer, and Pat Dobson, all won 20 games, a feat that has not been replicated since. In that year, the Birds went on to post a 101–61 record for their third straight AL East title. Baltimore Orioles (1954-Present) Also during this stretch three players were named rookies of the year: Al Bumbry (1973), Eddie Murray (1977), Cal Ripken Jr. (1982). Final seasons at Memorial Stadium (1984–1991) After winning the 1983 World Series, the Orioles spent the next five years in steady decline, finishing 1986 in last place for the first time since the franchise moved to Baltimore. The team hit bottom in 1988 when it started the season 0–21, en route to 107 losses and the worst record in the majors. The Orioles surprised the baseball world the following year by spending most of the summer in first place until September when the Toronto Blue Jays overtook them and seized the A.L. East title on the final weekend of the regular season. The next two years were spent below the .500 mark, highlighted only by Cal Ripken, Jr. winning his second A.L. MVP Award in 1991. The Orioles bade farewell to Memorial Stadium, its home for 38 years, at the end of the 1991 campaign. Camden Yards opens (1992–1993) Opening to huge fanfare in 1992, Oriole Park at Camden Yards was an instant success, spawning other retro-designed major league ballparks within the next two decades. It was where the 1993 All-Star Game was played. The Orioles returned to contention in those first two seasons at Camden Yards, only to finish in third place both times. Also in 1993, with then-owner Eli Jacobs forced to divest himself of the franchise, Baltimore-based attorney Peter Angelos was awarded the Orioles in bankruptcy court, returning the team to local ownership for the first time since 1979. Strike year (1994) After the 1993 season, the Orioles acquired first baseman Rafael Palmeiro from the Texas Rangers. The Orioles, who spent all of 1994 chasing the New York Yankees, occupied second place in the new five-team AL East when the players strike, which began on August 11, forced the eventual cancellation of the season. Ripken breaks the streak (1995) The labor impasse would continue into the spring of 1995. Almost all of the major league clubs held spring training using replacement players, with the intention of beginning the season with them. The Orioles, whose owner was a labor union lawyer, were the lone dissenters against creating an ersatz team, choosing instead to sit out spring training and possibly the entire season. Had they fielded a substitute team, Cal Ripken, Jr.'s consecutive games streak would have been jeopardized. The replacements questions became moot when the strike was finally settled. The Ripken countdown resumed once the season began. Ripken finally broke Lou Gehrig's consecutive games streak of 2,130 games in a nationally televised game on September 6. This was later voted the all-time baseball moment of the 20th century by fans from around the country in 1999. Ripken finished with 2,632 straight games, finally sitting on September 20, 1998 against the Yankees at Camden Yards. The Orioles finished two games under .500 in third place in Phil Regan's only season of managing the ballclub. Playoff years (1996–1997) 1996 Before the 1996 season, Angelos hired Pat Gillick as the Orioles' general manager. Given the green light by his boss to spend heavily on established talent, Gillick signed several premium players like B.J. Surhoff, Randy Myers, David Wells and Roberto Alomar. Under new manager Davey Johnson and on the strength of a then-major league record 257 home runs in a single season, the Orioles returned to the playoffs after a twelve-year absence by clinching the A.L. wild card berth. Alomar set off a firestorm in September when he spat into home plate umpire John Hirschbeck's face during an argument in Toronto. He was later suspended for the first five games of the 1997 season, even though most wanted him banned from the postseason. After dethroning the defending A.L. Champion Cleveland Indians 3–1 in the Division Series, the Orioles fell to the Yankees 4–1 in an ALCS infamous for right field umpire Rich Garcia's failure to call fan interference in Game 1. 1997 The Orioles went "wire-to-wire" (first place from start to finish) in winning the A.L. East title in 1997. After eliminating the Seattle Mariners 3–1 in the Division Series, the team lost again in the ALCS, this time to the underdog Indians 4–2, with each Oriole loss by only a run. Johnson resigned as manager after the season, largely due to a spat between him and Angelos concerning Alomar's fine for missing a team function being donated to Johnson's wife's charity. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/sports/orioles/longterm/memories/davey/articles/poorcomm.htm Pitching coach Ray Miller replaced Johnson. Beginning of a downturn (1998–1999) 1998 With Miller at the helm, the Orioles found themselves not only out of the playoffs, but also with a losing season. When Gillick's contract expired in 1998, it was not renewed. Angelos brought in Frank Wren to take over as GM. The Orioles added volatile slugger Albert Belle, but the team's woes continued in the 1999 season, with stars like Rafael Palmeiro, Roberto Alomar, and Eric Davis leaving in free agency. After a second straight losing season, Angelos fired both Miller and Wren. He named Syd Thrift the new GM and brought in former Cleveland manager Mike Hargrove. 1999 In a rare event on March 28, 1999, the Orioles staged an exhibition game against the Cuban national team in Havana. The Orioles won the game 3–2 in 11 innings. They were the first Major League team to play in Cuba since 1959, when the Los Angeles Dodgers faced the Orioles in an exhibition. The game was part of a two-game series, where the Cuban team visited Baltimore in May 1999. Cuba won the second game 10–6. Downfall of the Orioles (2000–present) Going into the 2009 season, the Orioles have had eleven consecutive sub–.500 seasons. Further complicating the situation for the Orioles was the relocation of the Montreal Expos franchise to nearby Washington, D.C.. The new Washington Nationals threatened to carve into the Orioles fan base and television dollars. Fortunately for the Orioles, Angelos owns MASN, which hosts all of the Nationals television games, effectively combining two teams' television revenue to support the Orioles. Neither organization has fielded a team that finished over .500 since the Nationals' arrival in 2005. 2003–2004 In an effort to right the Orioles' sinking ship, changes began to sweep through the organization in 2003. General manager Syd Thrift was fired and to replace him, the Orioles hired Jim Beattie as executive vice-president and Mike Flanagan as the vice president of baseball operations. After another losing season, manager Mike Hargrove was not retained and Yankees coach Lee Mazzilli was brought in as the new manager. The team signed powerful hitters in SS Miguel Tejada, C Javy López, and former Oriole 1B Rafael Palmeiro. The following season, the Orioles traded for OF Sammy Sosa. 2005 The team got hot early in 2005 and jumped out in front of the AL East division, holding onto first place for 62 straight days. However, turmoil on and off the field began to take its toll as the Orioles started struggling around the All-Star break, dropping them close to the surging Yankees and Red Sox. Injuries to Lopez, Sosa, Luis Matos, Brian Roberts, and Larry Bigbie came within weeks of each other, and the team grew increasingly dissatisfied with the "band-aid" moves of the front office and manager Mazzilli to help them through this period of struggle. Various minor league players such as Single-A Frederick OF Jeff Fiorentino were brought up in place of more experienced players such as OF David Newhan, who had batted .311 the previous season. Palmeiro downfall In March 2005, Rafael Palmeiro testified in front of Congress and clearly denied any allegations that he had used steroids. On July 15, 2005, Palmeiro collected his 3,000th hit in Seattle and became only the 4th player to amass 500 HR's and 3,000 hits (the others being Hank Aaron, Willie Mays, and Eddie Murray). Fifteen days later, Palmeiro was suspended for a violation of MLB's drug policy after testing positive for the anabolic steroid stanozolol. The Orioles continued tumbling, falling out of first place and further down the AL East standings. This downfall cost Mazzilli his managerial job in early August, allowing bench coach and 2003 managerial candidate Sam Perlozzo to take over as interim manager and lead the team to a 23–32 finish. The Orioles called up Dave Cash from the Ottawa Lynx to serve as the team's first base coach. Collapse of the season After starting the season 42–28 (.600), the Orioles finished just 32–60 (.348). Only the Kansas City Royals (.346) had a worse winning percentage for the season than did the Orioles for the final 92 games. The club's major offseason acquisition, Sammy Sosa, posted his worst performance in a decade, with 14 home runs and a .221 batting average. The Orioles did not attempt to re-sign him. The Orioles also allowed Palmeiro to file for free agency and publicly stated they would not re-sign him. On August 25, pitcher Sidney Ponson was arrested for DUI and on September 1, the Orioles moved to void his contract (on a morals clause) and released him. The Major League Baseball Players Association filed a grievance on Ponson's behalf and the case was sent to arbitration and was eventually resolved. 2006–2007 seasons The Orioles finished the 2006 season with a record of 70 wins and 92 losses, 27 games behind the AL East-leading Yankees. On June 18, 2007, the Orioles fired Sam Perlozzo after losing eight straight games. He was replaced on interim basis by Dave Trembley. On June 22, Miguel Tejada's consecutive-games streak came to an end due to an injury, the fifth-longest streak in major league history. Aubrey Huff became the first Oriole to hit for the cycle at home on June 29 against the Angels. On July 7, Erik Bedard struck out 15 batters in a game against the Texas Rangers tying a franchise record held by Mike Mussina. On July 31, 2007, Andy MacPhail named Dave Trembley as the Orioles manager through the remainder of the 2007 season, and advised him to "Keep up the good work." Yahoo! Sports - Sports News, Scores, Rumors, Fantasy Games, and more Facing the Texas Rangers at Camden Yards on August 22, the Orioles surrendered thirty runs--a modern era record for a single game--in a 30–3 defeat. The Orioles led the game 3–0 after three innings of play. Sixteen of Texas' thirty runs were scored in the final two innings. 2008 season The Orioles began the 2008 season in a rebuilding mode under GM Andy MacPhail. The Orioles traded away star players Miguel Tejada to the Astros and ace Erik Bedard to the Seattle Mariners for prized prospect Adam Jones, lefty reliever George Sherrill, and minor league pitchers Kameron Mickolio, Chris Tillman, and Tony Butler. The Orioles started off the first couple weeks of the season near the top of their division as players such as Nick Markakis and newcomer Luke Scott led the team offensively. Although the Orioles hovered around .500 for much of the season, they had fallen back by September and were over twenty games behind the first place Rays. They finished the season losing 11 of their final 12 games and 28 of their final 34. The team finished last for the first time since their 1988 season. After the season ended, the Orioles showcased altered uniforms, with a circular 'Maryland' patch added to the right-hand sleeve of all jerseys and the grey road jerseys displaying Baltimore across the chest for the first time since 1972. World Baseball Classic In the 2006 World Baseball Classic, the Orioles contributed more players than any other major league team, with eleven players suiting up for their home nations. Erik Bedard and Adam Loewen pitched for Canada; Rodrigo López and Geronimo Gil (released before the season began by the club) played for Mexico; Daniel Cabrera and Miguel Tejada for the Dominican Republic; Javy López and Luis Matos for Puerto Rico; Bruce Chen for Panama; Ramon Hernandez for Venezuela; and John Stephens for Australia. Quick facts Founded: 1894, as the Milwaukee, Wisconsin franchise in the minor Western League. In 1900, that league became the American League, which achieved major league status in 1901. The original Baltimore Orioles of the American League moved to become the New York Yankees. Formerly known as: Milwaukee Brewers, 1894–1901. St. Louis Browns, 1902–1953. Home ballpark: Oriole Park at Camden Yards 1992–present Prior home parks: Memorial Stadium (Baltimore) 1954–1991, Sportsman's Park (St. Louis) 1902–1953, Lloyd Street Grounds (Milwaukee) 1901 Team Colors: Orange, Black, White (1954 through present) Logo design: An oriole bird; the Baltimore Oriole is the official Maryland state bird Playoff appearances (11): 1944, 1966, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1983, 1996, 1997 Spring Training Facility: Fort Lauderdale Stadium, Fort Lauderdale, FL Radio and television Current Radio Orioles games are broadcast on a 20-station radio network in Maryland and nearby states, anchored by flagship station WJZ-FM (105.7 MHz). Fred Manfra, and Joe Angel alternate radio announcing duties. Television As part of the settlement of a television broadcast rights dispute with Comcast SportsNet over the Washington Nationals, the Orioles severed their Comcast ties at the end of the 2006 season. All Orioles' games are now televised on the Orioles-controlled Mid-Atlantic Sports Network (MASN), with some games also airing locally on WJZ-TV (ch. 13). Longtime sportscaster Gary Thorne, who is also recognized for his work as a hockey announcer, is the current television announcer for the Orioles, Hall of Fame former Orioles pitcher Jim Palmer, former Orioles catcher Rick Dempsey, and former major leaguer Buck Martinez. Some MASN telecasts in conflict with Washington Nationals' game telecasts air on an alternate MASN2 feed. All Oriole games are televised, as their non-MASN games are televised by ESPN, FOX, or TBS. Former Four former Oriole franchise radio announcers have received the Hall of Fame's Ford C. Frick Award for excellence in broadcasting: Chuck Thompson (who was also the voice of the old NFL Baltimore Colts), Ernie Harwell, Herb Carneal and Harry Caray (as a St. Louis Browns announcer in the 1940s. PaperofRecord.com: The Sporting News, 1886-2003, March 22, 1945, p. 16. ). Other former Baltimore announcers include ESPN's Jon Miller, FOX's Josh Lewin, the late Bill O'Donnell, and Baltimore radio veteran Tom Marr, who called the games during the "Oriole Magic" years on the old WFBR-AM (now WJZ). In 1991, the Orioles experimented with longtime TV writer/producer Ken Levine as a play-by-play broadcaster. Levine was best noted for his work on TV shows such as Cheers and M*A*S*H, but only lasted one season in the Orioles broadcast booth. Other previous flagship radio stations include WBAL (1090 kHz AM) from 1987–2006, the now–defunct WFBR (1300 kHz AM) from 1979 through 1986, and a brief period with WCBM (680 kHz AM) for the 1987 season. Previous to 1979, WBAL had been the flagship station. Former Oriole television broadcasters include: Thompson, Miller, former Baltimore Ravens broadcaster Scott Garceau, longtime versatile sportscaster Mel Proctor, former Cleveland Cavaliers broadcaster Michael Reghi, as well as former Oriole players including Hall of Fame third baseman Brooks Robinson, former pitcher Mike Flanagan, and former outfielder John Lowenstein. Previous Baltimore television flagship stations have included: WMAR-TV (Channel 2) and WNUV-TV (Channel 54), as well as regional cable network Home Team Sports (HTS) which eventually evolved into Comcast SportsNet. Rex Barney For 23 years, Rex Barney was the PA announcer for the Orioles. His voice became a fixture of both Memorial Stadium and Camden Yards, and his expression "Give that fan a contract," uttered whenever a fan caught a foul ball, was one of his trademarks – the other being his distinct "Thank Yooooou..." following every announcement (He was also known on occasion to say "Give that fan an error" after a dropped foul ball). Rex Barney died on August 12, 1997, and in his honor that night's game at Camden Yards was held without a public–address announcer. AUGUST, 1997 | BaseballLibrary.com Season-by-Season Records Post-season appearances Of the eight original American League teams, the Orioles were the last of the eight to win the World Series, doing so in 1966 with its four–game sweep of the heavily favored Los Angeles Dodgers. When the Orioles were the St. Louis Browns, they played in only one World Series, the 1944 matchup against their Sportsman's Park tenants, the Cardinals. YearALDSALCSWorld Series1944 (St. Louis)St. Louis CardinalsL1966 (Baltimore)Los Angeles DodgersW1969Minnesota TwinsWNew York MetsL1970Minnesota TwinsWCincinnati RedsW1971Oakland AthleticsWPittsburgh PiratesL1973Oakland AthleticsL1974Oakland AthleticsL1979California AngelsWPittsburgh PiratesL1983Chicago White SoxWPhiladelphia PhilliesW1996Cleveland IndiansWNew York YankeesL1997Seattle MarinersWCleveland IndiansL Baseball Hall of Famers Retired numbers <center> {| class="wikitable" style="font-style:bold; font-size:120%; border:3px" cellpadding="3" |-align="center" bgcolor="white" |EarlWeaverManagerRetired 1982 |BrooksRobinson3BRetired 1977 |CalRipken, Jr.SS, 3BRetired 2001 |FrankRobinsonRF, MgrRetired 1972 |JimPalmerPRetired 1985 |EddieMurray1BRetired 1998 |JackieRobinson†2BRetired 1997 |- |} </center>Note: Cal Ripken Sr.'s number 7 and Elrod Hendricks' number 44 have not been retired, but a moratorium has been placed on them and they have not been issued by the team since their deaths. †Jackie Robinson's number 42 is retired throughout Major League Baseball Current roster Minor League Affiliates AAA: Norfolk Tides, International League AA: Bowie Baysox, Eastern League Advanced A: Frederick Keys, Carolina League A: Delmarva Shorebirds, South Atlantic League Short A: Aberdeen IronBirds, New York-Penn League Rookie-Advanced: Bluefield Orioles, Appalachian League Rookie: Gulf Coast Orioles, Gulf Coast League Rookie: Dominican Summer Orioles, Dominican Summer League Rookie:' Dominican Summer Orioles/Brewers, Dominican Summer League See also Orioles statistical records and milestone achievements List of Baltimore Orioles broadcasters Managers and ownership of the Baltimore Orioles AL Wild Card winners (since 1994) Baltimore Orioles all-time roster Wild Bill Hagy References External links Waldman, Ed. "Sold! Angelos scored with '93 home run," The Baltimore Sun, August 1, 2004. Bibliography Bready, James H. The Home Team. 4th ed. Baltimore: 1984. Eisenberg, John. From 33rd Street to Camden Yards. New York: Contemporary Books, 2001. Hawkins, John C. This Date in Baltimore Orioles & St. Louis Browns History. Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein & Day, 1983. Miller, James Edward. The Baseball Business. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1990. Patterson, Ted. The Baltimore Orioles''. Dallas: Taylor Publishing Co., 1994. World Series Championship Navigation Boxes
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History_of_Oman
Nakhal Fort, one of the best-preserved forts in Oman. Prehistory Antiquity Asia in 600 B.C., showing the Sassanid Empire. Achaemenid (6th to 4th century B.C.), an Iranian dynasty controlled and/or influenced over the Oman peninsula. This controlled and/or influenced was most likely exerted from a coastal center such as Sohar. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East - Page 186 by Eric M. Meyers From the third century B.C. to arrival of Islam in the seventh century A.D., Oman was controlled by other two Iranian dynasties, Parthians and Sassanids. During this period Oman's administrative name was Mazun. By about 250 B.C., Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. Because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons in Oman. In the third century A.D., the Sasanids succeeded the Parthians and held area until the rise of Islam four centuries later. This agricultural and military contact gave people exposure to Persian culture, as reflected in certain irrigation techniques still used in Oman. Bahrain By Federal Research Division, page 7 Early Islamic period The Age of the Caliphs Oman adopted Islam in the 7th century A.D., during the lifetime of the prophet Muhammad. Ibadism became the dominant religious sect in Oman by the 8th century A.D. Oman is the only country in the Islamic world with a majority Ibadi population. Ibadhism is known for its "moderate conservatism." One distinguishing fe ature of Ibadism is the choice of ruler by communal consensus and consent. Until 1970 the political title for the nation's rulers was "Sultan of Muscat and Oman", implying two historically irreconcilable political cultures: the coastal tradition, the more cosmopolitan, secular, Muscat tradition of the coast ruled by the sultan; and the interior tradition of insularity, tribal in origin and ruled by an imam according to the ideological tenets of Ibadism. The more cosmopolitan has been the ascending political culture since the founding of the Al Said dynasty in 1744, although the imamate tradition has found intermittent expression. A Country Study: Oman, chapter 6 Oman - Government and Politics, section: Historical Patterns of Governance. US Library of Congress, 1993. Retrieved 2006-10-28 Several millennia ago, Arab tribes migrated eastward to Oman, coinciding with the increasing presence in the region of peoples from present-day Iran. In the sixth century, Arabs succeeded in repelling encroachments of these ethnic groups; the conversion of Arab tribes to Islam in the seventh century resulted in the displacement of the settlers from Iran. The introduction of Ibadism vested power in the imam, the leader nominated by the ulema. The imam's position was confirmed when the imam—having gained the allegiance of the tribal sheiks—received the bay'ah (oath of allegiance) from the public. In 751 Ibadi Muslims, a moderate branch of the Kharijites, established an imamate in Oman. Despite interruptions, the Ibadi imamate survived until the mid-20th century. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561099_7/Oman.html#s28 Fourth line down from the top of the history section: "In 751 Ibadi Muslims, a moderate branch of the Kharijites, established an imamate in Oman. Despite interruptions, the Ibadi imamate survived until the mid-20th century.". But Oman was nonetheless conquered by several foreign powers; Oman was controlled by the Qarmatians between 931-932 and then again between 933-934. Between 967 and 1053, Oman was part of the domain of the Iranian Buyyids, and between 1053 and 1154, Oman was part of the Great Seljuk empire. In 1154, the indigenous Nabhani dynasty took control of Oman, and the Nabhani kings ruled Oman until 1470, with an interruption of 37 years between 1406 and 1443. Muscat was taken by the Portuguese on 1 April 1515, and was held until 26 January 1650, although the Ottomans controlled Muscat between 1550-1551 and 1581-1588. In about the year 1600, Nabhani rule was temporarily restored to Oman, although that lasted only to 1624, when fifth imamate, which is also known as the Yarubid Imamate. The Yarubid Imamate, recaptured Muscat from the Portuguese in 1650 after a colonial presence on the northeastern coast of Oman dating to 1508. The Yarubid dynasty expanded, acquiring former Portuguese colonies in East Africa and engaging in the slave trade. By 1719 dynastic succession led to the nomination of Saif ibn Sultan II. His candidacy prompted a rivalry among the ulama and a civil war between the two major tribes, the Hinawi and the Ghafiri, with the Ghafiri supporting Saif ibn Sultan II. He assumed power in 1748 after the leaders of both factions had been killed in battle, but the rivalry continued, with the factionalization working in favor of the Iranians, who occupied Muscat and Sohar in 1743. The Iranians had occupied the coast before—indeed the coast was often the possession of various empires. These empires brought order to the religious and ethnic diversity of the population of this cosmopolitan region. Yet the intervention on behalf of an unpopular dynasty brought about a revolt. The leader of the revolt, Ahmad ibn Said al Said, was elected sultan of Muscat upon the expulsion of the Persians. The position of Sultan of Muscat would remain in the possession of the Al Said clan even when the imamate of Oman remained out of reach. The Al Said clan became a royal dynasty when Ahmad ibn Said Al Said was elected imam following the expulsion of the Iranians from Muscat in 1744. Like its predecessors, Al Said dynastic rule has been characterized by a history of internecine family struggle, fratricide, and usurpation. Apart from threats within the ruling family, there was the omnipresent challenge from the independent tribes of the interior who rejected the authority of the sultan, recognizing the imam as the sole legitimate leader and pressing, by resort to arms, for the restoration of the imamate. Schisms within the ruling family were apparent before Ahmad ibn Said's death in 1783 and were later manifest with the division of the family into two main lines, the Sultan ibn Ahmad Al Said (r. 1792-1806) line controlling the maritime state, with nominal control over the entire country; and the Qais branch, with authority over the Al Batinah and Ar Rustaq areas. During the period of Sultan Said ibn Sultan Al Said's rule (1806-56), Oman cultivated its East African colonies, profiting from the slave trade. As a regional commercial power in the nineteenth century, Oman held territories on the island of Zanzibar off the coast of East Africa, in Mombasa along the coast of East Africa, and until 1958 in Gwadar (in present-day Pakistan) on the coast of the Arabian Sea. But when the British declared slavery illegal in the mid-1800s, the sultanate's fortunes reversed. The economy collapsed, and many Omani families migrated to Zanzibar. The population of Muscat fell from 55,000 to 8,000 between the 1850s and 1870s. The death of Sultan Said ibn Sultan in 1856 prompted a further division: the descendants of the late sultan ruled Oman (Thuwaini ibn Said Al Said, r. 1856-66) and Zanzibar (Mayid ibn Said Al Said, r. 1856-70); the Qais branch intermittently allied itself with the ulama to restore imamate legitimacy. In 1868 Azzam ibn Qais Al Said (r. 1868-71) emerged as self-declared imam. Although a significant number of Hinawi tribes recognized him as imam, the public neither elected him nor acclaimed him as such. Imam Azzam understood that to unify the country a strong, central authority had to be established with control over the interior tribes of Oman. His rule was jeopardized by the British, who interpreted his policy of bringing the interior tribes under the central government as a move against their established order. In resorting to military means to unify Oman, Imam Azzam alienated members of the Ghafiri tribes, who revolted in the 1870-71 period. The British gave Imam Azzam's rival, Turki ibn Said Al Said, financial and political support. Turki ibn Said succeeded in defeating the forces of Imam Azzam, who was killed in battle outside Matrah in January 1871. Late 19th century Most of these overseas possessions were seized by the United Kingdom and by 1850 Oman was an isolated and poor area of the world. Oman was the object of Franco-British rivalry throughout the 18th century. During the 19th century, Oman and the United Kingdom concluded several treaties of friendship and commerce. In 1908 the British entered into an agreement of friendship. Their traditional association was confirmed in 1951 through a new treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation by which the United Kingdom recognized the Sultanate of Oman as a fully independent state. When Sultan Sa'id bin Sultan Al-Busaid died in 1856, his sons quarreled over the succession. As a result of this struggle, the empire - through the mediation of the British Government under the "Canning Award" - was divided in 1861 into two separate principalities: Zanzibar (with its East African dependencies), and Muscat and Oman. Early 20th century During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the sultan in Muscat faced rebellion by members of the Ibadi sect residing in the interior of Oman, centered around the town of Nizwa, who wanted to be ruled exclusively by their religious leader, the Imam of Oman. This conflict was resolved temporarily by the Treaty of Seeb, which granted the imam autonomous rule in the interior Imamate of Oman, while recognising the nominal sovereignty of the sultan elsewhere. The conflict flared up again in 1954, when the new imam led a sporadic 5-year rebellion against the sultan's efforts to extend government control into the interior. The insurgents were defeated in 1959 with British help. The sultan then terminated the Treaty of Seeb and eliminated the office of the imam. In the early 1960s, the imam, exiled to Saudi Arabia, obtained support from his hosts and other Arab governments, but this support ended in the 1980s. Zanzibar paid an annual subsidy to Muscat and Oman until its independence in early 1964. In 1964, a separatist revolt began in Dhofar province. Aided by Communist and leftist governments such as the former South Yemen (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen), the rebels formed the Dhofar Liberation Front, which later merged with the Marxist-dominated Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman and the Arab Gulf (PFLOAG). The PFLOAG's declared intention was to overthrow all traditional Persian Gulf régimes. In mid-1974, the Bahrain branch of the PFLOAG was established as a separate organisation and the Omani branch changed its name to the Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman (PFLO), while continuing the Dhofar Rebellion. 1970s In 1970, Qaboos bin Said Al Said ousted his father, Sa'id bin Taymur, who later died in exile in London. Al Said has ruled as sultan ever since. The new sultan confronted insurgency in a country plagued by endemic disease, illiteracy, and poverty. One of the new sultan's first measures was to abolish many of his father's harsh restrictions, which had caused thousands of Omanis to leave the country, and to offer amnesty to opponents of the previous régime, many of whom returned to Oman. He also established a modern government structure and launched a major development programme to upgrade educational and health facilities, build a modern infrastructure, and develop the country's natural resources. In an effort to curb the Dhofar insurgency, Sultan Qaboos expanded and re-equipped the armed forces and granted amnesty to all surrendering rebels while vigorously prosecuting the war in Dhofar. He obtained direct military support from the UK, Iran, and Jordan. By early 1975, the guerrillas were confined to a 50-square-kilometer (20-square-mile) area near the Yemeni border and shortly thereafter were defeated. As the war drew to a close, civil action programs were given priority throughout Dhofar and helped win the allegiance of the people. The PFLO threat diminished further with the establishment of diplomatic relations in October 1983 between South Yemen and Oman, and South Yemen subsequently lessened propaganda and subversive activities against Oman. In late 1987 Oman opened an embassy in Aden, South Yemen, and appointed its first resident ambassador to the country. Since his accession in 1970, Sultan Qaboos has balanced tribal, regional, and ethnic interests in composing the national administration. The Council of Ministers, which functions as a cabinet, consists of 26 ministers, all directly appointed by Qaboos. The Majlis Al-Shura (Consultative Council) has the mandate of reviewing legislation pertaining to economic development and social services prior to its becoming law. The Majlis Al-Shura may request ministers to appear before it. 1990s In November 1996, Sultan Qaboos presented his people with the "Basic Statutes of the State," Oman's first written "constitution". It guarantees various rights within the framework of Qur'anic and customary law. It partially resuscitated long dormant conflict-of-interest measures by banning cabinet ministers from being officers of public shareholding firms. Perhaps most importantly, the Basic Statutes provide rules for setting Sultan Qaboos' succession. Oman occupies a strategic location on the Strait of Hormuz at the entrance to the Persian Gulf, directly opposite Iran. Oman has concerns with regional stability and security, given tensions in the region, the proximity of Iran and Iraq, and the potential threat of political Islam. Oman maintained its diplomatic relations with Iraq throughout the Gulf War while supporting the United Nations allies by sending a contingent of troops to join coalition forces and by opening up to pre-positioning of weapons and supplies. 2000s In September 2000, about 100,000 Omani men and women elected 83 candidates, including two women, to seats in the Majlis Al-Shura. In December 2000, Sultan Qaboos appointed the 48-member Majlis Al Dowla, or State Council, including five women, which acts as the upper chamber in Oman's bicameral representative body. Al Said's extensive modernization program has opened the country to the outside world and has preserved a long-standing political and military relationship with the United Kingdom, the United States, and others. Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought to maintain good relations with all Middle Eastern countries. The Sultans of Oman "The Great Rulers of Oman" Said bin Sultan (November 20, 1804 - June 4, 1856) - (Sultan of Zanzibar and Oman) Thuwaini bin Said (October 19, 1856 - February 11, 1866) Salim bin Thuwaini (February 11, 1866 - October 1868) Azzan bin Qais (October 1868 - January 30, 1871) Turki bin Said (January 30, 1871 - June 4, 1888) Faisal bin Turki (June 4, 1888 - October 15, 1913) Taimur bin Faisal (October 15, 1913 - February 10, 1932) Said bin Taimur (February 10, 1932 - July 23, 1970) Qaboos Bin Said (July 23, 1970 to present) References External links Chronology Government Omani Ministry of Foreign Affairs History History of Oman
History_of_Oman |@lemmatized nakhal:1 fort:2 one:3 best:1 preserve:2 oman:56 prehistory:1 antiquity:1 asia:1 b:4 c:4 show:1 sassanid:1 empire:5 achaemenid:1 century:17 iranian:6 dynasty:8 control:12 influence:3 peninsula:1 likely:1 exert:1 coastal:2 center:2 sohar:2 oxford:1 encyclopedia:1 archaeology:1 near:2 east:6 page:2 eric:1 meyers:1 third:2 arrival:1 islam:5 seventh:2 two:6 parthian:4 sassanids:1 period:4 administrative:1 name:2 mazun:1 bring:4 persian:6 gulf:6 extend:2 far:2 need:1 trade:3 route:1 establish:7 garrison:1 sasanids:1 succeed:3 hold:3 area:4 rise:1 four:1 later:4 agricultural:1 military:4 contact:1 give:4 people:5 exposure:1 culture:3 reflect:1 certain:1 irrigation:1 technique:1 still:1 use:1 bahrain:2 federal:1 research:1 division:3 early:6 islamic:2 age:1 caliph:1 adopt:1 lifetime:1 prophet:1 muhammad:1 ibadism:4 become:3 dominant:1 religious:3 sect:2 country:10 world:3 majority:1 ibadi:6 population:3 ibadhism:1 know:2 moderate:4 conservatism:1 distinguish:1 fe:1 ature:1 choice:1 ruler:3 communal:1 consensus:1 consent:1 political:6 title:1 nation:2 sultan:30 muscat:13 imply:1 historically:1 irreconcilable:1 tradition:4 cosmopolitan:3 secular:1 coast:7 rule:14 interior:7 insularity:1 tribal:3 origin:1 imam:17 accord:1 ideological:1 tenet:1 ascend:1 since:3 founding:1 al:21 say:30 although:4 imamate:12 find:1 intermittent:1 expression:1 study:1 chapter:1 government:8 politics:1 section:2 historical:1 pattern:1 governance:1 u:1 library:1 congress:1 retrieve:1 several:3 millennium:1 ago:1 arab:5 tribe:8 migrate:2 eastward:1 coincide:1 increase:1 presence:2 region:3 present:4 day:2 iran:5 sixth:1 repel:1 encroachment:1 ethnic:3 group:1 conversion:1 result:2 displacement:1 settler:1 introduction:1 vested:1 power:4 leader:5 nominate:1 ulema:1 position:2 confirm:2 gain:1 allegiance:3 sheik:1 receive:1 bay:1 ah:1 oath:1 public:3 muslim:2 branch:6 kharijites:2 despite:2 interruption:3 survive:2 mid:4 http:1 encarta:1 msn:1 com:1 html:1 fourth:1 line:3 top:1 history:4 nonetheless:1 conquer:1 foreign:3 qarmatians:1 part:2 domain:1 buyyids:1 great:2 seljuk:1 indigenous:1 nabhani:3 take:2 king:1 year:3 portuguese:3 april:1 january:4 ottoman:1 temporarily:2 restore:2 last:1 fifth:1 also:2 yarubid:3 recapture:1 colonial:1 northeastern:1 date:1 expand:2 acquire:1 former:2 colony:2 africa:3 engaging:1 slave:2 dynastic:2 succession:3 lead:2 nomination:1 saif:2 ibn:13 ii:2 candidacy:1 prompt:2 rivalry:3 among:1 ulama:2 civil:2 war:4 major:2 hinawi:2 ghafiri:3 support:6 assume:1 faction:1 kill:2 battle:2 continue:2 factionalization:1 work:1 favor:1 occupy:3 indeed:1 often:1 possession:3 various:2 order:2 diversity:1 yet:1 intervention:1 behalf:1 unpopular:1 revolt:4 ahmad:4 elect:4 upon:1 expulsion:2 would:1 remain:2 clan:2 even:1 reach:1 royal:1 follow:1 like:1 predecessor:1 characterize:1 internecine:1 family:5 struggle:2 fratricide:1 usurpation:1 apart:1 threat:3 within:3 omnipresent:1 challenge:1 independent:3 reject:1 authority:3 recognize:3 sole:1 legitimate:1 pressing:1 resort:2 arm:1 restoration:1 schism:1 apparent:1 death:2 manifest:1 main:1 r:4 maritime:1 state:5 nominal:2 entire:1 qais:4 batinah:1 ar:1 rustaq:1 cultivate:1 african:2 profit:1 regional:3 commercial:1 nineteenth:1 territory:1 island:1 zanzibar:6 mombasa:1 along:1 gwadar:1 pakistan:1 arabian:1 sea:1 british:7 declare:3 slavery:1 illegal:1 sultanate:2 fortune:1 reverse:1 economy:1 collapse:1 many:3 omani:5 fell:1 descendant:1 late:4 thuwaini:3 mayid:1 intermittently:1 ally:2 legitimacy:1 azzam:5 emerge:1 self:1 significant:1 number:1 neither:1 acclaim:1 understood:1 unify:2 strong:1 central:2 jeopardize:1 interpret:1 policy:2 move:1 mean:1 alienate:1 member:3 rival:1 turki:4 financial:1 defeat:3 force:3 outside:2 matrah:1 overseas:1 seize:1 united:6 kingdom:4 isolated:1 poor:1 object:1 franco:1 throughout:3 conclude:1 treaty:4 friendship:3 commerce:2 enter:1 agreement:1 traditional:2 association:1 new:4 navigation:1 fully:1 sa:2 id:2 bin:12 busaid:1 die:2 son:1 quarrel:1 mediation:1 award:1 divide:1 separate:2 principality:1 dependency:1 face:1 rebellion:3 reside:1 around:1 town:1 nizwa:1 want:1 exclusively:1 conflict:3 resolve:1 seeb:2 grant:2 autonomous:1 recognise:1 sovereignty:1 elsewhere:1 flare:1 sporadic:1 effort:2 insurgent:1 help:2 terminate:1 eliminate:1 office:1 exile:2 saudi:1 arabia:1 obtain:2 host:1 end:1 pay:1 annual:1 subsidy:1 independence:1 separatist:1 begin:1 dhofar:6 province:1 aid:1 communist:1 leftist:1 south:4 yemen:5 democratic:1 republic:1 rebel:2 form:1 liberation:3 front:3 merge:1 marxist:1 dominate:1 popular:2 pfloag:3 intention:1 overthrow:1 régimes:1 organisation:1 change:1 pflo:2 qaboos:8 oust:1 father:2 taymur:1 london:1 ever:1 confront:1 insurgency:2 plague:1 endemic:1 disease:1 illiteracy:1 poverty:1 first:3 measure:2 abolish:1 harsh:1 restriction:1 cause:1 thousand:1 leave:1 offer:1 amnesty:2 opponent:1 previous:1 régime:1 return:1 modern:2 structure:1 launch:1 development:2 programme:1 upgrade:1 educational:1 health:1 facility:1 build:1 infrastructure:1 develop:1 natural:1 resource:1 curb:1 equip:1 armed:1 surrender:1 vigorously:1 prosecute:1 direct:1 uk:1 jordan:1 guerrilla:1 confine:1 square:2 kilometer:1 mile:1 yemeni:1 border:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 draw:1 close:1 action:1 program:2 priority:1 win:1 diminish:1 establishment:1 diplomatic:2 relation:3 october:6 subsequently:1 lessen:1 propaganda:1 subversive:1 activity:1 open:3 embassy:1 aden:1 appoint:3 resident:1 ambassador:1 accession:1 balance:1 interest:2 compose:1 national:1 administration:1 council:3 minister:4 function:1 cabinet:2 consist:1 directly:2 majlis:4 shura:3 consultative:1 mandate:1 review:1 legislation:1 pertain:1 economic:1 social:1 service:1 prior:1 law:2 may:1 request:1 appear:1 november:2 basic:2 statute:2 write:1 constitution:1 guarantee:1 right:1 framework:1 qur:1 anic:1 customary:1 partially:1 resuscitate:1 long:2 dormant:1 ban:1 officer:1 shareholding:1 firm:1 perhaps:1 importantly:1 provide:1 set:1 strategic:1 location:1 strait:1 hormuz:1 entrance:1 opposite:1 concern:1 stability:1 security:1 tension:1 proximity:1 iraq:2 potential:1 maintain:2 send:1 contingent:1 troop:1 join:1 coalition:1 pre:1 positioning:1 weapon:1 supply:1 september:1 men:1 woman:3 candidate:1 include:2 seat:1 december:1 dowla:1 five:1 act:1 upper:1 chamber:1 bicameral:1 representative:1 body:1 extensive:1 modernization:1 stand:1 relationship:1 others:1 seek:1 good:1 middle:1 eastern:1 june:3 february:4 salim:1 azzan:1 faisal:2 taimur:2 july:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 chronology:1 ministry:1 affair:1 |@bigram sassanid_empire:1 persian_gulf:4 prophet_muhammad:1 sultan_muscat:4 muscat_oman:3 oath_allegiance:1 encarta_msn:1 dynastic_succession:1 ahmad_ibn:3 al_batinah:1 nineteenth_century:1 sa_id:2 saudi_arabia:1 sultan_qaboos:5 square_kilometer:1 shortly_thereafter:1 diplomatic_relation:2 yemen_oman:1 majlis_al:4 qur_anic:1 strait_hormuz:1 external_link:1 omani_ministry:1 foreign_affair:1
3,122
Economy_of_Guatemala
Guatemala is the most populous of the Central American countries with a GDP per capita roughly one-half that of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. The agricultural sector accounts for about one-fourth of GDP, two-fifths of exports, and half of the labor force. Coffee, sugar, and bananas are the main products, with sugar exports benefiting from increased global demand for ethanol. The 1996 signing of peace accords, which ended 36 years of civil war, removed a major obstacle to foreign investment, and Guatemala since then has pursued important reforms and macroeconomic stabilization. On 1 July 2006, the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) entered into force between the US and Guatemala and has since spurred increased investment in the export sector. The distribution of income remains highly unequal with about 29% of the population below the poverty line. Poverty, hunger and food security in Central America and Panama Other ongoing challenges include increasing government revenues, negotiating further assistance from international donors, upgrading both government and private financial operations, curtailing drug trafficking and rampant crime, and narrowing the trade deficit. Given Guatemala's large expatriate community in the United States, it is the top remittance recipient in Central America, with inflows serving as a primary source of foreign income equivalent to nearly two-thirds of exports. Guatemala's Gross domestic product for 2000 was estimated at $19.1 billion, with real growth slowing to approximately 3.3%. After the signing of the final peace accord in December 1996, Guatemala was well-positioned for rapid economic growth over the next 10 years. Guatemala's economy is dominated by the private sector, which generates about 85% of GDP. Agriculture contributes 23% of GDP and accounts for 75% of exports. Most manufacturing is light assembly and food processing, geared to the domestic, U.S., and Central American markets. Over the past several years, tourism and exports of textiles, apparel, and nontraditional agricultural products such as winter vegetables, fruit, and cut flowers have boomed, while more traditional exports such as sugar, bananas, and coffee continue to represent a large share of the export market. The United States is the country's largest trading partner, providing 41% of Guatemala's imports and receiving 34% of its exports. The government sector is small and shrinking, with its business activities limited to public utilities--some of which have been privatized--ports and airports and several development-oriented financial institutions. Guatemala was certified to receive export trade benefits under the United States' Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act (CBTPA) in October 2000, and enjoys access to U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) benefits. Due to concerns over serious worker rights protection issues, however, Guatemala's benefits under both the CBTPA and GSP are currently under review. Economic priorities Current economic priorities include: Liberalizing the trade regime; Financial services sector reform; Overhauling Guatemala's public finances; Simplifying the tax structure, enhancing tax compliance, and broadening the tax base. Improving the investment climate through procedural and regulatory simplification and adopting a goal of concluding treaties to protect investment and intellectual property rights. Import tariffs have been lowered in conjunction with Guatemala's Central American neighbors so that most fall between 0% and 15%, with further reductions planned. Responding to Guatemala's changed political and economic policy environment, the international community has mobilized substantial resources to support the country's economic and social development objectives. The United States, along with other donor countries--especially France, Italy, Spain, Germany, Japan, and the international financial institutions--have increased development project financing. Donors' response to the need for international financial support funds for implementation of the Peace Accords is, however, contingent upon Guatemalan government reforms and counterpart financing. Problems hindering economic growth include high crime rates, illiteracy and low levels of education, and an inadequate and underdeveloped capital market. They also include lack of infrastructure, particularly in the transportation, telecommunications, and electricity sectors, although the state telephone company and electricity distribution were privatized in 1998. The distribution of income and wealth remains highly skewed. The wealthiest 10% of the population receives almost one-half of all income; the top 20% receives two-thirds of all income. As a result, approximately 29% of the population lives in poverty, and 6% of that number live in extreme poverty. Guatemala's social indicators, such as infant mortality and illiteracy, are successively improving, but remain in low growth and are still among the worst in the hemisphere. In 2005 Guatemala ratified its signature to the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) between the United States of America and several other Central American countries. References
Economy_of_Guatemala |@lemmatized guatemala:15 populous:1 central:8 american:5 country:5 gdp:4 per:1 caput:1 roughly:1 one:3 half:3 argentina:1 brazil:1 chile:1 agricultural:2 sector:6 account:2 fourth:1 two:3 fifth:1 export:10 labor:1 force:2 coffee:2 sugar:3 banana:2 main:1 product:3 benefit:4 increase:3 global:1 demand:1 ethanol:1 signing:2 peace:3 accord:3 end:1 year:3 civil:1 war:1 remove:1 major:1 obstacle:1 foreign:2 investment:4 since:2 pursue:1 important:1 reform:3 macroeconomic:1 stabilization:1 july:1 free:2 trade:6 agreement:2 cafta:2 enter:1 u:3 spur:1 increased:1 distribution:3 income:5 remain:3 highly:2 unequal:1 population:3 poverty:4 line:1 hunger:1 food:2 security:1 america:4 panama:1 ongoing:1 challenge:1 include:4 government:4 revenue:1 negotiate:1 assistance:1 international:4 donor:3 upgrade:1 private:2 financial:5 operation:1 curtail:1 drug:1 trafficking:1 rampant:1 crime:2 narrow:1 deficit:1 give:1 large:3 expatriate:1 community:2 united:5 state:6 top:2 remittance:1 recipient:1 inflow:1 serve:1 primary:1 source:1 equivalent:1 nearly:1 third:2 gross:1 domestic:2 estimate:1 billion:1 real:1 growth:4 slow:1 approximately:2 final:1 december:1 well:1 position:1 rapid:1 economic:6 next:1 economy:1 dominate:1 generate:1 agriculture:1 contribute:1 manufacturing:1 light:1 assembly:1 processing:1 gear:1 market:3 past:1 several:3 tourism:1 textile:1 apparel:1 nontraditional:1 winter:1 vegetable:1 fruit:1 cut:1 flower:1 boom:1 traditional:1 continue:1 represent:1 share:1 trading:1 partner:1 provide:1 import:2 receive:4 small:1 shrinking:1 business:1 activity:1 limit:1 public:2 utility:1 privatize:2 port:1 airport:1 development:3 orient:1 institution:2 certify:1 caribbean:1 basin:1 partnership:1 act:1 cbtpa:2 october:1 enjoy:1 access:1 generalized:1 system:1 preference:1 gsp:2 due:1 concern:1 serious:1 worker:1 right:2 protection:1 issue:1 however:2 currently:1 review:1 priority:2 current:1 liberalize:1 regime:1 service:1 overhaul:1 finance:1 simplify:1 tax:3 structure:1 enhance:1 compliance:1 broaden:1 base:1 improve:2 climate:1 procedural:1 regulatory:1 simplification:1 adopt:1 goal:1 conclude:1 treaty:1 protect:1 intellectual:1 property:1 tariff:1 lower:1 conjunction:1 neighbor:1 fall:1 reduction:1 plan:1 respond:1 change:1 political:1 policy:1 environment:1 mobilize:1 substantial:1 resource:1 support:2 social:2 objective:1 along:1 especially:1 france:1 italy:1 spain:1 germany:1 japan:1 project:1 financing:2 response:1 need:1 fund:1 implementation:1 contingent:1 upon:1 guatemalan:1 counterpart:1 problem:1 hinder:1 high:1 rate:1 illiteracy:2 low:2 level:1 education:1 inadequate:1 underdeveloped:1 capital:1 also:1 lack:1 infrastructure:1 particularly:1 transportation:1 telecommunication:1 electricity:2 although:1 telephone:1 company:1 wealth:1 skew:1 wealthy:1 almost:1 result:1 live:2 number:1 extreme:1 indicator:1 infant:1 mortality:1 successively:1 still:1 among:1 bad:1 hemisphere:1 ratify:1 signature:1 dominican:1 republic:1 dr:1 reference:1 |@bigram per_caput:1 sugar_banana:2 macroeconomic_stabilization:1 drug_trafficking:1 gross_domestic:1 textile_apparel:1 vegetable_fruit:1 banana_coffee:1 trading_partner:1 infant_mortality:1 dominican_republic:1
3,123
Monopoly_(game)
Monopoly is a board game published by Parker Brothers, a subsidiary of Hasbro. The game is named after the economic concept of monopoly, the domination of a market by a single entity. Monopoly is the most commercially-successful board game in United States history, with 485 million players worldwide. According to Hasbro, since Charles Darrow patented the game in 1935, approximately 750 million people have played the game, making it "the most played (commercial) board game in the world." In the instruction booklet that comes with the 70th Anniversary (US) Edition of Monopoly, Hasbro cites a statistic that over 750 million people have played Monopoly. Presumably even higher numbers have played traditional games, such as chess and Go. The 1999 Guinness Book of Records cited Hasbro's previous statistic of 500 million people having played Monopoly. Guinness World Records page for Monopoly's (disputed) world record of Most Played Game Games Magazine has inducted Monopoly into its Hall of Fame. GAMES Magazine Hall of Fame web page The mascot for the game is a monocle-wearing man, wearing morning dress, named Mr. Monopoly. History The history of Monopoly can be traced back to 1904, when a Quaker woman named Elizabeth (Lizzie) J. Magie Phillips created a game through which she hoped to be able to explain the single tax theory of Henry George (it was intended to illustrate the negative aspects of concentrating land in private monopolies). Her game, The Landlord's Game, was commercially published a few years later. Other interested game players redeveloped the game and some made their own sets. Lizzie herself patented a revised edition of the game in 1904, and similar games were published commercially. By the early 1930s, a board game named Monopoly was created much like the version of Monopoly sold by Parker Brothers and its parent companies throughout the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st. The Parker Brothers' version was created by Charles Todd but sold to them by Charles Darrow. Several people, mostly in the U.S. Midwest and near the U.S. East Coast, contributed to the game's design and evolution. In 1941 the British Secret Service had John Waddington Ltd., the licensed manufacturer of the game outside the U.S., create a special edition for World War II prisoners of war held by the Nazis. Hidden inside these games were maps, compasses, real money, and other objects useful for escaping. They were distributed to prisoners by the International Red Cross. By the 1970s, the game's early history had been lost (at least one historian has argued that it was purposely suppressed), and the idea that it had been created solely by Charles Darrow had become popular folklore. This was stated in the 1974 book The Monopoly Book: Strategy and Tactics of the World's Most Popular Game, by Maxine Brady, and even in the instructions of the game itself. As Professor Ralph Anspach fought Parker Brothers and its then parent company, General Mills, over the trademarks of the Monopoly board game, much of the early history of the game was "rediscovered." Because of the lengthy court process, and appeals, the legal status of Parker Brothers' trademarks on the game was not settled until the mid-1980s. The game's name remains a registered trademark of Parker Brothers, as do its specific design elements. Parker Brothers' current corporate parent, Hasbro, again acknowledges only the role of Charles Darrow in the creation of the game. Anspach published a book about his research, called The Billion Dollar Monopoly Swindle (and republished as Monopolygate), in which he makes his case about the purposeful suppression of the game's early history and development. This is the original version sold by Charles Darrow, and later by Parker Brothers. The board consists of forty spaces containing twenty-eight properties (twenty-two colored Streets, four Railroads, and two Utilities), three Chance spaces, three Community Chest spaces, a Luxury Tax space, an Income Tax space, and the four corner squares: GO, Jail, Free Parking, and Go to Jail. In the U.S. versions shown below, the properties are named after locations in (or near) Atlantic City, New Jersey. However, as of September 2008, the layout of the board has been modified to more closely match the foreign-released versions, as shown in the two board layouts below. The notable changes are the colors of Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues changing from purple to brown, and the adaptation of the flat $200 Income Tax (formerly the player's choice of 10% of their total holdings OR $200) and increased $100 Luxury Tax (upped from $75) amounts. Similar color/amount changes are used in the U.S. Edition of the "Here And Now: World Edition" game, and are also used in the most recent version of the McDonald's Monopoly promotion. A player who reaches the Jail space by a direct roll of the dice is said to be "Just Visiting", and continues normal play on the next turn. Marvin Gardens, a yellow property on the board shown, is actually a misspelling of the original location name, Marven Gardens. Marven Gardens is not a street, but a housing area outside Atlantic City. The housing area is said to be derived from Marchgate City and Ventnor City in New Jersey (emphasis added). The misspelling was introduced by Charles Todd and passed on when his home-made Monopoly board was copied by Charles Darrow and thence to Parker Brothers. It was not until 1995 that Parker Brothers acknowledged this mistake and formally apologized to the residents of Marven Gardens for the misspelling. http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/monopoly/index.html Another change made by Todd and duplicated by Darrow, and later Parker Brothers, was the use of South Carolina Avenue. North Carolina Avenue was substituted for this street on the board. Atlantic City's Illinois Avenue was renamed Martin Luther King Jr. Blvd. in the 1980s. Saint Charles Place no longer exists, as the Showboat Casino Hotel was developed where it once ran. Kennedy, page 35 Short Line is believed to refer to the Shore Fast Line, a streetcar line that served Atlantic City. Kennedy, page 23. The B&O Railroad did not serve Atlantic City. A booklet included with the reprinted 1935 edition states that the four railroads that served Atlantic City in the mid 1930s were the Jersey Central, the Seashore Lines, the Reading Railroad, and the Pennsylvania Railroad. The actual "Electric Company" and "Water Works" serving the city are respectively Atlantic City Electric Company (a subsidiary of Pepco Holdings) and the Atlantic City Municipal Utilities Authority. The other versions of the game have different property names, and the prices may be denominated in another currency, but the game mechanics are almost identical. The original income tax choice from the U.S. version is replaced by a flat rate in the UK version, and the $75 Luxury Tax space is replaced with the £100 Super Tax space. The same is true of current German boards, with a €200 for the Income Tax space on the board, and a €100 Add-on tax in place of the Luxury Tax. An Austrian version, released by Parker Brothers/Hasbro in 2001, does allow for the 10% or $200 for Income Tax and has a $100 Luxury Tax. The choice of London main line stations is that of the four stations within the London and North Eastern Railway group. Starting with the September 2008 release, the U.S. Edition now also uses the flat $200 Income Tax value and the upped $100 Luxury Tax amount. In the 1930s, John Waddington Ltd. (Waddingtons) was a firm of printers from Leeds that had begun to branch out into packaging and the production of playing cards. Waddingtons had sent the card game Lexicon to Parker Brothers hoping to interest them in publishing the game in the United States. In a similar fashion, Parker Brothers sent over a copy of Monopoly to Waddingtons early in 1935 before the game had been put into production in the United States. The managing director of Waddingtons, Victor Watson, gave the game to his son Norman (who was head of the card games division) to test over the weekend. Norman was impressed by the game and persuaded his father to call Parker Brothers on Monday morning - transatlantic calls then being almost unheard of. This call resulted in Waddingtons obtaining a license to produce and market the game outside of the United States. Watson felt that in order for the game to be a success in the United Kingdom the American locations would have to be replaced, so Victor and his secretary, Marjory Phillips, went to London to scout out locations. The Angel, Islington is not a street in London but an area of North London named after a coaching inn that stood on the Great North Road. By the 1930s the inn had become a Lyons Corner House (it is now a Co-operative Bank). Some accounts say that Marjory and Victor met at the Angel to discuss the selection and celebrated the fact by including it on the Monopoly board. In 2003, a plaque commemorating the naming was unveiled at the site by Victor Watson's grandson who is also named Victor. The standard English board, produced by Waddingtons, was for many years the version most familiar to people in countries in the Commonwealth (except Canada, where the U.S. edition with Atlantic City-area names was reprinted), although local variants of the board are now also found in several of these countries (see Localized versions of the Monopoly game). In the cases where the game was produced under license by a national company, the £ (pound) was replaced by a $ (dollar) sign, but the place names were unchanged. For a list of some of the localized versions, including the UK "Here & Now" edition, and the names of their properties, see Licensed and localized editions of Monopoly. Recent variations Starting in the UK in 2005, an updated version of the game entitled Monopoly Here and Now was produced, replacing game scenarios, properties, and tokens with modern equivalents. Similar boards were produced for Germany and France. Variants of these first editions appeared with Visa-branded debit cards taking the place of cash - the later US "Electronic Banking" edition has unbranded debit cards. The success of the first Here and Now editions caused Hasbro US to allow online voting for 26 landmark properties across the United States to take their places along the game board. The popularity of this voting, in turn, caused the creation of similar websites, and secondary game boards per popular vote to be created in the UK, France, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and other nations. Hasbro opened a new website in January 2008, for online voting of the Monopoly Here and Now: World Edition. The colored property spaces will be worldwide cities, going by the same vote/popularity formula as established for national editions. In 2006, Winning Moves Games released another edition, the Mega Edition, with a larger game board (50% bigger) and revised game play. Other streets from Atlantic City (eight, one per a color group) were included, along with a third "utility", the Gas Company. In addition, $1000 denomination notes (first seen in Winning Moves' "Monopoly: The Card Game") are included. Game play is further changed with bus tickets (allowing non-dice-roll movement along one side of the board), a speed die (itself adopted into variants of the Atlantic City Standard Edition; see below), skyscrapers (after houses and hotels), and train depots that can be placed on the Railroad spaces. This edition was adapted for the UK market in 2007, and is sold by Winning Moves UK. After the initial US release, critiques of some of the rules caused the company to issue revisions and clarifications on their website. Rules clarifications for Monopoly: The Mega Edition. World editions In 1998, Winning Moves procured the Monopoly license from Hasbro and created new UK city and regional editions with sponsored squares. Winning Moves struggled to raise the sponsorship deals for the game boards, but did so eventually. A Nottingham Graphic Design agency, TMA, produced the visual design of the Monopoly packaging. Initially, in December 1998, the game was sold in just a few WHSmith stores, but demand was high, with almost fifty thousand games shipped in the 4 weeks leading up to Christmas. Winning Moves still produce new city and regional editions annually. Nottingham based designers Guppi have been responsible for the games' visual design since 2001. Monopoly Here and Now: The World Edition In 2008, Hasbro released a world edition of Monopoly Here & Now. This world edition features top locations of the world. The locations were decided by votes over the Internet. The result of the voting was announced on August 20, 2008. Montreal top property in new Monopoly game - CTV.ca. Retrieved 2008/08/20 01:14PM UTC Out of these, Gdynia is especially notable, as it is by far the smallest city of those featured and won the vote thanks to a spontaneous, large-scale mobilization of support started by its citizens. The new game uses its own currency unit, the Mono (a game-based take on the Euro; designated by M). The game uses said unit in millions and thousands. As seen above, there is no Dark Purple color-group, as that is replaced by Brown. It is also notable that three cities (Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver) are from Canada and four other cities (Beijing, Hong Kong, Taipei, and Shanghai) are from the People's Republic of China. No other country is represented by more than 1 city. Of the 68 cities listed on Hasbro Inc.’s website for the vote, Israel’s capital, Jerusalem, was chosen as one of the 20 cities to be featured in the newest Monopoly World Edition. Monopoly Contest Stirs Up Jerusalem Conflict, Associated Press, published February 21, 2008. Before the vote took place, a Hasbro employee in the London office mistakenly eliminated the country signifier “Israel” after the city, in response to pressure from pro-Palestinian lobby groups. Monopoly Jihad, Dailymail Blog, published February 23, 2008. After the Israeli government protested, Hasbro Inc. admitted its error and issued an apology that read: “It was a bad decision, one that we rectified relatively quickly. This is a game. We never wanted to enter into any political debate. We apologize to our Monopoly fans.” World Championship Hasbro conducts a Worldwide Monopoly tournament. The first MONOPOLY World Championships took place in Washington, D.C., in 1973. The last world champion was Antonio Zafra of Spain, who won in 2004. U.S. National Championship Although in the past, U.S. entrants had to successfully compete in regional competitions before the national championship, qualifying for the National Championship has been online since 2003. For the 2003 Championship, qualification was limited to the first fifty people who correctly completed an online quiz. Concerned that the previous way of qualifying did not always ensure a competition of the best players, the 2009 Championship qualifying was expanded to include an online multiply-choice quiz (a score of 80% or better was required to advance); followed by an online, five-question essay test; followed by a two-game online tournament at Pogo.com. The process was to have produced a field of 23 plus one: Matt McNally, the 2003 national champion, who received a bye and was not required to qualify. However, at the end of the online tournament, there was an eleven-way tie for the last six spots. The decision was made to invite all of those who had tied for said spots. In fact, two of those who had tied and would have otherwise been eliminated, Dale Crabtree of Indianapolis, Indiana, and Brandon Baker, of Tuscaloosa, Alabama, played in the final game and finished third and fourth respectively. The 2009 Monopoly U.S. National Championship was held on April 14-15 in Washington, D.C. In his first tournament ever, Richard Marinaccio, an attorney from Sloan, New York (a suburb of Buffalo), prevailed over a field that included four previous champions to be crowned the 2009 U.S. National Champion. In addition to the title, Mr. Marinaccio took home $20,580 — the amount of money in the bank of the board game — and will go on to the 2009 World Championship in Las Vegas, Nevada on October 20-22. Equipment All twelve tokens from the U.S. Deluxe Edition Monopoly. Each player is represented by a small metal token that is moved around the edge of the board according to the roll of two dice. The twelve playing pieces currently used are pictured at left (from left to right): a wheelbarrow (1937b edition), a battleship, a sack of money (1999–2007 editions), a horse and rider, a car (racecar), a train (Deluxe Edition only), a thimble, a howitzer (sometimes called a cannon), an old style shoe (sometimes called a boot), a Scottie dog, an iron, and a top hat. Many of the tokens came from companies such as Dowst Miniature Toy Company, which made metal charms and tokens designed to be used on charm bracelets. The battleship and cannon were also used briefly in the Parker Brothers war game Conflict (released in 1940), but after the game failed on the market, the premade pieces were recycled into Monopoly usage. Passing Go: Early Monopoly 1933–1937 by "Clarence B. Darwin" (pseudonym for David Sadowski). First edition, revised, pages 207-208. Folkopoly Press, River Forest, IL. Hasbro recently adopted the battleship and cannon for Diplomacy. Early localized editions of the standard edition (including some Canadian editions, which used the U.S. board layout) did not include pewter tokens but instead had generic wooden head-shaped tokens identical to those in Sorry!. Ibid. Page 206 Parker Brothers also acquired Sorry! in the 1930s. Other items included in the standard edition are: During World War II, the dice in the United Kingdom were replaced with a spinner because of a lack of materials. A pair of six-sided dice. (NOTE: Since 2007, a third "Speed Die" has been added—see ADD-ONS below.) A Title Deed for each property. A Title Deed is given to a player to signify ownership, and specifies purchase price, mortgage value, the cost of building houses and hotels on that property, and the various rent prices depending on how developed the property is. Properties include: 22 streets, divided into 8 color groups of two or three streets. A player must own all of a color group (have a monopoly) in order to build houses or hotels. If a player wants to mortgage one property of a color-group, not only must any houses or hotels be removed from that property, but from the others in the color-group as well. 4 railways. Players collect $25 rent if they own one station, $50 if they own two, $100 if they own three and $200 if they own all four. These are usually replaced by railway stations in non-U.S. editions of Monopoly. 2 utilities. Rent is four times dice value if player owns one utility, but 10 times dice value if player owns both. Hotels and houses cannot be built on utilities or stations. A supply of paper money. The supply of money is theoretically unlimited; if the bank runs out of money the players must make do with other markers, or calculate on paper. Additional paper money can be bought at certain locations, notably game and hobby stores, or downloaded from various websites and printed and cut by hand (one such site has created a $1,000 bill for the game; it is not one of the standard denominations). In the original U.S. standard editions, the supply generally starts with $15,140. The winner of the quadrennial Monopoly World Championship receives the same amount in United States dollars. Details of the 2004 Monopoly World Championship, held in Tokyo. [NOTE: This base money amount has changed—see below.] The term "Monopoly money" has been used to refer to currencies which cannot be used to purchase goods and services on the free market, such as exchange certificates printed by the Burmese government which must be used by foreign aid organizations. Parry, Richard Lowe and Andrew Crowe. "Fifth of Burmese aid cash lost to exchange rate trick." The Times 25 July 2008, accessed at http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4393554.ece on 25 July 2008 The term can also refer to currencies in which each paper denomination is a different colour; Weird Al's song "Canadian Idiot" uses it in this sense. 32 wooden or plastic houses and 12 wooden or plastic hotels (the original and the current Deluxe Edition have wooden houses and hotels; the current "base set" uses plastic buildings). Unlike money, houses and hotels have a finite supply. If no more are available, no substitute is allowed. A deck of 16 Chance cards and a deck of 16 Community Chest cards. Players draw these cards when they land on the corresponding squares of the track, and follow the instructions printed on them. Hasbro also sells a Deluxe Edition, which is mostly identical to the classic edition but has wooden houses and hotels and gold-toned tokens, including one token in addition to the standard eleven, a railroad locomotive. Other additions to the Deluxe Edition include a card carousel, which holds the title deed cards, and money printed with two colors of ink. In 1978, retailer Neiman Marcus manufactured and sold an all-Chocolate edition of Monopoly through its "Christmas Wish Book" for that year. The entire set was edible, including the money, dice, hotels, properties, tokens and playing board. The set retailed for $600. In 2000, the FAO Schwarz store in New York City sold a custom version called One-Of-A-Kind Monopoly for $100,000. Archived article from Business Wire, stored at Findarticles.com. Accessed 1 January 2006. This special edition comes in a locking attaché case made with Napolino leather and lined in suede, and features include: 18-carat (75%) gold tokens, houses, and hotels Rosewood board street names written in gold leaf emeralds around the Chance icon sapphires around the Community Chest rubies in the brake lights of the car on the Free Parking Space the money is real, negotiable United States currency The Guinness Book of World Records states that a set worth $2,000,000 and made of 23-carat gold, with rubies and sapphires atop the chimneys of the houses and hotels, is the most expensive Monopoly set ever produced. Most Expensive Monopoly Set world record. The distribution of cash in the U.S. version has changed with the newer release versions. Older versions had a total of $15,140 in the following amounts/colors: 20 $500 Bills (orange) 20 $100 Bills (beige) 30 $50 Bills (blue) 50 $20 Bills (green) 40 $10 Bills (yellow) 40 $5 Bills (pink) 40 $1 Bills (white) The newer (September 2008) editions have a total of $20,580, with 30 of each bill denomination. In addition, the colors of some of the bills have been changed; $10's are now blue instead of yellow, $20's are a brighter color green than before, and $50's are now purple instead of blue. Each player begins the game with his or her token on the Go square, and $1500 (or 1500 of a localized currency) in play money. Prior to September 2008, the money was divided as follows in the U.S. standard rules: Two each of: $500 bills $100 bills $50 bills Six $20 bills Five each of: $10 bills $5 bills $1 bills Since then, the US version has taken on the British version's initial cash distributions of: Two x $/£500 Four x $/£100 One x $/£50 One x $/£20 Two x $/£10 One x $/£5 Five x $/£1 Pre-Euro German editions of the game started with 30,000 "Spielmark" in eight denominations (abbreviated as "M."), and later used seven denominations of the "Deutsche Mark" ("DM."). In the classic Italian game, each player receives ₤350,000 ($3500) in a two-player game, but ₤50,000 ($500) less for each player more than two. Only in a six-player game does a player receive the equivalent of $1500. The classic Italian games were played with only four denominations of currency. At least one Spanish edition (the Barcelona edition) started the game with 150,000 in play money, with a breakdown identical to that of the American version. All property deeds, houses, and hotels are held by the bank until bought by the players. Free passes may be issued if the owner of the property is using free passes as a transaction. Rules Players take turns in order, with the initial player determined by chance before the game. A typical turn begins with the rolling of the dice and advancing clockwise around the board the corresponding number of squares. Landing on Chance or Community Chest, a player draws the top card from the respective pile. If the player lands on an unowned property, whether street, railroad, or utility, he can buy the property for its listed purchase price. If he declines this purchase, the property is auctioned off by the bank to the highest bidder. If the property landed on is already owned and unmortgaged, he must pay the owner a given rent, the price dependent on whether the property is part of a monopoly or its level of development. If a player rolls doubles, he rolls again after completing his turn. Three sets of doubles in a row, however, land the player in jail. During a turn, players may also choose to develop or mortgage properties. Development involves the construction, for given amounts of money paid to the bank, of houses or hotels. Development must be uniform across a monopoly, such that a second house cannot be built on one property in a monopoly until the others have one house. No merges between players are allowed. All developments must be sold before a property can be mortgaged. The player receives money from the bank for each mortgaged property, which must be repaid with interest to unmortgage. Houses are returned to the bank for half their purchase price. Parker Brothers' official instructions have long encouraged the use of House Rules, specific additions to or subtractions from the official rule sets. Many casual Monopoly players are surprised to discover that some of the rules that they are used to are not part of the official rules. Many of these house rules tend to make the game longer by randomly giving players more money. Some common house rules are listed below: Free Parking jackpot, which usually consists of an initial stake (typically $500, or $5 million in the Here & Now Edition) plus collections of fines and taxes otherwise paid to the bank. A player who lands on Free Parking wins the jackpot, which may then be reset with the initial stake (if any). The jackpot is usually put in the center of the board. Since the jackpot forms an additional income for players in this set of house rules, games can take a much longer time than under normal rules. No bank-auctioning of unowned property that a player declines to purchase when landing on it; the property then remains open until the next time any player lands on it. A bonus for landing directly on Go by dice roll (commonly an additional $200 or $500). This may or may not include cards that send the player to Go. Delayed Start: Players must pass Go (or circle the board at least once, or rarely twice) before they can buy property. Only allowing houses (or hotels) to be built when the owner lands on the group A bonus for rolling snake eyes (a pair of ones), often $500, $100, or one of each bill. In trades, players may offer "rent immunity" from their own properties (someone does not have to pay rent for landing on that property) as part of a deal (this can be good for a certain number of landings or the entire game). House rules, while unofficial, are not wholly unrecognized by Parker Brothers. George S. Parker himself created two variants, to shorten the length of game play. Video game and computer game versions of Monopoly have options where popular house rules can be used. House rules that have the effect of randomly introducing more money into the game have a side-effect of increasing the time it takes for players to become bankrupt, lengthening the game considerably, as well as decreasing the effects of strategy and prudent investment. House rules which increase the amount of money in the game may change the strategies of the players, such as changing the relative value of different properties- the more money in the game, the more one may wish to invest in the higher value properties. Strategy Monopoly involves a portion of luck, with the roll of the dice determining whether a player gets to own key properties or lands on squares with high rents. Even the initial misfortune of going last is a significant disadvantage because one is more likely to land on property which has already been bought and therefore be forced to pay rent instead of having an opportunity to buy unowned property. There are, however, many strategic decisions which allow skilled players to win more often than the unskilled. Hasbro also offers a helpful strategy guide and different insights on their site. According to the laws of probability, seven is the most probable roll of two dice, with a probability of 1 in 6, whereas 2 and 12 are the least probable rolls, each with a probability of one in 36. For this reason, Park Place/Park Lane is one of the least landed-on squares as the square seven places behind it is Go to Jail. In consequence, some properties are landed upon more than others and the owners of those properties get more income from rent. The board layout factors include the following: Jail: Since players are frequently directed to "Go To Jail", they will move through the magenta, orange, and red property groups immediately after leaving Jail. The two properties with the highest probability of being landed upon after leaving jail are the two cheaper orange properties (St James Place and Tennessee Avenue in North America and Bow Street and Marlborough Street in the UK). This makes the orange property set highly lucrative. Go to…: One square — Go To Jail — plus a number of Chance and Community Chest cards will cause the player to advance a distance around the board. Thus, the squares immediately following Go To Jail and the take-a-card squares have a reduced probability of being landed upon. The least-landed upon property in this situation is the cheaper dark blue property (Park Place or Park Lane) because it sits in the lee of both Go to Jail and Community Chest (the Chance directly before it would not affect its odds because it is impossible to roll a one). Go to (property): Several properties are blessed with Chance cards which draw players to them. St Charles Place (Pall Mall), Illinois Avenue (Trafalgar Square), Boardwalk (Mayfair), all of the railroads except Short Line (Liverpool Street Station), and both of the utilities benefit from this feature. Reading Railroad (King's Cross Station) has the fortune of having both a "go to" dedicated card plus the card advancing to the nearest railroad. Advance to Go: A player may be directed to the Go square by a Chance or a Community Chest card, thus lowering the probability of being landed-upon of every square in-between. The properties most affected by this are the yellow, green, and dark blue sets. It also marginally raises the probability for each square in the wake of Go, including the purple and orange sets which will be reached two or three rolls after being on Go. Go Back Three Spaces: This directive comes from a Chance card. A quick look at the board shows that there are three Chance squares and hence three other squares which are 3 spaces behind (one being a Community Chest space, another being Income Tax, and the third being the leading orange property). The leading orange property (New York Avenue or Vine Street) gains the most benefit from this card since the Chance square nestled amongst the red properties is itself the most landed-upon Chance square. According to Jim Slater in The Mayfair Set, there is an overwhelming case for having the orange sites, because you land on them more often, the reason for that being the cards in Chance like Go to Jail, Advance to St. Charles Place (Pall Mall ), Advance to Reading Railroad (King's Cross Station) and Go Back Three Spaces. Google Video The Mayfair Set - Episode Two (Adam Curtis, BBC), 44:30-45:55 In all, during game play, Illinois Avenue (Trafalgar Square), New York Avenue (Vine Street), B&O Railroad (Fenchurch Street Station), and Reading Railroad (King's Cross Station) are the most frequently landed-upon properties. Mediterranean Avenue (Old Kent Road) and Baltic Avenue (Whitechapel Road) are the least-landed-upon properties. ; the page includes detailed analyses of expected income from each property and discussion of the strategic implications. Another tip on winning a Monopoly game is to grab the light blue properties. These properties are cheap and one can easily build hotels on them. The building cost is low, but the hotel rents are rather high. Once players get hold onto these lands, they should never sell them off or mortgage them. Another reason why players should eye for the light blue properties is the fact the players who have their hotels up first tend to win the game. The earlier the hotels are up, the more quickly your opponents can be drained of their financial resources, and hence a decrease in the chances of them building houses/hotels. The light blue properties can act as a source of financial income for players. Once hotels have been put up on those lands, players should go on to obtain other sets. The two brown patches are efficient as well, although players may not land on them very often. Players should try to obtain either pink or orange properties. However, if competition for the orange tiles arises, one should not spend too much money to focus on them as the pink properties are good substitutes. If another player gets the orange set with more than enough cash remaining, one should quickly attempt to build hotels on the blue tiles to seek a win. Once players have enough cash to afford a third set, it is suggested that they pursue the utilities or the most expensive dark blue tiles. The utilities ensure a stable income but the dark blue tiles can lead to a quick win as its killer rents would most likely end the game rather quickly. It is suggested that players avoid collecting the red, yellow and green properties unless they are planning to use it as buffers. For example, if a player is attempting to build hotels on the light blue patches but lands in debts, he should mortgage the red/yellow/green tiles he has instead of selling off houses/useful properties. In some versions of Monopoly which allows trading between players, it is always suggested to hold on to certain properties you come across, even though they are red/yellow/green. These tiles may be the last piece to another player's set. They can be traded for tiles which are useful to you but are under the possession of other players. Limited number of houses and hotels In order to put a cap on total development of property sets in the game, there are only 12 hotels and 32 houses. This limitation is in place to ensure that property sets cannot be developed unless there are houses or hotels available to purchase from the bank. This cap allows a certain amount of dominance to be developed by some players, because if every set of property were fully developed there would be enough rent collected between different players to allow the game to drag on for an extended period. This limitation on numbers of houses and hotels leads to an advantage for one player. Simply building each lot out to a maximum of 4 houses and then refusing to upgrade to hotels ensures that nearly the maximum amount of rent is collected for each property, and the monopolization of the houses from the game prevents opponents from developing their property. It is conceivable that a single player could end up owning all 32 houses near the end of the game, and the refusal to upgrade to hotels makes these houses unavailable for opponents to purchase for any property they may own. Much of the skill comes from knowing how to make the best use of a player's resources and above all knowing how to strike a good bargain. Monopoly is a social game where players often interact and must deal with each other in ways similar to real world real estate bargaining. Note that the best deal is not always for the most expensive property; it is often situational, dependent on money resources available to each player and even where players happen to be situated on the board. When looking to deal, a player should attempt to bargain with another player who not only possess properties he or she needs but also properties the other player needs. In fact, offering relatively fair deals to other players can end up helping the player making the offer by giving him or her a reputation as an honest trader, which can make players less wary of dealings in the future. What is more, most people play Monopoly with the same group repeatedly. For this reason, such a reputation can have effects far beyond the game being played. The end game One common criticism of Monopoly is that it has carefully defined yet almost unreachable termination conditions. Edward P. Parker, a former president of Parker Brothers, is quoted as saying, "We always felt that forty-five minutes was about the right length for a game, but Monopoly could go on for hours. Also, a game was supposed to have a definite end somewhere. In Monopoly you kept going around and around." However, the problem of time can be resolved by playing with a time limit and counting each player's net worth when the time is up. In fact, tournament play calls for a 90-minute time limit. US Tournament Guide, PDF file. Two hour time limits are used for international play. Tournament rules for Canada, from 2003. PDF file. The Lord of the Rings edition gives players the option of creating a random time limit using the included One Ring token and specialized dice. The SpongeBob SquarePants game board includes a Plankton piece that moves every time someone rolls snake eyes with the dice, and the game is over when it reaches the end of the board. Played strictly to the rules, many games will be effectively decided when one player succeeds in bankrupting another because the bankrupt player gives all his property to the one to whom he could not pay his debt. A player who thus gains a fistful of properties will virtually control the game from that point onwards since other players will be constantly at risk. On the other hand, if a player is bankrupted by being unable to meet his debt to the bank (e.g., a fine or tax or other debt that is not rent), then his property is auctioned off; this can open up new possibilities in a game which was evenly set or in which a lot of property sets were divided among the players. The Monopoly Mega Edition is geared towards faster play by incorporating more squares and enabling players to build without the full color-group. Another path to a faster ending is by a key property bargain, whether it be a very shrewd trade which sets one player up with a well-positioned set or a very rash trade where an inexperienced player gives his experienced opponent an underpriced gem. Either way, a deal which pays off for one player is most often the turning point of the game. A third way to finish the game is to wait for all of the property to be bought. Once this has occurred, the player with the highest value of money and assets is victorious. Another way is to remove the $200 bonus gained by passing "Go". This ensures that players run out of money quickly. Some players, in an attempt to lessen the huge advantage gained by the first player to bankrupt another player, have the bankrupted player pay what he can to the player he is indebted to (including the money from mortgages), and then forfeit the properties, so that they are back on the market and open to purchase by other players. Hasbro states that the longest game of Monopoly ever played lasted 1,680 hours (70 days or 10 weeks or 2 1/3 months). Facts" page at Monopoly.com. Add-ons Numerous add-ons have been made for Monopoly, both before its commercialization and after. Three such official add-ons are discussed below. Stock Exchange The Stock Exchange add-on was originally published by Parker Brothers in 1936 (wikibook). The Free Parking square is covered over by a new Stock Exchange space and the add-on included three Chance and three Community Chest cards directing the player to "Advance to Stock Exchange". The add-on also included thirty stock certificates, five for each of the six different stocks, differing only in the purchase price (or Par Value), ranging from $100 to $150. Shares, like properties, are tradeable material, and could also be mortgaged for half their purchase price. Shareholders could increase the value of their shares by buying up more of the same company's shares. When a player moves onto Free Parking/Stock Exchange, stock dividends are paid out to all players on their non-mortgaged shares. The amount to be paid out to each player is determined based on the number and kind of shares owned. Specifically, a player receives dividends from each stock based on the following formula: (par value of share / 10) × (number of shares owned)2 EXAMPLE: Owning one share of "Motion Pictures" (par value $100) pays dividends of $10. Owning two shares pays $40 ($10 x 2 x 2), owning three pays $90 ($10 x 3 x 3) and owning four pays $160 ($10 x 4 x 4). A player owning all five receives $250 ($10 x 5 x 5). The player who lands on Free Parking/Stock Exchange can also choose to buy a share if any remain. Should the player decline, the share is auctioned to the highest bidder by the Bank. The Stock Exchange add-on serves to inject more money into the game, in a similar manner to railroad properties, as well as changing the relative values of properties. In particular, the Orange and Light Purple properties are more valuable due to the increased chance of landing on Free Parking, at the expense of the Red and Yellow groups. The Stock Exchange add-on was later redesigned and rereleased in 1992 under license by Chessex, this time including a larger number of new Chance and Community Chest cards. BoardGameGeek.com page for the original Monopoly Stock Exchange add-on. Accessed 1 January 2006. This version included ten new Chance cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and five other related cards) and eleven new Community Chest cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and six other related cards; the regular Community Chest card "From sale of stock you get $45" is removed from play when using these cards). Many of the original rules applied to this new version (in fact, one optional play choice allows for playing in the original form by only adding the "Advance to Stock Exchange" cards to each deck). A Monopoly Stock Exchange Edition was released in 2001 (although not in the US), this time adding an electronic calculator-like device to keep track of the complex stock figures. This was a full edition, not just an add-on, that came with its own board, money and playing pieces. Properties on the board were replaced by companies on which shares could be floated, and offices and home offices (instead of houses and hotels) could be built. BoardGameGeek.com page for the Monopoly Stock Exchange edition that came with a specialized calculator. Accessed 1 January 2006. Playmaster Playmaster, another official add-on, released in 1982, was an electronic device that kept track of all player movement and dice rolls as well as what properties are still available. It then uses this information to call random auctions and mortgages that will be advantageous for some players and a punishment for others, making it easier to free up cards of a color group. It also plays eight short tunes when key game functions occur, for example when a player lands on a railroad it will play I've Been Working on the Railroad. BoardGameGeek.com page for the Monopoly Playmaster electronic accessory. Accessed 1 January 2006. Speed Die In 2007, Parker Brothers began releasing its standard version of Monopoly with a new addition to gameplay—the Speed Die. (http://www.hasbro.com/common/instruct/00009.pdf) First included in Winning Moves' Monopoly: The Mega Edition variant, this third die alters gameplay by allowing players to increase their move up to 3 spaces (rolling one of the 3 numbered sides); move immediately to the next unowned property OR to the next property on which they would owe money (rolling one of 2 "Mr. Monopoly" sides); or "Get Off The Bus Early" (rolling the "Bus" side), allowing the player to use the total from one die or both dice to move (i.e. A roll of 1-5-BUS would let the player choose from moving 1, 5 or 6 spaces). Usage of the die in the regular game differs slightly from use in the Mega Edition (i.e. Players use the Speed Die from the beginning in Mega; players can only use the Speed Die in the regular game AFTER their first time going past GO). Hasbro.com entry for the new Speed Die Variant Edition Spinoffs Other games Besides the many variants of the actual game (and the Monopoly Junior spin-off) released in either video game or computer game formats (e.g. Windows-based PC, Macintosh, Game Boy, Game Boy Advance, Satellaview, Sega Genesis, Commodore 64, etc.), two spin-off computer games have been created. Monopoly Tycoon is a PC game in the Tycoon series that makes strategy and speed into determining factors for winning the game, eliminating completely the element of luck inherent in the dice rolls of the original. The game uses the U.S. standard Atlantic City properties as its basis, but the game play is unique to this version. The game also allows for solo and multiplayer online games. Monopoly Casino is also a PC game, simulating a casino full of Monopoly-based adaptations of various casino games (most notably, slot machines). This program was released in both standard and "Vegas" editions, each featuring unique games. In September 2001, Stern Pinball released a Monopoly pinball machine. On April 23, 2008, Electronic Arts announced that they would be releasing in Q3 2008 a new version of Monopoly for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii video game consoles.. In September 2008, Electronic Arts' Pogo division released an online version of Monopoly Here & Now: The World Edition. In June 2008, Electronic Arts and iTunes released a Monopoly game for iPod (fifth generation), iPod Nano (third generation), and iPod Classic. Parker Brothers and its licensees have also sold several games which are spinoffs of Monopoly. These are not add-ons, as they do not function as an addition to the Monopoly game, but are simply additional games in the flavor of Monopoly. Monopoly Junior board game: A simplified version of the original game for young children. Advance to Boardwalk board game: Focusing mainly on building the most hotels along the Boardwalk. Express Monopoly card game: Released by Hasbro/Parker Brothers and Waddingtons in the UK in the 1990s, now out of print. Basically a rummy-style card game based on scoring points by completing color group sections of the game board. Monopoly: The Card Game: an updated card game released by Winning Moves Games under license from Hasbro. Similar, but decidedly more complex, gameplay to the Express Monopoly card game. Free Parking card game: A more complex card game released by Parker Brothers, with several similarities to the card game Mille Bornes. Uses cards to either add time to parking meters, or spend the time doing activities to earn points. Includes a deck of Second Chance cards that further alter gameplay. Two editions were made; minor differences in card art and Second Chance cards in each edition. Monopoly Deal: The most recent card game version of Monopoly. Players attempt to complete three property groups by playing property, cash & event cards. BoardGameGeek.com page on Monopoly Deal Don't Go to Jail: Dice Game originally released by Parker Brothers; roll combinations of dice to create color groups for points before rolling the words "GO" "TO" and "JAIL" (which forfeits all earned points for the turn). Monopoly Express: A deluxe, travel edition re-release of Don't Go To Jail, replacing the word dice with "Officer Jones" dice and adding an eleventh die, Houses & Hotels, and a self-contained game container/dice roller & keeper. Hasbro.com entry on MONOPOLY EXPRESS Monopoly Express Casino: A gambling-themed version of the above game, that adds wagering to the gameplay. Here and Now Electronic Edition: Eliminates the need for money, using credit cards instead. Here and Now: The World Edition: Same as above, but based on the whole world (thus needing to use "Monopoly Dollars"), also available in a tin. Game show version A short-lived Monopoly game show aired on Saturday evenings during mid-1990 on ABC. The show was produced by Merv Griffin, and was hosted by former Jeopardy! contestant Mike Reilly. Three contestants competed by answering crossword puzzle-style clues to acquire the many properties on the board and money equivalent to the values of said properties (with bonuses added for getting monopolies). After the properties were acquired and players used the earned money to improve them with houses and hotels, a timed "Monopoly Game Round" was played, allowing players to earn even more money by landing on their properties and answering more word clues. When time was up, the player with the most money won the game, and then went on to play the Bonus Game. In the Bonus Game, the contestant had to choose 4 properties on the board to convert to "Go To Jail" spaces. Along with the actual "Go To Jail" space, the contestant rolled the dice up to five times (with extra rolls added for each double rolled) and had to pass GO without landing on a "Go To Jail" space. If the contestant passed GO before running out of rolls or landing on a "Go To Jail" space, they won $25,000; however if the contestant landed exactly on GO, they would win $50,000. The show was paired on ABC with a summer-long Super Jeopardy! tournament. Gambling games In North America, a variety of slot machines and lotteries have been produced with a Monopoly theme. In Europe, there were also Monopoly "fruit machines", some of which remain popular through emulation. The British quiz machine brand itbox also supports a Monopoly trivia and chance game, which, like most other itbox games, costs 50p (£0.50) to play and has a £20 jackpot, although this is very rarely won. There is also an online slot machine version of the game made by WMS which is a 19 reel traditional style casino game. There was also a live, online version of Monopoly. Six painted taxis drive around London picking up passengers. When the taxis reach their final destination, the region of London that they are in is displayed on the online board. This version takes far longer to play than board-game monopoly, with one game lasting 24 hours. Results and position are sent to players via e-mail at the conclusion of the game. Commercial promotions The McDonald's Monopoly game is a sweepstakes advertising promotion of McDonald's and Hasbro that has been offered in the United States, Canada, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, United Kingdom, France and Australia. The game mimics the game of Monopoly. Originally, customers received a set of two tokens with every purchase, but now tokens only come with certain menu items. Tokens correspond to a property space on the Monopoly board. When combined into color-matched properties, the tokens may be redeemed for money or prizes There are also "instant win" tokens the recipient can redeem for McDonald's food, money, or other prizes. Variants Because Monopoly evolved in the public domain before its commercialization, Monopoly has seen many variant games. Most of these are exact copies of the Monopoly games with the street names replaced with locales from a particular town, university, or fictional place. National boards have been released as well. Over the years, many specialty Monopoly editions, licensed by Parker Brothers/Hasbro, and produced by them, or their licensees (including USAopoly and Winning Moves Games) have been sold to local and national markets worldwide. Two well known "families" of -opoly like games, without licenses from Parker Brothers/Hasbro, have also been produced. Several published games are similar to Monopoly. These include: Totopoly, created by Waddingtons in 1938, is based around horse racing. Federal Reserve Monopoly, created by Goldstein, Patrick, & Speeduh in 2009, mocks the money-as-debt monetary system and incorporates many of the financial instruments that caused the 2008 Wall Street crash, like "Credit Default Swap" and "Purchase Options." Anti-Monopoly, created by Ralph Anspach in 1974. Chômageopoly, "Unemployment Monopoly", a board game created by the Lip factory in the 1970s Dinosauropoly, a version using prehistoric motifs and rules. Easy Money, published by Milton Bradley, also in the 1930s. The Farming Game is a board game in which the goal is to run a financially successful farm, and like Monopoly the heart of the game is economics. The game's website draws comparisons to Monopoly. Fast Food Franchise is a board game by TimJim games which shares Monopoly's core mechanic, but through careful design guarantees that it will actually end. La gran Capital, published by several Chilean factories, is a Chilean version of the game, with neighborhoods from Santiago de Chile. The title means "the big capital", other versions are even named "Metropolis" The Fascinating Game of Finance, later shortened to Finance, first marketed in 1932 by Knapp Electric, and later by Parker Brothers. Go For Broke, the exact opposite of Monopoly, has the players trying to spend all their money before anyone else. Bad bets at the casino, real estate, stock market, race track, and giving to the poor house lowers your account balance. This was a Milton Bradley game originally published in the mid-1960s. Ghettopoly, released in 2003, caused considerable offense upon its release. The game, intended to be a humorous rendering of ghetto life, was decried as racist for its unflinching use of racial stereotypes. Hasbro sought and received an injunction against Ghettopoly's designer. Story on the October 2003 lawsuit filing, from USA Today Decision from the United States District Court for the District of Rhode Island, dated 18 May 2006. PDF file. Greekopoly, a college-themed version using fraternities and sororities as properties. Potopoly, A marijuana-themed version, using a five-sided board, and bags instead of houses. Itadaki Street, a series of board games for video game consoles from Enix. Poleconomy, a board game designed in New Zealand incorporating real-world companies as well as political and economic strategy. The Mad Magazine Game, a Mad Magazine themed board game in which the object of the game is for player to lose all their money, play is counter-clockwise, and the dice must be rolled with the left hand. Released by Parker Brothers in 1979. Make Your Own-opoly is a game set sold by TDC Games of Itasca, Illinois. Using a Microsoft Windows-based PC, a person can print out his or her own property cards, labels to place on the board and the box, and game currency. TDC Games' homepage for Make Your Own-opoly Solarquest, a popular space-age adaptation, was released by Golden in 1986. Strictly Pittsburgh, a variant based around the city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In addition to properties being replaced with local Pittsburgh sites and businesses, it contained a somewhat different board layout and replaced houses and hotels with skyscrapers. Dostihy a sázky, a variant sold in Czechoslovakia. This game comes from the totalitarian communist era (1948–1989), when private businesses were forbidden and mortgages didn't exist, so the monopoly theme was changed to a horse racing theme. Petropolis, a copy of Monopoly based in buying into the oil industry, using oilfields. The game uses 'telex messages' instead of Chance cards and the playing board snakes round into the middle before continuing round the edge. Turista, a Mexican copy of Monopoly made by Montecarlo board game manufacturer. It is based in buying Mexican States. In each state it is possible to build gas stations and hotel to increase the rent amount. NFL Version - Where properties are NFL teams (order based on results of that season, with the Denver Broncos being the most expensive property) and the die are shaped like footballs. My Monopoly World Trader is a online multiplayer Monopoly-like board game, developed and published by Cego ApS in 2008. Criticisms Wired magazine reports that the problem with Monopoly is that it is a poorly designed game. Former Wall Streeter Derk Solko explains, "Monopoly has you grinding your opponents into dust. It's a very negative experience. It's all about cackling when your opponent lands on your space and you get to take all their money." In addition, the game requires almost no strategy. The only decision a player has to make is whether or not to buy a property. Most of the 3 to 4 hour average playing time is spent waiting for other players to play their turn. Board game enthusiasts disparagingly call this a "roll your dice, move your mice" format. http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/magazine/17-04/mf_settlers?currentPage=2 Notes Monopoly as a Markov Process, by R. Ash and R. Bishop, Mathematics Magazine, vol. 45 (1972) p. 26-29. External links The official U.S. Monopoly web site Hasbro's Fun Facts page World of MONOPOLY A place to see the properties on a MONOPOLY Board in relation to real life and also the exclusive holder of artwork on behalf of Hasbro of the new look coming to MONOPOLY worldwide in Autumn 2008 and - Patents for the first and second version of The Landlord's Game Patent awarded to C.B. Darrow for Monopoly on December 31. 1935 Early history of Monopoly Atlantic City 150th Anniversary series of articles from the newspaper Courier Post, which describe the streets of Atlantic City that appear on Monopoly History of Monopoly Lizzie J. Magie's patented version of 'Monopoly' 1904 Full list of probabilities in Monopoly
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totalitarian:1 communist:1 era:1 forbidden:1 petropolis:1 oil:1 industry:1 oilfield:1 telex:1 message:1 middle:1 turista:1 mexican:2 montecarlo:1 possible:1 nfl:2 team:1 season:1 denver:1 bronco:1 shape:1 football:1 cego:1 aps:1 report:1 poorly:1 streeter:1 derk:1 solko:1 grind:1 dust:1 experience:1 cackle:1 average:1 enthusiasts:1 disparagingly:1 mouse:1 gamingreviews:1 currentpage:1 markov:1 r:2 ash:1 bishop:1 mathematics:1 vol:1 external:1 link:1 fun:1 relation:1 exclusive:1 holder:1 artwork:1 behalf:1 autumn:1 award:1 newspaper:1 courier:1 post:1 describe:1 patented:1 |@bigram commercially_successful:1 charles_darrow:6 hall_fame:2 registered_trademark:1 billion_dollar:1 income_tax:7 roll_dice:4 http_www:4 npr_org:1 north_carolina:1 martin_luther:1 co_operative:1 plaque_commemorate:1 debit_card:2 dice_roll:4 ctv_ca:1 hong_kong:1 indianapolis_indiana:1 tuscaloosa_alabama:1 la_vega:1 vega_nevada:1 deluxe_edition:5 add_ons:5 www_timesonline:1 timesonline_co:1 uk_tol:1 tol_news:1 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3,124
Abano_Terme
Tower of St. Lorenzo Cathedral Abano Terme (known as Abano Bagni until 1930) is a town and comune in the province of Padua, in the Veneto region, Italy, on the eastern slope of the Colli Euganei; it is 10 kilometers southwest by rail from Padua. Abano Terme's population is 19,062 (2001) (in 1901 it was only 4,556). The town's hot springs and mud baths are the main economical resource. Waters have a temperature of some 80°C. History The baths were known to the Romans as Aponi fons or Aquae Patavinae. A description of them is given in a letter of Theodoric, the king of the Ostrogoths. Some remains of the ancient baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, Trattato dei Bagni d'Abano, Padua, 1789). An oracle of Geryon lay near, and the so-called sortes Praenestinae (C.I.L. i., Berlin, 1863; 1438-1454), small bronze cylinders inscribed, and used as oracles, were perhaps found here in the 16th century. The baths were destroyed by the Lombards in the 6th century, but they were rebuilt and enlarged when Abano became an autonomous comune in the 12th century and, again, in the late 14th century. The city was under the Republic of Venice from 1405 to 1797. Main sights Abano Cathedral, or the cathedral (duomo) of St. Lawrence. The current edifice was erected in 1780 over a pre-existing church which was allegedly destroyed by Cangrande della Scala. The bell tower has parts from the 9th/10th and 14th centuries. The Montirone Gallery, housing works of Il Moretto, Palma the Younger, Guido Reni, Giandomenico Tiepolo and others. The Sanctuary of the Madonna della Salute or of Monteortone (built from 1428). It lies on the site where the Madonna appeared to Pietro Falco, healing his wounds. The church is on the Latin cross plan, with a nave and two aisles with three apses decorated by a frieze. It has with a Baroque portal (1667), a noteworthy bell tower, presbytery frescoes portraying the Histories of St. Peter and Virgin by Jacopo da Montagnana (1495) and Palma the Younger's altarpiece depicting Christ Crucifixed Between St. Augustine and St. Jerome. Just outside the city is San Daniele Abbey (11th century). 6 km from the city is also Praglia Abbey, founded in the 11th century by Benedictine monks and rebuilt in 1496-1550. The church of the Assumption, with a marble portal from 1548, has a Renaissance style interior. Noteworthy is the four cloister complex. References L'Italia da scoprire, Giorgio Mondadori, 2006.
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3,125
Ernest_Thayer
Ernest Lawrence Thayer (August 14, 1863 - August 21, 1940) was an American writer and poet who wrote "Casey at the Bat". Biography Thayer was born in Lawrence, Massachusetts and raised in Worcester. He graduated magna cum laude in philosophy from Harvard in 1885, where he was editor of the Harvard Lampoon. Its business manager, William Randolph Hearst, hired Thayer as humor columnist for the San Francisco Examiner 1886-88. Thayer’s last piece, dated June 3, 1888, was a ballad entitled "Casey" ("Casey at the Bat"). It took two decades for the poem to make Thayer famous, since he was hardly the boastful type and had signed the June 3 poem with the nickname "Phin". Two mysteries remain about the poem: whether anyone or anyplace was the real-life Casey and Mudville, and, if so, their actual identities. On March 31, 2004, Katie Zezima of The New York Times penned an article called "In 'Casey' Rhubarb, 2 Cities Cry 'Foul!'" on the competing claims of two towns to such renown: Stockton, California, and Holliston, Massachusetts. On the possible model for Casey, Thayer later dispelled the notion that any single living baseball player was an influence. However, late 1880s Boston star Mike "King" Kelly is odds-on the most likely model for Casey's baseball situations. Besides being a native of a town close to Boston, Thayer, as a San Francisco Examiner baseball reporter in the offseason of 1887-88, covered exhibition games featuring Kelly. In November 1887, some of his reportage about a Kelly at-bat has the same ring as Casey's famous at-bat in the poem. A 2004 book by Howard W. Rosenberg, Cap Anson 2: The Theatrical and Kingly Mike Kelly: U.S. Team Sport's First Media Sensation and Baseball's Original Casey at the Bat, reprints a 1905 Thayer letter to a Baltimore scribe who was asking about the poem's roots. In the letter, Thayer singled out Kelly (d. 1894), as having shown "impudence" in claiming to have written it. Rosenberg argues that if Thayer still felt offended, Thayer may have steered later comments away from connecting Kelly to it. Kelly had also performed in vaudeville, and recited the poem dozens of times, possibly, to Thayer's dismay, butchering it. Incidentally, the first public performance of the poem was on August 14, 1888, by actor De Wolf Hopper, on Thayer's 25th birthday. Thayer's recitation of it at a Harvard class reunion in 1895 may seem trivial except that it helps solve the mystery, which lingered into the 20th century, of who had written it. In the mid-1890s, Thayer contributed several other comic poems for Hearst's New York Journal and then turned to overseeing his family's mills in Worcester full-time. Thayer moved to Santa Barbara in 1912, where he married Rosalind Buel Hammett and retired. He died in 1940, at age 77. The New York Times' obituary of Thayer E. L. Thayer's obituary, The New York Times, August 22, 1940, p. 19 quotes comedian DeWolf Hopper, who helped make the poem famous: "Thayer indubitably wrote 'Casey,' but he could not recite it.... I have heard many other give 'Casey.' Fond mamas have brought their sons to me to hear their childish voices lisp the poem, but Thayer's was the worst of all. In a sweet, dulcet Harvard whisper he implored 'Casey' to murder the umpire, and gave this cry of mass animal rage all the emphasis of a caterpillar wearing rubbers crawling on a velvet carpet. He was rotten." External Links References
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3,126
Macrobiotic_diet
A macrobiotic diet (or macrobiotics), from the Greek "macro" (large, long) and "bios" (life), is a dietary regimen that involves eating grains as a staple food supplemented with other foodstuffs such as vegetables and beans, and avoiding the use of highly processed or refined foods. Macrobiotics also addresses the manner of eating, by recommending against overeating, and requiring that food be chewed thoroughly before swallowing. History The earliest recorded use of the term macrobiotics is found in the writing of Hippocrates, the father of Western Medicine. In his essay 'Airs, Waters, and Places', Hippocrates introduced the word to describe people who were healthy and long-lived. Herodotus, Aristotle, Galen, and other classical writers used the term macrobiotics to describe a lifestyle, including a simple balanced diet, that promoted health and longevity. Stephen Blauer, in Michio Kushi (1993), The Macrobiotic Way, 2nd edition, AVERY, p.xi According to Macrobiotic proponents, the Macrobiotic methodology was utilized by many of the long-lived traditional cultures, such as the Incas, and the Chinese in the Han Dynasty. George Ohsawa drew from Asian and Japanese folk medicine to create his version of this philosophy of health. George Ohsawa brought his teaching to Europe from Japan. Ohsawa was a Japanese philosopher, who was inspired to formalize macrobiotics by the teachings of Kaibara Ekiken, Andou Shōeki, Mizuno Namboku, and Sagen Ishizuka and his disciples Nishibata Manabu and Shojiro Goto. Ohsawa took his macrobiotic teachings to North America in the late 1950s. Macrobiotic education was spread in the United States by his students Herman Aihara, Cornelia Aihara, Michael Abehsera, Michio Kushi and Aveline Kushi, and in turn by their students. Michio Kushi has been the most prominent of these teachers. Ohsawa coined the term for a natural way of living, macrobiotics, in the late 1950s. Macrobiotics, from the ancient Greek language, means the way of longevity. This term has been used by many authors in describing longevity teachings from the Far East. "Whole foods, such as brown rice, are central to a macrobiotic diet, and many of the first customers and owners of the alternative food stores were students of macrobiotics. In the 20th century, influential teachers emerged, such as the Kushis (who emigrated to the United States from Japan after World War II), who distilled the wide-ranging ideas and interpreted them for modern, urban, and industrialized life." Health Food: Macrobiotic Brown Rice National Museum of American History, Division Medicine and Science. Retrieved 2007, April 7. Philosophy Followers of the macrobiotic approach believe that food and food quality powerfully affect health, well-being, and happiness, and that a macrobiotic diet has more beneficial effects than others. The macrobiotic approach suggests choosing food that is less processed. One goal of macrobiotics is to become sensitive to the actual effects of foods on health and well-being, rather than to follow dietary rules and regulations. Dietary guidelines, however, help in developing sensitivity and an intuitive sense for what sustains health and well-being. Macrobiotics emphasizes locally grown whole grain cereals, pulses (legumes), vegetables, seaweed, fermented soy products and fruit, combined into meals according to the principle of balance (known as yin and yang). Whole grains and whole-grain products such as brown rice and buckwheat pasta (soba), a variety of cooked and raw vegetables, beans and bean products, mild natural seasonings, fish, nuts and seeds, mild (non-stimulating) beverages such as bancha twig tea and fruit are recommended. Nightshade vegetables, including tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, eggplant; also spinach, beets and avocados are not recommended, or used sparingly at most, in macrobiotic cooking, as they are considered extremely yin. Some macrobiotic practitioners also discourage the use of nightshades due to the alkaloid solanine, thought to affect calcium balance. Stanchich, Lino. "All About Nightshades." New Life Journal: Carolina Edition; Apr/May2003, Vol. 4 Issue 5, p17, 3p Composition Some basic macrobiotic ingredients Macrobiotics is considered an approach to life rather than a diet. Some general guidelines for the diet are the following (it is also said that a macrobiotic diet varies greatly depending on geographical and life circumstances): Well chewed whole cereal grains, especially brown rice: 25-30% Vegetables: 30-40% Beans and legumes: 5-10 % Miso soup: 5% Traditionally or naturally processed foods: 5-10% The remainder is composed of fish and seafood, seeds and nuts, seed and nut butters, seasonings, sweeteners, fruits, and beverages. Other naturally raised animal products may be included if needed during dietary transition or according to individual needs. Cooking according to the time of the year In spring: food with a lighter quality wild plants, germs, lightly fermented food, grain species, fresh greens light cooking style: steaming, cooking for a short time, etc. In summer: food with lighter quality large-leaved greens, sweet corn, fruit, summer pumpkins light cooking style: steaming, quick cooking, etc. More raw foods lighter grains, such as barley, bulghur, and couscous In autumn: food with more concentrated quality root vegetables, (winter) pumpkins, beans, cereals, etc. heavier grains such as sweet rice, mochi and millet In winter: food with a stronger, more concentrated quality round vegetables, pickles, root vegetables, etc. more miso, shoyu, oil, and salt heavier grains such as millet, buckwheat, fried rice, etc. Yin and yang content of foods Macrobiotic eating follows the principle of balance (called balancing yin and yang in China). Macrobiotics holds that some foods are overstimulating and can exhaust the body and mind. These are classified as extreme yin (stimulating) in their effects: Sugar Alcohol Honey Coffee Chocolate Refined flour products Very hot spices Drugs Chemicals and preservatives Commercial milk, yogurt and soft cheeses Poor quality vegetable oils Foods that are considered to be concentrated, heavy and dense create stagnation. These have yang (strengthening, but stagnating effects if over-consumed). Poultry Meat Eggs Refined salt Foods that create balance are whole grains, vegetables, beans, sea vegetables, fruit, nuts, and seeds. Foods such as these are used in a macrobiotic way of eating. Other factors The composition of dishes and the choices of foods is adjusted according to the season the climate activity gender age health condition transition in one's diet and any other personal considerations. Japanese popularity and influence The macrobiotic way of eating is thought to be Japanese. During the Edo period in Japan peasants were not allowed to eat meat and had a diet of primarily rice and soy bean to get their protein. According to macrobiotic advocates, a majority of the world population in the past ate a diet based primarily on grains, vegetables, and other plants. Because macrobiotics is popular in Japan, and many of its popular teachers are Japanese, Japanese foods that are beneficial for health are incorporated by most modern macrobiotic eaters. Some macrobiotic ingredients are also standard ingredients in Japanese cuisine. There is also a Chinese form of macrobiotics called the Ch'ang Ming or Long Life diet which is very similar to the Japanese system but based upon the principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Chinese macrobiotics According to Chee Soo in his book published by HarperCollins in 1982 - "The Tao of Long Life", natural dietary therapy or "Ch'ang Ming" has been developed in China since pre-historic times along with a range of health arts that have become what we now know as Traditional Chinese Medicine. The Tao of Long Life by Chee Soo Aquarian Press (Thorsons/HarperCollins) 1982 ISBN 0850303206 As early as 3000 BCE there are dietary recommendations which can be found in the Neijing or Yellow Emperor's Classic of internal medicine. This pre-dates the advent of macrobiotics in Japan and supports the idea that Japanese macrobiotics was developed from these earlier studies. Macrobiotics vs. veganism A macrobiotic diet includes many of the same foods as vegan diets, but in macrobiotics certain animal foods are suggested. The two dietary styles share enough similarities that a vegan version of macrobiotics is not uncommon. Macrobiotics is based on traditional ways of eating. While there are no completely vegan cultures that are long-lived, the longest-lived cultures around the world consume between 70% and 99% whole plant foods, according to John Robbins, a well-known vegan advocate, in Healthy at 100. The American Dietetic Association approves of carefully-planned vegan diets. In the words of the Association, "Well-planned vegan and other types of vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence.... It is the position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada that appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases." American Dietic Association. Vegetarian Diets. June 2003 (Vol. 103, Issue 6, Pages 748-765). However, as part of their dietary guidelines, the association did not opine against meat consumption, recommending that healthy adults eat lean meat, poultry, fish or beans each day, as lean meat has many essential nutrients without excess fat or cholesterol. Fit Red Meat in Your Low-Cholesterol Eating Plan Macrobiotics and cancer Macrobiotics has long been advocated by some as a preventative and cure for cancer. Michio Kushi's book "The Cancer Prevention Diet" outlines the fundamental philosophy for the diet and cancer prevention. There is evidence that a diet high in whole grains and vegetables and possibly low in saturated fat, red meat, and preserved meat products can help to prevent many types of cancer. http://www.ific.org/publications/qa/cancerqa.cfm A study at the Tulane School of Public Health conducted by James P. Carter and others Carter JP, Saxe GP, Newbold V, Peres CE, Campeau RJ, Bernal-Green L. Hypothesis: dietary management may improve survival from nutritionally linked cancers based on analysis of representative cases. J Am Coll Nutr. 1993;12:209- 26. [PMID: 8409076] reported significant improvement in cancer patient longevity (177 months compared to 91 months) when patients practiced the macrobiotic diet, although an analysis of "Complementary and Alternative Medical Therapies for Cancer" stated about this paper "Scientific evidence on the potential benefits of macrobiotic diets for patients with cancer is limited to two retrospective studies with serious methodologic flaws". http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/137/11/889.pdf Despite anecdotal reports to the contrary reported in "Unconventional Cancer Treatments" Unconventional Cancer Treatments medical professionals do not consider that there is evidence that a macrobiotic diet is useful as a cure for cancer. The American Cancer Society strongly urges people with cancer not to use a dietary program as an exclusive or primary means of treatment; http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/PPI/UnconventionalTherapies/MacrobioticDietsZenMacrobiotics.htm and many long-term practitioners of the diet, including Michio Kushi's wife Aveline and daughter Lilly, died of cancer. Michio Kushi himself developed cancer and had a tumour removed surgically from his intestines, although he now appears to be well. Macrobiotic teacher Cecile Levin, and Anthony J. Sattilaro, author of Recalled by Life, also died of cancer. Some cancer sufferers, especially in the United States, follow the macrobiotic diet, believing that it will cure or help their disease. Many others turn to macrobiotics in the belief that it will strengthen their physical and mental well-being and quality of life, combining macrobiotic practices with Western and Eastern medicine. Criticisms Nutrition According to the Standard American Diet, those following an alternative diet regimen should consider the following information. Detailed information on the nutrients provided by a very large range of foodstuffs is available in the USDA National Nutrient Database. The following nutrients should be monitored especially in children, due to their importance in facilitating growth and function: calcium, protein, iron, zinc, vitamin D, vitamin B12, riboflavin, vitamin A, omega-3 fatty acids and energy. All are available in properly planned macrobiotic diets. Humans synthesise vitamin D with adequate exposure to sunlight; supplementation may be necessary during winter months for people who live far from the equator. Calcium is available from hard leafy greens, nuts and seeds. Zinc is available from nuts and seeds. Fish provides vitamin B12 in a macrobiotic diet, but bioavailable B12 analogues have not been established in any natural plant food, including sea vegetables, soya, fermented products, and algae. Although plant-derived foods do not naturally contain B12, some are fortified during processing with added B12 and other nutrients . Vitamin A, in the form of beta-carotene, is abundant in macrobiotic diets. Adequate protein is available from grains, nuts, seeds, beans, and bean products. Sources of Omega-3 fatty acids are discussed in the relevant article, and include soy products, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, flax seeds and fatty fish. Riboflavin along with most other B vitamins are abundant in whole grains. Iron in the form of non-heme iron in beans, sea vegetables and leafy greens is sufficient for good health; detailed information is in the USDA database . In 1967 the Journal of the American Medical Association published a detailed report of a case of scurvy and malnutrition induced by strict adherence to a restrictive macrobiotic regimen. In 1971 the AMA Council on Foods and Nutrition said that followers of the diet, particularly the strictest, stood in "great danger" of malnutrition [JAMA 218:397, 1971]. Smoking and tobacco Leaders of macrobiotics like Michio Kushi and George Ohsawa smoked cigarettes, claiming that the practice was not harmful, and could in fact be a valuable treatment for various lung ailments. The Kushi Institute of Europe Encyclopedia web page states: Michio Kushi asserts that dairy food and other fatty, mucous-producing, and sticky foods are the primary cause of lung cancer and other smoke-related problems, trapping tar and other tobacco particulates in the lungs and other organs Many contemporary people who practice macrobiotics are critical of smoking. http://www.cybermacro.com/Macrobiotic_Articles/CyberMacro/Macrobiotics_and_the_Great_Smoking_Myth_by_Roy_Collins/ Some now claim that tobacco should be avoided because, like tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplants, it is a variety of nightshade. Even so, Kushi's son Phiya Kushi, had the following to say in on the occasions of Kushi's operation for colon surgery in 2004: ...I would like to mention publicly, having obtained Michio's permission, that in spite of years of his smoking, a fact well-known to many, recent x-rays of Michio's lungs were surprisingly clean, like that of a twenty year old (remarked his physician). This is not meant to be validation of cigarette smoking, but rather an invitation to question, in the spirit of non-credo, "proven" or "predictable" scientific facts (what system logic do you use as evidence?). Furthermore, the Caraka Samhita, ancient text from India's "Father Of Medicine" recommends smoking as curative measure for various symptoms. Again, this is not meant to be in defense of Michio's word's, cigarette smoking or an invalidation of "proven" facts of the "dangers" of smoking or corn oil or whatever the item may be but rather an invitation to be open minded about all possibilties, no matter how improbable or outlandish. http://macrobiotics.co.uk/letterfrommichio.htm http://www.macrobiotics.nl/encyclopedia/encyclopedia_s.html Cookbooks and resources The Macrobiotic Guide -"The Macrobiotic Guide is so well organized and so very informative. A wonderful place to start or refresh a macrobiotic practice"(http://www.macrobiotics.co.uk) The Great Life Diet by Denny Waxman (renowned macrobiotic author and teacher) Chinese Macrobiotics: The Tao of Long Life (sample pages available to read online from Seahorse Books publisher) Eat Me Now, Healthy Macrobiotic Cooking for Students and Busy People Melanie Waxman (well known macrobiotic author, coach and teacher) Yummy Yummy in My Tummy, Simply Organic Baby Food by Melanie Brown Waxman and Michelle Dirks (http://www.celebrate4health.com) Macrobiotic Association of Great Britain (http://www.macrobiotics.org.uk) free resource, list of practitioners and information See also Energy quality Sanpaku Ch'i Shiatsu Traditional Chinese medicine References
Macrobiotic_diet |@lemmatized macrobiotic:39 diet:32 macrobiotics:31 greek:2 macro:1 large:3 long:11 bios:1 life:13 dietary:10 regimen:3 involve:1 eat:4 grain:14 staple:1 food:33 supplement:1 foodstuff:2 vegetable:15 bean:11 avoid:2 use:9 highly:1 process:3 refine:3 also:8 address:1 manner:1 eating:6 recommend:5 overeat:1 require:1 chew:2 thoroughly:1 swallow:1 history:2 early:3 record:1 term:5 find:2 writing:1 hippocrates:2 father:2 western:2 medicine:9 essay:1 air:1 water:1 place:2 introduce:1 word:3 describe:3 people:5 healthy:4 live:5 herodotus:1 aristotle:1 galen:1 classical:1 writer:1 lifestyle:1 include:8 simple:1 balanced:1 promote:1 health:12 longevity:4 stephen:1 blauer:1 michio:11 kushi:13 way:6 edition:2 avery:1 p:2 xi:1 accord:9 proponent:1 methodology:1 utilize:1 many:11 traditional:5 culture:3 inca:1 chinese:7 han:1 dynasty:1 george:3 ohsawa:6 drew:1 asian:1 japanese:9 folk:1 create:3 version:2 philosophy:3 bring:1 teaching:4 europe:2 japan:5 philosopher:1 inspire:1 formalize:1 kaibara:1 ekiken:1 andou:1 shōeki:1 mizuno:1 namboku:1 sagen:1 ishizuka:1 disciple:1 nishibata:1 manabu:1 shojiro:1 goto:1 take:1 north:1 america:1 late:2 education:1 spread:1 united:3 state:5 student:4 herman:1 aihara:2 cornelia:1 michael:1 abehsera:1 aveline:2 turn:2 prominent:1 teacher:6 coin:1 natural:4 living:1 ancient:2 language:1 mean:4 author:4 far:2 east:1 whole:9 brown:5 rice:7 central:1 first:1 customer:1 owner:1 alternative:3 store:1 century:1 influential:1 emerge:1 kushis:1 emigrate:1 world:3 war:1 ii:1 distil:1 wide:1 range:3 idea:2 interpret:1 modern:2 urban:1 industrialized:1 national:2 museum:1 american:7 division:1 science:1 retrieved:1 april:1 follower:2 approach:3 believe:2 quality:8 powerfully:1 affect:2 well:11 happiness:1 beneficial:2 effect:4 others:3 suggest:2 choose:1 less:1 processed:1 one:2 goal:1 become:2 sensitive:1 actual:1 rather:4 follow:4 rule:1 regulation:1 guideline:3 however:2 help:3 develop:4 sensitivity:1 intuitive:1 sense:1 sustain:1 emphasize:1 locally:1 grown:1 cereal:3 pulse:1 legume:2 seaweed:1 ferment:3 soy:3 product:9 fruit:5 combine:2 meal:1 principle:3 balance:4 know:5 yin:5 yang:4 buckwheat:2 pasta:1 soba:1 variety:2 cooked:1 raw:2 mild:2 seasoning:2 fish:5 nut:7 seed:9 non:3 stimulating:1 beverage:2 bancha:1 twig:1 tea:1 nightshade:4 tomato:2 pepper:1 potato:2 eggplant:2 spinach:1 beet:1 avocado:1 sparingly:1 cooking:3 consider:5 extremely:1 practitioner:3 discourage:1 due:2 alkaloid:1 solanine:1 think:2 calcium:3 stanchich:1 lino:1 new:1 journal:2 carolina:1 apr:1 vol:2 issue:2 composition:2 basic:1 ingredient:3 general:1 following:4 say:3 varies:1 greatly:1 depend:1 geographical:1 circumstance:1 especially:3 miso:2 soup:1 traditionally:1 naturally:3 remainder:1 compose:1 seafood:1 butter:1 sweetener:1 raise:1 animal:2 may:4 need:2 transition:2 individual:1 cook:4 time:3 year:3 spring:1 light:4 wild:1 plant:5 germ:1 lightly:1 specie:1 fresh:1 green:5 style:3 steaming:2 short:1 etc:5 summer:2 leave:1 sweet:2 corn:2 pumpkin:2 quick:1 lighter:1 barley:1 bulghur:1 couscous:1 autumn:1 concentrated:2 root:2 winter:3 pumpkins:1 heavy:3 mochi:1 millet:2 strong:1 round:1 pickle:1 shoyu:1 oil:3 salt:2 fried:1 content:1 call:2 balancing:1 china:2 hold:1 overstimulating:1 exhaust:1 body:1 mind:2 classify:1 extreme:1 stimulate:1 sugar:1 alcohol:1 honey:1 coffee:1 chocolate:1 flour:1 hot:1 spice:1 drug:1 chemical:1 preservatives:1 commercial:1 milk:1 yogurt:1 soft:1 cheese:1 poor:1 concentrate:1 dense:1 stagnation:1 strengthen:2 stagnate:1 consume:2 poultry:2 meat:8 egg:1 sea:3 factor:1 dish:1 choice:1 adjust:1 season:1 climate:1 activity:1 gender:1 age:1 condition:1 personal:1 consideration:1 popularity:1 influence:1 edo:1 period:1 peasant:1 allow:1 primarily:2 get:1 protein:3 advocate:3 majority:1 population:1 past:1 ate:1 base:4 popular:2 incorporate:1 eater:1 standard:2 cuisine:1 form:3 ch:3 ang:2 ming:2 similar:1 system:2 upon:1 chee:2 soo:2 book:3 publish:2 harpercollins:2 tao:3 therapy:2 since:1 pre:2 historic:1 along:2 art:1 aquarian:1 press:1 thorsons:1 isbn:1 bce:1 recommendation:1 neijing:1 yellow:1 emperor:1 classic:1 internal:1 date:1 advent:1 support:1 study:3 v:2 veganism:1 vegan:6 certain:2 two:2 share:1 enough:1 similarity:1 uncommon:1 completely:1 around:1 john:1 robbins:1 dietetic:2 association:7 approves:1 carefully:1 plan:5 type:2 vegetarian:3 appropriate:1 stage:1 cycle:1 pregnancy:1 lactation:1 infancy:1 childhood:1 adolescence:1 position:1 dietitian:1 canada:1 appropriately:1 healthful:1 nutritionally:2 adequate:3 provide:3 benefit:2 prevention:3 treatment:5 disease:2 dietic:1 june:1 page:3 part:1 opine:1 consumption:1 adult:1 lean:2 day:1 essential:1 nutrient:5 without:1 excess:1 fat:2 cholesterol:2 fit:1 red:2 low:2 cancer:19 preventative:1 cure:3 outline:1 fundamental:1 evidence:4 high:1 possibly:1 saturated:1 preserve:1 prevent:1 http:9 www:8 ific:1 org:3 publication:1 qa:1 cancerqa:1 cfm:1 tulane:1 school:1 public:1 conduct:1 james:1 carter:2 jp:1 saxe:1 gp:1 newbold:1 peres:1 ce:1 campeau:1 rj:1 bernal:1 l:1 hypothesis:1 management:1 improve:1 survival:1 link:1 analysis:2 representative:1 case:2 j:2 coll:1 nutr:1 pmid:1 report:4 significant:1 improvement:1 patient:3 month:3 compare:1 practice:5 although:3 complementary:1 medical:3 paper:1 scientific:2 potential:1 limit:1 retrospective:1 serious:1 methodologic:1 flaw:1 annals:1 cgi:1 reprint:1 pdf:1 despite:1 anecdotal:1 contrary:1 unconventional:2 professional:1 useful:1 society:1 strongly:1 urge:1 program:1 exclusive:1 primary:2 bccancer:1 bc:1 ca:1 ppi:1 unconventionaltherapies:1 macrobioticdietszenmacrobiotics:1 htm:2 wife:1 daughter:1 lilly:1 die:2 tumour:1 remove:1 surgically:1 intestine:1 appear:1 cecile:1 levin:1 anthony:1 sattilaro:1 recall:1 sufferer:1 belief:1 physical:1 mental:1 eastern:1 criticism:1 nutrition:2 information:4 detail:2 available:6 usda:2 database:2 monitor:1 child:1 importance:1 facilitate:1 growth:1 function:1 iron:3 zinc:2 vitamin:7 riboflavin:2 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validation:1 invitation:2 question:1 spirit:1 credo:1 proven:2 predictable:1 logic:1 furthermore:1 caraka:1 samhita:1 text:1 india:1 curative:1 measure:1 symptom:1 defense:1 invalidation:1 whatever:1 item:1 open:1 possibilties:1 matter:1 improbable:1 outlandish:1 co:2 uk:3 letterfrommichio:1 nl:1 html:1 cookbook:1 resource:2 guide:2 organize:1 informative:1 wonderful:1 start:1 refresh:1 denny:1 waxman:3 renowned:1 sample:1 read:1 online:1 seahorse:1 publisher:1 busy:1 melanie:2 coach:1 yummy:2 tummy:1 simply:1 organic:1 baby:1 michelle:1 dirk:1 britain:1 free:1 list:1 see:1 sanpaku:1 shiatsu:1 reference:1 |@bigram macrobiotic_diet:12 balanced_diet:1 michio_kushi:8 han_dynasty:1 dietary_guideline:2 yin_yang:3 nut_seed:6 varies_greatly:1 cereal_grain:1 fish_seafood:1 fried_rice:1 vegetable_fruit:1 fruit_nut:1 aquarian_press:1 vegan_diet:2 dietetic_association:2 vegetarian_diet:3 infancy_childhood:1 childhood_adolescence:1 meat_poultry:1 fat_cholesterol:1 saturated_fat:1 http_www:8 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3,127
Aramaic_alphabet
The Aramaic alphabet is adapted from the Phoenician alphabet, and became distinctive from it by the eighth century BCE. The letters all represent consonants, some of which are matres lectionis, which also indicate long vowels. The Aramaic alphabet is historically significant since virtually all modern Middle Eastern writing systems use a script that can be traced back to it, as well as numerous Altaic languages of Central and East Asia. This is primarily due to the widespread usage of the Aramaic language as both a lingua franca and the official language of the Neo-Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empire. The holy texts of Judaism and Islam, as well as certain Christian and Buddhist texts are written in scripts which are known descendants of Aramaic. It has been called an abjad by Peter T. Daniels -- that is, a consonantal alphabet -- used for writing Aramaic. The distinction made between "abjad" alphaphets and later alphabets like Greek that incorporate vowels more systematically, however, tends to confuse alphabets with "transcription systems," and there is no reason to relegate the Aramaic or Phoenician alphabets to second class status as an "incomplete alphabet" (see the critique by F. Coulmas, Writing Systems [Cambridge University Press, 2004], page 113). History The earliest inscriptions in the Aramaic language use the Phoenician alphabet. Over time, the alphabet developed into the form shown below. Aramaic gradually became the lingua franca throughout the Middle East, with the script displacing cuneiform as the official writing system of the existing empires. Its widespread usage led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing the Hebrew language. Formerly, Hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of Phoenician (the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet). Legacy The Hebrew and Nabataean alphabets are little changed in style from the Aramaic alphabet. The development of cursive versions of Aramaic led to the creation of the Syriac, Palmyrenean and Mandaic alphabets. These scripts formed the basis of the Arabic, Sogdian, Orkhon and Mongolian alphabets. The Aramaic alphabet is also the forebear of the Indic alphabets, on the basis of certain strong similarities between the Aramaic and Brāhmī script. Today, Biblical Aramaic, Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects and the Aramaic language of the Talmud are written in the Hebrew alphabet. Syriac and Christian Neo-Aramaic dialects are written in the Syriac alphabet. Mandaic is written in the Mandaic alphabet. Imperial Aramaic alphabet Redrawn from A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic, Franz Rosenthal; forms are as used in Egypt, 5th century BCE. Names are as in Biblical Aramaic. Letter nameLetter formEquivalent HebrewEquivalent ArabicEquivalent SyriacSound valueĀlaphImage:Aleph.svgאأܐ; , BēthImage:Beth.svgבب‎ܒ/b/, /v/GāmalImage:Gimel.svgגجܓDālathImage:Daleth.svgדد‎ܕ/d/, /ð/HēImage:He0.svgהﻫ‎ܗ/h/WawImage:Waw.svgוو‎ܘ/w/; , ZainImage:Zayin.svgזز‎ܙ/z/ḤēthImage:Heht.svgחحܚ/ħ/ṬēthImage:Teth.svgטطܛemphatic YudhImage:Yod.svgיيܝ/j/; , KāphImage:Kaph.svg כ ך كܟܟ/k/, /x/LāmadhImage:Lamed.svgל لܠ/l/MimImage:Mem.svg מ ם م‎ܡܡ/m/NunImage:Nun.svg נ ן نܢܢ ܢ/n/SemkathImage:Samekh.svgס--ܣ/s/‘ĒImage:Ayin.svgעعܥPēImage:Pe0.svg פ ף فܦ/p/, /f/ṢādhēImage:Sade 1.svg, Image:Sade 2.svg צ ץ ص‎ܨemphatic QophImage:Qoph.svgקق‎ܩRēshImage:Resh.svgרرܪShinImage:Shin.svgשش,سܫTauImage:Taw.svgתت‎,ثܬ/t/, /θ/ Matres lectionis The letters Waw and Yudh, put following the consonants that were followed by the vowels u and i (and often also o and e), used to indicate the long vowels û and î respectively (often also ô and ê respectively). These letters, which stand for both consonant and vowel sounds, are known as matres lectionis. The letter Alaph, likewise, had some of the characteristics of a mater lectionis: in initial positions, it indicated a specific consonant called "glottal stop" (followed by a vowel), and in the middle of the word and word finally it often also stood for the long vowels â or ê. Among Jews, influence of Hebrew spelling often led to the use of He instead of Alaph in word final positions. The practice of using certain letters to hold vowel values spread to child writing systems of Aramaic, such as Hebrew and Arabic, where they are still used today. References Daniels, Peter T., et al. eds. The World's Writing Systems Oxford. (1996) Coulmas, Florian. The Writing Systems of the World Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Oxford. (1989) External links Comparison of Aramaic to related alphabets Omniglot entry Michael Everson's Proposal to encode Aramaic in Unicode
Aramaic_alphabet |@lemmatized aramaic:23 alphabet:24 adapt:1 phoenician:4 become:2 distinctive:1 eighth:1 century:2 bce:2 letter:6 represent:1 consonant:4 matres:3 lectionis:4 also:5 indicate:3 long:3 vowel:8 historically:1 significant:1 since:1 virtually:1 modern:1 middle:3 eastern:1 write:13 system:7 use:9 script:5 trace:1 back:1 well:2 numerous:1 altaic:1 language:6 central:1 east:2 asia:1 primarily:1 due:1 widespread:2 usage:2 lingua:2 franca:2 official:2 neo:3 assyrian:1 babylonian:1 persian:1 empire:2 holy:1 text:2 judaism:1 islam:1 certain:3 christian:2 buddhist:1 know:2 descendant:1 call:2 abjad:2 peter:2 daniel:2 consonantal:1 distinction:1 make:1 alphaphets:1 later:1 like:1 greek:1 incorporate:1 systematically:1 however:1 tend:1 confuse:1 transcription:1 reason:1 relegate:1 second:1 class:1 status:1 incomplete:1 see:1 critique:1 f:2 coulmas:2 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 page:1 history:1 early:1 inscription:1 time:1 develop:1 form:4 show:1 gradually:1 throughout:1 displace:1 cuneiform:1 exist:1 lead:3 gradual:1 adoption:1 hebrew:7 formerly:1 closer:1 paleo:1 legacy:1 nabataean:1 little:1 change:1 style:1 development:1 cursive:1 version:1 creation:1 syriac:3 palmyrenean:1 mandaic:3 basis:2 arabic:2 sogdian:1 orkhon:1 mongolian:1 forebear:1 indic:1 strong:1 similarity:1 brāhmī:1 today:2 biblical:3 jewish:1 dialect:2 talmud:1 imperial:1 redrawn:1 grammar:1 franz:1 rosenthal:1 egypt:1 name:1 nameletter:1 formequivalent:1 hebrewequivalent:1 arabicequivalent:1 syriacsound:1 valueālaphimage:1 aleph:1 svgאأܐ:1 bēthimage:1 beth:1 svgבب:1 ܒ:1 b:1 v:1 gāmalimage:1 gimel:1 svgגجܓdālathimage:1 daleth:1 svgדد:1 ܕ:1 ð:1 hēimage:1 svgהﻫ:1 ܗ:1 h:1 wawimage:1 waw:2 svgוو:1 ܘ:1 w:1 zainimage:1 zayin:1 svgזز:1 ܙ:1 z:1 ḥēthimage:1 heht:1 svgחحܚ:1 ħ:1 ṭēthimage:1 teth:1 svgטطܛemphatic:1 yudhimage:1 yod:1 svgיيܝ:1 j:1 kāphimage:1 kaph:1 svg:6 כ:1 ך:1 كܟܟ:1 k:1 x:1 lāmadhimage:1 lam:1 svgל:1 لܠ:1 l:1 mimimage:1 mem:1 מ:1 ם:1 م:1 ܡܡ:1 nunimage:1 nun:1 נ:1 ן:1 نܢܢ:1 ܢ:1 n:1 semkathimage:1 samekh:1 svgס:1 ܣ:1 ēimage:1 ayin:1 svgעعܥpēimage:1 פ:1 ף:1 فܦ:1 p:1 ṣādhēimage:1 sade:2 image:1 צ:1 ץ:1 ص:1 ܨemphatic:1 qophimage:1 qoph:1 svgקق:1 ܩrēshimage:1 resh:1 svgרرܪshinimage:1 shin:1 svgשش:1 سܫtauimage:1 taw:1 svgתت:1 ثܬ:1 θ:1 yudh:1 put:1 follow:3 u:1 often:4 e:1 û:1 î:1 respectively:2 ô:1 ê:2 stand:2 sound:1 alaph:2 likewise:1 characteristic:1 mater:1 initial:1 position:2 specific:1 glottal:1 stop:1 word:3 finally:1 â:1 among:1 jew:1 influence:1 spell:1 instead:1 final:1 practice:1 hold:1 value:1 spread:1 child:1 still:1 reference:1 et:1 al:1 ed:1 world:2 oxford:2 florian:1 blackwell:1 publisher:1 ltd:1 external:1 link:1 comparison:1 relate:1 omniglot:1 entry:1 michael:1 everson:1 proposal:1 encode:1 unicode:1 |@bigram matres_lectionis:3 lingua_franca:2 neo_assyrian:1 brāhmī_script:1 franz_rosenthal:1 mater_lectionis:1 glottal_stop:1 â_ê:1 et_al:1 blackwell_publisher:1 external_link:1 alphabet_omniglot:1 michael_everson:1
3,128
Transport_in_China
A road in Beijing, China's capital Transportation in the People's Republic of China has experienced major growth and expansion since 1949 and especially since the early 1980s. Airports, roads, and railway construction will provide a massive employment boost in China over the next decade. Rail, which is the primary mode of transportation, has doubled in length since the mid-twentieth century, and an extensive network provides service to the entire nation. The larger cities have metro systems in operation, under construction, or in the planning stage. The highway and road system also has gone through rapid expansion, resulting in a rapid increase of motor vehicle use throughout China. Although China's transportation system comprises a vast network of transport nodes across its huge territory, the nodes tend to concentrate in the more economically developed coastal areas and inland cities along major rivers. The physical state and comprehensiveness of China's transportation infrastructure tend to vary widely by geography. While remote, rural areas still largely depend on non-mechanized means of transportation, a modern maglev train system was built in China to connect the city center of Shanghai with its international airport. Much of contemporary China's transportation systems have been built since the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949. Prior to 1950, there were only 21,800 km of railway lines. In 2007, the railway network has since been expanded to 78,000 km. Rail travel remained the most popular form of transport, although air travel has also experienced significant growth since the late 1990s. The government-led effort — that began in the 1990s — to connect the country by expressways via the "National Trunk Highway System" has expanded the network to more than 53,000 km by the end of 2007, making China's the second longest expressway network in the world (after the United States). History China is in the midst of a massive upgrade of its transportation infrastructure. Until recently, China’s economy was able to continue to grow despite deficiencies in infrastructure development. This is no longer the case, and the Government realizes that in order to keep the economy moving forward, they need an efficient system in place to move goods and people across the country. According to World Bank statistics, goods lost due to poor or obsolete transportation infrastructure amounted to one percent of China's GDP as recently as the most current survey (mid 1990s). Logistic costs account for 20% of a product's price in China, compared to 10% in the United States, and 5% in countries that are even better developed--the United States is rapidly falling behind other better-developed countries. Ports are being improved for greater use of China’s waterways, and airports are being improved across the country. Related industries such as construction equipment, engineering, container security, and electronics and safety devices have also grown rapidly. Regulation Mainland China Transportation in Mainland China is regulated by the Ministry of Communications, the Ministry of Railways, the Civil Aviation Administration of China. Special administrative regions The aforementioned transportation authorities have no jurisdiction in Hong Kong and Macau. Hong Kong's transportation is regulated by Transport Department of Hong Kong whereas Macau's transportation is regulated by Land, Public works and Transport Bureau of Macau. Rail Rail is the major mode of transportation in China. Carrying some 24% of the world’s railway transportation volume, China’s railway system is critical to its economy. China has the world's third largest rail network, the total track length being at 76,000 km in 2006. The national rail system is modernizing and expanding rapidly and is efficient within the limits of the available track. Some 71,898 km of track were operational in 2002. This total included 71,898 km of standard gauge (1,435 mm) track (18,115 km of which were electrified) and 3,600 km of 1,000 mm and 750 mm gauge local industrial lines. There were an additional 23,945 km of dual-gauge track not included in the total. As of 2002, some 23,058 km of the railroad routes were double tracked, representing 38.7% of the total. In 2004 China’s railroad inventory included 15,456 locomotives owned by the national railroad system. The inventory in recent times included some 100 steam locomotives, but the last such locomotive, built in 1999, is now in service as a tourist attraction while the others have been retired from commercial service. The remaining locomotives are either diesel or electric powered. Another 352 locomotives are owned by local railroads and 604 operated by joint-venture railroads. National railroad freight cars numbered 520,101 and passenger coaches 39,766. In 2003 China’s railroads carried 2.2 trillion tons of freight and 478.9 trillion passenger/kilometers. Only India had more passenger/kilometers and the United States more net ton/kilometers than China. Because of its limited capital, overburdened infrastructure, and need to continuously modernize, the national rail system, which is controlled by the Ministry of Railways through a network of regional divisions, operates on an austere budget. Foreign capital investment in the freight sector was allowed beginning in 2003, and international public stock offerings opened in 2006. In another move to better capitalize and reform the rail system, the Ministry of Railways established three public shareholder-owned companies in 2003: China Railways Container Transport Company, China Railway Special Cargo Service Company, and China Railways Parcel Express Company. High speed rail As of 2007,most of the 76,000 km total of rail track, 6,003 km were suitable and approved for high speed rail. The high speed service is mainly operated by China Railway High-speed. Suburban and commuter rail systems China's passenger railways are mostly used for medium- and long-distance travel, with few trains stopping anywhere but at major stations in center cities. Commuter rail systems, characteristic of large European and North American cities, are uncommon in China. However, Beijing Suburban Railway recently started operating, and Guangzhou-Zhuhai Intercity Mass Rapid Transit is under construction. Regional development In 1992, a new large-scale rail project was launched in China, called the "New Silk Road" or "Eurasian Continental Bridge" project. The project involved the modernization and infrastructure development of a 4,131 km railroad route starting in Lianyungang, Jiangsu, and traveling through central and northwestern China to Urumqi, Xinjiang, to the Alataw Pass into Kazakhstan. From that point, the railroad links to some 6,800 km of routes that end in Rotterdam. China also has established rail links between seaports and interior export-processing zones. For example, in 2004 Chengdu in Sichuan was linked to the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone in coastal Guangdong; exports clear customs in Chengdu and are shipped twice daily by rail to the seaport at Shenzhen for fast delivery. Qingzang railway A 1,080 km section of the Qingzang railway has been completed from Golmud to Lhasa. The 815 km section from Xining to Golmud in Qinghai opened to traffic in 1984. The railway's highest point, the Tanggula Mountain Pass, is 5,072 m above sea level, making it the highest railway in the world. More than 960 km, or over four-fifths of the railway, is at an altitude of more than 4,000 m, and over half of it was laid on frozen earth. Because of the high altitudes, carriages are supplied with supplemental oxygen. Linking Lhasa and Xigaze together in Tibet, the construction of a 254 km extension line of the Qingzang railway will start in 2007 with completion expected by 2010. This railway, the first feeder line for the Qingzang railway, will cost around 11 billion yuan (US$1.42 billion), said Dotub, a Tibetan legislator at a press conference held on the sidelines of the country's parliamentary session in Beijing. Railway links with adjoining countries The only railway link China has with a neighboring country that does not have a break of gauge is with North Korea. It also has a links with Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Russia, who all use the 1524 mm gauge and with Vietnam, where the 1000 mm gauge is still in use. China does not have a direct rail link with Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Pakistan or Tajikistan, but is currently planning a link with Laos. Variable gauge axle trains are sometimes used to overcome the break of gauge with neighboring countries. The mainland is also linked to the Hong Kong, but not with the Macau, which is currently being planned. Trans-Siberian Railway The Trans-Siberian Railway, which crosses Russia, has a branch that sweeps down from Irkutsk, across Mongolia, and on to Beijing. Metro Shanghai Metro platform, line 2 The Beijing Subway, which opened in 1969, has 142 km of subway track on five lines, plus an additional 98 km slated by 2010. The Guangzhou Metro, which opened in 1999, has 18.5 km and an additional 133 km planned. Shanghai Metro, which opened in 1995, has five lines, 95 stations, and 145 km of track, with an additional 108.4 km under construction or planned. The Tianjin Metro was begun in 1970 as a planned network of 153.9 km on seven lines; large sections remain closed for reconstruction, but one 26.2-km line opened for trial operations in June 2006. The Shenzhen Metro opened in 2004, initially with two lines, 19 stations, and 21.8 km of track. Also under further extensions are subway and light rail systems in Guangzhou Metro and Nanjing Metro, and systems are planned for Nanjing Metro and Qingdao Metro. Cities that have an underground or light rail system: Beijing Subway originally designed and built in the 1960s Changchun Light Railway Chongqing Metro - currently only one monorail line Guangzhou Metro Nanjing Metro Subway construction official site Shanghai Metro - designed and built in the 1990s Shenzhen Metro Tianjin Metro Wuhan Metro Metro systems under construction: Chengdu Metro Harbin Metro Qingdao Metro Shenyang Metro Xi'an Metro Metro outside Mainland China Hong Kong MTR Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway was planned, designed, constructed and opened under British administration, it was opened in 1979 and merged with the KCR network in 2007 to form a 10 line heavy metro operation and Light Rail service. Macau Light Transit System The Macau LRT was first proposed in 2003, but final go ahead was not given until a public announcement by the Government of Macau was made in October 2006. The Macau Light Transit System will serve the Macau Peninsula, Taipa island, Cotai reclamation area and Macau International Airport. Taipei Rapid Transit System Taipei Rapid Transit System opened on March 28, 1996 with 10.5 km available, till 2006, the metro network extended to 74.4 km and 69 stations. Kaohsiung Mass Rapid Transit The construction of KMRT started in October 2001, the Red Line opened on March 9, 2008, and the Orange line is expected to open in August 2008. Maglev train China also has the world’s first commercial high-speed maglev (magnetic levitation) train service (the first being opened at Birmingham International Airport, UK in 1984, however, it was not high-speed). The Chinese project was a Sino-German joint venture, 38-km long route between downtown Shanghai and the Pudong airport opened in 2003. The project cost US$1.2 billion. Probably the world's fastest train In 2004 the first Chinese-made maglev train made its debut in Dalian, a major port city in Northeast China’s Liaoning Province. The 10.3 m long train has a top speed of just under 110 kilometers per hour. Although the cost to build was high at US$6 million per kilometer, China’s outlay was still only one-sixth of the world average. Road Electric bicycles Electric bicycles are very common in many cities of China, such as Yangzhou; in some areas they may outnumber motorcycles or regular bicycles China is the world's leading producer of electric bicycles. According to the data of the China Bicycle Association, a government-chartered industry group, in 2004 China's manufacturers sold 7.5 million electric bicycles nationwide, which was almost twice the year 2003 sales; "China's Cyclists Take Charge", By Peter Fairley. IEEE Spectrum, June 2005 domestic sales reached 10 million in 2005, and 16 to 18 million in 2006. "Cheap and green, electric bikes are the rage in China", by Tim Johnson. Originally published 23 May 2007 by McClatchy Newspapers. By 2007, electric bicycles were thought to make up 10 to 20 percent of all two-wheeled vehicles on the streets of many major cities. A typical unit requires 8 hours to charge the battery, which provides the range of 25-30 miles (40-50 km), at the speed of around 20 km/h. A large number of such vehicles is exported from China as well (3 million units, worth 40 billion yuan ($5.8 billion), in the year 2006 alone), "Europe's latest craze electric bikes", Associated Press, 10/14/2008. The article gives China Bicycle Association and Xinhua News Agency's "Economic Reference" newspaper, as the sources of the numbers Vehicles G205, part of the NTHS. This section of G205 (Jingshen Expressway) connects the northern Chinese cities of Beijing and Shenyang. During the war with Japan, in the 1930s, China built many roads, the most famous of which is the Burma Road that leads southwest from Kunming to the city of Lashio. Since it came into power, the Communist government initiated a large effort into building highways that extend across China and beyond its borders. Today, China is linked by a still evolving network of roads (China National Highways) and expressways (Expressways of China). In the past few years, China has been rapidly developing its highway system. China National Highways stretch to all four corners of mainland China. Expressways reach the same destinations as China National Highways, except for the rugged terrain of Tibet. An expressway link is already at the planning stage. In 2005 China had a total road network of more than 3.3 million km, although approximately 1.47 million km of this network are classified as "village roads". Paved roads totaled 770,265 km in 2004; the remainder were gravel, improved earth standard, or merely earth tracks. Highways (totaling 130,000 km) were critical to China’s economic growth as it worked to mitigate a poor distribution network and authorities sought to spur economic activity directly. All major cities are expected to be linked with a 55,000 km interprovince expressway system by 2020. The highway and road systems carried nearly 11.6 billion tons of freight and 769.6 trillion passenger/kilometers in 2003. The importance of highways and motor vehicles, which carry 13.5% of cargo and 49.1% of passengers, was growing rapidly in the mid-2000s. Road usage has increased significantly, as automobiles, including privately-owned vehicles, rapidly replace bicycles as the popular vehicle of choice in China. Car ownership is still low in comparison to the other members of the BRIC group of countries, being exceeded by Russia and Brazil . Indeed the rate of car ownership in China is only expected to meet the 1960's level of car ownership of some developed countries in 2015 . In 2002, excluding military and probably internal security vehicles, there were 12 million passenger cars and buses in operation and 8.1 million other vehicles. In 2003 China reported that 23.8 million vehicles were used for business purposes, including 14.8 million passenger vehicles and 8.5 million trucks. The latest statistics from the Beijing Municipal Statistics Bureau show that Beijing had nearly 1.3 million privately-owned cars at the end of 2004 or 11 for each 100 Beijing residents. Beijing currently has the highest annual rate of private car growth in China. US$4.25 billion was invested in Beijing’s infrastructure in 2004, and another US$22 billion will be invested before the 2008 Olympics to improve Beijing’s traffic congestion issues. Some 270,000 km of rural highways will be built and upgraded in 2008. By comparison, 423,000 kmof countryside highways were built or upgraded in 2007, a record high. According to China's Transportation Ministry, as of the end of 2007, 98.54 percent of villages and towns had already been connected by highways. The 2008 construction plan comprises five north-south highway trunk roads and seven east-west trunk roads and eight inter-provincial roads. Meanwhile, the central and local governments have continued to allocate funds to support the countryside highway build-up and step up construction quality supervision. China to add and upgrade 270,000 km of rural highway in 2008 - People's Daily Online Bus rapid transit Beijing BRT Line 1. Note the doors on the left-hand side of the bus -- the BRT line uses central island platforms for most of its route. More than 30 projects are being implemented or studied in China in some big cities. Beijing : BRT line 1, running on the Nan Zhongzhouxian (South Central Axis Line), launched at the end of December 2005. The line terminates at Qianmen and Demaozhuang, which is 16 km long with 15 intermediate stops. Gakei.com - Beijing Bus Rapid Transit Chongqing : BRT line 1 on the way Dalian : Route "BRT" started operation in 2007 Guangzhou : BRT line 1 on the way Hangzhou: BRT route B1 which started operation on April 22, 2006 Jinan: BRT line 1 on the way Kunming: System opened in 1999 Shanghai: A BRT line running between Shanghai West Railway Station and Shanghai West Railway Station is on the way Shenzhen : BRT line 1 on the way Wuxi : 5 routes planned Xian : 1 East/West route planned Shenyang: More than 6 routes planned. Changzhou: Several routes completed; others in progress. Trolleybus systems Town tramway systems Air As a result of the rapidly expanding civil aviation industry, by 2007 China had around 500 airports of all types and sizes in operation, about 400 of which had paved runways and about 100 of which had runways of 3,047 m or shorter. There also were 35 heliports in 2007, an increasingly used type of facility. With the additional airports came a proliferation of airlines. Airlines Further information: List of airlines in the People's Republic of China Interior hall of Beijing Capital International Airport before the 2008 Summer Olympics The Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC), also called the General Administration of Civil Aviation of China, was established as a government agency in 1949 to operate China’s commercial air fleet. In 1988 CAAC’s operational fleet was transferred to new, semiautonomous airlines and has served since as a regulatory agency. In 2002 the government merged the nine largest airlines into three regional groups based in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou, respectively: Air China, China Eastern Airlines, and China Southern Airlines, which operate most of China’s external flights. By 2005 these three had been joined by six other major airlines: Hainan Airlines, Shanghai Airlines, Shandong Airlines, Xiamen Airlines, Shenzhen Airlines, and Sichuan Airlines. Together, these nine airlines had a combined fleet of some 860 aircraft, mostly Boeing from the United States and Airbus from France. To meet growing demands for passenger and cargo capacity, in 2005 these airlines significantly expanded their fleets with orders placed for additional Boeing and Airbus aircraft expected to be delivered by 2010. In June 2006, it was announced that an Airbus A320 assembly plant would be built in the Binhai New Area of Tianjin, with the first aircraft to be delivered in 2008. Air China owns 17.5% of Cathay Pacific (second largest shareholder) and the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC), an administrative agency of the State Council, owns majority and controlling stakes in China Southern Airlines, China Eastern Airlines, and Air China. The total number of planes of all mainland Chinese carriers combined will be near 1,580 by 2010, up from 863 in 2006. By 2025, the figure is estimated to be 4,000. China's fleet to double in five years The twenty seven airlines in the Chinese mainland handled 138 million passengers, and 22.17 million tons of cargo in 2005. Airports Shanghai Pudong International Airport, interior In 2007 China has 467 airports. Of China's major airports, Beijing Capital International Airport (PEK), located 27 km northeast of central Beijing, has the greatest flow of passengers annually. Shanghai has the 3rd largest amount of air traffic in China through its two airports combined, the Shanghai Pudong International Airport (PVG), which is located 30 km southeast of central Shanghai, and Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport (SHA), which is located 13 km west of central Shanghai. Both are under control of the Shanghai Airport Authority. The new Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport (CAN), which opened in August 2004 and is located 28 km from downtown Guangzhou. Other major airports are located at Chengdu, Chongqing, Dalian, Hangzhou, Harbin, Hohhot, Kunming, Qingdao, Shenyang, Tianjin, Urumqi, Xiamen, and Xi’an. China is served both by numerous major international flights to most countries of the world and a host of domestic regional airlines. Air traffic within mainland China is often connected through Beijing, Shanghai or Guangzhou. They are, respectively, the main hubs for Air China, China Eastern Airlines and China Southern Airlines. In 2003 China’s civil aviation sector carried nearly 2.2 million tons of freight and 126.3 trillion passenger/kilometers. Passenger flights to Taiwan and other places under administration of the Republic of China must follow special rules. Flight between Mainland China and Hong Kong International Airport (HKG) is considered international http://wikitravel.org/en/Hong_Kong Accessed 2008-06-21 First sentence under Shenzhen International Airport reads "...flying from Hong Kong to the mainland is considered an international flight..." . Airports with paved runways Total: 403 Over 3,047 m: 58 2,438 to 3,047 m: 128 1,524 to 2,437 m: 130 914 to 1,523 m: 20 Under 914 m: 67 (2007) Airports with unpaved runways Total: 64 Over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 914 to 1,523 m: 17 Under 914 m: 26 (2007) Ports and shipping China has more than 2,000 ports, 130 of which are open to foreign ships. The major ports, including river ports accessible by ocean-going ships, are Beihai, Dalian, Dandong, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Haikou, Hankou, Huangpu, Jiujiang, Lianyungang, Nanjing, Nantong, Ningbo, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao, Rizhao, Sanya, Shanghai, Shantou, Shenzhen, Tianjin, Weihai, Wenzhou, Xiamen, Xingang, Yangzhou, Yantai, and Zhanjiang. China has sixteen "major" shipping ports with a capacity of over 50 million tons per year. Combined China’s total shipping capacity is in excess of 2,890 million tons. By 2010, 35% of the world’s shipping is expected to originate from China. The seven largest port terminals are Dalian, Guangzhou, Nanjing, Ningbo, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao, Shanghai. Additionally, Hong Kong is a major international port serving as an important trade center for China. In 2005 Shanghai Port Management Department reported that its Shanghai port became the world’s largest cargo port, processing cargo topping 443 million tons and surpassing Singapore’s port. The Port of Shanghai is presently undergoing significant upgrades. Shanghai Model Port Alliance is responsible for many of the upgrades that are expected to make Shanghai’s port more automated, minimizing the loss of goods and time while helping Customs collect more accurate tariffs. If the Shanghai project is successful, there is interest in replicating the process in other Chinese ports. As of 2004, China’s merchant fleet had 3,497 ships. Of these, 1,700 ships of or more totaled 20.4 million tons. Ships by type: barge carrier 2, bulk carrier 325, cargo ship 840, chemical tanker 21, combination bulk carrier 11, combination ore/oil 1, container ship 125, liquified gas 20, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger ship 8, passenger/cargo ship 46, petroleum tanker 251, refrigerated cargo ship 24, roll-on/roll-off 21, short-sea passenger 43, specialized tanker 2, vehicle carrier 1 (1999 est.) In 2003 China’s major coastal ports handled 2.1 billion tons of freight. As of 2007, China’s merchant fleet had 1,775 ships ( or over) / by type: barge carrier 3, bulk carrier 415, cargo ship 689, carrier 3, chemical tanker 62, combination ore/oil 2, container ship 157, liquefied gas 35, passenger 8, passenger/cargo ship 84, petroleum tanker 250, refrigerated cargo ship 33, roll-on/roll-off 9, specialized tanker 8, vehicle carrier 17. foreign-owned: 12 (Ecuador 1, Greece 1, Hong Kong 6, Japan 2, South Korea 1, Norway 1) (2007) registered in other countries: 1,366 (Bahamas 9, Bangladesh 1, Belize 107, Bermuda 10, Bolivia 1, Cambodia 166, Cyprus 10, France 5, Georgia 4, Germany 2, Honduras 3, Hong Kong 309, India 1, Indonesia 2, Liberia 32, Malaysia 1, Malta 13, Marshall Islands 3, Mongolia 3, Norway 47, Panama 473, Philippines 2, Sierra Leone 8, Singapore 19, St Vincent and The Grenadines 106, Thailand 1, Turkey 1, Tuvalu 25, unknown 33) (2007) Waterways On the Grand Canal of China China has more than 140,000 kilometers of navigable rivers, streams, lakes, and canals, and in 2003 these inland waterways carried nearly 1.6 trillion tons of freight and 6.3 trillion passenger/kilometers to more than 5,100 inland ports. The main navigable rivers are the Heilong Jiang; Yangtze River; Xiang River, a short branch of the Yangtze; Pearl River; Huangpu River; Lijiang River; and Xi Jiang. Ships of up to 10,000 tons can navigate more than 1,000 km on the Yangtze as far as Wuhan. Ships of 1,000 tons can navigate from Wuhan to Chongqing, another 1,286 km upstream. The Grand Canal is the world’s longest canal at 1,794 km and serves 17 cities between Beijing and Hangzhou. It links five major rivers: the Haihe, Huaihe, Huanghe, Qiantang, and Yangtze. Pipelines As of 2006, China had 22,664 km of gas pipelines, 15,256 km of oil pipelines, and 6,106 km for refined products. China's pipelines carried 219.9 million tons of petroleum and natural gas in 2003. As a major oil and gas consumer, China is searching for more external supples. Construction of a 4,200-km-long pipeline from Xinjiang to Shanghai (West–East Gas Pipeline) was completed in 2004. The government hopes that the use of natural gas will assist to reduce the use of coal which is responsible for much air pollution. See also References External links Railway map of China China rail network Transportation of China (in English) China rail timetable China Transport Statistics
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Devon
Devon () is a large county in South West England. The county is also referred to as Devonshire, but that is the official name, rarely used inside of the county but often indicating a traditional or historical context. The county shares borders with Cornwall to the west and Dorset and Somerset to the east. Its coastline follows the English Channel to the south and the Bristol Channel to the north. It is the only county in England with two separate coastlines. Devon is the third largest of the English counties and has a population of 1,109,900. The county town is the cathedral city of Exeter, and the county contains two independent unitary authorities: the port city of Plymouth and the Torbay conurbation of seaside resorts, in addition to Devon County Council itself. Plymouth is also the biggest city in Devon. Much of the county is rural (including National Park) land, with a low population density by British standards. It contains Dartmoor 954 sq km (368 square miles), the largest open space in southern England http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/designatedareas/nationalparks/dartmoor.aspx|Natural England: Dartmoor retrieved 13 May 2009 . The county is home to part of England's only natural UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Dorset and East Devon Coast, known as the Jurassic Coast for its geology and geographical features. Along with its neighbour, Cornwall, Devon is known as the "Cornubian massif". This geology gives rise to the landscapes of Dartmoor and Exmoor, which are both National Parks. Devon has seaside resorts and historic towns and cities, and a mild climate, accounting for the large tourist sector of its economy. History Toponymy The name 'Devon' derives from the name of the Celtic people who inhabited the southwestern peninsula of Britain at the time of the Roman invasion c. AD 50, known as the Dumnonii, thought to mean 'deep valley dwellers'. In the Brythonic Celtic languages, Devon is known as Dyfnaint (Welsh), Devnent in Breton and Dewnans (Cornish). (For an account of Celtic Dumnonia see the separate article.) William Camden, in his 1607 edition of Britannia, described Devon as being one part of an older, wider country that once included Cornwall: There is some dispute over the use of 'Devonshire' instead of Devon, and there is no official recognition of the term 'Devonshire' in modern times, except for the name of the Devonshire and Dorset Regiment. One theory is that the 'shire' suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire, resident in Derbyshire. However, there are references to 'Defenascire' in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 AD (this would mean 'Shire of the Devonians'), which translates to modern English as 'Devonshire'. The term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from Dumnonia (Latin) to Defenascir. Human occupation Devon was one of the first areas of England settled following the end of the last ice age. Dartmoor is thought to have been settled by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC. The Romans held the area under military occupation for around 250 years. Later the area became a frontier between Brythonic Dumnonia and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was absorbed into Wessex by the mid 9th century. Devon has also featured in most of the civil conflicts in England since the Norman Conquest, including the Wars of the Roses, Perkin Warbeck's rising in 1497, the Prayer Book Rebellion of 1549, and the English Civil War. The arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham. Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times. Devon's tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devon's stannary parliament, which dates back to the twelfth century. The last recorded sitting was in 1748. Economy and industry Part of the seafront of Torquay, south Devon, at high tide Devon is one of the rural counties, with the advantages and challenges characteristic of these. Despite this, the county's economy is also heavily influenced by its two main urban centres, Plymouth and Exeter. Like neighbouring Cornwall to the west, Devon is disadvantaged economically compared to other parts of southern England, owing to the decline of a number of core industries, notably fishing, mining and farming. Consequently, most of Devon has qualified for the European Community Objective 2 status, particularly around Exmoor, Bideford Bay and the Hartland Point peninsula which is somewhat cut off from industrial Britain due to poor road and rail transport links. These areas of North Devon are, however, only around by boat from Swansea in Wales. A proposal which has the backing of both the Welsh Assembly Government and the South West Regional Assembly, as well as Devon County Council, is a year-round ferry service from either Ilfracombe or Bideford to Swansea, which it is hoped would stimulate economic growth in both South West Wales and the North coast of Devon and Cornwall. The 2001 UK foot and mouth crisis harmed the farming community severely. In Devon, the county council estimated that 1,200 jobs would be lost in agriculture and ancillary rural industries — Hansard, 25th April 2001 Nearly half of the holdings of the Duchy of Cornwall are in Devon, including a large area of farmland. Since the rise of seaside resorts with the arrival of the railways in the 19th century, Devon's economy has been heavily reliant on tourism. The county's economy has followed the declining trend of British seaside resorts since the mid 20th century, with some recent revival. This revival has been aided by the designation of much of Devon's countryside and coastline as the Dartmoor and Exmoor national parks, and the Jurassic Coast and Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape World Heritage Sites. In 2004 the county's tourist revenue was £1.2 billion. Devon County Council, 2005. Tourism trends in Devon. The attractive lifestyle of the area is drawing in new industries which are not heavily dependent upon geographical location. In 2003, the Met Office, the UK's weather service, moved to Exeter. Geography Devon gave its name to a geological era: the Devonian era, so named by Adam Sedgwick because the distinctive Old Red Sandstone of Exmoor was studied by geologists here. The whole of central Devon is occupied by the largest area of igneous rock in south-west England, Dartmoor. Devon's third major rock system is the Culm Measures, a geological formation of the Carboniferous period that occurs principally in Devon and Cornwall. They are so called because of the occasional presence of a soft, sooty coal, which is known in Devon as culm. This formation stretches from Bideford to Bude in Cornwall, and contributes to a gentler, greener, more rounded landscape. Heathland at Woodbury Common in southeast Devon Devon is the only county in England to have two separate coastlines; the South West Coast Path runs along the entire length of both, around 65% of which is named as Heritage Coast. Dewey, Henry (1948) British Regional Geology: South-west England, 2nd ed. London: H.M.S.O. Inland, the Dartmoor National Park lies wholly in Devon, and the Exmoor National Park lies in both Devon and Somerset. Apart from these areas of high moorland the county has attractive rolling rural scenery, and villages with thatched cob cottages. All these features make Devon a popular holiday destination. In South Devon the landscape consists of rolling hills dotted with small towns, such as Dartmouth, Ivybridge, Kingsbridge, Salcombe, and Totnes. The towns of Torquay and Paignton are the principal seaside resorts on the south coast. East Devon has the first seaside resort to be developed in the county, Exmouth and the more upmarket Georgian town of Sidmouth, headquarters of the East Devon District Council. Exmouth marks the western end of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site. North Devon is very rural with few major towns except Barnstaple, Great Torrington, Bideford and Ilfracombe. Devon's Exmoor coast has the highest cliffs in southern Britain, culminating in the Great Hangman, a 318 m (1043 ft) "hog-backed" hill with an 250 m (820 ft) cliff-face, located near Combe Martin Bay http://www.exmoor-nationalpark.gov.uk/index/learning_about/moor_facts.htm|Exmoor National Park, National Park Facts |accessdate=2009-05-10 . Its sister cliff is the 218 m (716 ft) Little Hangman, which marks the edge of Exmoor. One of the features of the North Devon coast is that Bideford Bay and the Hartland Point peninsula are both west-facing, Atlantic facing coastlines; so that a combination of an off-shore (east) wind and an Atlantic swell produce excellent surfing conditions. The beaches of Bideford Bay (Woolacombe, Saunton, Westward Ho! and Croyde), along with parts of North Cornwall and South Wales, are the main centres of surfing in Britain. Ecology The variety of habitats means that there is a wide range of wildlife (see Dartmoor wildlife, for example). A popular challenge among birders is to find over 100 species in the county in a day. http://www.thebedandbreakfastguide.co.uk/DaysOut/devon.html The county's wildlife is protected by the Devon Wildlife Trust, a charity which looks after 40 nature reserves. Rising temperatures have led to Devon becoming the first place in modern Britain to cultivate olives commercially. Politics and administration Exeter Cathedral The administrative centre of Devon is the city of Exeter. The largest city in Devon, Plymouth, and the conurbation of Torbay (including Torquay, Paignton and Brixham) have been unitary authorities since 1998 - separate from the remainder of Devon which is administered by Devon County Council for the purposes of local government. Devon County Council is controlled by the Liberal Democrats, and consists of 33 Liberal Democrats, 23 Conservatives, four Labour and two independent councillors. Devon County Council, List of Councillors by party affiliation. At a national level, Devon has five Conservative MPs, three Liberal Democrat MPs, and three Labour MPs. In December 2007, the Department for Communities and Local Government referred Exeter City Council's bid to become a Unitary Council to the Boundary Committee for England, as they felt the application did not meet all their strict criteria. The Boundary Committee was asked to look at the feasibility of a unitary Exeter in the context of examining options for unitary arrangements in the wider Devon county area, and reported back in July 2008 recommending a 'unitary Devon' (excluding Plymouth and Torbay), with a second option of a 'unitary Exeter & Exmouth' (combined) and a unitary 'rest of Devon'. These proposals were put out to consultation until September 2008 and the Committee was expected to make final recommendations to the Secretary of State by the end of the year. As a result of a number of legal challenges to the process and also dissatisfaction on the part of the Secretary of State with the manner in which the Boundary Committee is assesing proposals, it now looks likely that a recommendation will not be forthcoming until March or April 2009. Cities, towns and villages The inner harbour, Brixham, south Devon, at low tide The main settlements in Devon are the cities of Plymouth, a historic port now administratively independent, Exeter, the county town, and Torbay, the county's tourist centre. Devon's coast is lined with tourist resorts, many of which grew rapidly with the arrival of the railways in the 19th century. Examples include Dawlish, Exmouth and Sidmouth on the south coast, and Ilfracombe and Lynmouth on the north. The Torbay conurbation of Torquay, Paignton and Brixham on the south coast is perhaps the largest and most popular of these resorts, and is now administratively independent of the county. Rural market towns in the county include Axminster, Barnstaple, Bideford, Honiton, Newton Abbot, Okehampton, Tavistock, Totnes and Tiverton. The boundary with Cornwall has not always been on the River Tamar as at present: until the late 19th century a few parishes in the Torpoint area were in Devon and five parishes now in north-east Cornwall were in Devon until 1974. (However for ecclesiastical purposes these were nevertheless in the Archdeaconry of Cornwall and in 1876 became part of the Diocese of Truro.) Symbols Coat of arms The coat of arms of Devon County Council There was no established coat of arms for the county until 1926: the arms of the City of Exeter were often used to represent Devon, for instance in the badge of the Devonshire Regiment. During the forming of a county council by the Local Government Act 1888 adoption of a common seal was required. The seal contained three shields depicting the arms of Exeter along with those of the first chairman and vice-chairman of the council (Lord Clinton and the Earl of Morley). A. C. Fox-Davies, The Book of Public Arms, 2nd edition, London, 1915 On 11 October 1926, the county council received a grant of arms from the College of Arms. The main part of the shield displays a red crowned lion on a silver field, the arms of Richard Plantagenet, Earl of Cornwall. The chief or upper portion of the shield depicts an ancient ship on wavers, for Devon's seafaring traditions. The Latin motto adopted was Auxilio Divino (by Divine aid), that of Sir Francis Drake. The 1926 grant was of arms alone. On 6 March 1962 a further grant of crest and supporters was obtained. The crest is the head of a Dartmoor Pony rising from a "Naval Crown". This distinctive form of crown is formed from the sails and sterns of ships, and is associated with the Royal Navy. The supporters are a Devon bull and a sea lion. W. C. Scott-Giles, Civic Heraldry of England and Wales, 2nd edition, London, 1953 A brief history of Devon's coat of arms (Devon County Council) The County Council adopted a 'ship silhouette' logo after the 1974 reorganisation, adapted from the ship emblem on the coat of arms, but following the loss in 1998 of Plymouth and Torbay re-adopted the coat of arms. In April 2006 the council unveiled a new logo which was to be used in most everyday applications, though the coat of arms will continue to be used for "various civic purposes". Council's designs cause logo row (BBC News) Policy and Resources Overview Scrutiny Committee Minutes, April 3 2006 Flag Devon also has its own flag which has been dedicated to Saint Petroc, a local saint with dedications throughout Devon and neighbouring counties. The flag was adopted in 2003 after a competition run by BBC Devon. BBC - Devon Community Life - Devon gets its own flag The winning design was created by website contributor Ryan Sealey, and won 49% of the votes cast. The colours of the flag are those popularly identified with Devon, for example, the colours of the rugby union team, and the Green and White flag flown by the first Viscount Exmouth at the Bombardment of Algiers (now on view at the Teign Valley Museum), as well as the county's most successful football team, Plymouth Argyle. On 17 October 2006, the flag was hoisted for the first time outside County Hall in Exeter to mark Local Democracy Week, receiving official recognition from the county council Devon County Council Press Release, 16 October 2006 . Place-names and customs The beach at Westward Ho!, north Devon, looking north towards the Taw and Torridge estuaries Devon's place names include many with the endings 'coombe/combe' and 'tor' - Coombe being the Brythonic word for 'valley' or hollow (cf Welsh 'cwm') whilst tor derives from a number of Celtic loan-words in English (Old Welsh twrr and Scots Gaelic tòrr) and is used as a name for the formations of rocks found on the moorlands. Its frequency is greatest in Devon, where it is the second most common place name component (after 'ton', derived from the Old English 'tun' meaning farm, village). Devon has a variety of festivals and traditional practices, including the traditional orchard-visiting Wassail in Whimple every January 17 and the carrying of flaming tar barrels in Ottery St. Mary, where people who have lived in Ottery for long enough are called upon to celebrate Bonfire Night by running through the village (and the gathered crowds) with flaming barrels of tar on their backs. Cuisine The county has given its name to a number of culinary specialities. The Devonshire cream tea, involving scones, and clotted cream, is thought to have originated in Devon (though claims have also been made for neighbouring counties); in other countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, it is known as a "Devonshire tea". Mason, Laura; Brown, Catherine (1999) From Bath Chaps to Bara Brith. Totnes: Prospect Books Pettigrew, Jane (2004) Afternoon Tea. Andover: Jarrold Fitzgibbon, Theodora (1972) A Taste of England: the West Country. London: J. M. Dent In New South Wales, Australia, Devon is a name for luncheon meat (processed ham). The name changes in different states of Australia (for example, 'Fritz' in South Australia, 'Polony' in Western Australia) but all describe the same type of meat. In October 2008, Devon was awarded Fairtrade County status by the Fairtrade Foundation. Sport Devon has been home to a number of customs, such as its own form of wrestling. As recently as the 19th century, a crowd of 17,000 at Devonport, near Plymouth, attended a match between the champions of Devon and Cornwall. Another Devon sport was outhurling which was played in some regions until the 20th century (e.g. 1922, at Great Torrington). Other ancient customs which survive include Dartmoor step dancing, and 'Crying The Neck'. Devon has three professional football teams, based in each of its three most populated towns and cities. Competing in the Football League Championship, Plymouth Argyle F.C. are the biggest and most successful team in the county whilst Exeter City F.C. play in Football League One. Torquay United compete in the Football League Two. Plymouth's best performance came in 1987 when they finished seventh in the Football League Second Division, while Torquay and Exeter have never progressed beyond the third tier of the league. Aside from Torquay United, the county's biggest non-league club is Tiverton Town F.C. which competes in the Southern Football League Premier Division. Rugby Union is popular in Devon. Two teams — Plymouth Albion and Exeter Chiefs — are, as of 2007, in National Division One. In basketball, Plymouth Raiders play in the British Basketball League. Tamar Valley Cannons, also based in Plymouth, are Devon's only other representatives in the National Leagues. Motorcycle speedway is also supported in the county, with both the Exeter Falcons and Plymouth Devils succeeding in the National Leagues in recent years. There are four rugby league teams in Devon. Plymouth Titans, Exeter Centurions, Devon Sharks from Torquay and East Devon Eagles from Exmouth. They all play in the Rugby League Conference. Devon also boasts a field hockey club who play in the National Premier League - the University of Exeter Hockey Club Famous Devonians Devon is known for its mariners, such as Sir Francis Drake, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Sir Richard Grenville, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Sir Francis Chichester. The poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the crime writer Agatha Christie, the painter and founder of the Royal Academy, Sir Joshua Reynolds, the dog breeder John "Jack" Russell and frontman Chris Martin from the English rock band Coldplay were born in Devon. Matt Bellamy, Dominic Howard and Christopher Wolstenholme from the English band Muse all grew up in Devon. Trevor Francis, former Nottingham Forest and Birmingham City professional footballer was born and raised in Plymouth. Education Devon has a mostly comprehensive education system. There are 37 state and 23 independent secondary schools. There are three tertiary (FE) colleges and an agricultural college (Bicton College, near Budleigh Salterton). Torbay has 8 state (with 3 grammar schools) and 3 independent secondary schools, and Plymouth has 17 state (with 3 grammar schools - two female and one male) and 2 independent secondary schools. East Devon and Teignbridge have the largest school populations, with West Devon the smallest (with only two schools). Only one school in Exeter, Mid Devon, Torridge and North Devon have a sixth form - the schools in other districts mostly have sixth forms, with all schools in West Devon and East Devon having a sixth form. The county also plays host to two major UK Universities, The Univeristy of Exeter (split between the Streatham Campus and St Luke's Campus both in Exeter and a campus in Cornwall); in Plymouth the University of Plymouth the forth largest university in the UK is present, along with the Marjon's college to the cities north. Both the University of Exeter and Plymouth have co-formed the Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry which is based in Plymouth. There is also Schumacher College. See also :Category:Rivers of Devon Devonshire eggs List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Devon North Devon Coast Roadford Lake West Country dialects References External links Devon County Council BBC Devon Genuki Devon Historical, geographical and genealogical information
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3,130
Telecommunications_in_Germany
Instrumental in founding the Universal Postal Union, Germany early on set standards for international communications and the development of an integrated internal system, which has developed with technological advances from land mail (Thurn and Taxis), to telegraph, to modern-day telephone and satellite communications. Telephones - main lines in use: NA; 46.5 million main lines are installed (July 1999) Telephones - mobile cellular: ca. 84 million (August 2006) Telephone system: Germany has one of the world's most technologically advanced telecommunications systems. As a result of intensive capital expenditures since reunification, the formerly backward system of the eastern part of the country has been modernized (becoming the world's best, except in comparison with metropolitan systems) and integrated with that of the western part. . Germany is served by an extensive domestic system of automatic telephone exchanges connected by modern networks of fiber-optic cable, coaxial cable, microwave radio relay, and a domestic satellite system. Cellular telephone service is widely available and includes roaming service to many foreign countries. international: satellite earth stations - 14 Intelsat (12 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean), 1 Eutelsat, 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region), 2 Intersputnik (1 Atlantic Ocean region and 1 Indian Ocean region); 7 submarine cable connections; 2 HF radiotelephone communication centers; tropospheric scatter links Radio broadcast stations: AM 51, FM 767, shortwave 4 (1998) Radios: 77.8 million (1997) Television broadcast stations: 9,513 (including repeaters) (1998) Televisions: 51.4 million (1998) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 625 (1999) Internet Users: 47,182,628 (2004) Postal service: Deutsche Post Country code: DE
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3,131
Cognitive_behavioral_therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy (or cognitive behavior therapy, CBT) is a psychotherapeutic approach that aims to influence dysfunctional emotions, behaviors and cognitions through a goal-oriented, systematic procedure. CBT can be seen as an umbrella term for a number of psychological techniques that share a theoretical basis in behavioristic learning theory and cognitive psychology. British Association of Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies: What are Cognitive and/or Behavioural Psychotherapies? Retrieved on 2008-11-1 CBT treatments have received empirical support for efficacious treatment of a variety of clinical and non-clinical problems, including mood disorders, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, eating disorders, substance abuse disorders, and psychotic disorders. It is often brief and time-limited. It is used in individual therapy as well as group settings, and the techniques are also commonly adapted for self-help applications. Some CBT therapies are more oriented towards predominately cognitive interventions while some are more behaviorally oriented. In recent years cognitive behavioral approaches have become prevalent in correctional settings. These programs are designed to teach criminal offenders cognitive skills that will reduce criminal behaviors. It has become commonplace, if not pervasive, to find cognitive behavioral program strategies in use in prisons and jails in many countries. In cognitive oriented therapies, the objective is typically to identify and monitor thoughts, assumptions, beliefs and behaviors that are related and accompanied to debilitating negative emotions and to identify those which are dysfunctional, inaccurate, or simply unhelpful. This is done in an effort to replace or transcend them with more realistic and useful ones. CBT was primarily developed through a merging of behavior therapy with cognitive therapy. While rooted in rather different theories, these two traditions found common ground in focusing on the "here and now" and symptom removal. Many CBT treatment programs for specific disorders have been developed and evaluated for efficacy and effectiveness; the health-care trend of evidence-based treatment, where specific treatments for specific symptom-based diagnoses are recommended, has favored CBT over other approaches such as psychodynamic treatments . In the United Kingdom, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence recommends CBT as the treatment of choice for a number of mental health difficulties, including post-traumatic stress disorder, OCD, bulimia nervosa and clinical depression. History The roots of CBT can be traced to the development of behavior therapy in the early 20th century, the development of cognitive therapy in the 1960s, and the subsequent merging of the two. Behavior therapeutical approaches appeared as early as 1924 , with Mary Cover Jones' work on the unlearning of fears in children . However, it was during the period 1950 to 1970 that the field really emerged, with researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom and South Africa who were inspired by the behaviorist learning theory of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and Clark L. Hull. In Britain, this work was mostly focused on the neurotic disorders through the work of Joseph Wolpe, who applied the findings of animal experiments to his method of systematic desensitization , the precursor to today's fear reduction techniques.. British psychologist Hans Eysenck, inspired by the writings of Karl Popper, criticized psychoanalysis in arguing that "if you get rid of the symptoms, you get rid of the neurosis" , and presented behavior therapy as a constructive alternative. . In the United States, psychologists were applying the radical behaviorism of B. F. Skinner to clinical use. Much of this work was concentrated towards severe, chronic psychiatric disorders, such as psychotic behavior and autism . Albert Ellis (1913 – 2007) was a pioneer in the development of CBT. Although the early behavioral approaches were successful in many of the neurotic disorders, it had little success in treating depression. Behaviorism was also losing in popularity due to the so-called "cognitive revolution". The therapeutic approaches of Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck gained popularity among behavior therapists, despite the earlier behaviorist rejection of "mentalistic" concepts like thoughts and cognitions. Both these systems included behavioral elements and interventions and primarily concentrated on problems in the present. Albert Ellis' system, originated in the early 1950s, was first called rational therapy, and can arguably be called one of the first forms of cognitive behavioral therapy. It was partly founded as a reaction against popular psychotherapeutic theories at the time, mainly psychoanalysis. Aaron T. Beck, inspired by Albert Ellis, developed cognitive therapy, in the 1960s. Beck, Aaron T. Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. International Universities Press Inc., 1975. ISBN 0-8236-0990-1 Cognitive therapy rapidly became a favorite intervention to study in psychotherapy research in academic settings. In initial studies, it was often contrasted with behavioral treatments to see which was most effective. During the 1980s and 1990s, cognitive and behavioral techniques was merged into cognitive behavioral therapy. Pivotal in this merging was the successful developments of treatments of panic disorder by David M. Clark in the UK and David H. Barlow in the US. Concurrently with the contributions of Albert Ellis and Beck, starting in the late 1950s and continuing through the 1970s, Arnold A. Lazarus developed what was arguably the first form of broad-spectrum cognitive behavioral therapy. Lazarus, A. A. "New methods in psychotherapy: a case study". South African Medical Journal, 1958, 32, 660-664 . He later broadened the focus of behavioral treatment to incorporate cognitive aspects . When it became clear that optimizing therapy's effectiveness and effecting durable treatment outcomes often required transcending more narrowly focused cognitive and behavioral methods, Arnold Lazarus expanded the scope of CBT to include physical sensations (as distinct from emotional states), visual images (as distinct from language-based thinking), interpersonal relationships, and biological factors. Samuel Yochelson and Stanton Samenow pioneered the idea that cognitive behavioral approaches can be used successfully with a criminal population. They are the authors of, Criminal Personality Vol.I. This book has an extensive amount of information regarding the dynamics of criminal thinking and application of cognitive behavioral approaches. Approaches and systems CBT includes a variety of approaches and therapeutic systems; some of the most well known include cognitive therapy, rational emotive behavior therapy and multimodal therapy. Defining the scope of what constitutes a cognitive–behavioral therapy is a difficulty that has persisted throughout its development. The particular therapeutic techniques vary within the different approaches of CBT according to the particular kind of problem issues, but commonly may include keeping a diary of significant events and associated feelings, thoughts and behaviors; questioning and testing cognitions, assumptions, evaluations and beliefs that might be unhelpful and unrealistic; gradually facing activities which may have been avoided; and trying out new ways of behaving and reacting. Relaxation, mindfulness and distraction techniques are also commonly included. Cognitive behavioral therapy is often also used in conjunction with mood stabilizing medications to treat conditions like bipolar disorder. Its application in treating schizophrenia along with medication and family therapy is recognized by the NICE guidelines (see below) within the British NHS. Going through cognitive behavioral therapy generally is not an overnight process for clients. Even after clients have learned to recognize when and where their mental processes go awry, it can in some case take considerable time or effort to replace a dysfunctional cognitive-affective-behavioral process or habit with a more reasonable and adaptive one. Group therapy Cognitive behavioral group therapy is a group therapy approach, developed by Richard Heimberg for the treatment of social phobia. Computerized CBT There are cognitive behavioral therapy sessions in which the user interacts with computer software (either on a PC, or sometimes via a voice-activated phone service), instead of face to face with a therapist. This can provide an option for patients, especially in light of the fact that there are not always therapists available, or the cost can be prohibitive. For people who are feeling depressed and withdrawn, the prospect of having to speak to someone about their innermost problems can be off-putting. In this respect, computerized CBT (especially if delivered online) can be a good option. Randomized controlled trials have proven its effectiveness, and in February 2006 the UK's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence recommended that CCBT be made available for use within the NHS across England and Wales, for patients presenting with mild to moderate depression, rather than immediately opting for antidepressant medication . Specific applications CBT is applied to many clinical and non-clinical conditions and has been successfully used as a treatment for many clinical disorders, personality conditions and behavioral problems. Whilst CBT is highly effective for a number of disorders it is important to note that cognitive behavioural therapy is unlikely to be effective in patients with substance dependence and/or abuse problems as cognitive behavioral therapy itself cannot change drug or alcohol induced mental health symptoms. Anxiety disorders A basic concept in CBT treatment of anxiety disorders is in vivo exposure—a gradual exposure to the actual, feared stimulus. This treatment is based on the theory that the fear response has been classically conditioned and that avoidance positively reinforces and maintains that fear. This "two-factor" model is often credited to O. Hobart Mowrer . Through exposure to the stimulus, this conditioning can be unlearned; this is referred to as extinction and habituation. A specific phobia, such as fear of spiders, can often be treated with in vivo exposure and therapist modeling in one session . Obsessive compulsive disorder is typically treated with exposure with response prevention. Social phobia has often been treated with exposure coupled with cognitive restructuring, such as in Heimberg's group therapy protocol . Evidence suggests that cognitive interventions improve the result of social phobia treatment . CBT has been shown to be effective in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder, and possibly more effective than pharmacological treatments in the long term . In fact, one study of patients undergoing benzodiazepine withdrawal who had a diagnosis of generalised anxiety disorder showed that those who received CBT had a very high success rate of discontinuing benzodiazepines compared to those who did not receive CBT. This success rate was maintained at 12 month follow up. Furthermore in patients who had discontinued benzodiazepines it was found that they no longer met the diagnosis of general anxiety disorder and that patients no longer meeting the diagnosis of general anxiety disorder was higher in the group who received CBT. Thus CBT can be an effective tool to add to a gradual benzodiazepine dosage reduction program leading to improved and sustained mental health benefits. Mood disorders One etiological theory of depression is Aaron Beck's cognitive theory of depression. His theory states that depressed people think the way they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations. According to this theory, depressed people acquire a negative schema of the world in childhood and adolescence as an effect of stressful life events. When the person with such schemata encounters a situation that in some way resembles the conditions in which the original schema was learned, the negative schemata of the person are activated . Beck also described a negative cognitive triad, made up of the negative schemata and cognitive biases of the person; Beck theorized that depressed individuals make negative evaluations of themselves, the world, and the future. Depressed people, according to this theory, have views such as "I never do a good job," and "things will never get better." A negative schema helps give rise to the cognitive bias, and the cognitive bias helps fuel the negative schema. This is the negative triad. Also, Beck proposed that depressed people often have the following cognitive biases: arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, over-generalization, magnification and minimization. These cognitive biases are quick to make negative, generalized, and personal inferences of the self, thus fueling the negative schema. For treatment of depression, a large-scale study in 2000 showed substantially higher results of response and remission (73% for combined therapy vs. 48% for either CBT or a particular discontinued antidepressant alone) when a form of cognitive behavior therapy and that particular discontinued anti-depressant drug were combined than when either modality was used alone. For more general results confirming that CBT alone can provide lower but nonetheless valuable levels of relief from depression, and result in increased ability for the patient to remain in employment, see The Depression Report, which states: 100 people attend up to sixteen weekly sessions one-on-one lasting one hour each, some will drop out but within four months 50 people will have lost their psychiatric symptoms over and above those who would have done so anyway. After recovery, people who suffered from anxiety are unlikely to relapse. . . . So how much depression can a course of CBT relieve, and how much more work will result? One course of CBT is likely to produce 12 extra months free of depression. This means nearly two months more of work. The American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines (April 2000) indicated that among psychotherapeutic approaches, cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy had the best-documented efficacy for treatment of major depressive disorder. Insomnia Cognitive behavioral therapy has been found to be effective in reducing benzodiazepine usage in the treatment of insomnia. A large-scale trial utilizing CBT for chronic users of sedative hypnotics including nitrazepam, temazepam and zopiclone found the addition of CBT to improve outcome and reduce drug consumption in the treatment of chronic insomnia. Persisting improvements in sleep quality, sleep latency, and increased total sleep, as well as improvements in sleep efficiency and significant improvements in vitality and physical and mental health at 3-, 6- and 12-month follow-ups were found in those receiving cognitive behavioral therapy with hypnotics compared with those patients receiving hypnotics alone. A marked reduction in total sedative hypnotic drug use was found in those receiving CBT, with 33% reporting no hypnotic drug use. Authors of the study suggested that CBT is potentially a flexible, practical, and cost-effective treatment for the treatment of insomnia and that CBT administered coincident to hypnotic treatment leads to a reduction of benzodiazepine drug intake in a significant number of patients. Chronic use of hypnotic medications is not recommended due to their adverse effects on health and the risk of dependence. A gradual taper is usual clinical course in getting people off of benzodiazepines but even with gradual reduction a large proportion of people fail to stop taking benzodiazepines. The elderly are particularly sensitive to the adverse effects of hypnotic medications. A clinical trial in elderly people dependent on benzodiazepine hypnotics showed that the addition of CBT to a gradual benzodiazepine reduction program increased the success rate of discontinuing benzodiazepine hypnotic drugs from 38% to 77% and at 12 month follow-up from from 24% to 70%. The paper concluded that CBT is an effective tool for reducing hypnotic use in the elderly and reducing the adverse health effects that are associated with hypnotics such as drug dependence, cognitive impairments and increased road traffic accidents. A further study in older people with insomnia comparing the hypnotic drug zopiclone against CBT found that CBT actually improved EEG slow wave sleep as well as increased time spent asleep and found that the benefits were maintained at 6 month follow-up. Zopiclone however worsened sleep by suppressing slow wave sleep. A lack of slow wave sleep is linked to impaired functioning and sleepiness. Zopiclone reduced slow wave sleep and was similar to placebo in that it produced no lasting benefits after treatment had finished and at 6 month follow-up whilst CBT did have significant lasting benefits. The authors stated that CBT was superior to zopiclone both in the short term and in the long term. A comparison of CBT and the hypnotic drug zolpidem (Ambien) found similar results with CBT showing superiority and sustained benefits after long term follow up. Interestingly the addition of CBT and zolpidem offered no benefit over CBT alone. CBT with children and adolescents The use of CBT has been extended to children and adolescents with good results. It is often used to treat major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, and symptoms related to trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder. Significant work has been done in this area by Mark Reinecke and his colleagues at Northwestern University in the Clinical Psychology program in Chicago. Paula Barrett and her colleagues have also validated CBT as effective in a group setting for the treatment of youth and child anxiety using the Friends Program she authored. This CBT program has been recognized as best practice for the treatment of anxiety in children by the World Health Organization. CBT has been used with children and adolescents to treat a variety of conditions with good success. . CBT is also used as a treatment modality for children who have experienced complex posttraumatic stress disorder and chronic maltreatment . Research Cognitive behavioral therapy most closely allies with the scientist–practitioner model, in which clinical practice and research is informed by a scientific perspective, clear operationalization of the problem, an emphasis on measurement (and measurable changes in cognition and behavior) and measurable goal-attainment. Criticism CBT has recently come under fire from non-CBT therapists who claim that the data do not fully support the extent of attention and funding it receives nor its extension beyond psychotherapy into matters such as reducing unemployment, and that the limitations of the CBT model when used to blanket-address psychological suffering are unrecognised. Psychotherapist and professor at the University of Essex, Andrew Samuels, stated that this constitutes "a coup, a power play by a community that has suddenly found itself on the brink of corralling an enormous amount of money. Science isn't the appropriate perspective from which to look at emotional difficulties. Everyone has been seduced by CBT's apparent cheapness." He considers CBT "a second-class therapy for citizens deemed to be second class." Research shows that CBT can bring fast improvement to patients, but the same research shows that not all patients improve, those who improve usually still exhibit symptoms, in the long run (2+ years after treatment) CBT effects erode, CBT is not more effective than other forms of psychotherapy Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Efficacy: Fact or Fiction? Retrieved on 2009-4-18 . Leading psychotherapy experts that attended a major conference at the University of East Anglia (UEA) in July 2008, criticized the increased spending on CBT and the widespread belief that CBT is more effective that other forms of psychotherapy CBT superiority questioned at conference Retrieved on 2009-4-18 . In this conference professors Mick Cooper and Robert Elliott (both at University of Strathclyde), William B Stiles (Miami University) and Art Bohart (Saybrook Graduate School) issued a joint statement, which briefly stated: As more research focuses on CBT, more studies are published on CBT. This reinforces the logical error that CBT is superior and this has a direct negative effect on other forms of therapy, which are well documented but have smaller bodies of research. People who get therapy improve substantially, regardless of the type of therapy they get. When therapies are compared to one another, they usually show to be equally effective. Excessive spending on CBT and discouraging other forms of therapy, hurts the public. At the same conference, professors Robert Elliott and Beth Freire presented a meta-analysis of more than 80 studies where person-centered psychotherapy(PCTs) showed to be as effective as other forms of psychotherapy, including CBT . Further reading Bush, J., Vermont Department of Corrections (2002). A Manual for the Delivery of Cognitive Self-Change, Vermont Department of Corrections, Beck, A. (1993). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. NY: Penguin. ISBN 9780452009288 Burns, D., (1999). The Feeling Good Handbook. NY: Plume. ISBN 9780452281325 Bush, J., Vermont Department of Corrections (2002). A Manual for the Delivery of Cognitive Self-Change, Vermont Department of Corrections, Willson, R., & Branch, R. (2006). Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Dummies. For Dummies. Dryden, W. (1994). 'Ten Steps to Positive Living'. Sheldon Press Burns, D. (1999). Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy (Revised Edition). Avon. ISBN 0-380-81033-6 Ellis, A. (2001). Overcoming Destructive Beliefs, Feelings, and Behaviors: New Directions for Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1573928793 French, Abe.(2007). Thinking Matters Facilitator Manual. Tanner, S., & Ball, J. (2001). Beating the Blues: A Self-help Approach to Overcoming Depression. ISBN 0-646-36622-X McCullough, J.P. (2003). Treatment for Chronic Depression: Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP). Guilford Press. ISBN 1-57230-965-2 Albano, M., & Kearney C. (2000). When children refuse school: a cognitive behavioral therapy approach: Therapist guide. Psychological Corporation. Deblinger, E. & Heflin, A. (1996) . Treating sexually abused children and their non-offending parents: a cognitive behavioral approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication. Leahy, R.L. and Holland, SJ. (2000). Treatment Plans and Interventions for Depression and Anxiety Disorders. New York: Guilford Yochelson, S., & Samenow, S. (1976). The Criminal Personality: A profile for change. New York: Aronson. References External links http://doc.vermont.gov/programs CBT Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT) Academy of Cognitive Therapy The Albert Ellis Institute National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists The Jove Institute Beck Institute for Cognitive Therapy and Research William Glasser Institute The Lazarus Institute The British Association of Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies
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academy:1 jove:1 glasser:1 |@bigram cognitive_behavioral:25 behavioral_therapy:15 therapy_cbt:2 cognitive_psychology:1 cognitive_behavioural:3 mood_disorder:2 anxiety_disorder:9 disorder_psychotic:2 psychotic_disorder:1 health_care:1 clinical_excellence:2 mental_health:4 post_traumatic:1 traumatic_stress:1 bulimia_nervosa:1 ivan_pavlov:1 karl_popper:1 radical_behaviorism:1 psychiatric_disorder:1 panic_disorder:1 interpersonal_relationship:1 bipolar_disorder:1 go_awry:1 cost_prohibitive:1 randomize_controlled:1 antidepressant_medication:1 behavioural_therapy:2 obsessive_compulsive:1 compulsive_disorder:1 benzodiazepine_withdrawal:1 cbt_effective:5 childhood_adolescence:1 anti_depressant:1 depressant_drug:1 depressive_disorder:2 sedative_hypnotic:2 adverse_effect:2 benzodiazepine_elderly:1 clinical_trial:1 cognitive_impairment:1 child_adolescent:2 posttraumatic_stress:2 east_anglia:1 meta_analysis:1 sexually_abuse:1 depression_anxiety:1 external_link:1
3,132
Transport_in_Ireland
Most of the transport system in Ireland is in public hands, either side of the Irish border. The Irish road network has evolved separately in the two jurisdictions Ireland is divided up into, while the Irish rail network was mostly created prior to the partition of Ireland. In the Republic of Ireland, the Minister for Transport, acting through the Department of Transport, is responsible for the State's road network, rail network, public transport, airports and several other areas. Although some sections of road have been built using private or public-private funds, and are operated as toll roads, they are owned by the Government of Ireland. The rail network is also state-owned and operated, while the government currently still owns the main airports. Public transport is mainly in the hands of a statutory corporation, Córas Iompair Éireann (CIÉ), and its subsidiaries, Bus Átha Cliath (Dublin Bus), Bus Éireann (Irish Bus), and Iarnród Éireann (Irish Rail). On November 1 2005, the Dublin government published the Transport 21 plan which includes €18bn for improved roads and €16bn for improved rail, including the Western Railway Corridor and the Dublin Metro. In Northern Ireland, the road network and railways are in state ownership. The Department for Regional Development is responsible for these and other areas (such as water services). Two of the three main airports in Northern Ireland are privately operated and owned. The exception is City of Derry Airport, which is owned and funded by Derry City Council. A statutory corporation, the Northern Ireland Transport Holding Company (which trades as Translink) operates public transport services through its three subsidiaries - NI Railways Company Limited, Ulsterbus Limited, and Citybus Limited (now branded as Metro). Railways Total broad gauge (1998); electrified; double track; some addititions and removals since 1997 standard gauge (2004) (Luas tramway); electrified; double track; additional track under construction narrow gauge (2006) (industrial railway operated by Bord na Móna) Ireland's railways are in State ownership, with Iarnród Éireann (Irish Rail) operating services in the Republic and NI Railways operating services in Northern Ireland. The two companies co-operate in providing the joint Enterprise service between Dublin and Belfast. InterCity services are provided between Dublin and the major towns and cities of the Republic, and between Belfast and Derry. Suburban railway networks operate in Dublin, Dublin Suburban Rail, and Belfast, Belfast Suburban Rail, with a limited local services being offered in, or planned for, Cork, Limerick, and Galway. Many lines in the west were decommissioned in the 1930s under Éamon de Valera, with a further large cull in services by both CIÉ and the Ulster Transport Authority (UTA) during the 1960s, leaving few working lines in the northern third of the island. There is a campaign to bring some closed lines back into service, in particular the Limerick-Sligo line (the Western Railway Corridor), to facilitate economic regeneration in the west, which has lagged behind the rest of the country. There is also a move to restore service on the Dublin to Navan line, and smaller campaigns to re-establish the rail links between Sligo and Enniskillen/Omagh/Derry and Mullingar and Athlone/Galway Since 1984 an electrically operated train service has run between Bray and Howth, called the Dublin Area Rapid Transit. In 2004 a light rail system, Luas, was opened in Dublin. As of September 2008, legal permission has been sought to build a metro system is also in the planning stage. The construction of the Luas system caused much disruption in Dublin; in retrospect many believe an underground would have been a better option. One of the current options being discussed is to upgrade the Luas to a metro system when the metro is being installed. Roads Total - South: including of motorway (2008) North: including of motorway (2008) paved - , unpaved - Ireland's roads link Dublin with all the major cities (Cork, Limerick, Galway, Waterford, Belfast and Derry). Driving is on the left. State-owned Bus Éireann (Irish Bus) provides most bus services in the Republic of Ireland, outside Dublin, including an express coach network connecting most cities in Ireland, along with local bus services in the provincial cities. There are also a number of private operators, the biggest of which include Aircoach, a subsidiary of FirstGroup which provides services to Dublin Airport from Dublin city centre amongst others, and Scottish Citylink which competes on the Dublin-Galway route. Matthews Coaches run a direct service from Bettystown, Laytown and Julianstown to Dublin. Some private rural operators exist, such as Halpenny's in Blackrock, County Louth, who were the first private bus operator to run a public service in Ireland, Bus Feda (Feda O'Donnell Coaches), who operate twice daily routes from Ranafast, County Donegal to Galway and back, Feda O'Donnell Coaches as well as Lough Swilly Bus Company. Bus Átha Cliath (Dublin Bus), a sister company of Bus Éireann, provides most of the bus services in Dublin, with some other operators providing a number of routes. In Northern Ireland Ulsterbus provides the bus network, with its sister company Metro providing services in Belfast. Both are part of state-owned Translink. Most cross-border services (e.g. Dublin city centre to Belfast) are run jointly between Bus Éireann and Ulsterbus, with some services run across the border exclusively by one of the two companies (e.g. Derry–Sligo run by Bus Éireann). Waterways Total (2004) - (pleasure craft only on inland waterways, several lengthy estuarine waterways) Grand Canal Royal Canal Shannon-Erne Waterway Pipelines Natural gas transmission network (2003). There is a much more extensive distribution network. Ports and harbours Ireland has ports in the towns of Arklow, Belfast (Port of Belfast), Cork (Cork Harbour), Derry (Londonderry Port), Drogheda, Dublin (Dublin Port), Dundalk, Dún Laoghaire, Foynes, Galway, Larne, Limerick, New Ross, Rosslare Europort, Sligo, Waterford (Port of Waterford) and Wicklow. Ports in the Republic handle 3,600,000 travelers crossing the Irish Sea each year, amounting to 92% of all sea travel. CSO figures This has been steadily dropping for a number of years (20% since 1999), probably as a result of low cost airlines. Ferry connections between Britain and Ireland via the Irish Sea include the routes from Swansea to Cork, Fishguard and Pembroke to Rosslare, Holyhead to Dún Laoghaire, Stranraer to Belfast and Larne, and Cairnryan to Larne. There is also a connection between Liverpool and Belfast via the Isle of Man. The world's largest car ferry, Ulysses, is operated by Irish Ferries on the Dublin–Holyhead route. In addition, Rosslare and Cork run ferries to France. The vast majority of heavy goods trade is done by sea. Northern Irish ports handle 10 megatonnes (Mt) of goods trade with Britain annually, while ports in the south handle 7.6 Mt, representing 50% and 40% respectively of total trade by weight. Several potential Irish Sea tunnel projects have been proposed, most recently the "Tusker Tunnel" between the ports of Rosslare and Fishguard proposed by the Institution of Engineers of Ireland in 2004. IEI report (pdf) BBC report A different proposed route is between Dublin and Holyhead, proposed in 1997 by a leading British engineering firm, Symonds, for a rail tunnel from Dublin to Holyhead. Either tunnel, at , would be by far the longest in the world, and would cost an estimated €20bn. Merchant marine Total - 35 ships (with a volume of or over) totalling / Ships by type - bulk carrier 7, cargo ship 22, chemical tanker 1, container ship 3, roll-on/roll-off ship 1, short-sea passenger 1 Foreign-owned - Germany 3, Italy 7, Norway 2 Registered in other countries - 18 (2003 est.) Airports Ireland The main airports are Dublin Airport, Shannon Airport and Cork Airport. Many regional airports exist, some flying to international destinations. For example Ireland West Airport Knock in County Mayo, Galway Airport, Sligo Airport, Kerry Airport and Waterford Airport. Services to the Aran Islands are operated from Aerfort na Minna (Connemara Regional Airport). The Republic's former state airline, Aer Lingus provides air services from Dublin, Belfast International, Cork and Shannon to Europe, North America and the Middle East. Dublin, Cork and Shannon airports are run by the State body, Dublin Airport Authority (formerly Aer Rianta). Two other Irish airlines are Ryanair, one of the largest in the world and Aer Arann. There are a number of other operates specialising in general aviation. Northern Ireland Northern Ireland has three airports main airports and of these the major one is Belfast International Airport. The others are George Best Belfast City Airport and City of Derry Airport. Passenger Numbers In 2008 the passenger numbers were as follows: Rank Airport Runways Max Length Passengers 1 Dublin 3 23,500,000 Dublin airport passenger traffic to fall, says authority 2 Belfast International 2 5,262,354 UK Airport Statistics: 2008 - annual 3 Cork 2 3,250,000 3.25 Million Passengers Travel Through Cork Airport in 2008 4 Shannon 2 3,100,000 Numbers down again last year at Shannon Airport 5 Belfast City 1 2,570,742 6 Knock 1 630,170 Knock Airport reports record passenger numbers 7 City of Derry 1 439,033 8 Kerry 2 420,000 Passenger numbers up at Kerry Airport 9 Galway 1 270,000 10 Waterford 1 144,000 11 Donegal 1 65,537 Donegal Airport Exceeds Traffic Estimates 12 Sligo 1 44,500† 13 Weston 1 21,522 14 Abbeyshrule 1 3,000†† † Latest available figures are for 2007. †† Latest available figures are for 2006. Gateway Irish Urban Reference Destination Distances +Midlands Gateway Urban Destination Distances The distances given below are in kilometres as travelling through the Midlands Gateway ATM (Athlone-Tullamore-Mullingar). Where it is logical to travel along the east or west coast directly, these distances are provided according to the popular route. Urban by-passes, Rockades, Diversions, Detours and all other dispositives prolonging the travelled distances between destinations are equated to ZERO. This is an estimation distance guide only. × City /Town 1City /Town 2City /Town 3 City /Town 4City /Town 5 City /Town 6 City /Town 7 City /Town 8 City /Town 9 City /Town 10 City /Town 11City /Town 12 City /Town 13 City /Town 14 City /Town 15 City /Town 16 City /Town 17 City /Town 18 City /Town 19 City /Town 20 City /Town 21 City /Town 22 City /Town 23 City /Town 24 City /Town 25 City /Town 26 City /Town 27 City /Town 28 City /Town 29 City /Town 30 City /Town 31 City /Town 32 City /Town 33kmAthboykm80Athlonekm188241Ballymenakm14422146Belfastkm100128298285Castlebarkm6080152136168Cavankm2322554491269180Colerainekm368217467424274300491Corkkm2202348911422116350478Derrykm4014216312023088187309188Droghedakm8012421116823510823525923653 M-50Dublinkm7216012784248801523411653785Dundalkkm24821941837530127444378430260211211Dungarvankm6040222176130402002971939080120251Edgeworthstownkm184108453407173213387140408296243324160148Enniskm1201264341681604615736310713715410033786234Enniskillenkm128963543419216032620127626821924922713680190Galwaykm15212433329025017835814834517512620796155150265174Kilkennykm16023051547229031953987476357308389165296155382215195Killarneykm1601234093661832174179936825120228311917541280109131114Limerickkm40552451971125622828419111810514724415156101156162310202Longfordkm3248215169154592322422217565852163515512114412026115942Mullingarkm6011624420122713026922325686371181751072061932058927216511472Naaskm10080368325174169332134307210161242151146842321009314943153111124Nenaghkm6017997110199721024235713318111037514333850255290404297128130201254Omaghkm200202375332328300400195387217160249117235239363306121280198242200141202332Rosslarekm18013437439216827940211935227722730914621420342941581342822117919069329224Shannonkm16011721520284121187323137201207200334962557517522833823181123199195114358216Sligokm26021550946624931248311843435130238319528914837517522833107296254265143398295128297Traleekm604325621316993281207256149101130181801651561388522612477358976204164144158219Tullamorekm160174373330310228397123385215166247462051702912365120812921217012916032973155289226135Waterfordkm1801893503073152443741843621121342241072632283072951102691872281861291893071921433328515163Wexfordkm120170270227280204295254282112551441761812811462651323462401881467519922710926525334014613384Wicklow See also State-sponsored bodies of Ireland List of Ireland-related topics References External links Rail Users Ireland - Ireland's National Rail Users Group Formerly Platform 11 Meath on Track - Navan railway campaign (defunct) A discussion on RTÉ Radio One's science show Quantum Leap about the quality of GPS mapping in Ireland is available here. The discussion starts 8mins 17sec into the show. It was aired on 18 Jan 2007 Requires Real player.
Transport_in_Ireland |@lemmatized transport:9 system:5 ireland:27 public:6 hand:2 either:2 side:1 irish:14 border:3 road:8 network:11 evolve:1 separately:1 two:5 jurisdiction:1 divide:1 rail:13 mostly:1 create:1 prior:1 partition:1 republic:6 minister:1 act:1 department:2 responsible:2 state:9 airport:32 several:3 area:3 although:1 section:1 build:2 use:1 private:5 fund:2 operate:11 toll:1 government:3 also:6 currently:1 still:1 main:4 mainly:1 statutory:2 corporation:2 córas:1 iompair:1 éireann:8 cié:2 subsidiary:3 bus:18 átha:2 cliath:2 dublin:31 iarnród:2 november:1 publish:1 plan:2 include:7 improve:1 improved:1 western:2 railway:9 corridor:2 metro:6 northern:9 ownership:2 regional:3 development:1 water:1 service:22 three:3 privately:1 exception:1 city:41 derry:9 council:1 hold:1 company:7 trade:4 translink:2 ni:2 limit:2 ulsterbus:3 citybus:1 limited:2 brand:1 railways:1 total:6 broad:1 gauge:3 electrify:2 double:2 track:4 addititions:1 removal:1 since:3 standard:1 luas:4 tramway:1 additional:1 construction:2 narrow:1 industrial:1 bord:1 na:2 móna:1 operating:1 co:1 provide:10 joint:1 enterprise:1 belfast:16 intercity:1 major:3 town:35 suburban:3 local:2 offer:1 cork:11 limerick:4 galway:8 many:3 line:5 west:4 decommission:1 éamon:1 de:1 valera:1 large:3 cull:1 ulster:1 authority:3 uta:1 leave:1 work:1 third:1 island:2 campaign:3 bring:1 closed:1 back:2 particular:1 sligo:6 facilitate:1 economic:1 regeneration:1 lag:1 behind:1 rest:1 country:2 move:1 restore:1 navan:2 small:1 establish:1 link:3 enniskillen:1 omagh:1 mullingar:2 athlone:2 electrically:1 operated:1 train:1 run:8 bray:1 howth:1 call:1 rapid:1 transit:1 light:1 open:1 september:1 legal:1 permission:1 seek:1 planning:1 stage:1 cause:1 much:2 disruption:1 retrospect:1 believe:1 underground:1 would:3 good:3 option:2 one:5 current:1 discuss:1 upgrade:1 instal:1 south:2 motorway:2 north:2 pave:1 unpaved:1 waterford:5 driving:1 left:1 outside:1 express:1 coach:4 connect:1 along:2 provincial:1 number:9 operator:4 big:1 aircoach:1 firstgroup:1 centre:2 amongst:1 others:2 scottish:1 citylink:1 compete:1 route:6 matthew:1 direct:1 bettystown:1 laytown:1 julianstown:1 rural:1 exist:2 halpenny:1 blackrock:1 county:3 louth:1 first:1 feda:3 donnell:2 twice:1 daily:1 rout:1 ranafast:1 donegal:3 well:1 lough:1 swilly:1 sister:2 part:1 cross:2 e:2 g:2 jointly:1 across:1 exclusively:1 waterways:1 pleasure:1 craft:1 inland:1 waterway:3 lengthy:1 estuarine:1 grand:1 canal:2 royal:1 shannon:6 erne:1 pipeline:1 natural:1 gas:1 transmission:1 extensive:1 distribution:1 port:10 harbour:2 arklow:1 londonderry:1 drogheda:1 dundalk:1 dún:2 laoghaire:2 foynes:1 larne:3 new:1 ross:1 rosslare:4 europort:1 wicklow:1 handle:3 traveler:1 sea:6 year:3 amount:1 travel:4 cso:1 figure:3 steadily:1 drop:1 probably:1 result:1 low:1 cost:2 airline:3 ferry:4 connection:2 britain:2 via:2 swansea:1 fishguard:2 pembroke:1 holyhead:4 stranraer:1 cairnryan:1 liverpool:1 isle:1 man:1 world:3 car:1 ulysses:1 addition:1 france:1 vast:1 majority:1 heavy:1 megatonnes:1 mt:2 annually:1 represent:1 respectively:1 weight:1 potential:1 tunnel:4 project:1 propose:4 recently:1 tusker:1 institution:1 engineer:1 iei:1 report:3 pdf:1 bbc:1 different:1 lead:1 british:1 engineering:1 firm:1 symonds:1 far:1 long:1 estimate:2 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:5 volume:1 type:1 bulk:1 carrier:1 cargo:1 chemical:1 tanker:1 container:1 roll:2 short:1 passenger:8 foreign:1 germany:1 italy:1 norway:1 register:1 est:1 fly:1 international:4 destination:4 example:1 knock:3 mayo:1 kerry:3 aran:1 aerfort:1 minna:1 connemara:1 former:1 aer:3 lingus:1 air:2 europe:1 america:1 middle:1 east:2 body:2 formerly:2 rianta:1 ryanair:1 arann:1 operates:1 specialise:1 general:1 aviation:1 george:1 best:1 follow:1 rank:1 runways:1 max:1 length:1 traffic:2 fall:1 say:1 uk:1 statistic:1 annual:1 million:1 last:1 record:1 exceeds:1 weston:1 abbeyshrule:1 late:2 available:3 gateway:3 urban:3 reference:2 distance:6 midland:2 give:1 kilometre:1 atm:1 tullamore:1 logical:1 coast:1 directly:1 accord:1 popular:1 pass:1 rockades:1 diversion:1 detour:1 dispositives:1 prolong:1 travelled:1 equate:1 zero:1 estimation:1 guide:1 see:1 sponsored:1 list:1 related:1 topic:1 external:1 user:2 national:1 group:1 platform:1 meath:1 defunct:1 discussion:2 rté:1 radio:1 science:1 show:2 quantum:1 leap:1 quality:1 gps:1 mapping:1 start:1 jan:1 require:1 real:1 player:1 |@bigram toll_road:1 bus_éireann:5 gauge_electrify:1 narrow_gauge:1 belfast_derry:2 cork_limerick:2 éamon_de:1 de_valera:1 lag_behind:1 rapid_transit:1 pave_unpaved:1 county_donegal:1 inland_waterway:1 derry_londonderry:1 dún_laoghaire:2 dublin_holyhead:3 vast_majority:1 merchant_marine:1 aer_lingus:1 knock_knock:1 external_link:1
3,133
Legal_technicality
The term legal technicality is a casual or colloquial phrase referring to a technical aspect of law. The phrase is not a term of art in the law; it has no exact meaning, nor does it have a legal definition. The words "legal technicality" are often used in a pejorative sense to denote technical aspects of law which result in a legal decision or verdict unfavorable to the party using the phrase. An example: The U.S. Supreme Court, in one written decision, quoted a local newspaper as follows. “In the News, published the evening of March 19, there was an editorial reviewing the local proceedings, which concluded: 'All of this delay is aggravating to the community. The people of Chattanooga believe that Johnson is guilty, and that he ought to suffer the penalty of the law as speedily as possible. If by legal technicality the case is prolonged and the culprit finally escapes, there will be no use to plead with a mob here if another such crime is committed. Such delays are largely responsible for mob violence all over the country.'”(U.S. v. SHIPP, 1909) The newspaper plainly was using the phrase "legal technicality" in its normal colloquial sense to refer to technical aspects of the law which the newspaper's editorial staff saw as an obstacle to its preferred outcome. Some legal technicalities govern legal procedure, enable or restrict access to courts, and/or enable or limit the discretion of a court in handing down judgment. These are aspects of procedural law. Other legal technicalities deal with aspects of substantive law, that is, aspects of the law which articulate specific criteria that a court uses to assess a party's compliance with or violation of, for example, one or more criminal laws or civil laws. In the U.S., for example, the Supreme Court has used the informal phrase "legal technicality" in its decisions 13 times in the last century. In every case the use of the words refers to merely "technicalities of the law". The three most recent uses are illustrative: (1) “The function of counsel as a guide through complex legal technicalities long has been recognized by this Court.” (U.S. v. Ash, 1973) (2) ”Furthermore, during the federal habeas corpus hearing Davis showed his awareness of legal technicalities.”(used in a footnote, Davis v. North Carolina, 1966) (3) ”If recovery were denied in this case, the railroads, by the simple expedient of doing each other's work, could tie their employees up in legal technicalities..." (Shenker v. Baltimore and Ohio R.Co., 1963) United States In the United States, Constitutional guarantees such as those included in the Fourth and Fifth amendments to protect an accused from unreasonable search and seizure or from self-incrimination are sometimes referred to as "technicalities" by critics of court decisions based on them, even though they are foundations of the American legal system rather than obscure fine points. A commonly cited example would be attempted prosecution of a crime that was discovered by illegally obtained evidence. Such cases may be dismissed based on lack of evidence as the illegally obtained evidence would not be allowed to be the basis of the prosecution's case (called the "fruit of the poisonous tree" doctrine). Other procedural "technicalities" arise from common law as well, for example, the standard procedural defenses of laches and estoppel applicable within civil law. Some examples of technical aspects of legal procedure are: Time constraints, including Statutes of limitations Statute of frauds Miranda Warning Rules of evidence Various immunities, such as Sovereign immunity, Diplomatic immunity Rules of appellate procedure External links Notes
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3,134
Haematopoiesis
Simple diagram that shows the development of different blood cells from hematopoietic stem cell to mature cells Haematopoiesis (from Ancient Greek: haima blood; poiesis to make) (or hematopoiesis in the United States; sometimes also haemopoiesis or hemopoiesis) is the formation of blood cellular components. All cellular blood components are derived from haematopoietic stem cells. In a healthy adult person, approximately 1011–1012 new blood cells are produced daily in order to maintain steady state levels in the peripheral circulation. Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) reside in the marrow and have the unique ability to give rise to all of the different mature blood cell types. HSCs are self renewing: when they proliferate, at least some of their daughter cells remain as HSCs, so the pool of stem cells does not become depleted. The other daughters of HSCs (myeloid and lymphoid progenitor cells), however can each commit to any of alternative differentiation pathways that lead to the production of one or more specific types of blood cells, but cannot self renew. Lineages Comprehensive diagram that shows the development of different blood cells from hematopoietic stem cell to mature cells All blood cells are divided into three lineages. Erythroid cells are the oxygen carrying red blood cells. Both reticulocytes and erythrocytes are functional and are released into the blood. In fact, a reticulocyte count estimates the rate of erythropoiesis. Lymphoid cells are the cornerstone of the adaptive immune system. They are derived from common lymphoid progenitors. The lymphoid lineage is primarily composed of T-cells and B-cells. (a type of White blood cells) Myeloid cells, which include granulocytes, megakaryocytes and macrophages and are derived from common myeloid progenitors, and are involved in such diverse roles as innate immunity, adaptive immunity, and blood clotting. Granulopoiesis (or granulocytopoiesis) is hematopoiesis of granulocytes. Locations In developing embryos, blood formation occurs in aggregates of blood cells in the yolk sac, called blood islands. As development progresses, blood formation occurs in the spleen, liver and lymph nodes. When bone marrow develops, it eventually assumes the task of forming most of the blood cells for the entire organism. However, maturation, activation, and some proliferation of lymphoid cells occurs in secondary lymphoid organs (spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes). In children, hematopoiesis occurs in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum. Extramedullary In some cases, the liver, thymus, and spleen may resume their haematopoietic function, if necessary. This is called extramedullary hematopoiesis. It may cause these organs to increase in size substantially. Semester 4 medical lectures at Uppsala University 2008 by Leif Jansson Other vertebrates In some vertebrates, haematopoiesis can occur wherever there is a loose stroma of connective tissue and slow blood supply, such as the gut, spleen, kidney or ovaries. Maturation As a stem cell matures it undergoes changes in gene expression that limit the cell types that it can become and moves it closer to a specific cell type. These changes can often be tracked by monitoring the presence of proteins on the surface of the cell. Each successive change moves the cell closer to the final cell type and further limits its potential to become a different cell type. Determination Cell determination appears to be dictated by the location of differentiation. For instance, the thymus provides an ideal environment for thymocytes to differentiate into a variety of different functional T cells. For the stem cells and other undifferentiated blood cells in the bone marrow, the determination is generally explained by the determinism theory of hematopoiesis, saying that colony stimulating factors and other factors of the hematopoietic microenvironment determine the cells to follow a certain path of cell differentiation. This is the classical way of describing hematopoiesis. In fact, however, it is not really true. The ability of the bone marrow to regulate the quantity of different cell types to be produced is more accurately explained by a stochastic theory: Undifferentiated blood cells are determined to specific cell types by randomness. The hematopoietic microenvironment avails some of the cells to survive and some, on the other hand, to perform apoptosis. By regulating this balance between different cell types, the bone marrow can alter the quantity of different cells to ultimately be produced. Haematopoietic growth factors Diagram including some of the important cytokines that determine which type of blood cell will be created. SCF= Stem Cell Factor Tpo= Thrombopoietin IL= Interleukin GM-CSF= Granulocyte Macrophage-colony stimulating factor Epo= Erythropoietin M-CSF= Macrophage-colony stimulating factor G-CSF= Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor SDF-1= Stromal cell-derived factor-1 FLT-3 ligand= FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand TNF-a = Tumor necrosis factor-alpha TGFβ = Transforming growth factor beta Red and white blood cell production is regulated with great precision in healthy humans, and the production of granulocytes is rapidly increased during infection. The proliferation and self-renewal of these cells depend on stem cell factor (SCF). Glycoprotein growth factors regulate the proliferation and maturation of the cells that enter the blood from the marrow, and cause cells in one or more committed cell lines to proliferate and mature. Three more factors which stimulate the production of committed stem cells are called colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) and include granulocyte-macrophage CSF (GM-CSF), granulocyte CSF (G-CSF) and macrophage CSF (M-CSF). These stimulate a lot of granulocyte formation. They are active on either progenitor cells or end product cells. Erythropoietin is required for a myeloid progenitor cell to become an erythrocyte. Molecular cell biology. Lodish, Harvey F. 5. ed. : - New York : W. H. Freeman and Co., 2003, 973 s. b ill. ISBN 0-7167-4366-3 On the other hand, thrombopoietin makes myeloid progenitor cells differentiate to megakaryocytes (thrombocyte-forming cells). Examples of cytokines and the blood cells they give rise to, is shown in the picture to the right. Transcription factors Growth factors initiate signal transduction pathways, altering transcription factors, that, in turn activate genes that determine the differentiation of blood cells. The early committed progenitors express low levels of transcription factors that may commit them to discrete cell lineages. Which cell lineage is selected for differentiation may depend both on chance and on the external signals received by progenitor cells. Several transcription factors have been isolated that regulate differentiation along the major cell lineages. For instance, PU.1 commits cells to the myeloid lineage whereas GATA-1 has an essential role in erythropoietic and megakaryocytic differentiation. The Ikaros, Aiolos and Helios transcription factors play a major role in lymphoid development. References Parslow,T G.;Stites, DP.; Terr, AI.; and Imboden JB.Medical Immunology.1.ISBN 0838562787 External links Granulopoiesis from tulane.edu
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3,135
Celibacy
Celibacy in its strictest definition means to be unmarried. However, the term is often popularly used to describe a state of life where one chooses to abstain from all sexual activities which is strictly "chastity". Etymology The English word celibacy derives from the Latin cælibatus meaning 'unmarried'. Motivations Religious beliefs - Clerical celibacy, sannyasa. To focus energies on other matters, like one's career or social issues, sublimation. To cultivate a relationship according to an ideal of chastity. A distaste or lack of appetite for sex - asexuality or antisexualism. An inability to form a sexual relationship - involuntary celibacy. Perceived benefit of alteration of physiological factors, hormonal changes. As an attempt to gain a sense of self and independence from others. Poor health - medical celibacy. Avoiding risk of venereal disease. Avoiding being emotionally hurt. As a means of birth control. Avoiding prosecution for homosexual relations under sodomy laws. Punishment Erectile dysfunction The term involuntary celibacy has recently appeared to describe a chronic, unwilling state of celibacy. Vedic thought and practice Celibacy termed as Brahmacharya in vedic scripture is the fourth of the yamas (according to Yog Darshan) and the word, literally translated means ‘dedicated to the Divinity of Life’. The word is often used in yogic practice to refer to celibacy or denying pleasure, but this is only a small part of what Brahmacharya represents. The purpose of practicing Brahmacharya is to keep you focused on your purpose in life, the things that instill a feeling of peace and contentment. Christianity Celibacy is viewed differently by various Christian sects. The Bible teaches celibacy to be honorable, and to be required outside of marriage. The Apostle Paul writes in 1 Corinthians 7, "Now concerning the matters about which you wrote: 'It is good for a man not to have sexual relations with a woman.' But because of the temptation to sexual immorality, each man should have his own wife and each woman her own husband." (verses 1-2); "I wish that all were as I myself am. But each has his own gift from God, one of one kind and one of another. To the unmarried and the widows I say that it is good for them to remain single as I am. But if they cannot exercise self-control, they should marry. For it is better to marry than to burn with passion." (verses 7-9); "I want you to be free from anxieties. The unmarried man is anxious about the things of the Lord, how to please the Lord. But the married man is anxious about worldly things, how to please his wife, and his interests are divided. And the unmarried or betrothed woman is anxious about the things of the Lord, how to be holy in body and spirit. But the married woman is anxious about worldly things, how to please her husband. I say this for your own benefit, not to lay any restraint upon you, but to promote good order and to secure your undivided devotion to the Lord." (verses 32-35) http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%207;&version=47; A few Christian sects even advocated celibacy as a better way of life for everyone. These groups included the following: the Shakers, the Harmony Society, and the Ephrata Cloister. Celibacy not only for religious and monastics (brothers/monks and sisters/nuns) but also for bishops is upheld by the Roman Catholic Church traditions. In late 16th-century Venice, nearly 60% of all patrician women joined convents, and only a minority of these women did so voluntarily. Jutta Gisela Sperling: Convents and the Body Politic in Late Renaissance Venice Catholic perspective The view of the Roman Catholic Church is that celibacy is a reflection of life in Heaven, and a source of detachment from the material world, which aids in one's relationship with God. Catholic priests are called to be espoused to the Church itself, and espoused to God, without overwhelming, exclusive commitments interfering with the relationship. Catholics understand celibacy as the calling of some, but not of all. Celibacy was generally required of the bishop in the early church. A married man could be made bishop, but after his ordination, he was generally required to live apart from his wife. Celibacy was also practiced by many presbyters, especially in the West, but was not universally required. It became obligatory for all priests in the west in the 12th century. Usually, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite. . Married men may become deacons, and married clergy who have converted from other denominations may become Catholic priests without becoming celibate. A priest who is married at time of ordination continues to be married, with full obligation to all expectations of the marriage, but cannot remarry and remain in the practice of the priesthood. Mandatory priestly celibacy is not a doctrine of the Church but a church rule or discipline. As such, it can change at any time. The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men. All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition where marriage is not allowed after ordination. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but homosexual men who are sexually active, or those who have deeply rooted homosexual tendencies cannot be ordained. The Catholic view on celibacy is based on the Christ's example, on his teaching as given in and on the writings of Paul, who wrote of the advantages celibacy allowed a man in serving the Lord, Schreck, p. 255. Celibacy was "held in high esteem" from the Church's beginnings. It is considered a kind of spiritual marriage with Christ, a concept further popularized by the early Christian theologian Origen. Clerical celibacy began to be demanded in the 4th century, including papal decretals beginning with Pope Siricius. Bokenkotter, p. 54. Mandatory celibacy was typically expected of priests in the 11th century, as part of efforts to reform the medieval church, and became universal in the 12th. Bokenkotter, p. 145. Islamic perspective Islam does not promote celibacy; rather it promotes marriage. In fact, according to Islam, the purpose of marriage enables one to attain the highest form of righteousness within this sacred spirtual bond. It disagrees with the concept that marriage acts as a form of distraction in attaining nearness to God. "They devised monasticism as a means of seeking Allah’s pleasure. We did not prescribe it for them" (Qur'an 57:28). There have been incidents where people have come to the prophet and explained how they love to be engaged in prayer and fasting for the sake of God. However, the Prophet Mohammed told them that despite this being good it is also a blessing to raise a family, to remain moderate and not to concentrate too much on one aspect as not only can this be unhealthy upon an individual as well as upon society, it may also take one away from God. Note: That there is no compulsion in Islam however for one who choses to lead their life this way, it simply questions the practicality of employing this on a large scale and that one can attain just a high a station of one who is celibate through their good deeds. Universal Celibacy This characterization by Jesus Christ (in Matthew 22:30) of the future status of all persons (in heaven) is officially designated "universal celibacy" http://www.catholic.com/library/Celibacy_and_the_Priesthood.asp by the Roman Catholic Church : "For in the resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven." Abstinence and Celibacy The words abstinence and celibacy are often used interchangeably, but are different. Abstinence is the absence of intercourse (even for an individual who is married), but celibacy is the avoidance of all forms of sexual activity (including, but not limited to, the state of marriage itself). See also Antisexualism Brahmacharya Clerical celibacy God: Sole Satisfier Marriage Sexual abstinence Virgin References External links The Biblical foundation of priestly celibacy The Reformation view of Celibacy HBO documentary film "Celibacy"
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3,136
Maggie_Out
The Maggie Out protest song was one of the popular songs sung during the Miners' Strike, student grant protests, Poll Tax protests and other public demonstrations that fell within the time when Margaret Thatcher was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The song called for her to be removed from that role. A simple song of unknown provenance, the song follows the pattern of the - Oggy Oggy Oggy, Oi Oi Oi - chant and its words go like this (all punctuation has been guessed): Maggie, Maggie, Maggie! Out! Out! Out! Maggie, Maggie, Maggie! Out! Out! Out! Maggie! Out! Maggie! Out! Maggie, Maggie, Maggie! Out! Out! Out! Like the song "Nelson Mandela" by ska band The Specials, it was so well loved by activists that once the subject's position changed (Margaret Thatcher resigned from her post on November 22, 1990) it was missed. Literally anyone could pick it up in seconds and use it to express noisy dissatisfaction with the perceived state of affairs. Often a few people would lead the first few lines and everyone would join in with the rest. Alternatively someone would with a loudhailer, or loud voice, would chant the "Maggie"s and the rest of the crowd would chant the "Out"s, thereby demonstrating their verdict. The song was a prominent part of the cultural backdrop of 1980s Britain; comedian Alexei Sayle remarked humorously that he couldn't find his way around London unless he walked down the middle of the streets shouting the words. Since 1990 two variants of this song have been heard - adapted for both her successors; replacing 'Major' for 'Maggie' during the tenure of John Major and 'Tony' for 'Maggie' since Tony Blair's plan for the Iraq War in 2003. The song has occasionally been revived to "greet" Thatcher's public outings following her resignation as Prime Minister, but with suitably amended words: Maggie, Maggie, Maggie! Gone! Gone! Gone! External links Fun memories of protesting C J Stone
Maggie_Out |@lemmatized maggie:18 protest:4 song:9 one:1 popular:1 sung:1 miner:1 strike:1 student:1 grant:1 poll:1 tax:1 public:2 demonstration:1 fell:1 within:1 time:1 margaret:2 thatcher:3 prime:2 minister:2 united:1 kingdom:1 call:1 remove:1 role:1 simple:1 unknown:1 provenance:1 follow:2 pattern:1 oggy:3 oi:3 chant:3 word:3 go:4 like:2 punctuation:1 guess:1 nelson:1 mandela:1 ska:1 band:1 special:1 well:1 love:1 activist:1 subject:1 position:1 change:1 resign:1 post:1 november:1 miss:1 literally:1 anyone:1 could:1 pick:1 second:1 use:1 express:1 noisy:1 dissatisfaction:1 perceived:1 state:1 affair:1 often:1 people:1 would:5 lead:1 first:1 line:1 everyone:1 join:1 rest:2 alternatively:1 someone:1 loudhailer:1 loud:1 voice:1 crowd:1 thereby:1 demonstrate:1 verdict:1 prominent:1 part:1 cultural:1 backdrop:1 britain:1 comedian:1 alexei:1 sayle:1 remark:1 humorously:1 find:1 way:1 around:1 london:1 unless:1 walk:1 middle:1 street:1 shout:1 since:2 two:1 variant:1 hear:1 adapt:1 successor:1 replace:1 major:2 tenure:1 john:1 tony:2 blair:1 plan:1 iraq:1 war:1 occasionally:1 revive:1 greet:1 outing:1 resignation:1 suitably:1 amend:1 external:1 link:1 fun:1 memory:1 c:1 j:1 stone:1 |@bigram margaret_thatcher:2 prime_minister:2 maggie_maggie:12 nelson_mandela:1 tony_blair:1 external_link:1
3,137
James_Parry
Kibo Inside James Parry (born July 13, 1967), commonly known by his nickname and username Kibo (), is a Usenetter known for his sense of humor, various surrealist net pranks, an absurdly long .signature, Version saved by googlepages dated "5/5/94" and a machine-assisted knack for joining any thread in which his nom de guerre is mentioned (to "kiboze"). His exploits have earned him a multitude of enthusiasts, who celebrate him as the head deity of the parody religion kibology, centered on the humor newsgroup alt.religion.kibology. Background James Parry grew up and lived in Scotia, New York. He showed early computing skills, such as being able to open up and reprogram ROM video game cartridges such as those for the Atari 2600, but was more interested in graphics and artistic pursuits. In this vein, he initially was a Computer engineering major at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) in Troy, New York, but moved to Boston, Massachusetts in 1990 and attended Emerson College, where he studied videography and graphic design. At that time, he also worked as a typeface designer and for the world.std.com internet service provider. He has an artistic eye for typeface and developed several fonts in use today. Many assume his nickname is derived from the acronym KIBO, although Parry himself has repeatedly denied this. Another rumor has it being short for King Body, a pseudonym he very briefly used on computer forums as an undergraduate at RPI in the late 1980s. James Edward Kasprzak. Jimcat's Page O' Kibology and Pre-Kibology. "I Knew Kibo Before He Was Kibo." Retrieved 2008-09-25 Kibo has publicly stated that he has prosopagnosia and is a supertaster. Growing fame In the early 1990s, as public awareness grew of the Internet and Usenet, Parry received a great deal of national publicity, including a cover story in Wired magazine, and mentions in Playboy and Time magazine. He became known on Usenet for grepping all occurrences of the term "Kibo"—whether intended to refer to Kibo himself or not—and replying, often in a fanciful manner. A typical exchange Message-Id: BKo6Cr.DFp@world.std.com Fri, 6 Mar 1992 02:17:15 GMT, Google Groups archive of usenet message : Mary Rose Campbell wrote: >At CMU, we also have something called Gray Matter in the center of Skibo >(our student union substitute). It's a bunch of shapes, walls, holes, >and steps covered with the same dark gray carpet that's on the floor. >It looks like a giant cat toy. Actually, it's a life-size model of S. Kibo himself, my great great grand-uncle. This was before he evolved past the 'giant metazoic amoeba' stage a few aeons ago. Now he's a trilobite. -- K. This practice became known as kibozing. He is perhaps best known on Usenet for his famous (or infamous) "Happynet Proclamation" (1992), circulated to many newsgroups, some absurdly unrelated, which satirised the endless flamewars on the network, with Parry posing as a godlike being issuing an edict full of in-jokes and humor targets that claimed to unify all news into one glorious totality, "happynet". In the article, Kibo claimed that Message-ID: C4sFz1.Fw2@world.std.com Thu, 1 Apr 1993 04:47:24 GMT, Google Groups archive of usenet message : ********* HAPPYNET: THE NET THAT'S HAPPIER THAN YOU! ********* UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE ALL-WISE LEADER KIBO, THE NEW NETWORK SHALL BE ORGANIZED THUSLY: Three hierarchies encompassing ALL HUMAN DISCOURSE. => nonbozo.* => bozo.* => megabozo.* Existing groups will be moved into the new organization scheme, resulting in nonbozo.news.announce.newusers, bozo.rec.pets, megabozo.talk.bizarre, nonbozo.comp.virus, bozo.alt.sex, megabozo.alt.fan.lemurs, bozo.postmodern, etc., as determined by scientific measurements of the bozosity of the groups, measured by Leader Kibo's Council On Scientific Bozosity and the faculty of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (Troy, NY), world leaders in bozosity assessment. It is estimated that the breakdown will be thus: 1.0000% nonbozo.* 90.0000% bozo.* 9.0000% megabozo.* (Computations courtesy of Bell Labs) Bozo.* will, of course, be subdivided logically: bozo.nerd.*, bozo.tv.*, bozo.inane.*, bozo.boring.*, bozo.sex.*, bozo.argue.*. The term "bozo" and related jokes like the physics particle the "bozon" were Parry hallmarks. Revisions of the Manifesto were published in 1994 and 1998, and HappyWeb was introduced in 1999. In 1992, at age 25 (ten years younger than the constitutional minimum age for election), he launched a spoof campaign for President of the United States. For a short time, the official White House website listed "Kibo" as a candidate, with links to statements by him, because it had mirrored a university candidate speech archive including him with George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Ross Perot. This led the Libertarian Party to complain that its candidate was not included, though a joke candidate was. For reasons unknown, after constant daily changes for over a decade, his personal website stayed stagnant from late March 2004 until late December 2005. It has since been updated, though not nearly as often as years past. Kibo has hinted at a possible site redesign. See http://www.kibo.com/whatsnew/ where Kibo hints at site revamping. But as Kibo noted on his site in early 2006, the amount of posting to USENET he's done is truly enormous: "By the way, by my official estimates, having posted an average of 20 articles a week to alt.religion.kibology during the past 15 years, probably about 500 words of original content per article, that's... seven point eight mmmmillion words. Equivalent to about 100 books. Suddenly I'm frightening myself. (And the "20 per week" number is my low estimate.) "Asimov wrote 400 books, but he didn't have to contend with writing his own Web backend to index, typeset, and publish 'em. Also he didn't talk about himself nearly as much as I do." References Wired magazine profile, September 1993. External links Kibo's website The alt.religion.kibology newsgroup (via Google Groups) http://www.geocities.com/Athens/6270/kibosig.html - .signature
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3,138
Balloon
Balloons, like greeting cards or flowers, are given for special occasions. Smiley balloons are widely popular with hospitals and are given as get-well gifts. A balloon is an inflatable flexible bag filled with a type of gas, such as helium, hydrogen, nitrous oxide or air. Modern balloons can be made from materials such as rubber, latex, polychloroprene, or a nylon fabric, while some early balloons were sometimes made of dried animal bladders. Some balloons are purely decorative, while others are used for specific purposes such as meteorology, medical treatment, military defense, or transportation. A balloon's properties, including its low density and relatively low cost, have led to a wide range of applications. History In 1643 Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian physicist, showed air was something more than nothing. The Chinese, Japanese and Native American cultures led to beginning of the balloon. The first balloon was (called the balloon of pie) invented by Brazilian-born Portuguese priest at 45 years of age, Bartolomeu de Gusmão, and the first public exhibition was to the Portuguese Court on August 8, 1709, in the hall of the Casa da Índia in Lisbon. The rubber balloon was invented by Michael Faraday in 1824; it was inflated with hydrogen and used in his experiments with that element. Robertson, Patrick. The Book of Firsts, Bramhall House, NY, 1978. Rubber balloons were soon after sold for a penny a piece in parks and circuses in America. The more familiar latex balloons of today were first manufactured in London, 1847, by J.G. Ingram, but mass production did not occur until the 1930s. According to the Reader's Digest, children and adults send up roughly one billion balloons each year in celebration. Balloons are also often part of birthday celebrations. Applications Decoration or entertainment Party balloons. Decorative arches made of party balloons. Party balloons are mostly made of natural latex tapped from rubber trees, and can be filled with air, helium, water, or any other suitable liquid or gas. The rubber's elasticity makes the volume adjustable. Filling the balloon with air can be done with the mouth, a manual or electric inflater (such as a hand pump), or with a source of compressed gas. When rubber balloons are filled with helium so that they float, they typically retain their buoyancy for only a day or so. The enclosed helium atoms escape through small pores in the latex which are larger than the helium atoms. Balloons filled with air usually hold their size and shape much longer. Even a perfect rubber balloon eventually loses gas to the outside. The process by which a substance or solute migrates from a region of high concentration, through a barrier or membrane, to a region of lower concentration is called diffusion. The inside of balloons can be treated with a special gel (for instance, the polymer solution sold under the "Hi Float" brand) which coats the inside of the balloon to reduce the helium leakage, thus increasing float time to a week or longer. Animal-shaped balloons Beginning in the late 1970s, some more expensive (and longer-lasting) foil balloons made of thin, unstretchable, less permeable metalized plastic films started being produced. These balloons have attractive shiny reflective surfaces and are often printed with color pictures and patterns for gifts and parties. The most important attribute of metalized nylon for balloons is its light weight, increasing buoyancy and its ability to keep the helium gas from escaping for several weeks. Professional balloon party decorators use electronic equipment to enable the exact amount of helium to fill the balloon. For non-floating balloons air inflators are used. Professional quality balloons are used, which differ from most retail packet balloons by being larger in size and made from 100% biodegradable latex. Balloon modeling and balloons in art Balloon artists are entertainers who twist and tie inflated tubular balloons into sculptures (see balloon modelling). The balloons used for balloon sculpture are made of extra-stretchy rubber so that they can be twisted and tied without bursting. Since the pressure required to inflate a balloon is inversely proportional to the diameter of the balloon, these tiny tubular balloons are extremely hard to inflate initially. A pump is usually used to inflate these balloons. Decorators may use hundreds of helium balloons to create balloon sculptures. Usually the round shape of the balloon restricts these to simple arches or walls, but on occasion more ambitious "sculptures" have been attempted. It is also common to use balloons as tables decorations for celebratory events. Table decorations normally appear with 3 or 5 balloons on each bouquet. Ribbon is curled and added with a weight to keep the balloons from floating away. Balloon drops A common decorative use for balloons is in balloon drops. In a balloon drop, a plastic bag or net filled with air-inflated balloons is suspended from a fixed height. Once released, the balloons fall onto their target area below. Balloon drops are commonly performed at New Year's Eve celebrations and at political rallies and conventions, but may also be performed at other celebrations, including graduations and weddings. Balloon publicity Balloons are often used for publicity at major events. Screen-printing processes can be used to print designs and company logos onto the balloons. In January 2008, the Jewish Community Relations Council of New York organized a display of 4,200 red balloons outside the United Nations building. 4,200 balloons released in NY to protest Qassam fire, By Neta Sela, Ynet News, January 24, 2008. Water balloons Water balloons are thin, small rubber balloons intended to be easily broken. They are usually used by children, who throw them at each other, trying to get each other wet, as a game or practical joke. They can be used in competitions or games. They are often smaller than regular balloons. Balloon rockets Balloons are often deliberately released, creating so called balloon rocket or rocket balloon. Rocket balloons work because the elastic balloons contract on the air within them, and so when the mouth of the balloon is left open, the gas within the balloon shoots out, and, due to Newton's third law of motion, the balloon is propelled forward. This is fundamentally the same way that a rocket works. Flying machines Hot air balloons, San Diego, California Flying above the Ancient City during the Ferrara Balloons Festival, Italy Large balloons filled with hot air or buoyant gas (often hydrogen or helium) have been used as flying machines since the 18th century. The earliest flights were made with hot air balloons using air heated with a flame, or hydrogen; later, helium was used. Unlike airships, balloons' travel is directed exclusively by wind. Medicine Angioplasty is a surgical procedure in which very small balloons are inserted into blocked or partially blocked blood vessels near the heart. Once in place, the balloon is inflated to clear or compress arterial plaque, and to stretch the walls of the vessel, thus preventing myocardial infarction. A small stent can be inserted at the angioplasty site to keep the vessel open after the balloon's removal. Balloon catheters are catheters that have balloons at their tip to keep them from slipping out. For example, the balloon of a Foley catheter is inflated when the catheter is inserted into the urinary bladder and secures its position. Safety and environmental concerns There has been some environmental concern over metalized nylon balloons, as they don't biodegrade or shred as rubber balloons do, and a helium balloon released into the atmosphere can travel a long way before finally bursting or deflating. Release of these types of balloons into the atmosphere is considered harmful to the environment. This type of balloon can also conduct electricity on its surface and released foil balloons can become entangled in power lines and cause power outages. Released balloons can land almost anywhere, including on nature reserves or other areas where they pose a serious hazard to animals through ingestion or entanglement. Latex balloons are especially dangerous to marine life because latex retains its elasticity for 12 months or more when exposed to sea water rather than air. Because of the harm to wildlife and the effect of litter on the environment, some jurisdictions even legislate to control mass balloon releases. Legislation proposed in Maryland, US, was named after Inky, a pygmy Sperm Whale who needed 6 operations after swallowing debris, the largest piece of which was a mylar balloon. See also List of balloon uses Aerobot Balloon-carried light effect Foam balloon Radiosonde Rockoon Speech balloon Notes "Reader's Digest: Stories Behind Everyday Things" New York:Reader's Digest,1980. External links Stratospheric balloons, history and present Historical recopilation project on the use of stratospheric balloons in the scientific research, the military field and the aerospace activity National trade association for the UK balloon industry National trade association for the Australasian balloon industry Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and Aeronautics Royal Engineers Museum Early British Military Ballooning (1863)
Balloon |@lemmatized balloon:104 like:1 greet:1 card:1 flower:1 give:2 special:2 occasion:2 smiley:1 widely:1 popular:1 hospital:1 get:2 well:1 gift:2 inflatable:1 flexible:1 bag:2 fill:8 type:3 gas:7 helium:12 hydrogen:4 nitrous:1 oxide:1 air:13 modern:1 make:9 material:1 rubber:10 latex:7 polychloroprene:1 nylon:3 fabric:1 early:3 sometimes:1 dried:1 animal:3 bladder:2 purely:1 decorative:3 others:1 use:18 specific:1 purpose:1 meteorology:1 medical:1 treatment:1 military:3 defense:1 transportation:1 property:1 include:3 low:3 density:1 relatively:1 cost:1 lead:2 wide:1 range:1 application:2 history:2 evangelista:1 torricelli:1 italian:1 physicist:1 show:1 something:1 nothing:1 chinese:1 japanese:1 native:1 american:1 culture:1 begin:2 first:4 call:3 pie:1 invent:2 brazilian:1 bear:1 portuguese:2 priest:1 year:3 age:1 bartolomeu:1 de:1 gusmão:1 public:1 exhibition:1 court:1 august:1 hall:1 casa:1 da:1 índia:1 lisbon:1 michael:1 faraday:1 inflate:7 experiment:1 element:1 robertson:1 patrick:1 book:1 bramhall:1 house:1 ny:2 soon:1 sell:2 penny:1 piece:2 park:1 circus:1 america:1 familiar:1 today:1 manufacture:1 london:1 j:1 g:1 ingram:1 mass:2 production:1 occur:1 accord:1 reader:3 digest:3 child:2 adult:1 send:1 roughly:1 one:1 billion:1 celebration:4 also:5 often:6 part:1 birthday:1 decoration:3 entertainment:1 party:5 arch:2 mostly:1 natural:1 tap:1 tree:1 water:4 suitable:1 liquid:1 elasticity:2 volume:1 adjustable:1 mouth:2 manual:1 electric:1 inflater:1 hand:1 pump:2 source:1 compress:2 float:5 typically:1 retain:2 buoyancy:2 day:1 enclosed:1 atom:2 escape:2 small:5 pore:1 large:4 usually:4 hold:1 size:2 shape:2 much:1 longer:1 even:2 perfect:1 eventually:1 lose:1 outside:2 process:2 substance:1 solute:1 migrates:1 region:2 high:1 concentration:2 barrier:1 membrane:1 diffusion:1 inside:2 treat:1 gel:1 instance:1 polymer:1 solution:1 hi:1 brand:1 coat:1 reduce:1 leakage:1 thus:2 increase:2 time:1 week:2 long:3 shaped:1 late:1 expensive:1 lasting:1 foil:2 thin:2 unstretchable:1 less:1 permeable:1 metalize:2 plastic:2 film:1 start:1 produce:1 attractive:1 shiny:1 reflective:1 surface:2 print:2 color:1 picture:1 pattern:1 important:1 attribute:1 metalized:1 light:2 weight:2 ability:1 keep:4 several:1 professional:2 decorator:2 electronic:1 equipment:1 enable:1 exact:1 amount:1 non:1 inflator:1 quality:1 differ:1 retail:1 packet:1 biodegradable:1 modeling:1 art:1 artist:1 entertainer:1 twist:2 tie:2 tubular:2 sculpture:4 see:2 model:1 extra:1 stretchy:1 without:1 burst:2 since:2 pressure:1 require:1 inversely:1 proportional:1 diameter:1 tiny:1 extremely:1 hard:1 initially:1 may:2 hundred:1 create:2 round:1 restrict:1 simple:1 wall:2 ambitious:1 attempt:1 common:2 table:2 celebratory:1 event:2 normally:1 appear:1 bouquet:1 ribbon:1 curl:1 add:1 away:1 drop:4 net:1 inflated:1 suspend:1 fixed:1 height:1 release:8 fall:1 onto:2 target:1 area:2 commonly:1 perform:2 new:3 eve:1 political:1 rally:1 convention:1 graduation:1 wedding:1 publicity:2 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inversely_proportional:1 plastic_bag:1 san_diego:1 surgical_procedure:1 myocardial_infarction:1 urinary_bladder:1 sperm_whale:1 external_link:1
3,139
Herodotus
Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC– 425 BC) and is regarded as the "Father of History" in Western culture. He was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a well-constructed and vivid narrative. New Oxford American Dictionary, "Herodotos", Oxford University Press He is almost exclusively known for writing The Histories, a record of his "inquiries" (or , a word that passed into Latin and took on its modern meaning of history) into the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars which occurred in 490 and 480-479 BC—especially since he includes a narrative account of that period, which would otherwise be poorly documented, and many long digressions concerning the various places and peoples he encountered during wide-ranging travels around the lands of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Although some of his stories are not completely accurate, he states that he is only reporting what has been told to him. Biography Much of what is known of Herodotus's life is gathered from his own work. Additional details have been garnered from the Suda, an 11th-century encyclopaedia of Byzantium, which likely took its information from traditional accounts. It holds that he was born in Halicarnassus (Bodrum in present-day Turkey), the son of Lyxes and Dryo, and the brother of Theodorus, and that he was also related to Panyassis, an epic poet of the time. According to this account, after being exiled from Halicarnassus by the tyrant Lygdamis, Herodotus went to live on Samos. Later returning to the land of his birth, Herodotus took part in the ousting of Lygdamis. The traditional biography includes some time spent in Athens, where he is said to have given public readings from his oeuvre and befriended the dramatist Sophocles. It also has Herodotus joining and founding the Athenian colony of Thurii in Southern Italy in 443 BC. His death and burial are placed either at Thurii or at Pella, in Macedon, between 425 and 420 BC. It is suspected he was buried at Thurii as he typically referred to himself as "Herodotus of Thurii." The Landmark Herodotus : the histories / a new translation by Andrea L. Purvis with maps, annotation Herodotus. New York : Pantheon Books, c2007. lxiv, 953 p. : ill., col. maps ; 25 cm. How much of this is correct is not known. It was common practice in antiquity for the biographies of poets to be pieced together out of inferences drawn from their works. Something similar may have happened in Herodotus' case. His casting as a tyrannicide may simply reflect the pro-freedom attitude that he expresses in the Histories, whereas the stays at Samos and Athens may have been invented to explain the pro-Samian and pro-Athenian bias that has often been thought to pervade his work. His exile from Halicarnassus may also be fictional: later historians, such as Thucydides and Xenophon, underwent periods of exile, and their fate may have been retrospectively imposed on Herodotus by later writers. Historian Reconstruction of the Oikumene (inhabited world) ancient map from Herodotus, circa 450 BC. Herodotus provides much information concerning the nature of the world and the status of the sciences during his lifetime. He was arguably the first historian, and certainly the first to travel methodically around the known world in a bid to write more accurately, although this still involved second-hand and third-hand accounts relating to his primary subject, the Persian wars. Croesus Receiving Tribute from a Lydian Peasant, by Claude Vignon. He reports, for example, that the annual flooding of the Nile was said to be the result of melting snows far to the south, and he comments that he cannot understand how there can be snow in Africa, the hottest part of the known world, offering an elaborate explanation based on the way that desert winds affect the passage of the Sun over this part of the world (2:18ff). He also passes on dismissive reports from Phoenician sailors that, while circumnavigating Africa, they "saw the sun on the right side while sailing westwards". Owing to this brief mention, which is put in almost as an afterthought, it has been argued that Africa was indeed circumnavigated by ancient seafarers, for this is precisely where the sun ought to have been. Herodotus is one of the sources on Croesus and his fabulous treasures of gold and silver, and many stories about his riches. Written between 431 and 425 BC, The Histories were divided by later editors into nine books, named after the nine Muses (the "Muse of History", Clio, represented the first book). His accounts of India are among the oldest records of Indian civilization by an outsider. The Indian Empire The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909, v. 2, p. 272. The Indian Empire Opinions Herodotus' invention earned him the twin titles "The Father of History", first conferred by Cicero, and "The Father of Lies". As these epithets imply, there has long been a debate—at least from the time of Cicero's On the Laws (Book 1, paragraph 5)—concerning the veracity of his tales and, more importantly, the extent to which he knew himself to be creating fabrications. Criticisms of Herodotus There are many cases in which Herodotus, not certain of the truth of a certain event or unimpressed by the dull "facts" that he received, reported the several most famous accounts of a given subject or process and then wrote what he believed was the most probable. Although The Histories were often criticized in antiquity for bias, inaccuracy and plagiarism—Claudius Aelianus attacked Herodotus as a liar in Verae Historiae and went as far as to deny him a place among the famous on the Island of the Blessed —this methodology has been seen in a more-positive light by many modern historians and philosophers, especially those searching for a paradigm of objective historical writing. Some attacks have been made by various scholars in modern times, a few even arguing that Herodotus exaggerated the extent of his travels and invented his sources. Fehling, Detlev. Herodotos and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J.G. Howie. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs, 21. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989. Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century have helped greatly to restore Herodotus's reputation. His description of Gelonus, located in Scythia city, as thousands of times larger than Troy was widely disbelieved until it was rediscovered in 1975. The archaeological study of the now-submerged ancient Egyptian city of Heracleion and the recovery of the so-called "Naucratis stela" give extensive credibility to Herodotus's previously unsupported claim that Heracleion was founded under the Egyptian New Kingdom. Because of this recent increase in respect for his accuracy, as well as the quality and content of his observations, Herodotus is now recognized as a pioneer not only in history but in ethnography See, for example, C. P. Jones, ("ἔθνος and γένος in Herodotos", The Classical Quarterly, New Series, 46 (2):315–320; 1996), who refers to him as "the father of ethnography" (p. 315). and anthropology. Gold-digging ants Gold dust and nuggets. One of the most recent developments in Herodotus scholarship was made by the French ethnologist Michel Peissel. On his journeys to India and Pakistan, Peissel claims to have discovered an animal species that may finally illuminate one of the most "bizarre" passages in Herodotus's Histories. In Book 3, passages 102 to 105, Herodotus reports that a species of fox-sized, furry "ants" lives in one of the far eastern, Indian provinces of the Persian Empire. This region, he reports, is a sandy desert, and the sand there contains a wealth of fine gold dust. These giant ants, according to Herodotus, would often unearth the gold dust when digging their mounds and tunnels, and the people living in this province would then collect the precious dust. Now, Peissel says that in an isolated region of Pakistan, in the Pakistani-controlled part of Kashmir that is known as the Federally Administered Northern Areas (FANA), on the Deosai Plateau there exists a species of marmot (a type of burrowing squirrel) that may solve the mystery of Herodotus' giant "ants". Much like the province that Herodotus describes, the ground of the Deosai Plateau is rich in gold dust. According to Peissel, he interviewed the Minaro tribal people who live in the Deosai Plateau, and they have confirmed that they have, for generations, been collecting the gold dust that the marmots bring to the surface when they are digging their underground burrows. The story seems to have been widespread in the ancient world, later authors like Pliny the Elder mentioning it in his gold mining section of the Naturalis Historia. Bobak marmot in central Asia. Even more tantalizing, in his book, "The Ants' Gold: The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas", Peissel offers the theory that Herodotus may have become confused because the old Persian word for "marmot" was quite similar to that for "mountain ant". Because research suggests that Herodotus probably did not know any Persian (or any other language except his native Greek), he was forced to rely on a multitude of local translators when travelling in the vast polylingual Persian Empire. Therefore, he may have been the unwitting victim of a simple misunderstanding in translation. (It is also important to realize that Herodotus never claims to have himself seen these "ants/marmot" creatures—he may have been dutifully reporting what other travellers were telling him, no matter how bizarre or unlikely he personally may have found it to be. In an age when most of the world was still mysterious and unknown and before the modern science of biology, the existence of a "giant ant" may not have seemed so far-fetched.) The suggestion that he completely made up the tale may continue to be thrown into doubt as more research is conducted. Simons, Marlise. Himalayas Offer Clue to Legend of Gold-Digging 'Ants'. New York Times: 25 November 1996. Peissel, Michel. "The Ants' Gold: The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas". Collins, 1984. ISBN 978-0002725149. However, it must be noted that this theory of the marmots fails to take into consideration Herodotus's own follow-up in passage 105 of Book 3, wherein the "ants/marmots" are said to chase and devour full-grown camels; nevertheless, this could also be explained as an example of a tall tale or legend told by the local tribes to frighten foreigners from seeking this relatively easy access to gold dust. On the other hand, the details of the "ants" seem somewhat similar to the description of the camel spider (Solifugae), which strictly speaking is not a spider and is even sometimes called a "wind scorpion". Camel spiders are said to chase camels (they can run up to 10mph), they have lots of hair bristles, and they could quite easily be mistaken for ants given their rather bizarre appearance. And as has been noted by some, on account of the fear factor of encountering one, there have been "many myths and exaggerations about their size". Images of camel spiders Camel Spiders (Main Page) Camel Spiders (Pictures) could give the impression that this could be mistaken for a giant ant, but certainly not the size of a fox. See also Early Postal Systems, Persia Naturalis Historia Pliny the Elder The Histories Thucydides, ancient Greek historian who is often said to be also "the father of history" Notes Translations Several English translations of The Histories of Herodotus are readily available in multiple editions. The most readily available are those translated by: C.E. Godley, 1920; revised 1926. Reprinted 1931, 1946, 1960, 1966, 1975, 1981, 1990, 1996, 1999, 2004. Available in four volumes from Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-99130-3 Printed with Greek on the left and English on the right. David Grene, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. George Rawlinson, translation 1858–1860. Public domain; many editions available, although Everyman Library and Wordsworth Classics editions are the most common ones still in print. Aubrey de Sélincourt, originally 1954; revised by John Marincola in 1972. Several editions from Penguin Books available. Strassler, Robert B., (ed.), and Purvis, Andrea L. (trans.), The Landmark Herodotus, Pantheon, 2007. ISBN 978-0-37542109-9 with adequate ancillary information. Robin Waterfield, with an Introduction and Notes by Carolyn Dewald, Oxford World Classics, 1998. Bibliography Bakker, Egbert e.a. (eds.), Brill's Companion to Herodotus. Leiden: Brill, 2002 Dewald, Carolyn, and John Marincola, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Herodotus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2006. Evans, J. A. S., Herodotus. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982. —. Herodotus, Explorer of the Past: Three Essays. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991. Flory, Stewart, The Archaic Smile of Herodotus. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987. Fornara, Charles W. Herodotus: An Interpretative Essay. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. Harrington, John W., To See a World. C. V. Mosby Company, 1973. Harrington explored Herodotus's deduction that deltas, including Egypt's, were deposited over a great period of time. Hartog, F., "The Invention of History: From Homer to Herodotus". Wesleyan University, 2000. In History and Theory 39, 2000. Hartog, F., The Mirror of Herodotus. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988. Immerwahr, H., Form and Thought in Herodotus. Cleveland: Case Western Reserve University Press, 1966. Kapuscinski, Ryszard, "Travels with Herodotus". New York, NY: Alfred A Knopf, 2007. Lateiner, D., The Historical Method of Herodotus. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989. Momigliano, A., The Classical Foundations of Modern Historiography. University of California Press, 1992. Pritchett, W. K., The Liar School of Herodotos. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1991. Kwintner, Michelle. The Liar School of Herodotus (Review). Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 1994. Romm, James S. Herodotus. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-07229-5; paperback, ISBN 0-300-07230-9). Thomas, R., Herodotus in Context; ethnography, science and the art of persuasion. Oxford University Press 2000. Selden, Daniel. "Cambyses' Madness, or the Reason of History," Materiali e discussioni per l'analisi dei testi classici 42 (1999), 33-63. Simons, Marlise. Himalayas Offer Clue to Legend of Gold-Digging 'Ants'. New York Times: 25 November 1996. Peissel, Michel. "The Ants' Gold: The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas". Collins, 1984. ISBN 978-0002725149. External links Herodotus at About.com Herodotus and the histories on Lycurgus.org. A reconstructed portrait of Herodotus, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style. Herodotus on the Web Herodotus for Kids Herodotus of Halicarnassus at Livius.org 1911 Britannica article "Herodotus" Online translations Herodotus Inquiries—new translation with extensive photographic essays of the places and artifacts mentioned by Herodotus hyper-linked to the text (translation by George Campbell Macaulay, 1852–1915) The History of Herodotus at The Internet Classics Archive (translation by George Rawlinson) Parallel Greek and English text of the History of Herodotus at the Internet Sacred Text Archive Excerpts of Sélincourt's translation Herodotus Histories on Perseus be-x-old:Герадот
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3,140
Cantigas_de_Santa_Maria
An illustration from the E codex of the Cantigas de Santa Maria. The Cantigas de Santa Maria ("Songs to the Virgin Mary") are manuscripts written in Galician-Portuguese, with music notation, during the reign of Alfonso X El Sabio (1221-1284) and are one of the largest collections of monophonic (solo) songs from the Middle Ages. All of the songs at least mention the Virgin Mary, and every 10th is a religious hymn. Some of the manuscripts containing this music also contain colored miniatures showing pairs of musicians playing a wide variety of instruments. Description The Cantigas are written in Galician-Portuguese, the lyrical language of Castile at the time. The Cantigas are composed of 420 poems, 356 of which are in a narrative format relating to Virgin Mary miracles; the rest of them, except an introduction and two prologues, are of lore or involve Marian festivities. The Cantigas depict the Virgin Mary in a very humanized way, often having her play a role in earthly episodes. The authors are unknown, even if several studies indicate that Galician poet Airas Nunes might well have been the author of a large part of them. King Alfonso X — named as Affonso in the Cantigas — is also believed to be an author of some of them as he refers himself in first person. Support for this theory can be found in the prologue of the Cantigas. Also, many sources credit Alfonso due to the influence of his works on the poetic tradition, including his introduction of religious song. Although King Alphonso X's authorship is debatable, his influence is not. While the other major works that came out of Alfonso's workshops, including the histories and other prose texts, were in Castilian, the Cantigas are in Galician-Portuguese, and reflect the popularity in the Castilian court of other poetic corpuses such as the cantigas d'amigo and cantigas d'amor. A lute player. The metrics are extraordinarily diverse: 280 different formats for the 420 Cantigas. The most common are the virelai and the rondeau. The length of the verses varies between two and 24 syllables. The narrative voice in many of the songs describes an erotic relationship, in the troubadour fashion, with the Divine. According to 2000 publishings by scholar Manuel Pedro Ferreira the models for the Cantigas might actually be something different than a traditional French rondeau. He calls the format for some of the Cantigas the "Andalusian rondeau" which has a structure of AB/BB/AB. The music is written in notation which is similar to that used for chant, but also contains some information about the length of the notes. Several transcriptions exist. The Cantigas are frequently recorded and performed by Early Music groups, and quite a few CDs featuring music from the Cantigas are available. Codices Three codices (copies) of the Cantigas are preserved. They are known as the E Codex, the T Codex, and the Florencia manuscript. The E Codex kept in El Escorial, originally from the royal court of Seville, is in two volumes and is the largest collection of the Cantigas; it is richly illuminated in a Gothic hand, containing no less than 1262 carefully detailed miniatures, and has been dated to 1280-1283. The T Codex, from Toledo, which had been considered a copy of an earlier manuscript, has now been reevaluated; it may be in fact be the oldest of the codices, dating from the lifetime of King Alfonso. Also, the T Codex is the least illustrated of the manuscripts. Instead of intricate depictions of scenes it contains alternation of ink throughout. The Florence manuscript has 109 of the cantigas but contains no music, only empty staves; however it is richly illuminated. The music The musical form of the Cantigas, a central work of medieval music, is highly organized and, like other aspects of the Cantigas, it is still a topic of debate and study to uncover the truth. According to Manuel Pedro Ferreira, a scholar on the Cantigas, the music found in the Cantigas cannot be classified as Arab, but instead must be classified as "Moorish- Andalusian". This influence of music lends to the Cantigas a mixture of reference from Western and Eastern traditions of music. See also Cantiga de amigo Llibre Vermell de Montserrat Pergaminho Sharrer Martim Codax References The Songs of Holy Mary by Alfonso X, the Wise: A Translation of the Cantigas de Santa Maria. Translated by Kathleen Kulp-Hill. Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, Tempe 2000. ISBN 0-86698-213-2 Studies on the "Cantigas de Santa Maria": Art, Music, and Poetry: Proceedings of the International Symposium on the "Cantigas de Santa Maria" of Alfonso X, el Sabio (1221-1284) in Commemoration of Its 700th Anniversary Year–1981. Co-Editors Israel J. Katz & John E. Keller; Associate Editors Samuel G. Armistead & Joseph T. Snow. Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, Madison, 1987. ISBN 0-942260-75-9 Cobras e Son: Papers on the Text Music and Manuscripts of the "Cantigas de Santa Maria". Edited by Stephen Parkinson. European Humanities Research Centre, University of Oxford, Modern Humanities Research Association, 2000. ISBN 1 900755 12 2 External links http://perso.club-internet.fr/brassy/PartMed/Cantigas/CSMIDI.html Full Text with MIDI files (site in french). http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/cantigas/ (facsimile, illuminations, links to transcriptions) http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/composers/cantigas.html (a comprehensive database of the released Cantigas recordings.) http://www.falsobordone.com/eng_index.htm (Swedish early music group, four songs of their cantigas-CD are downloadable) http://csm.mml.ox.ac.uk/ (The Centre for the Study of the Cantigas de Santa Maria of Oxford University)
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3,141
Lindow_Man
The freeze-dried body of Lindow Man Lindow Man, also known as Lindow II and Pete Marsh, is the name given to the naturally-preserved bog body of an Late Iron Age man, discovered in a peat bog at Lindow Moss, Mobberley side of the border with Wilmslow, Cheshire, northwest England, on 1 August 1984 by commercial peat-cutters. Lindow Man is not the only bog body to have been found in the moss; Lindow Woman was discovered the year before, and other body parts have been recovered. Lindow Man was a healthy male in his mid-20s. He may have been someone of high status, such as a Pagan ruler, as his body shows little evidence of heavy or rough work. The nature of his death was violent, perhaps ritualistic; after a last, charred meal, Lindow Man was strangled, hit on the head, and his throat was cut. His body was deposited into Lindow Moss, face down, some time during the 1st century AD. The body has been preserved by freeze drying, and is now usually on display in the recently refurbished Gallery 50 of the British Museum, London. It was on loan from the British Museum under its Partnership UK scheme to form the exhibition "Lindow Man: a bog body mystery" at the Manchester Museum from 19 April 2008–19 April 2009. Background Lindow Moss Lindow Moss is a peat bog in Mobberley, Cheshire, used as common land since the medieval period. It originally covered over , but has since shrunk to a tenth of its original size. The bog is a dangerous place; an 18th-century writer recorded people drowning there. For centuries the peat from the bog was used as fuel, and it continued to be extracted until the 1980s, by which time the process had been mechanised. Lindow Woman On 13 May 1983, two peat workers at Lindow Moss, Andy Mould and Stephen Dooley, noticed an unusual object about the size of a football on the elevator taking peat to the shredding machine. They took the object off the elevator for closer inspection, joking that it was a dinosaur egg. Once the peat had been removed, their discovery turned out to be a decomposing, incomplete human head with one eye and some hair intact. Forensics identified the skull as belonging to a woman, probably aged 30–50. On hearing the news of the discovery of the remains Peter Reyn-Bardt, who lived near Lindow Moss, believed it was the body of his wife. Mrs Reyn-Bardt had disappeared in 1960 and was the subject of an ongoing investigation by police. Peter Reyn-Bardt confessed to the murder of his wife and was tried and convicted. The skull was later radiocarbon dated, revealing it to be nearly 2,000 years old. "Lindow Woman", as it became known, dated from around 210 AD. Discovery The area of Lindow Moss where Lindow Man was discovered A further gruesome discovery was made at Lindow Moss, a year after Lindow Woman which was found just to the north east of the new find. On 1 August 1984, Andy Mould, who had been part of the discovery of Lindow Woman in 1983, took what he thought was a piece of wood off the elevator of the peat-shredding machine. He threw the object at Eddie Slack, his workmate. When it hit the ground, peat fell off the object and revealed it to be a human foot. The police were called and took the foot away for examination. Rick Turner, the Cheshire County Archaeologist, was notified of the discovery and succeeded in finding the rest of Lindow Man's body. Some skin had been exposed and had started to decay, so to prevent further deterioration of the body, it was recovered with peat. The complete excavation of the peat block containing the remains was performed on 6 August. Until it could be dated, it was moved to the Macclesfield District Council Hospital for storage. At the time, the body was dubbed "Pete Marsh" (a pun on "peat marsh") by Middlesex Hospital radiologists, a name subsequently adopted by local journalists. Lindow Man's official name is Lindow II as there are other finds from the area; Lindow I refers to two human skulls, Lindow III to fragments of a headless body, and Lindow IV to the upper thigh of an adult male, possibly that of Lindow Man. Retrieved on 22 September 2008. Remains and interpretation In life, Lindow Man would have between 5'6" (1.68 m) and 5'8" (1.73 m) tall and have weighed about 10 stone (132 lb, 60 kg). Only the top half of the body was recovered, but from that it was possible to ascertain it was that of a man in his mid-20s. The body retains a trimmed beard, moustache, and sideburns of brown/ginger hair as well as healthy teeth with no visible cavities and manicured fingernails, indicating he did little heavy or rough work. Apart from a fox-fur armband, Lindow Man was discovered completely naked. Green deposits were found in the hair, originally thought to be a copper-based pigment used for decoration, however it was later revealed to be the result of a reaction between the keratin in the hair and the acid of the peat bog. When he died, Lindow Man was suffering from slight osteoarthritis and an infestation of whipworm and maw worm. Dating Lindow Man is problematic as samples from the body and surrounding peat have produced dates spanning a 900-year period. Although the peat encasing Lindow Man has been radiocarbon dated to about 300 BC, Lindow Man himself has a different date, between about 20 AD and 90 AD. As the peat was cleaned off the body in the laboratory, it became clear that Lindow Man had suffered a violent death. There was a wound in the middle of the right collar bone, a broken jaw, a broken neck, a sinew thong wrapped around a cut throat, and xeroradiography revealed he also had his skull fractured by a blunt object. Although some of the damage to the body could have occurred post mortem, the strangulation (as proven by the thong and broken neck), cut throat, and head injury suggest Lindow Man was murdered. According to Brothwell, it is one of the most complex examples of "overkill" in a bog body, and possibly has ritual meaning as it was "extravagant" for a straightforward murder. Lindow Man's last meal was preserved in his stomach and intestines and was analysed in some detail Holden, T G 1986 preliminary report on the detailed analysis of the macroscopic remains from the gut of Lindow Man, instead, I M, Bourke, J B & Brothwell, DR (eds), Lindow Man: The Body in the Bog. London: British Publications. 116-125 . Analysis of the grains present revealed his diet to be mostly of cereals. He probably ate slightly charred bread although the burning may have had ritual significance rather than being an accident. Some mistletoe pollen was also found in the stomach, indicating that Lindow Man died in around March or April. Dr Anne Ross and Don Robins have suggested that Lindow Man was a high-status druid, which would explain the evidence of minimal hard labour. They proposed that he was sacrificed, possibly during the feast of Beltane, to invoke three Celtic gods against the Romans in the 1st century AD. Retrieved on 22 September 2008. Ross has also suggested that the triple-death was intended to affect three gods, as different modes of death were meant to influence different gods. Conservation Once Lindow Man was removed from the peat, it was possible that it might begin to decay. After rejecting methods used to preserve other bog bodies, such as "pit-tanning" as used on Grauballe Man which took a year and a half, freeze-drying was settled on. The body was frozen solid and the ice vaporised to ensure Lindow Man did not shrink. Before it was freeze-dried, the body was covered in a solution of 15% polyethylene glycol 400 and 85% water to prevent the body from becoming distorted. After freeze-drying, Lindow Man was put in a specially constructed display case to control the environment and carefully maintain the temperature at . Lindow Man is in the care of the British Museum, although from April 2008 until April 2009 he is on display in Manchester Museum. The Guardian described it as one of the best preserved ancient bodies found in Britain. Retrieved on 22 September 2008. Its cabinet is so sensitive that even during recent renovations it was considered wiser to leave it boxed in a protective casing of hoardings than to take the risk of moving it. See also Celts and human sacrifice Haraldskær Woman Ötzi the Iceman Tollund Man Worsley Man References Notes Bibliography Further reading External links Lindow Man
Lindow_Man |@lemmatized freeze:5 dry:2 body:25 lindow:46 man:33 also:5 know:2 ii:2 pete:2 marsh:3 name:3 give:1 naturally:1 preserve:4 bog:11 late:1 iron:1 age:2 discover:4 peat:17 moss:9 mobberley:2 side:1 border:1 wilmslow:1 cheshire:3 northwest:1 england:1 august:3 commercial:1 cutter:1 find:8 woman:7 year:5 part:2 recover:3 healthy:2 male:2 mid:2 may:3 someone:1 high:2 status:2 pagan:1 ruler:1 show:1 little:2 evidence:2 heavy:2 rough:2 work:2 nature:1 death:4 violent:2 perhaps:1 ritualistic:1 last:2 char:2 meal:2 strangle:1 hit:2 head:3 throat:3 cut:3 deposit:2 face:1 time:3 century:4 ad:5 drying:3 usually:1 display:3 recently:1 refurbish:1 gallery:1 british:4 museum:5 london:2 loan:1 partnership:1 uk:1 scheme:1 form:1 exhibition:1 mystery:1 manchester:2 april:5 background:1 use:5 common:1 land:1 since:2 medieval:1 period:2 originally:2 cover:2 shrunk:1 tenth:1 original:1 size:2 dangerous:1 place:1 writer:1 record:1 people:1 drown:1 fuel:1 continue:1 extract:1 process:1 mechanise:1 two:2 worker:1 andy:2 mould:2 stephen:1 dooley:1 notice:1 unusual:1 object:5 football:1 elevator:3 take:6 shredding:2 machine:2 close:1 inspection:1 joke:1 dinosaur:1 egg:1 remove:2 discovery:6 turn:1 decomposing:1 incomplete:1 human:4 one:3 eye:1 hair:4 intact:1 forensics:1 identify:1 skull:4 belonging:1 probably:2 hear:1 news:1 remains:3 peter:2 reyn:3 bardt:3 live:1 near:1 believe:1 wife:2 mr:1 disappear:1 subject:1 ongoing:1 investigation:1 police:2 confess:1 murder:3 try:1 convict:1 later:2 radiocarbon:2 date:7 reveal:5 nearly:1 old:1 become:3 around:3 area:2 gruesome:1 make:1 north:1 east:1 new:1 think:2 piece:1 wood:1 throw:1 eddie:1 slack:1 workmate:1 ground:1 fell:1 foot:2 call:1 away:1 examination:1 rick:1 turner:1 county:1 archaeologist:1 notify:1 succeed:1 rest:1 skin:1 expose:1 start:1 decay:2 prevent:2 deterioration:1 complete:1 excavation:1 block:1 contain:1 perform:1 could:2 move:2 macclesfield:1 district:1 council:1 hospital:2 storage:1 dub:1 pun:1 middlesex:1 radiologist:1 subsequently:1 adopt:1 local:1 journalist:1 official:1 refers:1 iii:1 fragment:1 headless:1 iv:1 upper:1 thigh:1 adult:1 possibly:3 retrieve:3 september:3 interpretation:1 life:1 would:2 tall:1 weigh:1 stone:1 lb:1 kg:1 top:1 half:2 possible:2 ascertain:1 retain:1 trimmed:1 beard:1 moustache:1 sideburn:1 brown:1 ginger:1 well:1 teeth:1 visible:1 cavity:1 manicure:1 fingernail:1 indicate:2 apart:1 fox:1 fur:1 armband:1 completely:1 naked:1 green:1 copper:1 base:1 pigment:1 decoration:1 however:1 result:1 reaction:1 keratin:1 acid:1 die:2 suffer:2 slight:1 osteoarthritis:1 infestation:1 whipworm:1 maw:1 worm:1 problematic:1 sample:1 surround:1 produce:1 span:1 although:4 encase:1 bc:1 different:3 clean:1 laboratory:1 clear:1 wound:1 middle:1 right:1 collar:1 bone:1 broken:3 jaw:1 neck:2 sinew:1 thong:2 wrap:1 xeroradiography:1 fracture:1 blunt:1 damage:1 occur:1 post:1 mortem:1 strangulation:1 prove:1 injury:1 suggest:3 accord:1 brothwell:2 complex:1 example:1 overkill:1 ritual:2 meaning:1 extravagant:1 straightforward:1 stomach:2 intestine:1 analyse:1 detail:1 holden:1 g:1 preliminary:1 report:1 detailed:1 analysis:2 macroscopic:1 remain:1 gut:1 instead:1 bourke:1 j:1 b:1 dr:2 eds:1 publication:1 grain:1 present:1 diet:1 mostly:1 cereal:1 eat:1 slightly:1 bread:1 burning:1 significance:1 rather:1 accident:1 mistletoe:1 pollen:1 march:1 anne:1 ross:2 robin:1 druid:1 explain:1 minimal:1 hard:1 labour:1 propose:1 sacrifice:2 feast:1 beltane:1 invoke:1 three:2 celtic:1 god:3 roman:1 triple:1 intend:1 affect:1 mode:1 mean:1 influence:1 conservation:1 might:1 begin:1 reject:1 method:1 pit:1 tan:1 grauballe:1 settle:1 frozen:1 solid:1 ice:1 vaporise:1 ensure:1 shrink:1 solution:1 polyethylene:1 glycol:1 water:1 distort:1 put:1 specially:1 construct:1 case:1 control:1 environment:1 carefully:1 maintain:1 temperature:1 care:1 guardian:1 described:1 best:1 preserved:1 ancient:1 britain:1 cabinet:1 sensitive:1 even:1 recent:1 renovation:1 consider:1 wiser:1 leave:1 boxed:1 protective:1 casing:1 hoarding:1 risk:1 see:1 celt:1 haraldskær:1 ötzi:1 iceman:1 tollund:1 worsley:1 reference:1 note:1 bibliography:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram lindow_man:28 peat_bog:4 lindow_moss:8 radiocarbon_date:2 lb_kg:1 skull_fracture:1 post_mortem:1 stomach_intestine:1 polyethylene_glycol:1 ötzi_iceman:1 external_link:1
3,142
Geometric_algebra
In mathematical physics, a geometric algebra is a multilinear algebra described technically as a Clifford algebra over a real vector space equipped with a non-degenerate quadratic form. Informally, a geometric algebra is a Clifford algebra that includes a geometric product. This allows the theory and properties of the algebra to be built up in an intuitive, geometric way. The term is also used in a more general sense to describe the study and application of these algebras: so Geometric algebra is the study of geometric algebras. Geometric algebra is useful in physics problems that involve rotations, phases or imaginary numbers. Proponents of geometric algebra argue it provides a more compact and intuitive description of classical and quantum mechanics, electromagnetic theory and relativity. Current applications of geometric algebra include computer vision, biomechanics and robotics, and spaceflight dynamics. The geometric product A geometric algebra is an algebra constructed over a vector space in which a geometric product is defined. The elements of geometric algebra are multivectors. The original vector space is constructed over the real numbers as scalars. From now on, a vector is something in itself. Vectors will be represented by boldface, small case letters (e.g. ), and multivectors by boldface, upper case letters (e.g. ). The geometric product has the following properties, for all multivectors : Closure Distributivity over the addition of multivectors: Associativity Unit (scalar) element: Tensor contraction: for any "vector" (a grade-one element) is a scalar (real number) Commutativity of the product by a scalar: Properties (1) and (2) are among those needed for an algebra over a field. (3) and (4) mean that a geometric algebra is an associative, unital algebra. The distinctive point of this formulation is the natural correspondence between geometric entities and the elements of the associative algebra. This comes from the fact that the geometric product is defined in terms of the dot product and the wedge product of vectors as The definition and the associativity of geometric product entails the concept of the inverse of a vector (or division by vector). Thus, one can easily set and solve vector algebra equations that otherwise would be cumbersome to handle. In addition, one gains a geometric meaning that would be difficult to retrieve, for instance, by using matrices. Although not all the elements of the algebra are invertible, the inversion concept can be extended to multivectors. Geometric algebra allows one to deal with subspaces directly, and manipulate them too. Furthermore, geometric algebra is a coordinate-free formalism. Geometric objects like are called bivectors. A bivector can be pictured as a plane segment (a parallelogram, a circle etc.) endowed with orientation. One bivector represents all planar segments with the same magnitude and direction, no matter where they are in the space that contains them. However, once either the vector or is meant to depart from some preferred point (e.g. in problems of Physics), the oriented plane is determined unambiguously. The exterior product (or the wedge product; sometimes called the "outer product", although that nomenclature also refers to the tensor product), "" is defined such that the graded algebra (exterior algebra of Hermann Grassmann) of multivectors is generated. Multivectors are thus the direct sum of grade k elements (k-vectors), where k ranges from 0 (scalars) to n, the dimension of the original vector space . Multivectors are represented here by boldface caps. Note that scalars and vectors become special cases of multivectors ("0-vectors" and "1-vectors", respectively). Comparison with conventional vector algebra Here are some comparisons between standard vector relations and their corresponding wedge and geometric product equivalents. All the wedge and geometric product equivalents here are good for more than three dimensions, and some also for two. In two dimensions the cross product is undefined even if what it describes (like torque) is perfectly well defined in a plane without introducing an arbitrary normal vector outside of the space. Many of these relationships only require the introduction of the wedge product to generalize, but since that may not be familiar to somebody with only a traditional background in vector algebra and calculus, some examples are given. Algebraic and geometric properties of cross and wedge products Cross and wedge products are both antisymmetric: They are both linear in the first operand and in the second operand In general, the cross product is not associative, while the wedge product is Both the cross and wedge products of two identical vectors are zero: is perpendicular to the plane containing and . is an oriented representation of the same plane. Norm of a vector The norm (length) of a vector is defined in terms of the dot product Using the geometric product this is also true, but this can be also be expressed more compactly as This follows from the definition of the geometric product and the fact that a vector wedge product with itself is zero Lagrange identity In three dimensions the product of two vector lengths can be expressed in terms of the dot and cross products The corresponding generalization expressed using the geometric product is This follows from by expanding the geometric product of a pair of vectors with its reverse Determinant expansion of cross and wedge products Without justification or historical context, traditional linear algebra texts will often define the determinant as the first step of an elaborate sequence of definitions and theorems leading up to the solution of linear systems, Cramer's rule and matrix inversion. An alternative treatment is to axiomatically introduce the wedge product, and then demonstrate that this can be used directly to solve linear systems. This is shown below, and does not require sophisticated math skills to understand. It is then possible to define determinants as nothing more than the coefficients of the wedge product in terms of "unit k-vectors" ( terms) expansions as above. A one by one determinant is the coefficient of for an 1-vector. A two-by-two determinant is the coefficient of for an bivector A three-by-three determinant is the coefficient of for an trivector ... When linear system solution is introduced via the wedge product, Cramer's rule follows as a side effect, and there is no need to lead up to the end results with definitions of minors, matrices, matrix invertibility, adjoints, cofactors, Laplace expansions, theorems on determinant multiplication and row column exchanges, and so forth. Equation of a plane For the plane of all points through the plane passing through three independent points , , and , the normal form of the equation is The equivalent wedge product equation is Projective and rejective components of a vector For three dimensions the projective and rejective components of a vector with respect to an arbitrary non-zero unit vector, can be expressed in terms of the dot and cross product For the general case the same result can be written in terms of the dot and wedge product and the geometric product of that and the unit vector It's also worthwhile to point out that this result can also be expressed using right or left vector division as defined by the geometric product Area of the parallelogram defined by u and v If A is the area of the parallelogram defined by u and v, then and Note that this squared bivector is a geometric product. Angle between two vectors Volume of the parallelopiped formed by three vectors Derivative of a unit vector It can be shown that a unit vector derivative can be expressed using the cross product The equivalent geometric product generalization is Thus this derivative is the component of in the direction perpendicular to . In other words this is minus the projection of that vector onto . This intuitively make sense (but a picture would help) since a unit vector is constrained to circular motion, and any change to a unit vector due to a change in its generating vector has to be in the direction of the rejection of from . That rejection has to be scaled by 1/|r| to get the final result. When the objective isn't comparing to the cross product, it's also notable that this unit vector derivative can be written Some properties and examples Some fundamental geometric algebra manipulations will be provided below, showing how this vector product can be used in calculation of projections, area, and rotations. How some of these tie together and correlate concepts from other branches of mathematics, such as complex numbers, will also be shown. In some cases these examples provide details used above in the cross product and geometric product comparisons. Inversion of a vector One of the powerful properties of the Geometric product is that it provides the capability to express the inverse of a non-zero vector. This is expressed by: Dot and wedge products defined in terms of the geometric product Given a definition of the geometric product in terms of the dot and wedge products, adding and subtracting and demonstrates that the dot and wedge product of two vectors can also be defined in terms of the geometric product The dot product This is the symmetric component of the geometric product. When two vectors are colinear the geometric and dot products of those vectors are equal. As a motivation for the dot product it is normal to show that this quantity occurs in the solution of the length of a general triangle where the third side is the vector sum of the first and second sides . The last sum is then given the name the dot product and other properties of this quantity are then shown (projection, angle between vectors, ...). This can also be expressed using the geometric product By comparison, the following equality exists . Without requiring expansion by components one can define the dot product exclusively in terms of the geometric product due to its properties of contraction, distribution and associativity. This is arguably a more natural way to define the geometric product, especially since the wedge product is not familiar to many people with traditional vector algebra background, and there is no immediate requirement to add two dissimilar terms (ie: scalar and bivector). The wedge product This is the antisymmetric component of the geometric product. When two vectors are orthogonal the geometric and wedge products of those vectors are equal. Switching the order of the vectors negates this antisymmetric geometric product component, and contraction property shows that this is zero if the vectors are equal. These are the defining properties of the wedge product. Note on symmetric and antisymmetric dot and wedge product formulas A generalization of the dot product that allows computation of the component of a vector "in the direction" of a plane (bivector), or other k-vectors can be found below. Since the signs change depending on the grades of the terms being multiplied, care is required with the formulas above to ensure that they are only used for a pair of vectors. Dot and wedge products compared to the real and imaginary parts of a complex number Reversing the order of multiplication of two vectors has the effect of the inverting the sign of just the wedge product term of the geometric product. It is not a coincidence that this is a similar operation to the conjugate operation of complex numbers. The reverse of a product is written in the following fashion Thus, the dot product is This is the symmetric component of the geometric product. When two vectors are colinear the geometric and dot products of those vectors are equal. The antisymmetric component is represented by the wedge product: These symmetric and antisymmetric components extract the scalar and bivector components of a geometric product in the same fashion as the real and imaginary components of a complex number are extracted by its symmetric and antisymmetric components This extraction of components also applies to higher order geometric product terms. For example Orthogonal decomposition of a vector Using the Gram-Schmidt process a single vector can be decomposed into two components with respect to a reference vector, namely the projection onto a unit vector in a reference direction, and the difference between the vector and that projection. With, , the projection of onto is Orthogonal to that vector is the difference, designated the rejection, The rejection can be expressed as a single geometric algebraic product in a few different ways The similarity in form between the projection and the rejection is notable. The sum of these recovers the original vector Here the projection is in its customary vector form. An alternate formulation is possible that puts the projection in a form that differs from the usual vector formulation A quicker way to the end result Working backwards from the end result, it can be observed that this orthogonal decomposition result can in fact follow more directly from the definition of the geometric product itself. With this approach, the original geometrical consideration is not necessarily obvious, but it is a much quicker way to get at the same algebraic result. However, the hint that one can work backwards, coupled with the knowledge that the wedge product can be used to solve sets of linear equations (see: ), the problem of orthogonal decomposition can be posed directly, Let , where . To discard the portions of that are colinear with , take the wedge product Here the geometric product can be employed Because the geometric product is invertible, this can be solved for x The same techniques can be applied to similar problems, such as calculation of the component of a vector in a plane and perpendicular to the plane. Area of parallelogram spanned by two vectors The area of a parallelogram spanned between one vector and another equals the length of one of those vectors multiplied by the length of the rejection of that vector from the second. The length of this vector is the area of the spanned parallelogram, and in the square is There are a couple things of note here. One is that the area can easily be expressed in terms of the square of a bivector. The other is that the square of a bivector has the same property as a purely imaginary number, a negative square. Expansion of a bivector and a vector rejection in terms of the standard basis If a vector is factored directly into projective and rejective terms using the geometric product , then it is not necessarily obvious that the rejection term, a product of vector and bivector is even a vector. Expansion of the vector bivector product in terms of the standard basis vectors has the following form Let It can be shown that (a result that can be shown more easily straight from ). The rejective term is perpendicular to , since implies . The magnitude of , is . So, the quantity is the squared area of the parallelogram formed by and . It is also noteworthy that the bivector can be expressed as . Thus is it natural, if one considers each term as a basis vector of the bivector space, to define the (squared) "length" of that bivector as the (squared) area. Going back to the geometric product expression for the length of the rejection we see that the length of the quotient, a vector, is in this case is the "length" of the bivector divided by the length of the divisor. This may not be a general result for the length of the product of two k-vectors, however it is a result that may help build some intuition about the significance of the algebraic operations. Namely, When a vector is divided out of the plane (parallelogram span) formed from it and another vector, what remains is the perpendicular component of the remaining vector, and its length is the planar area divided by the length of the vector that was divided out. Projection and rejection of a vector onto and perpendicular to a plane Like vector projection and rejection, higher dimensional analogs of that calculation are also possible using the geometric product. As an example, one can calculate the component of a vector perpendicular to a plane and the projection of that vector onto the plane. Let , where . As above, to discard the portions of that are colinear with or , take the wedge product Having done this calculation with a vector projection, one can guess that this quantity equals . One can also guess there is a vector and bivector dot product like quantity such that the allows the calculation of the component of a vector that is in the "direction of a plane". Both of these guesses are correct, and the validating these facts is worthwhile. However, skipping ahead slightly, this to be proved fact allows for a nice closed form solution of the vector component outside of the plane: Notice the similarities between this planar rejection result a the vector rejection result. To calculation the component of a vector outside of a plane we take the volume spanned by three vectors (trivector) and "divide out" the plane. Independent of any use of the geometric product it can be shown that this rejection in terms of the standard basis is where is the squared area of the parallelogram formed by , and . The (squared) magnitude of is Thus, the (squared) volume of the parallelopiped (base area times perpendicular height) is Note the similarity in form to the w, u,v trivector itself which, if you take the set of as a basis for the trivector space, suggests this is the natural way to define the length of a trivector. Loosely speaking the length of a vector is a length, length of a bivector is area, and the length of a trivector is volume. Product of a vector and a bivector ("dot product" of a plane and a vector) In order to justify the normal to a plane result above, a general examination of the product of a vector and bivector is required. Namely, This has two parts, the vector part where or , and the trivector parts where no indexes equal. After some index summation trickery, and grouping terms and so forth, this is The trivector term is . Expansion of yields the same trivector term (it is the completely symmetric part), and the vector term is negated. Like the geometric product of two vectors, this geometric product can be grouped into symmetric and antisymmetric parts, one of which is a pure k-vector. In analogy the antisymmetric part of this product can be called a generalized dot product, and is roughly speaking the dot product of a "plane" (bivector), and a vector. The properties of this generalized dot product remain to be explored, but first here is a summary of the notation Let , where , and . Expressing and the , products in terms of these components is With the conditions and definitions above, and some manipulation, it can be shown that the term , which then justifies the previous solution of the normal to a plane problem. Since the vector term of the vector bivector product the name dot product is zero when the vector is perpendicular to the plane (bivector), and this vector, bivector "dot product" selects only the components that are in the plane, so in analogy to the vector-vector dot product this name itself is justified by more than the fact this is the non-wedge product term of the geometric vector-bivector product. Generalized inner and outer product While the cross product can only be defined in a three-dimensional space, the inner and outer products can be generalized to any dimensional . Let be a vector and a homogeneous multivector of grade k, respectively. Their inner product is then and the outer product is Complex numbers There is a one to one correspondence between the geometric product of two vectors and the field of complex numbers. Writing, a vector in terms of its components, and left multiplying by the unit vector yields The unit scalar and unit bivector pair can be considered an alternate basis for a two dimensional vector space. This alternate vector representation is closed with respect to the geometric product This closure can be observed after calculation of the square of the unit bivector above, a quantity that has the characteristics of the complex number . This fact allows the simplification of the product above to Thus what is traditionally the defining, and arguably arbitrary seeming, rule of complex number multiplication, is found to follow naturally from the higher order structure of the geometric product, once that is applied to a two dimensional vector space. It is also informative to examine how the length of a vector can be represented in terms of a complex number. Taking the square of the length This right multiplication of a vector with , is named the conjugate . And with that definition, the length of the original vector can be expressed as This is also a natural definition of the length of a complex number, given the fact that the complex numbers can be considered an isomorphism with the two dimensional Euclidean vector space. Rotation in an arbitrarily oriented plane A point , of radius , located at an angle from the vector in the direction from to , can be expressed as Writing , the square of this bivector has the property of the imaginary unit complex number. This allows the point to be specified as a complex exponential Complex numbers could be expressed in terms of the unit bivector . However this isomorphism really only requires a pair of linearly independent vectors in a plane (of arbitrary dimension). Quaternions Like complex numbers, quaternions may be written as a multivector with scalar and bivector components (a 0,2-multivector). Where the complex number has one bivector component, and the quaternions have three. One can describe quaternions as 0,2-multivectors where the basis for the bivector part is left-handed. There isn't really anything special about quaternion multiplication, or complex number multiplication, for that matter. Both are just a specific examples of a 0,2-multivector multiplication. Other quaternion operations can also be found to have natural multivector equivalents. The most important of which is likely the quaternion conjugate, since it implies the norm and the inverse. As a multivector, like complex numbers, the conjugate operation is reversal: Thus . Note that this norm is a positive definite as expected since a bivector square is negative. To be more specific about the left-handed basis property of quaternions one can note that the quaternion bivector basis is usually defined in terms of the following properties The first two properties are satisfied by any set of orthogonal unit bivectors for the space. The last property, which could also be written , amounts to a choice for the orientation of this bivector basis of the 2-vector part of the quaternion. As an example suppose one picks Then the third bivector required to complete the basis set subject to the properties above is . Suppose that, instead of the above, one picked a slightly more natural bivector basis, the duals of the unit vectors obtained by multiplication with the pseudoscalar (). These bivectors are . A 0,2-multivector with this as the basis for the bivector part would have properties similar to the standard quaternions (anti-commutative unit quaternions, negation for unit quaternion square, same congugate, norm and inversion operations, ...), however the triple product would have the value , instead of . Cross product as outer product The cross product of traditional vector algebra (on ) find its place in geometric algebra as a scaled outer product (this is antisymmetric). Relevant is the distinction between axial and polar vectors in vector algebra, which is natural in geometric algebra as the mere distinction between vectors and bivectors (elements of grade two). The here is a unit pseudoscalar of Euclidean 3-space, which establishes a duality between the vectors and the bivectors, and is named so because of the expected property The equivalence of the cross product and the wedge product expression above can be confirmed by direct multiplication of with a determinant expansion of the wedge product See also Cross product#Cross product as an exterior product. Essentially, the geometric product of a bivector and the pseudoscalar of Euclidean 3-space provides a method of calculation of the hodge dual. Intersection of a line and a plane As a meaningful result one can consider a fixed non-zero vector , from a point chosen as the origin, in the usual 3-D Euclidean space, . The set of all vectors such that , denoting a given bivector containing , determines a line parallel to . Since is a directed area, is uniquely determined with respect to the chosen origin. The set of all vectors such that , denoting a given (real) scalar, determines a plane P orthogonal to . Again, P is uniquely determined with respect to the chosen origin. The two information pieces, and , can be set independently of one another. Now, what is (if any) the vector that satisfies the system {, }? Geometrically, the answer is plain: it is the vector that departs from the origin and arrives at the intersection of and P. By geometric algebra, even the algebraic answer is simple: -1. Note that the division by a vector transforms the multivector into the sum of two vectors. Namely, -1 is the projection of on , and -1 is the rejection of from (i.e. the component of orthogonal to ). Note also that the structure of the solution does not depend on the chosen origin. Torque Torque is generally defined as the magnitude of the perpendicular force component times distance, or work per unit angle. Suppose a circular path in an arbitrary plane containing orthonormal vectors and is parameterized by angle. By designating the unit bivector of this plane as the imaginary number this path vector can be conveniently written in complex exponential form and the derivative with respect to angle is So the torque, the rate of change of work W, due to a force F, is Unlike the cross product description of torque, , the geometric-algebra description does not introduce a vector in the normal direction; a vector that doesn't exist in two and that is not unique in greater than three dimensions. The unit bivector describes the plane and the orientation of the rotation, and the sense of the rotation is relative to the angle between the vectors and . Expanding the result in terms of components At a glance this doesn't appear much like the familiar torque as a determinant or cross product, but this can be expanded to demonstrate its equivalence (the cross product is hiding there in the bivector ). Expanding the position vector in terms of the planar unit vectors and expanding the force by components in the same direction plus the possible perpendicular remainder term and then taking dot products yields is the torque . This determinant may be familiar from derivations with , and (See the Feynman lectures Volume I for example). Geometrical description When the magnitude of the "rotational arm" is factored out, the torque can be written as The vector is the unit vector perpendicular to the . Thus the torque can also be described as the product of the magnitude of the rotational arm times the component of the force that is in the direction of the rotation (ie: the work done rotating something depends on length of the lever, and the size of the useful part of the force pushing on it). Application of the force to a lever not in the rotation plane If the rotational arm that the force is applied to is not in the plane of rotation then only the components of the lever arm direction and the component of the force that are in the plane will contribute to the work done. The calculation above allowed for a force applied in an arbitrary direction, so to generalize this, a calculation that discards the component of the level arm direction not in the plane. When is allowed to lie outside of the plane of rotation the component in the plane (bivector) can be described with the geometric product nicely Thus, the vector with this magnitude that is perpendicular to this in the plane of the rotation is and the total torque is thus This makes sense when once considers that only the dot product part of contributes to the component of in the plane, and when the lever is in the rotational plane this wedge product component of is zero. Matrix inversion and determinants Matrix inversion (Cramer's rule) and determinants can be naturally expressed in terms of the wedge product. The use of the wedge product in the solution of linear equations can be quite useful for various geometric product calculations. Traditionally, instead of using the wedge product, Cramer's rule is usually presented as a generic algorithm that can be used to solve linear equations of the form (or equivalently to invert a matrix). Namely . This is a useful theoretic result. For numerical problems row reduction with pivots and other methods are more stable and efficient. When the wedge product is coupled with the Clifford product and put into a natural geometric context, the fact that the determinants are used in the expression of parallelogram area and parallelepiped volumes (and higher dimensional generalizations of these) also comes as a nice side effect. As is also shown below, results such as Cramer's rule also follow directly from the property of the wedge product that it selects non identical elements. The end result is then simple enough that it could be derived easily if required instead of having to remember or look up a rule. Two variables example Pre and post multiplying by and Provided the solution is For , this is Cramer's rule since the factors of the wedge products divide out. Similarly, for three, or N variables, the same ideas hold Again, for the three variable three equation case this is Cramer's rule since the factors of all the wedge products divide out, leaving the familiar determinants. A numeric example with three equations and two unknowns When there are more equations than variables case, if the equations have a solution, each of the k-vector quotients will be scalars To illustrate here is the solution of a simple example with three equations and two unknowns. The right wedge product with solves for and a left wedge product with solves for Observe that both of these equations have the same factor, so one can compute this only once (if this was zero it would indicate the system of equations has no solution). Collection of results for and yields a Cramers rule like form: Writing , we have the end result: The contraction rule The connection between Clifford algebras and quadratic forms come from the contraction property. This rule also gives the space a metric defined by the naturally derived inner product. It is to be noted that in geometric algebra in all its generality there is no restriction whatsoever on the value of the scalar, it can very well be negative, even zero (in that case, the possibility of an inner product is ruled out if you require ). The contraction rule can be put in the form: where is the modulus of vector a, and is called the signature of vector a. This is especially useful in the construction of a Minkowski space (the spacetime of special relativity) through . In that context, null-vectors are called "lightlike vectors", vectors with negative signature are called "spacelike vectors" and vectors with positive signature are called "timelike vectors" (these last two denominations are exchanged when using instead). Applications of geometric algebra A useful example is , and to generate , an instance of geometric algebra sometimes called spacetime algebra. Cf. Hestenes (1966). The electromagnetic field tensor, in this context, becomes just a bivector where the imaginary unit is the volume element, giving an example of the geometric reinterpretation of the traditional "tricks". Boosts in this Lorenzian metric space have the same expression as rotation in Euclidean space, where is of course the bivector generated by the time and the space directions involved, whereas in the Euclidean case it is the bivector generated by the two space directions, strengthening the "analogy" to almost identity. History The concinnity of geometry and algebra dates as far back at least to Euclid's Elements in the 3rd century B.C. Euclid, Books II and VI. It was not, however, until 1844 that algebra would be used in a systematic way to describe the geometrical properties and transformations of a space. In that year, Hermann Grassmann introduced the idea of a geometrical algebra in full generality as a certain calculus (analogous to the propositional calculus) which encoded all of the geometrical information of a space. Grassmann's algebraic system could be applied to a number of different kinds of spaces: the chief among them being Euclidean space, affine space, and projective space. Following Grassmann, in 1878 William Kingdon Clifford examined Grassmann's algebraic system alongside the quaternions of William Rowan Hamilton. From his point of view, the quaternions described certain transformations (which he called rotors), whereas Grassmann's algebra described certain properties (or Strecken such as length, area, and volume). His contribution was to define a new product — the geometric product — on an existing Grassmann algebra, which realized the quaternions as living within that algebra. Subsequently Rudolf Lipschitz in 1886 generalized Clifford's interpretation of the quaternions and applied them to the geometry of rotations in n dimensions. Later these developments would lead other 20th-century mathematicians to formalize and explore the properties of the Clifford algebra. Nevertheless, another revolutionary development of the 19th-century would completely overshadow the geometric algebras: that of vector analysis, developed independently by Josiah Willard Gibbs and Oliver Heaviside. Vector analysis was motivated by James Clerk Maxwell's studies of electromagnetism, and specifically the need to express and manipulate conveniently certain differential equations. Vector analysis had a certain intuitive appeal compared to the rigors of the new algebras. Physicists and mathematicians alike readily adopted it as their geometrical toolkit of choice. Progress on the study of Clifford algebras quietly advanced through the twentieth century, although largely due to the work of abstract algebraists such as Hermann Weyl and Claude Chevalley. The geometrical approach to geometric algebras has seen a number of 20th-century revivals. In mathematics, Emil Artin's Geometric Algebra discusses the algebra associated with each of a number of geometries, including affine geometry, projective geometry, symplectic geometry, and orthogonal geometry. In physics, geometric algebras have been revived as a "new" way to do classical mechanics and electromagnetism. Hestenes, et al. (1984). David Hestenes reinterpreted the Pauli and Dirac matrices as vectors in ordinary space and spacetime, respectively. In computer graphics, geometric algebras have been revived in order to represent efficiently rotations (and other transformations) on computer hardware. Dorst, et al. (2007). See also Clifford algebra Algebra of physical space Spinor Quaternion Algebraic geometry Notes References Leo Dorst, Daniel Fontijne, Stephen Mann, "Geometric Algebra for Computer Science: An Object-Oriented Approach to Geometry" (The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Computer Graphics), Morgan Kaufmann (April 19, 2007), ISBN 0123694655, ISBN 978-0123694652. (The Linear Extension Theory - A new Branch of Mathematics) David Hestenes and Sobczyk, G., 1984. Clifford Algebra to Geometric Calculus, Springer Verlag ISBN 90-277-1673-0 Further reading Baylis, W. E., ed., 1996. Clifford (Geometric) Algebra with Applications to Physics, Mathematics, and Engineering. Boston: Birkhäuser. Baylis, W. E., 2002. Electrodynamics: A Modern Geometric Approach, 2nd ed. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-4025-8 Nicolas Bourbaki, 1980. Eléments de Mathématique. Algèbre. Chpt. 9, "Algèbres de Clifford". Paris: Hermann. Hestenes, D., 1999. New Foundations for Classical Mechanics, 2nd ed. Springer Verlag ISBN 0-7923-5302-1 Lasenby, J., Lasenby, A. N., and Doran, C. J. L., 2000, "A Unified Mathematical Language for Physics and Engineering in the 21st Century," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A 358: 1-18. External links Research groups Geometric Calculus International. Links to Research groups, Software, and Conferences, worldwide. Cambridge Geometric Algebra group. Full-text online publications, and other material. University of Amsterdam group Geometric Calculus research & development (Arizona State University). GA-Net blog and newsletter archive. Geometric Algebra/Clifford Algebra development news. Online reading Imaginary Numbers are not Real - the Geometric Algebra of Spacetime. Introduction (Cambridge GA group). Physical Applications of Geometric Algebra. Final-year undergraduate course (Cambridge GA group; see also 1999 version). Maths for (Games) Programmers: 5 - Multivector methods. Comprehensive introduction and reference for programmers, from Ian Bell. A Geometric Algebra Primer, especially for computer scientists. Exploring Hyperspace with the Geometric Product - Highlights applications to higher dimensions and cosmology that includes wormholes.
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Integer
Symbol often used to denote the set of integers The integers (from the Latin integer, literally "untouched", hence "whole": the word entire comes from the same origin, but via French ) are natural numbers including 0 (0, 1, 2, 3, ...) and their negatives (0, −1, −2, −3, ...). They are numbers that can be written without a fractional or decimal component, and fall within the set {... −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...}. For example, 65, 7, and −756 are integers; 1.6 and 1½ are not integers. In other terms, integers are the numbers one can count with items such as apples or fingers, and their negatives, as well as 0. More formally, the integers are the only integral domain whose positive elements are well-ordered, and in which order is preserved by addition. Like the natural numbers, the integers form a countably infinite set. The set of all integers is often denoted by a boldface Z (or blackboard bold , Unicode U+2124 ), which stands for Zahlen (German for numbers, pronounced "tsAH-len"). "Earliest Uses of Symbols of Number Theory" In algebraic number theory, these commonly understood integers, embedded in the field of rational numbers, are referred to as rational integers to distinguish them from the more broadly defined algebraic integers. Algebraic properties Like the natural numbers, Z is closed under the operations of addition and multiplication, that is, the sum and product of any two integers is an integer. However, with the inclusion of the negative natural numbers, and, importantly, zero, Z (unlike the natural numbers) is also closed under subtraction. Z is not closed under the operation of division, since the quotient of two integers (e.g., 1 divided by 2), need not be an integer. Although the natural numbers are closed under exponentiation, the integers are not (since the result can be a fraction when the exponent is negative). The following lists some of the basic properties of addition and multiplication for any integers a, b and c. addition multiplication closure: a + b   is an integer a × b   is an integer associativity: a + (b + c)  =  (a + b) + c a × (b × c)  =  (a × b) × c commutativity: a + b  =  b + a a × b  =  b × a existence of an identity element: a + 0  =  a a × 1  =  a existence of inverse elements: a + (−a)  =  0 distributivity: a × (b + c)  =  (a × b) + (a × c) No zero divisors: if a × b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0 (or both) In the language of abstract algebra, the first five properties listed above for addition say that Z under addition is an abelian group. As a group under addition, Z is a cyclic group, since every nonzero integer can be written as a finite sum 1 + 1 + ... 1 or (−1) + (−1) + ... + (−1). In fact, Z under addition is the only infinite cyclic group, in the sense that any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to Z. The first four properties listed above for multiplication say that Z under multiplication is a commutative monoid. However, note that not every integer has a multiplicative inverse; e.g. there is no integer x such that because the left hand side is even, while the right hand side is odd. This means that Z under multiplication is not a group. All the rules from the above property table, except for the last, taken together say that Z together with addition and multiplication is a commutative ring with unity. Adding the last property says that Z is an integral domain. In fact, Z provides the motivation for defining such a structure. The lack of multiplicative inverses, which is equivalent to the fact that Z is not closed under division, means that Z is not a field. The smallest field containing the integers is the field of rational numbers. This process can be mimicked to form the field of fractions of any integral domain. Although ordinary division is not defined on Z, it does possess an important property called the division algorithm: that is, given two integers a and b with b ≠ 0, there exist unique integers q and r such that and 0 ≤ r < | b |, where | b | denotes the absolute value of b. The integer q is called the quotient and r is called the remainder, resulting from division of a by b. This is the basis for the Euclidean algorithm for computing greatest common divisors. Again, in the language of abstract algebra, the above says that Z is a Euclidean domain. This implies that Z is a principal ideal domain and any positive integer can be written as the products of primes in an essentially unique way. This is the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. Order-theoretic properties Z is a totally ordered set without upper or lower bound. The ordering of Z is given by: ... −3 < −2 < −1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < ... An integer is positive if it is greater than zero and negative if it is less than zero. Zero is defined as neither negative nor positive. The ordering of integers is compatible with the algebraic operations in the following way: if a < b and c < d, then a + c < b + d if a < b and 0 < c, then ac < bc. (From this fact, one can show that if c < 0, then ac > bc.) It follows that Z together with the above ordering is an ordered ring. Construction Mathematically we may construct the integers as equivalence classes of ordered pairs of natural numbers (a, b). The intuition is that (a, b) stands for the result of subtracting b from a. To confirm our expectation that 1 − 2 and 4 − 5 denote the same number, we define an equivalence relation ~ on these pairs with the following rule: precisely when Addition and multiplication of integers can be defined in terms of the equivalent operations on the natural numbers: The negation (or additive inverse) of an integer is obtained by reversing the order of the pair: Hence subtraction can be defined as the addition of the additive inverse: The standard ordering on the integers is given by: iff It is easily verified that these definitions are independent of the choice of representatives of the equivalence classes. Taking 0 to be a natural number, the natural numbers may be considered to be integers by the embedding that maps n to [(n,0)], where [(a,b)] denotes the equivalence class having (a,b) as a member. Typically, [(a,b)] is denoted by where If the natural numbers are identified with the corresponding integers (using the embedding mentioned above), this convention creates no ambiguity. This notation recovers the familiar representation of the integers as {...,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,...}. Some examples are: Integers in computing An integer (sometimes known as an "int", from the name of a datatype in the C programming language) is often a primitive datatype in computer languages. However, integer datatypes can only represent a subset of all integers, since practical computers are of finite capacity. Also, in the common two's complement representation, the inherent definition of sign distinguishes between "negative" and "non-negative" rather than "negative, positive, and 0". (It is, however, certainly possible for a computer to determine whether an integer value is truly positive.) Variable-length representations of integers, such as bignums, can store any integer that fits in the computer's memory. Other integer datatypes are implemented with a fixed size, usually a number of bits which is a power of 2 (4, 8, 16, etc.) or a memorable number of decimal digits (e.g., 9 or 10). In contrast, theoretical models of digital computers, such as Turing machines, typically do not have infinite (but only unbounded finite) capacity. Cardinality The cardinality of the set of integers is equal to (aleph-null). This is readily demonstrated by the construction of a bijection, that is, a function that is injective and surjective from Z = {...,-2,-1,0,1,2,...} to N. If N = {0,1,2,...} then consider the function: { ... (-4,8) (-3,6) (-2,4) (-1,2) (0,0) (1,1) (2,3) (3,5) ... } If N = {1,2,3,...} then consider the function: { ... (-4,8) (-3,6) (-2,4) (-1,2) (0,1) (1,3) (2,5) (3,7) ... } If the domain is restricted to Z then each and every member of Z has one and only one corresponding member of N and by the definition of cardinal equality the two sets have equal cardinality. See also hyperinteger Notes References Bell, E. T., Men of Mathematics. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986. (Hardcover; ISBN 0-671-46400-0)/(Paperback; ISBN 0-671-62818-6) Herstein, I. N., Topics in Algebra, Wiley; 2 edition (June 20, 1975), ISBN 0-471-01090-1. Mac Lane, Saunders, and Garrett Birkhoff; Algebra, American Mathematical Society; 3rd edition (April 1999). ISBN 0-8218-1646-2. External links The Positive Integers - divisor tables and numeral representation tools On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences cf OEIS
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Nancy_Reagan
Nancy Davis Reagan (born Anne Frances Robbins on July 6, 1921) is the widow of former United States President Ronald Reagan and served as an influential First Lady of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Born in New York, her parents divorced soon after her birth; she grew up in Maryland, living with an aunt and uncle while her mother pursued acting jobs. As Nancy Davis, she was an actress in the 1940s and 1950s, starring in films such as Donovan's Brain, Night into Morning, and Hellcats of the Navy. In 1952 she married Ronald Reagan, who was then president of the Screen Actors Guild; they had two children. Nancy was the First Lady of California when her husband was Governor from 1967 to 1975. In that capacity, she began work with the Foster Grandparents Program. She became the First Lady of the United States in January 1981 following her husband's victory, but experienced criticism early in his first term largely due to her decision to replenish the White House china. Nancy restored a Kennedy-esque glamour to the White House following years of lax formality, and her interest in high-end fashion garnered much attention, as well as criticism. She championed recreational drug prevention causes by founding the "Just Say No" drug awareness campaign, which was considered her major initiative as First Lady. Always protective of her husband, more controversy ensued when it was revealed in 1988 that she had consulted an astrologer to assist in planning the president's schedule after the 1981 assassination attempt on her husband. The Reagans retired to their home in Bel Air, Los Angeles, California in 1989. Nancy devoted most of her time to caring for her ailing husband, diagnosed in 1994 with Alzheimer's disease, until his death in 2004. Nancy Reagan has remained active within the Reagan Library and in politics, particularly in support of stem-cell research. Early life Anne Frances Robbins was born on July 6, 1921, When Nancy Davis signed with MGM, she gave her birthdate as July 6, 1923, shaving two years off her age, a common practice in Hollywood (see Cannon, Governor Reagan, p. 75). This caused subsequent confusion as some sources would continue to use the incorrect year of birth. at Manhattan's Sloane Hospital for Women in New York, p. 79 Some sources and websites erroneously list her as either being born in Flushing or being raised in Manhattan. the only child of car salesman Kenneth Seymour Robbins (1894–1972) Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 66 and his actress wife, Edith Luckett (1888–1987). She lived for her first two years in Flushing, Queens, in New York. While her parents divorced soon after her birth, they had already been separated for some time. Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 67 As her mother traveled the country to pursue acting jobs, Nancy was raised in Bethesda, Maryland, for the next six years by her aunt Virginia and uncle Audley Gailbraith. Nancy describes longing for her mother during those years: "My favorite times were when Mother had a job in New York, and Aunt Virgie would take me by train to stay with her." Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 71 In 1929, her mother married Loyal Davis (1896–1982), a prominent, politically conservative neurosurgeon who moved the family to Chicago. Nancy and her stepfather got along very well; she would later write that he was "a man of great integrity who exemplified old-fashioned values". Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 74 He formally adopted her in 1935, and she would always refer to him as her father. After the adoption, her name was legally changed to Nancy Davis (since birth, she had commonly been called Nancy). She attended the Girls' Latin School of Chicago (describing herself as an average student), graduated in 1939, and later attended Smith College in Massachusetts, where she majored in English and drama and graduated in 1943. Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 82 Acting career Nancy Davis poses for a publicity photo, 1950 Following her graduation, Davis held jobs in Chicago as a sales clerk in Marshall Field's department store and as a nurse's aide. With the help of her mother's colleagues in theatre, including Zasu Pitts, Walter Huston, and Spencer Tracy, she pursued a career as a professional actress. She first gained a part in Pitts' 1945 road tour of Ramshackle Inn, then settled in New York City. She landed the role of Si-Tchun, a lady-in-waiting, in the 1946 Broadway musical about the Orient, Lute Song, starring Mary Martin and Yul Brynner, after the show's producer told her, "You look like you could be Chinese." Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 85 After passing a screen test, she signed a seven-year contract with Metro Goldwyn Mayer Studios (MGM) in 1949; she later remarked, "Joining Metro was like walking into a dream world." Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 88 Davis appeared in 11 feature films, usually typecast as a "loyal housewife", "responsible young mother", or "the steady woman". Cannon, Lou (2003), pp. 75–76 She kept her professional name as Nancy Davis even after marrying. Her film career began with minor roles in 1949's The Doctor and the Girl with Glenn Ford, and followed with East Side, West Side starring Barbara Stanwyck. She played a child psychiatrist in the film noir Shadow on the Wall (1950) with Ann Sothern and Zachary Scott; her performance was called "beautiful and convincing" by New York Times critic A. H. Weiler. She co-starred in 1950's The Next Voice You Hear..., playing a pregnant housewife who hears the voice of God from her radio. Influential reviewer Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote that "Nancy Davis [is] delightful as [a] gentle, plain, and understanding wife." A later critic admired the film's effort to convincingly portray Davis as pregnant—many other films from the time neglected to do so. In 1951, Davis appeared in her favorite screen role, Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 91 Night Into Morning, a study of bereavement starring Ray Milland. The Times''' Crowther said that Davis "does nicely as the fiancée who is widowed herself and knows the loneliness of grief," while another noted critic, The Washington Post's Richard L. Coe, said Davis "is splendid as the understanding widow." Davis left MGM in 1952, seeking a broader range of parts. p. 184 She soon starred in the 1953 science fiction film Donovan's Brain; Crowther said that Davis, playing the role of a possessed scientist's "sadly baffled wife", "walked through it all in stark confusion" in an "utterly silly" film. In her last movie, Hellcats of the Navy (1957), she played nurse Lieutenant Helen Blair and shared the screen for the only time with her husband, playing what one critic called "a housewife who came along for the ride". Another reviewer, however, stated that Davis plays her part well, and "does well with what she has to work with". Noted author Garry Wills believes that Davis was underrated as an actress overall, because her constrained part in Hellcats was her most widely seen performance. Davis seems to have downplayed her Hollywood goals: MGM promotional material in 1949 said that her "greatest ambition" was to have a "successful happy marriage"; decades later, in 1975, she would say, "I was never really a career woman but [became one] only because I hadn't found the man I wanted to marry. I couldn't sit around and do nothing, so I became an actress." Ronald Reagan biographer Lou Cannon nevertheless characterized her as a "reliable" and "solid" performer who held her own in performances with better-known actors. After her final film, she appeared in television dramas such as Wagon Train and The Tall Man until 1962, when she retired as an actress. During her career, she served on the board of directors of the Screen Actors Guild for nearly 10 years. Decades later, Albert Brooks attempted to coax Reagan out of acting retirement by offering her the title role opposite himself in his 1996 film Mother. Reagan declined in order to care for her husband, and Debbie Reynolds played the part. Marriage and family Newlyweds Ronald and Nancy Reagan, March 4, 1952 During her career as an actress, Nancy Davis dated actors in Hollywood; she later called Clark Gable, whom she dated briefly, the nicest of the stars she had met. On November 15, 1949, she met Ronald Reagan, Cannon, Lou (2003), pp. 77–78 who was then president of the Screen Actors Guild. Concerned that she would be confused with another actress of the same name who appeared on the Hollywood blacklist, she contacted Reagan to help maintain her employment as a guild actress in Hollywood, and for assistance in having her name removed from the list. The two began dating and their relationship became publicly visible; one Hollywood press account described their nightclub-free times together as "the romance of a couple who have no vices". Ronald Reagan was skeptical about marriage, however, following his painful 1948 divorce from Jane Wyman, and he still saw other women. He eventually proposed to Davis in the couple's favorite booth at the Beverly Hills restaurant Chasen's. They married on March 4, 1952—in a simple ceremony designed to avoid the press —at the Little Brown Church in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles. The only people in attendance were actor William Holden, the best man, and his wife, the matron of honor. The couple's first child, Patricia Ann Reagan (better known by her professional name, Patti Davis), was born on October 21, 1952. Their son, Ronald Prescott Reagan, was born six years later on May 20. Nancy Reagan also became stepmother to Maureen Reagan (1941-2001) and Michael Reagan (born 1945), the children of her husband's first marriage to Jane Wyman. Nancy and Ronald Reagan on a boat in 1964 The Reagan family in 1967, shortly after Ronald Reagan's inauguration as Governor of California Observers described Ronald and Nancy Reagan's relationship as intimate. Beschloss, Michael (2007), p. 296 As President and First Lady, the Reagans were reported to display their affection frequently, with one press secretary noting, "They never took each other for granted. They never stopped courting." Ronald often called Nancy "Mommy"; she called him "Ronnie". While the President was recuperating in the hospital after the 1981 assassination attempt, Nancy Reagan wrote in her diary, "Nothing can happen to my Ronnie. My life would be over." Beschloss, Michael (2007), p. 284 In a letter to Nancy, Ronald wrote, "whatever I treasure and enjoy … all would be without meaning if I didn’t have you." In 1994, President Reagan wrote, "I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer's disease … I only wish there was some way I could spare Nancy from this painful experience." In 1998, while her husband was severely affected by the disease, Nancy told Vanity Fair, "Our relationship is very special. We were very much in love and still are. When I say my life began with Ronnie, well, it's true. It did. I can't imagine life without him." Nancy was known for the focused and attentive look, nicknamed "the Gaze", that she fastened upon her husband during his speeches and appearances. President Reagan's death in June 2004 ended what actor Charlton Heston called "the greatest love affair in the history of the American Presidency." Nancy's relationship with her children was not always as close as that with her husband; she frequently quarreled with her biological children and her stepchildren. Her relationship with Patti was the most contentious; Patti flouted American conservatism and rebelled against her parents by joining the nuclear freeze movement and authoring many anti-Reagan books. Nancy's disagreements with Michael were also shown publicly. In 1984, she was quoted on television as saying that the two were in an "estrangement right now". Michael responded that Nancy was trying to cover up for the fact she had not met his daughter, Ashley, who had been born nearly a year earlier. Reagan, Nancy (1989), pp. 148–149 They eventually made peace, however. Nancy was thought to be closest to her stepdaughter Maureen during the White House years, but each of the Reagan children experienced periods of estrangement from their parents. First Lady of California, 1967–1975 Nancy as the First Lady of California Reagan was First Lady of California during her husband's two terms as governor. She disliked living in Sacramento, which lacked the excitement, social life, and mild climate to which she was accustomed in Los Angeles. Cannon, Lou (2003), p. 233 She first attracted controversy early in 1967, when, after four months' residence in the California Governor's Mansion in Sacramento, she moved her family into a wealthy suburb because fire officials had described the mansion as a "firetrap". Though the Reagans leased the new house at their expense, the move was viewed by many as snobbish. Nancy defended her actions as being for the good of her family, a judgment with which her husband readily agreed. Reagan, Nancy (1989), pp. 135–137 Friends of the family later helped support the cost of the leased house, while Nancy Reagan supervised construction of a new ranch-style governor's residence in nearby Carmichael. The new residence was finished just as Ronald Reagan left office in 1975, but his successor Jerry Brown refused to live there. It was eventually sold in 1982, and California governors have been living in improvised arrangements ever since. In 1967 Nancy Reagan was appointed by her husband to the California Arts Commission, and a year later was named Los Angeles Times' Woman of the Year; in its profile, the Times labeled her "A Model First Lady". Her glamour, style, and youthfulness made her a frequent subject for press photographers. pp. 110–111 As First Lady, Reagan visited veterans, the elderly, and the handicapped, and worked with a number of charities. She was involved with the Foster Grandparent Program, helping to popularize it in the United States, then in Australia. p. 135 She later expanded her work with the organization after arriving in Washington, and wrote about it in her 1982 book To Love a Child. The Reagans also held dinners for former POWs and Vietnam War veterans while Governor and First Lady. pp. 119–121 On the campaign trail Governor Reagan's term ended in 1975, and he did not run for a third; instead, he met with advisors to discuss a possible bid for the presidency in 1976, challenging incumbent President Gerald Ford. His advisors approved, but Reagan still needed to convince a reluctant Nancy. Benze, James G. (2005), p. 32 She feared for her husband's health and his career as a whole, though she felt that he was the right man for the job and eventually approved. Loizeau, P.M. (2004), p. 64 Nancy took on a more traditional role in the campaign, holding coffees, luncheons, and talks with senior citizens. With that, she oversaw personnel, monitored her husband's schedule, and occasionally provided press conferences. The 1976 campaign included the so-called "battle of the queens", contrasting Nancy with First Lady Betty Ford. They both spoke out in the campaign on similar issues, but with different approaches. Loizeau, P.M. (2004), p. 65 Nancy was particularly upset by the warmonger image that the Ford campaign had drawn of her husband. Though he lost the 1976 Republican nomination, Reagan ran again for the presidency in 1980 and succeeded in winning the nomination and election. During this second campaign, Nancy played a very prominent role and her management of staff became more apparent. Benze, James G., Jr. (2005), p. 33 She arranged a meeting among feuding campaign managers John Sears and Michael Deaver and her husband, which resulted in Deaver leaving the campaign and Sears being given full control. After the Reagan camp lost the Iowa caucus and fell behind in New Hampshire polls, Nancy organized a second meeting and decided it was time to fire Sears and his associates; she gave Sears a copy of the press release announcing his dismissal. Her influence on her husband became particularly notable; her presence at rallies, luncheons, and receptions increased his confidence. Loizeau, P.M. (2004), p. 69 First Lady of the United States, 1981–1989 First Lady Nancy Reagan and President Reagan during the inaugural parade, 1981 Mrs. Reagan models for Vogue Magazine in the Red Room, 1981 White House glamour Renovation Nancy Reagan became the First Lady of the United States when Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as President in 1981. Early in her tenure as First Lady, Reagan stated her desire to create a more suitable "first home" in the White House, as the building had fallen into a state of disrepair following years of neglect. Rather than use government funds to renovate and redecorate, she sought private donations. Nancy directed a major renovation of several White House rooms, including all of the second and third floors and the press briefing room. The renovation included the conversion of the master bedroom's closet into a beauty parlor and dressing room, as well as the West bedroom into a small gymnasium. The addition of a Chinese-pattern handpainted wallpaper to the master bedroom, as well as many other significant changes, took place as a result of the renovation and refurbishment. Nancy drew controversy by announcing the purchase of 4,370 pieces of scarlet, cream and gold state china service for the White House at a cost of $210,399. Although the china was paid for by private donations, some from the private Knapp Foundation, the purchase raised eyebrows, for it was ordered at a time when the nation was undergoing an economic recession. Klapthor, Margaret Brown (1999), p. 184 Fashion Another of Nancy Reagan's trademarks was her interest in fashion. After the presidencies of Gerald Ford (who favored the Michigan fight song over "Hail to the Chief") and Jimmy Carter (who dramatically reduced the formality of presidential functions), Nancy brought a Kennedy-esque glamour back into the White House. In many press accounts, Nancy's sense of style was favorably compared to that of previous First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy. Burns, Lisa (2008), p. 148 Nancy favored the color red, calling it "a picker-upper", and wore it accordingly. Her wardrobe included red so often, that the fire-engine shade became known as "Reagan red". She chose dresses and gowns made by luxury designers, including James Galanos and Oscar de la Renta; her 1981 Galanos inaugural gown was estimated to cost $10,000. She hired two private hairdressers that would do her hair on a regular basis in the White House. Her elegant fashions and wardrobe were also controversial subjects. In 1982, she revealed that she had accepted thousands of dollars in clothing, jewelry, and other gifts, but defended herself by stating that she had borrowed the clothes and that they would either be returned or donated to museums, and that she was promoting the American fashion industry. Facing criticism, she soon said she would no longer accept such loans. In practice, in addition to often buying her clothes, she continued to borrow and sometimes keep designer clothes throughout her time as First Lady, which came to light in 1988 based upon statements of several designers, for whom the arrangement was good for their businesses as well as for the American fashion industry overall. After first denying any such activity, none of which had been included on financial disclosure forms, Nancy acknowledged that she had "broken her little promise" by continuing to take loans and expressed through her press secretary "regrets that she failed to heed counsel's advice" on disclosing them. Such gifts and fashion loans were later determined to be worth about $3 million; the non-reporting of loans under $10,000 in liability was in violation of a voluntary agreement the White House had made in 1982, while the non-reporting of more valuable loans or of any clothes not returned that thus constituted gifts was in violation of the Ethics in Government Act. The new china, White House renovations, expensive clothing, and her attendance at the wedding of Charles and Diana, Prince and Princess of Wales, gave her an aura of being "out of touch" with the American people during an economic recession. This and her taste for splendor inspired the derogatory nickname "Queen Nancy". While Jacqueline Kennedy had also faced some press criticism for spending a lot on clothes, Reagan's treatment was much more consistent and negative. In an attempt to deflect the criticism, she self-deprecatingly donned a baglady costume at the 1982 Gridiron Dinner and sang "Second-Hand Clothes", mimicking the song "Second-Hand Rose". Nancy Reagan reflected on the criticisms in her 1989 autobiography, My Turn. Reagan describes lunching with former Democratic National Committee chairman Robert Strauss, wherein Strauss said to her, "When you first came to town, Nancy, I didn't like you at all. But after I got to know you, I changed my mind and said, 'She's some broad!'" Nancy responded, "Bob, based on the press reports I read then, I wouldn't have liked me either!" Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 56 Just Say No Reagan gives a speech at a "Just Say No" rally in Los Angeles, California in 1987. Nancy Reagan launched the "Just Say No" drug awareness campaign in 1982, which was her primary project and major initiative as First Lady. Nancy first became impressed by the education of young people regarding drugs during a 1980 campaign stop in Daytop Village, New York. She remarked in 1981, "Understanding what drugs can do to your children, understanding peer pressure and understanding why they turn to drugs is... the first step in solving the problem." Her campaign focused on drug education and informing the youth of the danger of drug abuse. In 1982, Nancy Reagan was asked by a schoolgirl what to do when offered drugs; Nancy responded "Just say no." Loizeau, Pierre-Marie. Nancy Reagan: The Woman Behind the Man (1984). Nova Publishers, pp. 104-105 The phrase proliferated in the popular culture of the 1980s and was eventually adopted as the name of club organizations and school anti-drug programs. Reagan became actively involved by traveling more than throughout the United States and several nations, visiting drug abuse prevention programs and drug rehabilitation centers. She also appeared on television talk shows, recorded public service announcements, and wrote guest articles. She appeared in an episode of the hit television drama Dynasty to underscore support for the anti-drug campaign. As she continued to promote "Just Say No", she appeared in an episode of the popular 1980s sitcom Diff'rent Strokes and in a 1985 rock music video, "Stop the Madness". When asked about her campaign, the first lady remarked, "If you can save just one child, it's worth it." In 1985, Nancy expanded the campaign to an international level by inviting the First Ladies of various nations to the White House for a conference on drug abuse. On October 27, 1986, President Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill into law, which granted $1.7 billion in funding to fight the crisis and ensured a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses. Although the bill was criticized by some, Nancy Reagan considered it a personal victory. In 1988, she became the first First Lady invited to address the United Nations General Assembly, where she spoke on international drug interdiction and trafficking laws. Reagan hosts the First Ladies Conference on Drug Abuse at the White House, 1985. Critics of Reagan's efforts questioned their purpose and argued that the program did not go far enough in addressing many social issues, including unemployment, poverty, and family dissolution; Nancy's approach to promoting drug awareness was labeled as simplistic by liberal critics. Nonetheless, a number of "Just Say No" clubs and organizations remain in operation around the country, and they aim to educate children and teenagers about the effects of drugs. Her husband's protector Nancy Reagan assumed the role of unofficial "protector" for her husband after the attempted assassination on his life in 1981. On March 30 of that year, President Reagan and three others were shot as they left the Washington Hilton Hotel. Nancy was alerted and arrived at George Washington University Hospital, where the President was hospitalized. She recalled having seen "emergency rooms before, but I had never seen one like this—with my husband in it." Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 5 She was escorted into a waiting room, and when granted access to see her husband, he quipped to her, "Honey, I forgot to duck", borrowing the defeated boxer Jack Dempsey's jest to his wife. An early example of her protective nature occurred when Senator Strom Thurmond entered the President's hospital room that day in March, passing the Secret Service detail by claiming he was the President's "close friend", presumably to acquire media attention. Nancy was outraged and demanded he leave. While the president recuperated in the hospital, the first lady slept with one of his shirts to be comforted by the scent. When Reagan was released from the hospital on April 12, she escorted him back to the White House. Press accounts framed Nancy as her husband's "chief protector", an extension of their general initial framing of her as a helpmate and a Cold War domestic ideal. Burns, Lisa (2008), pp. 130, 138–139 Influence in the White House "The Gaze": Nancy watches as her husband is sworn in for a second term by Chief Justice Warren Burger, on January 20, 1985. Nancy stated in her memoirs, "I felt panicky every time [Ronald] left the White House" Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 21 following the assassination attempt, and made it her concern to know her husband's schedule: the events he would be attending, and with whom. Eventually, this protectiveness led to her consulting an astrologer, Joan Quigley, who offered insight on which days were "good", "neutral", or should be avoided, which influenced her husband's White House schedule. Days were color-coded according to the astrologer's advice to discern precisely which days and times would be optimal for the president's safety and success. The White House Chief of Staff, Donald Regan, grew frustrated with this regimen, which created friction between him and the First Lady. This escalated with the revelation of the Iran-Contra affair, an administration scandal, in which the First Lady felt Regan was damaging the president. Anthony, C.S. (1991), p. 396 She thought he should resign, and expressed this to her husband although he did not share her view. Regan wanted President Reagan to address the Iran-Contra matter in early 1987 by means of a press conference, though Nancy refused to allow Reagan to overexert himself due to a recent prostate surgery and astrological warnings. Anthony, C.S. (1991), p. 398 Regan became so angry with Nancy that he hung up on her during a 1987 telephone conversation. According to former ABC News correspondent Sam Donaldson, when the President heard of this treatment, he demanded—and eventually received—Regan's resignation. In his 1988 memoirs, Regan wrote about Nancy's consultations with the astrologer, the first public mention of them, which resulted in embarrassment for the First Lady. Nancy later wrote, "Astrology was simply one of the ways I coped with the fear I felt after my husband almost died... Was astrology one of the reasons [further attempts did not occur]? I don't really believe it was, but I don't really believe it wasn't." Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 44, p. 47 Nancy Reagan wielded a powerful influence over President Reagan. Again stemming from the assassination attempt, she strictly controlled access to the president and even occasionally attempted to influence her husband's decision making. Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 62 Press framing of Nancy changed from that of just helpmate and protector to someone with hidden power. Burns, Lisa (2008), pp. 139–140 As the image of her as a political interloper grew, she sought to explicitly deny that she was the power behind the throne. At the end of her time as First Lady, however, she said that her husband had not been well-served by his staff. She acknowledged her role in reaction in influencing him on personnel decisions, saying "In no way do I apologize for it." She wrote in her memoirs, "I don't think I was as bad, or as extreme in my power or my weakness, as I was depicted," Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. vii but went on, "[H]owever the first lady fits in, she has a unique and important role to play in looking after her husband. And it's only natural that she'll let him know what she thinks. I always did that for Ronnie, and I always will." Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 65 Breast cancer In October 1987, a mammogram detected a lesion in Nancy Reagan's left breast and she was subsequently diagnosed with breast cancer. She chose to undergo a mastectomy rather than a lumpectomy and the breast was removed on October 17, 1987. Not long after the operation, her mother, Edith Luckett Davis, died in Phoenix, Arizona, leading Nancy to dub the period "a terrible month". Reagan, Nancy (1989), p. 285 After the surgery, more women across the country had mammograms, a demonstration of the influence of the first lady. The Russians The Reagans and Gorbachevs at the state dinner, 1987 In 1985, 1987, and 1988, while Cold War discussions took place regarding nuclear affairs between Soviet Leader Mikhail Gorbachev and President Reagan, Nancy met with Gorbachev's wife, Raisa. The two women usually had tea, and discussed differences between the USSR and the United States. Their relationship was anything but the friendly, diplomatic one between their husbands; Nancy found Raisa hard to converse with and their relationship was described as "frosty". Visiting the United States for the first time in 1987, Raisa irked Reagan with lectures on subjects ranging from architecture to socialism, reportedly prompting the American President's wife to quip, "Who does that dame think she is?" Nancy had previously encouraged her husband to hold these "summit" conferences with Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev, and suggested they form a personal relationship beforehand. Both Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev had developed a productive relationship through their summit negotiations. In 1987, Gorbachev became the first Soviet leader to visit Washington, D.C. since Nikita Khrushchev in 1959, and Nancy Reagan was in charge of planning and hosting the important and highly anticipated state dinner. Schifando and Joseph (2007), p. 165 After the meal, Mrs. Reagan recruited pianist Van Cliburn to sing a rendition of "Moscow Nights" for the Soviet delegation, to which Mikhail and Raisa broke out into song. Schifando and Joseph (2007), pp. 169-172 Former Secretary of State George Shultz commented on the evening, saying "We felt the ice of the Cold War crumbling." Schifando and Joseph (2007), p. 175 Nancy concluded, "It was a perfect ending for one of the great evenings of my husband's presidency." Schifando and Joseph (2007), p. 173 Later life Though Nancy was a controversial First Lady, 56 percent of Americans had a favorable opinion of her when her husband left office on January 20, 1989, with 18 percent having an unfavorable opinion and the balance not giving an opinion. Compared to fellow First Ladies when their husbands left office, Reagan's approval was higher than those of Rosalynn Carter and Hillary Rodham Clinton, however she was less popular than Barbara Bush and her disapproval rating was double that of Carter's. Nancy Reagan's official White House portrait hangs in the Vermeil Room. Upon leaving the White House, the couple returned to California, where they purchased a second home in the Bel Air section of Los Angeles, dividing their time between Bel Air and the Reagan Ranch in Santa Barbara, California; Ronald and Nancy regularly attended Bel Air Presbyterian Church as well. After leaving Washington, Nancy made numerous public appearances, many on behalf of her husband. She continues to reside in the Bel Air home, where she lived with her husband until his death on June 5, 2004. Early post-White House activities In late 1989, the former First Lady established the Nancy Reagan Foundation, which aimed to continue to educate people about the dangers of substance abuse. The Foundation teamed with the BEST Foundation For A Drug-Free Tomorrow in 1994, and developed the Nancy Reagan Afterschool Program. She continued to travel around the nation, speaking out against drug and alcohol abuse. After President Reagan revealed that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 1994, she made herself his primary caregiver and became actively involved with the National Alzheimer's Association and its affiliate, the Ronald and Nancy Reagan Research Institute in Chicago, Illinois. Also in 1989 she published My Turn: The Memoirs of Nancy Reagan, which gives an account of her life in the White House, speaking openly about her influence within the Reagan administration and discussing the myths and controversies that surrounded the couple. In 1991, the controversial author Kitty Kelley wrote an unauthorized and largely uncited biography about Nancy Reagan, repeating accounts of a poor relationship with her children and introducing rumors of alleged sexual relations with singer Frank Sinatra. The publications USAToday and National Review state that Kelley's largely unsupported claims are most likely false. In 1989 the Internal Revenue Service began investigating the Reagans for whether they owed additional tax on the gifts and loans of high-fashion clothes and jewelry to Nancy during their time in the White House (recipients benefiting from the display of such items recognize taxable income even if they are returned). In 1992 the IRS determined the Reagans had failed to include some $3 million worth of fashion items between 1983 and 1988 on their tax returns; they were billed for a large amount of back taxes and interest, which was subsequently paid. Nancy Reagan was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor, by President George W. Bush on July 9, 2002. President Reagan received his own Presidential Medal of Freedom in January 1993. Nancy and her husband were jointly awarded the Congressional Gold Medal on May 16, 2002 at the Capitol Building, and were only the third President and First Lady to receive it; she accepted the medal on behalf of both of them. Ronald Reagan's funeral Former First Lady Nancy Reagan says her last goodbye to President Ronald Reagan on June 11, 2004, prior to the interment and concluding a week-long state funeral for the president. Ronald Reagan died in their Bel Air home on June 5, 2004. During the seven-day state funeral, Nancy, accompanied by her children and military escort, led the nation in mourning by keeping a strong composure, traveling from her home to the Reagan Library for a memorial service, then to Washington, D.C., where her husband's body lay in state for 34 hours prior to a national funeral service in the Washington National Cathedral. She returned to the library in California for a sunset memorial service and interment, where, overcome with emotion, she lost her composure, crying in public for the first time during the week. After accepting the folded flag, she kissed the casket and mouthed "I love you" before leaving. Journalist Wolf Blitzer said of Reagan during the week, "She's a very, very strong woman, even though she looks frail." She had directed the detailed planning of the funeral, including ordering all the major events and asking former President George H. W. Bush as well as former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney to speak during the National Cathedral Service. She paid very close attention to the details, something she had always done in her husband's life. Betsy Bloomingdale, one of Reagan's closest friends, stated, "She looks a little frail. But she is very strong inside. She is. She has the strength. She is doing her last thing for Ronnie. And she is going to get it right." The funeral marked Reagan's first major public appearance since delivering a speech to the 1996 Republican National Convention on her husband's behalf. The funeral had a great impact on Reagan's public image. Following substantial criticism during her tenure as first lady, she was seen somewhat as a national heroine, praised by many for supporting and caring for her husband while he suffered from Alzheimer's disease. U.S. News & World Report opined, "after a decade in the shadows, a different, softer Nancy Reagan emerged." Life after Ronald Reagan remained active in politics, particularly relating to stem cell research. Beginning in 2004, she favored what many consider to be the Democratic Party's position, and urged President George W. Bush to support federally funded embryonic stem cell research in the hope that this science could lead to a cure for Alzheimer's disease. Although she failed to change the president's position, she did support his campaign for a second term. In 2005, Reagan was honored at a gala dinner at the Ronald Reagan Building in Washington, D.C. where guests included Dick Cheney, Harry Reid and Condoleezza Rice. It was her first major public appearance since the funeral. Asked what her future plans were, Reagan shook her head and responded, "I don't know. I'll know when I'll know. But the [Reagan] library is Ronnie, so that's where I spend my time." The following day she unveiled The Heart Truth First Ladies Red Dress Collection with Laura Bush at the Kennedy Center. Reagan was briefly hospitalized the following month upon falling during a trip to the United Kingdom. Nancy Reagan hosts the 2008 Republican presidential candidates Reagan Library debate, January 30, 2008 In 2007, she attended the national funeral service for Gerald Ford in the Washington National Cathedral. On May 3 of the same year, Reagan hosted and attended the first 2008 Republican Presidential Candidates Debate at the Reagan Presidential Library. While she did not participate in the discussions, she sat in the front row and listened as the men vying to become the nation's 44th president claimed to be a rightful successor to her husband, the 40th. She attended the funeral of former First Lady Lady Bird Johnson in Austin, Texas on July 14, 2007 and three days later accepted the highest Polish distinction, the Order of the White Eagle, on behalf of Ronald Reagan at the Reagan Library. She mourned the deaths of her friends Merv Griffin and Michael Deaver in August that year. Mrs. Reagan with Education Secretary Margaret Spellings at the Reagan Library, June 9, 2008 Mrs. Reagan, center, receives an honorary degree from Eureka College, March 31, 2009 She opened "Nancy Reagan: A First Lady's Style" at her at her husband's library in November, which displayed over eighty designer dresses belonging to her; it began with her 1952 wedding suit and culminated with the suit she wore to President Reagan's 2004 funeral. She traveled to New York City not long after and served as the guest of honor at a Reagan Library fundraiser hosted by New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg. Though speculation arose over whether Reagan might support Bloomberg in a presidential bid, nothing came of it and she served as hostess of the final Republican debate of the 2008 presidential nomination process on January 30, 2008 at the Reagan Library. On March 25 she formally endorsed Senator John McCain, then the presumptive Republican party nominee, for president of the United States at her home. She attended the funeral of Charlton Heston in April. Nancy Reagan's health and well being became a prominent concern. In 2007, she was helped down a flight of stairs at the funeral of Lady Bird Johnson. In February 2008 she suffered a fall at her Bel Air home and was taken to St. John's Health Center in Santa Monica, California. Doctors reported that she did not break a hip as feared and she was released from the hospital two days later. News commentators noted that Reagan's step had slowed significantly, as the following month she walked in very slow strides with John McCain. NBC's Brian Williams, who attended a dinner with Reagan in mid-2008, recalled, "Mrs. Reagan's vision isn't what it always was so she was taking very halting steps as a lot of folks her age do. She was very cautious... [She took] very, very slow, halting steps, but... it is so important for folks in her age bracket and in her bracket of life to remain upright and captain of their own ship. She very much is captain of her own ship." As for her mental ability, Williams remarked, "She's as sharp as ever and enjoys a robust life with her friends in California, but [falling] is always a danger of course. She's a very stoic, hardy person full of joy and excitement for life... She is not without opinions on politics and political types these days... She is, as most of her friends described her, a pistol." In October 2008, Reagan was admitted to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center after having fallen at home; doctors determined that the 87-year-old former first lady had fractured her pelvis and sacrum and could recuperate at home with a regimen of physical therapy. As a result of her mishap, medical articles were published containing information on how to prevent falls. In January 2009, Reagan was said to be "improving every day and starting to get out more and more." In March 2009 she praised President Barack Obama for reversing the ban on federally funded embryonic stem cell research. FilmographyThe Doctor and the Girl (1949)East Side, West Side (1949)Shadow on the Wall (1950)The Next Voice You Hear... (1950)Night Into Morning (1951)It's a Big Country (1951) Talk About a Stranger (1952)Shadow in the Sky (1952) Donovan's Brain (1953)Rescue at Sea (also known as Crash Landing—1955)The Dark Wave (1956)Hellcats of the Navy'' (1957) Footnotes References External links White House profile Nancy Reagan at The New York Times Nancy Reagan profile at NNDB
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3,145
GNU_Compiler_Collection
The GNU Compiler Collection (usually shortened to GCC) is a compiler system produced by the GNU Project supporting various programming languages. GCC is a key component of the GNU toolchain. As well as being the official compiler of the GNU system, GCC has been adopted as the standard compiler by most other modern Unix-like computer operating systems, including GNU/Linux, the BSD family and Mac OS X. GCC has been ported to a wide variety of processor architectures, and is widely deployed as a tool in commercial, proprietary and closed source software development environments. GCC is also available for most embedded platforms, for example Symbian, AMCC and Freescale Power Architecture-based chips. The compiler can target a wide variety of platforms, including videogame consoles such as the Playstation 2 and Sega Dreamcast. Several companies make a business out of supplying and supporting gcc ports to various platforms, and chip manufacturers today consider a gcc port almost essential to the success of an architecture. Originally named the GNU C Compiler, because it only handled the C programming language, GCC 1.0 was released in 1987, and the compiler was extended to compile C++ in December of that year. Front ends were later developed for Fortran, Pascal, Objective-C, Java, and Ada, among others. The Free Software Foundation (FSF) distributes GCC under the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) and the GNU Lesser General Public License (GNU LGPL). GCC is widely considered a strong example of free software. History Richard Stallman started GCC in 1985. He extended an existing compiler to compile C. The compiler originally compiled Pastel, an extended, nonportable dialect of Pascal, and was written in Pastel. It was rewritten in C by Len Tower and Stallman, and released in 1987 Tower, Leonard (1987) "GNU C compiler beta test release," comp.lang.misc USENET newsgroup; see also http://gcc.gnu.org/releases.html#timeline as the compiler for the GNU Project, in order to have a compiler available that was free software. Its development was supervised by the Free Software Foundation. Stallman, Richard M. (2001) "Contributors to GCC," in Using and Porting the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) for gcc version 2.95 (Cambridge, Mass.: Free Software Foundation) EGCS By 1991, GCC 1.x had reached a point of stability, but architectural limitations prevented many desired improvements, so the Free Software Foundation (FSF) started work on GCC 2.x. But during the mid-1990s, the FSF kept such close control on what was added to the official version of GCC 2.x that GCC was used as one example of the "cathedral" development model in Eric S. Raymond's essay The Cathedral and the Bazaar. As GCC was free software, programmers wanting to work in other directions—particularly those writing interfaces for languages other than C—were free to develop their own fork of the compiler. Multiple forks proved inefficient and unwieldy, however, and the difficulty in getting work accepted by the official GCC project was greatly frustrating for many. In 1997, a group of developers formed EGCS (Experimental/Enhanced GNU Compiler System), to merge several experimental forks into a single project. The basis of the merger was a gcc development snapshot taken between the 2.7 and 2.81 releases. Projects merged included g77 (Fortran), PGCC (Pentium-optimized GCC), many C++ improvements, and many new architectures and operating system variants. EGCS development proved considerably more vigorous than GCC development, so much so that the FSF officially halted development on their GCC 2.x compiler, "blessed" EGCS as the official version of GCC and appointed the EGCS project as the GCC maintainers in April 1999. Furthermore, the project explicitly adopted the "bazaar" model over the "cathedral" model. With the release of GCC 2.95 in July 1999, the two projects were once again united. Uses GCC is often the compiler of choice for developing software that is required to execute on a wide variety of hardware and/or operating systems. System-specific compilers provided by hardware or OS vendors can differ substantially, complicating both the software's source code and the scripts which invoke the compiler to build it. With GCC, most of the compiler is the same on every platform, so only code which explicitly uses platform-specific features must be rewritten for each system. GCC is now maintained by a varied group of programmers from around the world. It has been ported to more kinds of processors and operating systems than any other compiler. Linux Information Project (LINFO) accessed 2007-03-20 Languages The standard compiler release 4.3 includes front ends for C (gcc), C++ (g++), Java (gcj), Ada (GNAT), Objective-C (gobjc), Objective-C++ (gobjc++), and Fortran (gfortran). Also available, but not in standard are Modula-2, Modula-3, Pascal (gpc), PL/I, D (gdc), Mercury, VHDL (ghdl). GCC Front Ends, GCC.org, Retrieved May 11, 2008. A popular parallel language extension, OpenMP, is also supported. The Fortran front end was g77 before version 4.0, which only supports Fortran 77. In newer versions, g77 is dropped in favor of the new GFortran front end that supports Fortran 95. A front-end for CHILL was previously included, but has been dropped owing to a lack of maintenance. A few experimental branches exist to support additional languages, such as the GCC UPC compiler for Unified Parallel C. Architectures GCC target processor families as of version 4.3 include: Alpha ARM Atmel AVR Blackfin HC12 H8/300 IA-32 (x86) x86-64 IA-64 Motorola 68000 MIPS PA-RISC PDP-11 PowerPC R8C/M16C/M32C SPU System/390/zSeries SuperH SPARC VAX Lesser-known target processors supported in the standard release have included: A29K ARC ETRAX CRIS D30V DSP16xx FR-30 FR-V Intel i960 IP2000 M32R 68HC11 MCORE MMIX MN10200 MN10300 Motorola 88000 NS32K ROMP Stormy16 V850 Xtensa AVR32 Additional processors have been supported by GCC versions maintained separately from the FSF version: D10V LatticeMico32 MeP Motorola 6809 MicroBlaze MSP430 Nios II and Nios PDP-10 TIGCC (m68k variant) Z8000 PIC24/dsPIC NEC SX architecture When retargeting GCC to a new platform, bootstrapping is often used. Structure GCC's external interface is generally standard for a UNIX compiler. Users invoke a driver program named gcc, which interprets command arguments, decides which language compilers to use for each input file, runs the assembler on their output, and then possibly runs the linker to produce a complete executable binary. Each of the language compilers is a separate program that inputs source code and outputs assembly code. All have a common internal structure. A per-language front end parses the source code in that language and produces an abstract syntax tree ("tree" for short). These are if necessary converted to the middle-end's input representation, called GENERIC form; the middle-end then gradually transforms the program towards its final form. Compiler optimizations and static code analysis techniques (such as FORTIFY_SOURCE, a compiler directive which attempts to discover some buffer overflows) are applied to the code. These work on multiple representation, mostly the architecture-independent GIMPLE representation and the architecture-dependent RTL representation. Finally, assembly language is produced using architecture-specific pattern matching originally based on an algorithm of Jack Davidson and Chris Fraser. GCC is written primarily in C except for parts of the Ada front end. The distribution includes the standard libraries for Ada, C++, and Java whose code is mostly written in those languages. Front-ends Frontends vary internally, having to produce trees that can be handled by the backend. Currently, the parsers are all hand-coded recursive descent parsers, though there is no reason why a parser generator could not be used for new front-ends in the future. Until recently, the tree representation of the program was not fully independent of the processor being targeted. Confusingly, the meaning of a tree was somewhat different for different language front-ends, and front-ends could provide their own tree codes. This was simplified with the introduction of GENERIC (more complex, based on the GCC 3.x Java front-end's intermediate representation) and GIMPLE (a simplified GENERIC, in which various constructs are lowered to multiple GIMPLE instructions), two new forms of language-independent trees that were introduced in 2005 with the advent of GCC 4.0. The C, C++ and Java front ends produce GENERIC directly in the front end. Other front ends instead have different intermediate representations after parsing and convert these to GENERIC. In either case, the so-called "gimplifier" then lowers this more complex form into the simpler SSA-based GIMPLE form which is the common language for a large number of new powerful language- and architecture-independent global (function scope) optimizations. Optimization Optimization on trees does not generally fit into what most compiler developers would consider a front end task, as it is not language dependent and does not involve parsing. A common, even though somewhat contradictory, name for this part of the compiler is "middle end." The exact set of GCC optimizations varies from release to release as it develops, but includes the standard algorithms, such as loop optimization, jump threading, common subexpression elimination, instruction scheduling, and so forth. The RTL optimizations are of less importance with the addition of global SSA-based optimizations on GIMPLE trees, Tree SSA: Main Page as RTL optimizations have a much more limited scope, and have less high-level information. Some of these optimizations performed at this level include dead code elimination, partial redundancy elimination, global value numbering, sparse conditional constant propagation, and scalar replacement of aggregates. Array dependence based optimizations such as automatic vectorization and automatic parallelization are also performed. Profile-guided optimization is also possible as demonstrated here: http://gcc.gnu.org/install/build.html#TOC4 Back-end The behavior of GCC's back end is partly specified by preprocessor macros and functions specific to a target architecture, for instance to define the endianness, word size, and calling conventions. The front part of the back end uses these to help decide RTL generation, so although GCC's RTL is nominally processor-independent, the initial sequence of abstract instructions is already adapted to the target. At any moment, the actual RTL instructions forming the program representation have to comply with the machine description of the target architecture. Towards the end of compilation, valid RTL is further reduced to a strict form in which each instruction refers to real machine registers and real instructions from the target's instruction set. Forming strict RTL is a very complicated task, done mostly by the register allocation first but completed only by a separate "reloading" phase which must account for the vagaries of all of GCC's targets. The final phase is somewhat anticlimactic, because the patterns to match were generally chosen during reloading, and so the assembly code is simply built by running substitutions of registers and addresses into the strings specifying the instructions. Debugging GCC programs The primary tool used to debug GCC code is the GNU Debugger (gdb). Among more specialized tools are Valgrind for finding memory errors and leaks. The GNU Profiler (gprof) can determine how much time is spent in which routines, and how often they are called; this requires programs to be compiled with profiling options. License "GCC 4.2.1 was the last release of GCC covered by version 2 of the GNU General Public License. All subsequent releases are released under GPL version 3." 080208 kerneltrap.org Criticism GCC has received criticism from OpenBSD developers such as Theo de Raadt and Otto Moerbeek who say it is large, buggy, slow, and generates poor code. Due to this criticism, and the relatively restrictive GPL that GCC is licensed under (as compared to the BSD license preferred by the various BSD projects), there is an attempt to replace GCC with compilers such as PCC in NetBSD and OpenBSD or LLVM and Clang. See also List of compilers References Further reading Richard M. Stallman: Using and Porting the GNU Compiler Collection, Free Software Foundation, ISBN 0-595-10035-X Richard M. Stallman: Using Gcc: The Gnu Compiler Collection Reference, Free Software Foundation, ISBN 1-882114-39-6 Brian J. Gough: An Introduction to GCC, Network Theory Ltd., ISBN 0-9541617-9-3 Arthur Griffith, GCC: The Complete Reference. McGrawHill/Osborne. ISBN 0-07-222405-3. The Jem Report: More on OpenBSD's New Compiler: External links GCC homepage Collection of GCC architecture/internals documents Marketing Cygnus Support, an essay covering GCC development for the 1990s, with 30 monthly reports for in the "Inside Cygnus Engineering" section near the end. An Introduction to GCC, by Brian Gough The official GCC manuals and user documentation, by the GCC developers EGCS 1.0 announcement EGCS 1.0 features list Fear of Forking, an essay by Rick Moen recording seven well-known forks, including the GCC/EGCS one A compiler course project based on GCC in University of Rochester
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3,146
Medieval_music
The term medieval music encompasses European music written during the Middle Ages. This era begins with the fall of the Roman Empire and ends in approximately the middle of the fifteenth century. Establishing the end of the medieval era and the beginning of the Renaissance is admittedly arbitrary; 1400 is used here. Overview Styles and trends The only medieval music which can be studied is that which was written, and survived. Since creating musical manuscripts was very expensive, due to the expense of parchment, and the huge amount of time necessary for a scribe to copy it all down, only wealthy institutions were able to create manuscripts which have survived to the present time. These institutions generally included the church and church institutions, such as monasteries; some secular music, as well as sacred music, was also preserved by these institutions. These surviving manuscripts do not reflect much of the popular music of the time. At the start of the era, the notated music is presumed to be monophonic and homorhythmic with what appears to be a unison sung text and no notated instrumental support. Earlier medieval notation had no way to specify rhythm, although neumatic notations gave clear phrasing ideas, and somewhat later notations indicated rhythmic modes. The simplicity of chant, with unison voice and natural declamation, is most common. The notation of polyphony develops, and the assumption is that formalized polyphonic practices first arose in this period. Harmony, in consonant intervals of perfect fifths, unisons, octaves, (and later, perfect fourths) begins to be notated. Rhythmic notation allows for complex interactions between multiple vocal lines in a repeatable fashion. The use of multiple texts and the notation of instrumental accompaniment developed by the end of the era. Instruments |A musician plays the vielle in a fourteenth century Medieval manuscript Instruments used to perform medieval music still exist, though in different forms. The flute was once made of wood rather than silver or other metal, and could be made as a side-blown or end-blown instrument. The recorder, on the other hand, has more or less retained its past form. The gemshorn is similar to the recorder in having finger holes on its front, though it is really a member of the ocarina family. One of the flute's predecessors, the pan flute, was popular in medieval times, and is possibly of Hellenic origin. This instrument's pipes were made of wood, and were graduated in length to produce different pitches. Medieval music uses many plucked string instruments, such as lute, mandora, gittern and psaltery. The dulcimers, similar in structure to the psaltery and zither, were originally plucked, but became struck in the 14th century, after the arrival of the new technology that made metal strings possible. The bowed lyra of the Byzantine Empire was the first recorded European bowed string instrument. The Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih of the 9th century (d. 911) cited the Byzantine lyra, in his lexicographical discussion of instruments as a bowed instrument equivalent to the Arab rabāb and typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun (organ), shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre) and the salandj (probably a bagpipe) . The hurdy-gurdy was (and still is) a mechanical violin using a rosined wooden wheel attached to a crank to "bow" its strings. Instruments without sound boxes such as the Jew's harp were also popular in the time. Early versions of the organ, fiddle (or vielle), and trombone (called the sackbut) existed as well. Genres In this era, music was both sacred and secular, although almost no early secular music has survived, and since notation was a relatively late development, reconstruction of this music, especially before the 12th century, is currently a matter of conjecture (see authentic performance). Theory and notation During the Medieval period the foundation was laid for the notational and theoretical practices that would shape western music into what it is today. The most obvious of these is the development of a comprehensive notational system, however the theoretical advances, particularly in regards to rhythm and polyphony, are equally important to the development of western music. Notation The earliest Medieval music did not have any kind of notational system. The tunes were primarily monophonic and transmitted by oral tradition. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978) 57. However, the need for some sort of notation became evident in the sacred chant tradition. As the Christian liturgy became more complex and varied, difficulties of memorization increased for the performer. Albert Seay, Music in the Medieval World (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965), 40. Also, as Rome tried to centralize the various liturgies and establish the Roman rite as the primary tradition the need to effectively transmit these chant ideas across vast distances was equally glaring. Albert Seay, Music in the Medieval World (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965), 41. The first step to fix this problem came with the introduction of various signs written above the chant texts, called neumes. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978) 57. The origin of neumes is unclear and subject to some debate, however, most scholars agree that their closest ancestors are the classic Greek and Roman grammatical signs that indicated important points of declamation by recording the rise and fall of the voice. Carl Parrish, The Notation of Medieval Music (London: Faber & Faber Limited, 1958) 4. The two basic signs of the classical grammarians were the actus, /, indicating a raising of the voice, and the gravis, \, indicating a lowering. These eventually evolved into the basic symbols for neumatic notation, the virga (or "rod") which indicates a higher note and still looked like the acutus from which it came; and the punctum (or "dot") which indicates a lower note and, as the name suggests, reduced the gravis symbol to a point. Carl Parrish, The Notation of Medieval Music (London: Faber & Faber Limited, 1958) 4. This kind of notation seems to have developed no earlier than the eighth century, but by the ninth it was firmly established as the primary method of musical notation. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978) 58. The basic notation of the virga and the punctum remained the symbols for individual notes, but other neumes soon developed which showed several notes joined together. These new neumes—called ligatures—are essentially combinations of the two original signs. Carl Parrish, The Notation of Medieval Music (London: Faber & Faber Limited, 1958) 5. It should be noted that this basic neumatic notation could only specify the number of notes and whether they moved up or down. There was no way to indicate exact pitch, any rhythm, or even the starting note. These limitations are further indication that the neumes were developed as tools to support the practice of oral tradition, rather than supplant it. But, though it started as merely a memory aid, the worth of having more specific notation soon became evident. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978) 58. The next development in musical notation were "heighted neumes", in which neumes were carefully placed at different heights in relation to each other. This allowed the neumes to roughly indicate the size of a given interval as well as the direction. This quickly led to one or two lines, each representing a particular note, being placed on the music with all the neumes relating back to them. At first these lines had no particular meaning and instead had a letter placed at the beginning indicating which note was represented. However, slowly the lines indicating middle C, and the F a fifth below, became most common. Having at first been merely scratched on the parchment, the lines now were drawn in two different colored inks: usually red for F, and yellow or green for C. This was the beginning of the musical staff as we know it today. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978) 59,60. The completion of the four-line staff is usually credited to Guido d’ Arezzo (c. 1000-1050) one of the most important musical theorist of the Middle Ages. It should be noted that while older sources attribute the development of the staff to Guido, some modern scholars suggest that he acted more as a codifier of a system that was already in development. Either way, this new notation allowed a singer to learn pieces completely unknown to him in a much shorter amount of time. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978) 60. Albert Seay, Music in the Medieval World (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965), 41. However, even though chant notation had progressed in many ways, one fundamental problem remained: rhythm. The neumatic notational system even in its fully developed state did not clearly define any kind of rhythm for the singing of notes. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978), 89. Music theory The music theory of the Medieval period saw several advances over previous practice both in regards to tonal material, texture, and rhythm. concerning rhythm this period had several dramatic changes in both its conception and notation. During the early Medieval period there was no method to notate rhythm, and thus the rhythmical practice of this early music is subject to heated debate among scholars. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978), 89. The first kind of written rhythmic system developed during the 13th century and was based around a series of modes. This rhythmic plan was codified by the music theorist Johannes de Garlandia, author of the De mensurabili musica (c.1250), the treatise which defined and most completely elucidated these rhythmic modes. Thomas Christensen, ed., The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 628 In his treatise Johannes de Garlandia describes six species of mode, or six different ways in which longs and breves can be arranged. Each mode establishes a rhythmic pattern in beats (or tempora) within a common unit of three tempora (a perfectio) that is repeated again and again. Furthermore, notation without text is based on chains of ligatures (the characteristic notations by which groups of notes are bound to on another). The rhythmic mode can generally be determined by the patterns of ligatures used. Thomas Christensen, ed., The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 629, 630 The melodic line, once it had its mode, would generally remain in it, although rhythmic adjustments could be indicated by changes in the expected pattern of ligatures, even to the extent of changing to another rhythmic mode. Lloyd Ultan, Music Theory: Problems and Practices in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 10. The next step forward concerning rhythm came from the German theorist Franco of Cologne. In his treatise Ars Cantus Mensurabilis ("The Art of Mensurable Music"), written around 1280, he describes a system of notation in which differently shaped notes have entirely different rhythmic values. This is a striking change from the earlier system of de Garlandia. Whereas before the length of the individual note could only be gathered from the mode itself, this new inverted relationship made the mode dependent upon—and determined by—the individual notes or figurae that have incontrovertible durational values, Thomas Christensen, ed., The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 632. an innovation which had a massive impact on the subsequent history of European music. Most of the surviving notated music of the 13th century uses the rhythmic modes as defined by Garlandia. The step in the evolution of rhythm came after the turn of the 13th century with the development of the Ars Nova style. The theorist who is most well recognized in regards to this new style is Philippe de Vitry, famous for writing the Ars Nova ("New Art") treatise around 1322. This treatise on music gave its name to the style of this entire era. Further more, his contributions to the notation of rhythm made possible the free and rhythmically complex music of the next hundred years. Jeremy Yudkin, Music in Medieval Europe (Upper Saddle River: Prentice-hall, 1989), 458 In some ways the modern system of rhythmic notation began with Vitry, who broke completely free from the older idea of the rhythmic modes. The notational predecessors of modern time meters also originate in the Ars Nova. This new style was clearly built upon the work of Franco of Cologne. In Franco's system, the relationship between a breve and a semibreves (that is, half breves) was equivalent to that between a breve and a long: and, since for him modus was always perfect (grouped in threes), the tempus or beat was also inherently perfect and therefore contained three semibreves. Sometimes the context of the mode would require a group of only two semibreves, however, these two semibreves would always be one of normal length and one of double length, thereby taking the same space of time, and thus preserving the perfect subdivision of the tempus. John Caldwell, Medieval Music (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), 160 This ternary division held for all note values. In contrast, the Ars Nova period introduced two important changes, the first was an even smaller subdivision of notes (semibreves, could now be devided into minim) the second was the development of "mensuration." By the time of Ars Nova, the perfect division of the tempus was not the only option as duple divisions became more accepted. For Vitry the breve could be divided, for an entire composition, or section of one, into groups of two or three smaller semibreves This way, the tempus (the term that came to denote the division of the breve) could be either "perfect," (Tempus perfectus) with ternary subdivision, or "imperfect,"(Tempus imperfectus) with binary subdivision. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978) 354,355. In a similar fashion, the semibreve's division (termed prolation) could be divided into three minima (prolatio perfectus or major prolation) or two minima (prolatio imperfectus or minor prolation) and, at the higher level, the longs division (called modus) could be three or two breves (modus perfectus or perfect mode, or modus imperfectus or imperfect mode respectively). Lloyd Ultan, Music Theory: Problems and Practices in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 62, 63. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978) 355. Vitry took this a step further by indicating the proper division of a given piece at the beginning through the use of a "mensuration sign," equivalent to our modern "time signature. Albert Seat, Music in the Medieval World (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965), 131 Tempus perfectus was indicated by a circle, while tempus imperfectus was denoted by a half-circle Albert Seat, Music in the Medieval World (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965), 131 (our current "C" as a stand-in for the 4/4 time signature is actually a holdover from this practice, not an abbreviation for "common time", as popularly believed). It should be noted that while many of these innovations are ascribed to Vitry, and somewhat present in the Ars Nova treatise, it was a contemporary—and personal acquaintance—of de Vitry, named Johannes de Muris (Jehan des Mars)who offered the most comprehensive and systematic treatment of the new mensural innovations of the Ars Nova Thomas Christensen, ed., The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 635. (for a brief explanation of the mensural notation in general, see the article Renaissance music)Many scholars, citing a lack of positive attributory evidence, now consider "Vitry's" treatise to be anonymous, but this does not diminish its importance for the history of rhythmic notation. However, this makes the first definitely identifiable scholar to accept and explain the mensural system to be de Muris, who can be said to have done for it what Garlandia did for the rhythmic modes. For the duration of the medieval period, most music would be composed primarily in perfect tempus, with special effects created by sections of imperfect tempus; there is a great current controversy among musicologists as to whether such sections were performed with a breve of equal length or whether it changed, and if so, at what proportion. This Ars Nova style remained the primary rhythmical system until the the highly syncopated works of the Ars subtilior at the end of the 14th century. This sub-genera pushed the rhythmic freedom provided by Ars Nova to its limits, with some compositions having different voices written in different tempus signatures simultaneously. The rhythmic complexity that was realized in this music is comparable to that in the 20th century. James McKinnon, ed., Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1991) 237. Of equal importance to the overall history of western music theory were the textural changes that came with the advent of polyphony. This practice shaped western music into the harmonically dominated music that we know today. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978), 187. The first accounts of this textual development were found in two anonymous yet widely-circulated treatises on music, the Musica and the Scolica enchiriadis. These texts are dated to sometime within the last half of the ninth century. Thomas Christensen, ed., The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 480. The treatises describe a technique that seemed to already be well established in practice. Thomas Christensen, ed., The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 480. This early polyphony is based on three simple and three compound intervals. The first group comprises fourths, fifths, and octaves; while the second group has octave-plus-fourths, octave-plus-fifths, and double octaves. Thomas Christensen, ed., The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 480. This new practice is given the name organum by the author of the treatises. Thomas Christensen, ed., The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 480. Organum can further be classified depending on at what time period it was written. The early organum as described in the enchiriadis can be termed "strict organum" Lloyd Ultan, Music Theory: Problems and Practices in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 52. Strict organum can, in turn, be subdivided into two types: diapente (organum at the interval of a fifth) and diatesseron (organum at the interval of a fourth). Lloyd Ultan, Music Theory: Problems and Practices in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 52. However, both of these kinds of strict organum had problems with the musical rules of the time. If either of them paralleled an original chant for too long (depending on the mode) a tritone would result. Lloyd Ultan, Music Theory: Problems and Practices in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 53. This problem was somewhat overcome with the use of a second type of organumThis second style of organum was called "free organum". Its distinguishing factor is that the parts did not have to only move in parallel motion but could also move in oblique,or contrary fashion. This made it much easier to avoid the dreaded tritone Lloyd Ultan, Music Theory: Problems and Practices in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 55. The final style of organum that developed was known as "melismatic organum", which was a rather dramatic departure from the rest of the polyphonic music up to this point. This new style was not note against note, but was rather one sustained line accompanied by a florid melismatic line. Lloyd Ultan, Music Theory: Problems and Practices in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 58. This final kind of organum was also incorporated by the most famous polyphonic composer of this time—Léonin. He united this style with measured discant passages, which used the rhythmic modes, to create the pinnacle of organum composition. Lloyd Ultan, Music Theory: Problems and Practices in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 58. It should be noted that this final stage of organum is sometimes referred to as Notre Dame school of polyphony since that was where Léonin (and his student Pérotin) were stationed. Further more, this kind of polyphony influenced all subsequent styles, with the later polyphonic genera of motets starting as a trope of existing Notre Dame organums. Another important element of Medieval music theory was the unique tonal system by which pitches were arranged and understood. During the Middle Ages this systematic arrangement of a series of whole steps and half steps, what we now call a scale, was known as a mode. The modal system worked like the scales of today, insomuch that it provided the rules and material for melodic writing. Albert Seay, Music in the Medieval World (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965), 32. The eight church modes are: Dorian, Hypodorian, Phrygian, Hypophrygian, Lydian, Hypolydian, Mixolydian, and Hypomixolydian Albert Seay, Music in the Medieval World (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965), 33. much of the information concerning these modes, as well as the practical application of them, was codified in the 11th century by the theorist Johannes Afflighemensis. In his work he describes that there are three defineing elements to each mode. The finalis, the reciting tone, and the range. The finalis is the tone that serves as the focal point for the mode. It is also almost always used as the final tone (hence the name) the reciting tone (sometimes referred to as the tenor or confinalis) is the tone that serves as the primary focal point in the melody (particularly internally) it generally is also the tone most often repeated in the piece, and finally the range (or ambitus) is the maximum proscribed tones for a given mode. Lloyd Ultan, Music Theory: Problems and Practices in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977), 25. The eight modes can be further divided into four categories based on their final (finalis). Medieval theorists called these pairs maneriae and labeled them according to the Greek ordinal numbers. Those modes that have d, e, f, and g as their final are put into the groups protus, deuterus, tritus, and tetrardus respectively. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978), 64. These can then be divided further based on whether the mode is "authentic" or "plagal." These distinctions deal with the range of the mode in relation to the final. the authentic modes have a range that is about an octave (one tone above or below is allowed) and starts on the final, whereas the plagal modes, while still covering about an octave, start a perfect fourth below the authentic. Thomas Christensen, ed., The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 311. Another interesting aspect of the modal system is the universal allowance for altering B to Bb no matter what the mode. Richard H. Hoppin, Medieval Music (New York: Norton & Company, 1978), 66. The inclusion of this tone has several uses, but one that seems particularly common is in order to avoid melodic difficulties caused, once again, by the tritone. Albert Seay, Music in the Medieval World (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965), 34. These ecclesiastical modes, although they have Greek names, have little relationship to the modes as set out by Greek theorists. Rather, most of the terminology seems to be a misappropriation on the part of the medieval theorists Albert Seay, Music in the Medieval World (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965), 33. However, though the church modes have no relation to the ancient Greek modes, the overabundance of Greek terminology does point to an interesting possible origin in the liturgical melodies of the Byzantine tradition. This system is called oktoechos and is also divided into eight categories, called echoi. Thomas Christensen, ed., The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 310. For specific medieval music theorists, see also: Isidore of Seville, Aurelian of Réôme, Odo of Cluny, Guido of Arezzo, Hermannus Contractus, Johannes Cotto (Johannes Afflighemensis), Johannes de Muris, Franco of Cologne, Johannes de Garlandia (Johannes Gallicus), Anonymous IV, Marchetto da Padova (Marchettus of Padua), Jacques of Liège, Johannes de Grocheo, Petrus de Cruce (Pierre de la Croix), and Philippe de Vitry. Early medieval music (before 1150) Early chant traditions Chant (or plainsong) is a monophonic sacred form which represents the earliest known music of the Christian church. The Jewish Synagogue tradition of singing psalms was a strong influence on Christian chanting. Chant developed separately in several European centres. The most important were Rome, Spain, Gaul, Milan, and Ireland but there were others as well. These chants were all developed to support the regional liturgies used when celebrating the Mass there. Each area developed its own chants and rules for celebration. In Spain, Mozarabic chant was used and shows the influence of North African music. The Mozarabic liturgy even survived through Muslim rule, though this was an isolated strand and this music was later suppressed in an attempt to enforce conformity on the entire liturgy. In Milan, Ambrosian chant, named after St. Ambrose, was the standard, while Beneventan chant developed around Benevento, another Italian liturgical center. Gallican chant was used in Gaul, and Celtic chant in Ireland and Great Britain. Around 1011 AD, the Roman Catholic Church wanted to standardize the Mass and chant. At this time, Rome was the religious centre of western Europe, and Paris was the political centre. The standardization effort consisted mainly of combining these two (Roman and Gallican) regional liturgies. This body of chant became known as Gregorian Chant. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Gregorian chant had superseded all the other Western chant traditions, with the exception of the Ambrosian chant in Milan, and the Mozarabic chant in a few specially designated Spanish chapels. Early polyphony: organum Around the end of the ninth century, singers in monasteries such as St. Gall in Switzerland began experimenting with adding another part to the chant, generally a voice in parallel motion, singing in mostly perfect fourths or fifths with the original tune (see interval). This development is called organum, and represents the beginnings of harmony and, ultimately, counterpoint. Over the next several centuries organum developed in several ways. The most significant was the creation of "florid organum" around 1100, sometimes known as the school of St. Martial (named after a monastery in south-central France, which contains the best-preserved manuscript of this repertory). In "florid organum" the original tune would be sung in long notes while an accompanying voice would sing many notes to each one of the original, often in a highly elaborate fashion, all the while emphasizing the perfect consonances (fourths, fifths and octaves) as in the earlier organa. Later developments of organum occurred in England, where the interval of the third was particularly favoured, and where organa were likely improvised against an existing chant melody, and at Notre Dame in Paris, which was to be the centre of musical creative activity throughout the thirteenth century. Much of the music from the early medieval period is anonymous. Some of the names may have been poets and lyric writers, and the tunes for which they wrote words may have been composed by others. Attribution of monophonic music of the medieval period is not always reliable. Surviving manuscripts from this period include the Musica Enchiriadis, Codex Calixtinus of Santiago de Compostela, and the Winchester Troper. For information about specific composers or poets writing during the early medieval period, see Pope Gregory I, St. Godric, Hildegard of Bingen, Hucbald, Notker Balbulus, Odo of Arezzo, Odo of Cluny, and Tutilo. Liturgical drama Main article: Liturgical drama Another musical tradition of Europe originating during the early Middle Ages was the liturgical drama. In its original form, it may represent a survival of Roman drama with Christian stories - mainly the Gospel, the Passion, and the lives of the saints - grafted on. Every part of Europe had some sort of tradition of musical or semi-musical drama in the Middle Ages, involving acting, speaking, singing and instrumental accompaniment in some combination. Probably these dramas were performed by travelling actors and musicians. Many have been preserved sufficiently to allow modern reconstruction and performance (for example the Play of Daniel, which has been recently recorded). Goliards The Goliards were itinerant poet-musicians of Europe from the tenth to the middle of the thirteenth century. Most were scholars or ecclesiastics, and they wrote and sang in Latin. Although many of the poems have survived, very little of the music has. They were possibly influential — even decisively so — on the troubadour-trouvère tradition which was to follow. Most of their poetry is secular and, while some of the songs celebrate religious ideals, others are frankly profane, dealing with drunkenness, debauchery and lechery. High medieval music (1150-1300) Ars antiqua The flowering of the Notre Dame school of polyphony from around 1150 to 1250 corresponded to the equally impressive achievements in Gothic architecture: indeed the centre of activity was at the cathedral of Notre Dame itself. Sometimes the music of this period is called the Parisian school, or Parisian organum, and represents the beginning of what is conventionally known as Ars antiqua. This was the period in which rhythmic notation first appeared in western music, mainly a context-based method of rhythmic notation known as the rhythmic modes. This was also the period in which concepts of formal structure developed which were attentive to proportion, texture, and architectural effect. Composers of the period alternated florid and discant organum (more note-against-note, as opposed to the succession of many-note melismas against long-held notes found in the florid type), and created several new musical forms: clausulae, which were melismatic sections of organa extracted and fitted with new words and further musical elaboration; conductus, which was a song for one or more voices to be sung rhythmically, most likely in a procession of some sort; and tropes, which were rearrangements of older chants with new words and sometimes new music. All of these genres save one were based upon chant; that is, one of the voices, (usually three, though sometimes four) nearly always the lowest (the tenor at this point) sung a chant melody, though with freely composed note-lengths, over which the other voices sang organum. The exception to this method was the conductus, a two-voice composition that was freely composed in its entirety. The motet, one of the most important musical forms of the high Middle Ages and Renaissance, developed initially during the Notre Dame period out of the clausula, especially the form using multiple voices as elaborated by Pérotin, who paved the way for this particularly by replacing many of his predecessor (as canon of the cathedral) Léonin's lengthy florid clausulae with substitutes in a discant style. Gradually, there came to be entire books of these substitutes, available to be fitted in and out of the various chants. Since, in fact, there were more than can possibly have been used in context, it is probable that the clausulae came to be performed independently, either in other parts of the mass, or in private devotions. The clausulae, thus practised, became the motet when troped with non-liturgical words, and was further developed into a form of great elaboration, sophistication and subtlety in the fourteenth century, the period of Ars nova. Surviving manuscripts from this era include the Codex Montpellier, Codex Bamberg, and El Codex musical de Las Huelgas. Composers of this time include Léonin, Pérotin, W. de Wycombe, Adam de St. Victor, and Petrus de Cruce (Pierre de la Croix). Petrus is credited with the innovation of writing more than three semibreves to fit the length of a breve. Coming before the innovation of imperfect tempus, this practice inaugurated the era of what are now called "Petronian" motets. These late 13th-century works are in three to four parts and have multiple texts sung simultaneously. These texts can be either sacred or secular in subject, and with Latin and French mixed. The Petronian motet is a highly complex genre, given its mixture of several semibreve breves with rhythmic modes and sometimes (with increasing frequency) substitution of secular songs for chant in the tenor. Indeed, ever-increasing rhythmic complexity would be a fundamental characteristic of the 14th century, though music in France, Italy, and England would take quite different paths during that time. Troubadours and trouvères The music of the troubadours and trouvères was a vernacular tradition of monophonic secular song, probably accompanied by instruments, sung by professional, occasionally itinerant, musicians who were as skilled as poets as they were singers and instrumentalists. The language of the troubadours was Occitan (also known as the langue d'oc, or Provençal); the language of the trouvères was Old French (also known as langue d'oil). The period of the troubadours corresponded to the flowering of cultural life in Provence which lasted through the twelfth century and into the first decade of the thirteenth. Typical subjects of troubadour song were , chivalry and courtly love. The period of the troubadours wound down after the Albigensian Crusade, the fierce campaign by Pope Innocent III to eliminate the Cathar heresy (and northern barons' desire to appropriate the wealth of the south). Surviving troubadours went either to Spain, northern Italy or northern France (where the trouvère tradition lived on), where their skills and techniques contributed to the later developments of secular musical culture in those places. The music of the trouvères was similar to that of the troubadours, but was able to survive into the thirteenth century unaffected by the Albigensian Crusade. Most of the more than two thousand surviving trouvère songs include music, and show a sophistication as great as that of the poetry it accompanies. The Minnesinger tradition was the Germanic counterpart to the activity of the troubadours and trouvères to the west. Unfortunately, few sources survive from the time; the sources of Minnesang are mostly from two or three centuries after the peak of the movement, leading to some controversy over their accuracy. Among the Minnesingers with surviving music are Wolfram von Eschenbach, Walther von der Vogelweide, and Niedhart von Reuenthal. Troubadours with surviving melodies Aimeric de Belenoi Aimeric de Peguilhan Albertet de Sestaro Arnaut Daniel Arnaut de Maruoill Beatritz de Dia Berenguier de Palazol Bernart de Ventadorn Bertran de Born Blacasset CadenetDaude de Pradas Folquet de Marselha Gaucelm Faidit Gui d'Ussel Guilhem Ademar Guilhem Augier Novella Guilhem Magret Guilhem de Saint Leidier Guiraut de Bornelh Guiraut d'Espanha Guiraut RiquierJaufre Rudel Jordan Bonel Marcabru Monge de Montaudon Peire d'Alvernhe Peire Cardenal Peire Raimon de Tolosa Peire Vidal Peirol Perdigon PistoletaPons d'Ortaffa Pons de Capduoill Raimbaut d'Aurenga Raimbaut de Vaqueiras Raimon Jordan Raimon de Miraval Rigaut de Berbezilh Uc Brunet Uc de Saint Circ William IX of Aquitaine Composers of the high and late medieval era Late medieval music (1300-1400) France: Ars nova The beginning of the Ars nova is one of the few clean chronological divisions in medieval music, since it corresponds to the publication of the Roman de Fauvel, a huge compilation of poetry and music, in 1310 and 1314. The Roman de Fauvel is a satire on abuses in the medieval church, and is filled with medieval motets, lais, rondeaux and other new secular forms. While most of the music is anonymous, it contains several pieces by Philippe de Vitry, one of the first composers of the isorhythmic motet, a development which distinguishes the fourteenth century. The isorhythmic motet was perfected by Guillaume de Machaut, the finest composer of the time. During the Ars nova era, secular music acquired a polyphonic sophistication formerly found only in sacred music, a development not surprising considering the secular character of the early Renaissance (and it should be noted that while this music is typically considered to be "medieval", the social forces that produced it were responsible for the beginning of the literary and artistic Renaissance in Italy—the distinction between Middle Ages and Renaissance is a blurry one, especially considering arts as different as music and painting). The term "Ars nova" (new art, or new technique) was coined by Philippe de Vitry in his treatise of that name (probably written in 1322), in order to distinguish the practice from the music of the immediately preceding age. The dominant secular genre of the Ars Nova was the chanson, as it would continue to be in France for another two centuries. These chansons were composed in musical forms corresponding to the poetry they set, which were in the so-called formes fixes of rondeau, ballade, and virelai. These forms significantly affected the development of musical structure in ways that are felt even today; for example, the ouvert-clos rhyme-scheme shared by all three demanded a musical realization which contributed directly to the modern notion of antecedent and consequent phrases. It was in this period, too, in which began the long tradition of setting the mass ordinary. This tradition started around mid-century with isolated or paired settings of Kyries, Glorias, etc., but Machaut composed what is thought to be the first complete mass conceived as one composition. The sound world of Ars Nova music is very much one of linear primacy and rhythmic complexity. "Resting" intervals are the fifth and octave, with thirds and sixths considered dissonances. Leaps of more than a sixth in individual voices are not uncommon, leading to speculation of instrumental participation at least in secular performance. Surviving French manuscripts include the Ivrea Codex and the Apt Codex. For information about specific French composers writing in late medieval era, see Jehan de Lescurel, Philippe de Vitry, Guillaume de Machaut, Borlet, Solage, and François Andrieu. Italy: Trecento Most of the music of Ars nova was French in origin; however, the term is often loosely applied to all of the music of the fourteenth century, especially to include the secular music in Italy. There this period was often referred to as Trecento. Italian music has always, it seems, been known for its lyrical or melodic character, and this goes back to the 14th century in many respects. Italian secular music of this time (what little surviving liturgical music there is, is similar to the French except for somewhat different notation) featured what has been called the cantalina style, with a florid top voice supported by two (or even one; a fair amount of Italian Trecento music is for only two voices) that are more regular and slower moving. This type of texture remained a feature of Italian music in the popular 15th and 16th century secular genres as well, and was an important influence on the eventual development of the trio texture that revolutionized music in the 17th. There were three main forms for secular works in the Trecento. One was the madrigal, not the same as that of 150-250 years later, but with a verse/refrain-like form. Three-line stanzas, each with different words, alternated with a two-line ritornello, with the same text at each appearance. Perhaps we can see the seeds of the subsequent late-Renaissance and Baroque ritornello in this device; it too returns again and again, recognizable each time, in contrast with its surrounding disparate sections. Another form, the caccia ("chase,") was written for two voices in a canon at the unison. Sometimes, this form also featured a ritornello, which was occasionally also in a canonic style. Usually, the name of this genre provided a double meaning, since the texts of caccia were primarily about hunts and related outdoor activities, or at least action-filled scenes. The third main form was the ballata, which was roughly equivalent to the French virelai. Surviving Italian manuscripts include the Squarcialupi Codex and the Rossi Codex. For information about specific Italian composers writing in the late medieval era, see Francesco Landini, Gherardello da Firenze, Andrea da Firenze, Lorenzo da Firenze, Paolo da Firenze (Paolo Tenorista), Giovanni da Firenze (aka Giovanni da Cascia), Bartolino da Padova, Jacopo da Bologna, Donato da Cascia, Lorenzo Masini, Niccolò da Perugia, and Maestro Piero. Germany: Geisslerlieder The Geisslerlieder were the songs of wandering bands of flagellants, who sought to appease the wrath of an angry God by penitential music accompanied by mortification of their bodies. There were two separate periods of activity of Geisslerlied: one around the middle of the thirteenth century, from which, unfortunately, no music survives (although numerous lyrics do); and another from 1349, for which both words and music survive intact due to the attention of a single priest who wrote about the movement and recorded its music. This second period corresponds to the spread of the Black Death in Europe, and documents one of the most terrible events in European history. Both periods of Geisslerlied activity were mainly in Germany. There was also French-influenced polyphony written in German areas at this time, but it was somewhat less sophisticated than its models. In fairness to the mostly anonymous composers of this repertoire, however, most of the surviving manuscripts seem to have been copied with extreme incompetence, and are filled with errors that make a truly thorough evaluation of the music's quality impossible. Mannerism and Ars subtilior The chanson Belle, bonne, sage by Baude Cordier, an Ars subtilior piece included in the Chantilly Codex As often seen at the end of any musical era, the end of the medieval era is marked by a highly manneristic style known as Ars subtilior. In some ways, this was an attempt to meld the French and Italian styles. This music was highly stylized, with a rhythmic complexity that was not matched until the 20th century. In fact, not only was the rhythmic complexity of this repertoire largely unmatched for five and a half centuries, with extreme syncopations, mensural trickery, and even examples of augenmusik (such as a chanson by Baude Cordier written out in manuscript in the shape of a heart), but also its melodic material was quite complex as well, particularly in its interaction with the rhythmic structures. Already discussed under Ars Nova has been the practice of isorhythm, which continued to develop through late-century and in fact did not achieve its highest degree of sophistication until early in the 15th century. Instead of using isorhythmic techniques in one or two voices, or trading them among voices, some works came to feature a pervading isorhythmic texture which rivals the integral serialism of the 20th century in its systematic ordering of rhythmic and tonal elements. The term "mannerism" was applied by later scholars, as it often is, in response to an impression of sophistication being practised for its own sake, a malady which some authors have felt infected the Ars subtilior. One of the most important extant sources of Ars Subtilior chansons is the Chantilly Codex. For information about specific composers writing music in Ars subtilior style, see Anthonello de Caserta, Philippus de Caserta (aka Philipoctus de Caserta), Johannes Ciconia, Matteo da Perugia, Lorenzo da Firenze, Grimace, Jacob Senleches, and Baude Cordier. Transitioning to the Renaissance Demarcating the end of the medieval era and the beginning of the Renaissance, with regards to the composition of music, is problematic. While the music of the fourteenth century is fairly obviously medieval in conception, the music of the early fifteenth century is often conceived as belonging to a transitional period, not only retaining some of the ideals of the end of the Middle Ages (such as a type of polyphonic writing in which the parts differ widely from each other in character, as each has its specific textural function), but also showing some of the characteristic traits of the Renaissance (such as the international style developing through the diffusion of Franco-Flemish musicians throughout Europe, and in terms of texture an increasing equality of parts). The Renaissance began early in Italy, but musical innovation there lagged far behind that of France and England; the Renaissance came late to England, but musical innovation there was ahead of continental Europe. Music historians do not agree on when the Renaissance era began, but most historians agree that England was still a medieval society in the early fifteenth century (see a discussion of periodization issues of the Middle Ages). While there is no consensus, 1400 is a useful marker, because it was around that time that the Renaissance came into full swing in Italy. The increasing reliance on the interval of the third as a consonance is one of the most pronounced features of transition into the Renaissance. Polyphony, in use since the 12th century, became increasingly elaborate with highly independent voices throughout the 14th century. With John Dunstable and other English composers, partly through the local technique of faburden (an improvisatory process in which a chant melody and a written part predominantly in parallel sixths above it are ornamented by one sung in perfect fourths below the latter, and which later took hold on the continent as "fauxbordon"), the interval of the third emerges as an important musical development; because of this Contenance Angloise ("English countenance"), English composers' music is often regarded as the first to sound less truly bizarre to modern, unschooled audiences. English stylistic tendencies in this regard had come to fruition and began to influence continental composers as early as the 1420s, as can be seen in works of the young Dufay, among others. While the Hundred Years' War continued, English nobles, armies, their chapels and retinues, and therefore some of their composers, travelled in France and performed their music there; it must also of course be remembered that the English controlled portions of northern France at this time. English manuscripts include the Worcester fragments, the Old St. Andrews Music Book, the Old Hall Manuscript, and Egerton Manuscript. For information about specific composers who are considered transitional between the medieval and the Renaissance, see Roy Henry, Arnold de Lantins, Leonel Power, John Dunstaple, Guillaume Dufay, and Gilles Binchois. Notes References Ardis Butterfield. Poetry and Music in Medieval France. Cambridge University Press Hoppin, Richard H. Medieval Music. New York: W. W. Norton, 1978. McKinnon, James, ed. Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990. Parrish, Carl. The Notation of Medieval Music. London: Faber & Faber, 1957. Pirrotta, Nino. "Medieval." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. ISBN 1561591742 Reese, Gustave. Music in the Middle Ages. New York: W. W. Norton, 1940. Seay, Albert. Music in the Medieval World. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1965. Yudkin, Jeremy. Music in Medieval Europe. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989. Study and vocational training The Schola Cantorum Basiliensis, university for old music in Basel, Switzerland, provides the only full-time practical study course for the music of the Middle Ages. A two-year vocational training for musicians is offered at the academy Burg Fürsteneck in Germany. See also List of Medieval composers. List of early music ensembles. Bauska Castle - location of Medieval Music festival. External links Pandora Radio: Medieval Period Ancient FM (online radio featuring medieval and renaissance music) The Schøyen Collection: Music (scans of medieval musical notation) Guide to Medieval and Renaissance Instruments photos, descriptions, and sounds of early musical instruments Medieval Music & Arts Foundation Wine, Women, and Song: Mediaeval Latin Students' songs, trans. John Addington Symons (1884). Vocational training in medieval music in Germany
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3,147
Contempt_of_court
Contempt of court is a court order which, in the context of a court trial or hearing, deems an individual as having been disrespectful of the court, its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt" or a person "held in contempt", it is the highest remedy of a judge to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which excessively or in a wanton manner disrupt the normal process of a court hearing. A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a fine or jail for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in common law systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in civil law systems. In civil cases involving relations between private citizens, the intended victim of the act of contempt is usually the party for whose benefit the ruling was implemented, rather than the court. A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt: existence of a lawful order the contemnor's knowledge of the order the contemnor's ability to comply the contemnor's failure to comply Canada Criminal offences are found within the Criminal Code of Canada or other federal/provincial laws, with the exception that contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada. A Compendium of Law and Judges Contempt of Court includes the following behaviours: fails to maintain a respectful attitude, remain silent or refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding refuses or neglects to obey a subpoena wilfully disobeys a process or order of the Court interfere with the orderly administration of justice or to impair the authority or dignity of the Court officer of the Court fails to perform his or her duties sheriff or bailiff and does not execute a writ forthwith or does not make a return thereof Federal Courts This section applies only to Federal Court of Appeal and Federal Court. Under Federal Court Rules, section 472, a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved. Federal Court Rules Chapter 12 If it's a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person be imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order, fine, or be ordered to do or refrain from doing any act as considered by the judge. Tax Court of Canada Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of Tax Court of Canada Act, a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court. Provincial Courts Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in BC, Justice of Peace can only issue summon to the offender for Contempt, for which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done at the face of the Justice. Provincial Court Act Jurisdiction of justice Hong Kong Judges from the Court of Final Appeal, High Court, District Courts along with members from the various tribunals and Coroner's Court all have the power to impose immediate punishments for contempt in the face of the court, derived from legislations or through Common Law: Insult a judge or justice, witness or officers of the court Interrupts the proceedings of the Court Interfere with the course of justice Misbehaves in court (i.e. use of mobile phone or recording devices without permission] Juror who leaves without permission of the court during proceedings Disobeying a judgement or court order Breach of undertaking Breach of a duty imposed upon a solicitor by rules of court The use of insulting or threatening language in the Magistrates' courts or against a magistrate is in breach of HK Laws. Chap 227 Magistrates Ordinance Section 99 which states the magistrate can 'summarily sentence the offender to a fine at level 3 and to imprisonment for 6 months.' In addition, certain appeal boards are given the statutory authority and protection of a court in its proceedings (i.e. Residential Care Home, Hotel and Guesthouse Accommodation, Air Pollution Control, etc). For contempt in front of these boards, the chairperson will certify the act of contempt to the Court of First Instance who will then proceed with a hearing and determine the punishment. United Kingdom In English law (a common law jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the Contempt of Court Act 1981. Contempt may be a criminal or civil offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years. Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behavior toward the judge or magistrates while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behavior observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual affected by a court order may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order. Criminal contempt of court The Crown Court is a court of record under the Supreme Court Act 1981 and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances: Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court); Disobedience of a court order; and Breaches of undertakings to the court. Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt. Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the Attorney General can intervene and the Crown Prosecution Service will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales (Criminal Division). Magistrates' Courts are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the court may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to GBP2500, or do both. It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court. It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime." Strict liability contempt Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the Attorney General has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict. Section 2 of the Act limits the common law presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected. Civil contempt In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed: Failure to attend at court despite a subpoena requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a writ of latitat would have been issued, but now a bench warrant is issued, authorizing the tipstaff to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. bail will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established. Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" - i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment - is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate. United States Under American jurisprudence, acts of contempt are divided into two types. Direct contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (in facie curiae) and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice. After giving the person the opportunity to respond, the judge may impose the sanction immediately. Indirect contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt and to present evidence in rebuttal. Contempt of court in a civil suit is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court. Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt, but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a fine or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the sheriff or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The imposed party is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional due process is not required. The burden of proof for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process. See also Contempt of Congress Contempt of Parliament Contumacy Judicial discretion Perjury Perverting the course of justice Obstruction of justice Notes and references Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).
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3,148
Manchester_United_F.C.
Manchester United Football Club is an English football club, based at Old Trafford in Trafford, Greater Manchester, and is one of the most popular football clubs in the world. The club was a founding member of the Premier League in 1992, and has played in the top division of English football since 1938, with the exception of the 1974–75 season. Average attendances at the club have been higher than any other team in English football for all but six seasons since 1964–65. Manchester United are the reigning English champions and Club World Cup holders, having won the 2008–09 Premier League and the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup. The club is one of the most successful in the history of English football and has won 22 major honours since Alex Ferguson became manager in November 1986. In 1968, they became the first English club to win the European Cup, beating Benfica 4–1. They won a second European Cup as part of a Treble in 1999, before winning their third in 2008. The club holds the joint record for the most English league titles with 18 and also holds the record for the most FA Cup wins with 11. Since the late 1990s, the club has been one of the richest in the world with the highest revenue of any football club, and is currently ranked as the richest and most valuable club in any sport, with an estimated value of £897 million (€1.333 billion / $1.8 billion) as of September 2008. Manchester United was a founding member of the now defunct G-14 group of Europe's leading football clubs, and its replacement, the European Club Association. Alex Ferguson has been manager of the club since 6 November 1986, joining from Aberdeen after the departure of Ron Atkinson. The current club captain is Gary Neville, who succeeded Roy Keane in November 2005. History Early years (1878–1945) The club was formed as Newton Heath L&YR F.C. in 1878 as the works team of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot at Newton Heath. The club's shirts were green and gold halves. They played on a small, dilapidated field on North Road for fifteen years, before moving to Bank Street in the nearby town of Clayton in 1893. The club had entered The Football League the previous year and began to sever its links with the rail depot, becoming an independent company, appointing a club secretary and dropping the "L&YR" from their name to become simply Newton Heath F.C.. Not long afterwards, in 1902, the club neared bankruptcy, with debts of over £2,500. At one point, their Bank Street ground was even closed by the bailiffs. Just before having to be shut down for good, the club received a sizeable investment from J. H. Davies, the managing director of Manchester Breweries. Legend goes that Harry Stafford, the club captain, was showing off his prized St. Bernard dog at a club fund-raiser, when Davies approached him to buy the dog. Stafford declined, but was able to persuade Davies to invest in the club and become club chairman. It was decided at one of the early board meetings that the club required a change of name to reflect the fresh start they had been afforded. Manchester Central and Manchester Celtic were among the names suggested, before Louis Rocca, a young immigrant from Italy, said "Gentlemen, why don't we call ourselves Manchester United?" The name stuck, and Manchester United officially came into existence on 26 April 1902. Davies also decided it would be appropriate to change the club's colours, abandoning the green and gold halves of Newton Heath, and picking red and white to be the colours of Manchester United. Ernest Mangnall was appointed as club secretary after James West had resigned as manager on 28 September 1902. Mangnall was charged with trying to get the club into the First Division, and fell just short of that target at the first attempt, finishing in fifth in Division Two. Mangnall decided that it was necessary to bring in some fresh faces to the club, and signed players such as Harry Moger in goal, Dick Duckworth at half-back and Jack Picken up front, but it was another new half-back by the name of Charlie Roberts who made the biggest impact. He cost the club a then-record £750 from Grimsby Town in April 1904, and helped them to a third place finish in the 1903–04 season, just a point short of the second promotion place. It was not long, however, before the club was at last promoted to the First Division for the first time under their new name, finishing in second place in the 1905–06 Second Division. A season of consolidation followed, with the club finishing in eighth, before they finally won their first league title in 1908. Manchester City had recently been under investigation for paying some of their players a salary over the amount allowed by FA regulations. They were fined £250 and eighteen of their players were banned from playing for them ever again. United were quick to pounce on the situation, picking up Billy Meredith (the Welsh Wizard) and Sandy Turnbull, amongst others. The new boys from across town were ineligible to play until New Year's Day 1907, due to their suspension, so it was left until the 1907–08 season for them to make a proper impact on United's bid for the title. And that they did, getting the campaign off to a storming start, with a 2–1 victory over Sheffield United, beginning a run of ten consecutive victories. Despite a shaky end to the season, United managed to hang on and finished the season nine points ahead of their closest rivals, Aston Villa. The following season began with United picking up another piece of silverware, the first ever Charity Shield, and ended with another, the club's first FA Cup title, sowing the seeds for what has become a record number of FA Cup titles. Just as they were in the club's first title-winning campaign, Turnbull and Meredith were instrumental in this season, Turnbull scoring the winner in the FA Cup Final. The club had to wait another two years before winning any more silverware, winning the First Division for the second time in the 1910–11 season. In the meantime, United moved to their new ground at Old Trafford. They played their first game there on 19 February 1910 against Liverpool, but lost 4–3 having thrown away a 3–0 lead. They then went trophyless again in the 1911–12 season, which not only proved to be the last with Mangnall in charge (he moved to Manchester City after ten years with United), but also the last time the club won the First Division for 41 years, the longest they have gone without winning the league in their history. For the next ten years, the club went into a state of gradual decline before being relegated back down to Division Two in 1922. They were promoted again in 1925, but struggled to get into the top half of the table, and were relegated again in 1931. In the eight years leading up to the Second World War, the club became somewhat of a yo-yo club, reaching their all-time lowest position of 20th in Division Two in 1934. They were promoted and relegated once again before being promoted in the penultimate season before the Second World War. They guaranteed their place in the top flight for after the war by finishing in 14th in the 1938–39 season. The Busby years (1945–1969) 1945 saw the appointment of Matt Busby to the manager's post at Old Trafford. He took an uncommon approach to his job, insisting that he be allowed to pick his own team, choose which players to sign and direct the team's training sessions himself. He had already missed out on the manager's job at his former club, Liverpool, because the club saw those tasks as jobs for the directors, but United decided to take a chance on Busby's innovative ideas. Busby's first signing was not a player, but a new assistant manager by the name of Jimmy Murphy. The risk the club had taken in appointing Busby paid immediate dividends, with the club finishing second in the league in 1947, 1948 and 1949 and winning the FA Cup in 1948, thanks in part to the locally born trio of Stan Pearson, Jack Rowley and Charlie Mitten (Rowley and Pearson both scored in the 1948 Cup Final), as well as the centre-half from the North-East, Allenby Chilton. Charlie Mitten had fled to Colombia in search of a better salary, but the remainder of United's old heads managed to win the First Division title back in 1952. Busby knew, however, that football teams required more than just experience in the side, and so he adopted a policy of bringing in players from the youth team whenever possible. At first, the young players such as Roger Byrne, Bill Foulkes, Mark Jones and Dennis Viollet, took time to bed themselves into the side, sliding to a low of eighth place in 1953, but the team won the league again in 1956 with an average age of only 22, scoring 103 goals in the process. The youth policy set in motion by Busby has now become a hallmark of the most successful periods in the club's history (the mid-1950s, mid-to-late-1960s and 1990s). Busby's original "crop" of youth players was referred to as the Busby Babes, the jewel in the crown of which was a wing-half named Duncan Edwards. The boy from Dudley in the West Midlands made his United début at the age of just 16 back in 1953. It was said that Edwards could play at any position on the field, and many who saw him play said that he was the greatest player ever. The following season, 1956–57, they won the league again and reached the FA Cup final, losing to Aston Villa. They also became the first English team to compete in the European Cup, at the behest of the FA, who had denied Chelsea the same opportunity the previous season, and reached the semi-final, only to be knocked out by Real Madrid. En route to the semi-final, United also recorded a win that still stands as their biggest win in all competitions, beating Belgian champions Anderlecht 10–0 at Maine Road. Tragedy struck the following season, when the plane carrying the team home from a European Cup match crashed on take-off at a refuelling stop in Munich, Germany. The Munich air disaster of 6 February 1958 claimed the lives of eight players – Geoff Bent, Roger Byrne, Eddie Colman, Duncan Edwards, Mark Jones, David Pegg, Tommy Taylor and Liam "Billy" Whelan – and another fifteen passengers, including United staff members Walter Crickmer, Bert Whalley and Tom Curry. There had already been two attempted take-offs before the fatal third, which was caused by a build-up of slush at the end of the runway slowing the plane down to a speed insufficient for take-off. The plane skidded off the end of the runway, through a fence and into an unoccupied house. United goalkeeper Harry Gregg managed to maintain consciousness after the crash, and through fear of the plane exploding at any second, he grabbed both Bobby Charlton – who had made his United début less than 18 months earlier – and Dennis Viollet by their waistbands and dragged them to safety. Seven United players died at the scene, while Duncan Edwards died a fortnight later in hospital. Right-winger Johnny Berry also survived the accident, but injuries sustained in the accident brought his football career to a premature end. Matt Busby was not given much hope of survival by the Munich doctors, and was even given the Last Rites at one point, but recovered miraculously and was finally let out of hospital after having spent over two months there. There were rumours of the club folding and withdrawing from all competitions, but with Jimmy Murphy taking over as manager while Busby recovered from his injuries, the club continued playing with a makeshift side. Despite the accident, they reached the FA Cup final again, where they lost to Bolton Wanderers. At the end of the season, UEFA offered the FA the opportunity to submit both United and the eventual champions, Wolverhampton Wanderers, for the 1958–59 European Cup as a tribute to the victims, but the FA declined. United managed to push Wolves right to the wire the following season, finishing in a creditable second place; not bad for a team that had lost nine first-team players to the Munich air disaster. Busby rebuilt the team throughout the early 1960s, signing players such as Denis Law and Pat Crerand, all the while nurturing his new generation of youngsters. Perhaps the most famous of this new batch was a young man from Belfast named George Best. Best had a natural athleticism rarely seen, but his most valuable asset was his close control of a football. His quick feet allowed him to pass through almost any gap in the opposition defence, no matter how small. The team won the FA Cup in 1963, albeit finishing in 19th place in the First Division. The FA Cup triumph seemed to reinvigorate the players, who helped the club to second place in 1964, and then went one better by winning the league in 1965 and 1967. United won the European Cup in 1968, beating Eusébio's SL Benfica 4–1 in the final, becoming the first English club to win the competition. This United team was notable for containing three European Footballers of the Year: Bobby Charlton, Denis Law and George Best. Matt Busby resigned as manager in 1969 and was replaced by the reserve team coach and former United player, Wilf McGuinness. 1969–1986 United struggled to replace Busby, and the team struggled under Wilf McGuinness in the 1969–70 season, finishing a disappointing eighth, and following a poor start to the 1970–71 season, McGuinness was demoted back to the position of reserve team coach. Busby was coaxed back to the club, albeit only for six months. Results got better with Busby's guidance, but he finally left the club for the last time in the summer of 1971. In the meantime, United had lost a number of high-profile players such as Nobby Stiles and Pat Crerand. Despite approaching Celtic's European Cup-winning manager, Jock Stein, for the manager's job – Stein had agreed a verbal contract to join United, but pulled out at the last minute – Frank O'Farrell was appointed as Busby's successor. However, like McGuinness, O'Farrell only lasted less than 18 months, the only difference between the two being that O'Farrell reacted to the team's poor form by bringing in some fresh talent, most specifically Martin Buchan from Aberdeen for £125,000. Tommy Docherty became manager at the end of 1972. Docherty, or "the Doc", saved United from relegation that season but United were relegated in 1974, by which time the golden trio of Best, Law and Charlton had left the club. Denis Law had moved to Manchester City in the summer of 1973, and ended up scoring the goal that many people say relegated United, and politely refused to celebrate the goal with his team mates. Players like Lou Macari, Stewart Houston and Brian Greenhoff were brought in to replace Best, Law and Charlton, but none could live up to the stature of the three that came before. The team won promotion at the first attempt, with a young Steve Coppell making his début towards the end of that season, having joined from Tranmere Rovers, and reached the FA Cup final in 1976, but were beaten by Southampton. They reached the final again in 1977, beating Liverpool 2–1. In spite of this success and his popularity with the supporters, Docherty was sacked soon after the final when he was found to have had an affair with the physiotherapist's wife. Dave Sexton replaced Docherty as manager in the summer of 1977, and made the team play in a more defensive formation. This style was unpopular with supporters, who were used to the attacking football preferred by Docherty and Busby. Major signings under Sexton included Joe Jordan, Gordon McQueen, Gary Bailey and Ray Wilkins, but Sexton's defensive United failed to break out of mid-table obscurity, only once finishing in the top two, and only reached the FA Cup final once, losing to Arsenal. Because of this lack of trophies, Sexton was sacked in 1981, even though he won his last seven games in charge. He was replaced by the flamboyant Ron Atkinson, whose extrovert attitude was reflected in the clubs he managed. He immediately broke the British record transfer fee to sign Bryan Robson from his old club, West Brom. Robson would come to be touted in the future as United's best midfield player since Duncan Edwards. Atkinson's team featured new signings such as Jesper Olsen, Paul McGrath and Gordon Strachan playing alongside former youth team players Norman Whiteside and Mark Hughes. United won the FA Cup twice in three years, in 1983 and 1985, and were overwhelming favourites to win the league in the 1985–86 season after winning their first ten league games, opening a ten-point gap over their rivals as early as October. The team's form collapsed, however, and United finished the season in fourth place. The poor form continued into the following season, and with United on the edge of the First Division's relegation zone by the beginning of November 1986, Atkinson was sacked. Alex Ferguson era, pre-Treble (1986–1998) Alex Ferguson arrived from Aberdeen to replace Atkinson on the very day that Atkinson was sacked, bringing with him his assistant manager, Archie Knox. Although his first match in charge, against Oxford United on 8 November 1986, resulted in a 2–0 defeat, Ferguson guided the club to an 11th place finish in the league. A second place finish in 1987–88, with Brian McClair becoming the first United player since George Best to score twenty league goals in a season, may have given fans a tiny glimpse of the future, but they soon returned to mediocrity with another 11th-place finish in 1989. Many of Ferguson's signings did not reach the expectations of the fans, and the manager was reportedly on the verge of being sacked at the beginning of 1990, with many believing that defeat to Nottingham Forest in the FA Cup Third Round would seal his fate. A 56th-minute goal from Mark Robins won the match for United and started them on a cup run that would take them all the way to the final at Wembley, where they beat Crystal Palace 1–0 in a replay after a 3–3 draw in the original match. The following year, United reached the final of the League Cup, but lost 1–0 to former manager Ron Atkinson's Sheffield Wednesday team. However, the season was capped by the club's first Cup Winners' Cup title, beating Barcelona 2–1 in the final in Rotterdam. The Cup Winners' Cup triumph allowed the team to play in the 1991 UEFA Super Cup, in which they beat European Cup holders Red Star Belgrade 1–0 at Old Trafford. The match should have been played over two legs, but, due to political unrest in Yugoslavia at the time, UEFA decided that only the Old Trafford leg would be played. A second consecutive League Cup final appearance followed in 1992, with United this time beating Nottingham Forest 1–0 at Wembley. Meanwhile, events were taking place off the pitch around the turn of the decade, as chairman Martin Edwards attempted to offload the club to property tycoon Michael Knighton in 1989. The £20 million deal was all but confirmed, with Knighton even taking to the Old Trafford pitch in full Manchester United kit and performing a few keepie uppies before belting the ball into the goal at the Stretford End. Knighton was given access to the club's financial records, but, before the deal could be finalised, his financial backers pulled out and the deal was cancelled. However, since Knighton now had insider knowledge of the club, he was given a place on the club's board in exchange for his silence about the matter. In 1991, requiring some extra financial support in the wake of the Taylor Report, the club floated on the London Stock Exchange with a valuation of £47 million, bringing its finances into the public eye. Martin Edwards retained his position as chairman, but the club was now publicly owned. The summer of 1991 also saw the arrival of Danish goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel, whose 17 league clean sheets gave United the best defensive record in the First Division in 1991–92, helping them to a second-place finish behind Leeds United, within whose ranks was a certain French maverick named Eric Cantona. Alex Ferguson recognised United's need for a striker as a foil for Mark Hughes and Brian McClair, and had tried – and failed – a number of times to sign Sheffield Wednesday striker David Hirst, but when Leeds manager Howard Wilkinson rang Martin Edwards in November 1992 to enquire about the availability of Denis Irwin, the conversation quickly turned to Cantona. To Edwards' and Ferguson's surprise, the two clubs were able to agree upon a fee of £1.2 million for the enigmatic Frenchman. Cantona's arrival provided the crucial spark for United, helping the team to their first league title since 1967. After the signing of Roy Keane from Nottingham Forest in July 1993, United won a second consecutive title for the first time since 1957 the following year, before winning the FA Cup to complete the first "Double" in the club's history. That same year, however, the club went into mourning following the death of former manager and club director Matt Busby, who died on 20 January 1994. The 1994–95 season was to be the club's first trophyless season since 1988–89, although they managed to take the title race down to the final week of the season and reached the final of the FA Cup, where they lost to Everton. Andy Cole was signed from Newcastle United for a British record fee of £6 million plus Keith Gillespie. However, the game after Cole's United debut, Eric Cantona received an eight month suspension for jumping into the crowd and assaulting Crystal Palace supporter Matthew Simmons, who had given Cantona racial abuse as he left the field, in United's game at Selhurst Park. Cantona's suspension has been cited by some as the reason why United were unable to complete a hat-trick of league titles that season. The season's relative failure prompted Ferguson into some major restructuring of the team, selling Paul Ince, Andrei Kanchelskis and Mark Hughes and replacing them with players from the club's youth team, including David Beckham, Gary Neville, Phil Neville and Paul Scholes. After the club's 3–1 defeat to Aston Villa on the opening day of the 1995–96 season, television pundit Alan Hansen famously declared "you'll never win anything with kids." The new players, several of whom quickly became regular internationals for England, responded well and, buoyed by Cantona's return in October 1995, United became the first English club to have won the double twice, a feat that would be nicknamed the "Double Double". Captain Steve Bruce left for Birmingham City in July 1996, and Alex Ferguson named Eric Cantona as the new club captain. He led the team to a fourth league title in five years in 1996–97, before retiring from football at the age of 30 at the end of the season. Teddy Sheringham was brought in to replace him, and his iconic number 7 shirt was handed to David Beckham. They started the 1997–98 season well, but they lost five matches after Christmas and finished in second place, one point behind double-winners Arsenal. After a period without a regular challenger for the league title, this marked Arsenal's arrival as genuine title contenders for the next few years. The Treble (1998–99) The 1998–99 season for Manchester United was the most successful season in English club football history as they became the only English team to win The Treble – winning the Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League in the same season. After a very tense Premier League season, Manchester United won the title on the final day beating Tottenham Hotspur 2–1, whilst Arsenal won 1–0 against Aston Villa. Winning the Premier League was the first part of the Treble in place, the one part that manager Alex Ferguson described as the hardest. In the FA Cup Final United faced Newcastle United and won 2–0 with goals from Teddy Sheringham and Paul Scholes. In the final match of that season, the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final they defeated Bayern Munich in what is considered one of the greatest comebacks ever witnessed, going into injury time a goal behind and then scoring twice to win 2–1. Ferguson was subsequently knighted for his services to football. Rounding out that record breaking year, Manchester United also won the Intercontinental Cup after beating Palmeiras 1–0 in Tokyo. After the Treble (1999–present) United won the league in 2000 and 2001 but the press saw these seasons as failures as they failed to regain the European Cup. In 2000, Manchester United became one of 14 founder members of the G-14 group of leading European football clubs. The club also declined to take part in the 1999–2000 FA Cup, instead competing in the inaugural FIFA Club World Championship in Brazil, citing pressure from the FA, UEFA and the England 2006 World Cup bid committee. Ferguson adopted more defensive tactics to make United harder to beat in Europe but it was not a success and United finished the 2001–02 Premier League season in third place. They regained the league the following season (2002–03) and started the following season well, but their form dropped significantly when Rio Ferdinand received a controversial eight month suspension for missing a drugs test. They did win the 2004 FA Cup, however, knocking out Arsenal (that season's eventual league champions) on their way to the final in which they beat Millwall. The 2004–05 season was characterised by a failure to score goals, mainly due to the injury of striker Ruud van Nistelrooy and United finished the season trophyless and in third place in the league. This time, even the FA Cup eluded them as Arsenal beat United on penalties after a goalless draw after 120 minutes. Off the pitch, the main story was the possibility of the club being taken over and on 12 May 2005, American businessman Malcolm Glazer acquired a controlling interest in the club through his investment vehicle Red Football Ltd. in a takeover valuing the club at approximately £800 million (then approx. $1.5 billion). On 16 May, he increased his share to the 75% necessary to de-list the club from the Stock Exchange, making it private again, and announced his intention to do so within 20 days. On 8 June, he appointed his sons to the Manchester United board as non-executive directors. United made a poor start to the 2005–06 season, with midfielder Roy Keane leaving the club to join Celtic after publicly criticising several of his team-mates, and the club failed to qualify for the knockout phase of the UEFA Champions League for the first time in over a decade after losing to Portuguese team Benfica. Their season was also dealt cruel blows with injuries to key players such as Gabriel Heinze, Alan Smith, Ryan Giggs and Paul Scholes. However, they were prevented from being left empty-handed in successive seasons  a disappointment not endured in the last 17 years – by winning the 2006 League Cup, beating newly promoted neighbours Wigan Athletic in the final 4–0. United also ensured a second-place finish and automatic Champions League qualification on the final day of the season by defeating Charlton Athletic 4–0. At the end of the 2005–06 season, one of United's key strikers, Ruud van Nistelrooy, left the club to join Real Madrid, due to a row with Alex Ferguson. In July 2006, the club announced a refinancing package. The total amount will be £660 million, on which interest payments will be £62 million a year. This result of this new financing plan will be a 30% reduction of annual payments. On the pitch, the 2006–07 season saw United return to the attacking style of football that was the cornerstone of their years of success in the late 1990s, scoring almost 20 more goals in 32 matches than second placed side Chelsea. In January 2007, United signed Henrik Larsson on a two-month loan from Swedish side Helsingborgs, and the striker played an important role in advancing United to the semi-finals of the Champions League, with hopes for a second Treble; however, upon reaching the semi-finals, United lost to Milan 3–5 on aggregate. Four years after their last title, United claimed back the Premier League title on 6 May 2007, after Chelsea drew away with Arsenal, leaving the Blues seven points behind with two games to go, following United's 1–0 victory in the Manchester derby the previous day, making it their ninth Premier League title in the 15 seasons of its existence. However, an unprecedented fourth Double was not to be, as Chelsea beat United 1–0 in extra time in the first FA Cup Final to be held at the new Wembley Stadium; the first to be held in England since the old stadium was demolished seven years earlier. 2007–08 saw United successfully complete the European double despite a poor start to the season, finding themselves in 17th place in the Premier League after three matches. However, on 11 May 2008, United retained the Premier League title with a win over Wigan Athletic. With title rivals Chelsea only able to draw with Bolton Wanderers, United finished the season two points clear. The club also reached the European Cup final for the third time in their history, having knocked out such clubs as Barcelona and Roma en-route to the final. They beat Chelsea 6–5 on penalties in the final in Moscow's Luzhniki Stadium, after a 1–1 draw in normal time on 21 May 2008. With this win, they earned their third European Cup title and kept up their record of never having lost a major European final. Coincidentally, this season marked the 100th year since Manchester United won their first League title, 50 years after the Munich air disaster and 40 years after Manchester United became the first ever English side to win the European Cup. The European Cup final also saw Ryan Giggs make his 759th appearance for the club, overtaking Bobby Charlton as the club's record appearance maker. Before the start of the 2008–09 season, United competed in and won the 2008 FA Community Shield. United beat 2007-08 FA Cup winners Portsmouth 3-1 on penalties, after the match finished 0–0 after 90 minutes. On 21 December 2008, United added more silverware to their trophy cabinet with a win in the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup Final, defeating the Ecuadorian side LDU Quito 1–0 in Japan, Wayne Rooney scoring the winning goal. Two months later, they added the 2009 League Cup to their trophy cabinet, after defeating Tottenham Hotspur 4-1 on penalties. On 16 May, United secured their 11th Premier League title – and 18th league title overall – following a 0–0 draw at home to Arsenal, winning three consecutive Premier League titles for a second time. On 27 May 2009, Barcelona beat Manchester United 2-0 in the Champions League final in Rome, falling to goals from Samuel Eto'o and Lionel Messi. Club crest and colours During its days as Newton Heath, the club played in a number of different colours, the most recognisable being the yellow and green halved shirts worn from 1878 to 1892, and then again between 1894 and 1896; this strip was revived as an away kit in the early 1990s. Other kits worn by Newton Heath included a red and white quartered shirt (1892–1894) and a plain white shirt (1896–1902), both worn with blue shorts. In 1902, in conjunction with the name change to Manchester United, the club changed their colours to red jerseys, white shorts and black socks, which has become the standard for most Man Utd home kits ever since. The most notable exception to this is the shirt that the team wore in the 1909 FA Cup Final against Bristol City, which was white with a red "V" sash. This design was resurrected in the 1920s before United reverted back to the all-red shirts. Away strips are usually white jerseys with black shorts and white socks, but other colours have been used, including a blue and white striped shirt used on-and-off from 1903 to 1916, an all-black kit in 1994 and 2003 and a navy blue shirt with silver horizontal pinstripes in 2000. One of the most famous, yet short-lived, United away kits, though, was the all grey kit from 1995–96. This kit was dropped after Manchester United failed to win a single game while wearing it. At half-time during a game against Southampton, when United were already 3–0 down, they switched to their blue and white third kit, but eventually lost 3–1. According to the players, the grey kit was not visible enough which led to the poor results. Another famous Man Utd away kit included a reversible shirt that was white with black sleeves and gold trim on one side, and gold with black trim on the other side. This shirt was released as the last kit created by Umbro for the club before the change to Nike, and commemorated 100 years since the club had changed its name from Newton Heath to Manchester United. The United third kit is traditionally all-blue in homage to the kit that the 1968 European Cup was won in. Exceptions to this rule have included a bright yellow kit worn in the early 1970s, the aforementioned blue and white striped shirt from 1996, which proved to be a firm favourite with the fans, and a white shirt with black and red horizontal pinstripes from 2004. United have also used what were originally used as training shirts as their third kit in the past, having adopted an all-black kit in the 1998–99 season and a dark blue shirt with maroon sides in 2001 for games against Southampton and PSV Eindhoven. Currently, Manchester United's home jerseys are red with a vertical, white broken stripe with black trim on the reverse. The stripe is adorned with the letters MUFC at the top of the bottom portion, and a silhouette of the devil from the club badge at the top of the top portion. The AIG and Nike logos are also white. A patch with the words "The Red Devils" written in white, over an image of the club badge's devil, is attached to the bottom-left of the shirt. The club crest sits on a red shield of the same shape on the left breast. The away kit is white with blue piping around the side and back of the neck and down the sides of the body. The trim on the front of the neck is red. The letters "MUFC" are on the back of the collar and the club badge is located on a white shield over the left breast. The third shirt is royal blue, with sponsors' logos in white. Around the club badge, which sits on a blue shield, the words "May 29th 1968 40th Anniversary" are embroidered. Like the away shirt, the letters "MUFC" are on the back of the collar, while the inside of the collar is adorned with the coat of arms of the City of Manchester, in a design inspired by the tickets used for the 1968 European Cup Final. The away and third shirts are worn with blue shorts. The Manchester United crest has been altered on a few occasions, but the basic form remains similar. The badge is derived from the crest of the city of Manchester. The devil on the club badge stems from the club's nickname "The Red Devils", which was adopted in the early 1960s after Matt Busby heard it in reference to the red-shirted Salford rugby league side. By the end of the 1960s, the devil had started to be included on club programmes and scarves, before it was finally incorporated into the club badge in 1970, holding its unmistakable trident. In 1998, the badge was once again redesigned, this time removing the words "Football Club". Players First-team squad As of 24 May 2009, according to combined sources on the official website. On loan Reserves and academy For the reserve and academy squads, see Manchester United F.C. Reserves and Academy. Former players For details on former players, see List of Manchester United F.C. players and :Category:Manchester United F.C. players. Club captains Dates Name Notes 1878–1882 Unknown 1882 E. Thomas First known club captain 1882–1883 Unknown c.1883–1887 Sam Black c.1887–1890 Jack Powell 1890–1892 Unknown 1892–1893 Joe Cassidy 1893–1894 Unknown c.1894 James McNaught 1894–1896 Unknown c.1896–1903 Harry Stafford First captain of Manchester United 1903–1904 Unknown c.1904–1905 Jack Peddie c.1905–1912 Charlie Roberts 1912–1913 George Stacey 1913 Dick Duckworth 1914 George Hunter 1914–1915 Patrick O'Connell 1915–1919 None No football was played during the First World War 1919–1922 Unknown c.1922–1928 Frank Barson c.1928–1931 Jack Wilson 1931–1932 George McLachlan 1932 Louis Page 1932–1935 Unknown c.1935–1939 Jimmy Brown 1939–1945 None No football was played during the Second World War 1945–1953 Johnny Carey First post-war captain, and first from outside the United Kingdom 1953–1954 Stan Pearson 1954–1955 Allenby Chilton 1955–1958 Roger Byrne Died in the 1958 Munich air disaster 1958–1959 Bill Foulkes 1959–1960 Dennis Viollet 1960–1962 Maurice Setters 1962–1964 Noel Cantwell 1964–1967 Denis Law 1967–1973 Bobby Charlton 1973 George Graham 1973–1975 Willie Morgan 1975–1982 Martin Buchan 1982 Ray Wilkins 1982–1994 Bryan Robson Longest-serving captain in United's history 1994–1996 Steve Bruce 1996–1997 Eric Cantona First United captain from outside the United Kingdom or the Republic of Ireland 1997–2005 Roy Keane Won more trophies than any other United captain 2005–present Gary Neville First club captain to be born in Greater Manchester since Dennis Viollet Player records As of match played 27 May 2009 and according to the official statistics website. Players in bold are still currently playing for Manchester United. Most appearances #NameCareerAppearancesGoals1 Ryan Giggs1991–present8061482 Bobby Charlton1956–19737582493 Bill Foulkes1952–197068894 Paul Scholes1994–present6051425 Gary Neville1992–present57076 Alex Stepney1966–197853927 Tony Dunne1960–197353528 Denis Irwin1990–2002529339 Joe Spence1919–193351016810 Arthur Albiston1974–19884857 Most goals #NameCareerGoalsAppearancesGoals/GameRatio1 Bobby Charlton1956–19732497582 Denis Law1962–19732374043 Jack Rowley1937–19552114244= Dennis Viollet 1953–19621792934= George Best1963–19741794706 Joe Spence1919–19331685107 Mark Hughes1983–19861988–19951634678 Ruud van Nistelrooy2001–20061502199= Stan Pearson1937–19541483439= Ryan Giggs1991–present148806 Award winners Ballon d'Or The following players have won the Ballon d'Or whilst playing for Manchester United: Denis Law – 1964 Bobby Charlton – 1966 George Best – 1968 Cristiano Ronaldo – 2008 European Golden Shoe The following players have won the European Golden Shoe whilst playing for Manchester United: Cristiano Ronaldo (31 goals) – 2008 UEFA Club Footballer of the Year The following players have won the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year award whilst playing for Manchester United: David Beckham – 1999 Cristiano Ronaldo – 2008 FIFA World Player of the Year The following players have won the FIFA World Player of the Year award whilst playing for Manchester United: Cristiano Ronaldo – 2008 Ladies team Manchester United Ladies FC was founded in 1977 as Manchester United Supporters Club Ladies. They joined the Three Counties League in 1979, and became founder members of the North West Women's Regional Football League in 1989, when they officially changed their name to Manchester United Ladies FC. Although they were relegated from the league in their first season, they were promoted again the season after and went on to win the league title in 1995–96. For the 1998–99 season, the team joined the Northern Combination, two steps below the FA Women's Premier League. They were officially brought under the banner of Manchester United FC at the start of the 2001–02 season, but they were controversially disbanded before the start of the 2004–05 season for financial reasons. The decision was met with considerable criticism given the profits made by Manchester United and also due to the fact that the teams were withdrawn from all their leagues before the players were even informed of the decision. However, the club is still involved in girls' football, offering coaching to girls under the age of 16. Club officials Owner: Malcolm Glazer Honorary president: Martin Edwards Manchester United Limited Co-chairmen: Joel Glazer & Avram Glazer Chief executive: David Gill Chief operating officer: Michael Bolingbroke Commercial director: Richard Arnold Executive director: Ed Woodward Non-executive directors: Bryan Glazer, Kevin Glazer, Edward Glazer & Darcie Glazer Manchester United football club Directors: David Gill, Michael Edelson, Sir Bobby Charlton, Maurice Watkins Club secretary: Ken Ramsden Assistant club secretary: Ken Merrett Global ambassador: Bryan Robson Coaching and Medical Staff Manager: Sir Alex Ferguson Assistant manager: Mike Phelan First team coach: René Meulensteen Goalkeeping coach: Eric Steele Fitness coach: Tony Strudwick Strength & conditioning coach: Mick Clegg Head of human performance: Dr. Richard Hawkins Reserve team manager: Ole Gunnar Solskjær Reserve team coach: Warren Joyce Chief scout: Jim Lawlor Chief European scout: Martin Ferguson Director of youth academy: Brian McClair Director of youth football: Jimmy Ryan Club doctor: Dr. Steve McNally Assistant club doctor: Dr. Tony Gill First team physiotherapist: Rob Swire Managerial history Dates Name Notes 1878–1892 Unknown 1892–1900 A. H. Albut 1900–1903 James West 1903–1912 Ernest Mangnall 1912–1914 John Bentley 1914–1922 Jack Robson 1922–1926 John Chapman 1926–1927 Lal Hilditch 1927–1931 Herbert Bamlett 1931–1932 Walter Crickmer 1932–1937 Scott Duncan First manager from outside of England 1937–1945 Walter Crickmer 1945–1969 Matt Busby First post-Second World War manager and longest serving manager in United's history 1969–1970 Wilf McGuinness 1970–1971 Matt Busby 1971–1972 Frank O'Farrell First manager from outside the United Kingdom 1972–1977 Tommy Docherty 1977–1981 Dave Sexton 1981–1986 Ron Atkinson 1986–present Alex Ferguson Most successful manager in terms of trophies Support Before the Second World War, few English football supporters travelled to away games because of time, cost, and logistical constraints such as the scarcity of cars amongst the population. As City and United played home matches on alternate Saturdays, many Mancunians would watch United one week and City the next, but after the war, a stronger rivalry developed and it became more common for a supporter to choose to follow one team exclusively. When United won the league in 1956, they had the highest average home attendance in the league, a record that had been held by Newcastle United for the previous few years. Following the Munich air disaster in 1958, more people began to support United and many started to go to matches. This caused United's support to swell and is one reason why United have had the highest league attendances in English football for almost every season since then, even as a Second Division side in 1974–75. In fact, for two of the seasons that United did not have the league's largest attendance, Old Trafford was undergoing major building work (1971–72 and 1992–93). A 2002 report, entitled Do You Come From Manchester?, showed that a higher proportion of Manchester City season ticket holders live in the Manchester postal districts, whilst United had the higher absolute number of season ticket holders living in the same area. In the late 1990s and early part of the 2000s, an increasing source of concern for many United supporters was the possibility of the club being taken over. The supporters' group IMUSA (Independent Manchester United Supporters' Association) was extremely active in opposing a proposed takeover by Rupert Murdoch in 1998. Another pressure group, Shareholders United Against Murdoch (which became Shareholders United and is now the Manchester United Supporters' Trust) was formed at around this time to encourage supporters to buy shares in the club, partly to enable supporters to have a greater say in the issues that concern them, such as ticket prices and allocation, and partly to reduce the risk of an unwanted party buying enough shares to take over the club. However, this scheme failed to prevent Malcolm Glazer from becoming the majority share holder. Many supporters were outraged, and some formed a splinter club called F.C. United of Manchester. Despite the anger of some supporters towards the new owners, attendances have continued to increase. The atmosphere produced by the fans has, however, been criticised at times. In 2000, comments made about sections of the Old Trafford crowd by the then-club captain Roy Keane, claiming some fans could not "spell football, never mind understand it" led to them being dubbed the "prawn sandwich brigade". Alex Ferguson has also made several comments about the crowd, even going as far as claiming the atmosphere on 1 January 2008 was like a "funeral". Afterwards, he commented "I think there have been days like this in the past. It happened some years ago, when we were dominant". After a famous 1–0 win over Barcelona at Old Trafford, which sent United to the final of the Champions League in Moscow, Ferguson said that United fans "were absolutely brilliant" and that they "got us over the line". Stadium When the club was first founded, Newton Heath played their home games on a small field on North Road in Newton Heath. However, visiting teams often complained about the state of the pitch, which was "a bog at one end and rocky as a quarry at the other". The changing rooms were also nothing to be proud of, being located ten minutes walk away at the Three Crowns pub on Oldham Road. They were later moved to the Shears Hotel, another pub on Oldham Road, but a change was needed if the club was to continue in the Football League. The Heathens remained at their North Road ground for fifteen years from 1878 to 1893, a year after entering the Football League, before moving to a new home at Bank Street in nearby Clayton. The new ground was not much better, only a few tufts of grass sticking up through the sandy surface, and clouds of smoke coming down from the factory next door. On one occasion, the Walsall Town Swifts even refused to play, the conditions were so bad. A layer of sand was put down by the groundsman and the visitors were finally persuaded to play, eventually losing 14–0. They protested against the result, citing the poor conditions as the reason for their loss and the match was replayed. The conditions were not much better the second time around, and the Walsall team lost again, although this time they only lost 9–0. In 1902, the club went close to bankruptcy and the Bank Street ground was closed by bailiffs due to its insolvency. The club was saved at the last minute by captain Harry Stafford, who managed to scrape together enough money to pay for the club's next away game at Bristol City and found a temporary ground at neighbouring Harpurhey for the next home game against Blackpool. Following investment to get the club back on an even keel, they renamed as Manchester United, though still with a desire for a passable ground. Six weeks before United's first FA Cup title in April 1909, Old Trafford was named as the home of Manchester United, following the purchase of the necessary land for around £60,000. Architect Archibald Leitch was hired by United chairman John Henry Davies, and given a budget of £30,000 for construction. Original plans indicated that the stadium would hold around 100,000, though this was scaled back to 77,000. Despite this, a record attendance of 76,962 was recorded, which is more than even the current stadium officially supports. Construction was carried out by Messrs Brameld and Smith of Manchester. At the opening of the stadium, standing tickets cost sixpence, while the most expensive seats in the grandstand would have set you back five shillings. The inaugural game was played on 19 February 1910 against Liverpool F.C., and resulted in a 4–3 win for the visitors. As it happened, the change of ground could not have come soon enough – only a few days after the club played their last game at Bank Street, one of the stands was blown down in a storm. Bombing during the Second World War, on 11 March 1941, destroyed much of the stadium, notably the main stand. The central tunnel in the South Stand was all that remained of that quarter of the ground. After the war, United filed a report with the War Damage Commission and received compensation to the value of £22,278 for the reconstruction of the ground. Though the ground was rebuilt in 1949, it meant that a game had not been played at Old Trafford for nearly 10 years as the team played all their "home" games in that period at Manchester City's ground, Maine Road. Manchester City charged United £5,000 per year for the use of their stadium, plus a nominal percentage of the gate receipts. Subsequent improvements occurred, beginning with the addition of a roof first to the Stretford End and then to the North and East Stands. However, the old-fashioned roof supports obscured the view of many fans, resulting in the upgrading of the roofs to incorporate the cantilevering still seen on the stadium today. The Stretford End was the last stand to receive the upgrade to the cantilevered roof, the work being completed in time for the start of the 1993–94 season. Floodlights were first installed at the ground in the mid-1950s. Four -tall pylons were erected, each housing 54 individual floodlights. The whole lighting system cost the club £40,000, and was first used for a match on 25 March 1957. However, the old style floodlights were dismantled in 1987, to be replaced by a new lighting system embedded in the roof of each of the stands, which has survived to this day. In 1990, following the Hillsborough Disaster, a report was issued which demanded all stadia be converted to all-seaters, leading to subsequent renovation, which dropped capacity to around 44,000. However, the club's popularity ensured that further development would occur. In 1995, the North Stand was redeveloped into three tiers, bringing the capacity up to approximately 55,000. This was followed by expansions of first the East and then West Stands to reach a total capacity of 68,000. The most recent expansion was completed in 2006, when the North-East and North-West Quadrants were opened, allowing the current record of 76,098, only 104 short of the stadium's maximum capacity. It has been estimated that for any further development to be attempted on the stadium, specifically the South Stand which is still only one tier high, development costs would almost equal the £114 million already spent on the stadium in the last fourteen years. This is due to the fact that up to fifty houses would have to be bought out by the club, which would cause a lot of disruption to local residents, and any extension would have to be built over the top of the railway line that runs adjacent to the stadium. Ideally, the expansion would include bringing the South Stand up to at least two tiers and filling in the South-West and South-East quadrants to restore the "bowl" effect of the stadium. Present estimates put the projected capacity of the completed stadium at approximately 96,000, more than the new Wembley Stadium. Sponsorship AIG are the main sponsors of Manchester United, and as part of the sponsorship deal, their logo is displayed on the front of the club's shirts and a plethora of other merchandise. The AIG deal was announced by Manchester United chief executive David Gill on 6 April 2006, and is worth a British record £56.5 million, to be paid over four years (£14.1 million a year). The deal became the most valuable sponsorship deal in the world in September 2006 after the renegotiation of the £15 million-a-year deal Juventus had with oil firm Tamoil. On 21 January 2009, it was announced that AIG would not be renewing their sponsorship of the club at the end of the deal in May 2010. It is not clear, however, whether or not AIG's agreement to run MU Finance will continue. Companies that Manchester United currently have sponsorship deals with include: AIG – Principal Sponsor Nike – Official Sportswear Partner Budweiser – Official Beer Betfred – Official Betting Partner Hublot – Official Timekeeper Key 103 – Official Radio Station The club has only ever had three main shirt sponsors. The first and longest-running was Sharp Electronics, who sponsored the club from 1982 to 2000, which was one of the lengthiest and most lucrative sponsorship deals in English football. Sharp's logo was on the front of United's shirts during these 17 years, during which the team won seven Premier League titles, five FA Cups, one Football League Cup, one European Cup Winners' Cup and one European Cup. Vodafone took over in an initial four-year £30 million deal on 11 February 2000, with the sponsorship to begin at the start of the 2000–01 season. In December 2003, the sponsorship was extended by four years with Vodafone agreeing to pay £36 million over the four years from 2004 to 2008. However, on 23 November 2005, Vodafone announced that they would be ending the deal in May 2006 in order to concentrate on their sponsorship of the UEFA Champions League. Similarly, the club has only had four independent kit manufacturers, the first being local sportswear company Umbro. Admiral took over in 1975, and became the first company to place their logo on a Manchester United shirt in 1976. Adidas followed in 1980, before Umbro started a second spell as the club's kit manufacturers in 1992. Umbro's sponsorship lasted for a further ten years, before the club struck a record-breaking £302.9 million deal with Nike. The agreement with Nike will last an initial 13 years, running until at least 2015. Rivalries Historically, Manchester United's closest rivals have been Liverpool, Manchester City and Leeds United. Currently, most fans see Liverpool as their biggest rivals, due to the success of both clubs, although others still rate Manchester City as their main rivals. The Liverpool rivalry began during the 1960s when the two clubs were among the strongest in England, and have been competing closely just about every season since. The Manchester City rivalry dates back to the Newton Heath era of the 1890s and has remained fierce due to both clubs being in the same division for much of their history. Whilst based in traditional Yorkshire-Lancashire rivalry, the rivalry with Leeds United began during the late 1960s when Leeds emerged as a top side, and continued through the 1970s and 1980s before arguably reaching its apex when Leeds pipped United to the league title in 1992. Honours Domestic League Premier League: Upon its formation in 1992, the Premier League became the top tier of English football; the First and Second Divisions then became the second and third tiers, respectively. The First Division is now known as the Football League Championship and the Second Division is now known as Football League One. 11 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09 First Division: 7 1907–08, 1910–11, 1951–52, 1955–56, 1956–57, 1964–65, 1966–67 Second Division: 2 1935–36, 1974–75 Cups FA Cup: 11 1909, 1948, 1963, 1977, 1983, 1985, 1990, 1994, 1996, 1999, 2004 League Cup: 3 1992, 2006, 2009 FA Charity/Community Shield: 17 (13 outright, 4 shared) 1908, 1911, 1952, 1956, 1957, 1965*, 1967*, 1977*, 1983, 1990*, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2007, 2008 (* joint holders) European European Cup/UEFA Champions League: 3 1968, 1999, 2008 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1 1991 UEFA Super Cup: 1 1991 Worldwide Intercontinental Cup: 1 1999 FIFA Club World Cup: 1 2008 Doubles and Trebles Doubles: League and FA Cup: 3 1994, 1996, 1999 (as part of The Treble) League and League Cup: 1 2009 European Double (League and European Cup): 2 1999 (as part of The Treble), 2008 "The Treble" (League, FA Cup and European Cup): 1 1999 Especially short competitions such as the Charity/Community Shield, Intercontinental Cup, FIFA Club World Cup or Super Cup are not generally considered to contribute towards a Double or Treble. The only major honour that Manchester United has never won is the UEFA Cup, although they reached the quarter-finals in 1984–85 and the semi-finals of the competition's precursor tournament, the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, in 1964–65. See also Richest football clubs Supporters' organisations IMUSA Manchester United Supporters' Trust Fanzines Red Issue United We Stand (fanzine) Red News References External links Official Official site Talking Reds (message board) Official stats website Independent media sites Manchester United at skysports.com Manchester United at premierleague.com Major fan sites Official Manchester United Supporters' Trust Independent Manchester United Supporters Association Red Issue - The United Fanzine RedCafe - the Leading Manchester United Forum be-x-old:Манчэстэр Юнайтэд
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dismantle:1 embed:1 hillsborough:1 demand:1 convert:1 seaters:1 renovation:1 capacity:5 development:3 redevelop:1 tier:5 expansion:3 recent:1 quadrant:2 maximum:1 equal:1 fourteen:1 fifty:1 lot:1 disruption:1 local:2 resident:1 extension:1 adjacent:1 ideally:1 least:2 fill:1 restore:1 bowl:1 effect:1 project:1 sponsorship:10 display:1 plethora:1 merchandise:1 worth:1 renegotiation:1 juventus:1 oil:1 tamoil:1 renew:1 whether:1 agreement:2 mu:1 principal:1 sportswear:2 partner:2 budweiser:1 beer:1 betfred:1 bet:1 hublot:1 timekeeper:1 radio:1 station:1 running:1 sharp:2 electronics:1 lengthy:1 lucrative:1 vodafone:3 initial:2 extend:1 order:1 concentrate:1 similarly:1 manufacturer:2 admiral:1 adidas:1 historically:1 closest:1 rate:1 closely:1 fierce:1 traditional:1 emerge:1 arguably:1 apex:1 domestic:1 respectively:1 outright:1 worldwide:1 especially:1 generally:1 contribute:1 precursor:1 tournament:1 inter:1 fair:1 organisation:1 fanzines:1 fanzine:2 news:1 external:1 site:2 talk:1 message:1 stats:1 medium:1 skysports:1 com:2 premierleague:1 redcafe:1 leading:1 forum:1 x:1 манчэстэр:1 юнайтэд:1 |@bigram manchester_unite:32 old_trafford:11 alex_ferguson:11 fa_cup:28 ron_atkinson:4 gary_neville:3 roy_keane:5 newton_heath:10 fund_raiser:1 aston_villa:4 sow_seed:1 yo_yo:1 matt_busby:7 dennis_viollet:5 west_midlands:1 en_route:2 bobby_charlton:6 wolverhampton_wanderer:1 nottingham_forest:3 sheffield_wednesday:2 financial_backer:1 stock_exchange:2 eric_cantona:4 selhurst_park:1 hat_trick:1 cup_uefa:3 uefa_champion:5 tottenham_hotspur:2 bayern_munich:1 intercontinental_cup:3 ryan_giggs:2 wigan_athletic:2 charlton_athletic:1 wembley_stadium:2 wayne_rooney:1 psv_eindhoven:1 coat_arm:1 cristiano_ronaldo:4 ticket_holder:2 rupert_murdoch:1 architect_archibald:1 archibald_leitch:1 gate_receipt:1 hillsborough_disaster:1 liverpool_manchester:1 leeds_unite:1 uefa_cup:2 external_link:1
3,149
Hangman_(game)
Hangman is a paper and pencil guessing game for two or more players. One player thinks of a word and the other tries to guess it by suggesting letters. The word to guess is represented by a row of dashes, giving the number of letters. If the guessing player suggests a letter which occurs in the word, the other player writes it in all its correct positions. If the suggested letter does not occur in the word, the other player draws one element of the hangman diagram as a tally mark. The game is over when: An example game in progress. The guessing player completes the word, or guesses the whole word correctly The other player completes the diagram: This diagram is, in fact, designed to look like a hanging man. Although debates have arisen about the questionable taste of this picture, it is still in use today. A common alternative for teachers of young learners is to draw an apple tree with ten apples, erasing or crossing out the apples as the guesses are used up. The exact nature of the diagram differs; some players draw the gallows before play and draw parts of the man's body (traditionally the head, then the torso, then the left arm, then the right arm, then the left leg, then the right leg). Some players begin with no diagram at all, and drawing the individual elements of the gallows as part of the game, effectively giving the guessing players more chances. Some modifications to game play, such as "buying a vowel", result from the U.S. television game show Wheel of Fortune, created by Merv Griffin. History "The origins of Hangman are obscure, but it seems to have arisen in Victorian times," says Tony Augarde, author of "The Oxford Guide to Word Games" (Oxford University Press). The game is mentioned in Alice Bertha Gomme's "Traditional Games" in 1894 under the name "Birds, Beasts and Fishes." The rules are simple; a player writes down the first and last letters of a word for an animal, and the other player guesses the letters in between. In other sources the game is called "Gallows", "The Game of Hangin'", or "Hanger". Hangman has featured in the 1978 Speak & Spell video game system under the name "Mystery Word" and is sometimes played today as a forum game. Strategy In the English language, the 12 most commonly occurring letters are, in descending order: e-t-a-o-i-n-s-h-r-d-l-u. This and other letter-frequency lists are used by the guessing player to increase the odds when it is their turn to guess. On the other hand, the same lists can be used by the puzzle setter to stump their opponent by choosing a word which deliberately avoids common letters (e.g. rhythm) or one that contains rare letters (e.g. quartz). Another common strategy is to guess vowels first, as English only has six vowels (a,e,i,o,u, and y), and almost every word has at least one. Example game The following example game illustrates a player trying to guess the word hangman using a strategy based solely on letter frequency. 0123456789Guesser loses - the answer was HANGMAN. External links
Hangman_(game) |@lemmatized hangman:6 paper:1 pencil:1 guessing:2 game:15 two:1 player:14 one:4 think:1 word:12 try:2 guess:11 suggest:2 letter:11 represent:1 row:1 dash:1 give:2 number:1 occur:3 write:2 correct:1 position:1 suggested:1 draw:5 element:2 diagram:5 tally:1 mark:1 example:3 progress:1 complete:2 whole:1 correctly:1 fact:1 design:1 look:1 like:1 hang:1 man:2 although:1 debate:1 arise:2 questionable:1 taste:1 picture:1 still:1 use:5 today:2 common:3 alternative:1 teacher:1 young:1 learner:1 apple:3 tree:1 ten:1 erase:1 cross:1 exact:1 nature:1 differs:1 gallows:3 play:3 part:2 body:1 traditionally:1 head:1 torso:1 left:2 arm:2 right:2 leg:2 begin:1 individual:1 effectively:1 chance:1 modification:1 buy:1 vowel:3 result:1 u:3 television:1 show:1 wheel:1 fortune:1 create:1 merv:1 griffin:1 history:1 origin:1 obscure:1 seem:1 victorian:1 time:1 say:1 tony:1 augarde:1 author:1 oxford:2 guide:1 university:1 press:1 mention:1 alice:1 bertha:1 gomme:1 traditional:1 name:2 bird:1 beast:1 fish:1 rule:1 simple:1 first:2 last:1 animal:1 source:1 call:1 hangin:1 hanger:1 feature:1 speak:1 spell:1 video:1 system:1 mystery:1 sometimes:1 forum:1 strategy:3 english:2 language:1 commonly:1 descend:1 order:1 e:4 n:1 h:1 r:1 l:1 frequency:2 list:2 increase:1 odds:1 turn:1 hand:1 puzzle:1 setter:1 stump:1 opponent:1 choose:1 deliberately:1 avoid:1 g:2 rhythm:1 contain:1 rare:1 quartz:1 another:1 six:1 almost:1 every:1 least:1 following:1 illustrate:1 base:1 solely:1 lose:1 answer:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram merv_griffin:1 external_link:1
3,150
Acantharea
The Acantharea are a small group of radiolarian protozoa, distinguished mainly by their skeletons. These are composed of strontium sulfate crystals, which do not fossilize, and take the form of either ten diametric or twenty radial spines. The central capsule is made up of microfibrils arranged into twenty plates, each with a hole through which one spine projects, and there is also a microfibrillar cortex linked to the spines by myonemes. These assist in flotation, together with the vacuoles in the ectoplasm, which often contain zooxanthellae. The arrangement of the spines is very precise, and is described by what is called the Müllerian law. This is easiest to describe in terms of lines of latitude and longitude - the spines lie on the intersections between five of the former, symmetric about an equator, and eight of the latter, spaced uniformly. Each line of longitude carries either two tropical spines or one equatorial and two polar spines, in alternation. The way that the spines are joined together at the center of the cell varies and is one of the primary characteristics by which acanthareans are classified. Holacanthida - diametric spines, simply crossed Symphyacanthida - radial spines, with free bases Chaunacanthida - radial spines, with articulated bases Arthracanthida - radial spines, with pyramidal bases packed together The axopods are fixed in number. Adults are usually multinucleated. Reproduction is thought to take place by formation of swarmer cells (formerly referred to as "spores"), which may be flagellate. All life cycle stages have not been observed, and study of these organisms has been hampered mainly by an inability to maintain these organisms in culture through successive generations.
Acantharea |@lemmatized acantharea:1 small:1 group:1 radiolarian:1 protozoa:1 distinguish:1 mainly:2 skeleton:1 compose:1 strontium:1 sulfate:1 crystal:1 fossilize:1 take:2 form:1 either:2 ten:1 diametric:2 twenty:2 radial:4 spine:12 central:1 capsule:1 make:1 microfibrils:1 arrange:1 plate:1 hole:1 one:3 project:1 also:1 microfibrillar:1 cortex:1 link:1 myonemes:1 assist:1 flotation:1 together:3 vacuole:1 ectoplasm:1 often:1 contain:1 zooxanthellae:1 arrangement:1 precise:1 describe:2 call:1 müllerian:1 law:1 easy:1 term:1 line:2 latitude:1 longitude:2 lie:1 intersection:1 five:1 former:1 symmetric:1 equator:1 eight:1 latter:1 space:1 uniformly:1 carry:1 two:2 tropical:1 equatorial:1 polar:1 alternation:1 way:1 join:1 center:1 cell:2 varies:1 primary:1 characteristic:1 acanthareans:1 classify:1 holacanthida:1 simply:1 cross:1 symphyacanthida:1 free:1 base:3 chaunacanthida:1 articulate:1 arthracanthida:1 pyramidal:1 pack:1 axopods:1 fix:1 number:1 adult:1 usually:1 multinucleated:1 reproduction:1 think:1 place:1 formation:1 swarmer:1 formerly:1 refer:1 spore:1 may:1 flagellate:1 life:1 cycle:1 stage:1 observe:1 study:1 organism:2 hamper:1 inability:1 maintain:1 culture:1 successive:1 generation:1 |@bigram latitude_longitude:1
3,151
Friedrich_Bessel
Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (22 July 1784 – 17 March 1846) was a German mathematician, astronomer, and systematizer of the Bessel functions (which were discovered by Daniel Bernoulli). He was a contemporary of Carl Gauss, also a mathematician and astronomer. The asteroid 1552 Bessel was named in his honour. Life Bessel was born in Minden in Minden-Ravensberg, the son of a civil servant. At the age of 14 Bessel was apprenticed to the import-export concern Kulenkamp. He soon became the company's accountant. The business's reliance on cargo ships led him to turn his mathematical skills to problems in navigation. This in turn led to an interest in astronomy as a way of determining longitude. Bessel came to the attention of a major figure of German astronomy at the time, Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers, by producing a refinement on the orbital calculations for Halley's Comet. Within two years Bessel had left Kulenkamp and become an assistant at Lilienthal Observatory near Bremen. There he worked on James Bradley's stellar observations to produce precise positions for some 3,222 stars. This work attracted considerable attention, and at the age of 26 Bessel was appointed director of the Königsberg Observatory by King Frederick William III of Prussia. There he published tables of atmospheric refraction based on Bradley's observations, which won him the Lalande Prize from the Institut de France. Bessel was able to pin down the position of over 50,000 stars during his time at Königsberg. With this work under his belt, Bessel was able to achieve the feat for which he is best remembered today: he is credited with being the first to use parallax in calculating the distance to a star. Astronomers had believed for some time that parallax would provide the first accurate measurement of interstellar distances -- in fact, in the 1830s there was a fierce competition between astronomers to be the first to measure a stellar parallax accurately. In 1838 Bessel won the race, announcing that 61 Cygni had a parallax of 0.314 arcseconds; which, given the diameter of the Earth's orbit, indicated that the star was about 3 parsecs (9.8 light years) away. There are more recent results in the article on 61 Cygni. He narrowly beat Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve and Thomas Henderson, who measured the parallaxes of Vega and Alpha Centauri in the same year. As well as helping determine the parallax of 61 Cygni, Bessel's precise measurements allowed him to notice deviations in the motions of Sirius and Procyon, which he deduced must be caused by the gravitational attraction of unseen companions. His announcement of Sirius's "dark companion" in 1844 was the first correct claim of a previously unobserved companion by positional measurement, and eventually led to the discovery of Sirius B. Despite lacking a university education, Bessel was a major figure in astronomy during his lifetime. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and the largest crater in the Moon's Mare Serenitatis is named Bessel after him. Bessel won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1841. In 1846 he died in Königsberg of cancer. Further reading External links
Friedrich_Bessel |@lemmatized friedrich:2 wilhelm:3 bessel:15 july:1 march:1 german:2 mathematician:2 astronomer:4 systematizer:1 function:1 discover:1 daniel:1 bernoulli:1 contemporary:1 carl:1 gauss:1 also:1 asteroid:1 name:2 honour:1 life:1 bear:1 minden:2 ravensberg:1 son:1 civil:1 servant:1 age:2 apprentice:1 import:1 export:1 concern:1 kulenkamp:2 soon:1 become:2 company:1 accountant:1 business:1 reliance:1 cargo:1 ship:1 lead:3 turn:2 mathematical:1 skill:1 problem:1 navigation:1 interest:1 astronomy:3 way:1 determine:2 longitude:1 come:1 attention:2 major:2 figure:2 time:3 heinrich:1 olbers:1 produce:2 refinement:1 orbital:1 calculation:1 halley:1 comet:1 within:1 two:1 year:3 leave:1 assistant:1 lilienthal:1 observatory:2 near:1 bremen:1 work:3 james:1 bradley:2 stellar:2 observation:2 precise:2 position:2 star:4 attract:1 considerable:1 appoint:1 director:1 königsberg:3 king:1 frederick:1 william:1 iii:1 prussia:1 publish:1 table:1 atmospheric:1 refraction:1 base:1 win:3 lalande:1 prize:1 institut:1 de:1 france:1 able:2 pin:1 belt:1 achieve:1 feat:1 best:1 remember:1 today:1 credit:1 first:4 use:1 parallax:6 calculate:1 distance:2 believe:1 would:1 provide:1 accurate:1 measurement:3 interstellar:1 fact:1 fierce:1 competition:1 measure:2 accurately:1 race:1 announce:1 cygni:3 arcsecond:1 give:1 diameter:1 earth:1 orbit:1 indicate:1 parsec:1 light:1 away:1 recent:1 result:1 article:1 narrowly:1 beat:1 georg:1 struve:1 thomas:1 henderson:1 vega:1 alpha:1 centauri:1 well:1 help:1 allow:1 notice:1 deviation:1 motion:1 sirius:3 procyon:1 deduce:1 must:1 cause:1 gravitational:1 attraction:1 unseen:1 companion:3 announcement:1 dark:1 correct:1 claim:1 previously:1 unobserved:1 positional:1 eventually:1 discovery:1 b:1 despite:1 lack:1 university:1 education:1 lifetime:1 elect:1 fellow:1 royal:2 society:2 large:1 crater:1 moon:1 mare:1 serenitatis:1 gold:1 medal:1 astronomical:1 die:1 cancer:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram friedrich_wilhelm:1 bessel_function:1 halley_comet:1 atmospheric_refraction:1 stellar_parallax:1 georg_wilhelm:1 alpha_centauri:1 gravitational_attraction:1 gold_medal:1 external_link:1
3,152
Palestinian_people
Palestinians, (, al-Filasṭīniyyūn), sometimes known as Palestinian Arabs (, al-ʿArab al-Filasṭīniyyūn), are an Arabic-speaking people that originate in the geographic and historical region of Palestine. The total Palestinian population (including descendants) is estimated at 10,574,521, over half of whom are stateless and lacking citizenship in any country. Many Palestinians are refugees, and around half of all Palestinians today are considered such, when they or their forebears either fled or were forced out of their homes prior to and following the 1948 war, and several wars that followed. By religious affiliation, most Palestinians are Muslim, particularly of the Sunni branch of Islam, and there is a significant Palestinian Christian minority of various Christian denominations, as well as smaller religious communities. Today, roughly half of all Palestinians live in the area comprising Israel, the West Bank including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip. [i]Some three million Palestinians also live in modern day Jordan. From 1918-22 this region was part of the British Mandate of Palestine, before being separated to form a new, Arab monarchy in Transjordan. Unless otherwise specified this article uses "British Mandate" and related terms to refer to the remaining 20% of the post-1922 mandate, west of the Jordan river. The other half, many of whom are refugees, live elsewhere around the world and comprise what is known as the Palestinian diaspora. The first widespread use of "Palestinian" as an endonym to refer to the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people by the local Arabic-speaking population of Palestine began prior to the outbreak of World War I, and the first demand for national independence was issued by the Syrian-Palestinian Congress on 21 September 1921. Porath, 1974, p. 117. After the creation of Israel, the exodus of 1948, and more so after the exodus of 1967, the term came to signify not only a place of origin, but the sense of a shared past and future in the form of a Palestinian nation-state. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) represents the Palestinian people before the international community. The Palestinian National Authority, officially established as a result of the Oslo Accords, is an interim administrative body nominally responsible for governance in Palestinian population centres in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Etymology Historical Palestine as described by medieval Arab geographers showing the derived Arabic term Jund Filastin ( meaning Division of Palestine) as was used by Umayad khilafat 7th centry AD The Greek toponym Palaistinê (Παλαιστίνη), with which the Arabic Filastin (فلسطين) is cognate, first occurs in the work of the Greek historian Herodotus, active in the middle of the 5th century BCE, where it denotes generally With the exception of Bks. 1, 105; 3.91.1, and 4.39, 2. the coastal land from Phoenicia down to Egypt. Herodotus describes its scope in the Fifth Satrapy of the Perthians as follows: "From the town of Posidium, [...] on the border between Cilicia and Syria, as far as Egypt - omitting Arabian territory, which was free of tax, came 350 talents. This province contains the whole of Phoenicia and that part of Syria which is called Palestine, and Cyprus. This is the fifth Satrapy." (from Herodotus Book 3, 8th logos). Cohen, 2006, p. 36. Herodotus also employs the term as an ethnonym, as when he speaks of the 'Syrians of Palestine' or 'Palestinian-Syrians', Herodotus, The Histories, Bks. 2, 104: 3.5. an ethnically amorphous group he distinguishes from the Phoenicians referring to the Aramaeic Samaritans led by Sanbalat and appointed by the Persian kings and the Arabs in Jerusalem referred to also by Ezra (the Bible). Kasher, 1990, p. 15. The word bears comparison to a congeries of ethnonyms in Semitic languages, Ancient Egyptian Plst or flst, Assyrian as Palastu, and the Hebraic as Plishtim, the latter term used in the Bible to signify the Philistines. Plesheth, (from the root palash or falash) was a general Semitic-language term meaning "rolling and spreading" or "migratory". It referred to the Philistines' invasion and conquest of the coast from the sea (see Sea Peoples) who were Ancient Greeks. Syria Palestina continued to be used by historians and geographers and others to refer to the area between the Mediterranean sea and the Jordan river, as in the writings of Philo, Josephus and Pliny the Elder. After the Romans adopted the term as the official administrative name for the region in the 2nd century AD, "Palestine" as a stand alone term came into widespread use, printed on coins, in inscriptions and even in rabbinic texts. Cohen, 2006, p. 37. The Arabic word Filastin has been used to refer to the region since the time of the earliest medieval Arab geographers. It appears to have been used as an Arabic adjectival noun in the region since as early as the 7th century CE. Kish, 1978, p. 200. During the British Mandate of Palestine, the term "Palestinian" was used to refer to all people residing there, regardless of religion or ethnicity, and those granted citizenship by the Mandatory authorities were granted "Palestinian citizenship". To refer to as "Palestinians" both the native Palestinians of all faiths and the non-Palestinian Jewish settlers alike was consistent with an Orientalist view of all Jews as "eastern" people, also indigenous to that area. Chad Alan Goldberg, Politicide Revisited. University of Wisconsin-Madison Thus, figures such as Immanuel Kant could refer to European Jews as 'Palestinians living among us'. 'Die unter uns lebenden Palästiner'.Kant, Immanuel,'Anthropologie in pragmatischer hinsicht,' in Kant Werke, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 1968 Bd.10, p.517. I.Kant, Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. tr.Robert B. Louden, Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 100 Note 11. The point is remarked on by Chad Alan Goldberg, Politicide Revisited, ibid. Following the 1948 establishment of the State of Israel, the use and application of the terms "Palestine" and "Palestinian" by and to Palestinian Jews largely dropped from use. For example, the English-language newspaper The Palestine Post, founded by Jews in 1932, changed its name in 1950 to The Jerusalem Post. Jews in Israel and the West Bank today generally identify as Israelis. Arab citizens of Israel identify themselves as Israeli and/or Palestinian and/or Arab. The Palestinian National Charter, as amended by the PLO's Palestine National Council in July 1968, defined "Palestinians" as "those Arab nationals who, until 1947, normally resided in Palestine regardless of whether they were evicted from it or stayed there. Anyone born, after that date, of a Palestinian father — whether in Palestine or outside it — is also a Palestinian." Note that "Arab nationals" is not religious-specific, and it implicitly includes not only the Arabic-speaking Muslims of Palestine, but also the Arabic-speaking Christians of Palestine and other religious communities of Palestine who were at that time Arabic-speakers, such as the Samaritans and Druze. Thus, the Jews of Palestine were/are also included, although limited only to "the [Arabic-speaking] Jews who had normally resided in Palestine until the beginning of the [pre-state] Zionist invasion." The Charter also states that "Palestine with the boundaries it had during the British Mandate, is an indivisible territorial unit." The most recent draft of the Palestinian constitution would amend that definition such that, "Palestinian nationality shall be regulated by law, without prejudice to the rights of those who legally acquired it prior to May 10, 1948 or the rights of the Palestinians residing in Palestine prior to this date, and who were forced into exile or departed there from and denied return thereto. This right passes on from fathers or mothers to their progenitor. It neither disappears nor elapses unless voluntarily relinquished." History Palestinian nationalism Saladin's Falcon: Coat of Arms and Emblem of the Palestinian Authority The timing and causes behind the emergence of a distinctively Palestinian national consciousness among the Arabs of Palestine are matters of scholarly disagreement. In his 1997 book, Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness, historian Rashid Khalidi notes that the archaeological strata that denote the history of Palestine — encompassing the Biblical, Roman, Byzantine, Umayyad, Fatimid, Crusader, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods — form part of the identity of the modern-day Palestinian people, as they have come to understand it over the last century, Khalidi, 1997, p. 18. but derides the efforts of some Palestinian nationalists to attempt to "anachronistically" read back into history a nationalist consciousness that is in fact "relatively modern". Khalidi, 1997, p. 149. Khalidi stresses that Palestinian identity has never been an exclusive one, with "Arabism, religion, and local loyalties" playing an important role. Khalidi, 1997, p. 19–21. Echoing this view, Walid Khalidi writes that Palestinians in Ottoman times were "[a]cutely aware of the distinctiveness of Palestinian history ..." and that "[a]lthough proud of their Arab heritage and ancestry, the Palestinians considered themselves to be descended not only from Arab conquerors of the seventh century but also from indigenous peoples who had lived in the country since time immemorial, including the ancient Hebrews and the Canaanites before them." Khalidi, W., 1984, p. 32. Baruch Kimmerling and Joel S. Migdal consider the 1834 revolt of the Arabs in Palestine as constituting the first formative event of the Palestinian people. Under the Ottomans, Palestine's Arab population mostly saw themselves as Ottoman subjects. In the 1830s however, Palestine was occupied by the Egyptian vassal of the Ottomans, Muhammad Ali and his son Ibrahim Pasha. The revolt was precipitated by popular resistance against heavy demands for conscripts, as peasants were well aware that conscription was little more than a death sentence. Starting in May 1834 the rebels took many cities, among them Jerusalem, Hebron and Nablus. In response, Ibrahim Pasha sent in an army, finally defeating the last rebels on 4 August in Hebron. Kimmerling and Migdal, 2003, p. 6-11 Nevertheless, Benny Morris argues that the Arabs in Palestine remained part of a larger Pan-Islamist or Pan-Arab national movement. Benny Morris, Righteous Victims, pp.40-42 in the French edition. Rashid Khalidi argues that the modern national identity of Palestinians has its roots in nationalist discourses that emerged among the peoples of the Ottoman empire in the late 19th century, and which sharpened following the demarcation of modern nation-state boundaries in the Middle East after World War I. Khalidi also states that although the challenge posed by Zionism played a role in shaping this identity, that "it is a serious mistake to suggest that Palestinian identity emerged mainly as a response to Zionism." Historian James L. Gelvin argues that Palestinian nationalism was a direct reaction to Zionism. In his book The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War he states that "Palestinian nationalism emerged during the interwar period in response to Zionist immigration and settlement." Gelvin, 2005, p. 92-93. Gelvin argues that this fact does not make the Palestinian identity any less legitimate: "The fact that Palestinian nationalism developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some "other." Why else would there be the need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose." Bernard Lewis argues it was not as a Palestinian nation that the Arabs of Ottoman Palestine objected to Zionists, since the very concept of such a nation was unknown to the Arabs of the area at the time and did not come into being until very much later. Even the concept of Arab nationalism in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire, "had not reached significant proportions before the outbreak of World War I." Tamir Sorek, a sociologist, submits that, "Although a distinct Palestinian identity can be traced back at least to the middle of the nineteenth century (Kimmerling and Migdal 1993; Khalidi 1997b), or even to the seventeenth century (Gerber 1998), it was not until after World War I that a broad range of optional political affiliations became relevant for the Arabs of Palestine." Whatever the differing viewpoints over the timing, causal mechanisms, and orientation of Palestinian nationalism, by the early 20th century strong opposition to Zionism and evidence of a burgeoning nationalistic Palestinian identity is found in the content of Arabic-language newspapers in Palestinian Territories, such as Al-Karmil (est. 1908) and Filasteen (est. 1911). Khalidi, 1997, p. 124–127. Filasteen, published in Jaffa by Issa and Yusef al-Issa, addressed its readers as "Palestinians", first focusing its critique of Zionism around the failure of the Ottoman administration to control Jewish immigration and the large influx of foreigners, later exploring the impact of Zionist land-purchases on Palestinian peasants (, fellahin), expressing growing concern over land dispossession and its implications for the society at large. The first Palestinian nationalist organisations emerged at the end of the World War I. Benny Morris, Righteous Victims, p.48 in the French edition. Two political factions emerged. Al-Muntada al-Adabi, dominated by the Nashashibi family, militated for the promotion of the Arabic language and culture, for the defense of Islamic values and for an independent Syria and Palestine. In Damascus, al-Nadi al-Arabi , dominated by the Husayni family, defended the same values. Benny Morris, Righteous Victims, p.49 in the French edition. The historical record continued to reveal an interplay between "Arab" and "Palestinian" identities and nationalisms. The idea of a unique Palestinian state separated out from its Arab neighbors was at first rejected by some Palestinian representatives. The First Congress of Muslim-Christian Associations (in Jerusalem, February 1919), which met for the purpose of selecting a Palestinian Arab representative for the Paris Peace Conference, adopted the following resolution: "We consider Palestine as part of Arab Syria, as it has never been separated from it at any time. We are connected with it by national, religious, linguistic, natural, economic and geographical bonds." After the Nabi Musa riots, the San Remo conference and the failure of Faisal to establish the Kingdom of Greater Syria, a distinctive form of Palestinian Arab nationalism took root between April and July 1920. Benny Morris, Righteous Victims, pp.49-50 in the French edition. Tom Segev, One Palestine, Complete, p.139n. With the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the French conquest of Syria, the formerly pan-Syrianist mayor of Jerusalem, Musa Qasim Pasha al-Husayni, said "Now, after the recent events in Damascus, we have to effect a complete change in our plans here. Southern Syria no longer exists. We must defend Palestine". Conflict between Palestinian nationalists and various types of pan-Arabists continued during the British Mandate, but the latter became increasingly marginalized. Two prominent leaders of the Palestinian nationalists were Mohammad Amin al-Husayni, Grand Mufti of Jerusalem,appointed by the British, and Izz ad-Din al-Qassam. Struggle for self-determination Palestinians have never exercised full sovereignty over the land in which they have lived. Palestine was administered by the Ottoman Empire until World War I, and then by the British Mandatory authorities. Israel was established in parts of Palestine in 1948, and in the wake of the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, the West Bank and East Jerusalem were occupied by Jordan, and the Gaza Strip by Egypt, with both countries continuing to administer these areas until Israel occupied them during the 1967 war. Avi Shlaim explains that the argument that "you never had sovereignty over this land, and therefore you have no rights," has been used by Israelis to deny Palestinian rights and attachment to the land. Today, the right of the Palestinian people to self-determination is generally recognized, having been affirmed by the Security Council, the General Assembly, the International Court of Justice and even by Israel itself. About 100 nations recognize Palestine as a state, with Costa Rica being the most recent country to do so, in February 2008. The Associated Press,'Israeli diplomat postpones meeting after Costa Rica recognizes Palestinian state,' Haaretz 26/02/2008] However, Palestinian sovereignty over the areas claimed as part of the Palestinian state remains limited, and the boundaries of the state remain a point of contestation between Palestinians and Israelis. British Mandate 1917-1948 British Indian Soldiers search Arab sheikhs in the streets of Jerusalem during the 1920 Palestine riots Izz ad-Din al-Qassam, the name behind Qassam rockets and Hamas's military wing Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades Article 22 of The Covenant of the League of Nations conferred an international legal status upon the territories and people which had ceased to be under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire as part of a 'sacred trust of civilization'. Article 7 of the League of Nations Mandate required the establishment of a new, separate, Palestinian nationality for the inhabitants. This meant that Palestinians did not become British citizens, and that Palestine was not annexed into the British dominions. After the British general, Louis Bols, declared the enforcement of the Balfour Declaration in February 1920, some 1,500 Palestinians demonstrated in the streets of Jerusalem. A month later, during the 1920 Palestine riots, the protests against British rule and Jewish immigration became violent and Bols banned all demonstrations. In May 1921 however, further anti-Jewish riots broke out in Jaffa and dozens of Arabs and Jews were killed in the confrontations. The articles of the Mandate mentioned the civil and religious rights of the non-Jewish communities in Palestine, but not their political status. At the San Remo conference it was decided to accept the text of those articles, while inserting in the minutes of the conference an undertaking by the Mandatory Power that this would not involve the surrender of any of the rights hitherto enjoyed by the non-Jewish communities in Palestine. In 1922, the British authorities over Mandate Palestine proposed a draft constitution that would have granted the Palestinian Arabs representation in a Legislative Council on condition that they accept the terms of the mandate. The Palestine Arab delegation rejected the proposal as "wholly unsatisfactory," noting that "the People of Palestine" could not accept the inclusion of the Balfour Declaration in the constitution's preamble as the basis for discussions. They further took issue with the designation of Palestine as a British "colony of the lowest order." The Arabs tried to get the British to offer an Arab legal establishment again roughly ten years later, but to no avail. "Palestine Arabs." The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002. After the killing of Sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam by the British in 1935, his followers initiated the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, which began with a general strike in Jaffa and attacks on Jewish and British installations in Nablus. The Arab High Committee called for a nationwide general strike, non-payment of taxes, and the closure of municipal governments, and demanded an end to Jewish immigration and a ban of the sale of land to Jews. By the end of 1936, the movement had become a national revolt, and resistance grew during 1937 and 1938. In response, the British declared martial law, dissolved the Arab High Committee and arrested officials from the Supreme Muslim Council who were behind the revolt. By 1939, 5,000 Palestinians had been killed in British attempts to quash the revolt; more than 15,000 were wounded. Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni leader of the Palestinian Army in 1948 The "lost years" (1948 - 1967) The establishment of the United Nations did not alter the sacred trust or international legal status of the Palestinian people. Palestine was the sole remaining Class A mandate. Article 80 was introduced and incorporated into the Charter with the specific intention of protecting the interests of the Palestinian people. 'Article 80 speaks also about trusteeship agreements: "...until such agreements & etc...." This is the special Article of the Charter which applies to Palestine. It was introduced only because of Palestine.' The Jewish Plan for Palestine: Memoranda and Statements Presented to the United Nations General Assembly Special Committee on Palestine, by Jewish Agency for Israel, Page 362 Religious and minority rights had been declared matters of international concern and placed under the guarantee of the League of Nations. The General Assembly incorporated a religious and minority rights protection system into the partition plan, and placed it under the guarantee of the United Nations. That system was designed to survive the termination of the mandate. The Minority Rights Protection System provided under UN GAR 181(II) was cited in a study of minority protection treaties conducted by the UN Secretariat (E/CN.4/367, 7 April 1950, on pages 22–23). The modern day Chairman-Rapporteur of the UN Working Group on Minorities subsequently advised that no competent UN organ had made any decision which would extinguish the obligations under those instruments. He added that it was doubtful whether that could even be done by the United Nations (the provision that 'No discrimination of any kind shall be made between the inhabitants on the ground of race, religion, language or sex.' is enshrined in more than 20 international human rights conventions and the UN Charter itself). see the discussion in Justifications of Minority Protection in International Law, Athanasia Spiliopoulou Akermark, pages 119-122. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli war and the accompanying Palestinian exodus, known to Palestinians as Al Nakba (the "catastrophe"), there was a hiatus in Palestinian political activity which Khalidi partially attributes to "the fact that Palestinian society had been devastated between November 1947 and mid-May 1948 as a result of a series of overwhelming military defeats of the disorganized Palestinians by the armed forces of the Zionist movement." Khalidi, 1997, p. 178. Those parts of British Mandate Palestine which did not become part of the newly declared Israeli state were occupied by Egypt and Jordan. During what Khalidi terms the "lost years" that followed, Palestinians lacked a center of gravity, divided as they were between these countries and others such as Syria, Lebanon, and elsewhere. Khalidi, 1997, p. 179. In the 1950s, a new generation of Palestinian nationalist groups and movements began to organize clandestinely, stepping out onto the public stage in the 1960s. Khalidi, 1997, p. 180. The traditional Palestinian elite who had dominated negotiations with the British and the Zionists in the Mandate, and who were largely held responsible for the loss of Palestine, were replaced by these new movements whose recruits generally came from poor to middle class backgrounds and were often students or recent graduates of universities in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. The potency of the pan-Arabist ideology put forward by Gamel Abdel Nasser—popular among Palestinian for whom Arabism was already an important component of their identity Khalidi, 1997, p. 182. —tended to obscure the identities of the separate Arab nation-states it subsumed. Khalidi, 1997, p. 181. 1967 to the present Palestinian girl with the Palestinian Flag Since 1967, pan-Arabism has diminished as an aspect of Palestinian identity. The Israeli capture of the Gaza Strip and West Bank in the 1967 Six-Day War prompted fractured Palestinian political and militant groups to give up any remaining hope they had placed in pan-Arabism. Instead, they rallied around the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), founded in 1964, and its nationalistic orientation under the leadership of Yasser Arafat. The PNC adopted the goal of establishing a national state in 1974. Mainstream secular Palestinian nationalism was grouped together under the umbrella of the PLO whose constituent organizations include Fatah and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, among others. These groups gave voice to a tradition that emerged in 1960s that argues Palestinian nationalism has deep historical roots, with extreme advocates reading a Palestinian nationalist consciousness and identity back into the history of Palestine over the past few centuries, and even millennia, when such a consciousness is in fact relatively modern. Khalidi, 1997, p. 149. Khalidi writes : 'As with other national movements, extreme advocates of this view go further than this, and anachronistically read back into the history of Palestine over the past few centuries, and even millennia, a nationalist consciousness and identity that are in fact relatively modern.' The Battle of Karameh and the events of Black September in Jordan contributed to growing Palestinian support for these groups, particularly among Palestinians in exile. Concurrently, among Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, a new ideological theme, known as sumud, represented the Palestinian political strategy popularly adopted from 1967 onward. As a concept closely related to the land, agriculture and indigenousness, the ideal image of the Palestinian put forward at this time was that of the peasant (in Arabic, fellah) who stayed put on his land, refusing to leave. A strategy more passive than that adopted by the Palestinian fedayeen, sumud provided an important subtext to the narrative of the fighters, "in symbolising continuity and connections with the land, with peasantry and a rural way of life." Schulz and Hammer, 2003, p. 105. Yasser Arafat, leader of the PLO, in a Palestinian refugee camp in Southern Lebanon, 1978 In 1974, the PLO was recognized as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people by the Arab states and was granted observer status as a national liberation movement by the United Nations that same year. Israel rejected the resolution, calling it "shameful". In a speech to the Knesset, Deputy Premier and Foreign Minister Yigal Allon outlined the government's view that: 'No one can expect us to recognize the terrorist organization called the PLO as representing the Palestinians—because it does not. No one can expect us to negotiate with the heads of terror-gangs, who through their ideology and actions, endeavour to liquidate the State of Israel.' The British historian Eric Hobsbawn says there is some justness in the outsider view that is sceptical and dismissive of the propriety of using the term 'nation' for peoples like the Palestinians: such language arises often as the rhetoric of an evolved minority out of touch with the larger community that lacks this modern sense of national belonging. But at the same time, he argues, this outsider perspective has tended to "overlook the rise of mass national identification when it did occur, as Zionist and Israeli Jews notably did in the case of the Palestinian Arabs." Hobsbawm, 1990, p. 152. </blockquote> From 1948 through until the 1980’s, according to Eli Podeh, professor at Hebrew University, the textbooks used in Israeli schools tried to disavow a unique Palestinian identity, referring to 'the Arabs of the land of Israel' instead of 'Palestinians.' Israeli textbooks now widely use the term 'Palestinians.' Podeh believes that Palestinian textbooks of today resemble those from the early years of the Israeli state. UN commemorating Palestinians rights The First Intifada (1987-1993) was the first popular uprising against the Israeli occupation of 1967. Followed by the PLO's 1988 proclamation of a State of Palestine, these developments served to further reinforce the Palestinian national identity. After the signing of the Oslo Accords failed to bring about a Palestinian state, a Second Intifada (2000-) began, more deadly than the first. The International Court of Justice observed that since the government of Israel had decided to recognize the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people, their existence was no longer an issue. The court noted that the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip of 28 September 1995 also referred a number of times to the Palestinian people and its "legitimate rights". The right of self-determination gives the Palestinians collectively an inalienable right to freely choose their political status, including the establishment of a sovereign and independent state. Israel, having recognized the Palestinians as a separate people, is obliged to promote and respect this right in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations. see New Political Entities in Public and Private International Law: With Special Reference to the Palestinian Entity, Amos Shapira, Mala Tabory, Cegla Institute for Comparative and Private International Law (University of Tel-Aviv), Martinus Nijhoff, 1999, ISBN 9041111557, pages 198-199 Today, most Palestinian organizations conceive of their struggle as either Palestinian-nationalist or Islamic in nature, and these themes predominate even more today. Within Israel itself, there are political movements, such as Abnaa el-Balad that assert their Palestinian identity, to the exclusion of their Israeli one. Palestinian ethnic identity is based primarily on two elements: the village of origin and family networks. The village of origin holds a privileged place in Palestinian memory because of its historically important role as a center for religious and political power throughout Palestine's administration by various empires. The village of origin also represents "the very expression of their Arabic Palestinian culture and identity," and is a site central to kinship and familial ties. The progressive deterritorialization experienced by Palestinians has rendered the village of origin a symbol of lost territory, and it forms a central part of a diasporic consciousness among Palestinians. Al-Ali and Koser, 2002, p. 92. Ancestral origins Palestinians, like most other Arab-identified Arabic-speakers today commonly called "Arabs", are said to combine ancestries from those who have come to settle their respective regions throughout history and the pre-existing ancient inhabitants; a matter on which genetic studies described below has begun to shed some light. "According to historical records part, or perhaps the majority, of the Muslim Arabs in this country descended from local inhabitants, mainly Christians and Jews, who had converted after the Islamic conquest in the seventh century AD (Shaban 1971; Mc Graw Donner 1981). These local inhabitants, in turn, were descendants of the core population that had lived in the area for several centuries, some even since prehistorical times (Gil 1992)... Thus, our findings are in good agreement with the historical record..." American historian Bernard Lewis writes: "Clearly, in Palestine as elsewhere in the Middle East, the modern inhabitants include among their ancestors those who lived in the country in antiquity. Equally obviously, the demographic mix was greatly modified over the centuries by migration, deportation, immigration, and settlement. This was particularly true in Palestine..." Lewis, 1999, p. 49. Ali Qleibo, a Palestinian anthropologist, explains:"Throughout history a great diversity of peoples has moved into the region and made Palestine their homeland: Jebusites, Canaanites, Philistines from Crete, Anatolian and Lydian Greeks, Hebrews, Amorites, Edomites, Nabateans, Arameans, Romans, Arabs, and European crusaders, to name a few. Each of them appropriated different regions that overlapped in time and competed for sovereignty and land. Others, such as Ancient Egyptians, Hittites, Persians, Babylonians, and Mongols, were historical 'events' whose successive occupations were as ravaging as the effects of major earthquakes ... Like shooting stars, the various cultures shine for a brief moment before they fade out of official historical and cultural records of Palestine. The people, however, survive. In their customs and manners, fossils of these ancient civilizations survived until modernity—albeit modernity camouflaged under the veneer of Islam and Arabic culture." Kermit Zarley writes that "the early ancestors of some of today's Palestinians are no doubt the Canaanites, Philistines, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Idumaeans, Nabateans and Samaritans. In later periods, their intermarriage with conquering peoples, such as Greeks, Romans, Arabians and Turks, merely added to the genetic mix in Palestine." Zarley, 1990, p. 96. Much of the local Palestinian population in Nablus, for example, is believed to be descended from Samaritans who converted to Islam. Even today, certain Nabulsi family names including Muslimani, Yaish, and Shakshir among others, are associated with Samaritan ancestry. Claim to ancient Canaanite lineage Claims emanating from certain circles within Palestinian society and from supporters of the Palestinian cause, proposing that Palestinians have ancestral connections to the ancient populations that dwelt in the region today known as Palestine/Israel, particularly the Canaanites, has been an issue of contention within the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In discussing the root of the controversy to the claim of Canaanite lineage, many renowned scholars have hypothesised on the nature of the controversy itself, although not deliberating on the veracity of the claims, as this is a question that shall ultimately be resolved by geneticists, not by scholars in their capacity as historians. Historian Bernard Lewis explains that "the rewriting of the past is usually undertaken to achieve specific political aims...In bypassing the biblical Israelites and claiming kinship with the Canaanites, the pre-Israelite inhabitants of Palestine, it is possible to assert a historical claim antedating the biblical promise and possession put forward by the Jews." Bernard Lewis, Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice, W. W. Norton & Company, 1999, ISBN 0393318397, p. 49 Some Palestinian scholars, like Zakariyya Muhammad, have criticized pro-Palestinian arguments based on Canaanite lineage, or what he calls "Canaanite ideology". He states that it is an "intellectual fad, divorced from the concerns of ordinary people." By assigning its pursuit to the desire to predate Jewish national claims, he describes Canaanism as a "losing ideology", whether or not it is factual, "when used to manage our conflict with the Zionist movement" since Canaanism "concedes a priori the central thesis of Zionism. Namely that we have been engaged in a perennial conflict with Zionism—and hence with the Jewish presence in Palestine—since the Kingdom of Solomon and before ... thus in one stroke Canaanism cancels the assumption that Zionism is a European movement, propelled by modern European contingencies..." Salim Tamari notes the paradoxes produced by the search for "nativist" roots among Zionist figures and the so-called Canaanite (anti-Zionist) followers of Yonatan Ratosh. For example, Ber Borochov claimed that the lack of a crystallized national consciousness among Palestinian Arabs would result in their likely assimilation into the new Hebrew nationalism, basing this on the belief that: "the fellahin are considered in this context as the descendants of the ancient Hebrew and Canaanite residents 'together with a small admixture of Arab blood'". Ahad Ha'am also shared the belief that: "the Moslems [of Palestine] are the ancient residents of the land ... who became Christians on the rise of Christianity and became Moslems on the arrival of Islam." Even David Ben-Gurion and Yitzhak Ben Zvi tried to establish in a 1918 paper written in Yiddish that Palestinian peasants and their mode of life were living historical testimonies to Israelite practices in the biblical period. Tamari notes that "the ideological implications of this claim became very problematic and were soon withdrawn from circulation." DNA and genetic studies |Palestinian coffee house in Jerusalem, c. 1858 Palestinian children in Nazareth In genetic genealogy studies, Palestinians and Negev Bedouins have the highest rates of Haplogroup J1 (Y-DNA) among all populations tested (62.5%). J1 Haplogroup characteristics, See J1 Haplogroup frequencies worldwide in last page: Semitic populations, including Jews, usually possess an excess of J1 Y chromosomes compared to other populations harboring Y-haplogroup J. The International Society of Genetic Genealogy see Haplogroup definition in DNA-NEWBIE GLOSSARY "J1 is the only haplogroup that researchers consider “Semitic” in origin" The haplogroup J1, associated with marker M267, originates south of the Levant and was first disseminated from there into Ethiopia and Europe in Neolithic times. In Jewish populations J1 has a rate of around 15%, with haplogroup J2 (M172) (of eight sub-Haplogroups) being almost twice as common as J1 among Jews (<29%). J1 is most common in the southern Levant, as well as Syria, Iraq, Algeria, and Arabia, and drops sharply at the border of non-semitic areas like Turkey and Iran. A second diffusion of the J1 marker took place in the seventh century CE when Arabians brought it from Arabia to North Africa. Haplogroup J1 (Y-DNA) includes the modal haplotype of the Galilee Arabs (Nebel et al. 2000) and of Moroccan Arabs (Bosch et al. 2001) and the sister Modal Haplotype of the Cohanim, the "Cohan Modale Haplotype", representing the descendents of the priestly caste Aaron. The Y-Haplogroup J DNA Project at Family Tree DNA Nebel et al. 2001, Fig 3-Simplified netword of CMH and sisters Galilee MH and Bedoin MH The Arabian Peninsula Project at Family Tree DNA J2 is known to be related to the ancient Greek movements and is found mainly in Europe and the central Mediterranean (Italy, the Balkans, Greece). According to a 2002 study by Nebel et al., on Genetic evidence for the expansion of Arabian tribes, the highest frequency of Eu10 (i.e. J1) (30%–62.5%) has been observed so far in various Muslim Arab populations in the Middle East. (Semino et al. 2000; Nebel et al. 2001). Almut Nebel et Al., Genetic Evidence for the Expansion of Arabian Tribes into the Southern Levant and North Africa, Am J Hum Genet. 2002 June; 70(6): 1594–1596 The term “Arab,” as well as the presence of Arabs in the Syrian desert and the Fertile Crescent, is first seen in the Assyrian sources from the 9th century B.C.E. (Eph'al 1984). In recent years, many genetic surveys have suggested that, at least paternally, most of the various Jewish ethnic divisions and the Palestinians — and in some cases other Levantines — are genetically closer to each other than the Palestinians or European Jews to non-Jewish Europeans. Nebel et al. 2000, Almut Nebel, Ariella Oppenheim, "High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews." Human Genetics 107(6) (December 2000): 630-641 Results of a DNA study by geneticist Ariella Oppenheim appears to match historical accounts that Arab Israelis and Palestinians, Hammer, et al. Figure 2: Plot of populations based on Y-chromosome haplotype data. together as the one same population, represent modern "descendants of a core population that lived in the area since prehistoric times", albeit religiously first Christianized then largely Islamized, and all eventually culturally Arabized. Referring to those of the Muslim faith more specifically, it reaffirmed that Palestinian "Muslim Arabs are descended from Christians and Jews who lived in the southern Levant, a region that includes Israel, Sinai and part of Jordan." Geneticist Michael Hammer praised "the study for 'focusing in detail on the Jewish and Palestinian populations.'" While both the Palestinians and the world's distinct Jewish populations have mixed with invading and host populations respectively, Oppenheim's team found "that Jews have mixed more with other populations, which makes sense because they were more likely to leave the Levant.". However, a follow-up [Nebel et al. 2001 study] corrected that Jews were found to be more closely related to north of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks,and Armenians) than to their Arab neighbors. Nebel et al. 2001, The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East, Ann Hum Genet. 2001 Mar;70(2):195-206. The same study of Nebel 2001 also suggest that Bedouins from the Levant and Palestinians, represent "early lineages derived from the Neolithic inhabitants of the area" albeit with "additional lineages from more-recent population movements.", largely from the Arabian Peninsula. Arabian origins of the local Bedouin Arabs The local Bedouins of Palestine — which are a separately-identified and solely Muslim group, distinct from the non-Bedouin Arabic-speakers of Palestine which consists of members of the Muslim, Christian and other faiths — are said to be more securely known to be ancestrally descended from Arabians, and not just culturally and linguistically Arabized peoples. Their distinctively conservative dialects and pronunciation of qaaf as gaaf group them with other Bedouin across the Arab world and confirm their separate history. Arabic onomastic elements began to appear in Edomite inscriptions starting in the 6th century BC, and are nearly universal in the inscriptions of the Nabataeans, who arrived in today’s Jordan in the 4th-3rd centuries BC. Healey, 2001, pp. 26-28. It has thus been suggested that the present day Bedouins of the region may have their origins as early as this period. A few Bedouin are found as far north as Galilee; however, these seem to be much later arrivals, rather than descendants of the Arabs that Sargon II settled in Samaria in 720 BC. The term “Arab,” as well as the presence of Arabs in the Syrian desert and the Fertile Crescent, is first seen in the Assyrian sources from the 9th century bce (Eph'al 1984). Eph`al I (1984) The Ancient Arabs. The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem Following the Muslim conquest of Syria by Arabians, the formerly-introduced dominant languages of the area, Aramaic and Greek, were then replaced by the Arabic language introduced by the new conquering administrative minority. Among the cultural survivals from pre-Islamic times are the significant Palestinian Christian community, and smaller Jewish and Samaritan ones, as well as an Aramaic and possibly Hebrew sub-stratum in the local Palestinian Arabic dialect. Demographics Country or region Population West Bank and Gaza Strip 3,760,000 2008 Census done by the Palestinian Authority. Includes Gaza, West Bank and East Jerusalem. Jordan 2,700,000 Israel 1,318,000 Chile 450,000-500,000 Syria 434,896 Lebanon 405,425 Saudi Arabia 327,000 Drummond, 2004, p. 50. The Americas 225,000 Cohen, 1995, p. 415. Egypt 44,200 Kuwait (approx) 40,000 Other Gulf states 159,000 Other Arab states 153,000 Other countries 308,000 TOTAL 10,574,521 In the absence of a comprehensive census including all Palestinian diaspora populations, and those that have remained within what was British Mandate Palestine, exact population figures are difficult to determine. The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) announced on 20 October 2004 that the number of Palestinians worldwide at the end of 2003 was 9.6 million, an increase of 800,000 since 2001. Statistical Abstract of Palestine No. 5. In 2005, a critical review of the PCBS figures and methodology was conducted by the American-Israel Demographic Research Group. American-Israel Demographic Research Group (AIDRG), is led by Bennett Zimmerman, Yoram Ettinger, Roberta Seid, and Michael L. Wise In their report, they claimed that several errors in the PCBS methodology and assumptions artificially inflated the numbers by a total of 1.3 million. The PCBS numbers were cross-checked against a variety of other sources (e.g., asserted birth rates based on fertility rate assumptions for a given year were checked against Palestinian Ministry of Health figures as well as Ministry of Education school enrollment figures six years later; immigration numbers were checked against numbers collected at border crossings, etc.). The errors claimed in their analysis included: birth rate errors (308,000), immigration & emigration errors (310,000), failure to account for migration to Israel (105,000), double-counting Jerusalem Arabs (210,000), counting former residents now living abroad (325,000) and other discrepancies (82,000). The results of their research was also presented before the United States House of Representatives on 8 March 2006. Bennett Zimmerman, Roberta Seid, and Michael L. Wise, Voodoo Demographics, Azure, Summer 5766/2006, No. 25 The study was criticised by Sergio DellaPergola, a demographer at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Sergio DellaPergola, Letter to the editor, Azure, 2007, No. 27, DellaPergola accused the authors of misunderstanding basic principles of demography on account of their lack of expertise in the subject. He also accused them of selective use of data and multiple systematic errors in their analysis. For example, DellaPergola claimed that the authors assumed the Palestinian Electoral registry to be complete even though registration is voluntary and good evidence exists of incomplete registration, and similarly that they used an unrealistically low Total Fertility Ratio (a statistical abstraction of births per woman) incorrectly derived from data and then used to reanalyse that data in a "typical circular mistake". DellaPergola himself estimated the Palestinian population of the West Bank and Gaza at the end of 2005 as 3.33 million, or 3.57 million if East Jerusalem is included. These figures are only slightly lower than the official Palestinian figures. Palestinians living outside the West Bank and Gaza Strip In Jordan today, there is no official census data that outlines how many of the inhabitants of Jordan are Palestinians, but estimates by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics cite a population range of 50% to 55%. Many Arab Palestinians have settled in the United States, particularly in the Chicago area. In total, an estimated 600,000 Palestinians are thought to reside in the Americas. Arab Palestinian emigration to South America began for economic reasons that pre-dated the Arab-Israeli conflict, but continued to grow thereafter. Farsoun, 2004, p. 84. Many emigrants were from the Bethlehem area. Those emigrating to Latin America were mainly Christian. Half of those of Palestinian origin in Latin America live in Chile. El Salvador and Honduras also have substantial Arab Palestinian populations. These two countries have had presidents of Palestinian ancestry (in El Salvador Antonio Saca, currently serving; in Honduras Carlos Roberto Flores Facusse). Belize, which has a smaller Palestinian population, has a Palestinian minister — Said Musa. Guzmán, 2000, p. 85. Schafik Jorge Handal, Salvadoran politician and former guerrilla leader, was the son of Palestinian immigrants. Refugees Palestinian refugees in 1948 Internally Displaced Palestinians in Balata refugee camp, 2002 There are 4,255,120 Palestinians registered as refugees with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA). This number includes the descendants of refugees who fled or where expelled during the 1948 war, but excludes those who have since then emigrated to areas outside of UNRWA's remit. Based on these figures, almost half of all Palestinians are registered refugees. The 993,818 Palestinian refugees in the Gaza Strip and 705,207 Palestinian refugees in the West Bank, who hail from towns and villages that are now located within the borders of Israel, are included in these UNRWA figures. UNRWA figures do not include some 274,000 people, or 1 in 4 of all Arab citizens of Israel, who are internally displaced Palestinian refugees. Virtually every Palestinian refugee camp in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and the West Bank is organized according to a refugee family's village or place of origin. Among the first things that children born in the camps learn is the name of their village of origin. David McDowall writes that, "[...] a yearning for Palestine permeates the whole refugee community and is most ardently espoused by the younger refugees, for whom home exists only in the imagination." McDowall, 1989, p. 90. Religion Background Inside home of Palestinian Christians in Jerusalem, ca 1850. By W. H. Bartlett Palestinians attending prayers at the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem Palestinians can be adherents of any religious tradition, though today they are predominantly Muslims, particularly of the Sunni branch of Islam. Palestinian Christians represent a significant minority, followed by much smaller religious communities, including Druze and Samaritans. Palestinian Jews — considered Palestinian by the Palestinian National Charter adopted by the PLO which defined them as those "Jews who had normally resided in Palestine until the beginning of the Zionist invasion" — today identify as "Israelis" (with the exception of a very few individuals). Palestinian Jews almost universally abandoned any such identity after the establishment of Israel and their incorporation into the Israeli Jewish population, largely composed of Jewish immigrants from around the world. For a history of Judaism in Palestine, please see History of the Jews in the Land of Israel. Until the end of the 19th century, most Palestinian Muslim villagers in the countryside did not have local mosques. Cross-cultural syncretism between Christian and Islamic symbols and figures in religious practice was common. Popular feast days, like Thursday of the Dead, were celebrated by both Muslims and Christians and shared prophets and saints include Jonah, who is worshipped in Halhul as both a Biblical and Islamic prophet, and St. George, who is known in Arabic as el Khader. Villagers would pay tribute to local patron saints at a maqam — a domed single room often placed in the shadow of an ancient carob or oak tree. Saints, taboo by the standards of orthodox Islam, mediated between man and Allah, and shrines to saints and holy men dotted the Palestinian landscape. Ali Qleibo, a Palestinian anthropologist, states that this built evidence constitutes "an architectural testimony to Christian/Moslem Palestinian religious sensibility and its roots in ancient Semitic religions." Religion as constitutive of individual identity was accorded a minor role within Palestinian tribal social structure until the latter half of the 19th century. Jean Moretain, a priest writing in 1848, wrote that a Christian in Palestine was "distinguished only by the fact that he belonged to a particular clan. If a certain tribe was Christian, then an individual would be Christian, but without knowledge of what distinguished his faith from that of a Muslim." The concessions granted to France and other Western powers by the Ottoman Sultanate in the aftermath of the Crimean War had a significant impact on contemporary Palestinian religious cultural identity. Religion was transformed into an element "constituting the individual/collective identity in conformity with orthodox precepts", and formed a major building block in the political development of Palestinian nationalism. The British census of 1922 registered 752,048 inhabitants in Palestine, consisting of 589,177 Palestinian Muslims, 83,790 Palestinian Jews, 71,464 Palestinian Christians (including Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and others) and 7,617 persons belonging to other groups. The corresponding percentage breakdown is 78% Muslim, 11% Jewish, and 9% Christian. Palestinian Bedouin were not counted in the census, but a 1930 British study estimated their number at 70,860. Today Currently, no comprehensive data on religious affiliation among the worldwide Palestinian population is available. Bernard Sabella of Bethlehem University estimates that 6% of the Palestinian population worldwide is Christian. According to the Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, the Palestinian population of the West Bank and Gaza Strip is 97% Muslim and 3% Christian. All of the Druze living in what was then British Mandate Palestine became Israeli citizens, though some individuals from among them identify as "Palestinian Druze". For example, Said Nafa, a self-identified "Palestinian Druze" serves as the head of the Balad party's national council and founded the "Pact of Free Druze" in 2001, an organization that aims ";to stop the conscription of the Druze and claims the community is an inalienable part of the Arabs in Israel and the Palestinian nation at large." According to Salih al-Shaykh, most Druze do not consider themselves to be Palestinian: "their Arab identity emanates in the main from the common language and their socio-cultural background, but is detached from any national political conception. It is not directed at Arab countries or Arab nationality or the Palestinian people, and does not express sharing any fate with them. From this point of view, their identity is Israel, and this identity is stronger than their Arab identity". Nissim Dana, The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status, Sussex Academic Press, 2003, p. 201. There are also about 350 Samaritans who carry Palestinian identity cards and live in the West Bank while a roughly equal number live in Holon and carry Israeli citizenship. Those who live in the West Bank also are represented in the legislature for the Palestinian National Authority. They are commonly referred to among Palestinians as the "Jews of Palestine." Jews who identify as Palestinian Jews are few, but include Israeli Jews who are part of the Neturei Karta group, and Uri Davis, an Israeli citizen and self-described Palestinian Jew who serves as an observer member in the Palestine National Council. Language Arabic calligraphy in Jerusalem Palestinian Arabic is a spoken Arabic dialect that is specific to Palestinians and is a subgroup of the broader Levantine Arabic dialect. Prior to the development of the Arabic alphabet, the Aramaic alphabet was used by ancient Arab tribal groups in the Levant (such as the Qedarites and the Nabataeans); accordingly Palestinian Arabic, like Syrian Arabic and Iraqi Arabic, exhibits the huge influence of Aramaic. Greenfield et al., 2001, p. 158. Palestinian Arabic has three primary sub-variations with the pronunciation of the qāf serving as a shibboleth to distinguish between the three main Palestinian sub-dialects: In most cities, it is a glottal stop; in smaller villages and the countryside, it is a pharyngealized k (a characteristic unique to Palestinian Arabic); and in the far south, it is a g, as among Bedouin speakers. In a number of villages in the Galilee (e.g. Maghār), and particularly, though not exclusively among the Druze, the qāf is actually pronounced qāf as in Classical Arabic. Barbara McKean Parmenter has noted that the Arabs of Palestine have been credited with the preservation of the indigenous Semitic place names for many sites mentioned in the Bible which were documented by the American archaeologist Edward Robinson in the early 20th century. Parmenter, 1994, p. 11. Culture Ali Qleibo, a Palestinian anthropologist, has critiqued Muslim historiography for assigning the beginning of Palestinian cultural identity to the advent of Islam in the seventh century. In describing the effect of such a historiography, he writes: "Pagan origins are disavowed. As such the peoples that populated Palestine throughout history have discursively rescinded their own history and religion as they adopted the religion, language, and culture of Islam". That the peasant culture of the large fellahin class embodied strong elements of both pre-Arabic and pre-Israelitic traditions was a conclusion arrived at by the many Western scholars and explorers who mapped and surveyed Palestine in great detail throughout the latter half of the 19th century, Parkes, 1970, pp. 209-210. and this assumption was to influence later debates on Palestinian identity by local ethnographers. The contributions of the 'nativist' ethnographies produced by Tawfiq Canaan and other Palestinian writers and published in The Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society (1920-1948) were driven by the concern that the "native culture of Palestine", and in particular peasant society, was being undermined by the forces of modernity. Salim Tamari writes that: "Implicit in their scholarship (and made explicit by Canaan himself) was another theme, namely that the peasants of Palestine represent—through their folk norms ... the living heritage of all the accumulated ancient cultures that had appeared in Palestine (principally the Canaanite, Philistine, Hebraic, Nabatean, Syrio-Aramaic and Arab)." Palestinian culture is most closely related to those of the nearby Levantine countries such as Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan, and those of the Arab World. Cultural contributions to the fields of art, literature, music, costume and cuisine express the distinctiveness of the Palestinian experience, and survive and flourish, despite the geographical separation between those in the Palestinian territories, Israel and the Diaspora. Regev Motti (1993), Oud and Guitar: The Musical Culture of the Arabs in Israel (Institute for Israeli Arab Studies, Beit Berl), ISBN 965-454-002-9, p. 4. Art Mosaic plate at Khirbat Al-Mafjar near Hebron c. 735 CE Similar to the structure of Palestinian society, the Palestinian field of arts extends over four main geographic centers: 1) the West Bank and Gaza Strip 2) Israel 3) the Palestinian diaspora in the Arab world, and 4) the Palestinian diaspora in Europe, the United States and elsewhere. Contemporary Palestinian art finds its roots in folk art and traditional Christian and Islamic painting popular in Palestine over the ages. After the 1948 Palestinian exodus, nationalistic themes have predominated as Palestinian artists use diverse media to express and explore their connection to identity and land. Ankori, 1996. Cuisine A Palestinian youth serving Falafel fast food in Ramallah, West Bank Kanafeh in a pan Musakhan; The Palestinian National dish Palestine's history of rule by many different empires is reflected in Palestinian cuisine, which has benefited from various cultural contributions and exchanges. Generally-speaking, modern Syrian-Palestinian dishes have been influenced by the rule of three major Islamic groups: the Arabs, the Persian-influenced Arabs and the Turks. Revisiting our table… Nasser, Christiane Dabdoub, This week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. June 2006. Retrieved 2008-01-08. The Arabs that conquered Syria and Palestine had simple culinary traditions primarily based on the use of rice, lamb and yogurt, as well as dates. ABC of Arabic Cuisine ArabNet. Retrieved 2007-12-25. The already simple cuisine did not advance for centuries due to Islam's strict rules of parsimony and restraint, until the rise of the Abbasids, who established Baghdad as their capital. Baghdad was historically located on Persian soil and henceforth, Persian culture was integrated into Arab culture during the 800-1000s and spread throughout central areas of the empire. The cuisine of the Ottoman Empire — which incorporated Palestine as one of its provinces in 1512-14 — was partially made up of what had become, by then a "rich" Arab cuisine. After the Crimean War, in 1855, many other communities including Bosnians, Greeks, French and Italians began settling in the area especially in urban centers such as Jerusalem, Jaffa and Bethlehem. The cuisine of these communities, particularly those of the Balkans, contributed to the character of Palestinian cuisine. An Introduction to Palestinian Cuisine: Typical Palestinian Dishes This Week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. July 2001. Retrieved 2007-01-07. Nonetheless, until around the 1950s-60s, the staple diet for many rural Palestinian families revolved around olive oil, oregano (za'atar) and bread, baked in a simple oven called a taboon. Modernity and Authenticity: The Evolution of the Palestinian Kitchen Qleibo, Ali, This week in Palestine, Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. December 2006. Retrieved 2008-01-09. Palestinian cuisine is divided into three regional groups: the Galilee, the West Bank and the Gaza area. Cuisine in the Galilee region shares much in common with Lebanese cuisine, due to extensive communication between the two regions before the establishment of Israel. Galilee inhabitants specialize in producing a number of meals based on the combination of bulgur, spices and meat, known as kibbee by Arabs. Kibbee has several variations including it being served raw, fried or baked. Musakhan is a common main dish that originated in the Jenin and Tulkarm area in the northern West Bank. It consists of a roasted chicken over a taboon bread that has been topped with pieces of fried sweet onions, sumac, allspice and pine nuts. Other meals common to the area are maqluba and mansaf, the latter originating from the Bedouin population of Jordan. The cuisine of the Gaza Strip is influenced both by neighboring Egypt and its location on the Mediterranean coast. The staple food for the majority of the inhabitants in the area is fish. Gaza has a major fishing industry and fish is often served either grilled or fried after being stuffed with cilantro, garlic, red peppers and cumin and marinated in a mix of coriander, red peppers, cumin, and chopped lemons.<ref name="Haddad">The Foods of Gaza al-Haddad, Laila, This week in Palestine. Turbo Computers & Software Co. Ltd. June 2006. Retrieved 2008-01-07.</ref> The rich flavors of Palestine Farsakh, Mai M. Institute for Middle East Understanding (IMEU), (Originally published by This Week in Palestine) 2006-06-21. Retrieved 2007-12-18. The Egyptian culinary influence is also seen by the frequent use of hot peppers, garlic and chard to flavor many of Gaza's meals. A dish native to the Gaza area is Sumaghiyyeh, which consists of water-soaked ground sumac mixed with tahina and then, added to sliced chard and pieces of stewed beef and garbanzo beans. There are several foods native to Palestine that are well-known in the Arab world, such as, kinafe Nabulsi, Nabulsi cheese (cheese of Nablus), Ackawi cheese (cheese of Acre) and musakhan. Kinafe originated in the city of Nablus, as well as the sweetened Nabulsi cheese that's used to fill it. Baqlawa, a pastry introduced at the time of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, is also an integral part of Palestinian cuisine. Chick-pea based falafel, which subsistuted the fava beans used in the original Egyptian recipe and added Indian peppers introduced after the Mongol invasions opened new trade routes, are a favorite staple in Palestinian cuisine, since adopted as part of Israeli cuisine. Mezze describes an assortment of dishes laid out on the table for a meal that takes place over several hours, a characteristic common to Mediterranean cultures. Some common mezze dishes are hummus, tabouleh, baba ghanoush, labaneh, and zate 'u zaatar, which is the pita bread dipping of olive oil and ground thyme and sesame seeds. Entrées that are eaten throughout the Palestinian Territories, include waraq al-'inib — boiled grape leaves wrapped around cooked rice and ground lamb. Mahashi is an assortment of stuffed vegetables such as, zucchinis, potatoes, cabbage and in Gaza, chard. Film Palestinian cinema is relatively young compared to Arab cinema overall and many Palestinian movies are made with European and Israeli support. Palestinian films are not exclusively produced in Arabic; some are made in English, French or Hebrew. More than 800 films have been produced about Palestinians, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and other related topics. Handicrafts A wide variety of handicrafts, many of which have been produced by Arabs in Palestine for hundreds of years, continue to be produced today. Palestinian handicrafts include embroidery and weaving, pottery-making, soap-making, glass-making, and olive-wood and Mother of Pearl carvings, among others. Jacobs et al., 1998, p. 72. Karmi,2005, p. 18. Intellectuals In the late 19th century and early 20th century, Palestinian intellectuals were integral parts of wider Arab intellectual circles, as represented by individuals such as May Ziade and Khalil Beidas. Educational levels among Palestinians have traditionally been high. In the 1960s the West Bank had a higher percentage of its adolescent population enrolled in high school education than did Lebanon. West Bank 44.6% versus 22.8% in Lebanon. See Elias H.Tuma, Haim Darin-Drabkin, The Economic case for Palestine, Croom Helm, London, 1978 p.48. Claude Cheysson, France’s Minister for Foreign Affairs under the first Mitterrand Presidency, held in the mid eighties that, ‘even thirty years ago, (Palestinians) probably already had the largest educated elite of all the Arab peoples.’ Interview with Elias Sanbar. Claude Cheysson, ‘The Right to Self-Determiniation,’ Journal of Palestine Studies Vol.16, no.1 (Autumn 1986) pp.3-12 p.3 Diaspora figures like Edward Said and Ghada Karmi, Arab citizens of Israel like Emile Habibi, refugee camp residents like Ibrahim Nasrallah have made contributions to a wide number of fields, exemplifying the diversity of experience and thought among Palestinians. Literature The long history of the Arabic language and its rich written and oral tradition form part of the Palestinian literary tradition as it has developed over the course of the 20th and 21st centuries. Poetry Poetry, using classical pre-Islamic forms, remains an extremely popular art form, often attracting Palestinian audiences in the thousands. Until 20 years ago, local folk bards reciting traditional verses were a feature of every Palestinian town. Shahin, 2005, p. 41. After the 1948 Palestinian exodus, poetry was transformed into a vehicle for political activism. From among those Palestinians who became Arab citizens of Israel after the passage of the Citizenship Law in 1952, a school of resistance poetry was born that included poets like Mahmoud Darwish, Samih al-Qasim, and Tawfiq Zayyad. The work of these poets was largely unknown to the wider Arab world for years because of the lack of diplomatic relations between Israel and Arab governments. The situation changed after Ghassan Kanafani, another Palestinian writer in exile in Lebanon, published an anthology of their work in 1966. Palestinian poets often write about the common theme of a strong affection and sense of loss and longing for a lost homeland. Folklore Palestinian folklore is the body of expressive culture, including tales, music, dance, legends, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, customs, and comprising the traditions (including oral traditions) of Palestinian culture. The folklorist revival among Palestinian intellectuals such as Nimr Sirhan, Musa Allush, Salim Mubayyid, and the Palestinian Folklore Society of the 1970s, emphasized pre-Islamic (and pre-Hebraic) cultural roots, re-constructing Palestinian identity with a focus on Canaanite and Jebusite cultures. Such efforts seem to have borne fruit as evidenced in the organization of celebrations like the Qabatiya Canaanite festival and the annual Music Festival of Yabus by the Palestinian Ministry of Culture. Costumes Girls in Bethlehem costume pre-1885 Foreign travelers to Palestine in late 19th and early 20th centuries often commented on the rich variety of costumes among the Palestinian people, and particularly among the fellaheen or village women. Until the 1940s, a woman's economic status, whether married or single, and the town or area they were from could be deciphered by most Palestinian women by the type of cloth, colors, cut, and embroidery motifs, or lack thereof, used for the dress. Though such local and regional variations largely disappeared after the 1948 Palestinian exodus, Palestinian embroidery and costume continue to be produced in new forms and worn alongside Islamic and Western fashions. Dance Villagers have danced the Dabke since ancient Canaanite and Phoenician times in celebration of feast days. The Dabke dance is marked by synchronized jumping, stamping, and movement, similar to tap dancing. One version is performed by men, another by women. Palestinian Dabke folk dance as performed by men Folk tales Traditional storytelling among Palestinians is prefaced with an invitation to the listeners to give blessings to God and the Prophet Mohammed or the Virgin Mary as the case may be, and includes the traditional opening: "There was, or there was not, in the oldness of time ..." Muhawi, 1989. Formulaic elements of the stories share much in common with the wider Arab world, though the rhyming scheme is distinct. There are a cast of supernatural characters: djinns who can cross the Seven Seas in an instant, giants, and ghouls with eyes of ember and teeth of brass. Stories invariably have a happy ending, and the storyteller will usually finish off with a rhyme like: "The bird has taken flight, God bless you tonight," or "Tutu, tutu, finished is my haduttu (story)." Music Kamanjeh performer in Jerusalem, 1859. William McClure Thomson, (1860): The Land and the Book: Or, Biblical Illustrations Drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery, of the Holy Land Vol II, p. 578. Palestinian music is well-known and respected throughout the Arab world. A new wave of performers emerged with distinctively Palestinian themes following the 1948 Palestinian exodus, relating to the dreams of statehood and the burgeoning nationalist sentiments. In addition to zajal and ataaba, traditional Palestinian songs include: Bein Al-dawai, Al-Rozana, Zarif - Al-Toul, and Al-Maijana, Dal'ona, Sahja/Saamir, Zaghareet (See section on "External links"). The Ataaba is a form of folk singing that spread outwards from Palestine. It consists of 4 verses, following a specific form and meter. The main aspect of the ataaba is that the first three verses must end with the same word meaning three different things, and the fourth verse comes as a conclusion to the whole thing. It is usually followed by a dalouna. See also Arab diaspora List of Palestinians References Bibliography Barzilai, Gad. (2003). Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11315-1 Boyle, Kevin and Sheen, Juliet (1997). Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415159776 Cohen, Hillel, Army of Shadows, Palestinian Collaboration with Zionism, 1917-1948 Cohen, Robin (1995). The Cambridge Survey of World Migration. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521444055 Cordesman, Anthony H (2005). The Israeli-Palestinian War: Escalating to Nowhere. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0275987582 Drummond, Dorothy Weitz (2004). Holy Land, Whose Land?: Modern Dilemma, Ancient Roots. Fairhurst Press. ISBN 0974823325 Farsoun, Samih K. (2004). Culture and Customs Of The Palestinians. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313320519 Gelvin, James L (2005). The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. ISBN 0521852897 Guzmán, Roberto Marín (2000). A Century of Palestinian Immigration Into Central America. Editorial Universidad de C.R. ISBN 9977675872 Healey, John F. (2001). The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004107541 Hobsbawn, Eric (1990). Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, myth, reality. Cambridge University Press. Howell, Mark (2007). What Did We Do to Deserve This? Palestinian Life under Occupation in the West Bank, Garnet Publishing. ISBN 1859641954 Kasher, Aryeh (1990). Jews and Hellenistic Cities in Eretz-Israel. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3161452410 Khalidi, Rashid (1997). Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231105142 Beshara Doumani's "Rediscovering Ottoman Palestine: Writing Palestinians into History Rashid Khalidi, "Palestine's Population During The Ottoman And The British Mandate Periods".Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 114, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1994), pp. 106–107,doi:10.2307/604972 Khalidi, Rashid (2006). The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood, Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-8070-0308-5 Khalidi, Walid (1984). Before Their Diaspora. Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington D.C. Kimmerling, Baruch and Joseph S. Migdal (2003). The Palestinian People: A History. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674011295. ISBN 978-0674011298. Kunstel, Marcia and Joseph Albright (1990). Their Promised Land: Arab and Jew in History's Cauldron-One Valley in the Jerusalem Hills. Crown. ISBN 0517572311 Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393318397 Lewis, Bernard (2002). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press, USA, 6th ed. McCarthy, Justin (1990). "The Population of Palestine: Population Statistics of the Late Ottoman Period and the Mandate". Columbia University Press, ISBAN: 0231071108 McDowall, David (1989). The Uprising and Beyond. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1850432899 Muhawi, Ibrahim (1989). Speak, Bird, Speak Again: Palestinian Arab Folktales. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520062924 Parkes, James (1970). Whose Land? A History of the Peoples of Palestine. Parmenter, Barbara McKean (1994). Giving Voice to Stones Place and Identity in Palestinian Literature University of Texas Press Porath, Yehoshua (1974). The Emergence of the Palestinian-Arab National Movement 1918–1929. London: Frank Cass and Co., Ltd. ISBN 0-7146-2939-1 Porath, Yehoshua (1977). Palestinian Arab National Movement: From Riots to Rebellion: 1929–1939, vol. 2, London: Frank Cass and Co., Ltd. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. Whitelam, Keith (1997). The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History, Routledge, ISBN 0415107598, ISBN 978-0415107594 Charles Wilson, "Picturesque Palestine, Sinai and Egypt". New York, 1881. Zarley, Kermit (1990). Palestine Is Coming: The Revival of Ancient Philistia.'' Hannibal Books. ISBN 0929292138. External links al-Jazeera: Palestine, the People and the Land BBC: Israel and the Palestinians Palestinian Life and Culture at IMEU.net Palestine in Photos at IMEU.net Christians in Palestine antique prints collection Palestine: Contemporary Art - online magazine articles Palestinian Popular Dance Troupe homepage Sounds of Folksongs Voice of Palestinian Folklore, Free Songs Download Traditional Palestinian Clothes The Art of Palestinian Embroidery The Palestine National Charter Sands of Sorrow - Film on refugees Refugee Photos Gallery Save the Children: life in a refugee camp United Nations Programme of Assistance to the Palestinian People Nakba search engine on Lady Clip The Y-Haplogroup J DNA Project Daily hate crimes Sara Roy on the Palestinian occupation
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3,153
Book_of_Jeremiah
The Book of Jeremiah, or Jeremiah (יִרְמְיָהוּ Yirməyāhū in Hebrew), is part of the Hebrew Bible, Judaism's Tanakh, and later became a part of Christianity's Old Testament. It was originally written in a complex and poetic Hebrew (apart from verse 10:11, curiously written in Biblical Aramaic), recording the words and events surrounding the life of the Jewish prophet Jeremiah who lived at the time of the destruction of Solomon's Temple (587/6 BC) in Jerusalem during the fall of the Kingdom of Judah at the hands of Babylonia. The Prophet Jeremiah According to the book, the Prophet Jeremiah was a son of a priest from Anatot in the land of Benjamin, who lived in the last years of the Kingdom of Judah just prior to, during, and immediately after the siege of Jerusalem, culminating in the destruction of Solomon's Temple and the raiding of the city by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. According to the book, for a quarter century prior to the destruction, Jeremiah repeatedly issued prophecies predicting God's forthcoming judgment; advocating the Jews put down their idols and repent in hopes of turning away God's judgment and fulfilling their destiny as his chosen people. Jeremiah's fellow Jews refused to heed his warnings and did not repent. His efforts failed and he witnessed the destruction of everything he knew, the exile of the Jewish elite to Babylonia, and the fleeing of the remainder to Egypt. The book of Jeremiah depicts a remarkably introspective prophet, a prophet struggling with and often overwhelmed by the role into which he has been thrust. Jeremiah alternates efforts to warn the people with pleas to God for mercy until he is ordered to "pray no more for this people" -- and then sneaks in a few extra pleas between the lines. He engages in extensive performance art, walking about in the streets with a yoke about his neck and engaging in other efforts to attract attention. He is taunted and put into jail. At one point he is thrown into a pit to die. He is often bitter about his experience and expresses the anger and frustration he feels. Prophecies of Jeremiah Threats against the "unfaithful shepherds" (i.e., the prophets), the promise of peace and of the real shepherd (after 597), and warnings against false prophets and godless priests (perhaps in the time of Jehoiakim; 23:1-8, 9-40); Vision of the two baskets of figs, illustrating the fate of the captives and of those who were left behind, from the period after the first deportation by Nebuchadnezzar, in 597 (chapter 24); Threats of punishments to be inflicted on Judah and the surrounding nations, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim, i.e., the year of the Battle of Carchemish (605; chapter 25); The first of the historical passages recounting Jeremiah's prophecy in the Temple (compare chapter 7), his arrest, his threatened death, and his rescue, in which connection the martyrdom of the prophet Uriah is briefly mentioned (chapter 26). Protection for Israel following the period of destruction and exile Utterances from the time of Zedekiah (see § II.), with an appendix, the last connected prophecy of any length, in chapter 35 , treating of the fidelity of the Rechabites and of the unfaithfulness of Judah. This dates from a somewhat earlier period, that of Jehoiakim (because certainly before 597), and thus forms a transition to the first passages of the narrative sections. Jeremiah's prophecies are noted for the frequent repetitions found in them of the same words, phrases, and imagery. They cover the period of about 50 years. They are not in chronological order. The Septuagint (Greek or 'LXX') version of this book is, in its arrangement and in other particulars, different from the Masoretic Hebrew. The Septuagint does not include 10:6-8; 25:14; 27:19-22; 29:16-20; 33:14-26; 39:4-13; 52:2, 3, 15, 28-30, etc. In all, about 2,700 words found in the Masoretic text are not found in the Septuagint. Also, the 'Oracles against the Nations', that appear as chapters 46-51 in the Masoretic and most dependent versions, in the Septuagint are located right after 25:13, and in a different order. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, "a comparison of the Masoretic text with the Septuagint throws some light on the last phase in the history of the origin of the Book of Jeremiah, inasmuch as the translation into Greek was already under way before the work on the Hebrew book had come to an end... The two texts differ above all in that the Septuagint is much shorter... Even if the text of the Septuagint is proved to be the older, it does not necessarily follow that all these variations first arose after the Greek translation had been made, because two different editions of the same text might have been in process of development side by side..." The Septuagint version of Jeremiah also includes the Book of Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, Henry Barclay Swete, Cambridge University Press, 1914, Part II, Chapter III, Section 6, , "Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah were regarded by the Church as adjuncts of Jeremiah, much in the same way as Susanna and Bel were attached to Daniel. Baruch and the Epistle occur in lists which rigorously exclude the non-canonical books; they are cited as 'Jeremiah' (Iren. v. 35. I, Tert. scorp. 8, Clement of Alexandria, Paedagogus i. 10, Cyprian, Testimonia ii. 6); with Lamentations they form a kind of trilogy supplementary to the prophecy." . Jerome's Prologue to Jeremiah says he excluded them: "And the Book of Baruch, his scribe, which is neither read nor found among the Hebrews, we have omitted, standing ready, because of these things, for all the curses from the jealous, to whom it is necessary for me to respond through a separate short work. And I suffer because you think this. Otherwise, for the benefit of the wicked, it was more proper to set a limit for their rage by my silence, rather than any new things written to provoke daily the insanity of the envious." But the Canon of Trent included them as "Ieremias cum Baruch" (Jeremiah with Baruch), being the Epistle or Letter of Jeremiah in the Vulgate. Qumran version Parts of the Book of Jeremiah have also been found among the Dead Sea Scrolls in cave 4 in Qumran. These texts, in Hebrew, correspond both to the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint Text. This discovery has shed much light on the differences between the two versions; while it was previously maintained that the Greek Septuagint (the version used by the earliest Christians) was only a poor translation, professor Emanuel Tov, senior editor of the Dead Sea Scrolls' publication, wrote that the Masoretic edition either represents a substantial rewriting of the original Hebrew, or there had previously been two different versions of the text. Tov, Emanuel: "The Septuagint and Literary Criticism", The Folio: Bulletin of the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center, 22(2):1-6 Online text, translations, and commentaries Original Hebrew text: ירמיהו Yirmiyahu - Jeremiah (Hebrew) Translations into English Jewish translations: Jeremiah at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) Yirmiyahu - Jeremiah (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org Jeremiah at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) (via archive.org) Commentary Jewish Commentary Abraham Joshua Heschel, The Prophets. HarperCollins Paperback, 1975. ISBN 0-06-131421-8 See also Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet Footnotes External links (Jewish Encyclopedia) Book of Jeremiah article Encyclopedia Britannica: Jeremiah Sir Lancelot C. L. Brenton's 1851 English translation of Septuagint Jeremiah
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3,154
History_of_Jersey
The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy that held sway in both France and England. Jersey lies in the Bay of Mont St Michel and is the largest of the Channel Islands. It has enjoyed self-government since the division of the Duchy of Normandy in 1204. Prehistory La Pouquelaye de Faldouet was constructed on a site on the East coast looking across to the Cotentin Peninsula It has been an island for approximately 8,000 years and at its extremes it measures 10 miles east to west and six miles north to south. The earliest evidence of human activity in the island dates to about 250,000 years ago when bands of hunters used the caves at La Cotte de St Brelade as a base for hunting mammoth. There was sporadic activity in the area by nomadic bands of hunters until the introduction of settled communities in the Neolithic period, which is marked by the building of the ritual burial sites known as dolmens. The number, size and visible locations of these megalithic monuments (especially La Hougue Bie) have suggested that social organisation over a wide area, including surrounding coasts, was required for the construction. Archaeological evidence shows that there were trading links with Brittany and the south coast of England during this time. It would appear that the island was significant enough to inspire large-scale construction projects. Christianity Although part of the Roman world, we know very little about the island until the 11th century. The tradition that the Island was called Caesarea by the Romans appears to have no basis in fact. The Channel Islands, then called the Lenur Islands, were occupied by the Britons during their migration to Brittany (5th-6th century). Various saints such as the Celts Samson of Dol and Branwaldr (Brelade) were active in the region, although tradition has it that it was Saint Helier from Tongeren in modern-day Belgium who first brought Christianity to the Island in the 6th century, and Charlemagne sent his emissary to the island (at that time called Angia, also spelt Agna) in 803. Normans The island took the name Jersey as a result of Viking activity in the area between the 9th and 10th centuries. The Channel Islands remained politically linked to Brittany until 933 when William Longsword, Duke of Normandy seized the Cotentin and the islands and added them to his domain; in 1066 Duke William II of Normandy defeated Harold at Hastings to become king of England; however, he continued to rule his French possessions as a separate entity. The islands remained part of the Duchy of Normandy until 1204 when King Philippe Auguste of France conquered the duchy from King John of England; the islands remained in the personal possession of the king and were described as being a Peculiar of the Crown. The so-called Constitutions of King John are the foundation of modern self-government. The Feudal Age Mont Orgueil dominates the small harbour of Gorey and guards Jersey from attack from the French coast opposite From 1204 onwards the Channel Islands ceased to be a peaceful backwater and were thrown into the spotlight as a potential flashpoint on the international stage between England and France. In the Treaty of Paris (1259) the King of France gave up claim to the Channel Islands. The claim was based upon his position as feudal overlord of the Duke of Normandy. The King of England gave up claim to mainland Normandy and appointed a Warden, a position now termed Lieutenant-Governor and a Bailiff to govern in his stead. The Channel Islands were never formerly absorbed into the Kingdom of England, however. Mont Orgueil castle was built at this time to serve as a Royal fortress and military base. During the Hundred Years' War the island was attacked many times Including twice in the 1338-1339 Channel campaign and was even occupied for a couple of years in the 1380s. Because of the island's strategic importance to the English Crown the islanders were able to negotiate a number of benefits for themselves from the king. During the Wars of the Roses the island was occupied by the French for seven years (1461-68) before Sir Richard Harliston arrived in the island to claim it back for the English king. Reformation to Restoration During the 16th century the islanders adopted the Protestant religion and life became very austere. The increasing use of gunpowder on the battlefield meant that the fortifications on the island had to be adapted and a new fortress built to defend St Aubin's Bay. The new Elizabeth Castle was named after the queen by Sir Walter Raleigh when he was governor. The island militia was reorganised on a parish basis and each parish had two cannon which were usually housed in the church - one of the St Peter cannon can still be seen at the bottom of Beaumont Hill. This map of Jersey, published in 1639, shows interior details such as Le Mont ès Pendus (the gallows hill, now called Westmount), although the coastline is wildly inaccurate. The production of knitwear reached such a scale that it threatened the island's ability to produce its own food and so laws were passed regulating who could knit with whom and when. The islanders also became involved with the Newfoundland fisheries at this time. The boats left the island in February/March following a church service in St Brelade's church and they wouldn't return again until September/October. During the 1640s England was split by Civil War and hostilities spread into Scotland and Ireland as well. Jersey was divided and while the sympathy of islanders lay with Parliament the de Carterets held the island for the king. The future Charles II visited the island in 1646 and again in 1649 following the execution of his father. It was in the Royal Square in St. Helier on February 17 1649 that Charles was first publicly proclaimed king after his father's death. Parliamentarian forces eventually captured the island in 1651. In recognition for all the help given to him during his exile, Charles II gave George Carteret, Bailiff and governor, a large grant of land in the American colonies, which he promptly named New Jersey, now part of the United States of America. Towards the end of the 17th century Jersey strengthened its links with the Americas when many islanders emigrated to New England and north east Canada. The Jersey merchants built up a thriving business empire in the Newfoundland and Gaspé fisheries. Companies such as Robins and the Le Boutilliers set up thriving businesses. 18th century Round towers were built round the coasts to protect the Island from French attack The Chamber of Commerce founded 24 February 1768 is the oldest in the Commonwealth. The Code of 1771 laid down for the first time in one place the extant laws of Jersey, and from this time the functions of the Royal Court and the States of Jersey were delimited, with sole legislative power vested in the States. Methodism arrived in Jersey in 1774, brought by fishermen returning from Newfoundland. Conflict with the authorities ensued when men refused to attend Militia drill when that coincided with chapel meetings. The Royal Court attempted to proscribe Methodist meetings, but King George III refused to countenance such interference with liberty of religion. The first Methodist minister in Jersey was appointed in 1783, and John Wesley preached in Jersey in August 1789, his words being interpreted into the vernacular for the benefit of those from the country parishes. The first building constructed specifically for Methodist worship was erected in St. Ouen in 1809. The death of Major Peirson, John Singleton Copley, 1782-1784. The 18th century was a period of political tension between Britain and France as the two nations clashed all over the world as their ambitions grew. Because of its position Jersey was more or less on a continuous war footing. During the American Wars of Independence there were two attempted invasions of the island. In 1779 the Prince of Orange William V was prevented from landing at St Ouen's Bay; on January 6, 1781, a force led by Baron de Rullecourt captured St Helier in a daring dawn raid, but was defeated by a British army led by Major Peirson in the Battle of Jersey. A short lived peace was followed by the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars which, when they had ended, had changed Jersey for ever. In 1799-1800, over 6000 Russian troops under the command of Charles du Houx de Viomesnil were quartered in Jersey after an evacuation of Holland. The first printing press was introduced to Jersey in 1784. 19th century The Jersey cow was developed as a breed during the 19th century. Judging the quality of cows remains a feature of rural life The livre tournois had been used as the legal currency for centuries. However, it was abolished during the French Revolutionary period. Although the coins were no longer minted, it remained the legal currency in Jersey until 1837 when dwindling supplies of livres tournois and consequent difficulties in trade and payment obliged the adoption of the pound sterling as legal tender. The military roads constructed (on occasion at gunpoint in the face of opposition from landowners) by the Governor, General George Don, to link coastal fortifications with St. Helier harbour had an unexpected effect on agriculture once peace restored reliable trade links. Farmers in previously isolated valleys were able to swiftly transport crops grown in the Island's microclimate to waiting ships and then on to the markets of London and Paris ahead of the competition. In conjunction with the introduction of steamships and the development of the French and British railway systems, Jersey's agriculture was no longer as isolated as before. The new transport links also saw the arrival of the first tourists. The number of English speaking soldiers stationed in the island and the number of retired officers and English speaking labourers who came to the islands in the 1820s saw the island gradually moving towards an English-speaking culture. Jersey was the 4th largest ship building area in the 19th century British Isles BBC Tourisme schooner plans unveiled , building over 900 vessels around the island. In the late 19th century as the former thriving cider and wool industries declined, island farmers benefited from the development of two luxury products - the Jersey cow and the Jersey Royal potato. The former was the product of careful and selective breeding programmes; the latter being a total fluke. The anarchist philosopher, Peter Kropotkin who visited the Channel Islands in 1890, 1896 and 1903 described the agriculture of Jersey in The Conquest of Bread. The 19th century also saw the rise of tourism as an important industry, which reached its climax in the period from the end of the Second World War to the 1980s. 20th century As part of the Atlantic Wall, between 1940 and 1945 the occupying German forces and the Organisation Todt constructed fortifications round the coast of Jersey such as this observation tower at Les Landes English was first permitted in debates in the States of Jersey in 1901 and the first legislation to be drawn up primarily in English was the Income Tax Law of 1928. Emotionally, the 20th century has been dominated by the Occupation of the island by German troops between 1940 and 1945 which saw about 8,000 islanders evacuated, 1,200 islanders deported to camps in Germany and over 300 islanders being sentenced to the prison and concentration camps of mainland Europe (it depended on Neuengamme). 20 died as a result. The islanders endured near-starvation in the winter of 1944-45, after it had been cut off from German-occupied Europe by Allied forces advancing from the Normandy beachheads, avoided only by the arrival of the Red Cross supply ship Vega in December 1944. Liberation Day - May 9 is marked as a public holiday. The Channel Islands were the only British soil occupied by German troops in World War II. The event which has had the most far reaching effect on Jersey in modern times, is the growth of the finance industry in the island from the 1960s onwards. References Print Balleine's History of Jersey, Marguerite Syvret and Joan Stevens (1998) ISBN 1-86077-065-7
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reference:1 print:1 balleine:1 history:1 marguerite:1 syvret:1 joan:1 stevens:1 isbn:1 |@bigram duchy_normandy:3 cotentin_peninsula:1 st_brelade:2 megalithic_monument:1 la_hougue:1 archaeological_evidence:1 saint_helier:1 send_emissary:1 duke_normandy:2 mainland_normandy:1 lieutenant_governor:1 governor_bailiff:1 walter_raleigh:1 st_helier:3 george_carteret:1 chamber_commerce:1 pound_sterling:1 legal_tender:1 selective_breeding:1 peter_kropotkin:1 income_tax:1 concentration_camp:1
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Minimum_wage
A minimum wage is the lowest hourly, daily or monthly wage that employers may legally pay to employees or workers. Equivalently, it is the lowest wage at which workers may sell their labor. Although minimum wage laws are in effect in a great many jurisdictions, there are differences of opinion about the benefits and drawbacks of a minimum wage. Supporters of the minimum wage say that it prevents the exploitation of workers. Opponents say that if it is high enough to be effective, it destroys jobs, particularly for workers with very low productivity due to inexperience or handicap, thereby exploiting lesser skilled workers to the benefit of better skilled workers. They also argue that it causes inflation. Background Minimum wages were first proposed as a way to control the proliferation of sweat shops in manufacturing industries. The sweat shops employed large numbers of women and young workers, paying them what were considered to be substandard wages. The sweatshop owners were thought to have unfair bargaining power over their workers, and a minimum wage was proposed as a means to make them pay "fairly." Over time, the focus changed to helping people, especially families, become more self sufficient. Today, minimum wage laws cover workers in most low-paid fields of employment. The minimum wage has a strong social appeal, rooted in concern about the ability of markets to provide income equity for the least able members of the work force. An obvious solution to this concern is to redefine the wage structure politically to achieve a socially preferable distribution of income. Thus, minimum wage laws have usually been judged against the criterion of reducing poverty. Though the goals of the minimum wage are widely accepted as right and proper, there is great disagreement as to whether it is effective in attaining its goals. From the time of their introduction, minimum wage laws have been highly controversial politically, and have received much less support from economists than from the general public. Despite decades of experience and economic research, debates about the costs and benefits of minimum wages continue even today. The classic exposition of the minimum wage's shortcomings in reducing poverty was provided by George Stigler in 1946: Employment may fall more than in proportion to the wage increase, thereby reducing overall earnings; As uncovered sectors of the economy absorb workers released from the covered sectors, the decrease in wages in the uncovered sectors may exceed the increase in wages in the covered ones; The impact of the minimum wage on family income distribution may be negative unless the fewer but better jobs are allocated to members of needy families rather than to, for example, teenagers from families not in poverty; The legal restriction that employers cannot pay less than a legislated wage is equivalent to the legal restriction that workers cannot work at all in the protected sector unless they can find employers willing to hire them at that wage. Direct empirical studies indicate, however, that antipoverty effects in the U.S. would be quite modest even if unemployment effects were zero. Very few low wage workers come from families in poverty. Those primarily affected by minimum wage laws are teenagers and low skilled adult females who work part time, and any wage rate effects on their income is strictly proportional to the hours of work they are offered. So if market outcomes for low-skilled families are to be supplanted in a socially satisfactory way, factors other than wage rates must also be considered. Employment opportunities and the factors that limit labor market participation must be considered as well. Economist Thomas Sowell has argued that regardless of custom or law, the real minimum wage is always zero, and zero is what some people would receive if they fail to find jobs when they try to enter the workforce, or they lose the jobs they already have. Minimum wage law First enacted in Australia and New Zealand in the late nineteenth century, American Academy of Political and Social Science. "The Cost of Living." Philadelphia, 1913. there is now legislation regarding minimum wage fixing in more than 90% of countries. ILO 2006: Minimum wages policy (PDF) Minimum wage laws vary greatly across many different jurisdictions, not only in setting a particular amount of money (e.g. US$6.55 per hour under U.S. Federal law, $8.55 in the U.S. state of Washington, Washington State Department of Labor and Industries, "Washington's minimum wage to increase to $8.55 Jan. 1," news release September 30, 2008, http://www.lni.wa.gov/news/2008/pr080930a.asp, consulted 29 December 2008. and £5.73 (for those aged 22+) in the United Kingdom), but also in terms of which pay period (e.g. Russia and China set monthly minimums) or the scope of coverage. Some jurisdictions allow employers to count tips given to their workers as credit towards the minimum wage level. Informal minimum wages Sometimes a minimum wage exists without a law. Custom and extra-legal pressures from governments or labor unions can produce a de facto minimum wage. So can international public opinion, by pressuring multinational companies to pay Third World workers wages usually found in more industrialized countries. The latter situation in Southeast Asia and Latin America has been publicized in recent years, but it existed with companies in West Africa in the middle of the twentieth century. Minimum Wage Laws are covered on pages 210-221. The full text of an essentially identical section from a previous edition can be found at page 163 HERE Economics of the minimum wage Simple supply and demand A mainstream economics analysis of supply and demand implies that by mandating a price floor above the equilibrium wage, minimum wage laws should cause unemployment. This is because a greater number of workers are willing to work at the higher wage while a smaller numbers of jobs will be available at the higher wage. Companies can be more selective in those whom they employ thus the least skilled and inexperienced will typically be excluded. According to the model shown in nearly all introductory textbooks on economics, increasing the minimum wage decreases the employment of minimum-wage workers. One such textbook says: "If a higher minimum wage increases the wage rates of unskilled workers above the level that would be established by market forces, the quantity of unskilled workers employed will fall. The minimum wage will price the services of the least productive (and therefore lowest-wage) workers out of the market. ... The direct results of minimum wage legislation are clearly mixed. Some workers, most likely those whose previous wages were closest to the minimum, will enjoy higher wages. Other, particularly those with the lowest prelegislation wage rates, will be unable to find work. They will be pushed into the ranks of the unemployed or out of the labor force." It illustrates the point with a supply and demand diagram similar to the one below. Graph of Labor Market It is assumed that workers are willing to labor for more hours if paid a higher wage. Economists graph this relationship with the wage on the vertical axis and the quantity (hours) of labor supplied on the horizontal axis. Since higher wages increase the quantity supplied, the supply of labor curve is upward sloping, and is shown as a line moving up and to the right. Ehrenberg, R. and Smith, R. "Modern labor economics: theory and public policy", HarperCollins, 1994, 5th ed. A firm's cost is a function of the wage rate. It is assumed that the higher the wage, the fewer hours an employer will demand of an employee. This is because, as the wage rate rises, it becomes more expensive for firms to hire workers and so firms hire fewer workers (or hire them for fewer hours). The demand of labor curve is therefore shown as a line moving down and to the right. Combining the demand and supply curves for labor allows us to examine the effect of the minimum wage. We will start by assuming that the supply and demand curves for labor will not change as a result of raising the minimum wage. This assumption has been questioned. If no minimum wage is in place, workers and employers will continue to adjust the quantity of labor supplied according to price until the quantity of labor demanded is equal to the quantity of labor supplied, reaching equilibrium price, where the supply and demand curves intersect. Minimum wage behaves as a classical price floor on labor. Standard theory says that, if set above the equilibrium price, more labor will be willing to be provided by workers than will be demanded by employers, creating a surplus of labor i.e. unemployment. In other words, the simplest and most basic economics says this about commodities like labor (and wheat, for example): Artificially raising the price of the commodity tends to cause the supply of it to increase and the demand for it to lessen. The result is a surplus of the commodity. When there is a wheat surplus, the government buys it. Since the government doesn't hire surplus labor, the labor surplus takes the form of unemployment, which tends to be higher with minimum wage laws than without them. So the basic theory says that raising the minimum wage helps workers whose wages are raised, and hurts people who are not hired (or lose their jobs) because companies cut back on employment. But the situation is much more complicated than the basic theory can account for. Complicating factors One complicating factor is possible monopsony in the labor market, whereby the individual employer has some market power in determining wages paid. Thus it is at least theoretically possible that the minimum wage may boost employment. Though single employer market power is unlikely to exist in most labor markets in the sense of the traditional 'company town,' asymmetric information, imperfect mobility, and the 'personal' element of the labor transaction give some degree of wage-setting power to most firms. William M. Boal and Michael R. Ransom, "Monopsony in the Labor Market", Journal of Economic Literature, V.35, March, pgs.86-112 Standard theory criticism Gary Fields, Professor of Labor Economics and Economics at Cornell University, argues that the standard "textbook model" for the minimum wage is "ambiguous", and that the standard theoretical arguments incorrectly measure only a one-sector market. Fields says a two-sector market, where "the self-employed, service workers, and farm workers are typically excluded from minimum-wage coverage… [and with] one sector with minimum-wage coverage and the other without it [and possible mobility between the two]," is the basis for better analysis. Through this model, Fields shows the typical theoretical argument to be ambiguous and says "the predictions derived from the textbook model definitely do not carry over to the two-sector case. Therefore, since a non-covered sector exists nearly everywhere, the predictions of the textbook model simply cannot be relied on." Gary Fields, "The Unemployment Effects of Minimum Wages," International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 15, issue 2 (1994), pp. 74-81. An alternate view of the labor market has low-wage labor markets characterized as monopsonistic competition wherein buyers (employers) have significantly more market power than do sellers (workers). This monopsony could be a result of intentional collusion between employers, or naturalistic factors such as segmented markets, information costs, imperfect mobility and the 'personal' element of labor markets. In such a case the diagram above would not yield the quantity of labor clearing and the wage rate. This is because while the upward sloping aggregate labor supply would remain unchanged, instead of using the downward labor demand curve shown in the diagram above, monopsonistic employers would use a steeper downward sloping curve corresponding to marginal expenditures to yield the intersection with the supply curve resulting in a wage rate lower than would be the case under competition. Also, the amount of labor sold would also be lower than the competitive optimal allocation. Such a case is a type of market failure and results in workers being paid less than their marginal value. Under the monopsonistic assumption, an appropriately set minimum wage could increase both wages and employment, with the optimal level being equal to the marginal productivity of labor. This view emphasizes the role of minimum wages as a market regulation policy akin to antitrust policies, as opposed to an illusory "free lunch" for low-wage workers. Another reason minimum wage may not affect employment in certain industries is that the demand for the product the employees produce is highly inelastic; For example, if management is forced to increase wages, management can pass on the increase in wage to consumers in the form of higher prices. Since demand for the product is highly inelastic, consumers continue to buy the product at the higher price and so the manager is not forced to lay off workers. Three other possible reasons minimum wages do not affect employment were suggested by Alan Blinder: higher wages may reduce turnover, and hence training costs; raising the minimum wage may "render moot" the potential problem of recruiting workers at a higher wage than current workers; and minimum wage workers might represent such a small proportion of a business's cost that the increase is too small to matter. He admits that he does not know if these are correct, but argues that "the list demonstrates that one can accept the new empirical findings and still be a card-carrying economist." Alan S. Blinder, "The $5.15 Question," The New York Times, 23 May 1996, p. A29. Debate over consequences Various groups have great ideological, political, financial, and emotional investments in issues surrounding minimum wage laws. For example, agencies that administer the laws have a vested interest in showing that "their" laws do not create unemployment. So do labor unions, whose members' jobs are protected by minimum wage laws. The presence of these powerful groups and factors means that the debate on the issue is not always based on dispassionate analysis. Not only that, but it is extraordinarily difficult to separate the effects of minimum wage from all the other variables that affect employment. On the other side of the issue, low-wage employers such as restaurants finance the Employment Policies Institute, which has released numerous studies opposing the minimum wage. Harry Bernstein, "Troubling Facts on Employment," Los Angeles Times, September 15, 1992, p. D3; Eric Engquist, "Health Bill Fight Nears Showdown," Crain's New York Business, May 15, 2006, p. 1. The following table summarizes the arguments for and against minimum wage laws: Arguments FOR Minimum Wage Laws Supporters of the minimum wage claim it has these effects: Helps small businesses as well as big businesses. Minimum Wage and Its Effects on Small Business Increases the standard of living for the poorest and most vulnerable class in society and raises average. http://www.epi.org/content.cfm/issueguides_minwage Real Value of the Minimum Wage Motivates and encourages employee to work harder. (Contrast with welfare transfer payments.) Does not have budget consequence on government. "Neither taxes nor public sector borrowing requirements rise." (Contrast with negative income taxes such as the EITC.) Minimum wage is administratively simple; workers only need to report violations of wages less than minimum, minimizing a need for a large enforcement agency. Stimulates consumption, by putting more money in the hands of low-income people who spend their entire paychecks. Increases the work ethic of those who earn very little, as employers demand more return from the higher cost of hiring these employees. Decreases the cost of government social welfare programs by increasing incomes for the lowest-paid. Does not have a substantial effect on unemployment compared to most other economic factors OECD (2006): OECD Employment Outlook 2006 (read-only PDF) , and so does not put any extra pressure on welfare systems. A study of U.S. states showed that businesses' annual and average payrolls grow faster and employment grew at a faster rate in states with a minimum wage. Fiscal Policy Institute, "States with Minimum Wages Above the Federal Level have had Faster Small Business and Retail Job Growth," March 30, 2006. The study showed a correlation, but did not claim to prove causation. Arguments AGAINST Minimum Wage Laws Opponents of the minimum wage claim it has these effects: Excludes low cost competitors from labour markets, hampers firms in reducing wage costs during trade downturns (etc.), generates various industrial-economic inefficiencies as well as unemployment, poverty, and price rises, and generally dysfunctions as basically a special form of political-economic protectionism – the labour market equivalent or analogue of such things as tariff barriers to low cost imports. Abbott, Lewis F. Statutory Minimum Wage Controls: A Critical Review of their Effects on Labour Markets, Employment, and Incomes. ISR Publications, Manchester UK, 2nd. edn. 2000. ISBN 978-0-906321-22-5. Hurts small business more than large business. Wal-Mart Warms to the State - Mises Institute Lowers competitiveness among businesses Wal-Mart's Perverse Strategy on the Minimum Wage Reduces quantity demanded of workers. This may manifest itself through a reduction in the number of hours worked by individuals, or through a reduction in the number of jobs. Tupy, Marian L. Minimum Interference, National Review Online, May 14, 2004 Reduces profit margins of business owners employing minimum wage workers, thus encouraging a move to businesses that do not employ low-skill workers. Offshoring High-Tech and Professional Jobs Businesses try to compensate for the decrease in profit by simply raising the prices of the goods being sold thus causing inflation and increasing the costs of goods and services produced. Increasing the Mandated Minimum Wage: Who Pays the Price? Why Wal-Mart Matters - Mises Institute Does not improve the situation of those in poverty. "Will have only negative effects on the distribution of economic justice. Minimum-wage legislation, by its very nature, benefits some at the expense of the least experienced, least productive, and poorest workers." (Cato) Is a limit on the freedom of both employers and employees, and can result in the exclusion of certain groups from the labor force. For example, during the apartheid era in South Africa, white trade unions lobbied for the introduction of minimum wage laws so as to exclude black workers from the labor market. By preventing black workers from selling their labor for less than white workers, the black workers were prevented from competing for jobs held by whites. Businesses spend less on training their employees. A blunt instrument, The Economist, October 26, 2006 Is less effective than the Earned Income Tax Credit at targeting the truly needy, and is more damaging to businesses. Decreases human capital by encouraging people to enter the job market instead of pursuing further education. Causes outsourcing and loss of domestic manfucturing jobs to other countries. Today, the International Labour Organization (ILO) ILO 2006: Minimum wages policy (PDF) and the OECD do not consider that the minimum wage can be directly linked to unemployment in countries which have suffered job losses. Although strongly opposed by both the business community and the Conservative Party when introduced in 1999, the minimum wage introduced in the UK is no longer controversial and the Conservatives reversed their opposition in 2000. A review of its effects found no discernible impact on employment levels. Since the introduction of a national minimum wage in the UK in 1999, its effects on employment were subject to extensive research and observation by the Low Pay Commission. The Low Pay Commission found that, rather than make employees redundant, employers have reduced their rate of hiring, reduced staff hours, increased prices, and have found ways to cause current workers to be more productive (especially service companies). Low Pay Commission (2005). National Minimum Wage - Low Pay Commission Report 2005 Neither trade unions nor employer organizations contest the minimum wage, although the latter had especially done so heavily until 1999. Empirical studies Economists disagree as to the measurable impact of minimum wages in the 'real world'. This disagreement usually takes the form of competing empirical tests of the elasticities of demand and supply in labor markets and the degree to which markets differ from the efficiency that models of perfect competition predict. Economists have done empirical studies on numerous aspects of the minimum wage, prominently including: Employment effects, the most frequently studied aspect Effects on the distribution of wages and earnings among low-paid and higher-paid workers Effects on the distribution of incomes among low-income and higher-income families Effects on the skills of workers through job training and the deferring of work to acquire education Effects on prices and profits Until the mid-1990s, a strong consensus existed among economists, both conservative and liberal, that the minimum wage reduced employment, especially among younger and low-skill workers. David Card and Alan B. Krueger, Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage, Princeton University Press, 1995, pp. 1, 6-7. In addition to the basic supply-demand intuition, there were a number of empirical studies that supported this view. For example, Gramlich (1976) found that many of the benefits went to higher income families, and in particular that teenagers were made worse off by the unemployment associated with the minimum wage. Edward M. Gramlich, "Impact of Minimum Wages on Other Wages, Employment, and Family Incomes," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Volume 1976, number 2, pp. 409-461.) Brown et al. (1983) note that time series studies to that point had found that for a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage, there was a decrease in teenage employment of 1-3 percent. However, for the effect on the teenage unemployment rate, the studies exhibited wider variation in their estimates, from zero to over 3 percent. In contrast to the simple supply/demand figure above, it was commonly found that teenagers withdrew from the labor force in response to the minimum wage, which produced the possibility of equal reductions in the supply as well as the demand for labor at a higher minimum wage and hence no impact on the unemployment rate. Using a variety of specifications of the employment and unemployment equations (using ordinary least squares vs. generalized least squares regression procedures, and linear vs. logarithmic specifications), they found that a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage caused a 1 percent decrease in teenage employment, and no change in the teenage unemployment rate. The study also found a small, but statistically significant, increase in unemployment for adults aged 20–24. Charles Brown, Curtis Gilroy, and Andrew Kohen "Time Series Evidence on the Effect of the Minimum Wage on Youth Employment and Unemployment," The Journal of Human Resources, Volume 18, no. 1 (Winter 1983), pp. 3-31. Wellington (1991) updated Brown et al.'s research with data through 1986 to provide new estimates encompassing a period when the real (i.e., inflation-adjusted) value of the minimum wage was declining, due to the fact that it had not increased since 1981. She found that a 10% increase in the minimum wage decreased teenage employment by 0.6 percentage points, with no effect on either the teen or young adult unemployment rates. Alison J. Wellington, "Effects of the Minimum Wage on the Employment Status of Youths: An Update," Journal of Human Resources, Volume 26, no. 1 (Winter 1991), pp. 27-46. Some research suggests that the unemployment effects of small minimum wage increases are dominated by other factors. In Florida, where voters approved an increase in 2004, a follow-up comprehensive study confirms a strong economy with increased employment above previous years in Florida and better than in the U.S. as a whole. Card and Krueger In 1992, the minimum wage in New Jersey increased from $4.25 to $5.05 per hour (an 18.8% increase) while the adjacent state of Pennsylvania remained at $4.25. David Card and Alan Krueger gathered information on fast food restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania in an attempt to see what effect this increase had on employment within New Jersey. Basic economic theory would have implied that relative employment should have decreased in New Jersey. Card and Krueger surveyed employers before the April 1992 New Jersey increase, and again in November-December 1992, asking managers for data on the full-time equivalent staff level of their restaurants both times. David Card and Alan B. Krueger, "Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast-Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania," American Economic Review, Volume 84, no. 4 (September 1994), pp. 774-775. Based on the employers' responses, the authors concluded that the increase in the minimum wage increased employment in the New Jersey restaurants. p. 792. Card and Krueger expanded on this initial article in their 1995 book Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage (ISBN 0-691-04823-1). They argued the negative employment effects of minimum wage laws to be minimal if not non-existent. For example, they look at the 1992 increase in New Jersey's minimum wage, the 1988 rise in California's minimum wage, and the 1990-91 increases in the federal minimum wage. In addition to their own findings, they reanalyzed earlier studies with updated data, generally finding that the older results of a negative employment effect did not hold up in the larger datasets. Critics, however, argue that their research was flawed. Subsequent attempts to verify the claims requested payroll cards from employers to verify employment, and found that the minimum wage increases were followed by decreases in employment. On the other hand, an assessment of data collected and analyzed by David Neumark and William Wascher did not initially contradict the Card/Krueger results, http://www.epinet.org/briefingpapers/minimumw_bp_1996.pdf but in a later edited version they found that the same general sample set did increase unemployment. The 18.8% wage hike resulted in "[statistically] insignificant—although almost always negative" employment effects. Neumark & Wascher, American Economic Review, Volume 90 No. 5. Another possible explanation for why the current minimum wage laws may not affect unemployment in the United States is that the minimum wage is set close to the equilibrium point for low and unskilled workers. Thus in the absence of the minimum wage law unskilled workers would be paid approximately the same amount. However, an increase above this equilibrium point could likely bring about increased unemployment for the low and unskilled workers. Reaction to Card and Krueger Some leading economists such as Greg Mankiw do not accept the Card/Krueger results, http://gregmankiw.blogspot.com/2006/11/minimum-wage-as-symbol.html, consulted 12 January 2009. while others, like Nobel laureates Paul Krugman Paul Krugman, The conscience of a liberal (W.W. Norton & Co., 2007) and Joseph Stiglitz do accept them, Joseph Stiglitz. Employment, social justice and societal well-being, International Labour Review, 141 (1-2), p. 9 - 29. Economic Policy Institute. Hundreds of Leading Economists Say: Raise the Minimum Wage In 1995, the Republican Staff of the Joint Economic Committee of the United States Congress published a study critical of Card and Krueger's work. They note that it conflicts with other studies done on minimum wage laws within the United States over the past 50 years. U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee "50 Years of Research on the Minimum Wage" According to the JEC analysis, minimum wage laws have been shown to cause large amounts of unemployment, especially among low-income, unskilled, black, and teenaged populations, as well as cause a host of other mal-effects, such as higher turnover, less training, and fewer fringe benefits. According to economists Donald Deere (Texas A&M), Kevin Murphy (University of Chicago), and Finis Weltch (Texas A&M), Card and Krueger's conclusions are contradicted by "common sense and past research". They conclude that: Sense and Nonsense on the Minimum Wage Nobel laureate James M. Buchanan famously responded to the study in the Wall Street Journal: ...no self-respecting economist would claim that increases in the minimum wage increase employment. Such a claim, if seriously advanced, becomes equivalent to a denial that there is even minimum scientific content in economics, and that, in consequence, economists can do nothing but write as advocates for ideological interests. Fortunately, only a handful of economists are willing to throw over the teaching of two centuries; we have not yet become a bevy of camp-following whores. Alan Krueger responded in The Washington Post: Alan Krueger, "Test Case for the Labor Market," The Washington Post, September 2, 1996, p. A23. More was at stake here than the minimum wage -- the methodology of public policy analysis was also at issue. Some economists, such as James Buchanan, have simply rejected the notion that their view of economic theory possibly could be proved wrong by data. Paul Krugman, moreover, states that Card and Krueger "found no evidence that minimum wage increases in the range that the United States has experiences led to job losses. Their work has been attacked because it seems to contradict Econ 101 and because it was ideologically disturbing to many. Yet it has stood up very well to repeated challenges, and new cases confirming its results keep coming in." Paul Krugman, The Conscience of a Liberal, W.W. Norton, 2007, p. 261 Neumark and Wascher Literature Review In a 2008 book, David Neumark and William L. Wascher described their analysis of over 300 studies on the minimum wage. The studies, taken from many countries and spanning many viewpoints, covered a period of over 50 years, primarily from the 1990s onward. According to the authors, a large majority of the studies show negative effects for the minimum wage; those showing positive effects are few, questionable, and disproportionately discussed. Based on the extensive published evidence they considered, Neumark and Wascher conclude that the minimum wage is not good social policy. They emphasize three especially salient conclusions: First, while acknowledging outliers like Card and Kreuger, they found that studies since the early 1990s have strongly pointed to a "reduction in employment opportunities for low-skilled and directly affected workers." Second, they found some evidence that the minimum wage is harmful to poverty-stricken families, and "virtually no evidence" that it helps them. Third, they found that the minimum wage lowers adult wages of young workers who encounter it, by reducing their ultimate level of education. They summarized their findings in a "scorecard," showing the effects they considered, a summary of the evidence they found, and their evaluations of the strength of their conclusions based on that evidence. A partial summary of the scorecard is presented below: +Neumark and Wascher's Minimum Wage Scorecard Effects Considered Summary of Evidence Strength of Conclusions Employment The minimum wage reduces employment of low-skilled workers. The preponderance of evidence clearly shows negative effects, especially when one looks at the most convincing evidence. A few studies find positive or no effect. Wage distribution The minimum wage increases the wages of covered workers. Moderate effect on higher-skilled workers with slightly higher wages. Unambiguous for workers covered by the minimum wage. Conflicting evidence for those at higher levels. Income distribution No compelling evidence that the minimum wage helps low-income families. Some evidence that it harms them. Clear conclusion that the effects of the minimum wage range from none to negative, with no evidence of positive effects. Training Some evidence of negative effects, some evidence of no effect. No convincing evidence of positive effect. Unclear whether evidence is stronger for negative effects or no effect. Schooling Most evidence points to negative effects. Unambiguous for the U.S.; less clear for Canada. Longer-run earnings Negative effects of exposure to minimum wages when young on wages and earnings in late twenties. Strong evidence, but from only one study. Prices and profits The minimum wage increases prices of goods and services produced with low-wage labor. Clear conclusions. Statistical Meta-analyses Several researchers have conducted statistical meta-analyses of the employment effects of the minimum wage. Card and Krueger analyzed 14 earlier time-series studies and concluded that there was clear evidence of publication bias because the later studies, which had more data and lower standard errors, did not show the expected increase in t-statistic (almost all the studies had a t of about two, just above the level of statistical significance at the .05 level. David Card and Alan B. Krueger, "Time-series minimum-wage studies: a meta-analysis," American Economic Review 85: 238-243 (1995). Though a serious methodological indictment, opponents of the minimum wage virtually ignored this issue; as Thomas C. Leonard noted, "The silence is fairly deafening." Thomas C. Leonard, "The Very Idea of Applying Economics: The Modern Minimum-Wage Controversy and its Antecedents," History of Political Economy 32 (1), p. 139 (2000). More recently, T.D. Stanley has criticized their methodology, suggesting that their results could signify either publication bias or the absence of an effect. Using a different methodology, however, he concludes that there is statistically significant evidence of publication bias and that correction of this bias shows no relationship between the minimum wage and unemployment. T.D. Stanley, "Beyond Publication Bias, Journal of Economic Surveys, Vol. 19, no. 3 (2005), pp. 322-327. In 2008, Hristos Doucouliagos and T.D. Stanley conduct a similar meta-analysis of 64 U.S. studies on disemployment effects and concluded that Card and Krueger's initial claim of publication bias is still correct. Moreover, they concluded, "Once this publication selection is corrected, little or no evidence of a negative association between minimum wages and employment remains." Hristos Doucouliagos and T.D. Stanley, "Publication Bias in Minimum-Wage Research? A Meta-Regression Analysis," British Journal of Industrial Relations, 2008. Surveys of economists Until the 1990s, economists generally agreed that raising the minimum wage reduced employment. This consensus was weakened when some well-publicized empirical studies showed the opposite, but others consistently confirmed the original view. Today's consensus, if one exists, is that increasing the minimum wage has, at worst, minor negative effects. "A Blunt Instrument; The Minimum Wage," The Economist, October 28, 2006. According to a 1978 article in the American Economic Review, 90 percent of the economists surveyed agreed that the minimum wage increases unemployment among low-skilled workers. Kearl, J. R., et al., “A Confusion of Economists?” American Economic Review 69 (1979): 28–37. A 2000 survey by Dan Fuller and Doris Geide-Stevenson reports that of a sample of 308 American Economic Association economists, 45.6% fully agreed with the statement, "a minimum wage increases unemployment among young and unskilled workers", 27.9% agreed with provisos, and 26.5% disagreed. The authors of this study also reweighted data from a 1990 sample to show that at that time 62.4% of academic economists agreed with the statement above, while 19.5% agreed with provisos and 17.5% disagreed. They state that the reduction on consensus on this question is "likely" due to the Card and Krueger research and subsequent debate. A similar survey in 2006 by Robert Whaples polled PhD members of the American Economic Association. Whaples found that 37.7% of respondents supported an increase in the minimum wage, 14.3% wanted it kept at the current level, 1.3% wanted it decreased, and 46.8% wanted it completely eliminated. Robert Whaples (2006) "Do Economists Agree on Anything? Yes!," The Economists' Voice: Vol. 3 : Iss. 9, Article 1. Surveys of labor economists have found a sharp split on the minimum wage. Fuchs et al. (1998) polled labor economists at the top 40 research universities in the United States on a variety of questions in the summer of 1996. Their 65 respondents split exactly 50-50 when asked if the minimum wage should be increased. They argued that the different policy views were not related to views on whether raising the minimum wage would reduce teen employment (the median economist said there would be a reduction of 1%), but on value differences such as income redistribution. Victor R. Fuchs, Alan B. Krueger, and James M. Poterba, "Economists' Views About Parameters, Values, and Policies: Survey Results in Labor and Public Economics," Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 36, no. 3 (September 1998), pp. 1387-1425. Klein and Dompe conclude, on the basis of previous surveys, "the average level of support for the minimum wage is somewhat higher among labor economists than among AEA members." Klein, Daniel and Stewart Dompe. "Reasons for Supporting the Minimum Wage: Asking Signatories of the "Raise the Minimum Wage" Statement" (Jan 2007), p. 133. In 2007, Daniel B. Klein and Stewart Dompe conducted a non-anonymous survey of supporters of the minimum wage who had signed the "Raise the Minimum Wage" statement published by the Economic Policy Institute. They found that a majority signed on the grounds that it transferred income from employers to workers, or equalized bargaining power between them in the labor market. In addition, a majority considered disemployment to be a moderate potential drawback to the increase they supported. Klein, Daniel and Stewart Dompe. "Reasons for Supporting the Minimum Wage: Asking Signatories of the "Raise the Minimum Wage" Statement" (Jan 2007). Alternatives Negative income tax Some critics of the minimum wage argue that a negative income tax or refundable tax credit (such as the earned income tax credit in the United States) would work better than a minimum wage, as it would benefit a broader population of low wage earners, not cause any unemployment, and distribute the cost widely rather than concentrating it on employers of low wage workers. A negative income tax or refundable tax credit based on a broad tax base, they argue, would also be more economically efficient, as the minimum wage imposes a high marginal tax on employers, causing high deadweight loss. The ability of the earned income tax credit to deliver a larger monetary benefit to poor workers at a lower cost to society was recently documented in a report by the Congressional Budget Office. Basic income Some economists and others have proposed as an alternative to a minimum wage, a so called basic income, a system of social security, that periodically provides each citizen with a sum of money that is sufficient to live on. Except for citizenship, a basic income is entirely unconditional. Furthermore, there is no means test; the richest as well as the poorest citizens would receive it. One of the main arguments for a basic income was articulated by the French Economist and Philosopher André Gorz: The connection between more and better has been broken; our needs for many products and services are already more than adequately met, and many of our as-yet- unsatisfied needs will be met not by producing more, but by producing differently, producing other things, or even producing less. This is especially true as regards our needs for air, water, space, silence, beauty, time and human contact... From the point where it takes only 1,000 hours per year or 20,000 to 30,000 hours per lifetime to create an amount of wealth equal to or greater than the amount we create at the present time in 1,600 hours per year or 40,000 to 50,000 hours in a working life, we must all be able to obtain a real income equal to or higher than our current salaries in exchange for a greatly reduced quantity of work... Neither is it true any longer that the more each individual works, the better off everyone will be. The present crisis has stimulated technological change of an unprecedented scale and speed: `the micro chip revolution'. The object and indeed the effect of this revolution has been to make rapidly increasing savings in labour, in the industrial, administrative and service sectors. Increasing production is secured in these sectors by decreasing amounts of labour. As a result, the social process of production no longer needs everyone to work in it on a full-time basis. The work ethic ceases to be viable in such a situation and workbased society is thrown into crisis André Gorz, Critique of Economic Reason, Gallilé,1989 . A basic income is often proposed in the form of a citizen's dividend (a transfer) or (a guarantee). A basic income less than the social minimum is referred to as a partial basic income. A worldwide basic income, typically including income redistribution between nations, is known as a global basic income. The proposal is a specific form of guaranteed minimum income, which is normally conditional and subject to a means test In 1968 James Tobin, Paul Samuelson, John Kenneth Galbraith and another 1,200 economists in signed a document calling for the US Congress to introduce in that year a system of income guarantees and supplements. Both Tobin and Samuelson have also come out against the minimum wage. Emerson Schmidt, "Union Power and the Public Interest", EP Dutton, 1980 as cited in In the 1972 presidential campaign, Senator George McGovern called for a 'demogrant' that was very similar to a basic income. White, Theodore H. The Making of the President 1972. Antheneum Publishers. 1973. pp. 17–20. ISBN 0689105533, pg. 127 Mike Gravel, a former candidate for the Democratic nomination for President of the United States and a candidate for the 2008 Libertarian nomination for the President of the United States, advocates a tax rebate paid in a monthly check from the government to all citizens. Winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics that fully support a basic income include Herbert Simon, Friedrich Hayek, James Meade, Robert Solow, Milton Friedman, Jan Tinbergen and James Tobin. In later years, Basic Income Studies: How it could be organised, Different Suggestionshave made a lot serious, fully financed proposals for a basic income. Collective bargaining Sweden is an example of a developed nation where there is no minimum wage that is required by legislation. Instead, minimum wage standards in different sectors are set by collective bargaining. See also Basic income List of minimum wages by country Labor market Labour law Living wage Maximum wage Guaranteed minimum income Positive rights List of U.S. minimum wages List of minimum wages in Canada Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority Nickel and Dimed Scratch Beginnings Wage slave References External links Characteristics of Minimum Wage Workers: 2005 U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics Minimum Wage Issue Guide by the Economic Policy Institute Basic Income Earth Network (BIEN) Basic income for all-Philippe van Parijs, Boston Review Guaranteed Basic Income Studies:How it could be organised, Different Sugesstions Basic Income Studies: An International Journal of Basic Income Research "Social minimum" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy EIROnline: Minimum wages in Europe Low Pay Commission in the United Kingdom UK Department of Trade and Industry - The National Minimum Wage U.S. Department of Labor statistics The Minimum Wage: Information, Opinion, Research Average U.S. farm and non-farm wages compared to the minimum wage (1981 - 2004) Impact of Proposed Minimum-Wage Increase on Low-income Families (PDF) Center for Economic and Policy Research (December 2005) Center for Policy Alternatives – Minimum Wage Policy Model Find It! By Topic: Wages: Minimum Wage U.S. Department of Labor Wagenet - Australian Working Conditions Economist Paul Krugman on Minimum Wage Regulation Economist Philip Lewis - Centre for Labour Market Research - on the relationship between unemployment and minimum wages Minimum Wage Research, Studies and Resources by The Heritage Foundation Measuring the Full Impact of Minimum and Living Wage Laws from Dollars & Sense magazine hi
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Asteroids_(video_game)
Asteroids is a video arcade game released in 1979 by Atari Inc. It was one of the most popular and influential games of the Golden Age of Arcade Games. Asteroids uses vector graphics and a two-dimensional view that wraps around in both screen axes. The player controls a spaceship in an asteroid field which is periodically traversed by flying saucers. The object of the game is to shoot and destroy asteroids and saucers while not colliding with either, or being hit by the saucers' counter-fire. Description The game was conceived by Lyle Rains and programmed and designed by Ed Logg. asteroids, video game at arcade-history Allgame article Asteroids was a hit in the United States and became Atari's best selling game of all time. Atari had been in the process of releasing another vector game, Lunar Lander, but demand for Asteroids was so high they stopped further production of Lunar Lander so they could begin building Asteroids. The first 200 Asteroids machines were sent out in Lunar Lander cabinets. Asteroids was so popular that video arcade owners sometimes had to install larger boxes to hold the amount of quarters that were spent by players. Asteroids is also the first game to use Atari's "QuadraScan" vector-refresh system. Asteroids Flyer, 1979, Atari, Inc A full-color version known as "Color-QuadraScan" was later developed for games such as Space Duel and Tempest. Gameplay Asteroids screenshot The objective of Asteroids is to score as many points as possible by destroying asteroids and flying saucers. The player controls a triangular-shaped ship that can rotate left and right, fire shots straight forward, and thrust forward. As the ship moves, momentum is not conserved — the ship eventually comes to a stop again when not thrusting. The player can also send their ship into hyperspace, causing it to disappear and reappear in a random location on the screen (with the risk of self-destructing or appearing on top of an asteroid). Each stage starts with a few asteroids drifting in random directions on the screen. Objects wrap around screen edges — for instance, an asteroid that drifts off the top edge of the screen reappears at the bottom and continues moving in the same direction. As the player shoots asteroids, they break into smaller asteroids that frequently move faster and are more difficult to hit. Smaller asteroids also score higher points. Periodically, a flying saucer appears on one side of the screen and moves across to the other before disappearing again. The saucers are of two kinds: Large saucers fire in random directions, while small saucers aim at the player's ship. The minimalist soundtrack features a memorable deep-toned electronic "heartbeat", which quickens as the asteroid density is reduced by the player's fire. Once the screen has been cleared of all asteroids and flying saucers, a new set of large asteroids appears. The number of asteroids increases each round up to a maximum of twelve. The game is over when the player has lost all of his/her lives. Like many games of its time, Asteroids contains several bugs that were mostly the result of the original programmers underestimating the game's popularity or the skill of its players. The maximum possible score in this game is 99,990 points, after which it "rolls over" back to zero. Also, an oversight in the small saucer's programming gave rise to a popular strategy known as "lurking" — because the saucer could only shoot directly at the player's position on the screen, the player could "hide" at the opposite end of the screen and shoot across the screen boundary, while remaining relatively safe. This led to experienced players being able to play indefinitely on a single credit. GameArchive article on "Lurking" strategy This oversight was addressed in the game's sequel, Asteroids Deluxe, and led to significant changes in the way game developers designed and tested their games in the future. On some early versions of the game, it was also possible to hide the ship in the score area indefinitely without being hit by asteroids. Technical description The Asteroids arcade machine is a vector game. This means that the game graphics are composed entirely of lines which are drawn on a vector monitor. The hardware consists primarily of a standard MOS 6502 CPU, which executes the game program, and the Digital Vector Generator (DVG), vector processing circuitry developed by Atari themselves. As the 6502 by itself was too slow to control both the game play and the vector hardware at the same time, the latter task was delegated to the DVG. The original design concepts of the DVG came out of Atari's off-campus research lab in Grass Valley, CA, in 1978. The prototype was given to engineer Howard Delman, who refined it, produced it, and then added additional features for Atari's first vector game, Lunar Lander. When it was decided that Asteroids would be a vector game as well, Delman modified a Lunar Lander circuit board for Ed Logg. More memory was added, as was the circuitry for the many sounds in the game. That original Asteroids prototype board still exists, and is currently in Delman's personal collection. For each picture frame, the 6502 writes graphics commands for the DVG into a defined area of RAM (the vector RAM), and then asks the DVG to draw the corresponding vector image on the screen. The DVG reads the commands and generates appropriate signals for the vector monitor. There are DVG commands for positioning the cathode ray, for drawing a line to a specified destination, calling a subroutine with further commands, and so on. Asteroids also features various sound effects, each of which is implemented by its own circuitry. There are seven distinct audio circuits, designed by Howard Delman. The CPU activates these audio circuits (and other hardware components) by writing to special memory addresses (memory mapped ports). The inputs from the player's controls (buttons) are also mapped into the CPU address space The main Asteroids game program uses only 6 KB of ROM code. Another 2 KB of vector ROM contains the descriptions of the main graphical elements (rocks, saucer, player's ship, explosion pictures, letters, and digits) in the form of DVG commands. Legacy Due to the game's success, a sequel followed in 1980 dubbed Asteroids Deluxe. Though similar to the original game, several changes and additions occurred, with the onscreen objects now tinted blue and a shield that depleted with use replacing the hyperspace feature. In addition a new enemy dubbed a killer satellite was added to the game, and would break apart into two smaller ships that homed on the player's position if shot. Another two sequels followed this, Space Duel in 1982 and Blasteroids in 1987. The Killer List of Videogames (KLOV) credits this game as one of the "Top 100 Videogames." Readers of the KLOV credit it as the seventh most popular game. The gameplay in Asteroids was imitated by many games that followed. For example, one of the objects of Sinistar is to shoot asteroids in order to get them to release resources which the player needs to collect. Ports Xbox Live Arcade port. Asteroids has been ported to multiple systems, including many of Atari's systems (Atari 2600, 7800, Atari Lynx) and many others. The 2600 port was the first game to utilize a bank-switched cartridge, doubling available ROM space. A port was in development for the 5200 and advertised as a launch title but never officially released, although an unofficial release was produced by AtariAge. 1993 saw a release for PCs with Windows 3.1 as part of the original Microsoft Arcade package. Also, a new version of Asteroids was developed for PlayStation, Nintendo 64, Windows, and the Game Boy Color in the late 1990s. A port was also included on Atari's Cosmos system, but the system never saw release. Many of the recent TV Games series of old Atari games have included either the 2600 or arcade versions of Asteroids. Atari has also used the game for its other late '90s and 2000's anthology series. In 2004, Asteroids (Including both the Atari 2600 port and the arcade original, along with Asteroids Deluxe) were included as part of Atari Anthology for both Xbox and PlayStation 2, using Digital Eclipse's emulation technology. (This package was released for the PC a year earlier under the title Atari: 80 Classic Games in One.) Asteroids was released via Xbox Live Arcade for the Xbox 360 on November 28, 2007, with an option for special revamped HD graphics and a high-speed "throttle monkey" mode. Gamerscore Blog, XBLA announcement Glu Mobile released a licensed cellular phone version of Asteroids that includes the original game as well as updated gameplay, skins, and modes. http://www.glu.com/noram/pages/product.aspx?pr=Asteroids Also, a port for Rockbox was released, named "Spacerocks". Clones and bootlegs There have been countless unofficial ports of Asteroids produced. These include near-copies such as Acornsoft's Meteors and Ambrosia Software's Maelstrom, as well as those with expanded gameplay and background, such as Astrogeddon, Stardust, Spheres of Chaos and Astro Fire. The Vectrex had a built-in similar game called "Minestorm". Record-breaking gameplay On November 13, 1982, 15-year-old Scott Safran of Cherry Hill, NJ, set a world record of 41,336,440 points on the classic arcade game Asteroids. He beat the 40,101,910-point score set by Leo Daniels of Carolina Beach on February 6, 1982. To congratulate Safran on his accomplishment, the Twin Galaxies Intergalactic Scoreboard searched for him for four years, until 2002, when it was discovered that he had died in an accident in 1989 Nov. 13, 1982: Teen Sets Asteroids Record in 3-Day Marathon . In a ceremony in Philadelphia on April 27, 2002, Walter Day of Twin Galaxies presented an award to the surviving members of Safran's family, commemorating the Asteroid Champion's achievement. Asteroids in popular culture In 1982, Buckner and Garcia recorded a song titled "Hyperspace", using sound effects from the game, and released it on the album Pac-Man Fever. In the episode Blue Harvest of Family Guy, when the Millennium Falcon comes out of hyperspace, it emerges into "an asteroid field." Through the cockpit windows is the main screen of Asteroids. References External links Atari's official online version of Asteroids Atari Times: All About Asteroids Article at The Dot Eaters, featuring a history of Asteroids Asteroids in the news Missing Asteroids Champion to receive Posthumous Award Missing Asteroids champ found dead in California, CNN.COM, March 19, 2002 The Disappearing Asteroids Ace -- Newsweek.com, April 22, 2002 After 20 Years, Master Gamester Finally honored - Philadelphia Inquirer, Philadelphia, PA, April 28, 2002
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3,157
STS-51-F
STS-51-F (Spacelab 2) was the eighth flight of Space Shuttle Challenger, and the nineteenth shuttle flight. The payload with most publicity was the Carbonated Beverage Dispenser Evaluation, which was an experiment where both Coca-Cola and Pepsi tried to make their drinks available to astronauts. Both fizzed excessively in the low cabin pressure.. Crew Number in parentheses indicates number of spaceflights by each individual prior to and including this mission. C. Gordon Fullerton (2) - Commander Roy D. Bridges, Jr. (1) - Pilot F. Story Musgrave (2) - Mission Specialist Anthony W. England (1) - Mission Specialist Karl G. Henize (1) - Mission Specialist Loren W. Acton (1) - Payload Specialist John-David F. Bartoe (1) - Payload Specialist Backup crew George W. Simon - Payload Specialist Diane K. Prinz - Payload Specialist Mission parameters Mass: Orbiter Liftoff: 114,590 kg Orbiter Landing: 98,307 kg Payload: 15,603 kg Perigee: 203 km Apogee: 337 km Inclination: 49.5° Period: 89.9 min Mission highlights View of experiments in the payload bay The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (RMS). STS-51F was the 50th U.S. manned spaceflight. Primary payload was Spacelab-2. Despite an abort to orbit, which required mission replanning, the mission was declared a success. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the igloo, located at head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. The flight marked the first time the ESA Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Tony England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission. Launch Launch took place at July 29, 1985, 5:00:00 p.m. EDT. The countdown on July 12 had been halted at T-3 seconds after main engine ignition when a malfunction of number two Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) coolant valve caused shutdown of all three main engines. The launch was delayed one hour, 37 minutes due to a problem with the table maintenance block update uplink. Five minutes and 45 seconds into ascent, number one main engine shut down prematurely due to a faulty high temperature sensor. To date, this has been the only in-flight main engine failure of the shuttle program. At about the same time, a second main engine almost shut down because of a similar problem, but this was observed and inhibited by a fast acting flight controller. The failed SSME resulted in an Abort To Orbit (ATO) trajectory, whereby the shuttle achieves a lower than planned orbital altitude. The weight of the orbiter at launch was 252,855 lb (114.693 t). Landing On August 6, 1985, at 12:45:26 p.m. PDT, Challenger landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Rollout distance was 8,569 ft (2.612 km). The mission was extended 17 orbits for additional payload activities due to the abort-to-orbit. Weight at landing time was 216,735 lb (98.309 t). The orbiter arrived back at Kennedy Space Center on August 11, 1985. Mission insignia The mission insignia was designed by Houston artist Skip Bradley. The Space Shuttle Challenger is depicted ascending toward the heavens in search of new knowledge in the field of solar and stellar astronomy, with its Spacelab 2 payload. The constellations Leo and Orion are in the positions they will be in, relative to the Sun during the flight. The nineteen stars signify that this will be the 19th STS flight. See also Space science Space shuttle List of space shuttle missions List of human spaceflights chronologically External links NASA mission summary Press Kit STS-51F Video Highlights Space Coke Can Carbonated Drinks in Space
STS-51-F |@lemmatized sts:4 f:3 spacelab:5 eighth:1 flight:7 space:10 shuttle:8 challenger:3 nineteenth:1 payload:10 publicity:1 carbonated:1 beverage:1 dispenser:1 evaluation:1 experiment:3 coca:1 cola:1 pepsi:1 try:1 make:2 drink:2 available:1 astronaut:1 fizzed:1 excessively:1 low:2 cabin:1 pressure:1 crew:2 number:4 parenthesis:1 indicate:1 spaceflight:3 individual:1 prior:1 include:1 mission:15 c:1 gordon:1 fullerton:1 commander:1 roy:1 bridge:1 jr:1 pilot:1 story:1 musgrave:1 specialist:7 anthony:1 w:3 england:2 karl:1 g:1 henize:1 loren:1 acton:1 john:1 david:1 bartoe:1 backup:1 george:1 simon:1 diane:1 k:1 prinz:1 parameter:1 mass:1 orbiter:5 liftoff:1 kg:3 landing:3 perigee:1 km:3 apogee:1 inclination:1 period:1 min:1 highlight:2 view:1 bay:1 plasma:2 diagnostics:1 package:1 pdp:1 grapple:1 remote:1 manipulator:1 system:4 rms:1 u:1 man:1 primary:1 despite:1 abort:3 orbit:5 require:1 replanning:1 declare:1 success:1 special:1 part:1 modular:1 igloo:1 locate:1 head:1 three:2 pallet:2 train:1 provide:1 site:1 support:1 instrument:3 mount:1 main:7 objective:1 verify:1 performance:1 determine:1 interface:1 capability:1 measure:1 environment:1 create:1 spacecraft:1 cover:1 life:1 science:2 physic:3 astronomy:2 high:2 energy:1 astrophysics:1 solar:2 atmospheric:1 technology:1 research:1 mark:1 first:1 time:3 esa:1 point:2 ip:1 test:1 unique:1 design:2 accuracy:1 one:3 arcsecond:1 initially:1 problem:4 experience:1 command:1 track:1 sun:2 series:1 software:1 fix:1 correct:1 addition:1 tony:1 become:1 second:4 amateur:1 radio:1 operator:1 transmit:1 launch:4 take:1 place:1 july:2 p:2 edt:1 countdown:1 halt:1 engine:6 ignition:1 malfunction:1 two:1 ssme:2 coolant:1 valve:1 cause:1 shutdown:1 delay:1 hour:1 minute:2 due:3 table:1 maintenance:1 block:1 update:1 uplink:1 five:1 ascent:1 shut:2 prematurely:1 faulty:1 temperature:1 sensor:1 date:1 failure:1 program:1 almost:1 similar:1 observe:1 inhibit:1 fast:1 acting:1 controller:1 failed:1 result:1 ato:1 trajectory:1 whereby:1 achieve:1 plan:1 orbital:1 altitude:1 weight:2 lb:2 august:2 pdt:1 land:1 edward:1 air:1 force:1 base:1 california:1 rollout:1 distance:1 ft:1 extend:1 additional:1 activity:1 arrive:1 back:1 kennedy:1 center:1 insignia:2 houston:1 artist:1 skip:1 bradley:1 depict:1 ascend:1 toward:1 heaven:1 search:1 new:1 knowledge:1 field:1 stellar:1 constellation:1 leo:1 orion:1 position:1 relative:1 nineteen:1 star:1 signify:1 see:1 also:1 list:2 human:1 chronologically:1 external:1 link:1 nasa:1 summary:1 press:1 kit:1 video:1 coke:1 carbonate:1 |@bigram space_shuttle:5 shuttle_challenger:2 carbonated_beverage:1 coca_cola:1 cola_pepsi:1 backup_crew:1 perigee_km:1 external_link:1
3,158
Labour_economics
Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the market for labour. Labour markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers), the demanders of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. It is an important subject because unemployment is a problem that affects the public most directly and severely. Full employment (or reduced unemployment) is a goal of many modern governments. Other often studied markets are financial market and product market. In economics, labour (or labor) is a measure of the work done by human beings. It is conventionally contrasted with such other factors of production as land and capital. There are theories which have developed a concept called human capital (referring to the skills that workers possess, not necessarily their actual work), although there are also counter posing macro-economic system theories that think human capital is a contradiction in terms. Compensation and measurement Wage is a basic compensation for paid labour, and the compensation for labour per period of time is referred to as the wage rate. The two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Other frequently used terms include: wage = payment per unit of time (typically an hour) earnings = payment accrued over a period (typically a week, a month, or a year) total compensation = earnings + other benefits for labour income = total compensation + unearned income economic rent = total compensation - opportunity cost Economists measure labour in terms of hours worked, total wages, or efficiency. total cost = fixed cost + variable cost Demand for labour and wage determination Labour demand is a derived demand, in other words the employer's cost of production is the wage, in which the business or firm benefits from an increased output or revenue. The determinants of employing the addition to labour depends on the Marginal Revenue Product (MRP) of the worker. The MRP is calculated by multiplying the price of the end product or service by the Marginal Physical Product of the worker. If the MRP is greater than a firm's Marginal Cost, then the firm will employ the worker. The firm only employs however up to the point where MRP=MC, not lower, in economic theory. Wage differences exist, particularly in mixed and fully/partly flexible labour markets. For example, the wages of a doctor and a port cleaner, both employed by the NHS, differ greatly. But why? There are many factors concerning this issue. This includes the MRP (see above) of the worker. A doctor's MRP is far greater than that of the port cleaner. In addition, the barriers to becoming a doctor are far greater than that of becoming a port cleaner. For example to become a doctor takes a lot of education and training which is costly, and only those who are socially and intellectually advantaged can succeed in such a demanding profession. The port cleaner however requires minimal training. The supply of doctors therefore would be much more inelastic than the supply of port cleaners. The demand would also be inelastic as there is a high demand for doctors, so the NHS will pay higher wage rates to attract the profession. Marxian economics In Marxian economics, the aim of labour economics is to provide insight and guidance for the optimal allocation of cooperative human labour. However, this optimality is not simply viewed as a "technical variable" as in micro-economics, because workers are not simply a "factor of production", but human beings who organize themselves and each other. Forms of labour cooperation can be oppressive, irrational and exploitative, or they can be beneficial, rational, or effective. That is to say, labour economics has a political dimension insofar as different workers and employers have different interests. There is a workers' point of view and an employer's point of view. Marxian economists argue that the reason why labour economics receives little attention is because it has become viewed as a management issue. But this may hide that a particular form of organizing labour has little to do with economic efficiency, and more with getting a high income from an activity. Marxian economists believe that ultimately the most desirable form of labour organization in the workplace is where workers manage themselves collectively, and elect managers where necessary; too much management is inefficient, it just means that people get high incomes for doing very little, capitalizing on specialized knowledge or qualifications. Two ways of analysing labour markets There are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can generally be seen as the application of microeconomic or macroeconomic techniques to the labour market. Microeconomic techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the labour market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the labour market, the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how these interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income and Gross Domestic Product. (Morendy Octora) The macroeconomics of labour markets The labour force is defined as the number of individuals age 16 and over, excluding those in the military, who are either employed or actively looking for work. The participation rate is the number of people in the labour force divided by the size of the adult civilian noninstitutional population (or by the population of working age that is not institutionalised). The nonlabour force includes those who are not looking for work, those who are institutionalised such as in prisons or psychiatric wards, stay-at home spouses, children, and those serving in the military. The unemployment level is defined as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed. The unemployment rate is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force. The employment rate is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the adult population (or by the population of working age). In these statistics, self-employed people are counted as employed. Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and unfilled vacancies are called stock variables because they measure a quantity at a point in time. They can be contrasted with flow variables which measure a quantity over a duration of time. Changes in the labour force are due to flow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants, and retirements from the labour force. Changes in unemployment depend on: inflows made up of non-employed people starting to look for jobs and of employed people who lose their jobs and look for new ones; and outflows of people who find new employment and of people who stop looking for employment. When looking at the overall macroeconomy, several types of unemployment have been identified, including: Frictional unemployment — This reflects the fact that it takes time for people to find and settle into new jobs. If 12 individuals each take one month before they start a new job, the aggregate unemployment statistics will record this as a single unemployed worker. Technological change often reduces frictional unemployment, for example: the internet made job searches cheaper and more comprehensive. Structural unemployment — This reflects a mismatch between the skills and other attributes of the labour force and those demanded by employers. If 4 workers each take six months off to re-train before they start a new job, the aggregate unemployment statistics will record this as two unemployed workers. Technological change often increases structural unemployment, for example: technological change might require workers to re-train. Natural rate of unemployment — This is the summation of frictional and structural unemployment. It is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can expect to achieve, seeing as some frictional and structural unemployment is inevitable. Economists do not agree on the natural rate, with estimates ranging from 1% to 5%, or on its meaning — some associate it with "non-accelerating inflation". The estimated rate varies from country to country and from time to time. Demand deficient unemployment — In Keynesian economics, any level of unemployment beyond the natural rate is most likely due to insufficient demand in the overall economy. During a recession, aggregate expenditure is deficient causing the underutilisation of inputs (including labour). Aggregate expenditure (AE) can be increased, according to Keynes, by increasing consumption spending (C), increasing investment spending (I), increasing government spending (G), or increasing the net of exports minus imports (X−M). {AE = C + I + G + (X−M)} (Morendy Octoras) Neoclassical microeconomics of labour markets Economists see the labour market as similar to any other market in that the forces of supply and demand jointly determine price (in this case the wage rate) and quantity (in this case the number of people employed). However, the labour market differs from other markets (like the markets for goods or the money market) in several ways. Perhaps the most important of these differences is the function of supply and demand in setting price and quantity. In markets for goods, if the price is high there is a tendency in the long run for more goods to be produced until the demand is satisfied. With labour, overall supply cannot effectively be manufactured because people have a limited amount of time in the day, and people are not manufactured. A rise in overall wages will, in many situations, not result in more supply of labour: it may result in less supply of labour as workers take more time off to spend their increased wages, or it may result in no change in supply. Within the overall labour market, particular segments are thought to be subject to more normal rules of supply and demand as workers are likely to change job types in response to differing wage rates. Many economists have thought that, in the absence of laws or organisations such as unions or large multinational corporations, labour markets can be close to perfectly competitive in the economic sense — that is, there are many workers and employers both having perfect information about each other and there are no transaction costs. The competitive assumption leads to clear conclusions — workers earn their marginal product of labour. Other economists focus on deviations from perfectly competitive labour markets. These include job search, training and gaining-of-experience costs to switch between job types, efficiency wage models and oligopsony / monopsonistic competition. Neoclassical microeconomic model — Supply See also Labor supply Households are suppliers of labor. In microeconomics theory, people are assumed rational and seeking to maximize their utility function. In this labor market model, their utility function is determined by the choice between income and leisure. However, they are constrained by the waking hours available to them. Let w denote hourly wage. Let k denote total waking hours. Let L denote working hours. Let π denote other incomes or benefits. Let A denote leisure hours. The utility function and budget constraint can be expressed as following: max U(w L + π, A) such that L + A ≤ k. This can be shown in a that illustrates the trade-off between allocating your time between leisure activities and income generating activities. The linear constraint line indicates that there are only 24 hours in a day, and individuals must choose how much of this time to allocate to leisure activities and how much to working. (If multiple days are being considered the maximum number of hours that could be allocated towards leisure or work is about 16 due to the necessity of sleep) This allocation decision is informed by the curved indifference curve labeled IC. The curve indicates the combinations of leisure and work that will give the individual a specific level of utility. The point where the highest indifference curve is just tangent to the constraint line (point A), illustrates the short-run equilibrium for this supplier of labor services. Income/Leisure trade-off in the short runThe Income/Leisure trade-off in the short run If the preference for consumption is measured by the value of income obtained, rather than work hours, this diagram can be used to show a variety of interesting effects. This is because the slope of the budget constraint becomes the wage rate. The point of optimization (point A) reflects the equivalency between the wage rate and the marginal rate of substitution, leisure for income (the slope of the indifference curve). Because the marginal rate of substitution, leisure for income, is also the ratio of the marginal utility of leisure (MUL) to the marginal utility of income (MUY), one can conclude: Effects of a wage increaseEffects of a wage increase If wages increase, this individual's constraint line pivots up from X,Y1 to X,Y2. He/she can now purchase more goods and services. His/her utility will increase from point A on IC1 to point B on IC2. To understand what effect this might have on the decision of how many hours to work, you must look at the income effect and substitution effect. The wage increase shown in the previous diagram can be decompiled into two separate effects. The pure income effect is shown as the movement from point A to point C in the next diagram. Consumption increases from YA to YC and — assuming leisure is a normal good — leisure time increases from XA to XC (employment time decreases by the same amount; XA to XC). The Income and Substitution effects of a wage increaseThe Income and Substitution effects of a wage increase But that is only part of the picture. As the wage rate rises, the worker will substitute work hours for leisure hours, that is, will work more hours to take advantage of the higher wage rate, or in other words substitute away from leisure because of its higher opportunity cost. This substitution effect is represented by the shift from point C to point B. The net impact of these two effects is shown by the shift from point A to point B. The relative magnitude of the two effects depends on the circumstances. In some cases the substitution effect is greater than the income effect (in which case more time will be allocated to working), but in other cases the income effect will be greater than the substitution effect (in which case less time is allocated to working). The intuition behind this latter case is that the worker has reached the point where his marginal utility of leisure outweighs his marginal utility of income. To put it in less formal (and less accurate) terms: there is no point in earning more money if you don't have the time to spend it. The Labour Supply curveThe Labour Supply curve If the substitution effect is greater than the income effect, the labour supply curve (diagram to the left) will slope upwards to the right, as it does at point E for example. This individual will continue to increase his supply of labor services as the wage rate increases up to point F where he is working HF hours (each period of time). Beyond this point he will start to reduce the amount of labor hours he supplies (for example at point G he has reduced his work hours to HG). Where the supply curve is sloping upwards to the right (positive wage elasticity of labor supply), the substitution effect is greater than the income effect. Where it slopes upwards to the left (negative elasticity), the income effect is greater than the substitution effect. The direction of slope may change more than once for some individuals, and the labor supply curve is likely to be different for different individuals. Other variables that affect this decision include taxation, welfare, and work environment. Neoclassical microeconomic model — Demand This article has examined the labour supply curve which illustrates at every wage rate the maximum quantity of hours a worker will be willing to supply to the economy per period of time. Economists also need to know the maximum quantity of hours an employer will demand at every wage rate. To understand the quantity of hours demanded per period of time it is necessary to look at product production. That is, labour demand is a derived demand: it is derived from the output levels in the goods market. A firm's labour demand is based on its marginal physical product of labour (MPL). This is defined as the additional output (or physical product) that results from an increase of one unit of labour (or from an infinitesimally small increase in labour). If you are not familiar with these concepts, you might want to look at production theory basics before continuing with this article. The Marginal Physical Product of LabourThe Marginal Physical Product of Labour In most industries, and over the relevant range of outputs, the marginal physical product of labour is declining. That is, as more and more units of labour are employed, their additional output begins to decline. This is reflected by the slope of the MPPL curve in the diagram to the right. If the marginal physical product of labour is multiplied by the value of the output that it produces, we obtain the Value of marginal physical product of labour: MPPL * PQ = VMPPL The value of marginal physical product of labour (VMPPL) is the value of the additional output produced by an additional unit of labour. This is illustrated in the diagram by the VMPPL curve that is above the MPPL. In competitive industries, the VMPPL is in identity with the marginal revenue product of labour (MRPL). This is because in competitive markets price is equal to marginal revenue, and marginal revenue product is defined as the marginal physical product times the marginal revenue from the output (MRP = MPP * MR). A Firm's Labour Demand in the Short RunA Firm's Labour Demand in the Short Run The marginal revenue product of labour can be used as the demand for labour curve for this firm in the short run. In competitive markets, a firm faces a perfectly elastic supply of labour which corresponds with the wage rate and the marginal resource cost of labour (W = SL = MFCL). In imperfect markets, the diagram would have to be adjusted because MFCL would then be equal to the wage rate divided by marginal costs. Because optimum resource allocation requires that marginal factor costs equal marginal revenue product, this firm would demand L units of labour as shown in the diagram. Neoclassical microeconomic model — Equilibrium The demand for labour of this firm can be summed with the demand for labour of all other firms in the economy to obtain the aggregate demand for labour. Likewise, the supply curves of all the individual workers (mentioned above) can be summed to obtain the aggregate supply of labour. These supply and demand curves can be analysed in the same way as any other industry demand and supply curves to determine equilibrium wage and employment levels. (Morendy Octora) Information Approaches Since the 1970s some attention has shifted to the information characteristics of the labour market. In the classical model it is assumed that both sides know how much work effort and marginal product the employee contributes. In many real-life situations this is far from the case. The firm does not necessarily know how hard a worker is working or how productive they are. This provides an incentive for workers to shirk from providing their full effort — since it is difficult for the employer to identify the hard-working and the shirking employees, there is no incentive to work hard and productivity falls overall. The methods used to overcome this type of problem have been studied by modern labour economists. One solution used recently (stock options) grants employees the chance to benefit directly from the firm's success. However, this solution has attracted criticism as executives with large stock option packages have been suspected of acting to over-inflate share values to the detriment of the long-run welfare of the firm. Another aspect of uncertainty results from the firm's imperfect knowledge about worker ability. If a firm is unsure about a worker's ability, it pays a wage assuming that the worker's ability is the average of similar workers. This wage undercompenstates high ability workers and may drive them away from the labour market. Such phenomenon is called adverse selection and can sometimes lead to market collapse. There are many ways to overcome adverse selection in labour market. One important mechanism is called signalling, pioneered by Michael Spence. In his classical paper on job signalling, Spence showed that even if education does not increase productivity, high ability workers may still acquire it just to signal their abilities. Employers can then use education as a signal to infer worker ability and pay higher wages to better educated workers. Search models One of the major research achievements of the last 20 years has been the development of a framework with dynamic search, matching, and bargaining. Work started in the early 1980s with contributions from Peter A. Diamond, Dale T. Mortensen and others which characterised equilibrium in such model economies. Later, this framework was tailored to the labour market. More recently, Mortensen and Christopher A. Pissarides have extended the framework to include labour market institutions such as unemployment insurance and employment protection. Criticisms of labour economics and recent research One critique of standard economic analysis of labour markets is that it does not account for the importance of social networks in the employment process. This view holds that personal connections are key for both workers and employees. Hence, employees are more likely to apply for jobs where they have a personal connection, and are more likely to be hired if they apply. In response to this issue, a large literature has recently evolved that attempts to identify statistical discrimination in hiring, looking at whether group membership, most notably race, influences firms' hiring decisions. More generally, sociologists and political economists claim that labour economics tends to lose sight of the complexity of individual employment decisions. These decisions, particularly on the supply side, are often loaded with considerable emotional baggage and a purely numerical analysis can miss important dimensions of the process. Also missing from most labour market analyses is the role of unpaid labour. Even though this type of labour is unpaid it can nevertheless play an important part in society. The most dramatic example is child raising. However, over the past 25 years an increasing literature, usually designated as the economics of the family, has sought to study within household decision making, including joint labour supply, fertility, child raising, as well as other areas of what is generally referred to as home production. (Sandiaga S. Unno, Anindya N Bakrie, Rosan Perkasa, Morendy Octora : The Young Strategic Renaissance's In Asia) See also Wages Frisch elasticity of labor supply Unemployment Beveridge curve Consumer theory Production theory basics Microeconomics Labour power Monopsony Employment Protection Legislation Labour market flexibility Economic rent Compensation of employees Employment Human resources Human Resource Management Systems Offshore outsourcing Profession Retirement human capital housework manual labour slavery unfree labour volunteer wage slavery wage labour Cost the limit of price Demographic economics Notes References Orley C. Ashenfelter and Richard Layard, ed., 1984, Handbook of Labor Economics. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Richard Blundell and Thomas MaCurdy, 2008. "labour supply," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition Abstract. Freeman, R.B., 1987. "Labour economics," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 72–76. John R. Hicks, 1932, 2nd ed., 1963. The Theory of Wages. London, Macmillan. Mark R. Killingsworth, 1983. Labor Supply. Cambridge: Cambridge Surveys of Economic Literature. Jacob Mincer, 1974. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York: Columbia University Press. Anindya Bakrie & Morendy Octora, 2002. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York, Singapore National University : Columbia University Press. Simon Head, The New Ruthless Economy. Work and Power in the Digital Age, Oxford UP 2005, ISBN 0-19-517983-8 L. Ali Khan, The Dignity of Labor External links Ageing workers EU-OSHA Morendy Octora The Labour Economics Gateway - Collection of Internet sites that are of interest to labour economists Labor & Worklife Program at Harvard Law School, Changing Labor Markets Project W.E. Upjohn Institute & Anindya N Bakrie for Employment Research ILO: Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM). 5. ed. Sept. 2007 LaborFair Resources - Link to Fair Labor Practices Labor Research Network - Labuor research programme treating various fields
Labour_economics |@lemmatized labour:99 economics:21 seek:3 understand:4 functioning:1 dynamic:2 market:41 function:5 interaction:2 worker:35 employer:10 look:13 supplier:3 service:6 demander:1 attempt:2 result:6 pattern:1 wage:39 employment:15 income:25 important:5 subject:2 unemployment:22 problem:2 affect:2 public:1 directly:2 severely:1 full:2 reduce:4 goal:1 many:8 modern:2 government:2 often:4 study:4 financial:1 product:21 labor:17 measure:5 work:25 human:8 conventionally:1 contrast:2 factor:4 production:7 land:1 capital:4 theory:8 develop:1 concept:2 call:4 refer:3 skill:2 possess:1 necessarily:2 actual:1 although:1 also:7 counter:1 pose:1 macro:2 economic:8 system:2 think:3 contradiction:1 term:5 compensation:7 measurement:1 basic:3 pay:4 per:4 period:5 time:20 rate:24 two:7 sometimes:2 use:7 interchangeably:1 frequently:1 include:9 payment:2 unit:5 typically:2 hour:19 earnings:4 accrue:1 week:1 month:3 year:3 total:6 benefit:4 unearned:1 rent:2 opportunity:2 cost:13 economist:11 efficiency:3 fix:1 variable:8 demand:28 determination:1 derived:2 word:2 business:1 firm:19 increase:21 output:8 revenue:8 determinant:1 employ:10 addition:2 depends:1 marginal:28 mrp:7 calculate:1 multiply:2 price:6 end:1 physical:10 great:8 however:7 point:22 mc:1 low:2 difference:2 exist:1 particularly:2 mixed:1 fully:1 partly:1 flexible:1 example:7 doctor:6 port:5 cleaner:5 nh:2 differ:1 greatly:1 concern:1 issue:3 see:6 far:3 barrier:1 become:5 take:6 lot:1 education:3 training:3 costly:1 socially:1 intellectually:1 advantage:2 succeed:1 profession:3 require:3 minimal:1 supply:31 therefore:1 would:5 much:5 inelastic:2 high:11 attract:2 marxian:4 aim:1 provide:3 insight:1 guidance:1 optimal:1 allocation:3 cooperative:1 optimality:1 simply:2 view:5 technical:1 micro:1 organize:2 form:3 cooperation:1 oppressive:1 irrational:1 exploitative:1 beneficial:1 rational:2 effective:1 say:1 political:2 dimension:2 insofar:1 different:4 interest:2 argue:1 reason:1 receive:1 little:3 attention:2 management:3 may:6 hide:1 particular:2 get:2 activity:4 believe:1 ultimately:1 desirable:1 organization:1 workplace:1 manage:1 collectively:1 elect:1 manager:1 necessary:2 inefficient:1 mean:1 people:14 capitalize:1 specialized:1 knowledge:2 qualification:1 way:4 analyse:2 side:3 generally:3 application:1 microeconomic:5 macroeconomic:2 technique:3 role:2 individual:12 interrelation:1 good:7 money:3 foreign:1 trade:4 influence:2 level:9 participation:2 aggregate:7 gross:1 domestic:1 morendy:6 octora:5 macroeconomics:1 force:10 define:6 number:6 age:5 exclude:1 military:2 either:1 employed:3 actively:1 divide:4 size:1 adult:2 civilian:1 noninstitutional:1 population:5 institutionalise:2 nonlabour:1 prison:1 psychiatric:1 ward:1 stay:1 home:2 spouse:1 child:3 serve:1 minus:2 currently:2 statistic:3 self:1 count:1 like:2 unfilled:1 vacancy:1 stock:3 quantity:7 flow:2 duration:1 change:9 due:3 natural:4 growth:1 net:3 immigration:1 new:11 entrant:1 retirement:2 depend:2 inflow:1 make:2 non:2 start:5 job:11 lose:2 one:8 outflow:1 find:2 stop:1 overall:6 macroeconomy:1 several:2 type:5 identify:3 frictional:4 reflect:4 fact:1 settle:1 record:2 single:1 unemployed:2 technological:3 internet:2 search:4 cheap:1 comprehensive:1 structural:4 mismatch:1 attribute:1 six:1 train:2 might:3 summation:1 stable:1 economy:6 expect:1 achieve:1 inevitable:1 agree:1 estimate:2 range:2 meaning:1 associate:1 accelerate:1 inflation:1 varies:1 country:2 deficient:2 keynesian:1 beyond:2 likely:5 insufficient:1 recession:1 expenditure:2 cause:1 underutilisation:1 input:1 ae:2 accord:1 keynes:1 consumption:3 spending:3 c:5 investment:1 g:3 export:1 import:1 x:4 octoras:1 neoclassical:4 microeconomics:3 similar:2 jointly:1 determine:3 case:8 differs:1 perhaps:1 setting:1 tendency:1 long:2 run:6 produce:3 satisfied:1 cannot:1 effectively:1 manufacture:2 limited:1 amount:3 day:3 rise:2 situation:2 less:4 spend:2 within:2 segment:1 normal:2 rule:1 response:2 differing:1 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previous:1 decompiled:1 separate:1 pure:1 movement:1 next:1 ya:1 yc:1 xa:2 xc:2 decrease:1 increasethe:1 part:2 picture:1 substitute:2 away:2 represent:1 shift:3 impact:1 relative:1 magnitude:1 circumstance:1 intuition:1 behind:1 latter:1 reach:1 outweigh:1 put:1 formal:1 accurate:1 curvethe:1 left:2 upwards:3 right:3 e:2 continue:2 f:1 hf:1 hg:1 slop:2 positive:1 elasticity:3 negative:1 direction:1 taxation:1 welfare:2 environment:1 article:2 examine:1 every:2 willing:1 need:1 know:3 derive:1 base:1 mpl:1 additional:4 infinitesimally:1 small:1 familiar:1 want:1 labourthe:1 industry:3 relevant:1 decline:2 begin:1 mppl:3 pq:1 vmppl:4 identity:1 mrpl:1 equal:3 mpp:1 mr:1 runa:1 face:1 elastic:1 correspond:1 resource:5 sl:1 mfcl:2 imperfect:2 adjust:1 optimum:1 sum:2 likewise:1 mention:1 approach:1 since:2 characteristic:1 classical:2 effort:2 employee:6 contributes:1 real:1 life:1 hard:3 productive:1 incentive:2 shirk:1 difficult:1 working:1 shirking:1 productivity:2 fall:1 method:1 overcome:2 solution:2 recently:3 option:2 grant:1 chance:1 success:1 criticism:2 executive:1 package:1 suspect:1 act:1 inflate:1 share:1 detriment:1 another:1 aspect:1 uncertainty:1 ability:7 unsure:1 average:1 undercompenstates:1 drive:1 phenomenon:1 adverse:2 selection:2 collapse:1 mechanism:1 signalling:2 pioneer:1 michael:1 spence:2 paper:1 even:2 still:1 acquire:1 signal:2 infer:1 well:2 educate:1 major:1 research:5 achievement:1 last:1 development:1 framework:3 matching:1 bargaining:1 early:1 contribution:1 peter:1 diamond:1 dale:1 mortensen:2 others:1 characterise:1 later:1 tailor:1 christopher:1 pissarides:1 extend:1 institution:1 insurance:1 protection:2 recent:1 critique:1 standard:1 analysis:3 account:1 importance:1 social:1 network:2 process:2 hold:1 personal:2 connection:2 key:2 hence:1 apply:2 hire:1 literature:3 evolve:1 statistical:1 discrimination:1 hiring:2 whether:1 group:1 membership:1 notably:1 race:1 sociologist:1 claim:1 tends:1 sight:1 complexity:1 load:1 considerable:1 emotional:1 baggage:1 purely:1 numerical:1 miss:2 unpaid:2 though:1 nevertheless:1 play:1 society:1 dramatic:1 raise:1 past:1 usually:1 designate:1 family:1 making:1 joint:1 fertility:1 raising:1 area:1 sandiaga:1 unno:1 anindya:3 n:2 bakrie:3 rosan:1 perkasa:1 young:1 strategic:1 renaissance:1 asia:1 wag:1 frisch:1 beveridge:1 consumer:1 power:2 monopsony:1 legislation:1 flexibility:1 offshore:1 outsource:1 housework:1 manual:1 slavery:2 unfree:1 volunteer:1 limit:1 demographic:1 note:1 reference:1 orley:1 ashenfelter:1 richard:2 layard:1 ed:3 handbook:1 amsterdam:1 north:1 holland:1 blundell:1 thomas:1 macurdy:1 palgrave:2 dictionary:2 edition:1 abstract:1 freeman:1 r:3 v:1 pp:1 john:1 hick:1 london:1 macmillan:1 mark:1 killingsworth:1 cambridge:2 survey:1 jacob:1 mincer:1 school:3 york:2 columbia:2 university:3 press:2 singapore:1 national:1 simon:1 head:1 ruthless:1 digital:1 oxford:1 isbn:1 ali:1 khan:1 dignity:1 external:1 link:2 eu:1 osha:1 gateway:1 collection:1 site:1 worklife:1 program:1 harvard:1 project:1 upjohn:1 institute:1 ilo:1 indicator:1 kilm:1 sept:1 laborfair:1 fair:1 practice:1 labuor:1 programme:1 treat:1 various:1 field:1 |@bigram marginal_revenue:7 marxian_economics:2 optimal_allocation:1 gross_domestic:1 unemployment_rate:1 keynesian_economics:1 multinational_corporation:1 perfectly_competitive:2 maximize_utility:1 marginal_utility:4 infinitesimally_small:1 decision_making:1 palgrave_dictionary:2 external_link:1
3,159
Gel_electrophoresis
Gel electrophoresis is a technique used for the separation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), or protein molecules using an electric current applied to a gel matrix. DNA Gel electrophoresis is generally only used after amplification of DNA via PCR. It is usually performed for analytical purposes, but may be used as a preparative technique prior to use of other methods such as mass spectrometry, RFLP, PCR, cloning, DNA sequencing, or Southern blotting for further characterization. Separation The term "gel" in this instance refers to the matrix used to contain, then separate the target molecules. In most cases, the gel is a crosslinked polymer whose composition and porosity is chosen based on the specific weight and composition of the target to be analyzed. When separating proteins or small nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, or oligonucleotides) the gel is usually composed of different concentrations of acrylamide and a cross-linker, producing different sized mesh networks of polyacrylamide. When separating larger nucleic acids (greater than a few hundred bases), the preferred matrix is purified agarose. In both cases, the gel forms a solid, yet porous matrix. Acrylamide, in contrast to polyacrylamide, is a neurotoxin and must be handled using appropriate safety precautions to avoid poisoning. Another gel matrix is agarose, long unbranched chains of uncharged carbohydrate without cross links giving a gel with large pores allowing separation of macromolecules and macromolecular complexes. "Electrophoresis" refers to the electromotive force (EMF) that is used to move the molecules through the gel matrix. By placing the molecules in wells in the gel and applying an electric current, the molecules will move through the matrix at different rates, determined largely by their mass when the charge to mass ratio (Z) of all species is uniform, toward the anode if negatively charged or toward the cathode if positively charged . Visualization I Agarose gel prepared for DNA analysis - The first lane contains a DNA ladder for sizing, and the other four lanes show variously-sized DNA fragments that are present in some but not all of the samples. After the electrophoresis is complete, the molecules in the gel can be stained to make them visible. Ethidium bromide, silver, or coomassie blue dye may be used for this process. Other methods may also be used to visualize the separation of the mixture's components on the gel. If the analyte molecules fluoresce under ultraviolet light, a photograph can be taken of the gel under ultraviolet lighting conditions. If the molecules to be separated contain radioactivity added for visibility, an autoradiogram can be recorded of the gel. If several mixtures have initially been injected next to each other, they will run parallel in individual lanes. Depending on the number of different molecules, each lane shows separation of the components from the original mixture as one or more distinct bands, one band per component. Incomplete separation of the components can lead to overlapping bands, or to indistinguishable smears representing multiple unresolved components. Bands in different lanes that end up at the same distance from the top contain molecules that passed through the gel with the same speed, which usually means they are approximately the same size. There are molecular weight size markers available that contain a mixture of molecules of known sizes. If such a marker was run on one lane in the gel parallel to the unknown samples, the bands observed can be compared to those of the unknown in order to determine their size. The distance a band travels is approximately inversely proportional to the logarithm of the size of the molecule. Applications Gel electrophoresis is used in forensics, molecular biology, genetics, microbiology and biochemistry. The results can be analyzed quantitatively by visualizing the gel with UV light and a gel imaging device. The image is recorded with a computer operated camera, and the intensity of the band or spot of interest is measured and compared against standard or markers loaded on the same gel. The measurement and analysis are mostly done with specialized software. Depending on the type of analysis being performed, other techniques are often implemented in conjunction with the results of gel electrophoresis, providing a wide range of field-specific applications. Nucleic acids In the case of nucleic acids, the direction of migration, from negative to positive electrodes, is due to the naturally-occurring negative charge carried by their sugar-phosphate backbone. Double-stranded DNA fragments naturally behave as long rods, so their migration through the gel is relative to their size or, for cyclic fragments, their radius of gyration. Single-stranded DNA or RNA tend to fold up into molecules with complex shapes and migrate through the gel in a complicated manner based on their tertiary structure. Therefore, agents that disrupt the hydrogen bonds, such as sodium hydroxide or formamide, are used to denature the nucleic acids and cause them to behave as long rods again. Troubleshooting DNA agarose gel electrophoresis. Focus 19:3 p.66 (1997). Gel electrophoresis of large DNA or RNA is usually done by agarose gel electrophoresis. See the "Chain termination method" page for an example of a polyacrylamide DNA sequencing gel. Characterization through ligand interaction of nucleic acids or fragments may be performed by mobility shift affinity electrophoresis. Proteins SDS-PAGE autoradiography - The indicated proteins are present in different concentrations in the two samples. Proteins, unlike nucleic acids, can have varying charges and complex shapes, therefore they may not migrate into the polyacryl amide gel at similar rates, or at all, when placing a negative to positive EMF on the sample. Proteins therefore, are usually denatured in the presence of a detergent such as sodium dodecyl sulfate/sodium dodecyl phosphate (SDS/SDP) that coats the proteins with a negative charge. Generally, the amount of SDS bound is relative to the size of the protein (usually 1.4g SDS per gram of protein), so that the resulting denatured proteins have an overall negative charge, and all the proteins have a similar charge to mass ratio. Since denatured proteins act like long rods instead of having a complex tertiary shape, the rate at which the resulting SDS coated proteins migrate in the gel is relative only to its size and not its charge or shape. Proteins are usually analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), by native gel electrophoresis, by quantitative preparative native continuous polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (QPNC-PAGE), or by 2-D electrophoresis. Characterization through ligand interaction may be performed by electroblotting or by affinity electrophoresis in agarose or by capillary electrophoresis as for estimation of binding constants and determination of structural features like glycan content through lectin binding. History 1930s - first reports of the use of sucrose for gel electrophoresis 1955 - introduction of starch gels, mediocre separation 1959 - introduction of acrylamide gels (Raymond and Weintraub); accurate control of parameters such as pore size and stability 1964 - disc gel electrophoresis (Ornstein and Davis) 1969 - introduction of denaturing agents especially SDS separation of protein subunit (Weber and Osborn) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5806584 1970 - Laemmli separated 28 components of T4 phage using a stacking gel and SDS 1975 - 2-dimensional gels (O’Farrell); isoelectric focusing then SDS gel electrophoresis 1977 - sequencing gels late 1970s - agarose gels 1983 - pulsed field gel electrophoresis enables separation of large DNA molecules 1983 - introduction of capillary electrophoresis A 1959 book on electrophoresis by Milan Bier cites references from the 1800s. However, Oliver Smithies made significant contributions. Bier states: "The method of Smithies ... is finding wide application because of its unique separatory power." Taken in context, Bier clearly implies that Smithies' method is an improvement. See also Affinity electrophoresis DNA electrophoresis Electroblotting Electrofocusing Gel isolation Native Gel Electrophoresis Northern blotting Protein electrophoresis SDS PAGE Southern blotting Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis Western blotting Eastern blotting Zymography References External links Biotechniques Laboratory electrophoresis demonstration, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center Discontinuous native protein gel electrophoresis Drinking straw electrophoresis
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3,160
Demographics_of_Mozambique
This article is about the demographic features of the population of Mozambique, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Makua children in Mozambique The demographics of Mozambique describes the condition and overview of Mozambique's peoples. Demographic topics include basic education, health, and population statistics as well as identified racial and religious affiliations. Ethnic groups Mozambique's major ethnic groups encompass numerous subgroups with diverse languages, dialects, cultures, and histories. Many are linked to similar ethnic groups living in inland countries. The estimated 4 million Makua are the dominant group in the northern part of the country - the Sena and Shona (mostly Ndau) are prominent in the Zambezi valley, and the Shangaan (Tsonga) dominate in southern Mozambique. Other groups include Makonde, Yao, Swahili, Tonga, Chopi, and Nguni (including Zulu). The country has also a small number of European descent residents of Portuguese ancestry. During Portuguese colonial rule, a large minority of Portuguese settlers lived permanently in almost all areas of Mozambique, and Mozambicans with Portuguese blood at the time of independence was about 260,000. Most of these left the region after its freedom in 1975, returning to Portugal where they were called retornados. There is also a small mestiço minority of Mozambicans with mixed Bantu and Portuguese heritage. The remaining Caucasians in Mozambique claim heritage from India, Pakistan, Portuguese India and Arab countries. There are various estimates for the size of Mozambique's Chinese community, ranging from 1,500 to 12,000 . Education and health Under Portugal, educational opportunities for poor Mozambicans were limited; 93% of the Bantu population was illiterate, and many could not speak Portuguese. In fact, most of today's political leaders were educated in missionary schools. After independence, the government placed a high priority on expanding education, which reduced the illiteracy rate to about two-thirds as primary school enrollment increased. Unfortunately, in recent years school construction and teacher training enrollments have not kept up with population increases. With post-war enrollments reaching all-time highs, the quality of education has suffered. As a member of Commonwealth of Nations, most urban Mozambicans are required to learn English starting high-school. Religion During the colonial era, Christian missionaries were active in Mozambique, and many foreign clergy remain in the country. According to the census 1997, about 40,6% of the population are Christians including 23.8% Catholics, 17.8% are Muslim, 17.8% adheres to traditional beliefs and 23.1% do not associate with a specific religion. Languages Portuguese is the official and most widely spoken language of the nation, but only 40% of Mozambique's population speak Portuguese as either their first or second language, and only 6.5% speak Portuguese as their first language. Arabs, Chinese, and Indians speak their own languages (Indians from Portuguese India speak any of the Portuguese Creoles of their origin) aside from Portuguese as their second language. Most educated Mozambicans speak English, which is used in schools and business as second or third language. Culture Despite the influence of Islamic coastal traders and European colonizers, the people of Mozambique have largely retained an indigenous culture based on smallscale agriculture. Mozambique's most highly developed art forms have been wood sculpture, for which the Makonde in northern Mozambique are particularly renowned, and dance. The middle and upper classes continue to be heavily influenced by the Portuguese colonial and linguistic heritage. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of Mozambique, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. People in Mozambique, the CIA World Factbook 2007 edition Population: 17,479,266 (July, 2003 est.) 20,905,585 (July, 2007 est.) 21,284,700 (July 2008 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 44.7% (male 4,692,126; female 4,647,960) (2007 est.) 43% (male 4,079,240; female 4,122,578) (2000 est.) 15-64 years: 52.5% (male 5,345,618; female 5,633,511) (2007 est.) 54% (male 5,123,178; female 5,262,618) (2000 est.) 65 years and over: 2.8% (male 244,886; female 341,484) (2007 est.) 3% (male 215,412; female 301,670) (2000 est.) Population growth rate: 1.803% (2007 est.) 0.82% (2003 est.) 1.47% (2000 est.) Birth rate: 38.54 births/1,000 population (2007 est.) 38.2 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) 37.99 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate: 20.51 deaths/1,000 population (2007 est.) 30.04 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) 23.29 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000, 2003 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female (2003 est.), 1.02 male(s)/female (2007 est.) under 15 years: 0.98 male(s)/female (2003 est.), 1.01 male(s)/female (2007 est.) 15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female (2003 est.), 0.949 male(s)/female (2007 est.) 65 years and over: 0.7 male(s)/female (2003 est.), 0.717 male(s)/female (2007 est.) total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2003 est.), 0.968 male(s)/female (2007 est.) Infant mortality rate: total: 109.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.) female: 106.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.) male: 112.81 deaths/1,000 live births (2007 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: total population: 40.9 years (2007 est.), 31.3 years (2003 est.), 37.52 years (2000 est.) male: male: 41.4 years (2007 est.), 30.98 (2003 est.), 38.34 years (2000 est.) female: female: 40.4 years (2007 est.), 31.63 (2003 est.), 36.68 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate: 5.24 children born/woman (2007 est.) 5.29 children born/woman (2007 est.) 4.87 children born/woman (2003 est.) 4.93 children born/woman (2000 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: 1.3 million (2003 est.), 1.1 million (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - deaths: 110,000 (2003 est.), 60,000 (2001 est.) Nationality: noun: Mozambican(s) adjective: Mozambican Ethnic groups: indigenous tribal groups 99.66% (Shangana, Chokwe, Manyika, Sena, Makua, Ndau, and others), Euro-Africans 0.2%, Indians 0.08%, Arabs 0.02%, Chinese 0.02%, Europeans 0.06% Religions: Catholic 23.8%, Muslim 17.8%, Zionist Christian 17.5%, other 17.8%, none 23.1% (1997 census) Languages: Portuguese language (official) Emakhuwa 26.1%, Xichangana 11.3%, Portuguese 8.8% (official; spoken by 27% of population as a second language), Elomwe 7.6%, Cisena 6.8%, Echuwabo 5.8%, other Mozambican languages 32%, other foreign languages 0.3%, unspecified 1.3% (1997 census) Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 47.8% (2003 est.), 40.1% (1995 est.) male: 63.5% (2003 est.), 57.7% (1995 est.) female: 32.7% (2003 est.), 23.3% (1995 est.) References
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Dactylic_hexameter
Dactylic hexameter (also known as "heroic hexameter") is a form of meter in poetry or a rhythmic scheme. It is traditionally associated with the quantitative meter of classical epic poetry in both Greek and Latin, and was consequently considered to be the Grand Style of classical poetry. The premier examples of its use are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey and Virgil's Aeneid. The meter consists of lines made from six ("hexa") feet. In strict dactylic hexameter, each of these feet would be dactyl, but classical meter allows for the substitution of a spondee in place of a dactyl in most positions. Specifically, the first four feet can either be dactyls or spondees more or less freely. The fifth foot is frequently a dactyl (around 95% of the time in Homer). The sixth foot is always a spondee, though it may be anceps. Thus the dactylic line most normally looks as follows: –⏕ | –⏕ | –⏕ | –⏕ | –⏑⏑ | –⏓ As in all classical verse forms, the phenomenon of brevis in longo is observed, so the last syllable can actually be short or long. Hexameters also have a primary caesura — a break in sense, much like the function of a comma in prose — at one of several normal positions: After the first syllable in the third foot (the "masculine" caesura); after the second syllable in the third foot if the third foot is a dactyl (the "feminine" caesura); after the first syllable of the fourth foot; or after the first syllable of the second foot (the latter two often occur together in a line, breaking it into three separate units). The first possible caesura that one encounters in a line is considered the main caesura. In addition, hexameters have two bridges, places where there very rarely is a break in a word-unit. The first, known as Meyer's Bridge, is in the second foot: if the second foot is a dactyl, the two short syllables must be part of the same word-unit. The second, known as Hermann's Bridge, is the same rule in the fourth foot: if the fourth foot is a dactyl, the two short syllables must also be part of the same word-unit. Hexameters are frequently enjambed, which helps to create the long, flowing narrative of epic. They are generally considered the most grandiose and formal meter. An English language example of the dactylic hexameter, in quantitative meter: Down in a | deep dark | hole sat an | old pig | munching a | bean stalk As the absurd meaning of this example demonstrates, quantitative meter is extremely difficult to construct in English. Here is an example in normal stress meter (the first line of Longfellow's "Evangeline"): This is the | forest pri | meval. The | murmuring | pines and the | hemlocks The "foot" is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to half notes (minims) and quarter notes (crotchets), respectively. Homer’s meter The hexameter was first used by early Greek poets of the oral tradition, and the most complete extant examples of their works are the Iliad and the Odyssey, which influenced the authors of all later classical epics that survive today. Early epic poetry was also accompanied by music, and pitch changes associated with the accented Greek must have highlighted the melody, though the exact mechanism is still a topic of discussion. Cf. Alan Shaw's essay Some Questions on Greek Poetry and Music. The Homeric poems arrange words in the line so that there is an interplay between the metrical ictus—the first long syllable of each foot—and the natural, spoken accent of words. If these two features of the language coincide too frequently, they overemphasize each other and the hexameter becomes sing-songy. Nevertheless, some reinforcement is desirable so that the poem has a natural rhythm. Balancing these two considerations are what eventually lead to rules regarding the correct placement of the caesura and breaks between words; in general, word breaks occur in the middle of metrical feet, while accent and ictus coincide only near the end of the line. The first line of Homer’s Iliad—“Sing, goddess, the wrath of Peleus’ son Achilles”—provides an example: μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος Dividing the line into metrical units: μῆνιν ἄ | ειδε, θε | ά, Πη | ληϊά | δεω Ἀχι | λῆος – dactyl, dactyl, spondee, dactyl, dactyl, spondee. Note how the word endings do not coincide with the end of a metrical foot; for the early part of the line this forces the natural accent of each word to lie in the middle of a foot, playing against the natural rhythm of the ictus. This line also includes a masculine caesura after θεα, a natural break that separates the line into two logical parts. Unlike later writers, Homeric lines more commonly employ the feminine caesura; an example occurs in Iliad I.5 “thus the plan of Zeus came to fulfillment”: οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ’ ἐτελείετο βουλή, οἰω | νοῖσί τε | πᾶσι, Δι | ὸς δ’ ἐτε | λείετο | βουλή, Homer’s hexameters contain a far higher proportion of dactyls than later hexameter poetry. They are also characterised by a laxer following of verse principles that the authors of later epics almost invariably adhered to. For example, Homer allows spondaic fifth feet (albeit not often), whereas many later authors virtually never did. There are also exceptions to Meyer’s Bridge and Hermann’s Bridge in Homer (albeit rare), but such violations are exceedingly rare in a later author like Callimachus. Homer also altered the forms of words to allow them to fit the hexameter, typically by using a dialectal form: ptolis is an epic form used instead of the Attic polis wherever it is necessary for the meter. On occasion, the names of characters themselves actually seem to have been altered: the spelling of the name of Homer’s character Polydamas, Pouludamas, appears to be an alternative rendering of the metrically unviable Poludamas (“subduer of many”). Finally, even after accepting the various alterations admitted by Homer, some lines remain impossible to scan, e.g. Iliad I.108 “not a good word spoken nor brought to pass”: ἐσθλὸν δ’ οὐτέ τί πω εἶπας ἔπος οὔτ’ ἐτέλεσσας The first three feet of this line scan spondee-dactyl-spondee, but the fourth foot of -πας επος has three consecutive short syllables. These metrical inconsistencies (along with a knowledge of comparative linguistics) have led scholars to infer the presence of a lost digamma in the original Ionic text of the poem. In this example, the word επος was originally ϝεπος in Ionian; the presence of this glide consonant lengthens the last syllable of the preceding ειπας and corrects the apparent defect in the meter. This example demonstrates the oral tradition of the Homeric epics that flourished long before they were written down sometime in the 7th century BC. In spite of the occasional exceptions in early epic, most of the later rules of hexameter composition have their origins in the methods and practices of Homer. Latin hexameter The hexameter came into Latin as an adaptation from Greek long after the practice of singing the epics had faded. Consequentially, the properties of the meter were learned as specific "rules" rather than as a natural result of musical expression. Also, because the Latin language generally has a higher percentage of long syllables than Greek, it is by nature more spondaic than Greek. These factors caused the Latin hexameter to take on distinct Latin characteristics. The earliest example of the use of hexameter in Latin poetry is that of the Annales of Ennius, which established the dactylic hexameter as the standard for later Latin epic. Later Republican writers, such as Lucretius, Catullus and even Cicero, wrote their own compositions in the meter and it was at this time that many of the principles of Latin hexameter were firmly established, ones that would govern later writers such as Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, and Juvenal. Virgil's opening line for the Aeneid is a classic example of Latin hexameter: Arma virumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris (dactyl, dactyl, spondee, spondee, dactyl, spondee) As in Greek, lines were arranged such that the metrically long syllables--those occurring at the beginning of a foot--avoided the natural stress of a word. In the first few feet of the meter, meter and stress were expected to clash, while in the final few feet they were expected to resolve and coincide--an effect that gives each line a natural "dum-ditty-dum-dum" ("shave and a haircut") rhythm to close. Such an arrangement is a balance between an exaggerated emphasis on the metre--which would cause the verse to be sing-songy--and the need to provide some repeated rhythmic guide for skilled recitation. In the following example of Ennius's early Latin hexameter composition, metrical weight ("ictus") falls on the first and last syllables of certabant; the ictus is therefore opposed to the natural stress on the second syllable when the word is pronouned. Similarly, the second syllable of the words urbem and Romam carry the metrical ictus even though the first is naturally stressed in typical pronunciation. In the closing feet of the line, the natural stress that falls on the third syllable of Remoramne and the second syllable of vocarent coincide with the metrical ictus and produce the characteristic "shave and a haircut" ending: certabant urbem Romam Remoramne vocarent. (Annales 1.86) Like their Greek predecessors, classical Latin poets avoided a large number of word breaks at the ends of foot divisions except between the fourth and fifth, where it was encouraged. In order to preserve the rhythmic close, Latin poets avoided the placement of a single syllable or four-syllable word at the end of a line. The caesura is also handled far more strictly, with Homer's feminine caesura becoming exceedingly rare, and the second-foot caesura always paired with one in the fourth. One example of the evolution of the Latin verse form can be seen in a comparative analysis of the use of spondees in Ennius' time vs. the Augustan age. The repeated use of the heavily spondaic line came to be frowned upon, as well as the use of a high proportion of spondees in both of the first two feet. The following lines of Ennius would not have been felt admissible by later authors since they both contain repeated spondees at the beginning of consecutive lines: his verbis: "o gnata, tibi sunt ante ferendae Aerumnae, post ex fluvio fortuna resistet." (Annales 1.42f) Virgil and the Augustan poets By the age of Augustus, poets like Virgil closely adhered to the rules of the meter and approached it in a highly rhetorical way, looking for effects that can be exploited in skilled recitation. For example, the following line from the Aeneid (VIII.596) describes the movement of rushing horses and how "a hoof shakes the crumbling field with a galloping sound": quadripedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum This line is made up of five dactyls and a closing spondee, an unusual rhythmic arrangement that imitates the described action. A similar effect is found in VIII.452, where Virgil describes how the blacksmith sons of Vulcan "take up their arms with great strength one to another" in forging Aeneas' shield: illi inter sese multa ui bracchia tollunt The line consists of all spondees except for the usual dactyl in the fifth foot, and is meant to mimic the pounding sound of the work. A third example that mixes the two effects comes from I.42, where Juno pouts that Athena was allowed to use Jove's thunderbolts to destroy Ajax ("she hurled Jove's quick fire from the clouds"): Ipsa Jovis rapidum jaculata e nubibus ignem This line is nearly all dactyls except for the spondee at -lata e. This change in rhythm paired with the harsh elision is intended to emphasize the crash of Athena's thunderbolt. Virgil will occasionally deviate from the strict rules of the meter to produce a special effect. One example from I.105 describing a ship at sea during a storm has Virgil violating metrical standards to place a single-syllable word at the end of the line: ...et undis dat latus; insequitur cumulo praeruptus aquae mons. The boat "gives its side to the waves; there comes next in a heap a steep mountain of water." By placing the monosyllable mons at the end of the line, Virgil interrupts the usual "shave and a haircut" pattern to produce a jarring rhythm, an effect that echoes the crash of a large wave against the side of a ship. One final, amusing example that comments on the importance Roman poets placed on their verse rules comes from the Ars Poetica of Horace, line 263: Non quivis videt inmodulata poemata iudex, The line, which lacks a proper caesura, is translated "Not every critic sees an inharmonious verse." Silver Age and later heroic verse The verse innovations of the Augustan writers were carefully imitated by their successors in the Silver Age of Latin Literature. The verse form itself then was little changed as the quality of a poet's hexameter was judged against the standard set by Virgil and the other Augustan poets, a respect for literary precedent encompassed by the Latin word aemulatio. e.g. the younger Pliny in referring to an orator who prided himself on not attempting to rival Cicero, replies 'Est enim...mihi cum Cicerone aemulatio, nec sum contentus eloquentia saeculi nostri; nam stultissimum credo ad imitandum non optima quaeque proponere. - I do attempt to emulate Cicero, as I am not content with the eloquence of our age; I think it's idiotic not to imitate the best examples (Letters I.5.12-3) Deviations were generally regarded as idiosyncrasies or hallmarks of personal style, and were not imitated by later poets. Juvenal, for example, was fond of occasionally creating verses that placed a sense break between the fourth and fifth foot (instead of in the usual caesura positions), but this technique--known as the bucolic diaresis--did not catch on with other poets. In the late empire, writers experimented again by adding unusual restrictions to the standard hexameter. The rhopalic verse of Ausonius is a good example; besides following the standard hexameter pattern, each word in the line is one syllable longer than the previous, e.g.: Spes, deus, aeternae stationis conciliator, si castis precibus veniales invigilamus, his, pater, oratis placabilis adstipulare. Also notable is the tendency among late grammarians to thoroughly dissect the hexameters of Virgil and earlier poets. A treatise on poetry by Diomedes Grammaticus is a good example, as this work (among other things) categorizes dactylic hexameter verses in ways that were later interpreted under the golden line rubric. Independently, these two trends show the form becoming highly artificial--more like a puzzle to solve than a medium for personal poetic expression. By the Middle Ages, some writers adopted more relaxed versions of the meter. Bernard of Cluny, for example, employs it in his De Contemptu Mundi, but ignores classical conventions in favor or accentual effects and predictable rhyme both within and between verses, e.g.: Hora novissima, tempora pessima sunt — vigilemus.Ecce minaciter imminet arbiter ille supremus.Imminet imminet ut mala terminet, æqua coronet,Recta remuneret, anxia liberet, æthera donet. (I.1-4: These are the last days, the worst of times: let us keep watch. Behold the menacing arrival of the supreme Judge. He is coming, he is coming to end evil, crown the just, reward the right, set the worried free, and give the skies.) Not all Medieval writers are so at odds with the Virgilian standard, and with the rediscovery of classical literaure later Medieval and Renaissance writers are far more orthodox, but by then the form had become an academic exercise. Petrarch, for example, devoted much time to his Africa, a dactylic hexameter epic on Scipio Africanus, but this work was unappreciated in his time and remains little read today. In contrast, Dante decided to write his epic The Divine Comedy in Italian--a choice that defied the traditional epic choice of Latin dactylic hexameters--and produced a masterpiece beloved both then and now. With the New Latin period, the language itself came to be regarded as a medium only for "serious" and learned expression, a view that left little room for Latin poetry. The emergence of Recent Latin in the 20th century restored classical orthodoxy among Latinists and sparked a general (if still academic) interest in the beauty of Latin poetry. Today, the modern Latin poets who use the dactylic hexameter are generally as faithful to Virgil as Rome's Silver Age poets. Notes External links Introduction to the dactylic hexameter for Latin verse. Reading dactylic hexameter, specifically Homer. Recitation of Homer, by Stanley Lombardo. Oral reading of Virgil's Aeneid, by Robert Sonkowsky, University of Minnesota.
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æqua:1 coronet:1 rectum:1 remuneret:1 anxia:1 liberet:1 æthera:1 donet:1 day:1 bad:1 let:1 u:1 keep:1 watch:1 behold:1 menace:1 arrival:1 supreme:1 evil:1 crown:1 reward:1 right:1 worried:1 free:1 sky:1 medieval:2 odds:1 virgilian:1 rediscovery:1 literaure:1 renaissance:1 orthodox:1 academic:2 exercise:1 petrarch:1 devote:1 africa:1 scipio:1 africanus:1 unappreciated:1 read:2 contrast:1 dante:1 decide:1 divine:1 comedy:1 italian:1 choice:2 defy:1 traditional:1 masterpiece:1 beloved:1 new:1 period:1 serious:1 learned:1 view:1 leave:1 room:1 emergence:1 recent:1 restore:1 orthodoxy:1 latinist:1 spark:1 interest:1 beauty:1 modern:1 faithful:1 rome:1 external:1 link:1 introduction:1 stanley:1 lombardo:1 reading:1 robert:1 sonkowsky:1 university:1 minnesota:1 |@bigram dactylic_hexameter:10 epic_poetry:2 homer_iliad:2 iliad_odyssey:2 virgil_aeneid:2 foot_dactyl:3 homeric_poem:1 metrical_foot:2 dactyl_spondee:5 almost_invariably:1 exceedingly_rare:2 comparative_linguistics:1 homeric_epic:1 shave_haircut:3 frown_upon:1 augustan_poet:2 horse_hoof:1 ar_poetica:1 hexameter_verse:1 scipio_africanus:1 external_link:1
3,162
Multivibrator
A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state systems such as oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It is characterized by two amplifying devices (transistors, electron tubes or other devices) cross-coupled by resistors and capacitors. The most common form is the astable or oscillating type, which generates a square wave—the high level of harmonics in its output is what gives the multivibrator its common name. The multivibrator originated as a vacuum tube (valve) circuit described by William Eccles and F.W. Jordan in 1919. There are three types of multivibrator circuit: astable, in which the circuit is not stable in either state—it continuously oscillates from one state to the other. monostable, in which one of the states is stable, but the other is not—the circuit will flip into the unstable state for a determined period, but will eventually return to the stable state. Such a circuit is useful for creating a timing period of fixed duration in response to some external event. This circuit is also known as a one shot. A common application is in eliminating switch bounce. bistable, in which the circuit will remain in either state indefinitely. The circuit can be flipped from one state to the other by an external event or trigger. Such a circuit is important as the fundamental building block of a register or memory device. This circuit is also known as a flip-flop. In its simplest form the multivibrator circuit consists of two cross-coupled transistors. Using resistor-capacitor networks within the circuit to define the time periods of the unstable states, the various types may be implemented. Multivibrators find applications in a variety of systems where square waves or timed intervals are required. Simple circuits tend to be inaccurate since many factors affect their timing, so they are rarely used where very high precision is required. Before the advent of low-cost integrated circuits, chains of multivibrators found use as frequency dividers. A free-running multivibrator with a frequency of one-half to one-tenth of the reference frequency would accurately lock to the reference frequency. This technique was used in early electronic organs, to keep notes of different octaves accurately in tune. Other applications included early television systems, where the various line and frame frequencies were kept synchronized by pulses included in the video signal. Astable multivibrator circuit Figure 1: Basic BJT astable multivibrator This circuit shows a typical simple astable circuit, with an output from the collector of Q1, and an inverted output from the collector of Q2. Suggested values which will yield a frequency of about 0.24Hz: R1, R4 = 10K R2, R3 = 150K C1, C2 = 10μF Q1, Q2 = BC547 or similar NPN switching transistor wk=1/(R*C) and w=2*pi*f, so f=(1/RC)/(2*pi) Basic mode of operation The circuit keeps one transistor switched on and the other switched off. Suppose that initially, Q1 is switched on and Q2 is switched off. State 1: Q1 holds the bottom of R1 (and the left side of C1) near ground (0V). The right side of C1 (and the base of Q2) is being charged by R2 from below ground to 0.6V. R3 is pulling the base of Q1 up, but its base-emitter diode prevents the voltage from rising above 0.6V. R4 is charging the right side of C2 up to the power supply voltage (+V). Because R4 is less than R2, C2 charges faster than C1. When the base of Q2 reaches 0.6V, Q2 turns on, and the following positive feedback loop occurs: Q2 abruptly pulls the right side of C2 down to near 0V. Because the voltage across a capacitor cannot suddenly change, this causes the left side of C2 to suddenly fall to almost -V, well below 0V. Q1 switches off due to the sudden disappearance of its base voltage. R1 and R2 work to pull both ends of C1 toward +V, completing Q2's turn on. The process is stopped by the B-E diode of Q2, which will not let the right side of C1 rise very far. This now takes us to State 2, the mirror image of the initial state, where Q1 is switched off and Q2 is switched on. Then R1 rapidly pulls C1's left side toward +V, while R3 more slowly pulls C2's left side toward +0.6V. When C2's left side reaches 0.6V, the cycle repeats. Multivibrator frequency The period of each half of the multivibrator is given by t = ln(2)RC. The total period of oscillation is given by: T = t1 + t2 = ln(2)R2 C1 + ln(2)R3 C2 where... f is frequency in Hertz. R2 and R3 are resistor values in ohms. C1 and C2 are capacitor values in farads. T is period time (In this case, the sum of two period durations). For the special case where t1 = t2 (50% duty cycle) R2 = R3 C1 = C2 Initial power-up When the circuit is first powered up, neither transistor will be switched on. However, this means that at this stage they will both have high base voltages and therefore a tendency to switch on, and inevitable slight asymmetries will mean that one of the transistors is first to switch on. This will quickly put the circuit into one of the above states, and oscillation will ensue. In practice, oscillation always occurs for practical values of R and C. However, if the circuit is temporarily held with both bases high, for longer than it takes for both capacitors to charge fully, then the circuit will remain in this stable state, with both bases at 0.6V, both collectors at 0V, and both capacitors charged backwards to -0.6V. This can occur at startup without external intervention, if R and C are both very small. For example, a 10 MHz oscillator of this type will often be unreliable. (Different oscillator designs, such as relaxation oscillators, are required at high frequencies.) Period of oscillation Very roughly, the duration of state 1 (low output) will be related to the time constant R2*C1 as it depends on the charging of C1, and the duration of state 2 (high output) will be related to the time constant R3*C2 as it depends on the charging of C2. Because they do not need to be the same, an asymmetric duty cycle is easily achieved. However, the duration of each state also depends on the initial state of charge of the capacitor in question, and this in turn will depend on the amount of discharge during the previous state, which will also depend on the resistors used during discharge (R1 and R4) and also on the duration of the previous state, etc. The result is that when first powered up, the period will be quite long as the capacitors are initially fully discharged, but the period will quickly shorten and stabilise. The period will also depend on any current drawn from the output and on the supply voltage. Protective components While not fundamental to circuit operation, diodes connected in series with the base or emitter of the transistors are required to prevent the base-emitter junction being driven into breakdown when the supply voltage is in excess of the Veb breakdown voltage, typically around 7 volts for most silicon transistors. In the monostable configuration, only one of the transistors requires protection. Figure 2: Basic BJT monostable multivibrator. Figure 3: Basic BJT bistable multivibrator. Monostable multivibrator circuit When triggered by an input pulse, a monostable multivibrator will switch to its unstable position for a period of time, and then return to its stable state. The time period monostable multivibrator remains in unstable state is given by t = ln(2)*R2*C1. If repeated application of the input pulse maintains the circuit in the unstable state, it is called a retriggerable monostable. If further trigger pulses do not affect the period, the circuit is a non-retriggerable multivibrator. Bistable multivibrator circuit Suggested values: R1, R2 = 10K R3, R4 = 10K This circuit is similar to an astable multivibrator, except that there is no charge or discharge time, due to the absence of capacitors. Hence, when the circuit is switched on, if Q1 is on, its collector is at 0 V. As a result, Q2 gets switched off. This results in nearly +V volts being applied to base of Q1, thus keeping it on. Thus, the circuit remains stable in a single state continuously. Similarly, Q2 remains on continuously, if it happens to get switched on first. Switching of state can be done via Set and Reset terminals connected to the bases. For example, if Q2 is on and Set is grounded momentarily, this switches Q2 off, and makes Q1 on. Thus, Set is used to "set" Q1 on, and Reset is used to "reset" it to off state. See also 555 timer IC External links Java applets simulating the multivibrator circuits. Monostable Circuits based on NAND gates see the "NOT gate astable" based on RC circuit
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3,163
Faroese_language
Faroese (føroyskt, or ), often also spelled Faeroese (cf. Merriam-Webster, which prefers this spelling), is a West Nordic or West Scandinavian language spoken by 48,000 people in the Faroe Islands and about 12,000 Faroese in Denmark. It is one of three insular Scandinavian languages descended from the Old Norse language spoken in Scandinavia in the Viking Age, the others being Icelandic and the extinct Norn, which is thought to have been mutually intelligible with Faroese. History At one point, the language spoken in the Faroe Islands was Old West Norse, which Norwegian settlers had brought with them during the time of the landnám that began in AD 825. However, many of the settlers weren't really Norwegians, but descendants of Norwegian settlers in the Irish Sea. In addition, native Norwegian settlers often married women from Norse Ireland, the Orkneys, or Shetlands before settling in the Faroe Islands and Iceland. As a result, Celtic languages influenced both Faroese and Icelandic. This may be why, for example, Faroese has two words for duck: dunna (from Gaelic tunnag) for a domestic duck, and ont (from Old Norse ) for a duck in general. (This example has been criticized, however, by people claiming that the word is derived from Old Norse dunna, from Proto-Germanic *dusnō.) There is also some debatable evidence of Celtic language place names in the Faroes: for example Mykines and Stóra & Lítla Dímun have been hypothesized to contain Celtic roots. Other examples of early introduced words of Celtic origin are; "blak/blaðak" (buttermilk) Irish bláthach; "drunnur" (tail-piece of an animal) Irish dronn; "grúkur" (head, headhair) Irish gruaig; "lámur" (hand, paw) Irish lámh; "tarvur" (bull) Irish tarbh; and "ærgi" (pasture in the outfield) Irish áirge. Chr. Matras. Greinaval - málfrøðigreinir. FØROYA FRÓÐSKAPARFELAG 2000 Between the 9th and the 15th centuries, a distinct Faroese language evolved, although it was still intelligible with Old West Norse language. This would have been closely related to the Norn language of Orkney and Shetland. Until the 15th century, Faroese had a similar orthography to Icelandic and Norwegian, but after the Reformation in 1536, the ruling Danes outlawed its use in schools, churches and official documents. The islanders continued to use the language in ballads, folktales, and everyday life. This maintained a rich spoken tradition, but for 300 years the language was not written. This changed when Venceslaus Ulricus Hammershaimb, along with the Icelandic grammarian, and politician, Jón Sigurðsson, published a written standard for Modern Faroese 1854 that exists to this day. Although this would have been an opportunity to create a phonetically true orthography like that of Finnish, he produced an orthography consistent with a continuous written tradition extending back to Old Norse, which gives the written language a very archaic look similar to Icelandic. The letter ð, for example, has no specific phonemes attached to it. Furthermore, although the letter 'm' corresponds to the bilabial nasal as it does in English, it also corresponds to the alveolar nasal in the dative ending -um . Hammershaimb's orthography met with some opposition for its complexity, and a rival system was devised by Jakob Jakobsen. Jakobsen's orthography was closer to the spoken language, but was never taken up by speakers. In 1937, Faroese replaced Danish as the official school language, in 1938 as church language, and in 1948 as national language by the Home Rule Act of the Faroes. However, Faroese didn't become the common language in the media and advertising until the 1980s. Today, Danish is considered a foreign language, though around 5% of the Faroe Islanders learn it as a first language and it is a required subject for students 3rd grade Logir.fo - Homepage Database of laws on the Faroe Islands and up. Learning Faroese It is unusual for Faroese to be taught at universities outside the Faroes (within Scandinavian studies). However, University College London and the University of Copenhagen have course options in Faroese for students reading Scandinavian Studies. So most students are forced to learn it autodidactically by books, listening to Faroese on the radio (there is an internet live stream) and trying to correspond with Faroese people. A good opportunity for learning Faroese is also visiting the websites of Postverk Føroya and reading their stories about the stamp editions both in Faroese and English (or German, French and Danish) as well as an online dictionary on Sprotin , which requires a small subscription fee. The University of the Faroe Islands offers an annual Summer institute over 3 weeks including: 50 lessons of Faroese grammar and language exercises. 20 lectures on linguistic subjects, culture, society and nature. The lectures on culture include oral poetry and modern literature. 2 excursions to places of historical and geographical interest. Alphabet Some Faroese isoglosses An example of Faroese ő The Faroese alphabet consists of 29 letters derived from the Latin alphabet: Majuscule Forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)AÁBDÐEFGHIÍJKLMNOÓPRSTUÚVYÝÆØ Minuscule Forms (also called lowercase or small letters)aábdðefghiíjklmnoóprstuúvyýæø Notes: Ð, ð can never come at the beginning of a word, but can occur in capital letters in logos or on maps, such as SUÐUROY (Southern Isle). Ø, ø can also be written Ö, ö in poetic language, such as Föroyar (the Faroes) (cf. Swedish-Icelandic typographic/orthographic tradition vs. Norwegian-Danish). In handwriting Ő, ő is used to differentiate ø from ö. Earlier versions of the orthography used both ø and ö with ø being the long ø and ö being the short equivalent. As a result using ö as a substitute for ø is incorrect, since it's not the same letter as ø/ő. Common family names on the Faroes are e.g. Joensen, Johansen, Dam, Dalsgarð or the Christian name Johannis. While C, Q, W, X, and Z are not found in the Faroese language, X was known in earlier versions of Hammershaimbs orthography, such as Saxun for Saksun. While the Faroese keyboard layout allows one to write in Latin, English, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish, etc., the Old Norse and Modern Icelandic letter þ is missing. In related Faroese words it is written as <t> or as <h>, and if an Icelandic name has to be transcribed, is common. Phonology Vowels GraphemeNameShortLongA, afyrra a ("leading a")Á, áá E, ee I, ifyrra i ("leading i")Í, ífyrra í ("leading í")O, oo Ó, óó U, uu Ú, úú Y, yseinna i ("latter i")Ý, ýseinna í ("latter í")Æ, æseinna a ("latter a")Ø, øø Other vowelsei -ey -oy - As in various other Germanic languages, stressed vowels in Faroese are long when not followed by two or more consonants. Two consonants or a consonant cluster usually indicates a short vowel. Exceptions may be short vowels in particles, pronouns, adverbs, and prepositions in unstressed positions, consisting of just one syllable. As may be seen on the table to the left, Faroese (like English) has a very atypical pronunciation of its vowels, with odd offglides and other features. For example, long í and ý sound almost like a long Hiberno-English i, and long ó like an American English long o. Short vowels in endings While in other languages a short /e/ is common for inflectional endings, Faroese uses /a, i, u/. This means that there are no unstressed short vowels except for these three. Even if a short unstressed /e/ is seen in writing, it will be pronounced like /i/: áðrenn (before). Very typical are endings like -ur, -ir, -ar. The dative is often indicated by -um which is always pronounced . - bátar (boats), kallar ((you) call, (he) calls) Unstressed /i/ and /u/ in dialects Borðoy, Kunoy, Tórshavn Viðoy, Svínoy, Fugloy Suðuroy Elsewhere (standard) gulur (yellow) gulir (yellow pl.) bygdin (the town) bygdum (the towns dat. pl.) Source: Faroese: An Overview and Reference Grammar, 2004 (page 350) - gestir (guests), dugir ((you, he) can) - bátur (boat), gentur (girls), rennur ((you) run, (he) runs). In some dialects, unstressed is realized as or is reduced further to . goes under a similar reduction pattern so unstressed and can rhyme. This can cause spelling mistakes related to these two vowels. The table to the right displays the different realizations in different dialects. Glide Insertion Faroese avoids having a hiatus between two vowels by inserting a glide. Orthographically, this is shown in three ways: vowel + ð + vowel vowel + g + vowel vowel + vowel Typically, the first vowel is long and in words with two syllables always stressed, while the second vowel is short and unstressed. In Faroese, short and unstressed vowels can only be . Ð and G as glides Glide insertion First vowel Second vowel Examples i u a Grapheme Phoneme Glide I-surrounding Type 1 i, y sigið, siður, siga í, ý mígi, mígur, míga ey reyði, reyður, reyða ei reiði, reiður, reiða oy noyði, royður, royða U-surrounding Type 2 u suði, mugu, suða ó róði, róðu, Nóa ú búði, búðu, túa I-surrounding Type 2, U-surrounding Type 2, A-surrounding Type 1 a, æ - ræði, æðu, glaða á - ráði, fáur, ráða e - gleði, legu, gleða o - togið, smogu, roða ø - løgin, røðu, høganSource: Faroese: An Overview and Reference Grammar, 2004 (page 38) <Ð> and <G> are used in Faroese orthography to indicate one of a number of glide rather than any one phoneme. This can be: "I-surrounding, type 1" - after /i, y, í, ý, ei, ey, oy/: bíða (to wait), deyður (dead), seyður (sheep) "I-surrounding, type 2" - between any vowel (except "u-vowels" /ó, u, ú/) and /i/: kvæði (ballad), øði (rage). "U-surrounding, type 1" - after /ó, u, ú/: Óðin (Odin), góðan morgun! (good morning!), suður (south), slóða (to make a trace). "U-surrounding, type 2" - between /a, á, e, æ, ø/ and /u/: áður (before), leður (leather), í klæðum (in clothes), í bløðum (in newspapers). "A-surrounding, type 2" These are exceptions (there is also a regular pronunciation): æða (eider-duck), røða (speech). The past participles have always : elskaðar (beloved, nom., acc. fem. pl.) Silent "A-surrounding, type 1" - between /a, á, e, o/ and /a/ and in some words between <æ, ø> and <a>: ráða (to advise), gleða (to gladden, please), boða (to forebode), kvøða (to chant), røða (to make a speech) Skerping (sharpening) Skerping Written Pronunciation instead of -ógv-* -úgv-* -eyggj-* -íggj-, -ýggj-* -eiggj-* -oyggj-* The so-called "skerping" (Thráinsson et al. use the term "Faroese Verschärfung" - in Faroese, skerping means "sharpening") is a typical phenomenon of fronting back vowels before and monophthongizing certain diphthongs before . Skerping is not indicated orthographically. These consonants occur often after /ó, ú/ (ógv, úgv) and /ey, í, ý, ei, oy/ when no other consonant is following. : Jógvan (a form of the name John), Gjógv (cleft) : kúgv (cow), trúgva (believe), but: trúleysur (faithless) : heyggjur (high, burial mound), but heygnum (dat. sg. with suffix article) : nýggjur (new m.), but nýtt (n.) : beiggi (brother) : oyggj (island), but oynna (acc. sg. with suffix article) Consonants Labial Apical Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalPlosive Affricate Fricative Nasal Approximant There are several phonological processes involved in Faroese, including: Voiced stops are devoiced word-finally and before voiceless consonants Liquids are devoiced before voiceless consonants Nasals generally assume the place of articulation and laryngeal settings of following consonants. Velar stops palatalize to postalveolar affricates before and becomes before voiceless consonants becomes after and before and may assimilate the retroflexion of a preceding to become . Pre-occlusion of original <ll> to [dl] and <nn> to [dn]. Omissions in consonant clusters Faroese tends to omit the first or second consonant in clusters of different consonants: fjals (mountain's gen.) instead of * from (nom.). Other examples for genitives are: barns (children's), vatns (lake's, water's). hjálpti (helped) past sg. instead of * from hjálpa . Other examples for past forms are: sigldi (sailed), yrkti (wrote poetry). homophone are fylgdi (followed) and fygldi (caught birds with net): . skt will be: in words of more than one syllable: føroyskt (Faroese n. sg.; also ) russiskt (Russian n. sg.), íslendskt (Icelandic n. sg.). in monosyllables: enskt (English n. sg.), danskt (Danish n. sg.), franskt (French n. sg.), spanskt (Spanish n. sg.), svenskt (Swedish n. sg.), týskt (German n. sg.). However in: írskt (Irish n. sg.), norskt (Norwegian n. sg.) Grammar Faroese grammar is related and very similar to that of modern Icelandic and Old Norse. Faroese is an inflected language with three grammatical genders and four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. See also Gøtudanskt Further reading This is a chronological list of books about Faroese still available. V.U. Hammershaimb: Færøsk Anthologi. Copenhagen 1891 (no ISBN, 2 volumes, 4th printing, Tórshavn 1991) (in Danish) M.A. Jacobsen, Chr. Matras: Føroysk - donsk orðabók. Tórshavn, 1961. (no ISBN, 521 pages, Faroese-Danish dictionary) W.B. Lockwood: An Introduction to Modern Faroese. Tórshavn, 1977. (no ISBN, 244 pages, 4th printing 2002) Eigil Lehmann: Føroysk-norsk orðabók. Tórshavn, 1987 (no ISBN, 388 p.) (Faroese-Norwegian dictionary) Tórður Jóansson: English loanwords in Faroese. Tórshavn, 1997. (243 pages) ISBN 99918-49-14-9 Johan Hendrik W. Poulsen: Føroysk orðabók. Tórshavn, 1998. (1483 pages) ISBN 99918-41-52-0 (in Faroese) Annfinnur í Skála: Donsk-føroysk orðabók. Tórshavn 1998. (1369 pages) ISBN 99918-42-22-5 (Danish-Faroese dictionary) Michael Barnes: Faroese Language Studies Studia Nordica 5, Supplementum 30. Tórshavn, 2002. (239 pages) ISBN 99918-41-30-X Hjalmar P. Petersen & Jonathan Adams: Faroese: A Language Course for Beginners. Grammar. Tórshavn, 2008:Stiðin Höskuldur Thráinsson (Þráinsson), Hjalmar P. Petersen, Jógvan í Lon Jacobsen, Zakaris Svabo Hansen: Faroese. An Overview and Reference Grammar. Tórshavn, 2004. (500 pages) ISBN 99918-41-85-7 Adams, Jonathan & Hjalmar P. Petersen. Faroese: A Language Course for beginners Textbook. Tórshavn, 2008: Stiðin. Richard Kölbl: Färöisch Wort für Wort. Bielefeld 2004 (in German) Gianfranco Contri: Dizionario faroese-italiano = Føroysk-italsk orðabók. Tórshavn, 2004. (627 p.) ISBN 99918-41-58-X (Faroese-Italian dictionary) Hjalmar Petersen, Marius Staksberg: Donsk-Føroysk orðabók. Tórshavn, 1995. (879 p.) ISBN 99918-41-51-2 (Danish-Faroese dictionary) Jón Hilmar Magnússon: Íslensk-færeysk orðabók. Reykjavík, 2005. (877 p.) ISBN 99796-61-79-8 (Icelandic-Faroese dictionary) Annfinnur í Skála / Jonhard Mikkelsen: Føroyskt / enskt - enskt / føroyskt'', Vestmanna: Sprotin 2008. (Faroese-English/English-Faroese dictionary, 2 volumes) References External links OBG.fo - Føroysk orðabók (the Faroese-Faroese dictionary of 1998 online) Sprotin (complete English-Faroese/Faroese-English and Danish-Faroese online dictionary - requires a subscription) FMN.fo - Faroese Language Committee (Official site with further links) Faeroese - English Dictionary from Webster's Online Dictionary - the Rosetta Edition. 'Hover & Hear' Faroese pronunciations, and compare with equivalents in English and other Germanic languages. Ethnologue report on Faroese A short English - Faroese - Japanese phrasebook incl. sound file Useful Faroese Words & Phrases for Travelers
Faroese_language |@lemmatized faroese:66 føroyskt:4 often:4 also:10 spell:3 faeroese:2 cf:2 merriam:1 webster:2 prefer:1 west:4 nordic:1 scandinavian:4 language:30 speak:3 people:3 faroe:6 island:5 denmark:1 one:7 three:4 insular:1 descend:1 old:8 norse:9 scandinavia:1 viking:1 age:1 others:1 icelandic:11 extinct:1 norn:2 think:1 mutually:1 intelligible:2 history:1 point:1 norwegian:9 settler:4 bring:1 time:1 landnám:1 begin:1 ad:1 however:5 many:1 really:1 descendant:1 irish:8 sea:1 addition:1 native:1 married:1 woman:1 ireland:1 orkneys:1 shetland:2 settle:1 iceland:1 result:2 celtic:4 influence:1 may:4 example:10 two:6 word:10 duck:4 dunna:2 gaelic:1 tunnag:1 domestic:1 ont:1 general:1 criticize:1 claim:1 derive:2 proto:1 germanic:3 dusnō:1 debatable:1 evidence:1 place:3 name:5 faroes:5 mykines:1 stóra:1 lítla:1 dímun:1 hypothesize:1 contain:1 root:1 early:3 introduce:1 origin:1 blak:1 blaðak:1 buttermilk:1 bláthach:1 drunnur:1 tail:1 piece:1 animal:1 dronn:1 grúkur:1 head:1 headhair:1 gruaig:1 lámur:1 hand:1 paw:1 lámh:1 tarvur:1 bull:1 tarbh:1 ærgi:1 pasture:1 outfield:1 áirge:1 chr:2 matras:2 greinaval:1 málfrøðigreinir:1 føroya:2 fróðskaparfelag:1 century:2 distinct:1 evolve:1 although:3 still:2 would:2 closely:1 relate:3 orkney:1 similar:4 orthography:8 reformation:1 ruling:1 danes:1 outlaw:1 use:7 school:2 church:2 official:3 document:1 islander:2 continue:1 ballad:2 folktale:1 everyday:1 life:1 maintain:1 rich:1 spoken:2 tradition:3 year:1 write:9 change:1 venceslaus:1 ulricus:1 hammershaimb:3 along:1 grammarian:1 politician:1 jón:2 sigurðsson:1 publish:1 standard:2 modern:5 exist:1 day:1 opportunity:2 create:1 phonetically:1 true:1 like:6 finnish:2 produce:1 consistent:1 continuous:1 extend:1 back:2 give:1 archaic:1 look:1 letter:8 ð:6 specific:1 phoneme:3 attach:1 furthermore:1 corresponds:1 bilabial:1 nasal:4 english:15 correspond:2 alveolar:2 dative:3 end:1 um:2 meet:1 opposition:1 complexity:1 rival:1 system:1 devise:1 jakob:1 jakobsen:2 close:1 never:2 take:1 speaker:1 replace:1 danish:11 national:1 home:1 rule:1 act:1 become:2 common:4 medium:1 advertising:1 today:1 consider:1 foreign:1 though:1 around:1 learn:4 first:4 required:1 subject:2 student:3 grade:1 logir:1 fo:3 homepage:1 database:1 law:1 unusual:1 teach:1 university:4 outside:1 within:1 study:3 college:1 london:1 copenhagen:2 course:3 option:1 read:3 force:1 autodidactically:1 book:2 listen:1 radio:1 internet:1 live:1 stream:1 try:1 good:2 visit:1 website:1 postverk:1 story:1 stamp:1 edition:2 german:3 french:2 well:1 online:4 dictionary:12 sprotin:3 require:2 small:2 subscription:2 fee:1 islands:1 offer:1 annual:1 summer:1 institute:1 week:1 include:3 lesson:1 grammar:7 exercise:1 lecture:2 linguistic:1 culture:2 society:1 nature:1 oral:1 poetry:2 literature:1 excursion:1 historical:1 geographical:1 interest:1 alphabet:3 isoglosses:1 ő:4 consist:2 latin:2 majuscule:1 form:4 call:5 uppercase:1 capital:2 aábdðefghiíjklmnoóprstuúvyýæø:2 minuscule:1 lowercase:1 note:1 come:1 beginning:1 occur:2 logo:1 map:1 suðuroy:2 southern:1 isle:1 ø:12 ö:6 poetic:1 föroyar:1 swedish:3 typographic:1 orthographic:1 v:2 handwrite:1 differentiate:1 version:2 long:7 short:10 equivalent:2 substitute:1 incorrect:1 since:1 family:1 e:7 g:4 joensen:1 johansen:1 dam:1 dalsgarð:1 christian:1 johannis:1 c:1 q:1 w:3 x:4 z:1 find:1 know:1 hammershaimbs:1 saxun:1 saksun:1 keyboard:1 layout:1 allow:1 etc:1 þ:1 miss:1 related:1 h:1 transcribe:1 phonology:1 vowel:23 graphemenameshortlonga:1 afyrra:1 lead:3 á:4 áá:1 ee:1 ifyrra:1 í:14 ífyrra:1 oo:1 ó:6 óó:1 u:14 uu:1 ú:5 úú:1 yseinna:1 latter:3 ý:5 ýseinna:1 æ:4 æseinna:1 øø:1 vowelsei:1 ey:4 oy:4 various:1 stress:2 follow:4 consonant:12 cluster:3 usually:1 indicate:4 exception:2 particle:1 pronoun:1 adverb:1 preposition:1 unstressed:8 position:1 syllable:3 see:3 table:2 left:1 atypical:1 pronunciation:4 odd:1 offglides:1 feature:1 sound:2 almost:1 hiberno:1 american:1 ending:3 inflectional:1 us:1 mean:2 except:2 even:1 writing:1 pronounce:2 áðrenn:1 typical:2 ur:1 ir:1 ar:1 always:3 bátar:1 boat:2 kallar:1 dialect:3 borðoy:1 kunoy:1 tórshavn:14 viðoy:1 svínoy:1 fugloy:1 elsewhere:1 gulur:1 yellow:2 gulir:1 pl:3 bygdin:1 town:2 bygdum:1 dat:2 source:1 overview:3 reference:4 page:9 gestir:1 guest:1 dugir:1 bátur:1 gentur:1 girls:1 rennur:1 run:2 realize:1 reduce:1 go:1 reduction:1 pattern:1 rhyme:1 cause:1 mistake:1 right:1 display:1 different:3 realization:1 glide:6 insertion:2 avoids:1 hiatus:1 insert:1 orthographically:2 show:1 way:1 typically:1 second:3 grapheme:1 surround:4 type:11 sigið:1 siður:1 siga:1 mígi:1 mígur:1 míga:1 reyði:1 reyður:1 reyða:1 ei:3 reiði:1 reiður:1 reiða:1 noyði:1 royður:1 royða:1 suði:1 mugu:1 suða:1 róði:1 róðu:1 nóa:1 búði:1 búðu:1 túa:1 surrounding:7 ræði:1 æðu:1 glaða:1 ráði:1 fáur:1 ráða:2 gleði:1 legu:1 gleða:2 togið:1 smogu:1 roða:1 løgin:1 røðu:1 høgansource:1 number:1 rather:1 bíða:1 wait:1 deyður:1 dead:1 seyður:1 sheep:1 kvæði:1 øði:1 rage:1 óðin:1 odin:1 góðan:1 morgun:1 morning:1 suður:1 south:1 slóða:1 make:2 trace:1 áður:1 leður:1 leather:1 klæðum:1 clothes:1 bløðum:1 newspaper:1 regular:1 æða:1 eider:1 røða:2 speech:2 past:3 participle:1 elskaðar:1 beloved:1 nom:2 acc:2 fem:1 silent:1 advise:1 gladden:1 please:1 boða:1 forebode:1 kvøða:1 chant:1 skerping:5 sharpen:2 instead:3 ógv:2 úgv:2 eyggj:1 íggj:1 ýggj:1 eiggj:1 oyggj:2 thráinsson:2 et:1 al:1 term:1 verschärfung:1 phenomenon:1 front:1 monophthongizing:1 certain:1 diphthong:1 jógvan:2 john:1 gjógv:1 cleft:1 kúgv:1 cow:1 trúgva:1 believe:1 trúleysur:1 faithless:1 heyggjur:1 high:1 burial:1 mound:1 heygnum:1 sg:14 suffix:2 article:2 nýggjur:1 new:1 nýtt:1 n:12 beiggi:1 brother:1 oynna:1 consonants:1 labial:1 apical:1 post:1 palatal:1 velar:2 glottalplosive:1 affricate:2 fricative:1 approximant:1 several:1 phonological:1 process:1 involve:1 voiced:1 stop:2 devoice:2 finally:1 voiceless:3 liquid:1 generally:1 assume:1 articulation:1 laryngeal:1 setting:1 palatalize:1 postalveolar:1 becomes:2 assimilate:1 retroflexion:1 preceding:1 pre:1 occlusion:1 original:1 dl:1 nn:1 dn:1 omission:1 tends:1 omit:1 fjals:1 mountain:1 gen:1 genitive:2 barn:1 child:1 vatns:1 lake:1 water:1 hjálpti:1 help:1 hjálpa:1 sigldi:1 sail:1 yrkti:1 homophone:1 fylgdi:1 fygldi:1 caught:1 bird:1 net:1 skt:1 russiskt:1 russian:1 íslendskt:1 monosyllable:1 enskt:3 danskt:1 franskt:1 spanskt:1 spanish:1 svenskt:1 týskt:1 írskt:1 norskt:1 inflected:1 grammatical:1 gender:1 four:1 case:1 nominative:1 accusative:1 gøtudanskt:1 far:1 chronological:1 list:1 available:1 færøsk:1 anthologi:1 isbn:12 volume:2 printing:2 jacobsen:2 føroysk:7 donsk:3 orðabók:8 b:1 lockwood:1 introduction:1 eigil:1 lehmann:1 norsk:1 p:7 tórður:1 jóansson:1 loanword:1 johan:1 hendrik:1 poulsen:1 annfinnur:2 skála:2 michael:1 barnes:1 studia:1 nordica:1 supplementum:1 hjalmar:4 petersen:4 jonathan:2 adam:2 beginner:2 stiðin:2 höskuldur:1 þráinsson:1 lon:1 zakaris:1 svabo:1 hansen:1 textbook:1 richard:1 kölbl:1 färöisch:1 wort:2 für:1 bielefeld:1 gianfranco:1 contri:1 dizionario:1 italiano:1 italsk:1 italian:1 marius:1 staksberg:1 hilmar:1 magnússon:1 íslensk:1 færeysk:1 reykjavík:1 jonhard:1 mikkelsen:1 vestmanna:1 external:1 link:2 obg:1 complete:1 fmn:1 committee:1 site:1 rosetta:1 hover:1 hear:1 compare:1 ethnologue:1 report:1 japanese:1 phrasebook:1 incl:1 file:1 useful:1 phrase:1 traveler:1 |@bigram merriam_webster:1 faroe_island:4 mutually_intelligible:1 faroese_icelandic:1 proto_germanic:1 closely_relate:1 orkney_shetland:1 alveolar_nasal:1 subscription_fee:1 faroe_islands:1 ø_ø:1 ö_ø:1 keyboard_layout:1 consonant_cluster:3 í_ý:4 hiberno_english:1 grapheme_phoneme:1 æ_ø:2 eider_duck:1 past_participle:1 et_al:1 ó_ú:1 burial_mound:1 alveolar_palatal:1 palatal_velar:1 affricate_fricative:1 fricative_nasal:1 voiceless_consonant:3 postalveolar_affricate:1 pre_occlusion:1 grammatical_gender:1 nominative_accusative:1 accusative_dative:1 orðabók_tórshavn:6 icelandic_faroese:1 external_link:1
3,164
Alabama_River
The Alabama River at Montgomery in 2004 The Alabama River, in the U.S. state of Alabama, is formed by the Tallapoosa and Coosa rivers, which unite about six miles above Montgomery. The river flows west to Selma, then southwest until, about 45 miles (72 km) from Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee, forming the Mobile and Tensaw rivers, which discharge into Mobile Bay. The course of the Alabama is very meandering. Its width varies from 50 to 200 yards, and its depth from 3 to 40 feet. Its length as measured by the United States Geological Survey is 312 miles (502 km), and by steamboat measurement, 420 miles (676 km). The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber districts of the state, and railways connect it with the mineral regions of north central Alabama. After the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, the principal tributary of the Alabama is the Cahaba River, which is about 200 miles (300 km) long and joins the Alabama River about 10 miles (16 km) below Selma. The Alabama River's main tributary, the Coosa River, crosses the mineral region of Alabama and is navigable for light-draft boats from Rome, Georgia, to about 117 miles (188 km) above Wetumpka (about 102 miles below Rome and 26 miles (42 km) below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction with the Tallapoosa. The channel of the river has been considerably improved by the federal government. The navigation of the Tallapoosa River –- which has its source in Paulding County, Georgia, and is about 250 miles (400 km) long -– is prevented by shoals and a 60-foot (18 m) fall at Tallassee, a few miles north of its junction with the Coosa. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year. The river played an important role in the growth of the economy in the region during the 19th century as a source of transportation of goods. The river is still used for transportation of farming produce; however, it is not as important as it once was due to the construction of roads and railways. The Alabama, Coosa, and Tallapoosa rivers were central to the homeland of the Creek Indians before their removal in the early 19th century. External links Allrefer.com Alabamamilebymile.com features an online map of the Alabama River between Selma and Tallassee including navigational, recreational and cultural landmarks. (Dead link 2007-04-28)
Alabama_River |@lemmatized alabama:12 river:17 montgomery:2 u:1 state:3 form:2 tallapoosa:5 coosa:5 unite:2 six:1 mile:11 flow:1 west:1 selma:3 southwest:1 km:8 mobile:3 tombigbee:1 tensaw:1 discharge:1 bay:1 course:1 meandering:1 width:1 varies:1 yard:1 depth:1 foot:2 length:1 measure:1 united:1 geological:1 survey:1 steamboat:1 measurement:1 cross:2 rich:1 agricultural:1 timber:1 district:1 railway:2 connect:1 mineral:2 region:3 north:2 central:2 principal:1 tributary:2 cahaba:1 long:2 join:1 main:1 navigable:2 light:1 draft:1 boat:1 rome:2 georgia:2 wetumpka:2 greensport:1 junction:2 channel:1 considerably:1 improve:1 federal:1 government:1 navigation:1 source:2 paulding:1 county:1 prevent:1 shoal:1 fall:1 tallassee:2 throughout:1 year:1 play:1 important:2 role:1 growth:1 economy:1 century:2 transportation:2 good:1 still:1 use:1 farm:1 produce:1 however:1 due:1 construction:1 road:1 homeland:1 creek:1 indian:1 removal:1 early:1 external:1 link:2 allrefer:1 com:2 alabamamilebymile:1 feature:1 online:1 map:1 include:1 navigational:1 recreational:1 cultural:1 landmark:1 dead:1 |@bigram montgomery_alabama:1 mile_km:8 geological_survey:1 tallapoosa_river:3 external_link:1
3,165
C._S._Lewis
Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963), commonly referred to as C. S. Lewis and known to his friends and family as Jack, was an Irish novelist, academic, medievalist, literary critic, essayist, lay theologian and Christian apologist. He is also known for his fiction, especially The Screwtape Letters, The Chronicles of Narnia and The Space Trilogy. Lewis was a close friend of J. R. R. Tolkien, the author of The Lord of the Rings. Both authors were leading figures in the English faculty at Oxford University and in the informal Oxford literary group known as the "Inklings". According to his memoir Surprised by Joy, Lewis had been baptised in the Church of Ireland at birth, but fell away from his faith during his adolescence. Owing to the influence of Tolkien and other friends, at about the age of 30, Lewis returned to Christianity, becoming "a very ordinary layman of the Church of England". Lewis (1952) Mere Christianity; p. 6 His conversion had a profound effect on his work, and his wartime radio broadcasts on the subject of Christianity brought him wide acclaim. In 1956, he married the American writer Joy Gresham (17 years his junior), who died four years later after a long battle against cancer. She was only 45 years old. Lewis himself died three years later following a heart attack, one week before what would have been his 65th birthday. Media coverage of his death was minimal, as he died on 22 November 1963 - the same day that the US President John F. Kennedy was assassinated. Lewis's works have been translated into more than 30 languages and have sold millions of copies over the years. The books that comprise The Chronicles of Narnia have sold the most and have been popularised on stage, in TV, in radio, and in cinema. Biography Childhood Clive Staples Lewis was born in Belfast, Ireland, on 29 November 1898. His father was Albert James Lewis (1863 – 1929), a solicitor whose father, Richard, had come to Ireland from Wales during the mid 19th century. His mother was Florence (Flora) Augusta Lewis née Hamilton (1862 – 1908), the daughter of a Church of Ireland (Anglican) priest. He had one older brother, Warren Hamilton Lewis (Warnie). At the age of four, shortly after his dog Jacksie died when run over by a car, Lewis announced that his name was now Jacksie. At first he would answer to no other name, but later accepted Jack, the name by which he was known to friends and family for the rest of his life. When he was seven, his family moved into "Little Lea", the house the elder Mr. Lewis built for Mrs. Lewis, in the Strandtown area of East Belfast. Little Lea Lewis was initially schooled by private tutors before being sent to the Wynyard School in Watford, Hertfordshire, in 1908, just after his mother's death from cancer. Lewis's brother had already enrolled there three years previously. The school was closed not long afterwards due to a lack of pupils — the headmaster Robert "Oldie" Capron was soon after committed to an insane asylum. Tellingly, in Surprised By Joy, Lewis would later nickname the school (and place) "Belsen". Lewis, Surprised by Joy, p. 24. There is some speculation by biographer Alan Jacobs that the atmosphere at Wynyard greatly traumatized Lewis and was responsible for the development of "mildly sadomasochistic fantasies". After Wynyard closed, Lewis attended Campbell College in the east of Belfast about a mile from his home, but he left after a few months due to respiratory problems. As a result of his illness, Lewis was sent to the health-resort town of Malvern, Worcestershire, where he attended the preparatory school Cherbourg House (called "Chartres" in Lewis's autobiography). In September 1913, Lewis enrolled at Malvern College, where he would remain until the following June. It was during this time that 15-year-old Lewis abandoned his childhood Christian faith and became an atheist, becoming interested in mythology and the occult. Later he would describe "Wyvern" (as he styled the school in his autobiography) as so singularly focused on increasing one's social status that he came to see the homosexual relationships between older and younger pupils as "the one oasis (though green only with weeds and moist only with fetid water) in the burning desert of competitive ambition. […] A perversion was the only thing left through which something spontaneous and uncalculated could creep". Lewis (1966) Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Literature; p. 107 After leaving Malvern he moved to study privately with William T. Kirkpatrick, his father's old tutor and former headmaster of Lurgan College. As a young boy, Lewis had a fascination with anthropomorphic animals, falling in love with Beatrix Potter's stories and often writing and illustrating his own animal stories. He and his brother Warnie together created the world of Boxen, inhabited and run by animals. Lewis loved to read, and as his father’s house was filled with books, he felt that finding a book to read was as easy as walking into a field and "finding a new blade of grass." Lewis, Surprised by Joy, p. 10. As a teenager, he was wonderstruck by the songs and legends of what he called Northernness, the ancient literature of Scandinavia preserved in the Icelandic sagas. These legends intensified a longing he had within, a deep desire he would later call "joy". He also grew to love nature — the beauty of nature reminded him of the stories of the North, and the stories of the North reminded him of the beauties of nature. His writing in his teenage years moved away from the tales of Boxen, and he began to use different art forms (epic poetry and opera) to try to capture his newfound interest in Norse mythology and the natural world. Studying with Kirkpatrick (“The Great Knock”, as Lewis afterwards called him) instilled in him a love of Greek literature and mythology, and sharpened his skills in debate and clear reasoning. World War I Having won a scholarship to University College, Oxford in 1916, Lewis volunteered the following year in the British Army as World War I raged on, and was commissioned an officer in the Third Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry. Lewis arrived at the front line in the Somme Valley in France on his nineteenth birthday, and experienced trench warfare. On 15 April 1918 Lewis was wounded during the German spring offensive, and suffered some depression during his convalescence, due in part to missing his Irish home. On his recovery in October, he was assigned to duty in Andover, England. He was discharged in December 1918, and soon returned to his studies. Lewis received a First in Honour Moderations (Greek and Latin Literature) in 1920, a First in Greats (Philosophy and Ancient History) in 1922, and a First in English in 1923. Jane Moore While being trained for the army Lewis shared a room with another cadet, Edward Courtnay Francis "Paddy" Moore (1898-1918). Maureen Moore, Paddy's sister, claimed that the two made a mutual pact that if either died during the war, the survivor would take care of both their families. Paddy was killed in action in 1918 and Lewis kept his promise. Paddy had earlier introduced Lewis to his mother, Jane King Moore, and a friendship very quickly sprang up between Lewis, who was eighteen when they met, and Jane, who was forty-five. The friendship with Mrs. Moore was particularly important to Lewis while he was recovering from his wounds in hospital, as his father, who had an almost pathological reluctance to break free from the routine of his Belfast practice, could not bring himself to visit Lewis. Lewis lived with and cared for Mrs. Moore until she was hospitalized in the late 1940s. He routinely introduced her as his "mother", and referred to her as such in letters. Lewis, whose own mother had died when he was a child and whose father was distant, demanding and eccentric, developed a deeply affectionate friendship with Mrs. Moore. "All I can or need to say is that my earlier hostility to the emotions was very fully and variously avenged", he wrote of her in his autobiography. He also said to his friend George Sayer: "She was generous and taught me to be generous, too." In December 1917 Lewis wrote in a letter to his childhood friend Arthur Greeves that Jane and Greeves were "the two people who matter most to me in the world." In 1930, Lewis and his brother Warnie moved, with Moore and her daughter Maureen, into "The Kilns", a house in the district of Headington Quarry on the outskirts of Oxford (now part of the suburb of Risinghurst). They all contributed financially to the purchase of the house, which passed to Maureen, then Dame Maureen Dunbar, Btss., when Warren died in 1973. Moore suffered from dementia in her later years and was eventually moved into a nursing home, where she died in 1951. Lewis visited her every day in this home until her death. "My Irish life" Plaque on a park-bench in Bangor, County Down Lewis experienced a certain cultural shock upon first arriving in England: "No Englishman will be able to understand my first impressions of England," Lewis wrote in Surprised by Joy, continuing, "The strange English accents with which I was surrounded seemed like the voices of demons. But what was worst was the English landscape … I have made up the quarrel since; but at that moment I conceived a hatred for England which took many years to heal." Lewis, Surprised by Joy, p. 24. From boyhood Lewis immersed himself firstly in Norse and Greek and then in Irish mythology and literature and expressed an interest in the Irish language, though he seems to have made little attempt to learn it. He developed a particular fondness for W. B. Yeats, in part because of Yeats’s use of Ireland’s Celtic heritage in poetry. In a letter to a friend Lewis wrote, "I have here discovered an author exactly after my own heart, whom I am sure you would delight in, W. B. Yeats. He writes plays and poems of rare spirit and beauty about our old Irish mythology." In 1921, Lewis had the opportunity to meet Yeats on two occasions, since Yeats had moved to Oxford. Surprised to find his English peers indifferent to Yeats and the Celtic Revival movement, Lewis wrote: "I am often surprised to find how utterly ignored Yeats is among the men I have met: perhaps his appeal is purely Irish — if so, then thank the gods that I am Irish." Yeats appeal wasn't exclusively Irish: he was also a major "magical opponent" of famed English occultist Aleister Crowley, as noted extensively throughout Lawrence Sutin's Do what thou wilt : a life of Aleister Crowley. New York: MacMillan (St. Martins). cf. pp. 56-78. See also Yeats (main article); and King, Francis (1978). The Magical World of Aleister Crowley. New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, ISBN 0698108841. Early in his career, Lewis considered sending his work to the major Dublin publishers, writing: "If I do ever send my stuff to a publisher, I think I shall try Maunsel, those Dublin people, and so tack myself definitely onto the Irish school." After his conversion to Christianity, his interests gravitated towards Christian spirituality and away from pagan Celtic mysticism. Lewis occasionally expressed a somewhat tongue-in-cheek chauvinism toward the English. Describing an encounter with a fellow Irishman he wrote: "Like all Irish people who meet in England we ended by criticisms of the inevitable flippancy and dullness of the Anglo-Saxon race. After all, Ami, there is no doubt that the Irish are the only people … I would not gladly live or die among another folk." Due to his Oxford career Lewis did indeed live and die among another folk, and he often expressed regret at having to leave Ireland. Throughout his life, he sought out the company of his fellow Irish living in England and visited Northern Ireland regularly, even spending his honeymoon there in 1958 at the Old Inn, Crawfordsburn. He called this "my Irish life." Conversion to Christianity Raised in a church-going family in the Church of Ireland, Lewis became an atheist at the age of 15, though he later paradoxically described his young self as being "very angry with God for not existing". Lewis, Surprised by Joy, p. 28. At the age of 29 he considered himself a theist and was eventually converted at the age of 33. His early separation from Christianity began when he started to view his religion as a chore and as a duty; around this time he also gained an interest in the occult as his studies expanded to include such topics. Lewis quoted Lucretius (De rerum natura, 5.198–9) as having one of the strongest arguments for atheism: Nequaquam nobis divinitus esse paratam Naturam rerum; tanta stat praedita culpa "Had God designed the world, it would not be A world so frail and faulty as we see." Lewis's interest in the works of George MacDonald was part of what turned him from atheism. This can be seen particularly well through this passage in Lewis's The Great Divorce, chapter nine, when the semi-autobiographical main character meets MacDonald in Heaven: …I tried, trembling, to tell this man all that his writings had done for me. I tried to tell how a certain frosty afternoon at Leatherhead Station when I had first bought a copy of Phantastes (being then about sixteen years old) had been to me what the first sight of Beatrice had been to Dante: Here begins the new life. I started to confess how long that Life had delayed in the region of imagination merely: how slowly and reluctantly I had come to admit that his Christendom had more than an accidental connexion with it, how hard I had tried not to see the true name of the quality which first met me in his books is Holiness. Lewis (1946( The Great Divorce; pp. 66–67 Influenced by arguments with his Oxford colleague and friend J. R. R. Tolkien, and by the book The Everlasting Man by G. K. Chesterton, he slowly rediscovered Christianity. He fought greatly up to the moment of his conversion noting that he was brought into Christianity like a prodigal, "kicking, struggling, resentful, and darting his eyes in every direction for a chance to escape." Lewis, Surprised by Joy, p. 229. He described his last struggle in Surprised by Joy: You must picture me alone in that room in Magdalen, night after night, feeling, whenever my mind lifted even for a second from my work, the steady, unrelenting approach of Him whom I so earnestly desired not to meet. That which I greatly feared had at last come upon me. In the Trinity Term of 1929 I gave in, and admitted that God was God, and knelt and prayed: perhaps, that night, the most dejected and reluctant convert in all England. Lewis, Surprised by Joy, pp. 228, 229. After his conversion to theism in 1929, Lewis converted to Christianity in 1931. Following a long discussion and late-night walk with his close friends Tolkien and Hugo Dyson, he records making a specific commitment to Christian belief while on his way to the zoo with his brother. He became a member of the Church of England — somewhat to the disappointment of Tolkien, who had hoped he would convert to Roman Catholicism. Lewis was brought up in the Church of Ireland, and after his conversion joined the Church of England. A committed Anglican, Lewis upheld a largely orthodox Anglican theology, though in his apologetic writings, he made an effort to avoid espousing any one denomination. In his later writings, some believe he proposed ideas such as purification of venial sins after death in purgatory (The Great Divorce) and mortal sin (The Screwtape Letters), which are generally considered to be Roman Catholic teachings. Regardless, Lewis considered himself an entirely orthodox Anglican to the end of his life, reflecting that he had initially attended church only to receive communion and had been repelled by the hymns and the poor quality of the sermons. He later came to consider himself honoured by worshipping with men of faith who came in shabby clothes and work boots and who sang all the verses to all the hymns. Joy Gresham In Lewis's later life, he corresponded with and later met Joy Davidman Gresham, an American writer of Jewish background and also a convert from atheism to Christianity. C. S. Lewis - His Conversion She was separated from her alcoholic and abusive husband, the novelist William Gresham, and came to England with her two sons, David and Douglas. Lewis at first regarded her as an agreeable intellectual companion and personal friend, and it was at least overtly on this level that he agreed to enter into a civil marriage contract with her so that she could continue to live in the UK. Green and Hooper. C. S. Lewis: A Biography (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974), 268. Lewis's brother Warnie wrote: "For Jack the attraction was at first undoubtedly intellectual. Joy was the only woman whom he had met… who had a brain which matched his own in suppleness, in width of interest, and in analytical grasp, and above all in humour and a sense of fun" . However, after complaining of a painful hip, she was diagnosed with terminal bone cancer, and the relationship developed to the point that they sought a Christian marriage. Since she was divorced, this was not straightforward in the Church of England at the time, but a friend, the Rev. Peter Bide, performed the ceremony at her hospital bed in 1956. Gresham's cancer soon went into a brief remission, and the couple lived as a family (together with Warren Lewis) until her eventual relapse and death in 1960. The year she died, the couple took a brief holiday in Greece and the Aegean in 1960; Lewis was fond of walking but not of travel, and this marked his only crossing of the English Channel after 1918. Lewis’s book A Grief Observed describes his experience of bereavement in such a raw and personal fashion that Lewis originally released it under the pseudonym N.W. Clerk to keep readers from associating the book with him. However, so many friends recommended the book to Lewis as a method for dealing with his own grief that he made his authorship public. Lewis continued to raise Gresham's two sons after her death. While Douglas Gresham is, like Lewis and his mother, a Christian, At home in Narnia - Books - Entertainment - theage.com.au David Greshman turned to the faith into which his mother had been born and became ultra-Orthodox in his beliefs. His mother's writings had featured the Jews, particularly one “shohet” (ritual slaughterer), in an unsympathetic manner. David informed Lewis that he was going to become a ritual slaughterer in order to present this type of Jewish religious functionary to the world in a more favorable light. Eventually David taught himself Yiddish, purchased traditional Hassidic garb, fur hat and long caftan and frequently refused to speak to women. Douglas Gresham acknowledged in a November 15, 2005 interview on NPR that he and his brother are estranged, although in a December 4, 2005, interview, he did say they are in email contact. At home in Narnia - Books - Entertainment - theage.com.au Douglas remains involved in the affairs of the Lewis estate. Illness and death In early June 1961, Lewis began experiencing medical problems and was diagnosed with inflammation of the kidneys which resulted in blood poisoning. His illness caused him to miss the autumn term at Cambridge, though his health gradually began improving in 1962 and he returned that April. Lewis's health continued to improve, and according to his friend George Sayer, Lewis was fully himself by the spring of 1963. However, on 15 July 1963 he fell ill and was admitted to hospital. The next day at 5:00 pm, Lewis suffered a heart attack and lapsed into a coma, unexpectedly awaking the following day at 2:00 pm. After he was discharged from the hospital, Lewis returned to the Kilns though he was too ill to return to work. As a result, he resigned from his post at Cambridge in August. Lewis's condition continued to decline and in mid-November, he was diagnosed with end stage renal failure. On 22 November 1963 Lewis collapsed in his bedroom at 5:30 pm and died a few minutes later, exactly one week before his 65th birthday. He is buried in the churchyard of Holy Trinity Church, Headington, Oxford . Media coverage of his death was almost completely overshadowed by news of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, which occurred on the same day, as did the death of Aldous Huxley, author of Brave New World. This coincidence was the inspiration for Peter Kreeft's book Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley . C. S. Lewis is commemorated on 22 November in the church calendar of the Episcopal Church. Career The scholar Magdalen College Lewis began his brilliant academic career as an undergraduate student at Oxford, where he won a triple first, the highest honors in three areas of study. The Question of God. Armand Nicholi. Page 4. Lewis then taught as a fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, for nearly thirty years, from 1925 to 1954, and later was the first Professor of Medieval and Renaissance English at the University of Cambridge and a fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge. Using this position, he argued that there was no such thing as an English Renaissance. Much of his scholarly work concentrated on the later Middle Ages, especially its use of allegory. His The Allegory of Love (1936) helped reinvigorate the serious study of late medieval narratives like the Roman de la Rose. Lewis wrote several prefaces to old works of literature and poetry, like Layamon's Brut. His book "A Preface to Paradise Lost" is still one of the most valuable criticisms of that work. His last academic work, The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature (1964), is a summary of the medieval world view, the "discarded image" of the cosmos in his title. The Eagle and Child pub in Oxford where the Inklings met on Tuesday nights in 1939Lewis was a prolific writer, and his circle of literary friends became an informal discussion society known as the "Inklings", including J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and his brother Warnie Lewis. At Oxford he was the tutor of, among many other undergraduates, poet John Betjeman, critic Kenneth Tynan, mystic Bede Griffiths, and Sufi scholar Martin Lings. Curiously, the religious and conservative Betjeman detested Lewis, whereas the anti-Establishment Tynan retained a life-long admiration for him . Of Tolkien, Lewis writes in Surprised by Joy: When I began teaching for the English Faculty, I made two other friends, both Christians (these queer people seemed now to pop up on every side) who were later to give me much help in getting over the last stile. They were H.V.V. Dyson … and J.R.R. Tolkien. Friendship with the latter marked the breakdown of two old prejudices. At my first coming into the world I had been (implicitly) warned never to trust a Papist, and at my first coming into the English Faculty (explicitly) never to trust a philologist. Tolkien was both. Lewis, Surprised by Joy, p. 216. The author In addition to his scholarly work, Lewis wrote a number of popular novels, including his science fiction Space Trilogy and his fantasy Narnian books, most dealing implicitly with Christian themes such as sin, humanity's fall from grace, and redemption. The Pilgrim's Regress His first novel after becoming a Christian was The Pilgrim's Regress, which depicted his experience with Christianity in the style of John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. The book was poorly received by critics at the time, although D. Martyn Lloyd-Jones, one of Lewis's contemporaries at Oxford, gave him much-valued encouragement. Asked by Lloyd-Jones when he would write another book, Lewis replied, "When I understand the meaning of prayer." Space Trilogy His Space Trilogy or Ransom Trilogy novels (also called the Cosmic Trilogy) dealt with what Lewis saw as the de-humanising trends in contemporary science fiction. The first book, Out of the Silent Planet, was apparently written following a conversation with his friend J. R. R. Tolkien about these trends; Lewis agreed to write a "space travel" story and Tolkien a "time travel" one. Tolkien’s story, "The Lost Road", a tale connecting his Middle-earth mythology and the modern world, was never completed. Lewis’s main character of Ransom is based in part on Tolkien, a fact that Tolkien himself alludes to in his Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien. The second novel, Perelandra, depicts a new Garden of Eden on the planet Venus, a new Adam and Eve, and a new "serpent figure" to tempt them. The story can be seen as a hypothesis of what could have happened if the terrestrial Eve had resisted the serpent's temptation and avoided the Fall of Man. The last novel in the Trilogy, That Hideous Strength, further develops the theme of nihilistic science threatening traditional human values embodied in Arthurian legend (and making reference to Tolkien's fictional universe of Middle-earth). Many of the ideas in the Trilogy, particularly the opposition to de-humanization in the third volume, are presented more formally in Lewis’ The Abolition of Man, based on his series of lectures at Durham University in 1943. Lewis stayed in Durham, where he was overwhelmed by the cathedral. That Hideous Strength is in fact set in the environs of 'Edgestow' university, a small English university like Durham, though Lewis disclaims any other resemblance between the two. Lewis's 1943 Preface to "That Hideous Strength" (1945) by C. S. Lewis. It is claimed that Lewis began another science-fiction novel, The Dark Tower, but it is unfinished; it is not clear whether it was intended as part of the same series of novels. The manuscript was eventually published in 1977, though controversy persists about its authenticity. The Chronicles of Narnia The Mountains of Mourne The Chronicles of Narnia is a series of seven fantasy novels for children and is considered a classic of children's literature. Written between 1949 and 1954 and illustrated by Pauline Baynes, the series is Lewis's most popular work having sold over 100 million copies in forty-one languages . It has been adapted several times, complete or in part, for radio, television, stage, and cinema. The series has been published in several different orders, and the preferred reading order for the series is often debated among fans; Douglas Gresham has stated that Lewis preferred that they be read in "Narnian chronology", not the order in which they were published . The books contain Christian ideas made easily accessible to young readers. They are not pedantic, however, and their richness of adventure, colour, and ideas have made them favourites of children and adults, Christians and non-Christians. In addition to Christian themes, Lewis also borrows characters from Greek and Roman mythology as well as traditional British and Irish fairy tales. Other works Lewis wrote a number of works on Heaven and Hell. One of these, The Great Divorce, is a short novella in which a few residents of Hell take a bus ride to Heaven, where they are met by people who dwell there. The proposition is that they can stay (in which case they can call the place where they had come from “Purgatory”, instead of “Hell”); but many find it not to their taste. The title is a reference to William Blake's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, a concept that Lewis found a "disastrous error" . This work deliberately echoes two other more famous works with a similar theme: the Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. Another short work, The Screwtape Letters, consists of suave letters of advice from a senior demon, Screwtape, to his nephew Wormwood, on the best ways to tempt a particular human and secure his damnation. Lewis’s last novel was Till We Have Faces — he thought of it as his most mature and masterful work of fiction, but it was never a popular success. It is a retelling of the myth of Cupid and Psyche from the unusual perspective of Psyche's sister. It is deeply concerned with religious ideas, but the setting is entirely pagan, and the connections with specific Christian beliefs are left implicit. Before Lewis’s conversion to Christianity, he published two books: Spirits in Bondage, a collection of poems, and Dymer, a single narrative poem. Both were published under the pen name Clive Hamilton. He also wrote The Four Loves, which rhetorically explains four loves including friendship, eros, affection, and charity or caritas. The Christian apologist In addition to his career as an English professor and an author of fiction, Lewis is regarded by many as one of the most influential Christian apologists of his time; Mere Christianity was voted best book of the twentieth century by Christianity Today in 2000. Due to Lewis's approach to religious belief as a skeptic, and his following conversion, he has been called "The Apostle to the Skeptics." Lewis was very much interested in presenting a reasonable case for the truth of Christianity. Mere Christianity, The Problem of Pain, and Miracles were all concerned, to one degree or another, with refuting popular objections to Christianity, such as "How could a good God allow pain to exist in the world?". He also became known as a popular lecturer and broadcaster, and some of his writing (including much of Mere Christianity) originated as scripts for radio talks or lectures Lewis (1952) Mere Christianity; p. v . According to George Sayer, a 1948 loss in a debate with Elizabeth Anscombe led to his reevaluating his role as an apologist and his future works concentrated on devotional literature and children's books. Anscombe had a different recollection of the debate's emotional effect on Lewis. Victor Reppert also disputes Sayer, listing some of Lewis' post-1948 apologetic publications, including the second and revised edition of his Miracles in 1960. Lewis also wrote an autobiography titled Surprised by Joy, which places special emphasis on his own conversion. (It was written before he met his wife, Joy Gresham; the title of the book came from the first line of a poem by William Wordsworth.) His essays and public speeches on Christian belief, many of which were collected in God in the Dock and The Weight of Glory and Other Addresses, remain popular today. His most famous works, the Chronicles of Narnia, contain many strong Christian messages and are often considered allegory. Lewis, an expert on the subject of allegory, maintained that the books were not allegory, and preferred to call the Christian aspects of them "suppositional". As Lewis wrote in a letter to a Mrs. Hook in December 1958: If Aslan represented the immaterial Deity in the same way in which Giant Despair [a character in The Pilgrim's Progress] represents despair, he would be an allegorical figure. In reality however he is an invention giving an imaginary answer to the question, 'What might Christ become like, if there really were a world like Narnia and He chose to be incarnate and die and rise again in that world as He actually has done in ours?' This is not allegory at all. Trilemma In a much-cited passage in the book Mere Christianity, Lewis challenged the increasingly popular view that Jesus, although a great moral teacher, was not God. He argued that Jesus made several implicit claims to divinity, which would logically exclude this: I am trying here to prevent anyone saying the really foolish thing that people often say about Him: 'I’m ready to accept Jesus as a great moral teacher, but I don’t accept his claim to be God.' That is the one thing we must not say. A man who was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not be a great moral teacher. He would either be a lunatic — on the level with the man who says he is a poached egg — or else he would be the Devil of Hell. You must make your choice. Either this man was, and is, the Son of God, or else a madman or something worse. You can shut him up for a fool, you can spit at him and kill him as a demon or you can fall at his feet and call him Lord and God, but let us not come with any patronising nonsense about his being a great human teacher. He has not left that open to us. He did not intend to. This appeared at a time when scholars such as Albert Schweitzer and Rudolf Bultmann had portrayed Jesus' miracles and resurrection as myths. The concept that Jesus was not God but a wise man had gained ground in academic circles. In accepting the premise that Jesus had claimed divinity, Lewis was contradicting a viewpoint, popularized by H. G. Wells in his Outline of History, that Jesus had made no such claim. This argument, which Lewis did not invent but developed and popularised, is sometimes referred to as "Lewis's trilemma". It has been used by the Christian apologist Josh McDowell in his book More Than a Carpenter . Although widely repeated in Christian apologetic literature, it has been largely ignored by professional theologians and biblical scholars. Lewis's Christian apologetics, and this argument in particular, have been criticized. Philosopher John Beversluis described Lewis's arguments as "textually careless and theologically unreliable". John Hick states that New Testament scholars do not today support the view that Jesus claimed to be God. The Anglican bishop N. T. Wright commented that the 'trilemma' argument "doesn't work as history, and it backfires dangerously when historical critics question his reading of the Gospels." Lewis used a similar structure in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, when Digory Kirke advises the young heroes that their sister's claims of a magical world must logically be taken as either lies, madness, or truth. Universal morality One of the main theses in Lewis's apologia is that there is a common morality known throughout humanity. In the first five chapters of Mere Christianity Lewis discusses the idea that people have a standard of behaviour to which they expect other people to adhere. This standard has been called Universal Morality or Natural Law. Lewis claims that people all over the earth know what this law is and when they break it. He goes on to claim that there must be someone or something behind such a universal set of principles. These then are the two points that I wanted to make. First, that human beings, all over the earth, have this curious idea that they ought to behave in a certain way, and cannot really get rid of it. Secondly, that they do not in fact behave in that way. They know the Law of Nature; they break it. These two facts are the foundation of all clear thinking about ourselves and the universe we live in. Lewis also portrays Universal Morality in his works of fiction. In The Chronicles of Narnia he describes Universal Morality as the "Deep magic" which everyone knew. In the second chapter of Mere Christianity Lewis recognizes that "many people find it difficult to understand what this Law of Human Nature [...] is". And he responds first to the idea "that the Moral Law is simply our herd instinct" and second to the idea "that the Moral Law is simply a social convention". In responding to the second idea Lewis notes that people often complain that one set of moral ideas is better than another, but that this actually argues for there existing some "Real Morality" to which they are comparing other moralities. Finally he notes that sometimes differences in moral codes are exaggerated by people who confuse differences in beliefs about morality with differences in beliefs about facts: I have met people who exaggerate the differences, because they have not distinguished between differences of morality and differences of belief about facts. For example, one man said to me, "Three hundred years ago people in England were putting witches to death. Was that what you call the Rule of Human Nature or Right Conduct?" But surely the reason we do not execute witches is that we do not believe there are such things. If we did — if we really thought that there were people going about who had sold themselves to the devil and received supernatural powers from him in return and were using these powers to kill their neighbours or drive them mad or bring bad weather, surely we would all agree that if anyone deserved the death penalty, then these filthy quislings did. There is no difference of moral principle here: the difference is simply about matter of fact. It may be a great advance in knowledge not to believe in witches: there is no moral advance in not executing them when you do not think they are there. You would not call a man humane for ceasing to set mousetraps if he did so because he believed there were no mice in the house. On that note, it is worthwhile to point out that C.S. Lewis also had fairly progressive views on the topic of "animal morality," in particular the suffering of animals, as is evidenced by several of his essays: most notably, On Vivisection and "On the Pains of Animals." Legacy A statue of Digory Kirke (C. S. Lewis's fictional alter ego from The Magician's Nephew) in front of the wardrobe of his book The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe in East Belfast, Northern Ireland Lewis continues to attract a wide readership. Readers of his fiction are often unaware of what Lewis considered the Christian themes of his works. His Christian apologetics are read and quoted by followers of a wide range of religious denominations, including Catholics and Mormons . Lewis has been the subject of several biographies, a few of which were written by some of his close friends, such as Roger Lancelyn Green and George Sayer. In 1985 the screenplay Shadowlands by William Nicholson, dramatizing Lewis's life and relationship with Joy Davidman Gresham, was aired on British TV (starring Joss Ackland as Lewis and Claire Bloom as Joy). In 1989 this was staged as a theatre play (starring Nigel Hawthorne) and in 1993 Shadowlands became a feature film, starring Anthony Hopkins as Lewis and Debra Winger as Joy. In 2005, a one hour made for TV movie entitled C. S. Lewis: Beyond Narnia (starring Anton Rodgers) provided a general synopsis of Lewis's life. Many books have been inspired by Lewis, including A Severe Mercy by his correspondent and friend Sheldon Vanauken. The Chronicles of Narnia have been particularly influential. Modern children's literature such as Daniel Handler's A Series of Unfortunate Events, Eoin Colfer's Artemis Fowl, Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials, and J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter have been more or less influenced by Lewis's series . Pullman, an atheist and so fierce a critic of Lewis's work as to be dubbed "the anti-Lewis" , considers him a negative influence and has accused Lewis of featuring religious propaganda, misogyny, racism, and emotional sadism in his books. Authors of adult fantasy literature such as Tim Powers have also testified to being influenced by Lewis's work. Most of Lewis’ posthumous work has been edited by his literary executor, Walter Hooper. An independent Lewis scholar, the late Kathryn Lindskoog, argued that Hooper's scholarship is not reliable and that he has made false statements and attributed forged works to Lewis . C. S. Lewis's stepson, Douglas Gresham, denies the forgery claims, saying that "The whole controversy thing was engineered for very personal reasons... Her fanciful theories have been pretty thoroughly discredited." . A bronze statue of Lewis's character, Digory, from The Magician's Nephew, stands in Belfast's Holywood Arches in front of the Holywood Road Library . Lewis was strongly opposed to the creation of live-action versions of his works. His major concern was that the anthropomorphic animal characters "when taken out of narrative into actual visibility, always turn into buffoonery or nightmare". This was said in the context of the 1950s, when technology would not allow the special effects required to make a coherent, robust film version of Narnia. The song "The Earth Will Shake" performed by Thrice is based on one of his poems, and the band Sixpence None the Richer are named after a passage in Mere Christianity. The Great Divorce has served as the inspiration for at least three pieces of music: a string quartet piece entitled The Great Divorce by Matt Slocum of Sixpence None the Richer, the song "The High Countries" by Caedmon's Call on their album Back Home, and Phil Woodward's 2007 rock album Ghosts and Spirits. New Zealand Christian singer-songwriter Brooke Fraser also included a song entitled "C. S. Lewis Song" in her latest album "Albertine" which contains passages from his writing. cs-lewis-song retrieved 9 September 2007 Christian alternative rock band Poor Old Lu are so named because of a sentence in The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe. Another alternative rock band, Future of Forestry, got its name from Lewis's poem The Future of Forestry. 2nd Chapter of Acts recorded an album entitled The Roar of Love, inspired by the first of the Narnia stories. British band The Waterboys quoted from the final Narnia book, The Last Battle, in their 1984 song "Church Not Made with Hands". Later, on their 1990 album Room to Roam, The Waterboys included a song entitled "Further Up, Further In", the title taken from the penultimate chapter of The Last Battle. Also, Joni Mitchell included a song titled "The Dawntreader" on her album, "Song to a Seagull." American acoustic guitarrist and vocalist Phil Keaggy besides being a huge fan of Lewis works, sometimes even quoting him during his concerts, recorded in 1976 on his album Love Broke Thru an arranged version of the poem "As the Ruin Falls" by Lewis as song, and in 1991 on his instrumental album Beyond Nature, named after a quotation of Mere Christianity, named songs with references to Lewis like "Brother Jack", "Addison's Walk" and "County Down". The 2005 film adaptation of The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe was based on his first installment in the Narnia series. Film adaptations have been made of two other books he wrote: Prince Caspian (released on 16 May 2008) and Voyage of the Dawn Treader (to be released sometime in 2010). Several C. S. Lewis Societies exist around the world, including one which was founded in Oxford in 1982 to discuss papers on the life and works of Lewis and the other Inklings, and generally appreciate all things Lewisian. lewisinoxford - OXFORD UNIVERSITY C. S. LEWIS SOCIETY His name is also used by a variety of Christian organizations, often with a concern for maintaining conservative Christian values in education or literary studies. Bibliography Nonfiction The Allegory of Love: A Study in Medieval Tradition (1936) Rehabilitations and other essays (1939) — with two essays not included in Essay Collection (2000) The Personal Heresy: A Controversy (with E. M. W. Tillyard, 1939) The Problem of Pain (1940) A Preface to Paradise Lost (1942) The Abolition of Man (1943) Beyond Personality (1944) Miracles: A Preliminary Study (1947, revised 1960) Arthurian Torso (1948; on Charles Williams's poetry) Mere Christianity (1952; based on radio talks of 1941 – 1944) English Literature in the Sixteenth Century Excluding Drama (1954); 1975 reprint ISBN 0198812981; Major British Writers, Vol I (1954), Contribution on Edmund Spenser Surprised by Joy: The Shape of My Early Life (1955; autobiography) Reflections on the Psalms (1958) The Four Loves (1960) Studies in Words (1960) An Experiment in Criticism (1961) A Grief Observed (1961; first published under the pseudonym «N. W. Clerk») They Asked for a Paper: Papers and Addresses(1962) (All essays found in Essay Collection (2000) Selections from Layamon's Brut (ed. G L Brook, 1963 Oxford University Press) introduction The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature (1964) Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Literature (1966) — not included in Essay Collection (2000) Spenser's Images of Life (ed. Alastair Fowler, 1967) Letters to an American Lady (1967) Christian Reflections (1967; essays and papers)(All essays found in Essay Collection (2000) Selected Literary Essays (1969) — not included in Essay Collection (2000) God in the Dock: Essays on Theology and Ethics (1970), = Undeceptions (1971) — with one essay not included in Essay Collection (2000) Of Other Worlds (1982; essays) — with one essay not included in Essay Collection Present Concerns (1986; essays)(All essays found in Essay Collection (2000) All My Road Before Me: The Diary of C. S. Lewis 1922 – 27 (1993) Compelling Reason: Essays on Ethics and Theology (1998) COMPELLING REASON: ESSAYS ON ETHICS AND THEOLOGY, Lewis, C.S., Fount, 1998, ISBN 978-0006280903 Essay Collection: Literature, Philosophy and Short Stories (2000) Essay Collection: Faith, Christianity and the Church (2000) Collected Letters, Vol. I: Family Letters 1905 – 1931 (2000) Collected Letters, Vol. II: Books, Broadcasts and War 1931 – 1949 (2004) Collected Letters, Vol. III: Narnia, Cambridge and Joy 1950 – 1963 (2007) The Business Of Heaven:Daily Readings From C. S. Lewis ed. Walter Hooper, 1984, Harvest Book, Harcourt, Inc. Fiction The Pilgrim's Regress (1933) Space Trilogy Out of the Silent Planet (1938) Perelandra (aka Voyage to Venus) (1943) That Hideous Strength (1946) The Screwtape Letters (1942) The Great Divorce (1945) The Chronicles of Narnia The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950) Prince Caspian (1951) The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (1952) The Silver Chair (1953) The Horse and His Boy (1954) The Magician's Nephew (1955) The Last Battle (1956) Till We Have Faces (1956) Screwtape Proposes a Toast (1961) (an addition to The Screwtape Letters) Letters to Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer (1964) The Dark Tower (1977) Boxen: The Imaginary World of the Young C. S. Lewis (ed. Walter Hooper, 1985) Poetry Spirits in Bondage (1919; published under pseudonym Clive Hamilton) Dymer (1926; published under pseudonym Clive Hamilton) Narrative Poems (ed. Walter Hooper, 1969; includes Dymer) The Collected Poems of C. S. Lewis (ed. Walter Hooper, 1994; includes Spirits in Bondage) As editor George MacDonald: An Anthology (1947) Essays Presented to Charles Williams'' (1947) Secondary works John Beversluis, C. S. Lewis and the Search for Rational Religion. Eerdmans, 1985. ISBN 0-8028-0046-7 Humphrey Carpenter, The Inklings: C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams and their friends. George Allen & Unwin, 1978. ISBN 0-04-809011-5 Joe R. Christopher & Joan K. Ostling, C. S. Lewis: An Annotated Checklist of Writings about him and his Works. Kent State University Press, n.d. (1972). ISBN 0-87338-138-6 James Como, Branches to Heaven: The Geniuses of C. S. Lewis, Spence, 1998. James Como, Remembering C. S. Lewis (3rd ed. of C. S. Lewis at the Breakfast Table). Ignatius, 2006 Michael Coren, The Man Who Created Narnia: The Story of C. S. Lewis. Eerdmans Pub Co, Reprint edition 1996. ISBN 0-8028-3822-7 Christopher Derrick, C. S. Lewis and the Church of Rome: A Study in Proto-Ecumenism. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. 1981. ISBN 978-9991718507 David C. Downing, Into the Region of Awe: Mysticism in C. S. Lewis. InterVarsity, 2005. ISBN 0-8308-3284-X David C. Downing, Into the Wardrobe: C. S. Lewis and the Narnia Chronicles. Jossey-Bass, 2005. ISBN 0-7879-7890-6 David C. Downing, The Most Reluctant Convert: C. S. Lewis's Journey to Faith. InterVarsity, 2002. ISBN 0-8308-3271-8 David C. Downing, Planets in Peril: A Critical Study of C. S. Lewis's Ransom Trilogy. University of Massachusetts Press, 1992. ISBN 0-87023-997-X Colin Duriez and David Porter, The Inklings Handbook: The Lives, Thought and Writings of C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and Their Friends. 2001, ISBN 1-902694-13-9 Colin Duriez, Tolkien and C. S. Lewis: The Gift of Friendship. Paulist Press, 2003. ISBN 1-58768-026-2 Bruce L. Edwards, Not a Tame Lion: The Spiritual World of Narnia. Tyndale. 2005. ISBN 1414303815 Bruce L. Edwards, Further Up and Further In: Understanding C. S. Lewis’s The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe. Broadman and Holman, 2005. ISBN 0805440704 Bruce L. Edwards, General Editor, C. S. Lewis: Life, Works, and Legacy. 4 Vol. Praeger Perspectives, 2007. ISBN 0275991164 Bruce L. Edwards, Editor. The Taste of the Pineapple: Essays on C. S. Lewis as Reader, Critic, and Imaginative Writer. The Popular Press, 1988. ISBN 0879724072 Bruce L. Edwards, A Rhetoric of Reading: C. S. Lewis's Defense of Western Literacy. Center for the Study of Christian Values in Literature, 1986. ISBN 0939555018 Alastair Fowler, 'C. S. Lewis: Supervisor', Yale Review, Vol. 91, No. 4 (October 2003). Jocelyn Gibb (ed.), Light on C. S. Lewis. Geoffrey Bles, 1965 & Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1976. ISBN 0-15-652000-1 Douglas Gilbert & Clyde Kilby, C. S. Lewis: Images of His World. Eerdmans, 1973 & 2005. ISBN 0-8028-2800-0 Diana Glyer The Company They Keep: C. S. Lewis and J. R. R. Tolkien as Writers in Community. Kent State University Press. Kent Ohio. 2007. ISBN 978-0-87338-890-0 David Graham (ed.), We Remember C. S. Lewis. Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2001. ISBN 0-8054-2299-4 Roger Lancelyn Green & Walter Hooper, C. S. Lewis: A Biography. Fully revised & expanded edition. HarperCollins, 2002. ISBN 0-00-628164-8 Douglas Gresham, Jack's Life: A Memory of C. S. Lewis. Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2005. ISBN 0-8054-3246-9 Douglas Gresham, Lenten Lands: My Childhood with Joy Davidman and C. S. Lewis. HarperSanFrancisco, 1994. ISBN 0-06-063447-2 William Griffin, C. S. Lewis: The Authentic Voice. (Formerly C. S. Lewis: A Dramatic Life) Lion, 2005. ISBN 0-7459-5208-9 Joel D. Heck, Irrigating Deserts: C. S. Lewis on Education. Concordia Publishing House, 2006. ISBN 0-7586-0044-5 David Hein, "A Note on C. S. Lewis's The Screwtape Letters." The Anglican Digest 49.2 (Easter 2007): 55-58. Argues that Lewis's portrayal of the activity of the Devil was influenced by contemporary events—in particular, by the threat of a Nazi invasion of Britain in 1940. David Hein and Edward Hugh Henderson, eds., Captured by the Crucified: The Practical Theology of Austin Farrer. New York and London: T & T Clark / Continuum, 2004. A study of Lewis's close friend the theologian Austin Farrer, this book also contains material on Farrer's circle, "the Oxford Christians," including C. S. Lewis. Walter Hooper, C. S. Lewis: A Companion and Guide. HarperCollins, 1996. ISBN 0-00-627800-0 Walter Hooper, Through Joy and Beyond: A Pictorial Biography of C. S. Lewis. Macmillan, 1982. ISBN 0-02-553670-2 Alan Jacobs, The Narnian: The Life and Imagination of C. S. Lewis. HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 0-06-076690-5 Carolyn Keefe, C. S. Lewis: Speaker & Teacher. Zondervan, 1979. ISBN 0-310-26781-1 Jon Kennedy, The Everything Guide to C.S. Lewis and Narnia. Adams Media, 2008. ISBN 0-1-59869-427-8 Clyde S. Kilby, The Christian World of C. S. Lewis. Eerdmans, 1964, 1995. ISBN 0-8028-0871-9 W.H. Lewis (ed), Letters of C. S. Lewis. Geoffrey Bles, 1966. ISBN 0-00-242457-6 Kathryn Lindskoog, Light in the Shadowlands: Protecting the Real C. S. Lewis. Multnomah Pub., 1994. ISBN 0-88070-695-3 Susan Lowenberg, C. S. Lewis: A Reference Guide 1972 – 1988. Hall & Co., 1993. ISBN 0-8161-1846-9 Wayne Mardindale & Jerry Root, The Quotable Lewis. Tyndale House Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0-8423-5115-9 Markus Mühling, "A Theological Journey into Narnia. An Analysis of the Message beneath the Text", Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2005, ISBN 3-525-60423-8 Joseph Pearce, C. S. Lewis and the Catholic Church. Ignatius Press, 2003. ISBN 0-89870-979-2 Thomas C. Peters, Simply C. S. Lewis. A Beginner's Guide to His Life and Works. Kingsway Publications, 1998. ISBN 0-85476-762-2 Justin Phillips, C. S. Lewis at the BBC: Messages of Hope in the Darkness of War. Marshall Pickering, 2003. ISBN 0-00-710437-5 Victor Reppert, C. S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea: In Defense of the Argument from Reason. InterVarsity Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8308-2732-3 George Sayer, Jack: C. S. Lewis and His Times. Macmillan, 1988. ISBN 0-333-43362-9 Peter J. Schakel, Imagination and the Arts in C. S. Lewis: Journeying to Narnia and Other Worlds. University of Missouri Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8262-1407-X Peter J. Schakel. Reason and Imagination in C. S. Lewis: A Study of "Till We Have Faces." Available online. Eerdmans, 1984. ISBN 0-8028-1998-2 Peter J. Schakel, ed. The Longing for a Form: Essays on the Fiction of C. S. Lewis. Kent State University Press, 1977. ISBN 0-87338-204-8 Peter J. Schakel and Charles A. Huttar, ed. Word and Story in C. S. Lewis. University of Missouri Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8262-0760-X Stephen Schofield. In Search of C. S. Lewis. Bridge Logos Pub. 1983. ISBN 0-88270-544-X Jeffrey D. Schultz and John G. West, Jr. (eds.), The C. S. Lewis Readers' Encyclopedia. Zondervan Publishing House, 1998. ISBN 0-310-21538-2 G. B. Tennyson (ed.), Owen Barfield on C. S. Lewis. Wesleyan University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-8195-5233-X. Richard J. Wagner. C. S. Lewis and Narnia for Dummies. For Dummies, 2005. ISBN 0-7645-8381-6 Andrew Walker, Patrick James (ed.), Rumours of Heaven: Essays in Celebration of C. S. Lewis, Guildford: Eagle, 1998, ISBN 0863472508 Chad Walsh, C. S. Lewis: Apostle to the Skeptics. Macmillan, 1949. Chad Walsh, The Literary Legacy of C. S. Lewis. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979. ISBN 0-15-652785-5. Michael Ward, Planet Narnia, Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-531387-1. George Watson (ed.), Critical Essays on C. S. Lewis. Scolar Press, 1992. ISBN 0-85967-853-9 Michael White, C. S. Lewis: The Boy Who Chronicled Narnia. Abacus, 2005. ISBN 0-349-11625-3 Erik J. Wielenberg, God and the Reach of Reason. Cambridge University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-70710-7 A. N. Wilson, C. S. Lewis: A Biography. W. W. Norton, 1990. ISBN 0-393-32340-4 See also Christian apologetics (field of study concerned with the defence of Christianity) The Chronicles of Narnia The Inklings Pauline Baynes G. E. M. Anscombe George MacDonald Notes References External links Open Directory entry for C. S. Lewis Greg Clarke explores the atheism and conversion of C. S. Lewis for a Centre for Public Christianity vodcast Greg Clarke delves into the letters of C. S. Lewis in an article for the Centre for Public Christianity RapidNet.com — C. S. Lewis FAQ Ancestry of C. S. Lewis Arend Smilde's CSL site — Dutch and (mainly) English. Several unique or hard-to-find texts and resources; extensive annotations on several of CSL's works Rare photos of the youthful C.S. Lewis, with his family and of the older Lewis with his wife, Joy Davidman Gresham Original works Marion E. Wade Center at Wheaton College — has the world’s largest collection of Lewis's works and works about him Taylor University, Upland, Indiana, has the world's largest private collection of C. S. Lewis first editions, letters, manuscripts, and ephemera — the Edwin W. Brown Collection Audio Lewis on The George MacDonald Informational Web Has an excerpt of Lewis talking about friend and fellow author: Charles Williams, bottom of page Lewis's Surviving Broadcast Talks on the BBC BBC page on Lewis with original audio recordings. Complete text and audio of C. S. Lewis's BBC Radio Broadcast 'Beyond Personality - Mere Men' Analysis/evaluation The C.S. Lewis Chronicle — British academic journal for C. S. Lewis and his circle Adaptations Perelandra the Opera Donald Swann's opera based on the book by C.S. Lewis be-x-old:Клайв Стэйплз Льюіс
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Babylon_5
Babylon 5 is an American science fiction television series created, produced and largely written by J. Michael Straczynski. The show centers on the Babylon 5 space station: a focal point for politics, diplomacy, and conflict during the years 2257-2262. With its prominent use of pre-planned story arcs, the series was often described as a "novel for television." The pilot film premiered on February 22, 1993. The regular series aired from January 26, 1994 and ran for five full seasons, winning two Hugos for Best Dramatic Presentation "The Coming of Shadows", 1996; "Severed Dreams", 1997. and two Emmy awards - for makeup and visual effects. Special Visual Effects, 1993 ("The Gathering"); Achievement in Makeup, 1994 ("The Parliament of Dreams"). The show spawned six television films and a spin-off series, Crusade, which aired in 1999 and ran for thirteen episodes. On July 31, 2007, a DVD was released containing two short films about selected characters from the series. Concept Having worked on a number of television science fiction shows which had regularly gone over-budget, creator J. Michael Straczynski concluded that a lack of long-term planning was to blame, and set about looking at ways in which a series could be done responsibly. Taking note of the lessons of mainstream television, which brought stories to a centralised location such as a hospital, police station, or law office, he decided that instead of "[going] in search of new worlds, building them anew each week," a fixed space station setting would keep costs at a reasonable level. A fan of sagas such as the Foundation series, Childhood's End, The Lord of the Rings, and Dune, Straczynski wondered why no one had done a television series with the same epic sweep, and concurrently with the first idea started developing the concept for a vastly-ambitious epic covering massive battles and other universe-changing events. Realizing that both could be done in a single series, he began to sketch the initial outline of what would become Babylon 5. "Once I had the locale, I began to populate it with characters, and sketch out directions that might be interesting. I dragged out my notes on religion, philosophy, history, sociology, psychology, science (the ones that didn't make my head explode), and started stitching together a crazy quilt pattern that eventually formed a picture. Once I had that picture in my head, once I knew what the major theme was, the rest fell into place. All at once, I saw the full five year story in a flash, and I frantically began scribbling down notes." — J. Michael Straczynski, 1995 Straczynski set five goals for Babylon 5. He said that the show "would have to be good science fiction" as well as good television ("rarely are [sci-fi] shows both good [sci-fi] and good TV; [they're] generally one or the other"); it would have to do for science fiction television what Hill Street Blues had done for police dramas, by taking an adult approach to the subject; it would have to be reasonably budgeted, and "it would have to look unlike anything ever seen before on TV, presenting individual stories against a much broader canvas." He further stressed that his approach was "to take [sci-fi] seriously, to build characters for grown-ups, to incorporate real science but keep the characters at the center of the story." Some of the staples of television science fiction were also out of the question (the show would have "no kids or cute robots" ). The idea was not to present a perfect utopian future, but one with greed and homelessness; one where characters grow, develop, live, and die; one where not everything was the same at the end of the day's events. Citing Mark Twain as an influence, Straczynski said he wanted the show to be a mirror to the real world and to covertly teach. Production Format Described as a "window on the future" by series production designer John Iacovelli, Babylon 5: The Movie Collection, disc 5, "Creating the Future". the story is set in the 23rd century on a large space station named "Babylon 5"—a five-mile-long, 2.5 million-ton rotating colony designed as a gathering place for the sentient species of the galaxy, in order to foster peace through diplomacy, trade, and cooperation. Instead, acting as a center of political intrigue and conflict, the station becomes the linchpin of a massive interstellar war. This is reflected in the opening monologue of each episode, which includes the words "last, best hope for peace" in season one, changing to "last, best hope for victory" by season three. The series consists of a coherent five-year story arc taking place over five seasons of 22 episodes each. Unlike most television shows at the time, Babylon 5 was conceived as a "novel for television", with a defined beginning, middle, and end; in essence, each episode would be a single "chapter" of this "novel". Many of the tie-in novels, comic books, and short stories were also developed to play a significant canonical part in the overall story. The cost of the series totalled around $90 million for 110 episodes. Writing Creator and showrunner J. Michael Straczynski wrote 92 of the 110 episodes of Babylon 5. He also scripted all 44 episodes in the third and fourth seasons; according to Straczynski, a feat never before accomplished in American television. Other writers to have contributed scripts to the show include Peter David, Neil Gaiman, Kathryn M. Drennan, Lawrence G. DiTillio, D.C. Fontana, and David Gerrold. Harlan Ellison, a creative consultant on the show, received story credits for two episodes. Each writer was informed of the over-arching storyline, enabling the show to be produced consistently under-budget. The rules of production were strict; scripts were written six episodes in advance, and changes could not be made once production had started. Though conceived as a whole, it was necessary to adjust the plotline to accommodate external influences. Each of the characters in the series was written with a "trap door" into their background so that, in the event of an actor's unexpected departure from the series, the character could be written out with minimal impact on the storyline. In the words of Straczynski, "As a writer, doing a long-term story, it'd be dangerous and short-sighted for me to construct the story without trap doors for every single character. [...] That was one of the big risks going into a long-term storyline which I considered long in advance." The character of Talia Winters was to have undergone a transformation into a Psi-Corps secret agent, having been revealed as a "sleeper," whose true personality was buried subconsciously, and who acted as a spy, observing the events on the station and the actions of her command staff. Divided Loyalties When Winters's portrayer Andrea Thompson left the series, this revelation was used to drop the character from the series. "First thing I did was to flip out the stand-alones, which traditionally have taken up the first 6 or so episodes of each season; between two years, that's 12 episodes, over half a season right there. Then you would usually get a fair number of additional stand-alones scattered across the course of the season. So figure another 3-4 per season, say 8, that's 20 out of 44. So now you're left with basically 24 episodes to fill out the main arc of the story." — J. Michael Straczynski, 1996 Ratings for Babylon 5 continued to rise during the show's third season, but going into the fourth season, the impending demise of network PTEN left a fifth year in doubt. Unable to get word one way or the other from parent company Warner Bros., and unwilling to short-change the story and the fans, Straczynski began preparing modifications to the fourth season in order to allow for both eventualities. Straczynski identified three primary plot-threads which would require resolution: the Shadow war, Earth's slide into a dictatorship, and a series of sub-threads which branched off from those. Estimating they would still take around 27 episodes to resolve without having the season feel rushed, the solution came when the TNT network commissioned two Babylon 5 made-for-television films. Several hours of material was thus able to be moved into the films, including a three-episode arc which would deal with the background to the Earth/Minbari war, and a sub-thread which would have set up the sequel series, Crusade. Further standalone episodes and plot-threads were dropped from season four, which could be inserted into Crusade, or the fifth season, were it to be given the greenlight. The intended series finale, "Sleeping in Light," was filmed during season four as a precaution against cancellation. When word came that TNT had picked up Babylon 5, this was moved to the end of season five and replaced with a newly-filmed season four finale. Visuals In anticipation of future HDTV broadcasts and Laserdisc releases, rather than the usual 4:3 format, the series was shot in 16:9, with the image cropped to 4:3 for initial television transmissions. Babylon 5 also distinguished itself at a time when models and miniature were still standard by becoming one of the first television shows to use computer technology in creating visual effects. This was achieved using Amiga-based Video Toasters at first, and later Pentium and Alpha-based systems. It also attempted to respect Newtonian physics in its effects sequences, with particular emphasis on the effects of inertia. Foundation Imaging provided the special effects for the pilot film (for which it won an Emmy) and the first three seasons of the show. When a further deal was unable to be reached with Foundation, the effects for seasons four and five were provided in-house by Netter Digital, using similar technology and a number of former Foundation employees. The Emmy-winning alien make-up was provided by Optic Nerve Studios. Music and scoring The original pilot film had music composed by Stewart Copeland of The Police. When the show was picked up as a weekly series, Copeland was unavailable, so Christopher Franke of Tangerine Dream was hired. Franke was the composer for all five seasons of Babylon 5, three of the television films, and the Lost Tales DVD. When Straczynski obtained funds to create a new producer's cut of the pilot film, the original Copeland score was replaced with a new score by Franke. Over thirty soundtrack CDs have been issued featuring Franke's Babylon 5 compositions, including The Best of Babylon 5, released in 2001. The Babylon 5 station Babylon 5 orbiting Epsilon III. The station was described as "a combination of building the United Nations and Times Square on an intergalactic scale" by actor Bruce Boxleitner. The Guide to Babylon 5, TNT, 1997-12-26 The Babylon 5 space station is a modified version of an O'Neill Cylinder, rotating to provide artificial gravity. The center of the cylinder is a hollowed-out circular section, between a half and one-mile across, and includes fields, hydroponic gardens, and a transport tube which runs from one end of the station to the other. The station features a number of independent, interconnected sectors, each designed with a different look in order to give the show a non-claustrophobic feel. Living areas are designed to accommodate the various alien species featured in the show, with different atmospheres and alternate levels of gravity. Human visitors to the alien sectors are often shown using breathing equipment and taking other measures in order to tolerate these conditions. As the series begins, the station is still under construction, with only certain parts fully-completed, leading to many shadowy bowel areas. On the outermost levels, the viewports are in panels on the floor, providing a view into space beneath the characters' feet. The station is situated in the Epsilon Eridani binary star system, located at the fifth Lagrangian point between the fictional planet Epsilon III and its moon. Within the show, the station's three predecessors (the original Babylon station, Babylon 2 and Babylon 3) were all sabotaged or accidentally destroyed before their completion. The fourth station, Babylon 4, vanished twenty-four hours after it became fully operational. Civilizations G'Kar (left) of the Narn Regime and Londo Mollari of the Centauri Republic. Backdrop: The League of Non-Aligned Worlds. At the beginning of the series, five dominant civilizations are represented. The dominant species are the Humans, Minbari, Narn, Centauri, and the Vorlons. "The Shadows" and their various allies are malevolent species who appear later in the series. Several dozen less powerful races form the League of Non-Aligned Worlds appear, including the Drazi, Brakiri, Vree, Markab, and pak'ma'ra. While the original pilot film featured some aliens which were puppets and animatronics, the decision was made early on in the show's production to portray most alien species as humanoid in appearance. Barring isolated appearances, fully computer-generated aliens were discounted as an idea due to the "massive rendering power" required. Long-term use of puppets and animatronics was also discounted due to the technological limitations in providing convincing interaction with the human actors ("if you want any real emotion from the character, you're going to have to have an actor inside.") Languages There are three primary languages used on the Babylon 5 station: English, as well as the fictional Centauri and Interlac. English is mentioned explicitly as the "human language of commerce," Objects at Rest and is the baseline language of the station (written signs appearing in all three languages). Other human and alien languages do exist in the Babylon 5 universe, though hearing them spoken is uncommon; when aliens of the same species are speaking to one another, the words heard are English, though it is presumed they are speaking their native tongue. Only when in the presence of humans can the alien language be heard, to stress that the humans cannot understand what is being said. With the exception of the Minbari tongue, few other alien languages are actually heard aloud on a regular basis. The Gaim, pak'ma'ra, and Vorlons do not speak directly in English; in the case of the pak'ma'ra, either because they refuse to learn any language other than their own, "Learning Curve" or because they are incapable of making human sounds. Members of these races instead make use of real-time translation devices. The principal human characters speak with an American English accent, with the exception of Marcus Cole, who speaks with a distinct British accent. Susan Ivanova, born in Russia, speaks with an American accent, as her character was raised and schooled outside Russia. Her father speaks with a distinct Russian accent, as does her brother. Various other minor human characters speak English with recognizable regional accents. Ambassadors Delenn and Londo Mollari, both alien characters, speak with distinct accents similar to Slavic. Delenn speaks with actress Mira Furlan's normal Croatian accent; most other Minbari have native-speaker accents for English (e.g. American English for Lennier, British English for Neroon). Londo's accent was developed independently by actor Peter Jurasik and was imitated by William Forward, who played Lord Refa. Straczynski has described Londo's accent as being that of the "old school" of the Centauri Imperial Court. Narns tend to speak in native-speaker (generally British) accents as well; Andreas Katsulas adopted a dramatic British accent to portray G'Kar. Use of the Internet Original B5 promo logo The show employed Internet marketing to create a buzz among online readers far in advance of the airing of the pilot episode, with Straczynski participating in online communities on USENET (in the rec.arts.sf.tv.babylon5.moderated newsgroup), and the GEnie and Compuserve systems before the Web came together as it exists today. The station's location, in "grid epsilon" at coordinates of 470/18/22, was a reference to GEnie ("grid epsilon" = "GE") and the original forum's address on the system's bulletin boards. Also during this time, Warner Bros. executive Jim Moloshok created and distributed electronic trading cards to help advertise the series. In 1995, Warner Bros. started the Official Babylon 5 Website on the now defunct Pathfinder portal. In September 1995, they hired a fan to take over the site and move it to its own domain name, and to oversee the Keyword B5 area on America Online. Broadcast history The pilot film, The Gathering, premiered on February 22, 1993, and the regular series initially aired from January 26, 1994 through November 25, 1998, first on the short-lived Prime Time Entertainment Network, then on cable network TNT. The show aired every week in the United Kingdom on Channel 4 without a break; as a result the last four or five episodes of the early seasons were shown in the UK before the US The pilot film debuted in the United States with strong viewing figures, achieving a 9.7 in the Nielsen national syndication rankings. The series proper debuted with a 6.8 rating/10 share. Figures dipped in its second week, and while it posted a solid 5.0 rating/8 share, with an increase in several major markets, ratings for the first season continued to fall, to a low of 3.4 during reruns, and then increasing again when new episodes were broadcast in July. Ratings continued to remain low-to-middling throughout the first four seasons, but Babylon 5 scored well with the demographics required to attract the leading national sponsors and saved up to $300,000 per episode by shooting off the studio lot, therefore remaining profitable for the network. The fifth season, shown on cable network TNT, garnered lower ratings. In the United Kingdom, Babylon 5 was one of the better-rated US television shows on Channel 4, and achieved high audience Appreciation Indexes, with season 4's "Endgame" achieving the rare feat of beating the prime-time soap operas for first position. TV Zone, January 1998 issue Cast Regular cast Mary Kay Adams as Na'Toth (season two) Richard Biggs as Dr Stephen Franklin Bruce Boxleitner as John Sheridan (seasons two – five) Julie Caitlin Brown as Na'Toth (season one, guest in season five) Jason Carter as Marcus Cole (seasons three – four) Claudia Christian as Susan Ivanova (seasons one – four) Jeff Conaway as Zack Allan (recurring in season two, starring in seasons three – five) Jerry Doyle as Michael Garibaldi Mira Furlan as Delenn Stephen Furst as Vir Cotto Peter Jurasik as Londo Mollari Andreas Katsulas as G'Kar Bill Mumy as Lennier Michael O'Hare as Jeffrey Sinclair (season one, guest in seasons two and three) Robert Rusler as Warren Keffer (season two) Tracy Scoggins as Elizabeth Lochley (season five) Patricia Tallman as Lyta Alexander (pilot, recurring in seasons two – three, starring in seasons four – five) Andrea Thompson as Talia Winters (seasons one – two) Recurring guests Wayne Alexander as Lorien / Shiv'kala the Drakh / "Sebastian" (12 episodes) Ardwight Chamberlain (voice) as Kosh Naranek (seasons one – four) (23 episodes) Tim Choate as Zathras (4 episodes) Joshua Cox as David Corwin (34 episodes) Robin Atkin Downes as Byron (9 episodes) William Forward as Lord Antono Refa (6 episodes) Robert Foxworth as General William Hague (2 episodes) Melissa Gilbert as Anna Sheridan (3 episodes) Walter Koenig as Alfred Bester (12 episodes) Wortham Krimmer as Emperor Cartagia (5 episodes) Damian London as Regent Virini (9 episodes) Marjorie Monaghan as Number One (7 episodes) Julia Nickson-Soul as Catherine Sakai (3 episodes) John Schuck as Draal (2 episodes) Marshall Teague as Ta'Lon / Nelson Drake (6 episodes) Louis Turenne as Brother Theo / Draal (5 episodes) John Vickery as Neroon / Mr. Welles (6 episodes) Ed Wasser as Morden / Guerra (14 episodes) Efrem Zimbalist, Jr. as William Edgars (4 episodes) In addition, several other actors have filled more than one minor role on the series. Kim Strauss played the Drazi Ambassador in four episodes, as well as nine other characters in ten more episodes. Some actors had difficulty dealing with the application of prosthetics required to play some of the alien characters. The producers therefore used the same group of people (as many as twelve) in various mid-level speaking roles, taking full head and body casts from each. The group came to be unofficially known by the production as the "Babylon 5 Alien Rep Group." Plot summary The five seasons of the series each correspond to one fictional sequential year in the period 2258–2262. Each season shares its name with an episode that is central to that season's plot. As the series starts, the Babylon 5 station is welcoming ambassadors from various races in the galaxy. Earth has just barely survived an accidental war with the powerful Minbari, who, despite their superior technology, mysteriously surrendered at the brink of the destruction of the human race (the Battle of the Line). Season 1 – year 2258 During 2258, Commander Jeffrey Sinclair is in charge of the station. Much of the story revolves around his gradual discovery that it was his capture by the Minbari at the Battle of the Line which ended the war against Earth. Upon capturing Sinclair, the Minbari came to believe that Valen, a great Minbari leader and hero of the last Minbari-Shadow war, had been reincarnated as the Commander. Concluding that others of their species had been, and were being, reborn as humans, and in obedience to the edict that Minbari do not kill one another, they stopped the war just as Earth's final defenses were on the verge of collapse. It is gradually revealed that Ambassador Delenn is a member of the mysterious and powerful Grey Council, the ruling body of the Minbari. Towards the end of 2258, she begins the transformation into a Minbari-human hybrid, ostensibly to build a bridge between the humans and Minbari. The year ends with the assassination of Earth Alliance President Luis Santiago, and rising tension between the Narn and Centauri, after a Narn outpost is completely destroyed by an unknown third party. Season 2 – year 2259 At the beginning of 2259, Captain John Sheridan replaces Sinclair as the military governor of the station. He and the command staff learn that the death of President Santiago was actually an assassination masterminded by Vice President Clark (who assumed the Presidency upon Santiago's death). A conflict develops between the Babylon 5 command staff and the Psi Corps, an increasingly autocratic organization which oversees and controls the lives of human telepaths. Commander Ivanova, the second-in-command of the station, is secretly a latent telepath who has illicitly avoided registering with the Psi Corps. The Shadows, an ancient and extremely powerful race who have recently emerged from hibernation, are revealed to be the cause of a variety of mysterious and disturbing events, including the attack on the Narn outpost at the end of 2258. Centauri Ambassador Londo Mollari unknowingly enlists their aid through his association with the mysterious Mr. Morden in the ongoing conflict with the Narn. The elderly and ailing Centauri emperor, long an advocate of reconciliation with the Narn, dies suddenly while visiting Babylon 5. A number of conspirators, including Londo Mollari and Refa, take control of Centauri government by assassinating their opponents and placing the late emperor's unstable nephew on the throne. Their first act is to start open aggression against the Narn. After full-scale war breaks out, the Centauri eventually conquer Narn in a brutal attack involving mass drivers, outlawed weapons of mass destruction. Towards the end of the year, the Clark administration begins to show increasingly totalitarian characteristics, clamping down on dissent and restricting freedom of speech. The Vorlons are revealed to be the basis of legends about angels on various worlds, including Earth, and are the ancient enemies of the Shadows. They enlist the aid of Sheridan and the Babylon 5 command staff in the struggle against the Shadows. Season 3 – year 2260 The Psi Corps and President Clark, whose government has discovered Shadow vessels buried in Earth's solar system, begin to harness the vessels' advanced technology. The Clark administration continues to become increasingly xenophobic and totalitarian, and uses a military incident as an excuse to declare martial law. This triggers a war of independence on Mars, which had long had a strained political relationship with Earth. Babylon 5 also declares independence from Earth, along with several other outlying Earth Alliance colonies. In response, the Earth Alliance attempts to retake Babylon 5 by force, but with the aid of the Minbari, who have allied with the station against the growing Shadow threat, the attack is repelled. Becoming concerned over the Shadows' growing influence amongst his people, Centauri ambassador Londo Mollari attempts to sever ties with them. Mr. Morden, the Shadows' human representative, tricks him into restoring the partnership by engineering the murder of Mollari's mistress. Open warfare breaks out between the Shadows and the alliance led by Babylon 5 and the Minbari. It is learned that genetic manipulation by the Vorlons is the source of human telepathy, as it is later discovered that Shadow ships are vulnerable to telepathic attacks. Displeased at the Vorlons' lack of direct action against the Shadows, Captain John Sheridan browbeats Vorlon ambassador Kosh Naranek into launching an attack against their mutual enemy. Kosh's deeds lead to his subsequent assassination by the Shadows. Upon returning to the station, former commander Jeffrey Sinclair enlists the aid of Captain Sheridan, Delenn, Ivanova and Marcus and convinces them to help him steal the Babylon 4 space station, intending to send it back in time 1,000 years to use it as a base of operations against the Shadows in the first Minbari-Shadow war. Undergoing the same transformation as Delenn at the end of Season 1, Sinclair transforms into a Minbari and is subsequently revealed to be the actual Valen of Minbari legend, rather than a reincarnation. Spurred by the reappearance of his assumed-dead wife (who now works for the Shadows), Sheridan travels to Z'ha'dum, the Shadow homeworld, in an attempt by them to recruit him. However he instead destroys their largest city in a kamikaze nuclear attack, and is last seen jumping into a miles-deep pit to escape the explosion. Garibaldi, during a fight with Shadow vessels, goes missing. Season 4 – year 2261 In 2261, the Vorlons join the Shadow War, but their tactics become a concern for the alliance when the Vorlons begin destroying entire planets which they deem to have been "influenced" by the Shadows. Disturbed by this turn of events, Babylon 5 recruits several other powerful and ancient races (the First Ones) to their cause, against both the Shadows and the Vorlons. Captain John Sheridan returns to the station after escaping the destruction of Z'ha'dum, but at a price: barring illness or injury, he has only 20 years left to live. He is accompanied by a mysterious alien named Lorien who claims to be the oldest sentient being in the galaxy. After Sherdian's return, Garibaldi returns in rather dubious circumstances and starts acting more paranoid and suspicious of other alien races than normal. Centauri Emperor Cartagia forges a relationship with the Shadows. Londo Mollari engineers the assassination of Cartagia and repudiates his agreement with the Shadows. Londo kills Mr. Morden and destroys the Shadow vessels based on the Centauri homeworld, thus saving his planet from destruction by the Vorlons. Aided by the other ancient races, and several younger ones, Sheridan lures both the Vorlons and the Shadows into an immense battle, during which the Vorlons and Shadows reveal that they have been left as guardians of the younger races, but due to philosophical differences, ended up using them as pawns in their endless wars throughout the ages. The younger races reject their continued interference, and the Vorlons and Shadows, along with the remaining First Ones, agree to depart the galaxy forever. After the Shadows are defeated Garibaldi leaves his post as security chief and works on his own as a "provider of information". Garibaldi was actually abducted by the Psi-Corps at the end of Season 3 and re-programmed by Bester to provide information to him at the right time. Minbar is gripped by a brief civil war. Garibaldi betrays Sheridan and arranges his capture. Garibaldi later reveals to Bester about a virus that is dangerous to only telepaths, which the Psi-Corps then destroys. Bester releases Garibaldi of his programming, and allows him to remember everything he has done since being kidnapped. Garibaldi helps to free Sheridan and return him to the campaign to free Earth. An alliance led by Babylon 5 frees Earth from totalitarian rule by President Clark in a short but bloody war. This culminates in Clark's suicide and the restoration of democratic government. Mars is granted full independence, and Sheridan agrees to step down as commander of Babylon 5. The League of Non-Aligned Worlds is dissolved and reformed into the Interstellar Alliance, with Sheridan elected as its first President and continuing his command of the Rangers, who are to act as a galactic equivalent of United Nations peacekeepers. In the season finale, the events of 100, 500, 1000, and one million years into the future are shown, depicting Babylon 5's lasting influence throughout history. Amongst the events shown are the political aftermath of the 2261 civil war, a subsequent nuclear war on Earth involving a new totalitarian government in the year AD 2762, the resulting fall of Earth into a pre-industrial society, the loss and restoration of humanity's knowledge of space travel, and the final evolution of mankind into energy beings similar to the Vorlons, after which Earth's sun goes nova. Season 5 – year 2262 In 2262, Earthforce Captain Elizabeth Lochley is appointed to command Babylon 5. The station grows in its role as a sanctuary for rogue telepaths running from the Psi Corps, resulting in a violent conflict. G'Kar, former Narn ambassador to Babylon 5, becomes a spiritual leader after a book was published that he wrote while incarcerated during the Narn-Centauri War. The Drakh, former allies of the Shadows who remained in the galaxy, take control of Regent Virini on Centauri Prime through a parasitic creature called a Keeper, then incite a war between the Centauri and the Interstellar Alliance, in order to isolate the Centauri from the Alliance, and gain a malleable homeworld for themselves. Centauri Prime is consequently decimated by Narn and Drazi warships, and Londo Mollari becomes emperor, accepting a Drakh Keeper under threat of the complete nuclear destruction of the planet. Portions of the end of his reign are seen in various time-travel sequences throughout the series; one such sequence shows Mollari and former nemesis (and later friend) G'Kar dying at each other's throats in an act of mutual suicide. Vir Cotto, Mollari's loyal and more moral aide, succeeds him as emperor, free of Drakh influence. Sheridan and Delenn marry and move to Minbar, along with the headquarters of the Interstellar Alliance. Twenty years later, on the verge of death, Sheridan takes one final trip to the now-obsolete Babylon 5 station before its decommissioning. Sheridan apparently dies, but is claimed by the First Ones, who invite him to join them on a journey beyond the rim of the galaxy. The Babylon 5 station is completely destroyed in a planned demolition shortly after Sheridan's departure, its existence no longer necessary as the Alliance has taken over its diplomatic purposes. Themes Throughout its run, Babylon 5 found ways to portray themes relevant to modern and historical social issues. It marked several firsts in television science fiction, such as the exploration of the political and social landscapes of the first human colonies, their interactions with Earth, and the underlying tensions. Babylon 5 was also one of the first television science fiction shows to denotatively refer to a same-sex relationship. In the show, homosexuality is as much of an issue as "being left-handed or right-handed." Unrequited love is explored as a source of pain for the characters, though not all the relationships end unhappily. Order vs. chaos; authoritarianism vs. free will "Neither the Vorlons nor the Shadows saw themselves as conquerors or adversaries. Both believed they were doing what was right for us. And like any possessive parent, they'll keep on believing that until the kid is strong enough to stand up and say, 'No, this is what I want.'" — J. Michael Straczynski, 1997 The clash between order and chaos, and the people caught in between, plays an important role in Babylon 5. The conflict between two unimaginably powerful older races, the Vorlons and the Shadows, is represented as a battle between two competing ideologies, each seeking to turn the humans and the other younger races to their beliefs. The Vorlons represent an authoritarian philosophy: you will do what we tell you to, because we tell you to do it. The Vorlon question, "Who are you?" focuses on identity as a catalyst for shaping personal goals; the intention is not to solicit a "correct" answer, but to "tear down the artifices we construct around ourselves until we're left facing ourselves, not our roles." The Shadows represent a philosophy of evolution through fire, of sowing the seeds of conflict in order to engender progress. The question the Shadows ask is "What do you want?" In contrast to the Vorlons, they place personal desire and ambition first, using it to shape identity, encouraging conflict between groups who choose to serve their own glory or profit. The representation of order and chaos was informed by the Babylonian myth that the universe was born in the conflict between both. The climax of this conflict comes with the younger races' exposing of the Vorlons' and the Shadows' "true faces" and the rejection of both philosophies, heralding the dawn of a new age without their interference. The notion that the war was about "killing your parents" is echoed in the portrayal of the civil war between the human colonies and Earth. Deliberately dealing in historical and political metaphor, with particular emphasis upon McCarthyism and HUAC, the Earth Alliance becomes increasingly-authoritarian, eventually sliding into a dictatorship. The show examines the impositions on civil liberties which aid its rise, and the self-delusion of a populace which believes its moral superiority will never allow a dictatorship to come to power, until it is too late. The successful rebellion led by the Babylon 5 station results in the restoration of a democratic government, and true autonomy for Mars and the colonies. Episode 4x21, "Rising Star" War and peace "What interests me, what I wanted to do with making this show, was in large measure to examine the issues and emotions and events that precede a war, precipitate a war, the effects of the war itself, the end of the war and the aftermath of the war. The war is hardware; the people are at the center of the story." — J. Michael Straczynski, 1997 The Babylon 5 universe deals with numerous armed conflicts which rage on an interstellar scale. The story begins in the aftermath of a war which brought the human race to the brink of extinction, caused by a misunderstanding during a first contact situation. The Babylon 5 station is subsequently built in order to foster peace through diplomacy, described as the "last, best hope for peace" in the opening credits monologue during its first two seasons. Wars between separate alien civilizations are featured. The conflict between the Narn and the Centauri is followed from its beginnings as a minor territorial dispute amplified by historical animosity, through to its end, in which weapons of mass destruction are employed to subjugate and enslave an entire planet. The war is an attempt to portray a more sobering kind of conflict than usually seen on science fiction television. Informed by the events of the first Gulf War, the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Soviet invasion of Prague, the intent was to recreate these moments when "the world held its breath" and the emotional core of the conflict was the disbelief that the situation could have occurred at all, and the desperation to find a way to bring it to an end. By the start of the third season, the opening monologue had changed to say that the Babylon 5 station is the "last, best hope for victory," indicating that while peace is a laudable accomplishment, it can also mean a capitulation to an enemy intent on committing horrendous acts, and that "peace is a byproduct of victory against those who do not want peace." The Shadow War also features prominently in the show, during which an advanced alien species attempts to sow the seeds of conflict in order to promote technological and cultural advancement. The gradual discovery of the scheme and the rebellion against it, serve as the backdrop to the first three seasons, but also as a metaphor for the war within ourselves. The concurrent limiting of civil liberties and Earth's descent into a dictatorship are "shadow wars" of their own. In ending the Shadow War before the conclusion of the series, the show was able to more fully explore its aftermath, and it is this "war at home" which forms the bulk of the remaining two seasons. The struggle for independence between Mars and Earth culminates with a civil war between the human colonies (led by the Babylon 5 station) and the home planet. Choosing Mars as both the spark for the civil war, and the staging ground for its dramatic conclusion, enabled the viewer to understand the conflict more fully than had it involved an anonymous colony orbiting a distant star. The conflict, and the reasons behind it, were informed by Nazism, McCarthyism and the breakup of Yugoslavia, and the unraveling of the former Balkan country also served as partial inspiration for another civil war, which involved the alien Minbari. "One of the things about the way events come to a head and finish… is that it's very unnerving...okay, now what? The ongoing conflict has become something you could count on, you knew the rough shape of what might be coming along. Now all that's kicked over, and you have to get on with the next aspect: making a new life." — J. Michael Straczynski, 1997 The post-war landscape has its roots in the Reconstruction. The attempt to resolve the issues of the American Civil War after the conflict had ended, and this struggle for survival in a changed world was also informed by works such as Alas, Babylon, a novel dealing with the after-effects of a nuclear war on a small American town. The show expresses that the end of these wars is not an end to war itself. Events shown hundreds of years into the show's future tell of wars which will once again bring the human race to the edge of annihilation, demonstrating that mankind will not change, and the best that can be hoped for after it falls is that it climbs a little higher each time, until it can one day "take [its] place among the stars, teaching those who follow." Religion "If you look at the long history of human society, religion - whether you describe that as organized, disorganized, or the various degrees of accepted superstition - has always been present. And it will be present 200 years from now... To totally ignore that part of the human equation would be as false and wrong-headed as ignoring the fact that people get mad, or passionate, or strive for better lives." — J. Michael Straczynski, 1993 Acknowledging the continued existence of faith, even in a science fiction setting, many of Babylon 5'''s characters have profound spiritual or religious beliefs, reflecting that throughout history, religion has been present in one form or another and will remain so even in a far-future rich with technological advancement. Many of Earth's contemporary religions are shown to still be in existence, and the main human characters often have religious convictions, including Roman Catholicism, Jesuit beliefs, Judaism and the fictional Foundationism, which was created specifically for the show. Earth's religions have also had to deal with the existence of extraterrestrial belief systems, resulting in a cross-pollination of ideas, and the factionization or destruction of some, while in the show's third season, a community of monks takes up residence on the Babylon 5 station, in order to learn what the other races throughout the universe call God, and to come to a better understanding of the different religions through study at close quarters. Alien beliefs in the show range from the Centauri's Bacchanalian-influenced religions, of which there are up to seventy different denominations, to the more pantheistic, as with the Narn and Minbari religions. Depictions of religion on the show, human and alien, sometimes come subtly, or are the main theme of an episode; the first season episode "The Parliament of Dreams" is a conventional "showcase" for religion, in which each species on the Babylon 5 station has an opportunity to demonstrate its beliefs, and "Passing Through Gethsemane" focuses on a specific position of Roman Catholic dogma, as well as concepts of justice, vengeance and biblical forgiveness. Other treatments have been more contentious, such as the David Gerrold-scripted "Believers", in which alien parents would rather see their son die than undergo a life-saving operation because their religious beliefs forbid it. By presenting the viewer with characters' spiritual beliefs, motivations are supplied for what might otherwise be construed as arbitrary behavior; these motivations are not necessarily based on truth, leading to misconceptions which in due course become important plot points. A typical question for Babylon 5 to present is a series of events which can initially be interpreted as having either a scientific or a spiritual explanation; while ultimately suggesting the former in most cases, occasionally the issue is left open. In others, where religious belief is an integral part of the storyline, the show attempts to balance all sides of the argument, as in "Soul Hunter", where the spiritual concept explored is that of the immortal soul, and whether after death it is destroyed, reincarnated or simply does not exist. The character arguing the latter, Doctor Stephen Franklin, is often put into the more spiritual storylines, as his scientific rationality presents a contrast with the unexplainable which creates dramatic conflict, and while the show's creator and main writer identifies as an atheist, undercurrents of religions as diverse as Buddhism have been noted as running through many of the characters' words. Passages, often the same ones, take on distinct meanings to viewers of differing faiths; the show ultimately expresses ideas which cross religious boundaries. Dreams and visions The subliminal and subconscious play a very significant role in the Babylon 5 franchise. Every single major character experiences, on at least one occasion, some altered state of consciousness in which he or she receives some sort of important mental message. This could either be one that further fleshes out the character for the benefit of the viewer, or one of transcendental and transpersonal nature that anticipates important further developments in the storyline. Some of these signs and portents resemble lucid dreams, but many are quite bizarre and "dreamlike," frequently in a spiritual context. Addiction Substance abuse and its impact on human personalities also plays a significant role in the Babylon 5 storyline. The station's security chief, Michael Garibaldi, is a textbook relapsing-remitting alcoholic of the binge drinking type; he practices complete abstinence from alcohol throughout most of the series (with one notable exception) until the middle of season five. He only recovers physically and socially and breaks the cycle at the end of the season. Dr. Stephen Franklin develops an (initially unrecognized) addiction to injectable stimulant drugs while trying to cope with the chronic stress and work overload in Medlab (steming from the Markab extinction), and wanders off to the homeless and deprived in Brown Sector, where he suffers through a severe withdrawal syndrome. Executive Officer Susan Ivanova mentions that her father became an alcoholic after her mother had committed suicide after having been drugged by the authorities over a number of years. Among the aliens, Londo Mollari is at least a heavy abuser of alcohol, mostly in the form of the Centauri national drink, Brevari (though in Centauri culture, sobriety, as opposed to drunkenness, is considered a vice). Numerous other references to substance abuse and drug dealing are scattered throughout the storyline, including Dust, a white powder with a black-market presence comparable to cocaine. "Dust" turns out to be a "designer drug" developed by Psi Corps and placed into the black market as an experiment to see if psychic abilities could be brought out in "mundanes" (non-psychics). Made-for-TV films During and after Production of Babylon 5, 6 Television Films, set in the B5 Universe, have been produced. The Gathering—(February 22, 1993) In the Beginning—(January 4, 1998) Thirdspace—(July 19, 1998) The River of Souls—(November 8, 1998) A Call to Arms—(January 3, 1999) To Live and Die in Starlight—(January 19, 2002)The Gathering was the pilot, depicting the arrival of the major characters to the Babylon 5 station in 2257. The made-for-TV film In the Beginning depicts the events of the Earth-Minbari War, as revealed in the first few seasons, in chronological order and in greater detail than the main series. The made-for-TV films Thirdspace and The River of Souls are largely stand-alone episodes.Babylon 5: A Call to Arms set-up the premise of the Crusade series, depicting the Drakh releasing a nanovirus plague on Earth, which will destroy all life on the planet within five years if it is not stopped. To that end, the destroyer Excalibur is sent out to look for a cure. To live and Die in Starlight, also known as Babylon 5: The Legend of the Rangers, was intended as the pilot for the series of the same (Legend of the Rangers) name, but since the show was never picked up, it is now considered to be the sixth Babylon 5 - Movie. Spin-offs Crusade The spin-off series Crusade ran on TNT for thirteen episodes, having been set up by the TV film A Call to Arms. The production team received help from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory to make sure that the series depicted science and technology accurately. However, creative differences between Straczynski and TNT caused problems; the network wanted more sex and violence, and forced Straczynski to begin the first episode with a fistfight. The sex-and-violence request was later withdrawn, and TNT allocated more money to Crusade, giving the actors better uniforms and new sets mid-season. However, due to the creative differences, TNT eventually decided to cancel the series after thirteen episodes had been produced, but before any of them were aired. At the time of the cancellation, only hints of major story arcs had yet come into play, though unproduced scripts published online by Straczynski—in addition to comments made by him online, at conventions, and on the Crusade DVD commentaries—reveal that they would have become prominent features of the series, had it continued. Legend of the Rangers A made-for-TV film titled To Live and Die in Starlight was produced by the Sci-Fi Channel. It was the proposed pilot episode of a new series titled Babylon 5: The Legend of the Rangers. Rescheduled after the September 11, 2001 attacks, the film aired on January 19, 2002. However, it was scheduled against an NFL AFC Divisional Championship playoff game. The pilot's poor ratings contributed to the lessening of the network's interest in a series pick-up, as did the poor reception it received from fans and critics alike, particularly for its depiction of a virtual-reality weapon, but the final nail in its coffin was the dispute between Warner Bros. and Vivendi Universal (owners of the Sci-Fi Channel) over revenue-sharing for the potential weekly series. The Lost Tales A new project set in Babylon 5 universe was announced by Straczynski at San Diego Comic Con 2006. Babylon 5: The Lost Tales is a set of mini-stories featuring established characters from the series, released direct-to-DVD. Production of the first anthology of two stories, named collectively Voices in the Dark, commenced in November 2006 with Straczynski writing, producing, and directing. It was released July 31, 2007. In a Usenet post on September 5, 2007, Straczynski stated that Warner Bros. "are most pleased as sales have been several orders of magnitude beyond what they anticipated." On July 13, 2008, Straczynski revealed that he had no plans to continue The Lost Tales. He said that although the studio was interested in another disc, they wanted to budget the next installment similarly to the first. Citing his disappointment with the first release due to the low budget, Straczynski said he did not want to dilute Babylon 5's legacy with further sub-par stories. He stated that he would only return to the Babylon 5 universe if Warner Bros. wanted to do a large-budgeted cinema release. The Memory of Shadows (unproduced) In 2004 and early 2005, rumors widely circulated about a planned Babylon 5 film for theatrical release. However, on February 25, 2005, a post from Straczynski announced that the project had fallen through, and was for all practical purposes dead. The proposed film, titled The Memory of Shadows (TMoS), was written by Straczynski. Filming was to have begun in April 2005 in the UK, with Steven Beck as the director. Novels, short stories and comic books Unique to the Babylon 5 universe among virtually all other shared media universes is the sanctioned canonicity of many of its offshoot novels and comic book stories; nearly all of the Babylon 5 novels and novelizations to date having been based on outlines written directly by J. Michael Straczynski. The later Del Rey books are considered to be more canonical than some of the earlier Del ones, and at least two major plotline revelations were made in the DC Comics series that were directly referenced in the TV series. In all, per Straczynski's own remarks, canonical elements exist in every single book or comic published to date, and his deeper involvement in the novel-publishing program from 1996 onward has ensured a greater level of canonicity within such works. Additionally, Straczynski himself penned a number of short stories, published in Amazing Stories magazine, expanding on several key story-points from the television series, along with a number of other established authors, with all such tales considered as "real" as the TV show itself. Mongoose Publishing, the publisher of recent Babylon 5 role-playing game (RPG) material, announced plans to release a line of Babylon 5 novels and graphic novels, beginning in summer 2006. J. Michael Straczynski made it clear that he was not involved with this project, and considered the works to be "fan-fiction." In spring of 2007, Mongoose announced that the project was cancelled. As of 2007, J. Michael Straczynski is still writing the manuscript for a Babylon 5 graphic novel, to be published on an as-yet-unknown date by Wildstorm Productions. The premise, characters, and plot have not been officially confirmed, but it has been reported that Straczynski originally planned to write a story that takes place before the season three two-parter "War Without End," featuring Sinclair and Sheridan, and involving Mars, Minbar, Babylon 5, and a conspiracy. It has also been reported that he has subsequently decided to tie in elements from the spin-offs Crusade and Legend of the Rangers into the book. The graphic novel will be 100 pages long. The artist has not yet been announced. DVD releases Season releases The first season DVD set All five seasons have been released individually in the US and the UK. A complete 5-season set is also available in each of the two DVD regions, titled Babylon 5: The Complete Television Series for the US and Canada, and Babylon 5: The Complete Universe for the UK. The UK version also includes all the films and the short-lived spin-off Crusade. As of 2007, all 5 television seasons and their individual episodes are also for sale at the iTunes Store. According to director J. Michael Straczynski as of mid-2006 "The DVD sales have raised over 500 million in revenue." The financial success of the DVD box sets has led to a renewed interest in further Babylon 5 work. DVD Name Region 1 Region 2 Babylon 5: The Complete First Season November 5, 2002 October 28, 2002 Babylon 5: The Complete Second Season April 29, 2003 May 26, 2003 Babylon 5: The Complete Third Season August 12, 2003 November 10, 2003 Babylon 5: The Complete Fourth Season January 6, 2004 April 19, 2004 Babylon 5: The Complete Fifth Season April 13, 2004 January 17, 2005 Babylon 5: The Complete Television Series August 17, 2004 N/A Babylon 5: The Complete Universe N/A October 24, 2005 Babylon 5: The Complete Collection (Amazon.co.uk Exclusive) N/A November 5, 2007 Babylon 5 TV film releases The Movie Collection DVD set The Babylon 5 TV films were distributed differently in the US and UK. Initially a DVD containing the two films The Gathering and In the Beginning were released on both region 1 (North America) and region 2 (UK) DVD. Then, in the US, the first five films, which aired while Babylon 5 was still on the air, were released in one boxset, with the TV film Legend of the Rangers getting its own separate release on both region 1 and region 2 DVD. In the UK, a film boxset was released, but instead of containing the five films like the US version, it contained only the three films which had not been released in the UK yet (Thirdspace, River of Souls, and A Call to Arms). The Gathering was released as a low-priced promotional R1 DVD in 2004, intended as a trial of the series proper; Warner Bros. issued several such DVDs but discontinued the line shortly thereafter due to lack of interest. DVD name Region 1 Region 2 Babylon 5: The Gathering/In the Beginning December 4, 2001 N/A Babylon 5: The Gathering N/A April 8, 2002 Babylon 5: In the Beginning N/A April 8, 2002 Babylon 5: The Movie Collection August 17, 2004 N/A Babylon 5: Movie Box Set N/A February 21, 2005 Babylon 5: The Legend of the Rangers March 14, 2006 October 24, 2005 Babylon 5: The Lost Tales July 31, 2007 September 3, 2007 Mastering problems The transfer of Babylon 5 from fullscreen to widescreen (originally for the Sci-Fi Channel; later released on DVD) created significant problems with regard to special-effects/CGI footage. Several factors complicated the process. Although originally broadcast in the standard television aspect ratio of 4:3, all live-action footage was filmed on Super 35 mm film (with a ratio of 1.65:1). The idea was that, once widescreen televisions (with an aspect ratio of 16:9 or 1.78:1) became more popular, the episodes could be easily converted into a widescreen format. CGI shots were rendered in the 4:3 ratio, but designed so that the top and bottom of each shot could be removed to create a widescreen image without ruining the image composition. All of the purely live-action shots were stored as high-definition digital images. However, CGI shots, and shots combining live-action with CGI, were stored in the much lower-definition NTSC digital format. (Again, the expectation was that it would be relatively cheap in the future to recreate the CGI in widescreen.) Over the years, the original computer-generated models, etc., have been lost, making it necessary to use the old 4:3 CGI shots. This has resulted in several consistent flaws throughout the Babylon 5 widescreen release. In particular, quality drops significantly whenever a scene cuts from purely live-action to a shot combining live-action and CGI. This is particularly noticeable on the PAL DVDs, since CGI shots had to be converted from NTSC, as well as being blown up to fit a widescreen television. In addition, while the live-action film was originally widescreen, shots were composed for 4:3, resulting in a conspicuous tendency for actors to clump up in the middle of the screen. Soundtrack releases A total of 30 soundtrack albums have been released for Babylon 5. They are all composed by the series composer Christopher Franke and released under his own record label Sonic Images. These albums include 24 episode soundtracks, three film soundtracks, and three compilation albums: Babylon 5: Vol 1, Babylon 5: Vol 2, and Best of Babylon 5. Compilation soundtracks These include music that appeared throughout the series, but have been extensively reorchestrated, rewritten, and remixed by Franke into lengthy movements. The second full-length CD also features the main titles from seasons 1 to 4 (the main title for season 5 can be heard on the CD Best of Babylon 5, released in 2001). Episodic and feature film soundtracks The 27 episodic and feature film soundtracks include the exact unedited music from each corresponding episode or feature film, with no alterations, omissions, or additions. Other releases Seasons 1-2 and parts of season 3 of Babylon 5 have been released as advertisement-supported downloads through the In2TV and Hulu download services. Additionally, every episode from seasons 1-5, as well as the pilot film Babylon 5: The Gathering, are available for purchase on the Xbox Live Marketplace in the United States. All 5 Seasons, and 5 movies (In The Beginning, River of Souls, A Call To Arms, Legend of the Rangers) are all available through iTunes. All 92 television episode scripts (plus two TV film scripts) written by J. Michael Straczynski for the series are being published as a fifteen-volume series. Games In November 1997, Chameleon Eclectic Entertainment published the original The Babylon Project: The Roleplaying Game Based on Babylon 5. In 2003, Mongoose Publishing printed the Babylon 5 Roleplaying Game & Factbook. The Babylon 5 Component Game system was also released in 1997 by 'Component Game Systems'. It was a complex political and military based game, using a number of individually purchased expansions or components, which could take up to 5 hours to play. Component Game Systems came out with a number of component game systems that used the same semi-collectible approach, and was derived from the unpublished Galactic Empires board game, based on the CCG of the same name --Companion Games (Galactic Empires' publisher) became Component Game Systems in the process. The basic idea is that each player need only buy his part of the game, representing in this case a specific political entity from the Babylon 5 universe. Players sit down at the same table and combine their components to have a game. 'Component Game Systems' folded in 1999 after having released only the first two 'years' (2258 and 2259) worth of Babylon related components for the game, and even their domain name (www.c-g-s.com) has been recycled by some unrelated group. The Babylon 5 Wars wargame was first published by Agents of Gaming in 1998. The game was developed in close contact with the creators of the show, and most of the published material is considered canon. Graw, B. and Glass, R.: "Babylon 5 Wars Second Edition Rules Compendium.", page 1. Agents of Gaming, 2000 Agents of Gaming later published Babylon 5 Fleet Action, which focused on battles of a larger scale. In 2004, Babylon 5: A Call to Arms was released by Mongoose Publishing. The game is similar in many ways to Babylon 5 Wars but has a more streamlined rules set and games take a lot less time to complete. Precedence Entertainment produced the Babylon 5 Collectible Card Game between 1997 and 2000. In its original form, the game allowed for 2-4 players with each one playing one of the ambassadors to the B5 council: Sinclair, Delenn, G'Kar or Londo. Later expansions increased the maximum number of players that could play at once and expanded the players' options. Players could represent the League of Non-Aligned Worlds or could play alternative ambassadors such as Bester for the Psi Corps or Lord Refa for the Centauri. The game was discontinued after Precedence lost the license from Warner Brothers in 2000. There are no officially licensed Babylon 5 video games on the market, though in 1998 a video game based on Babylon 5, named Into the Fire, was being developed by Yosemite Entertainment, an internal division of Sierra Entertainment. Work on this game ended on September 21, 1999, when, as part of a corporate reorganization, Sierra cancelled it and laid off its development staff when the game was only a few months away from release. This game was to have cast the player as the pilot of a Starfury fighter craft, giving the player an opportunity to "move up through the ranks," and eventually take command of capital ships and even fleets. Christopher Franke composed and recorded new music for the game, and live action footage was filmed with the primary actors from the series. A number of unauthorized Babylon 5 modifications have been created for other computer games, as well as at least one (unlicensed) independent project to develop standalone games. See also Babylon 5 influences List of Babylon 5 articles Babylon 5's use of the Internet The Be Five List of television series that include time-travel rec.arts.sf.tv.babylon5.moderated The Lurker's Guide to Babylon 5 References External links The Lurker's Guide to Babylon 5: Babylon 5'' reference and episode guide Early Babylon 5 Designs: Information from the original 1991 promotional flyer, with different character names and Peter Ledger's artwork The Great Machine: Babylon 5 wiki
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Joe_Orton
John Kingsley ("Joe") Orton (1 January 1933 in Leicester–9 August 1967 in Islington, London) was an English playwright. In a short but prolific career lasting from 1964 until his death, he shocked, outraged and amused audiences with his scandalous black comedies. Ortonesque became a recognised term for "outrageously macabre". Early life Orton was born at Causeway Lane Maternity Hospital, Leicester, to a working class family. Until the age of two, he lived at 261 Avenue Road Extension in Clarendon Park, Leicester. The family then moved to the Saffron Lane council estate. He lived with his younger brother, Douglas, and two younger sisters, Marilyn and Leonie. His parents, William and Elsie, had married in 1931; his father worked for Leicester Council as a gardener, while his mother worked in the local footwear industry until tuberculosis cost her a lung. Orton attended Marriots Road Primary School, but failed the eleven-plus exam after extended bouts of asthma, and so took a secretarial course at Clark's College in Leicester from 1945 to 1947. Stage and Screen Lives, p.249, Oxford University Press, 2001. He then began working as a junior clerk on £3 a week. Orton became interested in performing in the theatre around 1949 and joined a number of different dramatic societies, including the prestigious Leicester Dramatic Society. While working on amateur productions he was also determined to improve his appearance and physique, buying body-building courses, taking elocution lessons, and trying to redress his lack of education and culture. He applied for a scholarship at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) in November 1950. He was accepted, and left the East Midlands for London. His entrance into RADA was delayed until May 1951 by appendicitis. Orton met Kenneth Halliwell at RADA in 1951, moving into a West Hampstead flat with him and two other students in June of that year. Halliwell was seven years older than Orton and of independent means, having a substantial inheritance. They quickly formed a strong relationship and became lovers. After graduating, both Orton and Halliwell went into a regional repertory work; Orton spent four months in Ipswich as an assistant stage manager, Halliwell in Llandudno, Wales. Both returned to London and became writers. They collaborated on a number of unpublished novels (often imitating Ronald Firbank), and had little success. The rejection of their great hope, The Last Days of Sodom, in 1957 led them to solo works. Orton would later return to the books for ideas and many show glimpses of his stage play style. They refused to work for long periods, confident of their "specialness"; they subsisted on Halliwell's money (as well as the dole) and were forced to follow an ascetic life in order to restrict their outgoings to £5 a week. From 1957-59, they worked in six-month stretches at Cadbury's to raise money for a new flat; they moved into a small, austere flat on Noel Road in Islington in 1959. A lack of serious work led them to amuse themselves with pranks and hoaxes. Orton created the alter ego Edna Welthorpe, an elderly theatre snob, whom he would later revive to stir controversy over his plays. Orton coined the term as an allusion to Terence Rattigan's "Aunt Edna", Rattigan's archetypal playgoer. In another episode, Orton and Halliwell stole books from the local library, and would subtly modify the cover art or the blurbs before returning them to the library. A volume of poems by John Betjeman, for example, was returned to the library with a new dustjacket featuring a photograph of a nearly naked, heavily tattooed middle-aged man. The couple took many of the prints to decorate their flat. They were eventually discovered, and prosecuted for this in May 1962. The incident was reported in Daily Mirror as "Gorilla in the Roses". They were charged with five counts of theft and malicious damage, admitted damaging more than 70 books, and were jailed for six months (released September 1962) and fined £262. The sentence was unduly harsh, Orton and Halliwell felt, "because we were queers." http://www.joeorton.org/Pages/Joe_Orton_Life12.html For Orton however, prison would be a crucial formative experience, the isolation from Halliwell allowing him to break free of him creatively, and laid bare for him the corruptness, prigishness and double-standards of a purportedly liberal country. As Orton put it, ‘It affected my attitude towards society. Before I had been vaguely conscious of something rotten somewhere, prison crystallised this. The old whore society really lifted up her skirts and the stench was pretty foul... Being in the nick brought detachment to my writing. I wasn’t involved anymore. And suddenly it worked.’ ’ http://www.joeorton.org/Pages/Joe_Orton_Life13.html The books that Orton and Halliwell vandalised have since become the most valued of the Islington Library service collection. Career In the early 1960s Orton began to write plays. He wrote his last novel, Head to Toe, in 1961, and soon afterward had his writing accepted. In 1963 the BBC paid £65 for the radio play The Boy Hairdresser, broadcast on 31 August 1964, as The Ruffian on the Stair. It was substantially rewritten for the stage in 1966. Orton revelled in his achievement and poured out new works. He had completed Entertaining Mr. Sloane by the time The Ruffian on the Stair was broadcast. He sent a copy to theatre agent Peggy Ramsay in December 1963. It premiered at the New Arts Theatre on 6 May 1964 under the direction of Michael Codron. Reviews ranged from praise to outrage. Entertaining Mr Sloane lost money in its three week run, but critical praise from playwright Terence Rattigan (who invested £3,000 in it) ensured its survival. The play was transferred to Wyndham's Theatre in the West End at the end of June and to the Queen's Theatre in October. Sloane tied for first in the Variety Critics' Poll for "Best New Play" and Orton came second for "Most Promising Playwright." Within a year, Sloane was being performed in New York, Spain, Israel and Australia, as well as being made into a film and a television play. Orton's next performed work was Loot. The first draft was written between June and October 1964 and entitled Funeral Games, a title Orton would drop for Halliwell's suggestion but would later reuse. The play is a wild parody of detective fiction, adding the blackest farce and jabs at established ideas on death, the police, religion and justice. Orton offered the play to Codron in October 1964 and it underwent sweeping rewrites before it was judged fit for the West End (for example, the character of "Inspector Truscott" had a mere eight lines in the initial first act.) Codron had manoeuvred Orton into meeting his colleague Kenneth Williams in August 1964. Orton reworked Loot with Williams in mind for Truscott. His other inspiration for the role was DS Harold Challenor. With the success of Sloane, Loot was hurried into pre-production, despite its obvious flaws. Rehearsals began in January 1965 with a six-week tour culminating in a West End debut planned. The play opened in Cambridge on 1 February to scathing reviews. Orton, at odds with director Peter Wood over the plot, produced 133 pages of new material to replace, or add, to the original 90. The play received poor reviews in Brighton, Oxford, Bournemouth, Manchester, and finally Wimbledon in mid-March. Discouraged, Orton and Halliwell went on an 80-day holiday in Tangier, Morocco. In January 1966, Loot was revived, with Oscar Lewenstein taking up an option. Before his production, it had a short run (April 11-23) at the University Theatre, Manchester. Orton's growing experience led him to cut over 600 lines, raising the tempo and improving the characters' interactions. Directed by Braham Murray, the play garnered more favourable reviews. Lewenstein was still a little cool, however, and put the London production in a "sort of Off-West End theatre", the Jeanetta Cochrane Theatre in Bloomsbury, under the direction of Charles Marowitz. Orton continued his habit of clashing with directors with Marowitz, but the additional cuts they agreed to further improved the play. It premiered in London on 27 September 1966, to rave reviews. Loot moved to the Criterion Theatre in November, raising Orton's confidence to new heights while he was in the middle of writing What the Butler Saw. Loot went on to win several awards and firmly established Orton's fame. He sold the film rights for £25,000, although he was certain it would flop; it did, and Loot on Broadway repeated the failure of Sloane. Orton was still on an absolute high, however, and over the next ten months revised The Ruffian on the Stair and The Erpingham Camp for the stage as a double called Crimes of Passion, wrote Funeral Games, the screenplay Up Against It for the Beatles, and worked on What the Butler Saw. The Good and Faithful Servant was a transitional work for Orton. A one-act television play, it was completed by June 1964 but first broadcast by Associated-Rediffusion on 6 April 1967. The Erpingham Camp, Orton's take on The Bacchae, written through mid-1965 and offered to Rediffusion in October of that year, was broadcast on June 27, 1966 as the 'pride' segment in their series Seven Deadly Sins. Orton wrote and rewrote Funeral Games four times from July - November, 1966. Created for a 1967 Rediffusion series, The Seven Deadly Virtues, Orton's play dealt with charity — especially Christian charity — in a confusion of adultery and murder. However Rediffusion did not use the play. Instead it was made as one of the first productions of the new ITV company Yorkshire Television, and was broadcast postumously on August 26, 1968. In March 1967 Orton and Halliwell had intended another extended holiday in Libya, but their relationship had deteriorated so far that they returned home after barely a day. Orton was working hard, energised and happy; Halliwell was increasingly depressed, argumentative, and plagued with mystery ailments. Orton's controversial farce What The Butler Saw debuted in the West End after his death in 1969. It opened at the Queen's Theatre with Sir Ralph Richardson, Coral Browne, Stanley Baxter, and Hayward Morse. Murder On August 9, 1967, Halliwell bludgeoned the 34-year-old Orton to death with nine hammer blows to the head, and then committed suicide with an overdose of 22 Nembutal tablets washed down with the juice from canned grapefruit. Investigators determined that Halliwell died first, because Orton's body was still warm. The November 22, 1970 edition of The Sunday Times reported that on August 5, 1967, four days before the murder, Orton went to the Chelsea Potter pub in the King's Road. He met friend Peter Nolan who later gave evidence at the inquest that Orton told him that he had another boyfriend, and that he wanted to end his relationship with Halliwell but didn't know how to go about it. The last person to speak to Halliwell was his doctor, who arranged for a psychiatrist to see him the following morning. He spoke to Halliwell three times on the telephone. The last call was at 10 o'clock. Halliwell took the psychiatrist's address and said, "Don't worry, I'm feeling better now. I'll go and see the doctor tomorrow morning." Halliwell had felt increasingly threatened and isolated by Orton's success, and had come to rely on anti-depressants and barbiturates. The bodies were discovered the following morning when a chauffeur arrived to take Orton to a meeting to discuss a screenplay he had written for the Beatles. Halliwell left a suicide note, informing police that all would be explained if they read Orton's diaries, "especially the latter part". The diaries have since been published. Orton was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium. The eulogy was read by Harold Pinter, who concluded by saying "he was a bloody marvellous writer." According to Dennis Dewsnap's memoire (What's Sex Got To Do With It, The Syden Press, 2004) from mostly Tangiers, where Orton and Halliwell went on holiday, Orton and his lover/murderer had their ashes mixed and were buried together. Dewsnap writes about Orton's agent Peggy Ramsay: "...At the scattering of Joe's and Kenneth's ashes, his sister took a handful from both urns and said 'a little bit of Joe, and a little bit of Kenneth. I think perhaps a little bit more of our Joe, and then some more of Kenneth'. At which Peggy snapped 'Come on, dearie, it's only a gesture, not a recipe.', a line surely worthy of Joe himself - though indicative of the contempt in which Ramsey held the Orton family. She described them as simply "the little people in Leicester"<ref>"A ceremony" by Leonie Barnett, Entertaining Mr. Sloane' Programme, Ambassadors' Theatre Group, 2009.'</ref>, leaving a cold nondescript note and bouquet on their behalf at the funeral. Orton's legacy stands to live on in his home town, Leicester as the development of the "cultural quarter" of the city (a former industrial area) continues apace and the new Theatre, Curve, the central development in the area, has a new pedestrian concourse outside the theatre's main entrance named, "Orton Square". Curve officially opens on December 4 2008. Biography and film, radio, TV John Lahr wrote a biography of Orton entitled Prick Up Your Ears, a title Orton himself had considered using, in 1978. The 1987 film adaptation is based on Orton's diaries and on Lahr's research. Directed by Stephen Frears, it starred Gary Oldman as Orton, Alfred Molina as Halliwell and Vanessa Redgrave as Peggy Ramsay. Alan Bennett wrote the screenplay. Joe Orton was played by the actor Kenny Doughty in the BBC film Kenneth Williams: Fantabulosa!, starring Michael Sheen as Kenneth Williams. Two archive recordings of Orton survive: a short BBC radio interview first transmitted in August 1967 and a video recording, held by the BFI, of his appearance on Eamonn Andrews' ITV chat show transmitted 23 April 1967. Plays Fred and Madge (written 1959, published 2001) The Visitors (written 1961, published 2001) The Ruffian on the Stair (first performance 1964) Entertaining Mr Sloane (first performance 1964) Loot (first performance 1965) The Erpingham Camp (first performance 1966) The Good and Faithful Servant (first performance 1967) Funeral Games (first performance 1968) What the Butler Saw (first performance 1969) Up Against It (screenplay) Novels Head to Toe (published 1971) Between Us Girls (published 2001) Lord Cucumber and The Boy Hairdresser'' (co-written with Halliwell) (published 2001) References Sources Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 0521434378. Bigsby, C. W. E. 1982. Joe Orton. Contemporary Writers ser. London: Routledge. ISBN 0416316905. Burke, Arthur. 2001. Laughter in the Dark - The Plays of Joe Orton. Billericay, Essex: Greenwich Exchange. ISBN 1871551560. Charney, Maurice. 1984. Joe Orton. Grove Press Modern Dramatists ser. NY: Grove P. ISBN 039454241X. Coppa, Francesca, ed. 2002. Joe Orton: A Casebook. Casebooks on Modern Dramatists ser. London: Routledge. ISBN 0815336276. DiGaetani, John Louis. 2008. Stages of Struggle: Modern Playwrights and Their Psychological Inspirations. Jefferson: McFarland. ISBN 0786431571. Fox, James. 1970. "The Life and Death of Joe Orton." The Sunday Times Magazine issue of 22 November. Lahr, John. 1978. Prick Up Your Ears: The Biography of Joe Orton. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 0747560145. ---, ed. 1986. The Orton Diaries. By Joe Orton. London: Methuen. ISBN 0306807335. ---. 1989. Diary of a Somebody. London: Methuen. ISBN 0413611809. Orton, Joe. 1976. The Complete Plays. London: Methuen. ISBN 0413346102. Ruskino, Susan. 1995. Joe Orton. Twayne's English Authors ser. Boston: Twayne. ISBN 0805770348. External links Joe Orton Online: A website dedicated to the writer.
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3,168
Mount_Baker
The south side of Mount Baker in 2001.Sherman Crater is the deep depression south of the summit. Mount Baker, or Koma Kulshan, is an active glaciated andesitic stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the North Cascades of Washington State in the United States. It is the second-most active volcano in the range after Mount Saint Helens. It is about due east of the city of Bellingham, Whatcom County, making it the northernmost volcano in the Cascade Range but not the northernmost of the Cascade Volcanic Arc, which extends north into the Coast Mountains. Mount Baker is the youngest volcano in the Mount Baker volcanic field. While volcanism has persisted here for some 1.5 million years, the current glaciated cone is likely no more than 140,000 years old, and possibly no older than 80-90,000 years. Older volcanic edifices have mostly eroded away due to glaciation. After Mount Rainier, Mount Baker is the most heavily glaciated of the Cascade volcanoes; the volume of snow and ice on Mount Baker (0.43 cubic miles or 1.8 cubic kilometers) is greater than that of all the other Cascades volcanoes (except Rainier) combined. It is also one of the snowiest places in the world; in 1999, Mount Baker Ski Area, located 14 km (8.4 mi) to the northeast, set the world record for snowfall in a single season—1,140 inches (95 feet or 2,896 cm). At , it is the fourth-highest mountain in Washington State and the sixth-highest in the Cascade Range. Located in the Mount Baker Wilderness, it is visible from much of Greater Victoria, Greater Vancouver and south to Seattle in Washington. Indigenous natives have known the mountain for thousands of years, but the first written record of the mountain is from the Spanish. Spanish explorer Gonzalo Lopez de Haro mapped it in 1790 as the Gran Montaña del Carmelo, "Great Mount Carmel". The explorer George Vancouver renamed the mountain for 3rd Lieutenant Joseph Baker of HMS Discovery, who saw it on April 30, 1792. History Mount Baker was well-known to indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest. Indigenous names for the mountain include Koma Kulshan or Kulshan (Lummi, qwúʔmə, "white sentinel", i.e. "mountain", and kwəlshéːn, "puncture wound", i.e. "crater"); "Quck Sam-ik" (Nooksack: kw’eq sámit, "white mountain"); "Kobah" (Skagit: qwúbəʔ, "white sentinel", i.e. "mountain"); and "Tukullum" or "Nahcullum" (in the language of the unidentified "Koma tribe"). Mount Rainier, called "Tacoma", effectively means "larger than Koma (Kulshan)". In 1790, Manuel Quimper of the Spanish Navy set sail from Nootka, a temporary settlement on Vancouver Island, with orders to explore the newly discovered Strait of Juan de Fuca. Accompanying Quimper was first-pilot Gonzalo Lopez de Haro, who drew detailed charts during the six-week expedition. Although Quimper's journal of the voyage does not refer to the mountain, one of Haro's manuscript charts includes a sketch of Mount Baker. (public domain source) The Spanish named the snowy volcano "La Gran Montana del Carmelo", as it reminded them of the white-clad monks of the Carmelite Monastery Majors, H.M., ed., 1978, Mount Baker: A chronicle of Its Historic Eruptions and First Ascent. Northwest Press, Seattle The British explorer George Vancouver left England a year later. His mission was to survey the northwest coast of America. Vancouver and his crew reached the Pacific Northwest coast in 1792. While anchored in Dungeness Bay on the south shore of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, third lieutenant Joseph Baker made an observation of Mount Baker, which Vancouver recorded in his journal: About this time a very high conspicuous craggy mountain ... presented itself, towering above the clouds: as low down as they allowed it to be visible it was covered with snow; and south of it, was a long ridge of very rugged snowy mountains, much less elevated, which seemed to stretch to a considerable distance ... the high distant land formed, as already observed, like detached islands, amongst which the lofty mountain, discovered in the afternoon by the third lieutenant, and in compliment to him called by me Mount Baker, rose a very conspicuous object ... apparently at a very remote distance. Six years later, the official narrative of this voyage was published, including the first printed reference to the mountain. By the mid-1850s, Mount Baker was a well-known feature on the horizon to the explorers and fur traders who traveled in the Puget Sound region. Isaac I. Stevens, the first governor of Washington Territory, wrote about Mount Baker in 1853: Mount Baker ... is one of the loftiest and most conspicuous peaks of the northern Cascade range; it is nearly as high as Mount Rainier, and like that mountain, its snow-covered pyramid has the form of a sugar-loaf. It is visible from all the water and islands ... [in Puget Sound] and from the whole southeastern part of the Gulf of Georgia, and likewise from the eastern division of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. It is for this region a natural and important landmark. First ascent Edmund Thomas Coleman, an Englishman who resided in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada and a veteran of the Alps, made the first attempt to ascend the mountain in 1866. He chose a route via the Skagit River, but was forced to turn back when local Native Americans refused him passage. Later that same year, Coleman recruited Whatcom County settlers Edward Eldridge, John Bennett and John Tennant to aid him in his second attempt to scale the mountain. After approaching via the North Fork of the Nooksack River, the party navigated through what is now known as Coleman Glacier and ascended to within several hundred feet of the summit before turning back in the face of an "overhanging cornice of ice" and threatening weather. Coleman later returned to the mountain after two years. At 4:00 p.m. on August 17, 1868, Coleman, Eldridge, Tennant and two new companions (David Ogilvy and Thomas Stratton) scaled the summit via the Middle Fork Nooksack River, Marmot Ridge, Coleman Glacier, and the north margin of the Roman Wall. Geology Panorama from the northwest showing Lincoln and Colfax Pks Black Buttes and Mount Baker The present-day cone of Mount Baker is relatively young; it is perhaps less than 100,000 years old. The volcano sits atop a similar older volcanic cone called Black Buttes Volcano, which was active between 500,000 and 300,000 years ago. Much of Mount Baker's earlier geological record eroded away during the last ice age (which culminated 15,000–20,000 years ago), by thick ice sheets that filled the valleys and surrounded the volcano. In the last 14,000 years, the area around the mountain has been largely ice-free, but the mountain itself remains heavily covered with snow and ice. Isolated ridges of lava and hydrothermally altered rock, especially in the area of Sherman Crater, are exposed between glaciers on the upper flanks of the volcano; the lower flanks are steep and heavily vegetated. Volcanic rocks of Mount Baker and Black Buttes rest on a foundation of non-volcanic rocks. Park and Rainbow Glaciers on the northeast flank Deposits recording the last 14,000 years at Mount Baker indicate that Mount Baker has not had highly explosive eruptions like those of other volcanoes in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Meager or Glacier Peak, nor has it erupted frequently. During this period, four episodes of magmatic eruptive activity have been recently recognized. retrieved 2009-03-31 . Magmatic eruptions have produced tephra, pyroclastic flows, and lava flows from summit vents and the Schriebers Meadow cinder cone. The most destructive and most frequent events at Mount Baker have been lahars or debris flows and debris avalanches; many, if not most, of these were not related to magmatic eruptions but may have been induced by magma intrusion, steam eruptions, earthquakes, gravitational instability, or possibly even heavy rainfall. Eruptive history Early history Research beginning in the late 1990s shows that Mount Baker is the youngest of several volcanic centers in the area and one of the youngest volcanoes in the Cascade Range. The Pliocene Hannegan caldera is preserved 25 km (15 mi) northeast of Mount Baker retrieved 2009-03-31 Volcanic activity in the Mount Baker volcanic field began more than one million years ago, but many of the earliest lava and tephra deposits have been removed by glacial erosion. The pale-colored rocks northeast of the modern volcano mark the site of ancient Kulshan caldera (1.15 million years old) that collapsed after an enormous ash eruption one million years ago. Subsequently, eruptions in the Mount Baker area have produced cones and lava flows of andesite, the rock that constitutes much of other Cascade Range volcanoes such as Rainier, Adams, and Hood. From about 900,000 years ago to the present, numerous andesitic volcanic centers in the area have come and disappeared through glacial erosion. The largest of these cones is the Black Buttes edifice, active between 500,000 and 300,000 years ago and formerly bigger than today's Mount Baker. Modern craters and cone Sampling fumarole gas at Sherman Crater in 1981 Mount Baker was built from stacks of lava and volcanic breccia prior to the end of the last ice age, which ended about 15,000 years ago. There are two craters on the mountain. Ice-filled Carmelo Crater is under the summit ice dome. This crater is the source for the last cone-building eruptions The highest point of Mount Baker, Grant Peak, is on the exposed southeast rim of Carmelo Crater, which is a small pile of andesitic scoria lying on top of a stack of lava flows just below. Carmelo Crater is deeply dissected on its south side by the younger Sherman Crater. This crater is south of the summit, and it's ice-covered floor is 1000 ft (300 m) below the summit ice dome. This crater is the site of all Holocene eruptive activity. Hundreds of fumaroles vent gases, primarily H2O, CO2, and H2S. View south into Sherman Crater from Grant Peak (10781ft, 3286 m) in 2004. Sherman Peak (10,140 ft, 3090 m) at left; fumaroles of west rim at right. Lava flows from the summit vent erupted between 30,000 and 10,000 years ago and, during the final stages of edifice construction, blocky pyroclastic flows entered the volcano's southeastern drainages. An eruption from Sherman Crater 6,600 years ago erupted a blanket of ash that extended more than to the east. Today, sulfurous gases reach the surface via two fumarole pathways: Dorr Fumaroles, northeast of the summit; and Sherman Crater, south of the summit. Both are sites of hydrothermal alteration, converting lavas to weak, white-to-yellow clays; sulfur is a common mineral around these fumaroles. At Sherman Crater, collapses of this weakened rock generated lahars in the 1840s. Mazama Park eruptive period: 6,600 years ago Approximately 6,600 years ago, a series of discrete events culminated in the largest tephra-producing eruption in post-glacial time at Mount Baker. This is the last episode of undoubted magmatic activity preserved in the geologic record . First, the largest collapse in the history of the volcano occurred from the Roman Wall and transformed into a lahar that was over deep in the upper reaches of the Middle Fork of the Nooksack River. It was at least deep downstream from the volcano. At that time the Nooksack River is believed to have drained north into the Fraser River; it is therefore unlikely that this lahar reached Bellingham Bay. Next, a small hydrovolcanic eruption occurred at Sherman Crater, triggering a second collapse of the flank just east of the Roman Wall. That collapse also became a lahar that mainly followed the course of the first lahar for at least , and also spilled into tributaries of the Baker River. Finally, an eruption cloud deposited ash as far as downwind to the northeast and east. retrieved 2009-03-31 Historical activity Steam plume rising from Sherman Crater, December 1999. Telephoto taken from Bellingham, Washington. Several eruptions occurred from Sherman Crater during the 19th century; they were witnessed from the Bellingham area. retrieved 2009-03-31 A possible eruption was seen in June 1792 during the Spanish expedition of Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés. Their report read, in part: During the night [while anchored in Bellingham Bay] we constantly saw light to the south and east of the mountain of Carmelo [Baker] and even at times some bursts of flame, signs which left no doubt that there are volcanoes with strong eruptions in those mountains. Mount Baker as seen from the Gulf of Georgia. San Juan and Orcas Islands in distance at right. In 1843, explorers reported a widespread layer of newly fallen rock fragments "like a snowfall" and that the forest was "on fire for miles around". It is highly unlikely that these fires were caused by ashfall, however, as charred material is not found with deposits of this fine-grained volcanic ash, which was almost certainly cooled in the atmosphere before falling. Rivers south of the volcano were reportedly clogged with ash, and Native Americans reported that many salmon perished. Reports of flooding on the Skagit River from the eruption are, however, probably greatly exaggerated Scott, K.M. and Tucker, D.S., 2004, Natural dams and floods of legend at Mount Baker volcano-evidence from the stratigraphic record of volcanic activity during the Sherman Crater eruptive period (AD 1843 to present):GSA Abstracts with Programs, v. 36, n. 5, p. 377 retrieved 2009-03-31 . A short time later, two collapses of the east side of Sherman Crater produced two lahars, the first and larger of which flowed into the natural Baker Lake, increasing its level by at least . The location of the 19th-century lake is now covered by waters of the modern dam-impounded Baker Lake. Similar but lower level hydrovolcanic activity at Sherman Crater continued intermittently for several decades afterward. On 26 November 1860, passengers who were traveling by steamer from New Westminster to Victoria reported that Mount Baker was "puffing out large volumes of smoke, which upon breaking, rolled down the snow-covered sides of the mountain, forming a pleasing effect of light and shade." In 1891, about of rock fell producing a lahar that traveled more than and covered . retrieved 2009-03-31 The Easton Glacier (on the south flank) in 2003. The superimposed black line indicates its extent in 1985. Activity in the 20th century decreased from the 19th century. Numerous small debris avalanches fell from Sherman Peak and descended the Boulder Glacier- a large one occurred on July, 27, 2007. Frank, D., Post, A. and Friedman, J.D., 1975, Recurrent geothermally induced debris avalanches on Boulder Glacier, Mount Baker, Washington; Journal of Research, US Geological Survey, v. 3 n. 1, pp. 77-87 In early March 1975, a dramatic increase in fumarolic activity and snow melt in the Sherman Crater area raised concern that an eruption might be imminent. Heat flow increased more than tenfold. Additional monitoring equipment was installed and several geophysical surveys were conducted to try to detect the movement of magma. The increased thermal activity prompted public officials and Puget Power to temporarily close public access to the popular Baker Lake recreation area and to lower the reservoir's water level by 10 meters. If those actions had not been taken, significant avalanches of debris from the Sherman Crater area could have swept directly into the reservoir, triggering a disastrous wave that could have caused human fatalities and damage to the reservoir. Other than the increased heat flow, few anomalies were recorded during the geophysical surveys, nor were any other precursory activities observed that would indicate that magma was moving up into the volcano. Several small lahars formed from material ejected onto the surrounding glaciers and acidic water was discharged into Baker Lake for many months. Activity gradually declined over the next two years but stabilized at a higher level than before 1975. The increased level of fumarolic activity has continued at Mount Baker since 1975, but no other changes suggest that magma movement is involved. Current research at Mount Baker A considerable amount of research has been done at Mount Baker over the past decade, and it is now among the most-studied of the Cascade volcanoes. Recent and ongoing projects include gravimetric and GPS-based geodetic monitoring, fumarole gas sampling, tephra distribution mapping, new interpretations of the Schriebers Meadow lava flow, and hazards analyses. Mapping of Carmelo and Sherman craters, and interpretations of the eruptive history, continues, as well. The Mount Baker Volcano Research Center maintains an online archive of abstracts of this work, and an extensive references list, as well as photos. Glaciers and hydrology A map of the glaciers on Mount Baker There are ten main glaciers on the mountain. The Coleman Glacier is the largest; it has a surface area of . The other large glaciers—which have areas greater than —are Roosevelt Glacier, Mazama Glacier, Park Glacier, Boulder Glacier, Easton Glacier and Deming Glacier. All retreated during the first half of the century, advanced from 1950–1975 and have been retreating increasingly rapidly since 1980. retrieved 2009-03-31 Mount Baker is drained on the north by streams that flow into the North Fork Nooksack River, on the west by the Middle Fork Nooksack River, and on the southeast and east by tributaries of the Baker River. U.S. Navy Two ammunition ships of the United States Navy (traditionally named for volcanoes) have been named after the mountain. The first was USS Mount Baker (AE-4), which was commissioned from 1941 to 1947 and from 1951 to 1969. In 1972, the Navy commissioned USS Mount Baker (AE-34). It was decommissioned in 1996 and placed in service with the Military Sealift Command as USNS Mount Baker (T-AE-34). See also List of Highest Mountain Peaks in Washington State Mountain peaks of North America Mountain peaks of the United States References External links Mount Baker Volcano Research Center Mount Baker on TierraWiki.org: Trails, Trip Reports, and GPS Routes CVO Menu - Mt. Baker Terminus behavior of Mount Baker Glaciers Mount Baker Scenic Byway Resources North Ridge climb of Mount Baker on ClimbWashington.com
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3,169
New_moon
The lunar phase depends on the Moon's position in orbit around Earth. This diagram looks down on the North pole; In astronomical terminology, the phrase new moon is the lunar phase that occurs when the Moon, in its monthly orbital motion around Earth, lies between Earth and the Sun, and is therefore in conjunction with the Sun as seen from Earth. At this time, the dark (unilluminated) portion of the Moon faces almost directly toward Earth, so that the Moon is not visible to the naked eye. The original meaning of the phrase new moon was the first visible crescent of the Moon, after conjunction with the Sun. This takes place over the western horizon in a brief period between sunset and moonset, and therefore the precise time and even the date of the appearance of the new moon by this definition will be influenced by the geographical location of the observer. The astronomical new moon, sometimes known as the dark moon to avoid confusion, occurs by definition at the moment of conjunction in ecliptic longitude with the Sun, when the Moon is invisible from the Earth. This moment is unique and does not depend on location, and under certain circumstances it may be coincident with a solar eclipse. The new moon in its original meaning of first crescent marks the beginning of the month in lunar calendars such as the Muslim calendar, and in lunisolar calendars such as the Hebrew calendar, Hindu calendars, and Buddhist calendar. But in the Chinese calendar the beginning of the month is marked by the dark moon. Determining new moons: an approximate formula The time interval between new moons—a lunation—is variable. The mean time between new moons, the synodic month, is about 29.53... days. An approximate formula to compute the mean moments of new moon (conjunction between Sun and Moon) for successive months is: where N is an integer, starting with 0 for the first new moon in the year 2000, and that is incremented by 1 for each successive synodic month; and the result d is the number of days (and fractions) since 2000-01-01 00:00:00 reckoned in the time scale known as Terrestrial Time (TT) used in ephemerides. To obtain this moment expressed in Universal Time (UT, world clock time), add the result of following approximate correction to the result d obtained above: days Periodic perturbations change the time of true conjunction from these mean values. For all new moons between 1601 and 2401, the maximum difference is 0.592 days = 14h13m in either direction. The duration of a lunation (i.e. the time from new moon to the next new moon) varies in this period between 29.272 and 29.833 days, i.e. −0.259d = 6h12m shorter, or +0.302d = 7h15m longer than average . This range is smaller than the difference between mean and true conjunction, because during one lunation the periodic terms cannot all change to their maximum opposite value. See the article on the full moon cycle for a fairly simple method to compute the moment of new moon more accurately. The long-term error of the formula is approximately: 1 cy² seconds in TT, and 11 cy² seconds in UT (cy is centuries since 2000; see section Explanation of the formulae for details.) Explanation of the formula The moment of mean conjunction can easily be computed from an expression for the mean ecliptic longitude of the Moon minus the mean ecliptic longitude of the Sun (Delauney parameter D). Jean Meeus gave formulae to compute this in his popular Astronomical Formulae for Calculators based on the ephemerides of Brown and Newcomb (ca. 1900); and in his 1st edition of Astronomical Algorithms formula 47.1 in Jean Meeus (1991): Astronomical Algorithms (1st ed.) ISBN 0-943396-35-2 based on the ELP2000-85 M.Chapront-Touzé, J. Chapront (1988): "ELP2000-85: a semianalytical lunar ephemeris adequate for historical times". Astronomy & Astrophysics 190, 342..352 (the 2nd edition uses ELP2000-82 with improved expressions from Chapront et al. in 1998). These are now outdated: Chapront et al. (2002) J.Chapront, M.Chapront-Touzé, G. Francou (2002): "A new determination of lunar orbital parameters, precession constant, and tidal acceleration from LLR measurements". Astronomy & Astrophysics 387, 700–709 published improved parameters. Also Meeus's formula uses a fractional variable to allow computation of the four main phases, and uses a second variable for the secular terms. For the convenience of the reader, the formula given above is based on Chapront's latest parameters and expressed with a single integer variable, and the following additional terms have been added: constant term: Like Meeus, apply the constant terms of the aberration of light for the Sun and light-time correction for the Moon Annual aberration is the ratio of Earth's orbital velocity (around 30 km/s) to the speed of light (about 300,000 km/s), which shifts the Sun's apparent position relative to the celestial sphere toward the west by about 1/10,000 radian. Light-time correction for the Moon is the distance it moves during the time it takes its light to reach Earth divided by the Earth-Moon distance, yielding an angle in radians by which its apparent position lags behind its computed geometric position. Light-time correction for the Sun is negligible because it is almost motionless during 8.3 minutes relative to the barycenter (center-of-mass) of the solar system. The aberration of light for the Moon is also negligible (the center of the Earth moves too slowly around the Earth-Moon barycenter (0.002 km/s); and the so-called diurnal aberration, caused by the motion of an observer on the surface of the rotating Earth (0.5 km/s at the equator) can be neglected. Although aberration and light-time are often combined as planetary aberration, Meeus separated them (op.cit. p.210). to obtain the apparent difference in ecliptic longitudes: Sun: +20.496" Derived Constant #14 from the IAU (1976) System of Astronomical Constants (proceedings of IAU Sixteenth General Assembly (1976): Transactions of the IAU XVIB p.58 (1977)); or any astronomical almanac; or e.g. Moon: −0.704" formula in: G.M.Clemence, J.G.Porter, D.H.Sadler (1952): "Aberration in the lunar ephemeris", Astronomical Journal 57(5) (#1198) pp.46..47 ; but computed with the conventional value of 384400 km for the mean distance which gives a different rounding in the last digit. Correction in conjunction: −0.000451 days. Apparent mean solar longitude is −20.496" from mean geometric longitude; apparent mean lunar longitude −0.704" from mean geometric longitude; correction to D = Moon − Sun is −0.704" + 20.496" = +19.792" that the apparent Moon is ahead of the apparent Sun; divided by 360×3600"/circle is 1.527 part of a circle; multiplied by 29.53... days for the Moon to travel a full circle with respect to the Sun is 0.000451 days that the apparent Moon reaches the apparent Sun ahead of time. For UT: at 1 January 2000, ΔT (= TT − UT ) was +63.83 s see e.g. ; the IERS is the official source for these numbers; they provide TAI−UTC here and UT1−UTC here; ΔT = 32.184s + (TAI−UTC) − (UT1−UTC) ; hence the correction for the clock time UT = TT − ΔT of the conjunction is: −0.000739 days. quadratic term: In ELP2000–85 (see Chapront et alii 1988), D has a quadratic term of −5.8681"T²; expressed in lunations N, this yields a correction of +87.403N² delay is − (−5.8681") / (60×60×360 "/circle) / (36525/29.530... lunations per Julian century)² × (29.530... days/lunation) days days to the time of conjunction. The term includes a tidal contribution of 0.5×(−23.8946 "/cy²). The most current estimate from Lunar Laser Ranging for the acceleration is (see Chapront et alii 2002): (−25.858 ±0.003)"/cy². Therefore the new quadratic term of D is = -6.8498"T² −5.8681" + 0.5×(−25.858 − −23.8946) . Indeed the polynomial provided by Chapront et alii (2002) provides the same value (their Table 4). This translates to a correction of +14.622N² days to the time of conjunction; the quadratic term now is: +102.026N² days. For UT: analysis of historical observations show that ΔT has a long-term increase of +31 s/cy² F.R. Stephenson, Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation. Cambridge University Press 1997. ISBN 0-521-46194-4 . p.507, eq.14.3 . Converted to days and lunations 31 s / (86400 s/d) / [(36525 d/cy) / (29.530... d/lunation)]² , the correction from ET to UT becomes: −235N² days. The theoretical tidal contribution to ΔT is about +42 s/cy² Stephenson 1997 op.cit. p.38 eq.2.8 ; the smaller observed value is thought to be mostly due to changes in the shape of the Earth Stephenson 1997 op.cit. par.14.8 . Because the discrepancy is not fully explained, uncertainty of our prediction of UT (rotation angle of the Earth) may be as large as the difference between these values: 11 s/cy². The error in the position of the Moon itself is only maybe 0.5"/cy² from differences of various earlier determinations of the tidal acceleration, see e.g. Stephenson 1997 op.cit. par.2.2.3 , or (because the apparent mean angular velocity of the Moon is about 0.5"/s), 1 s/cy² in the time of conjunction with the Sun. Religious use The Islamic calendar has retained an observational definition of the new moon, marking the new month when the first Crescent Moon is actually seen, and making it impossible to be certain in advance of when a specific month will begin (in particular, the exact date on which Ramadan will begin is not known in advance). In Saudi Arabia, if the weather is cloudy when the new moon is expected, observers are sent up in airplanes. In Pakistan, there is a "Central Ruet-e-Hilal Committee", which takes help from more than 100 Observatories of Pakistan Meteorological Department all over the country and announces unanimous decision of the sighting of new moon. In Iran a special committee receives observations of every new moon to determine the beginning of each month. This committee uses one hundred groups of observers. Recently an attempt to unify Muslims on a scientifically calculated worldwide calendar has been adopted by both the Fiqh Council of North America and European Council for Fatwa and Research. The new calculation requires that conjunction occur before sunset in Mecca, Saudi Arabia and that moon set on the following day must take place after sunset. These can be precisely calculated and therefore a unified calendar is imminent if it becomes adopted worldwide. Fiqh Council of North America Decision: "Fiqh Council Ramadan and Eid Announcement" Islamic Society of North America Decision:"Revised ISNA Ramadan and Eid Announcement" The new moon is the beginning of the month in the Chinese calendar. Some Buddhist Chinese keep a vegetarian diet on the new moon and full moon each month. The new moon signifies the start of every Jewish month, and is considered an important date and minor holiday in the Hebrew calendar. The modern form of the calendar is a rule-based lunisolar calendar, akin to the Chinese calendar, measuring months defined in lunar cycles as well as years measured in solar cycles, and distinct from the purely lunar Islamic calendar and the almost entirely solar Gregorian calendar. The native messianic Pentecostal group, the New Israelites of Peru, keeps the new moon as a Sabbath of rest. As an evangelical church, it follows the Bible's teachings that God sanctified the seventh-day Sabbath, now largely known as Saturday, and the new moons in addition to it. See Ezekiel 46:1, 3. No work may be done from dusk until dusk, and the services run for 11 hours, although a large number spend 24 hours within the gates of the temples, sleeping and singing praises throughout the night. The new moon is also an important event in Wicca. The new moon is also important in astrology, as is the full moon. References See also Black moon Blue moon Ecclesiastical new moon Half moon Metonic cycle Lunar Cycle External links Sacred Astronomy from Zaytuna institute CrescentWatch.org from Zaytuna Institute Moon sighting Committee World-wide of Khalid Shaukat Moon Sighting from Committee For Crescent Observation, Intl. Islamic Crescent Observation Project The Length of the Lunar Cycle (numerical integration analysis) Predicting the First Visibility of the Lunar Crescent
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angular_velocity:1 saudi_arabia:2 unanimous_decision:1 mecca_saudi:1 vegetarian_diet:1 gregorian_calendar:1 metonic_cycle:1 external_link:1
3,170
Complaint
In general use , a complaint is an expression of displeasure, such as poor service at a store, or from a local government, etc. In legal terminology, a complaint is a formal legal document that sets out the basic facts and legal reasons (see: cause of action) that the filing party (the plaintiffs) believes are sufficient to support a claim against another person, persons, entity or entities (the defendants) that entitles the plaintiff(s) to a remedy (either money damages or injunctive relief). For example, the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure that govern civil litigation in United States courts provide that a civil action is commenced with the filing or service of a pleading called a complaint. Civil court rules in states that have incorporated the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure use the same term for the same pleading. In some jurisdictions, certain types of criminal cases may also be commenced by the filing of a complaint, also sometimes called a criminal complaint or felony complaint. All criminal cases are prosecuted in the name of the governmental authority that promulgates criminal statutes and enforces the police power of the state with the goal of seeking criminal sanctions, such as the State (also sometimes called the People) or Crown (in Commonwealth Realms). In the United States, the complaint is often associated with misdemeanor criminal charges presented by the prosecutor without the grand jury process. In most U.S. jurisdictions, the charging instrument presented to and authorized by a grand jury is referred to as an indictment. In many U.S. jurisdictions, a complaint submitted to a court must be accompanied by a Case Information Statement, which sets forth certain key information about the case and the lawyers representing the parties. This allows the judge to make determinations about which deadlines to set for different phases of the case, as it moves through the court system. In certain countries, (for example Australia and the UK and many countries of the European Community), the making of consumer complaints, particularly regarding the sale of financial services, is governed by statute. The statutory authority may require companies to reply to complaints within set time limits, publish written procedures for handling customer dissatisfaction and provide information about arbitration schemes. See also Better Business Bureau cause of action Federal Trade Commission Ombudsman petition pleading plaintiff service of process Whining References
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3,171
Guatemala_City
Guatemala City (in full, La Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción; locally known as Guatemala or Guate) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Guatemala. It is also the capital city of the local Guatemala Department and the largest city in Central America. As of the 2006 census, the city had a population of 2,156,348 although it has grown in great amounts through the last two years. Instituto Nacional de Estadística - Censo Nacional 2006, accessed 11 July 2007 The city is located at , in a mountain valley by the name of Valle de la Ermita in the south central part of the country. Population The current population estimates for Guatemala City are about 2,156,000 in the greater metropolitan region. Varis, Olli , 'Megacities, Development and Water', International Journal of Water Resources Development, 22:2, 199 - 225 Guatemalans have a diversity of origins, with Spanish and Mestizo descent being the most common. There are also important Indigenous communities and smaller German, Jewish, Korean, Argentinian and many other foreign communities. Guatemala City's population continues to increase with the influx of foreigners as well as indigenous immigrants. History National Post Office Building. Within the confines of modern Guatemala City is the ancient Maya city of Kaminaljuyu. Kaminaljuyu dates back some 9,000 years and is one of America's most notable archaeological sites. The center of Kaminaljuyu was located a short distance from the oldest part of Guatemala City. However, in the late 20th century, the city grew around the ruins, and, in some cases, over some of the outlying ruins before they were protected. Many of the several hundred temple mounds have been built over with freeways, shopping centers, commerce, luxury hotels and residential areas. The central ceremonial center of Kaminaljuyu was protected by the Guatemalan government and is now a park within the city. Even so, there are some ruins still alive that are protected by the government. In Spanish colonial times, Guatemala City was a small town. It had a monastery called 'El Carmen', founded in 1629. The capital of Spanish colonial Central America was moved here after a series of earthquakes that began on July 29 1773 destroyed the old capital, Antigua Guatemala http://www.ub.es/geocrit/b3w-444.htm . On September 27, 1775 King Charles III of Spain officialized the moving of the capital. This resulted in a great potential for expansion of the city. The city was the scene of the declaration of independence of Central America from Spain, and became the capital of the United Provinces of Central America in 1821. Today Guatemala City is the economic, governmental and cultural capital of the Republic, and it functions as the main port of entry into the country, with the country's largest international airport, La Aurora International Airport. In addition to a wide variety of restaurants, hotels and shops, the city has a wide variety of art galleries and museums (including some fine collections of Pre-Columbian art) and continually offers an increasing amount of cultural activities. Structure and growth Guatemala City from air. Guatemala City is subdivided into 25 zones designed by the urban engineering of Raúl Aguilar Batres, each one with its own streets and avenues, making it very easy to find addresses in the city. Zones 20, 22, and 23 don't exist as they fall on the jurisdiction of neighbor municipalities. The city metro area has grown so fast in the past years that it has absorbed most of the neighboring municipalities, including Villa Nueva, Santa Catarina Pinula, Mixco, and the suburban area of Carretera a El Salvador, currently a big commercial and residential focal point of the city's metro area. Zone One is the Historic Center, (Centro Histórico), lying in the very heart of the city, the location of many important historic buildings including the Palacio Nacional (National Palace), the Metropolitan Cathedral, the National Congress, the Casa Presidencial (Presidential House), the National Library and Central Park. Efforts to revitalize this important part of the city have been undertaken by the municipal government and have been very successful thus far. In an attempt to control rapid growth of the city, the municipal government (Municipalidad de Guatemala) headed by long time Mayor Álvaro Arzú, has implemented a plan to control its growth based on its important arterial roads. This plan denominated POT (Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial) aims to allow taller building structures of mixed uses to be built next to large arterial roads and gradually decline in height and density as you move away from such. http://pot.muniguate.com/. Places of interest by zones Catedral Metropolitana, Guatemala City. Zone 1 Museos de Guatemala Centro Histórico National Palace (Guatemala) and Metropolitan Cathedral Mercado Central (central market) Biblioteca Nacional (national library) Zone 2 Mapa en Relieve (giant map of Guatemala) and surrounding parks Zone 4 Main square with the National Palace opposite. Centro Cultural Miguel Ángel Asturias Cuatro Grados Norte trendy pedestrian area and cultural district Visa Immigration Office for all foreigners Zone 5 Estadio Mateo Flores Zone 7 Kaminaljuyu and Museo Miraflores Zone 9 Torre del Reformador tower Parque de la Industria, fairgrounds Avenida Reforma and El Obelisco, a parklike boulevard Zone 10 Monument to Pope John Paul II. Museo Ixchel del Traje Indígena (Mayan dress museum) Museo Popol Vuh Zona Viva entertainment district Botanical garden Zone 13 Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología La Aurora Zoo La Aurora International Airport Transportation The newly renovated and expanded La Aurora International Airport lies in the southern part of the city and is the main gateway to the country. Urban public transportation is provided solely by bus and recently supplemented with a BRT System. Guatemala City doesn't have an efficient public transportation service, despite the many proposals and projects for the construction of a mass transit system throughout past decades. The construction of freeways and underpasses by the municipal government, the implementation of reversible lanes during peak rush hour traffic flows, as well as the establishment of the Department of Metropolitan Transit Police (PMT) has helped traffic flow in the city, however, the Guatemalan metropolitan area still faces a growing transportation problem. A new BRT (Bus Rapid Transit) system called Transmetro, consisting of special-purpose lanes for high-capacity buses, began operating in 2007 and aims to improve traffic flow in the city through the implementation of an efficient mass trasit system. The first line (Eje Sur) is proving to be a success and work is due to begin soon on the second line (Eje Norte). This may also lay the base for the possibility of a light rail system in the future. Traditional buses are now required to discharge passengers at central stations at the city's edge to board the Transmetro. This is being implemented as new Transmetro lines become established. Universities There are 10 universities, Universidad Mariano Gálvez, Universidad Panamericana, Universidad Mesoamericana, Universidad Rafael Landivar, Universidad Francisco Marroquin, Universidad del Valle, Universidad del Istmo, Universidad Galileo, Universidad Rural and Universidad de San Carlos, the only public one and third oldest university in America. Sports Estadio Mateo Flores. Guatemala City possesses several sportsgrounds and is home to many sports clubs. Football is the most popular sport, with Comunicaciones, CSD Municipal, and Aurora FC being the main clubs. The Estadio Mateo Flores, located in the Zone 5 of the city, is the largest stadium in the country, followed in capacity by the Estadio Cementos Progreso and the Estadio del Ejército. An important multi-functional hall is the Domo Polideportivo de la CDAG. The city has hosted several international sports events: in 1950 it hosted the VI Central American and Caribbean Games, and in 2000 the FIFA Futsal World Championship. On July 4, 2007 the International Olympic Committee gathered in Guatemala City and voted Sochi to become the host for the 2014 Winter Olympics. Guatemala City was announced in November 2007 to host the 2008 edition of the CONCACAF Futsal Championship, played at the Domo Polideportivo from June 2 to June 8 2008. Crime Guatemala City has a crime rate of 92.44, making it one of the most dangerous cities in the world. In one week alone, 40 murders happened. Natural disasters View of Guatemala City with the Agua, Fuego and Acatenango volcanoes in the background. Earthquakes Guatemala City has been affected several times by earthquakes. The worst quakes were registered in 1917/1918 and 1976. Volcanic activity Four volcanoes are visible from the city, two of them active. The nearest and most active is Pacaya, which at times expels a considerable amount of ash, resulting in the closure of La Aurora International Airport and subsequent flight delays. Mudslides Due to heavy rainfalls some of the humble neighborhoods built at the edge of steep valleys are frequently washed away and buried under mudslides, as in October 2005 . Sinkhole In February 2007 a large sinkhole opened in a poor neighborhood in northeast Guatemala city, killing three people. The sinkhole was 100.5 m (330 ft) deep, and apparently was created by fluid from a sewer dissolving the rock underneath. As a result,one thousand people have been evacuated from the area. The sink hole has since been mitigated and plans to develop on the site have been proposed. Zona Ten and Zona Viva Zone Ten along with being the financial district of the city is among the most popular areas for pop culture, shopping and entertainment. A district within Zone Ten, known as Zona Viva, contains many of the city's most popular hotels, restaurants, bars, discothèques, and other entertainment venues. Also, many of the embassies are located in Zone Ten. Sister Cities La Paz, Bolivia Mexico City, Mexico San Juan, Puerto Rico San Salvador, El Salvador Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain Taipei, Taiwan (Republic of China) Trujillo, Peru Sons and daughters of the city Raúl Aguilar Batres, Engineer, creator of Guatemala City's system of avenue/street notation Miguel Ángel Asturias, writer and diplomat, Nobel Prize Laureate Alvaro Colom Caballeros, Current president of the Republic of Guatemala Manuel Colom Argueta, Former mayor of Guatemala City and renowed politician Carlos Mérida, painter Carlos Peña, singer, Winner of Latin American Idol 2007 Fernando Quevedo, Theoretical Physicist, currently a professor of High Energy Psysics at the university of Cambridge Rodolfo Robles, Physician, discovered onchocercosis "Robles' Disease" Fabiola Rodas, 2nd Place in The Last Generation of La Academia Carlos Ruíz, soccer player Shery, singer / songwriter Jaime Viñals, Mountaineer (Scaled seven highest peaks in the world) Luis von Ahn, Computer Scientist, CAPTCHA's creator and Researcher at Carnegie Mellon University Ted Hendricks, Oakland Raiders NFL Hall Of Fame Linebacker. 5-Time Super Bowl Champion. References See also 2007 Guatemala earthquake La Aurora International Airport External links Official Website of the Municipalidad de Guatemala INGUAT Que Pasa in the City be-x-old:Гватэмала (горад)
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3,172
Transport_in_the_Marshall_Islands
Railways: 0 km Highways: total: NA km paved: 64.5 km unpaved: NA km note: paved roads on major islands (Majuro, Kwajalein), otherwise stone-, coral-, or laterite-surfaced roads and tracks (2002) Ports and harbors: Majuro Merchant marine: total: 342 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 14,471,690 GRT/ ships by type: bulk 86, cargo 18, chemical tanker 31, combination bulk 4, combination ore/oil 7, container 69, liquified gas 8, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 6, petroleum tanker 106, roll on/roll off 1, short-sea passenger 1, vehicle carrier 1 (2002 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes the ships of mainland China 1, Cyprus 1, Denmark 9, Germany 70, Greece 54, Hong Kong 2, Japan 4, Monaco 8, Netherlands 8, United Kingdom 3, United States 87, and Uruguay 1 (2002 est.) Airports: 15 (2002) Airports - with paved runways: total: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 (Eniwetok, IATA airport code ENT; Kwajalein, KWA; and Marshall Islands International, MAJ; Rongelap). 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (2002) Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 11 914 to 1,523 m: 10 under 914 m: 1 (2002) See also : Marshall Islands
Transport_in_the_Marshall_Islands |@lemmatized railway:1 km:4 highway:1 total:5 na:2 pave:2 unpaved:2 note:2 road:2 major:1 island:3 majuro:2 kwajalein:2 otherwise:1 stone:1 coral:1 laterite:1 surface:1 track:1 port:1 harbor:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:3 grt:2 type:1 bulk:2 cargo:1 chemical:1 tanker:2 combination:2 ore:1 oil:1 container:1 liquify:1 gas:1 multi:1 functional:1 large:1 load:1 carrier:2 passenger:2 petroleum:1 roll:2 short:1 sea:1 vehicle:1 est:2 flag:1 convenience:1 registry:1 include:1 mainland:1 china:1 cyprus:1 denmark:1 germany:1 greece:1 hong:1 kong:1 japan:1 monaco:1 netherlands:1 unite:1 kingdom:1 united:1 state:1 uruguay:1 airport:2 airports:2 paved:1 runway:2 eniwetok:1 iata:1 code:1 ent:1 kwa:1 marshall:2 international:1 maj:1 rongelap:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram km_unpaved:1 merchant_marine:1 ship_grt:1 grt_total:1 total_grt:1 grt_ship:1 liquify_gas:1 petroleum_tanker:1 hong_kong:1 airports_paved:1 paved_runway:1 iata_airport:1 airports_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1
3,173
Masonry
A mason laying mortar on top of a finished course of blocks, prior to placing the next course. Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar, and the term "masonry" can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of masonry construction are brick, stone such as marble, granite, travertine, limestone; concrete block, glass block, and tile. Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the materials used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern the units are assembled in can strongly affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. Masonry units, such as brick, tile, stone, glass brick or concrete block generally conform to the requirements specified in the 2005 International Building Code (IBC) Section 2103. Applications Masonry is commonly used for the walls of buildings, retaining walls and monuments. Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations and may be either weight-bearing or a veneer. Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great compressive strength, and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement (typically "rebar") offers much greater tensile and lateral strength to structures. Advantages The use of materials such as brick and stone can increase the thermal mass of a building, giving increased comfort in the heat of summer and the cold of winter, and can be ideal for passive solar applications. Brick typically will not require painting and so can provide a structure with reduced life-cycle costs, although sealing appropriately will reduce potential spalling due to frost damage. Non-decorative concrete block generally is painted or stuccoed if exposed. The appearance, especially when well crafted, can impart an impression of solidity and permanence. Masonry is very heat resistant and thus can provide good fire protection. Masonry walls are generally more resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes than walls of wood or other softer, less dense materials. Disadvantages Extreme weather may cause degradation of masonry wall surfaces due to frost damage. This type of damage is common with certain types of brick, though relatively rare with concrete block. If non-concrete (clay-based) brick is to be used, care should be taken to select bricks suitable for the climate in question. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a strong foundation (usually reinforced concrete) to avoid potential settling and cracking. If expansive soils (such as adobe clay) are present, this foundation may need to be quite elaborate and the services of a qualified structural engineer may be required, particularly in earthquake prone regions. Structural limitations Masonry boasts an impressive compressive strength (vertical loads) but is much lower in tensile strength (twisting or stretching) unless reinforced. The tensile strength of masonry walls can be strengthened by thickening the wall, or by building masonry "piers" (vertical columns or ribs) at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements may be added. Veneer masonry A masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural. The brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by "brick ties", metal strips that are attached to the structural wall as well as the mortar joints of the brick veneer. There is typically an air gap between the brick veneer and the structural wall. As clay-based brick is usually not completely waterproof, the structural wall will often have a water-resistant surface (usually tar paper) and weep holes can be left at the base of the brick veneer to drain moisture that accumulates inside the air gap. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion. Most insulated buildings that utilize concrete block, brick, adobe, stone, veneers or some combination thereof feature interior insulation in the form of fiberglass batts between wooden wall studs or in the form of rigid insulation boards covered with plaster or drywall. In most climates this insulation is much more effective on the exterior of the wall, allowing the building interior to take advantage of the aforementioned thermal mass of the masonry. This technique does, however, require some sort of weather-resistant exterior surface over the insulation and, consequently, is generally more expensive. Dry set masonry Dry set masonry supports a rustic log bridge, where it provides a well-drained support for the log (this will increase its service life). The strength of a masonry wall is not entirely dependent on the bond between the building material and the mortar; the friction between the interlocking blocks of masonry is often strong enough to provide a great deal of strength on its own. The blocks sometimes have grooves or other surface features added to enhance this interlocking, and some dry set masonry structures forego mortar altogether. Solid masonry Solid masonry, without steel reinforcement, tends to have very limited applications in modern wall construction. While such walls can be quite economical and suitable in some applications, susceptibility to earthquakes and collapse is a major issue. Solid unreinforced masonry walls tend to be low and thick as a consequence. Brick Solid brickwork is made of two or more layers of bricks with the units running horizontally (called "stretcher" bricks) bound together with bricks running transverse to the wall (called "header" bricks). Each row of bricks is known as a course. The pattern of headers and stretchers employed gives rise to different bonds such as the common bond (with every sixth course composed of headers), the English bond, and the Flemish bond (with alternating stretcher and header bricks present on every course). There are no significant utilitarian differences between most bonds, but the appearance of the finished wall is affected. Vertically staggered bonds tend to be somewhat stronger and less prone to major cracking than a non-staggered bond. Uniformity and rusticity The selection of the brick used, especially for color, will affect the appearance of the final surface. In buildings built during the 1950s-1970s, a high degree of uniformity of brick and accuracy in masonry was typical. In the period since then this style was thought to be too sterile, so attempts were made to emulate older, rougher work. Some brick surfaces are made to look particularly rustic by including "burnt" bricks, which have a darker color or an irregular shape. Others may use antique salvage bricks, or new bricks may be artificially aged by applying various surface treatments. The attempts at rusticity of the late 20th century have been carried forward by masons specializing in a free, artistic style, where the courses are intentionally not straight, instead weaving to form more organic impressions. Serpentine masonry A crinkle-crankle wall is a brick wall that follows a serpentine path, rather than a straight line. This type of wall is more resistant to toppling than a straight wall; so much so that it may be made of a single thickness of unreinforced brick and so despite its longer length may be more economical than a straight wall. Concrete block Concrete masonry units (CMUs) or blocks in a basement wall before burial.Blocks of cinder concrete ("cinder blocks" or "breezeblocks"), ordinary concrete ("concrete blocks"), or hollow tile are generically known as Concrete Masonry Units (CMU)s. They usually are much larger than ordinary bricks and so are much faster to lay for a wall of a given size. Furthermore, cinder and concrete blocks typically have much lower water absorption rates than brick. They often are used as the structural core for veneered brick masonry, or are used alone for the walls of factories, garages and other "industrial" buildings where such appearance is acceptable or desirable. Such blocks often receive a stucco surface for decoration. Surface-bonding cement, which contains synthetic fibers for reinforcement, is sometimes used in this application and can impart extra strength to a block wall. Surface-bonding cement is often pre-coloured and can be stained or painted thus resulting in a finished stucco-like surface. The primary structural advantage of concrete blocks in comparison to smaller clay-based bricks is that a CMU wall can be reinforced by filling the block voids with concrete with or without steel rebar. Generally, certain voids are designated for filling and reinforcement, particularly at corners, wall-ends, and openings while other voids are left empty. This increases wall strength and stability more economically than filling and reinforcing all voids. Another type of steel reinforcement, referred to as ladder-reinforcement, can also be embedded in horizontal mortar joints of concrete block walls. The introduction of steel reinforcement generally results in a CMU wall having much greater lateral and tensile strength than unreinforced walls. Some concrete blocks are colored, and some employ a split face, a technique that results in two blocks being manufactured as one unit and later split into two. This gives the blocks a rough face replicating the appearance of natural, quarried stone, such as brownstone. For applications such as roadway sound control walls, the face patterns may be complex and even artistic. A-Jacks A-jacks (used in erosion control walls and sea walls) are highly stable, concrete 6-pronged armor units designed to interlock into a flexible, highly permeable matrix. They can be installed either randomly or in a uniform pattern. They look like giant 3-foot versions of the metal jacks that children play with In the uniform placement pattern, each unit is in contact with the six adjacent units, providing high stability. They are patterned after the buckyball model EROSION CONTROL | Stabilizing Streambanks Stonework Stone blocks used in masonry can be "dressed" or "rough." Stone masonry utilizing dressed stones is known as ashlar masonry, whereas masonry using irregularly shaped stones is known as rubble masonry. Both rubble and ashlar masonry can be laid in courses (rows of even height) through the careful selection or cutting of stones, but a great deal of stone masonry is uncoursed. Natural stone veneers over CMU, cast-in-place, or tilt-up concrete walls are widely used to give the appearance of stone masonry. Sometimes "river rock" (oval shaped smooth stones) is used as a veneer. This type of material is not favored for solid masonry as it requires a great amount of mortar and can lack intrinsic structural strength. Manufactured-stone or "cultured stone" veneers are popular alternatives to natural stones. Attractive natural stone has become more expensive in many areas and in some areas is practically unavailable. Manufactured-stone veneers are typically made from concrete. Natural stones from quarries around the world are sampled and recreated using molds, aggregate, and colorfast pigments. To the casual observer there may be no visual difference between veneers of natural and manufactured stone. Gabions Gabions are rectangular wire baskets, usually of zinc protected steel (galvanized steel) that are filled with fractured stone of medium size. These will act as a single unit and are stacked with set-backs to form a revetment or retaining wall. They have the advantage of being both well drained and flexible, and so resistant to flood, water flow from above, frost damage, and soil flow. Their expected useful life is only as long as the wire they are composed of and if used in severe climates (such as shore-side in a salt water environment) must be made of appropriate corrosion-resistant wire. Bagged concrete A low grade concrete may be placed in woven plastic sacks similar to that used for sandbags and then emplaced. The sacks are then watered and the emplacement then becomes a series of artificial stones that conform to one another and to adjacent soil and structures. This conformation makes them resistant to displacement. The sack becomes non-functional and eventually disintegrates. This type of masonry is frequently used to protect the entrances and exits of water conduits where a road passes over a stream or dry wash. It is also used to protect stream banks from erosion, especially where a road passes close by. Masonry Training Stonemasonry is one of the oldest professions in the history of construction. As such it is regarded as a traditional skill, and is one which is in heavy demand. Prospective stonemasons will learn the profession through apprenticeships or a traineeship that will last 3 to 4 years. There are City & Guilds stonemasonry courses available that combine college based theory training with practical learning. Passive fire protection (PFP) Masonry walls have an endothermic effect of its hydrates, as in chemically bound water, as well as unbound moisture from the concrete block, as well as the poured concrete if the hollow cores inside the blocks are filled. See also Mason Contractors Association of America Brick tinting Cast stone Castle CEN/TC 125 (European Union) Defensive wall Dry-stone wall Fire protectionInternational Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers List of stone Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association Concrete finisher NIST stone test wall Passive fire protection Rubble masonry Stone wall Stonemasonry Tuckpointing External links Professional Masonry Installers Mason Contractors Association of America International Masonry Institute International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers National Concrete Masonry Association References
Masonry |@lemmatized mason:5 lay:4 mortar:8 top:1 finished:1 course:8 block:29 prior:1 place:3 next:1 masonry:51 building:9 structure:6 individual:1 unit:13 bound:3 together:2 term:1 also:4 refer:2 common:4 material:6 construction:6 brick:38 stone:29 marble:1 granite:1 travertine:1 limestone:1 concrete:32 glass:2 tile:3 generally:9 highly:3 durable:1 form:5 however:2 use:21 quality:1 workmanship:1 pattern:6 assemble:1 strongly:1 affect:3 durability:1 overall:1 conform:2 requirement:1 specify:1 international:4 code:1 ibc:1 section:1 application:6 commonly:1 wall:46 retain:2 monument:1 type:7 industrialized:1 nation:1 may:12 either:2 weight:1 bearing:1 veneer:15 especially:4 hollow:3 core:5 offer:2 various:2 possibility:1 provide:6 great:6 compressive:2 strength:11 best:1 suit:1 light:1 transverse:2 load:2 remain:1 unfilled:1 fill:5 steel:8 reinforcement:8 typically:5 rebar:2 much:8 tensile:4 lateral:2 advantage:4 increase:4 thermal:2 mass:2 give:5 comfort:1 heat:2 summer:1 cold:1 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practical:2 add:2 consist:1 instal:2 one:5 side:2 structurally:1 independent:1 construct:1 context:1 primarily:1 connect:1 tie:1 metal:2 strip:1 attach:1 joint:2 air:2 gap:2 completely:1 waterproof:1 often:5 water:7 tar:1 paper:1 weep:1 hole:1 leave:2 drain:3 moisture:2 accumulate:1 inside:2 real:1 cultured:1 sometimes:4 similar:2 fashion:1 insulated:1 utilize:2 combination:1 thereof:1 feature:2 interior:2 insulation:4 fiberglass:1 batts:1 wooden:1 stud:1 rigid:1 board:1 cover:1 plaster:1 drywall:1 effective:1 exterior:2 allow:1 aforementioned:1 technique:2 sort:1 consequently:1 expensive:2 dry:5 set:4 support:2 rustic:2 log:2 bridge:1 entirely:1 dependent:1 bond:8 friction:1 interlock:2 enough:1 deal:2 groove:1 enhance:1 interlocking:1 forego:1 altogether:1 solid:5 without:2 limited:1 modern:1 economical:2 susceptibility:1 collapse:1 major:2 issue:1 unreinforced:3 thick:1 consequence:1 brickwork:1 make:7 two:3 layer:1 run:2 horizontally:1 call:2 stretcher:3 header:4 row:2 know:4 employ:2 rise:1 different:1 every:2 sixth:1 compose:2 english:1 flemish:1 alternate:1 significant:1 utilitarian:1 difference:2 finish:2 vertically:1 staggered:1 somewhat:1 crack:1 stagger:1 uniformity:2 rusticity:2 selection:2 color:3 final:1 high:2 degree:1 accuracy:1 typical:1 period:1 since:1 style:2 think:1 sterile:1 attempt:2 emulate:1 old:2 rough:3 work:1 look:2 include:1 burnt:1 darker:1 irregular:1 shape:3 others:1 antique:1 salvage:1 new:1 artificially:1 age:1 apply:1 treatment:1 late:1 century:1 carry:1 forward:1 specialize:1 free:1 artistic:2 intentionally:1 straight:4 instead:1 weave:1 organic:1 serpentine:2 crinkle:1 crankle:1 follow:1 path:1 rather:1 line:1 topple:1 single:2 thickness:1 despite:1 long:2 length:1 cmus:1 basement:1 burial:1 cinder:3 breezeblocks:1 ordinary:2 generically:1 cmu:4 large:1 faster:1 size:2 furthermore:1 absorption:1 rate:1 veneered:1 alone:1 factory:1 garage:1 industrial:1 acceptable:1 desirable:1 receive:1 decoration:1 bonding:2 cement:3 contain:1 synthetic:1 fiber:1 extra:1 pre:1 colour:1 stain:1 result:3 like:2 primary:1 comparison:1 small:1 void:4 designate:1 filling:1 corner:1 end:1 opening:1 empty:1 stability:2 economically:1 another:2 ladder:1 embed:1 horizontal:1 introduction:1 split:2 face:3 manufacture:4 later:1 replicate:1 natural:6 quarry:2 brownstone:1 roadway:1 sound:1 control:3 complex:1 even:2 jack:3 erosion:3 sea:1 stable:1 pronged:1 armor:1 design:1 flexible:2 permeable:1 matrix:1 randomly:1 uniform:2 giant:1 foot:1 version:1 child:1 play:1 placement:1 contact:1 six:1 adjacent:2 buckyball:1 model:1 stabilize:1 streambanks:1 stonework:1 dressed:2 ashlar:2 whereas:1 irregularly:1 rubble:3 height:1 careful:1 cutting:1 uncoursed:1 cast:2 tilt:1 widely:1 river:1 rock:1 oval:1 smooth:1 favor:1 amount:1 lack:1 intrinsic:1 culture:1 popular:1 alternative:1 attractive:1 become:3 many:1 area:2 practically:1 unavailable:1 around:1 world:1 sample:1 recreate:1 mold:1 aggregate:1 colorfast:1 pigment:1 casual:1 observer:1 visual:1 gabions:2 rectangular:1 wire:3 basket:1 zinc:1 protect:3 galvanized:1 fractured:1 medium:1 act:1 stack:1 back:1 revetment:1 flood:1 flow:2 expect:1 useful:1 severe:1 shore:1 salt:1 environment:1 appropriate:1 corrosion:1 bag:1 grade:1 woven:1 plastic:1 sack:3 sandbag:1 emplace:1 emplacement:1 series:1 artificial:1 conformation:1 displacement:1 functional:1 eventually:1 disintegrate:1 frequently:1 entrance:1 exit:1 conduit:1 road:2 pass:2 stream:2 wash:1 bank:1 close:1 training:2 stonemasonry:3 profession:2 history:1 regard:1 traditional:1 skill:1 demand:1 prospective:1 stonemason:1 learn:1 apprenticeship:1 traineeship:1 last:1 year:1 city:1 guild:1 available:1 combine:1 college:1 theory:1 learning:1 pfp:1 endothermic:1 effect:1 hydrate:1 chemically:1 unbound:1 poured:1 see:1 contractor:2 association:4 america:2 tint:1 castle:1 cen:1 tc:1 european:1 union:3 defensive:1 protectioninternational:1 bricklayer:2 allied:2 craftworkers:2 list:1 operative:1 plasterer:1 finisher:1 nist:1 test:1 tuckpointing:1 external:1 link:1 professional:1 installers:1 institute:1 national:1 reference:1 |@bigram marble_granite:1 compressive_strength:2 reinforce_concrete:1 tensile_strength:3 stone_veneer:5 concrete_masonry:3 irregularly_shape:1 corrosion_resistant:1 external_link:1
3,174
Dolores_Fuller
Dolores Fuller (born 1923 South Bend, Indiana) is an American actress and songwriter best known as the one-time girlfriend of the low-budget film director Edward D. Wood, Jr. She played the protagonist's girlfriend in Glen or Glenda, co-starred in Wood's Jail Bait, and had a minor role in Bride of the Monster. Later, Elvis Presley recorded a number of her songs written for his films. Film career According to Fuller, the female lead in Bride of the Monster was written for Fuller but Wood gave it to Loretta King instead when she offered to help finance the movie. King denied the allegation. In August 1954, Fuller was cast in Wood's The Vampire's Tomb, to star Bela Lugosi. Frank Yaconelli was named as her co-star and 'comic killer'. The film was never made. She ended up making a cameo appearance in Bride of the Monster (1956), also with Lugosi. Vampire Types Gathering For Movie, Los Angeles Times, August 2, 1954, Page B9. Fuller hosted a benefit for Lugosi which preceded the showing of Bride of the Atom (early working title of Bride of the Monster) on May 11, 1955. A cocktail party was held at the Gardens Restaurant at 4311 Magnolia Avenue in Burbank, California. Vampira attended and was escorted by Paul Marco. A single screening of the film was presented at the Hollywood Paramount. Lugosi Benefit Slated Tonight, Los Angeles Times, May 11, 1955, Page 27. According to Fuller, as quoted in Nightmare of Ecstasy, she first met Ed Wood when she went to a casting call with a friend for a movie he was supposed to direct called Behind Locked Doors. She became his girlfriend shortly thereafter and began acting in his films. Her movie career included a bit part in It Happened One Night (1934) and roles in Outlaw Women (1952), Glen or Glenda (1953), Body Beautiful (1953), The Blue Gardenia (1953), Count the Hours (1953), Mesa of Lost Women (1953), College Capers (1954), Jail Bait (1954), The Raid (1954), This Is My Love (1954), The Opposite Sex (1956), The Ironbound Vampire (1997), and Dimensions in Fear (1998). Television performer and songwriter Fuller had already had earlier experience on television in Queen for a Day and The Dinah Shore Show. As Fuller remembers, she was the one "putting bread on the table." Another quote from her : "I had a size four and a half foot, so I modeled the slippers in an artist's short smock." She lost her job on The Dinah Shore Show when, as she has said, "We were shooting all night, and into the next day, and time just got away from me, and I didn't realize that I was supposed to be on the set working as Dinah's double on her show, Chevy Theatre. I completely messed up my job, I was what they called a no show." Fuller's ability as a songwriter manifested itself through the intervention of her friend, producer Hal Wallis; Fuller had wanted to get an acting role in the Elvis Presley movie Blue Hawaii, which Wallis was producing, but instead he put her in touch with Hill & Range, the publisher that provided Presley with songs. Fuller went into a collaborative partnership with composer Ben Weisman and co-wrote one song, "Rock-A-Hula Baby", for the film. It was a beginning that eventually led to Elvis Presley recording a dozen of her songs, including "I Got Lucky" and "Spinout". Songs recorded by Elvis Presley with lyrics by Dolores Fuller: "Barefoot Ballad" (from the film Kissin' Cousins, 1964) "Beyond the Bend" (from the film It Happened at the World's Fair, 1963) "Big Love, Big Heartache" (from the film Roustabout, 1964) "Cindy, Cindy" (Love Letters from Elvis, 1971 studio album) "Do the Clam" (from the film Girl Happy, 1965) "Have A Happy" (from the film Change of Habit, 1969) "I Got Lucky" (from the film Kid Galahad, 1962) "I'll Take Love" (from the film Easy Come, Easy Go, 1967) "Rock-a-Hula, Baby" (from the film Blue Hawaii, 1961) "Spinout" (from the film Spinout, 1966) "Steppin' Out of Line" (unused track from the Blue Hawaii sessions) "You Can't Say No In Acapulco" (from the film Fun in Acapulco, 1963) Fuller also had her music recorded by Nat 'King' Cole, Peggy Lee, and other leading talents of the time. Private life As Fuller says of the period before her success, "He (Ed Wood) begged me to marry him. I loved him in a way, but I couldn't handle the transvestism. I'm a very normal person. It's hard for me to deviate! I wanted a man that was all man. After we broke up, he would stand outside my home in Burbank and cry. "Let me in, I love you!" What good would I have done if I had married him? We would have starved together. I bettered myself. I had to uplift myself." Fuller placed 2nd in a mother-daughter beauty contest in Sunland, California, in July 1951. She was listed as 25 years old and her daughter, Connie Rae, was 4. The runner up prize was a trip to Santa Catalina Island, California. Fuller's address was listed as 180 Puddingstone Drive in San Dimas, California. Girl, 4, Becomes Beauty Queen, So Does Mother, Los Angeles Times, July 2, 1951, Page 10 Ed Wood She was portrayed by Sarah Jessica Parker in Tim Burton's 1994 Wood biopic Ed Wood, a portrayal of which she disapproved due to the image of her smoking in the film. Fuller says she never smoked. Interview with Dolores Fuller, For Elvis Fans Only, Elvis Australia: Official Elvis Presley Fan Club, 15 July 2006. Retrieved 27 August 2008. References External links Interview with Dolores Fuller
Dolores_Fuller |@lemmatized dolores:4 fuller:19 born:1 south:1 bend:2 indiana:1 american:1 actress:1 songwriter:3 best:1 know:1 one:4 time:6 girlfriend:3 low:1 budget:1 film:18 director:1 edward:1 wood:9 jr:1 play:1 protagonist:1 glen:2 glenda:2 co:3 star:3 jail:2 bait:2 minor:1 role:3 bride:5 monster:4 later:1 elvis:8 presley:6 record:4 number:1 song:5 write:3 career:2 accord:2 female:1 lead:3 give:1 loretta:1 king:3 instead:2 offer:1 help:1 finance:1 movie:5 deny:1 allegation:1 august:3 cast:2 vampire:3 tomb:1 bela:1 lugosi:4 frank:1 yaconelli:1 name:1 comic:1 killer:1 never:2 make:2 end:1 cameo:1 appearance:1 also:2 type:1 gather:1 los:3 angeles:3 page:3 host:1 benefit:2 precede:1 showing:1 atom:1 early:2 work:2 title:1 may:2 cocktail:1 party:1 hold:1 garden:1 restaurant:1 magnolia:1 avenue:1 burbank:2 california:4 vampira:1 attend:1 escort:1 paul:1 marco:1 single:1 screening:1 present:1 hollywood:1 paramount:1 slat:1 tonight:1 quote:2 nightmare:1 ecstasy:1 first:1 meet:1 ed:4 go:3 call:3 friend:2 suppose:2 direct:1 behind:1 locked:1 door:1 become:2 shortly:1 thereafter:1 begin:1 act:1 include:2 bit:1 part:1 happen:2 night:2 outlaw:1 woman:2 body:1 beautiful:1 blue:4 gardenia:1 count:1 hour:1 mesa:1 lose:2 college:1 caper:1 raid:1 love:6 opposite:1 sex:1 ironbound:1 dimension:1 fear:1 television:2 performer:1 already:1 experience:1 queen:2 day:2 dinah:3 shore:2 show:4 remembers:1 put:2 bread:1 table:1 another:1 size:1 four:1 half:1 foot:1 model:1 slipper:1 artist:1 short:1 smock:1 job:2 say:4 shoot:1 next:1 get:4 away:1 realize:1 set:1 double:1 chevy:1 theatre:1 completely:1 mess:1 ability:1 manifest:1 intervention:1 producer:1 hal:1 wallis:2 want:2 acting:1 hawaii:3 produce:1 touch:1 hill:1 range:1 publisher:1 provide:1 collaborative:1 partnership:1 composer:1 ben:1 weisman:1 rock:2 hula:2 baby:2 beginning:1 eventually:1 dozen:1 lucky:2 spinout:3 lyric:1 barefoot:1 ballad:1 kissin:1 cousin:1 beyond:1 world:1 fair:1 big:2 heartache:1 roustabout:1 cindy:2 letter:1 studio:1 album:1 clam:1 girl:2 happy:2 change:1 habit:1 kid:1 galahad:1 take:1 easy:2 come:1 steppin:1 line:1 unused:1 track:1 session:1 acapulco:2 fun:1 music:1 nat:1 cole:1 peggy:1 lee:1 talent:1 private:1 life:1 period:1 success:1 beg:1 marry:2 way:1 handle:1 transvestism:1 normal:1 person:1 hard:1 deviate:1 man:2 break:1 would:3 stand:1 outside:1 home:1 cry:1 let:1 good:1 starve:1 together:1 better:1 uplift:1 place:1 mother:2 daughter:2 beauty:2 contest:1 sunland:1 july:3 list:2 year:1 old:1 connie:1 rae:1 runner:1 prize:1 trip:1 santa:1 catalina:1 island:1 address:1 puddingstone:1 drive:1 san:1 dimas:1 portray:1 sarah:1 jessica:1 parker:1 tim:1 burton:1 biopic:1 portrayal:1 disapprove:1 due:1 image:1 smoking:1 smoke:1 interview:2 fan:2 australia:1 official:1 club:1 retrieve:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram dolores_fuller:4 glen_glenda:2 bride_monster:4 elvis_presley:5 deny_allegation:1 bela_lugosi:1 cameo_appearance:1 los_angeles:3 burbank_california:1 shortly_thereafter:1 dinah_shore:2 hal_wallis:1 tim_burton:1 external_link:1
3,175
Cajun_cuisine
Platter with Crab Legs, Crawfish Étouffée, Shrimp Gumbo, Shrimp, Corn, and PotatoesCajun cuisine (in French: Cuisine Acadienne) originates from the French-speaking Acadian or "Cajun" immigrants deported by the British from Acadia in Canada to the Acadiana region of Louisiana, USA. It is what could be called a rustic cuisine — locally available ingredients predominate, and preparation is simple. An authentic Cajun meal is usually a three-pot affair, with one pot dedicated to the main dish, one dedicated to steamed rice, skillet cornbread, or some other grain dish, and the third containing whatever vegetable is plentiful or available. The aromatic vegetables bell pepper, onion, and celery are called by some chefs the holy trinity of Cajun cuisine. Finely diced and combined in cooking, the method is similar to the use of the mire poix in traditional French cuisine — which blends finely diced onion, celery, and carrot. Characteristic seasonings include parsley, bay leaf, "green onions" or scallions, and dried cayenne pepper. The overall feel of the cuisine is more Mediterranean than North American. Cajun cuisine developed out of necessity. The Acadian refugees, who largely came from what is now modern-day New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, were farmers rendered destitute by the British expulsion, and had to learn to live off the land and adapted their French rustic cuisine to local (i.e. Louisiana) ingredients such as rice, crawfish, and sugar cane. Many households were large, consisting of eight to twelve people; thus, regardless what other vocations may have been followed by the head of household, most families also farmed. Feeding a large family, all of whose members did hard physical work every day, required a lot of food. Cajun cuisine grew out of supplementing rice with white meat, game or other proteins where available such as crawfish or any other type of river creature. Cajun methods of preparation Barbecueing - similar to "slow and low" Texas barbecue traditions, but with Cajun seasoning. Smoking - indirect dry heat. Grilling - direct dry heat, faster than smoking. Braising - combining a dry heat grill with a pot filled with broth for moist heat, faster than smoking but slower than regular grilling. Boiling - as in boiling of crabs, crawfish, or shrimp, in seasoned liquid. Deep frying Étouffée - cooking a vegetable or meat in its own juices, similar to braising or what in New Orleans is called "smothering". Frying, also known as pan-frying. Injecting - using a large syringe-type setup to place seasoning deep inside large cuts of meat. Stewing, also known as fricassée. Deep-frying of turkeys or oven-roasted turduckens entered southern Louisiana cuisine more recently. Also, blackening of fish or chicken and barbecuing of shrimp in the shell are excluded because they were not propared in traditional Cajun cuisine. See Misconceptions below. Cajun ingredients The following is a partial list of ingredients used in Cajun cuisine and some of the staple ingredients of the Acadian food culture. Grains c. 1938 Cajun woman using crude mortar and pestle in process of hulling rice. Near Crowley, Louisiana. Corn Rice — long, medium, or short grain white; also popcorn rice Rice proved to be a valuable commodity in early Acadiana. With an abundance of water and a hot, humid climate, rice could be grown practically anywhere in the region, and grew feral in some areas. Rice became the predominant starch in the diet, easy to grow, store, and prepare. The oldest rice mill in operation in the United States, the Conrad Rice Mill, is located in New Iberia. Wheat (for baking bread) Fruits and vegetables Bell peppers Blackberries Cayenne peppers Celery Cucumbers Figs Limes Lemons Mirlitons (also called chayotes or vegetable pears) Muscadines Okra Onions Pecans Satsuma Oranges Scallions (also known as green onions or onion tops) Squash Strawberries Sweet potatoes Tabasco pepper Tomatoes Meat and seafood Cajun folkways include many ways of preserving meat, some of which are waning due to the availability of refrigeration and mass-produced meat at the grocer. Smoking of meats remains a fairly common practice, but once-common preparations such as turkey or duck confit (preserved in poultry fat, with spices) are now seen even by Acadians as quaint rarities. Game (and hunting) are still uniformly popular in Acadiana. The recent increase of catfish farming in the Mississippi Delta has brought about an increase in its usage in Cajun cuisine in the place of the more traditional wild-caught trout and redfish. Seafood Freshwater Bass Catfish Sac-au-Lait (white perch or crappie) Yellow perch Saltwater or brackish water species Trout Redfish Pompano Drumfish Flounder Grouper Perch - many varieties Snapper - many varieties Shellfish Crawfish- either wild swamp or farm-raised Shrimp Oysters Blue Crab Also included in the seafood mix are some so-called "trash fish" that would not sell at market because of their high bone to meat ratio or required complicated cooking methods. These were brought home by fishermen to feed the family. Examples are garfish, gaspergou, croaker, and bream. Poultry Farm Raised Turkey (and turkey confit) Chicken (and Guinea Hen) Game birds Dove Goose Quail Duck (and duck confit)Pork Andouille - a spicy dry smoked sausage, characterized by a coarse-ground texture Boudin - a fresh sausage made with green onions, pork, and rice. Pig's blood is sometimes added to produce "boudin rouge". Chaurice, similar to the Spanish chorizo Chaudin - a pig's stomach, stuffed with spiced pork & smoked. Also known as ponce. Ham hocks Head cheese Gratons - hog cracklings or pork rinds; fried, seasoned pork fat & skin, sometimes with small bits of meat attached. Similar to the Spanish chicharrones. Pork sausage (fresh) - not smoked or cured, but highly seasoned. Mostly used in gumbos. The sausage itself does not include rice, separating it from boudin. Salt Pork Tasso - a highly seasoned, smoked pork shoulder Beef and dairy Though parts of Acadiana are well suited to cattle or dairy farming, beef is not often used in a pre-processed or uniquely Cajun form. It is usually prepared fairly simply as chops, stews, or steaks, taking a cue from Texas to the west. Ground beef is used as is traditional throughout the southern US, although seasoned differently. Dairy farming is not as prevalent as in the past, but there are still some farms in the business. There are no unique dairy items prepared in Cajun cuisine. Traditional southern US and New Orleans influenced desserts are common. Other Alligator Frog legs Nutria Rabbit Turtle (farm-raised) Seasonings c. 1938 Cajun woman reaching for strings of garlic suspended from rafters. Near Crowley, Louisiana. Individual Bay leaf Oregano Bell peppers (green or red) Black pepper Cayenne pepper Celery Garlic Onion (bell pepper, onion, and celery used together are known as the "holy trinity" of Cajun cuisine.) Parsley, flat leaf Sassafras leaves (dried & ground into the spice known as filé for gumbo) Sugarcane, also cane syrup, brown sugar and molasses Thyme Blended "Cajun spice" blends such as Tony Chachere's are sometimes used in Acadiana kitchens, but do not suit every cook's style because Cajun-style seasoning is often achieved from scratch, even by taste. Whole peppers are almost never used in authentic Cajun dishes — ground Cayenne, paprika, and pepper sauces predominate. Hot sauce Seafood boil mix Vinegar seasoned with small, pickled, hot green peppers is a common condiment with many Cajun meals. Persillade Marinades made with olive oil, brown sugar, and citrus juices Various barbecue rubs similar to those in other states Cooking bases Dark roux: The Acadians inherited the roux from the French. However, unlike the French, it is made with oil or bacon fat and more lately olive oil, and not butter, and it is used as a flavoring, especially in gumbo and étouffée. Preparation of a dark roux is probably the most involved or complicated procedure in Cajun cuisine, involving heating fat and flour very carefully, constantly stirring for about 15-45 minutes (depending on the color of the desired product), until the mixture has darkened in color and developed a nutty flavor. A burnt roux renders a dish unpalatable. The scent of a good roux is so strong that even after leaving one's house the smell of roux is still embedded in one's clothes until they are washed. The scent is so strong and recognizable that others are able to tell if one is making a roux, and often infer that one is making a gumbo. Stocks: Acadian stocks are more heavily seasoned than Continental counterparts, and the shellfish stock sometimes made with shrimp and crawfish heads is unique to Cajun cuisine. Fish stock and Court-bouillon Shellfish stock Chicken stock Cajun dishes Noted by the popular Hank Williams' Jambalaya song, three of the primary dishes in Acadiana are "Jambalaya and-a crawfish pie and filé gumbo." One variation is that crawfish boils are more popular today than crawfish pies. Primary favorites Boudin Boudin (sometimes spelled "boudain") is a type of sausage made from pork, pork liver, rice, garlic and green onion, and other spices. It is widely available by the link or pound from butcher shops. Boudin is usually made daily as it does not keep well for very long, even frozen. Boudin is typically stuffed in a natural casing and has a softer consistency than other, better-known sausage varieties. It is usually served with side dishes such as rice dressing, maque choux, or bread. Gumbo High on the list of favorites of Cajun cooking are the soups called gumbos. Gumbo exemplifies the influence of African and Native American food cultures on Cajun cuisine. The word originally meant okra, which is a word brought to the region from western Africa. Okra, which is a principal ingredient of many gumbo recipes, is used as a thickening agent and for its distinct vegetable flavor. A filé gumbo is thickened with sassafras leaves after the gumbo has finished cooking, a practice borrowed from the Choctaw Indians. The backbone of a gumbo is a dark roux, which is made of flour, toasted until well browned, and fat or oil, not butter as with the French. The classic gumbo is made with chicken and the Cajun sausage called andouille, but the ingredients all depend on what is available at the moment. Jambalaya Another classic Cajun dish is jambalaya. The only certain thing that can be said about a jambalaya is that it contains rice and almost anything else. Usually, however, one will find green peppers, onions, celery and hot chile peppers. Anything else is optional. Food as an event Crawfish boil The crawfish boil is a celebratory event where Cajuns boil crawfish, potatoes, onions and corn over large propane cookers. Lemons and small muslin bags containing a mixture of bay leaves, mustard seeds, cayenne pepper and other spices, commonly known as "crab boil" or "crawfish boil" are added to the water for seasoning. The results are then dumped onto large, newspaper-draped tables and in some areas covered in spice blends, such as Zatarain's, Louisiana Fish Fry or Tony Chachere's. Also, Cocktail sauce, mayonnaise and hot sauce sometimes used. The seafood is scooped onto large trays or plates and eaten by hand. During times when crawfish are not abundant, shrimp and crabs are prepared and served in the same manner. Attendees are encouraged to "suck the head" of a crawfish by separating the abdomen of the crustacean and sucking out the abdominal fat/juices. The practice is known by the common phrase is "Pinch the tail, suck the head." Other popular practices include kissing the tail section of a soon-to-be-cooked crawfish, leading to the vulgar phrase: "Kiss my ass, suck my head, eat me." The phrase has been printed on shirts and posters in years past. Often, newcomers to the crawfish boil or those unfamiliar with the traditions are jokingly warned "not to eat the dead ones." When live crawfish are boiled, their tails curl beneath themselves. When dead crawfish are boiled, their tails are straight and limp. Seafood boils with crabs and shrimp are also popular. Boucherie The traditional pig-slaughtering party, or Boucherie, where Cajuns would gather to socialize, play music, dance, and preserve meat does still occur in some rural communities, especially St. Martinville, but the exploitation of every last bit of meat, including organs and variety cuts in sausages such as 'boudin' (sometimes spelled boudain) and the inaccessible bits in the head as head cheese is no longer a necessity. Other dishes and sides Potato Salad, a recent tradition is to serve with gumbo, and usually in it (generally plain, i.e. egg, potato,and mayo solely ) Gumbo z'Herbes Couche Couche (Cajun corn mush) Boiled Crawfish Maque Choux Tasso (meat product) Catfish (or Redfish) Court-Boullion Crawfish Étouffée Crawfish Bisque Hog's Head Cheese Various types of Sauce Piquante (Shrimp, Alligator, Turtle, etc.) Cochon de Lait Crawfish Pie Andouille sausage Dirty rice Rice and Gravy - usually a brown gravy based on pan drippings, which are deglazed and simmered with extra seasonings and served over steamed or boiled rice. Fried Frog Legs Pecan Pralines Tarte à la Bouillie (sweet-dough custard tarts) Seafood-stuffed Mirliton Brochette Cajun Rice Misconceptions There is a common misconception outside of south Louisiana that Cajun food is hot and spicy. An authentic Cajun dish will usually have a bit of a "kick" but will not be eye-wateringly hot. The Cajun cook does not seek to overpower the dish with simple heat — this is done by the diner at the table if they so wish. Cayenne pepper is the predominant choice of heat during preparation, though the tabasco pepper , ground black pepper, and to a lesser extent white pepper, are used as well. Cajun dishes prepared outside of Louisiana are often hotter and more heavily seasoned than their Louisiana counterparts, missing the flavor of the original dishes. Even andouille sausage, mild and smoky in Louisiana, gets the pepper treatment elsewhere. This is partially a result of the "Cajun" foods craze of the 1980s, when Cajun-style seasoning was popularized by chef Paul Prudhomme's creation of the very spicy dish called Blackened Redfish at his New Orleans restaurant "K-Paul's". It is also a result of recent "extreme" food fads, where many items are hotter than the originals. Outside of southern Louisiana, foods prepared using Cajun-style seasoning are called Cajun, including some decidedly non-Cajun dishes such as red beans and rice, and blackened redfish. Sometimes the label is applied incorrectly to any dish including traditional Cajun ingredients such as cayenne pepper, or merely as a slogan, as in McDonald's' "Spicy Cajun McChicken". Chefs trained in Louisiana, as well as Louisiana raised chefs can and do duplicate the original tastes successfully elsewhere, especially since the advent of mail-order ingredient deliveries. However, the buyer should beware that what may be a perfectly palatable dish may not be strictly "authentic". Cajun cuisine is sometimes confused with Creole cuisine, and many outside of Louisiana don't make the distinction. Creole is more city – urban, cosmopolitan, and inspired by the French, Spanish, African, and Italian influences of New Orleans – while Cajun dishes have more of a French influence, filtered through common (to Louisiana) ingredients and techniques. This matter is complicated by the sharing of several dishes between the cuisines, including gumbo, gumbo z'herbes (a vegetarian gumbo), seafood à l'étouffée, and jambalaya, although New Orleans jambalaya and gumbo are prepared differently from their Cajun counterparts. Further complicating this is that the term Creole is used to designate several somewhat distinct New Orleans food cultures. So-called 'haute-creole' cuisine was influenced in the past few decades by Cajun food as Creole restaurants such as Commander's Palace and K-Paul's created a distinct "Cajun-Creole fusion" cuisine combining Cajun flavors with Creole ingredients and preparation. Dishes rooted primarily in the New Orleans metropolitan area such as po'-boys, barbecued shrimp, or red beans and rice are in general Creole, not Cajun, as are most dishes involving a cream sauce or the French mother sauces. Non-Cajun dishes This is a listing of dishes sometimes mistakenly called or thought to be Cajun but having origins elsewhere, usually in New Orleans or in northern Louisiana, and sometimes are relatively unadopted in Acadiana: Bananas Foster Beignets Anything blackened (e.g. chicken, shrimp, or fish) Bread pudding Cajun fries Cajun sausage (other than andouille, etc.) Calas Chicken and Dumplings Deep fried turkey - deep frying of whole turkeys outdoors in a large pot. This technique can be dangerous. Some safety precautions can be found at Oysters Rockefeller or Casino Popeye's Fried Chicken (a US chain founded in New Orleans, was intentionally "Cajunified".) Red beans and rice Spicy Cajun McChicken List of Cajun or Cajun-influenced chefs Frank Brigtsen John Folse Jonathan Henderson Emeril Lagasse Alex Patout Paul Prudhomme Jamie Shannon Jason Sherritt Justin Wilson Lucy Zaunbrecher List of Cajun commercial seasonings Tabasco sauce Tony Chachere's Notes References Chef Paul Prudhomme's Louisiana Kitchen (ISBN 0-688-02847-0), from the main popularizer of Cajun flavors, this is the definitive "high" Cajun cookbook. Most of the recipes within are very traditional, with a world class chef's added touch. Chef John Folse's Plantation Celebrations (ISBN 0-9625152-2-1), a well-regarded cookbook from one of the great Cajun chefs. Louisiana Real and Rustic (ISBN 0-688-12721-5) by Emeril Lagasse with Marcelle Bienvenu. Despite Emeril's association with the Cajun/Creole fusion movement, this collaboration with Times-Picayune food writer Bienvenu is a bona fide and authentic look at the food folkways of Louisiana, with much focus on rural Acadiana. Marcelle Bienvenue is a native of St. Martinville, LA, in St. Martin Parish. Cajun Cuisine: Authentic Cajun Recipes from Louisiana's Bayou Country (ISBN 0-935619-00-3) by W. Thomas Angers. Chef John Folse's Encyclopedia of Cajun and Creole Cuisine (ISBN 0970445717) is considered by most cooks in Louisiana (as well as the vast majority of professional chefs in Louisiana) to be the most authentic and accurate cookbook produced so far. The book describes the history as well as the methods of preparation of both Cajun and Creole foods. It is indispensable because it compares and contrasts the two cuisines. Most Louisiana residents that consider themselves to be serious about food own a copy. See also Cuisine of the United States Louisiana Creole cuisine Cuisine of Quebec List of festivals in Louisiana List of official symbols of Louisiana Crawfish Boil Recipe at Nola Cuisine
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Balalaika
The balalaika (, ) (also Balabaika, балаба́йка) is a stringed instrument of Russian origin, with a characteristic triangular body and 3 strings (or sometimes 6, in 3 courses). The balalaika family of instruments includes, from the highest-pitched to the lowest, the prima balalaika, sekunda balalaika, alto balalaika, bass balalaika and contrabass balalaika. All have three-sided bodies, spruce or fir tops and backs made of from three to nine wooden sections, and all have three strings. The prima balalaika is played with the fingers, the sekunda and alto either with the fingers or a pick depending on the music being played, and the basses and contrabasses (equipped with extension legs which rest on the floor) are played with leather picks. Etymology The term first appeared in the Ukrainian language in the 18th century in documents from 1717-1732. It is thought that the term was borrowed into Russian where it first appeared a poem by V. Maikov "Elysei" in 1771. The instrument was developed from a 2-stringed chordophone originally used by Jews living in the Pale in Little Russia. Types The modern balalaika is found in the following sizes: piccolo (rare) prima sekunda alto bass contrabass The most common solo instrument is the prima, tuned E-E-A (the two lower strings being tuned to the same pitch). Sometimes the balalaika is tuned "guitar style" to G-B-D (mimicking the three highest strings of the Russian guitar), making it easier to play for Russian guitar players, although balalaika purists frown on this tuning. It can also be tuned to E-A-D, like its cousin, the domra, to make it easier for domra soloists to play the instrument, and still have a balalaika sound. Six string balalaikas are also in use. These have three courses (two strings for each one on a regular, three-stringed instrument tuned EE-EE-AA), similar to the stringing of the mandolin, and are popular in Ukraine. Four string alto balalaikas are also to be found and are used in the orchestra of the Piatnistky Folk Choir. The piccolo, prima, and secunda balalaikas used to be strung with gut strings on the lower pegs and a wire string on the top peg. Today, nylon strings are usually used in place of gut. Technique An important part of balalaika technique is the use of the left thumb to fret notes on the lower string, particularly on the prima, where it is used to form chords. The side of the index finger of the right hand is used to sound notes on the prima, while a plectrum is used on the larger sizes. One can play the prima with a plectrum, but it is considered rather heterodox to do so. Due to the gigantic size of the contrabass's strings, it is not uncommon for the plectrum to be made of a leather shoe or boot heel. The bass and contrabass balalaika rest on the ground on a wooden or metal pin drilled into one of its corners. History The pre-Andreyev period Early representations of the balalaika show it with anywhere from two to six strings, which resembles certain Central Asian instruments. Similarly, frets on earlier balalaikas were made of animal gut and tied to the neck so that they could be moved around by the player at will (as is the case with the modern saz, which allows for the microtonal playing distinctive to Turkish and Central Asian music). The term first appeared in the Ukrainian language in the 18th century in documents from 1717-1732. It is thought that the term was borrowed into Russian where it first appeared a poem by V. Maikov "Elysei" in 1771. In the 19th century the balalaika evolved into a triangular instrument with a neck substantially shorter than its Asian counterparts. It was popular as a village instrument for centuries, particularly with the skomorokhs, sort of free-lance musical jesters whose tunes ridiculed the Tsar, the Russian Orthodox Church, and Russian society in general. A popular notion is that the three sides and strings of the balalaika are supposed to represent the Holy Trinity. This idea, while whimsical, is quite difficult to reconcile when one is confronted with the fact that at various times in Russian history, the playing of the balalaika was banned because of its use by the skomorokhi, who were generally highly irritating to both Church and State. Musical instruments are not allowed in Russian Orthodox liturgy. A likelier reason for the triangular shape is given by the writer and historian Nikolai Gogol in his unfinished novel Dead Souls. He states that a balalaika was made by peasants out of a pumpkin. If you quarter a pumpkin, you are left with a balalaika shape. Another theory is: Before Tsar Peter The Great, instruments were not allowed in Russia. When Peter allowed them, only the boat builders knew how to work with wood. The balalaika looks a little like the front of a boat, if held horizontally. Another theory comes from a Russian tale: during the Mongol invasion of Rus, a Russian man from Nizhny Novgorod was captured by Mongols, but the Mongol Khan liked him because of his musical talent, released him and gave him a guitar. When the Russian man returned home, he took 3 of the strings out of the guitar, so that he would be able to repair his guitar if he breaks one of the strings, and that way he was left with a 3-string guitar. The Andreyev period In the 1880s Vassily Vassilievich Andreyev developed a standardized balalaika made with the assistance of violin maker V. Ivanov. A few years later St. Petersburg craftsman Paserbsky made a balalika with a chromatic set of frets and also a number of balalaikas in orchestral sizes with the same tunings found in modern instruments. Andreyev arranged many traditional Russian folk songs and melodies for the orchestra and also composed many tunes of his own. The balalaika outside of Russia Interest in Russian folk instruments has grown outside of Russia. Orchestras of Russian folk instruments exist in many countries of western Europe, Scandinavia, USA, Canada, Australia and Japan. Some of the groups include ethnic Russians, however in recent times the growth in interest in the Balalaika by non-ethnic Russians has been considerable. Interests in the balalaika first started after Andreyev's tour of North America in the early 20th century. A number of Andreyev's students also toured the west in 1909-12. In 1957 the Scandinavian Balalaika Association was formed. In 1977 a similar organization was formed in the USA. Oleg Bernov of the Russian-American rock band the Red Elvises plays a red electrified contrabass balalaika during the band's North American tours. Balalaika orchestra A souvenir balalaika The end result of Andreyev's labours was the development of a strong orchestral tradition in Tsarist Russia, and, later, the Soviet Union. The balalaika orchestra in its full form -- balalaikas, domras, gusli, bayan, kugiklas, Vladimir Shepherd's Horns, garmoshkas and several types of percussion instruments -- has a distinctive sound: strangely familiar to the ear, yet decidedly not entirely Western. Russian folk music had its roots in the village. With the establishment of the Soviet system Proletarian culture - the culture of the working classes - was supported by the Soviet establishment. Folk music and folk musical instruments was considered the music of the working classes and as a result it was heavily supported by the Soviet establishment. Not surprisingly, the concept of the balalaika orchestra was adopted wholeheartedly by the Soviet government as something distinctively proletarian (that is, from the working classes). Enormous amounts of energy and time were devoted by the Soviet government to foster conservatory study of the balalaika, from which highly skilled ensemble groups such as the Osipov State Balalaika Orchestra emerged. Balalaika virtuosi such as Boris Feoktistov and Pavel Necheporenko became stars both inside and outside the Soviet Union. The world-famous Red Army Choir used a normal orchestra, except that the violins, violas and violoncellos were replaced with orchestral balalaikas and domras. Cabaret In addition to orchestra, a cabaret style of playing existed in Soviet times, and the balalaika was also played by some Russian Gypsies. The cabaret/gypsy tradition was brought over to the United States by Russian immigrants in the early 20th Century. One notable U.S. cabaret-style player was New York's Sasha Polinoff. In Paris a notable exponent was Mark De Louchek - a former concertmaster of Ivan Rebroff's orchestral entourage. Use of the name In 1989 Kramer Guitars released an "Electric Balalaika": the Kramer Gorky Park. This was just before the fall of the Berlin wall and the Soviet Union. Actually was just an electric guitar with a triangular shape based on the original instrument. The MiG-21 is nicknamed Balalaika because of the shape of its wings. References Blok, V. - Orkestr russkikh narodnykh instrumentov - Moscow, 1986 Imkhatsky, M. - V. V. Andreyev - - Moscow, 1986 Imkhatsky, M. - U istokov russkoj narodnoj orkestrovoj kultury - Moscow 1987 Imkhatsky, M. - Istoriya ispolnitelstva na russkikh narodnykh instrumentax - Moscow 2002 Peresada, A. - Balalaika - Moscow, 1990 Poponov, V. - Orkestr khora imeni Piatnitskogo - Moscow, 1979 Poponov, V. - Russkaya narodnaya instrumentalnaya muzyka - Moscow, 1984 Vetkov, K. - Russkie narodnye muzykalnye instrumenty - Muzyka, Leningrad, 1975 External links (en) Balalaika - article by Dmitry Belinskiy from the newspaper Krymskaya Pravda. Balalaika music, video Balalaika and Domra Association of America Russian site about Balalaika. History of balalaika, by Georgy Nefyodov Chord reference for Prima-Balalaika
Balalaika |@lemmatized balalaika:51 also:8 balabaika:1 балаба:1 йка:1 stringed:1 instrument:17 russian:22 origin:1 characteristic:1 triangular:4 body:2 string:20 sometimes:2 course:2 family:1 include:2 high:2 pitch:2 low:4 prima:9 sekunda:3 alto:4 bass:4 contrabass:6 three:7 side:3 spruce:1 fir:1 top:2 back:1 make:8 nine:1 wooden:2 section:1 play:9 finger:3 either:1 pick:2 depending:1 music:6 equip:1 extension:1 leg:1 rest:2 floor:1 leather:2 etymology:1 term:4 first:5 appear:4 ukrainian:2 language:2 century:6 document:2 think:2 borrow:2 poem:2 v:8 maikov:2 elysei:2 develop:2 chordophone:1 originally:1 use:12 jew:1 live:1 pale:1 little:2 russia:5 type:2 modern:3 find:3 following:1 size:4 piccolo:2 rare:1 common:1 solo:1 tune:7 e:3 two:3 guitar:9 style:3 g:1 b:1 mimic:1 easy:2 player:3 although:1 purist:1 frown:1 tuning:2 like:3 cousin:1 domra:3 soloist:1 still:1 sound:3 six:2 one:6 regular:1 ee:2 aa:1 similar:2 stringing:1 mandolin:1 popular:3 ukraine:1 four:1 orchestra:9 piatnistky:1 folk:7 choir:2 secunda:1 gut:3 peg:2 wire:1 today:1 nylon:1 usually:1 place:1 technique:2 important:1 part:1 left:1 thumb:1 fret:3 note:2 particularly:2 form:4 chord:2 index:1 right:1 hand:1 plectrum:3 large:1 consider:2 rather:1 heterodox:1 due:1 gigantic:1 uncommon:1 shoe:1 boot:1 heel:1 ground:1 metal:1 pin:1 drill:1 corner:1 history:3 pre:1 andreyev:8 period:2 early:4 representation:1 show:1 anywhere:1 resemble:1 certain:1 central:2 asian:3 similarly:1 animal:1 tie:1 neck:2 could:1 move:1 around:1 case:1 saz:1 allow:4 microtonal:1 playing:2 distinctive:2 turkish:1 evolve:1 substantially:1 short:1 counterpart:1 village:2 skomorokhs:1 sort:1 free:1 lance:1 musical:4 jester:1 whose:1 ridicule:1 tsar:2 orthodox:2 church:2 society:1 general:1 notion:1 suppose:1 represent:1 holy:1 trinity:1 idea:1 whimsical:1 quite:1 difficult:1 reconcile:1 confront:1 fact:1 various:1 time:4 ban:1 skomorokhi:1 generally:1 highly:2 irritate:1 state:4 liturgy:1 likelier:1 reason:1 shape:4 give:2 writer:1 historian:1 nikolai:1 gogol:1 unfinished:1 novel:1 dead:1 soul:1 peasant:1 pumpkin:2 quarter:1 leave:2 another:2 theory:2 peter:2 great:1 boat:2 builder:1 know:1 work:2 wood:1 look:1 front:1 hold:1 horizontally:1 come:1 tale:1 mongol:3 invasion:1 ru:1 man:2 nizhny:1 novgorod:1 capture:1 khan:1 talent:1 release:2 return:1 home:1 take:1 would:1 able:1 repair:1 break:1 way:1 vassily:1 vassilievich:1 standardized:1 assistance:1 violin:2 maker:1 ivanov:1 year:1 later:2 st:1 petersburg:1 craftsman:1 paserbsky:1 balalika:1 chromatic:1 set:1 number:2 orchestral:4 arrange:1 many:3 traditional:1 song:1 melody:1 compose:1 outside:3 interest:3 grow:1 exist:2 country:1 western:2 europe:1 scandinavia:1 usa:2 canada:1 australia:1 japan:1 group:2 ethnic:2 however:1 recent:1 growth:1 non:1 considerable:1 start:1 tour:3 north:2 america:2 student:1 west:1 scandinavian:1 association:2 organization:1 oleg:1 bernov:1 american:2 rock:1 band:2 red:3 elvis:1 electrified:1 souvenir:1 end:1 result:2 labour:1 development:1 strong:1 tradition:2 tsarist:1 soviet:9 union:3 full:1 domras:2 gusli:1 bayan:1 kugiklas:1 vladimir:1 shepherd:1 horn:1 garmoshkas:1 several:1 percussion:1 strangely:1 familiar:1 ear:1 yet:1 decidedly:1 entirely:1 root:1 establishment:3 system:1 proletarian:2 culture:2 working:2 class:3 support:2 heavily:1 surprisingly:1 concept:1 adopt:1 wholeheartedly:1 government:2 something:1 distinctively:1 enormous:1 amount:1 energy:1 devote:1 foster:1 conservatory:1 study:1 skilled:1 ensemble:1 osipov:1 emerge:1 virtuoso:1 boris:1 feoktistov:1 pavel:1 necheporenko:1 become:1 star:1 inside:1 world:1 famous:1 army:1 normal:1 except:1 viola:1 violoncello:1 replace:1 cabaret:4 addition:1 gypsy:2 bring:1 united:1 immigrant:1 notable:2 u:2 new:1 york:1 sasha:1 polinoff:1 paris:1 exponent:1 mark:1 de:1 louchek:1 former:1 concertmaster:1 ivan:1 rebroff:1 entourage:1 name:1 kramer:2 electric:2 gorky:1 park:1 fall:1 berlin:1 wall:1 actually:1 base:1 original:1 mig:1 nickname:1 wing:1 reference:2 blok:1 orkestr:2 russkikh:2 narodnykh:2 instrumentov:1 moscow:7 imkhatsky:3 istokov:1 russkoj:1 narodnoj:1 orkestrovoj:1 kultury:1 istoriya:1 ispolnitelstva:1 na:1 instrumentax:1 peresada:1 poponov:2 khora:1 imeni:1 piatnitskogo:1 russkaya:1 narodnaya:1 instrumentalnaya:1 muzyka:2 vetkov:1 k:1 russkie:1 narodnye:1 muzykalnye:1 instrumenty:1 leningrad:1 external:1 link:1 en:1 article:1 dmitry:1 belinskiy:1 newspaper:1 krymskaya:1 pravda:1 video:1 site:1 georgy:1 nefyodov:1 |@bigram stringed_instrument:1 mongol_invasion:1 nizhny_novgorod:1 st_petersburg:1 balalaika_orchestra:4 tsarist_russia:1 soviet_union:3 percussion_instrument:1 violin_viola:1 viola_violoncello:1 external_link:1
3,177
Motorola_6809
1 MHz Motorola 6809P processor, manufactured in 1983. The Motorola 6809 is an 8-bit (arguably, an 8/16-bit) microprocessor CPU from Motorola, introduced circa 1977-78. It was a major advance over both its predecessor, the Motorola 6800, and the related, MOS Technology 6502. Description 6809 programming model, showing the processor registers. Among the significant enhancements introduced in the 6809 were the use of two 8-bit accumulators (A and B, which could be combined into a single 16-bit register, D), two 16-bit index registers (X, Y) and two 16-bit stack pointers (U, S). The index and stack registers allowed very advanced addressing modes. The 6809 was source-compatible with the 6800, though the 6800 had seventy-eight instructions to the 6809's fifty-nine. Some instructions were replaced by more general ones which the assembler translated into equivalent operations and some were even replaced by addressing modes. The instruction set and register complement were highly orthogonal, making the 6809 easier to program than the 6800 or 6502. Other features were one of the first hardware-implementations of a multiplication instruction in an MPU, full 16-bit arithmetic and an especially fast interrupt system. The 6809 was also highly optimized, up to five times faster than the 6800 series CPUs. Like the 6800, it included an undocumented address bus test instruction that would exceed the limits of some memory controllers, evoking the nickname Halt and Catch Fire (HCF). The 6809's state machine and control logic, unlike many processors of the day, was mostly implemented using a large PLA and asynchronous random logic (a trait of early designs and, partly, of RISC) rather than microcoded. The 6809 used the two-phase clock cycle directly as the basic machine cycle. Although this means fewer clock cycles per instruction compared to the Z80 for instance, the latter's higher resolution state machine allowed clock frequencies 3-5 times as high without demanding faster memory chips, which was often the limiting factor; it could combine two full (but short) clock cycles into a relatively long memory access period compared to the clock, while the more asynchronous 6809 instead had relatively short memory access times: depending on version and speed grade, approximately 60% of a single clock cycle was typically available for memory access in a 6809 (see data sheets). The 6809 had an internal two-phase clock generator (needing only an external crystal) whereas the 6809E needed an external clock generator. There were also variants such as the 68A09(E) and 68B09(E); the internal letter indicates the processor's rated clock speed. History The Motorola 6809 was originally produced in 1 MHz, 1.5 MHz (68A09) and 2 MHz (68B09) speed ratings. Faster versions were produced later by Hitachi and perhaps others. It is sometimes considered to be the conceptual precursor of the Motorola 68000 family of processors, though this is mostly a misunderstanding. The 6809 and 68000 design projects ran partly in parallel and have quite differing architectures as well as radically different implementation principles. However, there is a certain amount of design philosophy similarity (eg, considerable orthogonality and flexible addressing modes), some assembly language syntax resemblance, as well as opcode mnemonic similarity, but the 6809 is a derivative of the 6800 whereas the 68000 was a totally new design. An 8-bit data bus version of the 68000 (ie, the 68008) was intended for use in future 8-bit designs. In that respect, the 6809 was rather quickly an evolutionary dead-end. The 6809 design team believed that future system integrators would look to off-the-shelf code in ROMs to handle common tasks. An example of this might be binary floating point arithmetic, which is a common requirement in many systems. In order to speed time to market, common code modules would be purchased, rather than developed in-house, and integrated into systems with code from other manufacturers. Since a CPU designer could hardly guarantee where this code would be located in a future system, the 6809 design focused heavily on support of position-independent, reentrant (subroutine) code that could be freely located anywhere in the memory map. This expectation was, in reality, never quite met: Motorola's only released example of a ROM'd software module was the MC6839 floating-point ROM. However, the decisions made by the design team made for a very powerful processor and made possible advanced operating systems like OS-9 and UniFlex, which took advantage of the position-independent, re-entrant nature of the 6809. The 6809 was used in Commodore's dual-CPU SuperPET computer, and, in its 68A09 incarnation, in the unique vector graphics based Vectrex home video game console with built-in screen display. The 6809E was used in the TRS-80 Color Computer (CoCo), the Acorn System 2, 3 and 4 computers (as an optional alternative to their standard 6502), the Fujitsu FM-7, the Welsh-made Dragon 32/64 home computers (clones of the CoCo), and the SWTPC, Gimix, Smoke Signal Broadcasting, etc. SS-50 bus systems, in addition to several of Motorola's own EXORmacs development systems. In France, Thomson micro-informatique produced a series of micro-computers based on the 6809E (TO7, TO7/70, TO8, TO8D, TO9, TO9Plus, MO5, MO6, MO5E and MO5NR). In addition to home computers and game consoles, the 6809 was also utilized in a number of arcade games released during the early to mid 1980s. Williams Electronics was an especially prolific user of the processor, which was deployed in arcade hits such as Defender, Joust, Sinistar, and Robotron: 2084. Williams also utilized the processor in many of its solid-state pinball machines; a specialized version of the 6809 CPU formed the core of the successful Williams Pinball Controller. Software development company Microware developed the original OS-9 operating system (not to be confused with the more recent Mac OS 9) for the 6809, later porting it to the 68000 and i386 series of microprocessors. The Hitachi 6309 was an enhanced version of the 6809 with extra registers and additional instructions, including block move, additional multiply instructions and hardware-implemented division. It was used in unofficially-upgraded CoCo 3 computers and a version of OS-9 was written to take advantages of the 6309's extra features: NitrOS-9. Hitachi also produced its own 6809-based machines, the MB6890 and later the S1. These were primarily for the Japanese market, but some were exported to and sold in Australia. There the MB6890 was dubbed the "Peach", probably in ironic reference to the popularity of the Apple II. The S1 was notable in that it contained paging hardware extending the 6809's native 64 kilobyte (64×210 byte) addressing range to a full 1 megabyte (1×220 byte) in 4 KB pages. It was similar in this to machines produced by SWTPC, Gimix, and several other suppliers. TSC produced a Unix-like operating system uniFlex which ran only on such machines. OS-9 Level II, also took advantage of such memory management facilities. Most other computers of the time with more than 64 KB of memory addressing were limited to bank switching where much if not all the 64 KB was simply swapped for another section of memory. Neither Motorola nor Hitachi produce 6809 processors or derivatives anymore, despite the 6809 being one of the most powerful general-purpose 8-bit CPUs ever produced. Many of its innovative features have since been copied. 6809 cores are available in VHDL and can be programmed into FPGA and used as an embedded processor with speed ratings up to 40 MHz. Some 6809 opcodes also live on in the Freescale embedded processors. References Leventhal, Lance (1981). 6809 Assembly Language Programming. Osborne/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-931988-35-7. Warren, Carl D (1980). The MC6809 Cookbook. TAB Books, Inc. ISBN 0-8306-9683-0. External links http://koti.mbnet.fi/~atjs/mc6809/ – Collection of 6809 instructions, emulators, tools, debuggers, disassemblers and assemblers The BYTE  6809 Articles (Jan–February 1979) (PDF) – By Terry Ritter and Joel Boney, co-designers of the 6809; BYTE magazine reproductions by tim lindner news://comp.sys.m6809 – Usenet newsgroup for 6809 enthusiasts 6809 Emulator based on the SWTPC 6809 system Instruction set reference for 6809/6309 (PDF) By Chris Lomont
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3,178
Craven_Cottage
Craven Cottage is the name of a sports stadium in the Hammersmith and Fulham area that has been the home ground of the association football team Fulham F.C. since 1896. The capacity of the stadium was increased to 25,500 following cosmetic repairs. Fulham's highest all-seated attendance to date of 25,661 was recorded in their 0-1 defeat against Liverpool on Saturday 4 April 2009. It is located (the stadium) next to Bishops Park on the banks of the River Thames. 'Crave Cottage' was originally a royal hunting lodge and has history dating back over 300 years. The stadium is used by the Republic of Ireland national football team for some friendly matches due to a large Irish population living in England (mainly in London). History Pre-Fulham The original 'Cottage' was built in 1780, by William Craven, the sixth Baron Craven and was located on the centre circle of the pitch. At the time, the surrounding areas were woods which made up part of Anne Boleyn's hunting grounds. Several other sports are presumed to have taken place here besides hunting. As well as more lethargic games such as lawn bowls and croquet, a version of the Aztec game called 'tlachtli' (scoring a ball through a hoop using your hips) is alleged to have been played here. This game is thought to be a distant cousin of association football and is arguably one of the earliest codes of organised football. It was lived in by Edward Bulwer-Lytton (who wrote The Last Days of Pompeii) and other somewhat notable (and moneyed) persons until it was destroyed by fire in May 1888. Many rumours persist between Fulham fans of past tenants of Craven Cottage. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Jeremy Bentham, Florence Nightingale and even Queen Victoria are assumed to have stayed there, though these are all likely to have been fabricated. Following the fire, the site was abandoned. Fulham had had 8 previous grounds before settling in at Craven Cottage for good. Therefore, The Cottagers have had 10 grounds overall (if including Loftus Road) meaning only their 'landlords' and rival QPR has had more home grounds (14) in British football. Of particular note, was Ranelagh House, Fulham's palatial home from 1886-1888. Under construction: 1894-1905 When representatives of Fulham first came across the land, in 1894, it was so overgrown that it took two years to be made suitable for football to be played on it. A deal had been done that meant this work was done by the owners of the ground, who then would receive a proportion of the gate receipts. The first event at which there were any gate receipts was when Fulham played against Minerva in the Middlesex Senior Cup, on 10 October 1886. The ground's first stand was built shortly after. Described as looking like an "orange box", it consisted of four wooden structures each holding some 250 seats, and later was affectionately nicknamed the "Rabbit hutch". Before the ground could become too well established, the now defunct London County Council became concerned with the level of safety at the ground, and tried to get it closed. A court case followed in January 1905, as a result of which Archibald Leitch, a Scottish architect who had risen to prominence after his building of Ibrox a few years prior, was hired to work on the stadium. In a scheme costing £15,000 (a record for the time), he had a new pavilion (the modern Cottage itself) and a stand built, in his characteristic red brick style. The stand on Stevenage Road celebrated its centenary in the 2005-2006 season and, following the tragic death of Fulham FC's favourite son, former England captain Johnny Haynes, in a car accident in October 2005 the Stevenage Road Stand was renamed the Johnny Haynes Stand after the club sought the opinions of Fulham supporters. Both the Johnny Haynes Stand and Cottage remain among the finest examples of Archibald Leitch football architecture to remain in existence and this has been recognised with both being designated as Grade II listed buildings. Establishing itself as a stadium An England v Wales match was played at the ground in 1911, followed by a rugby league international between England and Australia. One of the club's directors Henry Norris, and his friend William Hill, took over Arsenal in the early 1910s, the plan being to merge them with Fulham, to form a "London superclub" at Craven Cottage. This move was largely motivated by Fulham's failure thus far to gain promotion to the top division of English football. The ground again suffered a scare in 1933, when there were plans to demolish it and start again from scratch with a new ground. These plans never materialised. On 8 October 1938, Craven Cottage held host to 49,335 fans during a game against Millwall. During the 1930-60's era, Fulham often averaged over 45,000. However, the official attendances can be considered somewhat dubious in this era as many fans would get in by climbing over the fence from Bishops Park into the Putney End. Like many other grounds, fans would sneak in through the turnstiles as well (and not be counted) so this boot money would be given to the players (stuffed in their boots) and would not be counted in the gate money. The ground hosted several football games for the 1948 Summer Olympics. Post-War It wasn't until Fulham first reached the top division, in 1949, that further improvements were made to the stadium. The first was that the next year they became the final side in the division to erect floodlights. The floodlights were said to be the most expensive in Europe at the time as they were so modern. The lights were like large pylons towering 50 metres over the ground and were similar in appearance to those at the WACA. The Hammersmith end had a roof put over it, and an electronic scoreboard was put up. After Fulham was relegated, the development continued. The Riverside terracing, infamous for the fact that fans occupying it would turn their heads annually to watch The Boat Race pass, was replaced by what was officially named the 'Eric Miller stand', Eric Miller being a director of the club at the time. The stand, which cost 334,000 pounds and held 4,200 seats, was opened with a friendly game against Benfica in February 1972, (which included Eusebio). Miller committed suicide five years later after a political and financial scandal that he was involved in boiled over. The stand is now better known as the Riverside Stand. The Riverside bank also was unique for the fact that flags of all the other teams of the first division were flown along the promenade. On Boxing Day 1963, Craven Cottage was the venue of the fastest hat trick in the history of the English football league, which was completed in less than three minutes, by Graham Leggat. This helped his Fulham team to beat Ipswich 10-1 (a club record). Three minutes is the time quoted by his official website. The international record is held by Jimmy O'Connor, an Irish player who notched up his hat trick in 2 minutes 13 seconds in 1967. Between 1980 and 1984, Fulham rugby league played their home games at the Cottage. They have since evolved into the London Crusaders, the London Broncos, and then into Harlequins Rugby League. Craven Cottage held the team's largest ever crowd at any ground was 15,013, at a game against Wakefield Trinity on 15 February 1981. Post-Hillsborough When the Hillsborough disaster occurred, Fulham were in the second bottom rung of The Football League, but following the Taylor report Fulham's ambitious chairman Jimmy Hill tabled plans for an all-seater stadium. These plans never came to fruition, partly due to local residents' pressure groups, and by the time Fulham reached the Premiership, they still had standing areas in the ground, something virtually unheard of at the time. A year remained to do something about this (teams reaching the second tier for the first time are allowed a three-year period to reach the required standards for the top two divisions), but by the time the last league game was played there, against Leicester City on 27 April 2002, no building plans had been made. Two more Intertoto Cup games were played there later that year (against Egaleo FC of Greece and FC Haka of Finland), and the eventual solution was to decamp to Loftus Road, home of local rivals QPR. During this time, many Fulham fans only went to away games in protest of moving from Craven Cottage. 'Back to the Cottage', later to become the 'Fulham Supporters Trust', was set up as a fans pressure group to encourage the chairman and his advisers that Craven Cottage was the only viable option for Fulham Football Club. After one and a half seasons at Loftus Road no work had been done on the Cottage. A simple interim stadium design was put forward by the Back to the Cottage trust and subsequently the club put forward broadly similar but slightly enhanced plans, to include the complete demolition of the Putney Terrace (the Hammersmith Stand largely sits on the embankment of the old terrace). The club were able to return to their home for the start of the 2004-05 season. Australia (yellow) vs New Zealand (white) friendly match at Craven Cottage 9 June 2005. The stand along the left is the historic Stevenage Road Stand, at the back is the Putney End, with the Cottage in between the two stands. The current stadium is one of the Premiership's smallest grounds (in 2007-08 it was fourth-smallest, after Fratton Park, the JJB Stadium and the Madejski Stadium). Much admired for its fine architecture, the stadium has recently hosted a few international games, mostly including Australia. This venue is suitable for Australia because most of the country's top players are based in Europe, and West London has a significant community of expatriate Australians. Also, Greece vs. South Korea was also hosted on 6 February 2007. Craven Cottage often hosts many other events such as 5-a-side football tournaments and weddings. Also, many have Sunday Lunch at the Riverside restaurant or the 'Cottage Cafe' on non-match days. Craven Cottage recently hosted the 2006 Oxbridge Varsity Football match prior to the famous 'The Boat Race', as well as having a Soccer Aid warm-up match. The half-time entertainment often includes the SW6ers (previously called The Cravenettes) which are a group of female cheerleaders. However, other events have included brass bands, Michael Jackson (albeit just walking around as opposed to performing), Travis playing, Arabic dancing, keepie uppie professionals and presentational awards. Most games also feature the 'Fulham flutter', a half-time draw; and a shoot-out competition of some kind, usually involving scoring through a 'hoop' or 'beat the goalie'. On the first home game of the season, there is a carnival where every Fulham fan is expected to turn up in black-and-white colours. There is usually live rock bands, player signings, clowns, stilt walkers, a steel (calypso) band, food stalls and a free training session for children in Bishops Park. The Fulham Ladies (before their demise) and Reserve teams occasionally play home matches at the Cottage. Other than this, they generally play at the club's training ground at Motspur Park or at Kingstonian and AFC Wimbledon's stadium, Kingsmeadow. Craven Cottage is known by several affectionate nicknames from fans, including: The (River) Cottage, The Fortress (or Fortress Fulham), Thameside, The Friendy Confines, SW6, Lord of the Banks, The House of Hope, The Pavilion of Perfection, The 'True' Fulham Palace and The Palatial Home. The Thames at the banks of the Cottage is often referred to as 'Old Father' or The River of Dreams. The easiest (though it's still quite hard) to get to the ground is to walk through Bishops Park, often known as 'The Green Mile' by Fulham fans (as it roughly a mile walk through pleasant greenery). Future plans Craven Cottage is where most Fulham fans would like to be, although the club might prefer a more lucrative situation - a larger ground enabling greater ticket revenue. Whether the club is still looking for a new site for a stadium is unknown, but comments in summer 2004 from Fulham's CEO at the time, Jim Hone, suggest Fulham are back home for good. Fulham's move back to the Cottage is believed to have been instigated and financed by the sale of Louis Saha to Manchester United, as his transfer covered the £9 million bill. Plans to move to White City with QPR into a 40,000 all-seater stadium appear to have been put firmly on hold. Fulham now have more realistic expectations of aiming for a mid-table finish and ensuring Premiership survival. The board seem to have moved away from their grandiose ideas of making Fulham the "Manchester United of the south" as Al-Fayed has come to realise how expensive it is to subsidise a Premiership outfit. Fulham appear to be committed to a gradual increase of the grounds capacity every summer between seasons. The capacity of Craven Cottage has been increased during the summer for the past 3 years and this trend looks like continuing in 2008 with a small increase in the capacity of the Hammersmith End. Fulham have announced that they are planning to increase the capacity of Craven Cottage by 4000 seats. The ground as it stands Fulham (White) playing Portsmouth (Blue) in front of Fulham fans in the Hammersmith End. Hammersmith End The Hammersmith End (or Hammy) is the northernmost stand in the ground, and, hence the name, the closest to Hammersmith. It is situated such that looking out from the stand you can see the Putney End and the Cottage opposite, the Riverside Stand (and the river itself) to the right and the Johnny Haynes Stand to the left. The roofing on the 'Smithy' was financed through the sale of Alan Mullery to Spurs. It is home to the more vocal Fulham fans, and many stand during games at the back rows of the stand. If Fulham win the toss, they always choose to play towards the Hammersmith End in the second half. Putney End The Putney End is the southernmost stand in the ground, nearest to Putney and Bishops Park. To its right is The Cottage, opposite is the Hammersmith End, with the Riverside and Johnny Haynes Stands to left and right respectively. This generally hosts visiting or 'neutral' supporters. When the ground became redeveloped in 2003-4 (during Fulham's exile to Loftus Road) the club applied for a licence to have a designated neutral area. Due to Fulham's past history of having no segregation in the Putney End and having very well-behaved fans, the FA gave Fulham special dispensation to allow for this. Fulham is the only club currently in the UK to have such an area. Fans can wear whatever shirt and support either side in this area, leading to friendly banter. Flags of every nationality in the Fulham squad were hung from the roofing, however they were retracted after the 2006-07 season commenced. For games against the bigger clubs, the entire Putney End is allocated to visiting supporters. Riverside Stand The Riverside was originally terracing that backed onto the Thames. It also featured large advertising hoardings above the fans. By 1973, a proper seated stand had been built called the Eric Miller Stand (one of the directors at the time). The stand was opened in a prestigious friendly against S.L. Benfica, who included Eusebio in the team. The name of the stand became called simply The Riverside after the discovery of Eric Miller's suicide, who had been under investigation for fraud and embezzelment. The Riverside Stand backs onto the river Thames and is elevated uniquely above the pitch unlike the other 3 stands. It contains the corporate hospitality seating alongside Fulham fans. Jimmy Hill once referred to the Riverside being "a bit like the London Palladium" as Blocks V & W (the middle section) are often filled with the rich and famous (including often Al-Fayed). There are several Harrods advertising boardings and above these is the gantry, for the press and cameras. Tickets in this area are often the easiest to buy, not surprisingly they are also some of the more expensive. It has the Hammersmith End to its left, the Putney End to its right and is opposite the Johnny Haynes Stand. During the 70's, Craven Cottage flooded, with water gushing in from the Riverside. On non-match days, the George Cohen restaurant is open providing posh-nosh from Harrods or alternatively there is the Cottage Cafe, located near to the Cottage itself. (The River Café is also located nearby). Under Tommy Trinder's chairmanship in the 60's, flags of all other teams in the Division 1 were proudly flown along the Thames. However, when Fulham were relegated in 1969, Trinder decided not to change the flags as "Fulham won't be in this division next season". True to Tommy's prophecy, Fulham were relegated again. There is now a campaign to bring back the flags again. The Riverside Stand has been used by sponsors, placing adverts on top of the covering, sponsors who have used this include Pipex.com and (Lee Cooper Jeans. The end of the Riverside Stand towards the 'Smithy' End' indicates the end of the 'Fulham Wall', which is the mile post in The Boat Race. Johnny Haynes Stand The Johnny Haynes stand at Craven Cottage, is a Grade II* listed building. Another view of the Johnny Haynes stand and Craven Cottage Formerly the Stevenage Road Stand - named for the street it is on - The Johnny Haynes Stand. Holding Fulham supporters, a lot of whom are season ticket holders, this is opposite the Riverside Stand, with the Putney End and the Cottage to its left, and the Hammersmith end to the right. This stand includes the ticket office and club shop, as well as nostalgic original wooden seats. This remains the oldest stand (dating back to 1905) in the Football League and is thus a Grade II* listed building (thanks to Jimmy Hill's efforts when saving the club as Chairman). (The oldest football stand in the world is considered to belong to Great Yarmouth Town, though Wolverton A.F.C. dispute this, although this is no longer in use as a football stand) The original wooden Bennet seats as specified by Leitch in 1905 now number 3,571, remain as robust as ever. The stand's new name was announced shortly after Johnny Haynes' untimely death in late 2005. Due to parts of the structure being wooden and the smoking ban, there is a no-smoking policy in this part of the ground. The exterior facing Stevenage Road has a brick façade rarely seen amongst stadia and features the club's old emblem in the artwork. Decorative pillars show the club's foundation date as 1880 though this is thought to be incorrect. Also, a special stone to commemorate Fulham 2000 and The Cottagers return to 'The Cottage' was engraved on the façade. The family enclosure is located in the corner nearest to the Hammersmith end. The stand also features very narrow and rickety turnstiles (that all must pass through. The 2006-7 season saw the club introduce new RFID tickets, which are read electronically when passing through the gates. Where the new plastic seating lies (in front of the wooden seats), originally was a standing area. Children were often placed at the front of this enclosure and the area had a distinctive white picket fence to keep fans off the pitch (up until the 70's). The Pavilion The Cottage Pavilion dates back to 1905 along with the Johnny Haynes Stand, built by renowned architect Archibald Leitch. The reason The Cottage was built was due to an oversight in the Stevenage Road Stand (as it was then), as Leitch had forgotten to accommodate changing rooms in his final plans. Besides being the changing rooms, the Cottage (also called The Clubhouse) was traditionally used by the player's families and friends who sit on the balcony to watch the game, but the club now sell those seats at a premium game-by-game rate. In the past, board meetings used to be held in The Cottage itself as well. In the three other corners of the ground there are what have been described as large 'filing cabinets', which are corporate boxes on three levels. Details Records Record Attendance: 49,335 v Millwall, 8 October 1938 (Division Two). Record Modern Attendance: 25,661 v Liverpool F.C. on Saturday 4 April 2009. (Premier League). Fulham's Average League Attendances 1997/98: 9,004 1998/99: 11,387 1999/00: 13,092 2000/01: 14,985 2001/02: 19,389 2002/03: 16,707 (played at Loftus Road) 2003/04: 16,342 (played at Loftus Road) 2004/05: 19,838 2005/06: 20,654 2006/07: 22,279 2007/08: 23,774 2008/09: 24,144 (after 34 games) All-Time Attendance Total attendance:28,230,560 (Correct up to 7 May, 2006) Average total attendance:15,194 (ranked 32 of 130 English club teams in history) Ground improvements at English football Stadia References Further reading External links Craven Cottage be-x-old:Крэйвэн Катэдж
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3,179
Kakinomoto_no_Hitomaro
Ukiyo-e print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi that depicts Kakinomoto no Hitomaro Kakinomoto no Hitomaro (柿本 人麻呂; c. 662 - 710) was a Japanese poet and aristocrat of the late Asuka period. He was the most prominent of the poets included in the Man'yōshū, and was particularly represented in volumes 1 and 2. Works and fame Hitomaro by Kikuchi Yōsai Hitomaro was famed for his long poems, such as "In the sea of ivy clothed Iwami", "The Bay of Tsunu", and "I loved her like the leaves." 19 of his chōka (or nagauta, "long poems") were included in the Man'yōshū and 75 or so tanka (or mijikauta, "short poems") were likewise selected. Many of his poems were written on the topics of public occasions; such as his "Lament for Prince Takechi", written as part of the mourning ceremonies for Takechi. Other poems were written on occasions in his life when he was particularly moved: parting from his wife, mourning for his wife, or on seeing a corpse. In the prefatory essay to the Kokin Wakashū compilation of poetry, Ki no Tsurayuki called him Uta no Hijiri - a divine poet equal to the Yamato-era poet Yamabe no Akahito, a high regard echoed by later poets such as Fujiwara no Teika. Ikeda Munemasa wrote "Portrait of Hitomaro and His Waka Poem". The modern waka poets like Masaoka Shiki and Saito Mokichi considered him one of greatest poets in the history of Japanese literature. In Akashi, Hyōgo Prefecture there is Kakinomoto Jinja, a shrine devoted to Hitomaro. The shrine holds every year an utakai (waka party) devoted to him. In the Heian period, some anonymous waka in the Man'yōshū were attributed to Hitomaro. These include the waka attributed to Hitomaro in Fujiwara no Teika's compilation of the Hyakunin Isshu. The high regard for Hitomaro can also be gauged by his usual inclusion as one of the Thirty-six Poetry Immortals. Life Kakinomoto no Hitomaro from Ogura Hyakunin Isshu Details of his life are few and uncertain despite his prominence as a poet. His name doesn't appear in chronicles like the Nihon Shoki nor in Shoku Nihongi ("History of Japan" II). All biographical data about him comes from Man'yōshū. His earliest waka with a fixed date was made in 680 under the reign of the Emperor Temmu. He served the Empress Jitō and her successor Emperor Mommu. He wrote waka on occasion for emperors. When he was around 50 years old, he was appointed to a certain provincial office in Iwami Province - today the western part of Shimane Prefecture - and died there. In 700 he made a waka mourning Princess Asuka. It was the last waka with a fixed date and some supposed Hitomaro died a few years after this. In 708, Zokunihongi reports that a certain "Kakinomoto no Saru" (another member of the Kakinomoto clan) died; the Japanese thinker Umehara Takeshi has suggested that this Saru (柿本佐留) and Hitomaro were actually the same person (Saru is same as 猿, monkey at sound and it is supposed as an official blame to him). Family background The Kakinomoto clan into which Hitomaro was born was an aristocratic court clan of middling prestige and rank. In the clan, he was referred to as Ason, signifying that he held the third highest title of eight. In earlier years, the clan served the court mainly by holding religious ceremonies with singing and reciting of poems. It had a deep relation to the Sarume clan whose legendary founder was Ame-no-Uzume, the dancer goddess.　It can be supposed Hitomaro grew up in an artistic atmosphere. External links The 2001 Waka for Japan 2001 collection contains a large selection of translations of Hitomaro's poetry, mostly from the Man'yōshū Kenneth Rexroth's One Hundred Poems from the Japanese (New Directions, 1955, ISBN 0-8112-0181-3) contains several of Hitomaro's waka, as well as notable translations of 3 naga uta ("In the sea of ivy clothed Iwami", "The Bay of Tsyunu", and "When she was still alive") Kakinomoto no Hitomaro Shrine, it is said that he was born in Toda in Masuda city, Iwami provance.
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3,180
Foreign_relations_of_Angola
The foreign relations of Angola are based on Angola's strong support of U.S. foreign policy as the Angolan economy is dependent on U.S. foreign aid. From 1975 to 1989, Angola was aligned with the Eastern bloc, in particular the Soviet Union, Libya, and Cuba. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with Western countries, cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in Central Africa through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States. It has entered the Southern African Development Community as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely Anglophone neighbors to the south. Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola in its military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where Angolan troops remain in support of the Joseph Kabila government. It also has intervened in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) to support the existing government in that country. Since 1998, Angola has successfully worked with the UN Security Council to impose and carry out sanctions on UNITA. More recently, it has extended those efforts to controls on conflict diamonds, the primary source of revenue for UNITA. At the same time, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with Portugal (its former ruler) and Brazil (which shares many cultural affinities with Angola) in particular. Angola-China relations Angola established relations with the People's Republic of China in 1983. China in Angola: An emerging energy partnership, November 8, 2006. The Jamestown Foundation. Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao visited Angola in June 2006, offering a US$9 billion loan for infrastructure improvements in return for petroleum. The PRC has invested heavily in Angola since the end of the civil war in 2002. João Manuel Bernardo, the current ambassador of Angola to China, visited the PRC in November 2007. In February 2006, Angola surpassed Saudi Arabia to become the number one supplier of oil to China. According to the Council on Foreign Relations: "To be sure, there are causes for concern. There is a lack of transparency about Chinese operations in Angola. Loans from Beijing are funding major infrastructure projects, directed by Chinese firms and staffed with Chinese labor. But what’s unclear is how much money is on the table, how contracts are awarded, how many Chinese are in the country, and how many Angolans are actually employed by Chinese companies operating in Angola. Furthermore, Angola should be wary of outsourcing jobs Angolans could do themselves; importing labor may be sowing the seeds of future resentment. Nonetheless, China is making significant contributions to Angola’s development by building and rebuilding roads, hospitals, schools, and sanitation systems." Angola-Israel relations Angola-Israel relations, primarily based on trade and pro-United States foreign policies, are excellent. In March 2006, the trade volume between the two countries amounted to $400 million. The Israeli ambassador to Angola is Avraham Benjamin.[1] In 2005, President José Eduardo dos Santos visited Israel. Angola-United States relations From the mid-1980s through at least 1992, the United States was the primary source of military and other support for the UNITA rebel movement, which was led from its creation through 2002 by Jonas Savimbi. The U.S. refused to recognize Angola diplomatically during this period. Relations between the United States of America and the Republic of Angola (formerly the People's Republic of Angola) have warmed since Angola's ideological renunciation of Marxism before the 1992 elections. See also Angola-Israel relations Diplomatic missions of Angola List of diplomatic missions in Angola References
Foreign_relations_of_Angola |@lemmatized foreign:5 relation:10 angola:29 base:2 strong:1 support:4 u:4 policy:2 angolan:4 economy:1 dependent:1 aid:1 align:1 eastern:1 bloc:1 particular:2 soviet:1 union:1 libya:1 cuba:1 since:4 focus:1 improve:2 relationship:1 western:1 country:6 cultivate:1 link:1 portuguese:2 speaking:2 assert:1 national:1 interest:1 central:1 africa:1 military:3 diplomatic:4 intervention:2 establish:2 formal:1 united:5 state:5 enter:1 southern:1 african:1 development:2 community:2 vehicle:1 tie:2 largely:1 anglophone:1 neighbor:1 south:1 zimbabwe:1 namibia:1 join:1 democratic:1 republic:5 congo:2 troop:1 remain:1 joseph:1 kabila:1 government:2 also:2 intervene:1 brazzaville:1 exist:1 successfully:1 work:1 un:1 security:1 council:2 impose:1 carry:1 sanction:1 unita:3 recently:1 extend:1 effort:1 control:1 conflict:1 diamond:1 primary:2 source:2 revenue:1 time:1 promote:1 revival:1 cplp:1 forum:1 cultural:2 exchange:1 expand:1 portugal:1 former:1 ruler:1 brazil:1 share:1 many:3 affinity:1 china:6 people:2 emerge:1 energy:1 partnership:1 november:2 jamestown:1 foundation:1 chinese:6 prime:1 minister:1 wen:1 jiabao:1 visit:3 june:1 offer:1 billion:1 loan:2 infrastructure:2 improvement:1 return:1 petroleum:1 prc:2 invest:1 heavily:1 end:1 civil:1 war:1 joão:1 manuel:1 bernardo:1 current:1 ambassador:2 february:1 surpass:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 become:1 number:1 one:1 supplier:1 oil:1 accord:1 sure:1 cause:1 concern:1 lack:1 transparency:1 operation:1 beijing:1 fund:1 major:1 project:1 direct:1 firm:1 staffed:1 labor:2 unclear:1 much:1 money:1 table:1 contract:1 award:1 actually:1 employ:1 company:1 operate:1 furthermore:1 wary:1 outsource:1 job:1 could:1 import:1 may:1 sow:1 seed:1 future:1 resentment:1 nonetheless:1 make:1 significant:1 contribution:1 building:1 rebuild:1 road:1 hospital:1 school:1 sanitation:1 system:1 israel:4 primarily:1 trade:2 pro:1 excellent:1 march:1 volume:1 two:1 amount:1 million:1 israeli:1 avraham:1 benjamin:1 president:1 josé:1 eduardo:1 santos:1 mid:1 least:1 rebel:1 movement:1 lead:1 creation:1 jonas:1 savimbi:1 refuse:1 recognize:1 diplomatically:1 period:1 america:1 formerly:1 warm:1 ideological:1 renunciation:1 marxism:1 election:1 see:1 mission:2 list:1 reference:1 |@bigram eastern_bloc:1 soviet_union:1 diplomatic_relation:1 republic_congo:2 joseph_kabila:1 congo_brazzaville:1 prime_minister:1 wen_jiabao:1 saudi_arabia:1 sow_seed:1 jonas_savimbi:1 diplomatic_mission:2
3,181
Noah_Webster
Noah Webster (October 16, 1758 – May 28, 1843) was an American lexicographer, textbook author, spelling reformer, word enthusiast, and editor. He has been called the “Father of American Scholarship and Education.” His “Blue-Backed Speller” books were used to teach spelling and reading to five generations of American children. In the United States, his name has become synonymous with dictionaries, especially the modern Merriam-Webster dictionary that was first published in 1828 as An American Dictionary of the English Language. Biography Noah Webster's adult home, where he raised his family and wrote many publications including the American Dictionary of the English Language. Built in 1823 in New Haven, Connecticut. Removed to Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan. Noah Webster was born on October 16, 1758, in the West Division of Hartford, Connecticut, to a family who had lived in Connecticut since colonial days. His father, Noah, Sr. (1722-1813), was a farmer and a sower. His father was a descendant of Connecticut Governor John Webster (governor); his mother, Mercy (née Steele; d. 1794), was a descendant of Governor William Bradford of Plymouth Colony. Noah had two brothers, Abraham (1751-1831) and Charles (b. 1762). At the age of 16, Noah began attending Yale College. His four years at Yale overlapped the American Revolutionary War, and, because of food shortages, many of his college classes were held in Glastonbury, Connecticut. During the American Revolution, he served in the Connecticut Militia. Having graduated from Yale in 1778, Webster wanted to continue his education in order to earn his law degree. He taught school in Glastonbury, Hartford, and West Hartford in order to pay for his education. He earned his law degree in 1781, but did not practice law until 1789. He found the law not to his liking, so he tried teaching, setting up several very small schools that did not thrive. Webster married Rebecca Greenleaf (1766-1847) on October 26, 1789, in New Haven, Connecticut. They had eight children: Emily Schotten (1790-1861), who married William W. Ellsworth, named by Webster as an executor of his will Noah Webster and the American Dictionary, David Micklethwait, McFarland, 2005 Emily, daughter of Emily Webster and William Ellsworth, married Rev. Abner Jackson, who became president of both Hartford's Trinity College and Hobart College in New York State. ; Frances Julianna (1793-1869); Harriet (1797-1844); Mary (1799-1819); William Greenleaf (1801-1869); Eliza (1803-1888); Henry (1806-1807); and Louisa (b. 1808). Webster liked to carry raisins and candies in his pocket for his children to enjoy. Webster married well and had joined the elite in Hartford but did not have much money. In 1793, Alexander Hamilton loaned him $1500 to move to New York City to edit a Federalist newspaper. In December, he founded New York's first daily newspaper, American Minerva (later known as The Commercial Advertiser), and edited it for four years. For decades, he was one of the most prolific authors in the new nation, publishing textbooks, political essays for his Federalist party, and newspaper articles at a remarkable rate (a modern bibliography of his published works required 655 pages). The Websters moved back to New Haven in 1798. He then served in the Connecticut House of Representatives in 1800 and 1802-1807. Speller and dictionary A 1932 statue of Webster by Korczak Ziółkowski stands in front of the public library of West Hartford, Connecticut. As a teacher, he had come to dislike American elementary schools. They could be overcrowded, with up to seventy children of all ages crammed into one-room schoolhouses, poorly staffed with untrained teachers, and poorly equipped with no desks and unsatisfactory textbooks that came from England. Webster thought that Americans should learn from American books, so he began writing a three volume compendium, A Grammatical Institute of the English Language. The work consisted of a speller (published in 1783), a grammar (published in 1784), and a reader (published in 1785). His goal was to provide a uniquely American approach to training children. His most important improvement, he claimed, was to rescue "our native tongue" from "the clamour Citing this article, "at first he kept the u in words like colour or favour" so this quote should have a 'U' in clamour of pedantry" that surrounded English grammar and pronunciation. He complained that the English language had been corrupted by the British aristocracy, which set its own standard for proper spelling and pronunciation. Webster rejected the notion that the study of Greek and Latin must precede the study of English grammar. The appropriate standard for the American language, argued Webster, was, "the same republican principles as American civil and ecclesiastical constitutions", which meant that the people-at-large must control the language; popular sovereignty in government must be accompanied by popular usage in language. The Speller was arranged so that it could be easily taught to students, and it progressed by age. From his own experiences as a teacher, Webster thought the Speller should be simple and gave an orderly presentation of words and the rules of spelling and pronunciation. He believed students learned most readily when he broke a complex problem into its component parts and had each pupil master one part before moving to the next. Ellis argues that Webster anticipated some of the insights currently associated with Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Webster said that children pass through distinctive learning phases in which they master increasingly complex or abstract tasks. Therefore, teachers must not try to teach a three-year-old how to read; they could not do it until age five. He organized his speller accordingly, beginning with the alphabet and moving systematically through the different sounds of vowels and consonants, then syllables, then simple words, then more complex words, then sentences. Ellis 174. The speller was originally titled The First Part of the Grammatical Institute of the English Language. Over the course of 385 editions in his lifetime, the title was changed in 1786 to The American Spelling Book, and again in 1829 to The Elementary Spelling Book. Most people called it the "Blue-Backed Speller" because of its blue cover, and for the next one hundred years, Webster's book taught children how to read, spell, and pronounce words. It was the most popular American book of its time; by 1861, it was selling a million copies per year, and its royalty of less than one cent per copy was enough to sustain Webster in his other endeavors. Some consider it to be the first dictionary created in the United States, and it helped create the popular contests known as spelling bees. Slowly, he changed the spelling of words, such that they became "Americanized." He chose s over c in words like defense, he changed the re to er in words like center, he dropped one of the Ls in traveler, and at first he kept the u in words like colour or favour but dropped it in later editions. He also changed "tongue" to "tung." Unauthorized printing of his books, and disparate copyright laws that varied among the thirteen states, led Webster to champion the federal copyright law that was successfully passed in 1790. In 1806, Webster published his first dictionary, A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language. The following year, at the age of 43, Webster began writing an expanded and comprehensive dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language, which would take twenty-seven years to complete. To supplement the documentation of the etymology of the words, Webster learned twenty-six languages, including Old English (Anglo-Saxon), German, Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, Hebrew, Arabic, and Sanskrit. Webster hoped to standardize American speech, since Americans in different parts of the country spelled, pronounced, and used words differently. During the course of his work on the book, the family moved to Amherst, Massachusetts, in 1812, where Webster helped to found Amherst College. In 1822, the family moved back to New Haven, and Webster was awarded an honorary degree from Yale the following year. Webster completed his dictionary during his year abroad in 1825 in Paris, France, and at the University of Cambridge. His book contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before. As a spelling reformer, Webster believed that English spelling rules were unnecessarily complex, so his dictionary introduced American English spellings, replacing "colour" with "color", substituting "wagon" for "waggon", and printing "center" instead of "centre". He also added American words, like "skunk" and "squash", that did not appear in British dictionaries. At the age of seventy, Webster published his dictionary in 1828. Though it now has an honored place in the history of American English, Webster's first dictionary only sold 2,500 copies. He was forced to mortgage his home to bring out a second edition, and his life from then on was plagued with debt. In 1840, the second edition was published in two volumes. On May 28, 1843, a few days after he had completed revising an appendix to the second edition, and with much of his efforts with the dictionary still unrecognized, Noah Webster died. Noah Webster was and still is considered an American hero by people because of all he had done for the country in his lifetime. Religious views Webster was a devout Christian. His speller was grounded in Scripture, and his first lesson began "Be not anxious for your life, what ye shall eat, or what ye shall drink ; nor for your body, what ye shall put on ; for your heavenly Father knoweth that ye have need of these things." His 1828 American Dictionary contained the greatest number of Biblical definitions given in any reference volume. Webster considered education "useless without the Bible". Webster claimed to have learned 20 different languages in finding definitions for which a particular word is used. From the preface to the 1828 edition of Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language: Webster released his own edition of the Bible in 1833, called the Common Version. He used the King James Version (KJV) as a base and consulted the Hebrew and Greek along with various other versions and commentaries. Webster molded the KJV to correct grammar, replaced words that were no longer used, and did away with words and phrases that could be seen as offensive. All editions of Webster's Dictionary published in 1913 and earlier, along with the Webster Bible and Dissertation on the English Language are available in the public domain. References Webster's grave at the Grove Street Cemetery in New Haven, Connecticut Joseph J. Ellis; After the Revolution: Profiles of Early American Culture 1979. chapter 6, interpretive essay David Micklethwait. Noah Webster and the American Dictionary (2005) John S. Morgan. Noah Webster (1975), popular biography C. Louise Nelson; "Neglect of Economic Education in Webster's 'Blue-Backed Speller'" American Economist, Vol. 39, 1995 Richard Rollins. The Long Journey of Noah Webster (1980) (ISBN 0-8122-7778-3) Harlow Giles Unger. Noah Webster: The Life and Times of an American Patriot (1998), scholarly biography Harry R. Warfel, Noah Webster: Schoolmaster to America (1936), standard biography Lepore, J. (2006, November 6). Noah's Mark: Webster and the original dictionary wars.The New Yorker, 78-87. Primary sources Homer D. Babbidge, Jr., ed., Noah Webster: On Being American (1967), selections from his writings Harry R. Warfel, ed., Letters of Noah Webster (1953), Noah Webster. The American Spelling Book: Containing the Rudiments of the English Language for the Use of Schools in the United States by Noah Webster (1999 reprint) John F. Ohles. "Biographical Dictionary of American Educators", Vol. 3 1978, pp 1363-1364 External links The Noah Webster House & West Hartford Historical Society Noah Webster Collection, Special Collections, Jones Library, Amherst MA Noah Webster on the Merriam-Webster website Connecticut Heritage website Biographical entry in the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica Searchable Webster's 1828 dictionary and Searchable Webster's 1913 dictionary - both in the public domain. Searchable Webster's 1828 dictionary Searchable Webster's 1828 wildcard dictionary Webster Bible text Preface to the Webster Bible Downloadable PDF of the Webster Bible A proposal for spelling reform from his younger and more radical days Online Webster Bible Searchable by verse and keywords The American Spelling Book
Noah_Webster |@lemmatized noah:22 webster:67 october:3 may:2 american:34 lexicographer:1 textbook:3 author:2 spell:6 reformer:2 word:17 enthusiast:1 editor:1 call:3 father:4 scholarship:1 education:5 blue:4 back:5 speller:10 book:11 use:6 teach:5 spelling:10 reading:1 five:2 generation:1 child:7 united:3 state:5 name:2 become:3 synonymous:1 dictionary:28 especially:1 modern:2 merriam:2 first:9 publish:10 english:16 language:15 biography:4 adult:1 home:2 raise:1 family:4 write:3 many:2 publication:1 include:2 build:1 new:10 connecticut:11 remove:1 greenfield:1 village:1 dearborn:1 michigan:1 bear:1 west:4 division:1 hartford:7 live:1 since:2 colonial:1 day:3 sr:1 farmer:1 sower:1 descendant:2 governor:3 john:3 mother:1 mercy:1 née:1 steele:1 william:4 bradford:1 plymouth:1 colony:1 two:2 brother:1 abraham:1 charles:1 b:2 age:6 begin:5 attend:1 yale:4 college:5 four:2 year:9 overlap:1 revolutionary:1 war:2 food:1 shortage:1 class:1 hold:1 glastonbury:2 revolution:2 serve:2 militia:1 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giles:1 unger:1 patriot:1 scholarly:1 harry:2 r:2 warfel:2 schoolmaster:1 america:1 lepore:1 november:1 mark:1 original:1 yorker:1 primary:1 source:1 homer:1 babbidge:1 jr:1 ed:2 selection:1 writing:1 letter:1 rudiment:1 reprint:1 f:1 ohles:1 biographical:2 educator:1 pp:1 external:1 link:1 historical:1 society:1 collection:2 special:1 jones:1 website:2 heritage:1 entry:1 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 searchable:5 wildcard:1 text:1 downloadable:1 pdf:1 proposal:1 reform:1 young:1 radical:1 online:1 verse:1 keywords:1 |@bigram noah_webster:18 merriam_webster:2 greenfield_village:1 dearborn_michigan:1 hartford_connecticut:2 jean_piaget:1 anglo_saxon:1 ye_shall:3 interpretive_essay:1 biographical_dictionary:1 external_link:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 downloadable_pdf:1
3,182
Mohammed_Nadir_Shah
Mohammed Nadir Shah (born Mohammed Nadir; April 9, 1883 - November 8, 1933), was king of the Kingdom of Afghanistan from October 15, 1929 until his assassination in 1933. He and his son Mohammed Zahir Shah, who succeeded him, are sometimes referred to as the Musahiban. Origins and rise to power Mohammed Nadir Khan was born in Dastgerd[10] into the Qereqlu clan of the Afshars, a semi-nomadic tribe in Khorasan,, on April 9, 1883 to Muhammad Yusuf Khan and his first wife Sharaf Sultana. His paternal grandfather was Yahya Khan and his great grandfather was Sultan Muhammad Khan Telai, the brother of Dost Mohammed Khan, who sold Peshawar to the Sikhs. Thus he was a member of the Musahiban branch of the family. Saikal, Amin ; Farhadi, Ravan and Nourzhanov, Kirill (2006) Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival I.B.Tauris, London, p. 46, ISBN 1-84511-316-0 Mohammed Nadir first set foot in Afghanistan at the age of 18 when his grandfather Mohammed Yahya was authorized to return to Afghanistan from exile by the British and Abdurrahman. Nadir Khan became a military general in Amanullah Khan's monarchy after the British planned it for him so he can suppress it to enhance his reputation. When the Anglo-Afghan war started in 1919, Nadir volunteered to lead the National Army to the south and to fight the enemy. When Nadir crossed the border, the British left every single fort on the other side of the Durand Line so Nadir could capture them. This made Nadir Minister of War after the war. Amanullah Khan became suspicious about Nadir’s incantations and Amanullah Khan understood his schemes and considered his staying unnecessary in Kabul. Nadir was appointed as the Ambassador of Afghanistan in Paris, and his brother Hashim was sent to Moscow as the cultural attaché. Both of the brothers considered the mentioned appointments as exile. Thus, after those appointments they strengthened their relations with the British. Eventually, Nadir before leaving Kabul met in person with the British Ambassador, Humphreys, at his office. During the mentioned meeting, which is written in the declassified document of the British, Nadir promised to follow whatever role would be given to him by the British. After this, Nadir, in Paris, proposed numerous plans to the British, to topple Amanullah Khan's government and the King of Afghanistan. How did Nadir accede the throne? Shortly after a rebellion by Pashtun tribesmen and forces of Habibullah Kalakani began against the monarchy, Mohammad Nadir was exiled due to disagreements with King Amanullah. After the overthrow of Amanullah Khan's monarchy by Habibullah Kalakani, Mohammed Nadir returned to India and acquired military support from the British. He returned to Afghanistan with his British supported armies and took most of Afghanistan from Habibullah Kalakani. By October 13 of 1929, Mohammad Nadir Khan captured Kabul and subsequently sacked the city. Nadir Shah then asked for a truce with Habibullah Kalakani and asked him to join him so that they could discuss the political upheavals and come to a resolution. Nadir signed an oath on the Qur'an that he would honor his truce. Kalakani accepted Mohammed Nadir's truce and went to Nadir's meeting accompanied by Nadir's religious envoy. Despite Nadir's oath on the Qur'an and the religious envoy, upon his arrival Habibullah Kalakani was shot and hanged. Mohammad Nadir Khan then declared himself King, or Shah, of Afghanistan on October 16, 1929. Rule Mohammed Nadir Shah quickly abolished most of Amanullah Khan's reforms, but despite his efforts to rebuild an army that had just been engaged in suppressing a rebellion, the forces remained weak while the religious and tribal leaders grew strong. In 1930, there were uprisings by the Pashtun Shinwari tribes of the south and as well as by Tajiks of Kabul province and north of Kabul. The same year, a Soviet force crossed the border in pursuit of an Uzbek leader whose forces had been harassing the Soviets from his sanctuary in Afghanistan. He was driven back to the Soviet side by the Afghan army in April 1930, and by the end of 1931 most uprisings had been subdued. Nadir Shah named a ten-member cabinet, consisting mostly of members of his family, and in September 1930 he called into session a loya jirga of 286 which confirmed his accession to the throne. In 1931 the King promulgated a new constitution. Despite its appearance as a constitutional monarchy, the document officially instituted a Royal oligarchy, and popular participation was merely an illusion. Although Nadir Shah placated religious factions with a constitutional emphasis on orthodox denominational principles, he also took steps to modernize Afghanistan in material ways, although far less obtrusively than Amanullah. He improved road construction, especially the Great North Road through the Hindu Kush, methods of communication, and helped establish Afghanistan's first university in 1931; however, this university (Kabul University) didn't admit any students until 1932. Kabul University web page: History [History] He forged commercial links with the same foreign powers that Amanullah had established diplomatic relations with in the 1920s, and, under the leadership of several prominent entrepreneurs, he initiated a banking system and long-range economic planning. Although his efforts to improve the army did not bear fruit immediately, by the time of his death in 1933 Nadir Shah had created a 40,000-strong force from almost no national army at all. He waged a large scale campaign under British influence against the non-Pashtun ethnic living in Afghanistan in attempt to continue the Pashtunization plan of his predecessor Abdur Rahman Khan. During his reign thousands of Afghan intellectuals were either imprisoned or killed. Many fled abroad, especially to the Soviet Union. The already-in-crisis press was heavily censored and power was distributed among his own relatives and family members. During his reign, Nadir Shah had to suppress attempts to reinstate Amanullah Khan to the throne. His strategy in suppressing his opposition was to set ethnic groups against each other, mainly Pashtuns versus Tajiks. This led to the destruction of the Shamali plains north of Kabul. Assassination On November 8, 1933 while distributing awards to high school graduates at Bala-e-sar, the King was shot dead by a teenager named Abdul Khaliq Hazara. The assassination plot was hatched by himself and his friends. He was working as a servant to Charkhi Family and due to cruelty of King Nadir Khan and Massacre of Hazaras during Abdur Rahman Rule, he was always waiting for a revenge from the cruel king. He then planned the assassination of the king and finally found the chance at a ceremony of high school graduates in Bala-e-Sar. After the assassination, Abdul Khaliq Hazara was apprehended with his all friends and family members. Dupree, Louis: "Afghanistan", page 474. Princeton University Press, 1973 The family behind the plot was exiled and Abdul Khaliq was executed, rather gruesomely by many accounts. The family would later be pardoned and invited back to Afghanistan by Nadir Khan's son and successor, Mohammad Zahir Shah. Criticism Muhammad Nader Shah was criticised by many Afghan Historians as an agent of Britain in Afghanistan. During his regime hundred of thousands of innocent people were killed in Afghanistan. His family held the highest positions during his reign. His Brother Sardar Hashim was Prime minister of Afghanistan, Sardar Mahmud was Defence Minister of Afghanistan. And most of his Ministers were from his tribe called Mohammadzai. Most of the people call him a Dictator. References and footnotes External links Afghanistan Online: Biography - Mohammad Nadir Shah How did Nadir accede the throne? The Nadir Shah government and the people of Kapisa & Parwan
Mohammed_Nadir_Shah |@lemmatized mohammed:10 nadir:35 shah:13 bear:3 april:3 november:2 king:9 kingdom:1 afghanistan:20 october:3 assassination:5 son:2 zahir:2 succeed:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 musahiban:2 origin:1 rise:1 power:3 khan:18 dastgerd:1 qereqlu:1 clan:1 afshars:1 semi:1 nomadic:1 tribe:3 khorasan:1 muhammad:3 yusuf:1 first:3 wife:1 sharaf:1 sultana:1 paternal:1 grandfather:3 yahya:2 great:2 sultan:1 telai:1 brother:4 dost:1 sell:1 peshawar:1 sikh:1 thus:2 member:5 branch:1 family:8 saikal:1 amin:1 farhadi:1 ravan:1 nourzhanov:1 kirill:1 modern:1 history:3 struggle:1 survival:1 b:1 tauris:1 london:1 p:1 isbn:1 set:2 foot:1 age:1 authorize:1 return:3 exile:4 british:11 abdurrahman:1 become:2 military:2 general:1 amanullah:10 monarchy:4 plan:4 suppress:4 enhance:1 reputation:1 anglo:1 afghan:4 war:3 start:1 volunteer:1 lead:2 national:2 army:6 south:2 fight:1 enemy:1 cross:2 border:2 left:1 every:1 single:1 fort:1 side:2 durand:1 line:1 could:2 capture:2 make:1 minister:4 suspicious:1 incantation:1 understood:1 scheme:1 consider:2 stay:1 unnecessary:1 kabul:8 appoint:1 ambassador:2 paris:2 hashim:2 send:1 moscow:1 cultural:1 attaché:1 mentioned:2 appointment:2 strengthen:1 relation:2 eventually:1 leave:1 meet:1 person:1 humphreys:1 office:1 meeting:2 write:1 declassified:1 document:2 promise:1 follow:1 whatever:1 role:1 would:3 give:1 propose:1 numerous:1 topple:1 government:2 accede:2 throne:4 shortly:1 rebellion:2 pashtun:3 tribesman:1 force:5 habibullah:5 kalakani:6 begin:1 mohammad:5 due:2 disagreement:1 overthrow:1 india:1 acquire:1 support:2 take:2 subsequently:1 sack:1 city:1 ask:2 truce:3 join:1 discuss:1 political:1 upheaval:1 come:1 resolution:1 sign:1 oath:2 qur:2 honor:1 accept:1 go:1 accompany:1 religious:4 envoy:2 despite:3 upon:1 arrival:1 shoot:2 hang:1 declare:1 rule:2 quickly:1 abolish:1 reform:1 effort:2 rebuild:1 engage:1 remain:1 weak:1 tribal:1 leader:2 grow:1 strong:2 uprising:2 shinwari:1 well:1 tajik:2 province:1 north:3 year:1 soviet:4 pursuit:1 uzbek:1 whose:1 harass:1 sanctuary:1 drive:1 back:2 end:1 subdue:1 name:2 ten:1 cabinet:1 consist:1 mostly:1 september:1 call:3 session:1 loya:1 jirga:1 confirm:1 accession:1 promulgate:1 new:1 constitution:1 appearance:1 constitutional:2 officially:1 institute:1 royal:1 oligarchy:1 popular:1 participation:1 merely:1 illusion:1 although:3 placate:1 faction:1 emphasis:1 orthodox:1 denominational:1 principle:1 also:1 step:1 modernize:1 material:1 way:1 far:1 less:1 obtrusively:1 improve:2 road:2 construction:1 especially:2 hindu:1 kush:1 method:1 communication:1 help:1 establish:2 university:5 however:1 admit:1 student:1 web:1 page:2 forge:1 commercial:1 link:2 foreign:1 diplomatic:1 leadership:1 several:1 prominent:1 entrepreneur:1 initiate:1 banking:1 system:1 long:1 range:1 economic:1 planning:1 fruit:1 immediately:1 time:1 death:1 create:1 almost:1 wag:1 large:1 scale:1 campaign:1 influence:1 non:1 ethnic:2 living:1 attempt:2 continue:1 pashtunization:1 predecessor:1 abdur:2 rahman:2 reign:3 thousand:2 intellectual:1 either:1 imprison:1 kill:2 many:3 flee:1 abroad:1 union:1 already:1 crisis:1 press:2 heavily:1 censor:1 distribute:2 among:1 relative:1 reinstate:1 strategy:1 opposition:1 group:1 mainly:1 pashtuns:1 versus:1 destruction:1 shamali:1 plain:1 award:1 high:3 school:2 graduate:2 bala:2 e:2 sar:2 dead:1 teenager:1 abdul:3 khaliq:3 hazara:2 plot:2 hatch:1 friend:2 work:1 servant:1 charkhi:1 cruelty:1 massacre:1 hazaras:1 always:1 wait:1 revenge:1 cruel:1 finally:1 find:1 chance:1 ceremony:1 apprehend:1 dupree:1 louis:1 princeton:1 behind:1 execute:1 rather:1 gruesomely:1 account:1 later:1 pardon:1 invite:1 successor:1 criticism:1 nader:1 criticise:1 historian:1 agent:1 britain:1 regime:1 hundred:1 innocent:1 people:3 hold:1 position:1 sardar:2 prime:1 mahmud:1 defence:1 mohammadzai:1 dictator:1 reference:1 footnote:1 external:1 online:1 biography:1 kapisa:1 parwan:1 |@bigram mohammed_nadir:7 nadir_shah:9 mohammed_zahir:1 zahir_shah:2 nadir_khan:6 semi_nomadic:1 nomadic_tribe:1 paternal_grandfather:1 yahya_khan:1 dost_mohammed:1 b_tauris:1 amanullah_khan:7 anglo_afghan:1 accede_throne:2 pashtun_tribesman:1 habibullah_kalakani:5 loya_jirga:1 accession_throne:1 constitutional_monarchy:1 hindu_kush:1 diplomatic_relation:1 abdur_rahman:2 rahman_khan:1 soviet_union:1 mohammad_zahir:1 nader_shah:1 hundred_thousand:1 prime_minister:1 external_link:1
3,183
First-class_cricket
First-class cricket refers to the class of cricket matches of three or more days scheduled duration, between two sides of eleven players and officially adjudged first-class by virtue of the standard of the competing teams. Matches must allow for the teams to play two innings each, although, in practice, a team might only play zero or one innings. First-class cricket is an aspect of major cricket but is not major cricket per se, as is sometimes thought. Major cricket is an unofficial or, at best, quasi-official term that includes limited overs cricket, single wicket and other forms in which players and/or teams of high standard are playing. These forms are not first-class cricket but they are equally as important. Test cricket, although the highest standard of major cricket, is itself a form of first-class cricket, although the term "first-class" is commonly used to refer to domestic competition only. A player's first-class statistics include his performances in Test matches. Generally, first-class matches are eleven players a side but there have been exceptions. Equally, although first-class matches must now be scheduled to have at least three days' duration, there have historically been exceptions. Due to the time demands of first-class competition, the players are mostly paid professionals, though historically many players were designated amateur. First-class teams are usually representative of a geopolitical region such as an English county, an Australian state or a West Indian nation. Definitions of first-class cricket MCC 1895 Prior to 1947, the only definition of first-class cricket had been one in Great Britain that dates from a meeting at Lord's in May 1894 between the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) committee and the secretaries of the clubs involved in the official County Championship, which had begun in 1890. As a result, those clubs became first-class from 1895 along with MCC, Cambridge University, Oxford University, major cricket touring teams and other teams designated as such by MCC. ICC 1947 The term "first-class cricket" was formally defined by the then Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC) in May 1947 as a match of three or more days duration between two sides of eleven players officially adjudged first-class; the governing body in each country to decide the status of teams. Significantly, it was stated that the definition does not have retrospective effect. MCC was authorised to determine the status of matches played in Great Britain. For all intents and purposes, the 1947 ICC definition confirmed the 1895 MCC definition and gave it international recognition and usage. Hence, official judgment of status is the responsibility of the governing body in each country that is a full member of the International Cricket Council (ICC). The governing body grants first-class status to international teams and to domestic teams that are representative of the country's highest playing standard. It is possible for international teams from associate members of the ICC to achieve first-class status but it is dependent on the status of their opponents in a given match. According to the ICC definition, a match is first class if: it is of three or more days scheduled duration each side playing the match has eleven players each side may have two innings the match is played on natural, and not artificial, turf the match is played on an international standard ground the match conforms to the Laws of Cricket, except for only minor amendments the sport’s governing body in the appropriate nation, or the ICC itself, recognises the match as first-class. A Test match is a first-class match played between two ICC full member countries subject to their current status at the ICC and the application of ICC conditions when the match is played. A peculiarity of the two-innings match is the follow-on rule. If the team that batted second is substantially behind on first innings total, it may be required to bat again (i.e., to immediately follow on from its first innings) in the third innings of the match. In first-class cricket, the follow-on minimum lead requirement depends on match duration. In a Test or other match with five or more days duration, the team batting second can be asked to follow on if 200 or more runs behind. If the match duration is three or four days, the minimum lead is 150 runs. Matches played before the MCC and ICC definitions The absence of any ruling about matches played before 1947 (or before 1895 in Great Britain) has caused problems for cricket historians and especially statisticians who have been forced to compile their own matchlists. Inevitable differences have arisen and there are variations in published first-class statistics. For a description of the statistical differences, see : Variations in first-class cricket statistics Recognised matches The following matches or competitions are recognised as first-class by the appropriate governing bodies, providing the conditions of the ICC definition are met: United Kingdom and Ireland County Championship matches Marylebone Cricket Club versus a first class county Oxford University versus Cambridge University Cambridge, Durham, Oxford and Loughborough University Centres of Cricketing Excellence matches versus first class counties Scotland versus Ireland A first class team versus a touring first class team Australia Sheffield Shield matches. 'Australia A' versus Australian XI 'Australia A' versus first class opponents, including State teams Australian XI versus first class opponents, including State teams A first class team versus a touring first class team South Africa SuperSport Series matches (involving the pro 6 franchises) South African Airways Provincial Challenges (16 provincial teams and Namibia) A first class team versus a touring first class team West Indies Red Stripe Cup matches Beaumont Cup matches Guystac Trophy matches A first class team versus a touring first class team India Ranji Trophy matches Duleep Trophy matches Irani Trophy matches A State or regional associations versus another state or regional association, provided the associations are affiliated to the Board of Control for Cricket in India A first class team versus a touring first class team New Zealand State Championship matches New Zealand 'A' versus a Cricket association, provided the association is affiliated to New Zealand Cricket A cricket association versus another cricket association, provided that the associations are affiliated to New Zealand Cricket New Zealand 'A' versus a first class opponent A cricket association versus a first class opponent, provided the association is affiliated to New Zealand Cricket A first class team versus a touring first class team Pakistan Quaid-e-Azam Trophy matches Cricket Associations and Departments (corporate teams) versus each other, or other first class opponents, provided the associations or departments are affiliated to the Pakistan Cricket Board, and the match is organized by the Pakistan Cricket Board Pakistan 'A' versus a touring Test team or Kenya Pakistan versus a touring 'A' team from a Test country or Kenya Pakistan 'A' versus a touring 'A' team from a Test country or Kenya A first class team versus a touring first class team Sri Lanka Premier League (Division I) Matches Sri Lanka 'A' (or another team designated by the Board of Control for Cricket in Sri Lanka) versus a touring 'A' team A first class team versus a touring first class team Zimbabwe Logan Cup Matches A cricket association versus another cricket association, provided the associations are affiliated to the Zimbabwe Cricket A first class team versus a touring first class team Bangladesh National Cricket League of Bangladesh Matches Bangladesh A team verses another touring A team Kenya A first class team (including touring Test teams) versus Kenya Other Non-Test Full Member Countries Non-Test Full Member Country versus a first class touring team, with the consent of the touring team Official Test Trial matches. Special matches between teams adjudged first class by the Board(s) of cricket concerned, with the approval of the International Cricket Council Games played for the ICC Intercontinental Cup. This competition involves teams from Canada, Bermuda, Ireland, Scotland, the Netherlands, Kenya, Namibia and UAE. Notes: A first class opponent is a team recognized as first class in its home country, and includes foreign touring Test teams (some first class teams are not entitled to play first class matches in other countries; such determinations are made by the local Board of cricket) The 'A' Team and the 'XI' Team are the representatives of a nation subordinate to the Test team, and are not always adjudged first class See also Variations in first-class cricket statistics List of current first-class cricket teams Major cricket References External sources The official laws of cricket Further reading Wisden Cricketers Almanack – 1895 and 1948 issues in particular
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3,184
Kutia
Kutia in a ceramic makitra, with a wooden makohon beside it Kutia is a sweet grain pudding, traditionally served in Ukrainian Ukrainian CHRISTMAS KUTYA recipe , Lithuanian, Belarusian and Polish cultures. Kutia is often the first dish in the traditional twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper (also known as Svyateh Vetchnyat). It is rarely served at other times of the year. It resembles koliva from Serbia or Romania (used usually for funerals), but the latter is mixed only with walnuts, sugar and raisins. Kutia was also part of a common Eastern Orthodox tradition in the Russian Empire, which had waned in popularity as a result of the official atheism of the former Soviet Union, but has resurged subsequently in Russia and other former Soviet Republics. Radonitsa is one such holiday on which it may be served. To this day kutia is served at funerals across Russia as a dish of remembrance. Traditionally it was made of wheatberries, poppy seeds, honey (or sugar), various nuts and sometimes raisins. In many recipes milk or cream is also used. In some Slavic countries, rice is the main ingredient. Nowadays other ingredients (which were unavailable or just too expensive in earlier centuries) like almonds and pieces of oranges are added. In some places (like Poland and western Canada), unprocessed wheat grain for kutia is easily available in stores. In others, where it is harder to find, it can be replaced by other similar grains like barley. References See also Frumenty, Western European dish of similar recipe
Kutia |@lemmatized kutia:6 ceramic:1 makitra:1 wooden:1 makohon:1 beside:1 sweet:1 grain:3 pudding:1 traditionally:2 serve:4 ukrainian:2 christmas:2 kutya:1 recipe:3 lithuanian:1 belarusian:1 polish:1 culture:1 often:1 first:1 dish:4 traditional:1 twelve:1 eve:1 supper:1 also:4 know:1 svyateh:1 vetchnyat:1 rarely:1 time:1 year:1 resemble:1 koliva:1 serbia:1 romania:1 use:2 usually:1 funeral:2 latter:1 mixed:1 walnut:1 sugar:2 raisin:2 part:1 common:1 eastern:1 orthodox:1 tradition:1 russian:1 empire:1 wan:1 popularity:1 result:1 official:1 atheism:1 former:2 soviet:2 union:1 resurge:1 subsequently:1 russia:2 republic:1 radonitsa:1 one:1 holiday:1 may:1 day:1 across:1 remembrance:1 make:1 wheatberries:1 poppy:1 seed:1 honey:1 various:1 nut:1 sometimes:1 many:1 milk:1 cream:1 slavic:1 country:1 rice:1 main:1 ingredient:2 nowadays:1 unavailable:1 expensive:1 early:1 century:1 like:3 almond:1 piece:1 orange:1 add:1 place:1 poland:1 western:2 canada:1 unprocessed:1 wheat:1 easily:1 available:1 store:1 others:1 hard:1 find:1 replace:1 similar:2 barley:1 reference:1 see:1 frumenty:1 european:1 |@bigram christmas_eve:1 eastern_orthodox:1 soviet_union:1 poppy_seed:1
3,185
Communications_in_Libya
Television Twelve television stations run by the government. Radio Private radio stations Allibya FM (93.4) Government run station The three radio stations are run by the government. Printed media There are four daily newspapers, all controlled and monitored by the government owned press company "General Press Corporation". Al-Shames Daily Newspaper AlJamahirya Daily Newspaper Al-Fajr Aljadeed Daily Newspaper Azzahf Alakhder Daily Newspaper There are also a number of weekly newspapers. Cellular and GSM There are two GSM operators both owned by the government: Al Madar Libyana Internet Internet and telecommunications are mainly run by the government through a semi-private telecommunication company LTT(Libya Telecom & Technology), the company moderates and controls the use of Internet in Libya. The Four ISP's in Libya AlFalak Bayt Al Shams (BsISP) Libya Telecom & Technology (LTT) Modern World Telecom Statistics Telephones - main lines in use: 750,000 (2003) Telephones - mobile cellular: 3,250,000 (2007) Telephone system: telecommunications system is being modernized; mobile cellular telephone system became operational in 1996 domestic: microwave radio relay, coaxial cable, cellular, tropospheric scatter, and a domestic satellite system with 14 earth stations international: satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat, NA Arabsat, and NA Intersputnik; submarine cables to France and Italy; microwave radio relay to Tunisia and Egypt; tropospheric scatter to Greece; participant in Medarabtel (1999) Radio broadcast stations: AM 16, FM 3, shortwave 3 (2002) Radios: 1.35 million (1997) Television broadcast stations: 12 (plus one low-power repeater) (1999) Televisions: 730,000 (1997) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 4 (2005) Internet users: 205,000 (2005) Country code (Top-level domain): LY See also Libya Media in Libya References
Communications_in_Libya |@lemmatized television:4 twelve:1 station:8 run:4 government:6 radio:7 private:2 allibya:1 fm:2 three:1 print:1 medium:2 four:2 daily:5 newspaper:6 control:2 monitor:1 press:2 company:3 general:1 corporation:1 al:4 shame:1 aljamahirya:1 fajr:1 aljadeed:1 azzahf:1 alakhder:1 also:2 number:1 weekly:1 cellular:4 gsm:2 two:1 operator:1 madar:1 libyana:1 internet:5 telecommunication:3 mainly:1 semi:1 ltt:2 libya:6 telecom:3 technology:2 moderate:1 use:2 isp:1 alfalak:1 bayt:1 sham:1 bsisp:1 modern:1 world:1 statistic:1 telephone:4 main:1 line:1 mobile:2 system:4 modernize:1 become:1 operational:1 domestic:2 microwave:2 relay:2 coaxial:1 cable:2 tropospheric:2 scatter:2 satellite:2 earth:2 international:1 intelsat:1 na:2 arabsat:1 intersputnik:1 submarine:1 france:1 italy:1 tunisia:1 egypt:1 greece:1 participant:1 medarabtel:1 broadcast:2 shortwave:1 million:1 plus:1 one:1 low:1 power:1 repeater:1 service:1 provider:1 isps:1 user:1 country:1 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 ly:1 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram mobile_cellular:2 coaxial_cable:1 tropospheric_scatter:2 station_intelsat:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 repeater_television:1 provider_isps:1 isps_internet:1
3,186
North_Atlantic_Treaty
The North Atlantic Treaty is the treaty that brought NATO into existence, signed in Washington, DC on April 4, 1949. The original twelve nations that signed it and thus became the founding members of NATO were the following: Map of NATO countries chronological membership. Later the following nations joined: (1952) (1952) (1955) (1982) (1999) (1999) (1999) (2004) (2004) (2004) (2004) (2004) (2004) (2004) (2009) (2009) When Germany was reunified in 1990, the country as a whole became a member of NATO. During the April 2008 summit in Bucharest, Croatia and Albania were officially invited to join NATO. They both signed the treaty and officially joined NATO on April 1st, 2009. The key section of the treaty was Article V which committed each member state to consider an armed attack against one state to be an armed attack against all states. The treaty was created with an armed attack by the Soviet Union against Western Europe in mind, but the mutual self-defense clause was never invoked during the Cold War. Rather, it was invoked for the first time in 2001 in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks against the World Trade Center and The Pentagon in Operation Eagle Assist. In the United States, the treaty was approved by the Senate in a vote of 82 to 13 on July 21 1949. See also NATO Warsaw Pact External links Text of the North Atlantic Treaty
North_Atlantic_Treaty |@lemmatized north:2 atlantic:2 treaty:7 bring:1 nato:7 existence:1 sign:3 washington:1 dc:1 april:3 original:1 twelve:1 nation:2 thus:1 become:2 found:1 member:3 following:2 map:1 country:2 chronological:1 membership:1 later:1 join:3 germany:1 reunify:1 whole:1 summit:1 bucharest:1 croatia:1 albania:1 officially:2 invite:1 key:1 section:1 article:1 v:1 commit:1 state:4 consider:1 armed:2 attack:4 one:1 create:1 arm:1 soviet:1 union:1 western:1 europe:1 mind:1 mutual:1 self:1 defense:1 clause:1 never:1 invoke:2 cold:1 war:1 rather:1 first:1 time:1 response:1 september:1 world:1 trade:1 center:1 pentagon:1 operation:1 eagle:1 assist:1 united:1 approve:1 senate:1 vote:1 july:1 see:1 also:1 warsaw:1 pact:1 external:1 link:1 text:1 |@bigram washington_dc:1 summit_bucharest:1 soviet_union:1 warsaw_pact:1 external_link:1
3,187
Amyntas_III_of_Macedon
Amyntas III, stater Amyntas III (Greek: Ἀμύντας Γ΄, - 370 BC) son of Arrhidaeus and father of Philip II, was king of Macedon in 393 BC, and again from 392 to 369 BC. He came to the throne after the ten years of confusion which followed the death of Archelaus II, the patron of art and literature. But he had many enemies at home; in 393 he was driven out by the Illyrians, but in the following year, with the aid of the Thessalians, he recovered his kingdom. Medius, head of the house of the Aleuadae of Larissa, is believed to have provided aid to Amyntas in recovering his throne. The mutual relations between the Argeadae and the Aleuadae dates to the time of Archelaus. To shore up his country against the threat of the Illyrians, Amyntas established an alliance with the Chalkidian League led by Olynthus. In exchange for this support, Amyntas granted them rights to Macedonian timber, which was sent back to Athens to help fortify their fleet. With money flowing into the Olynthus from these exports, their power grew. In response, Amyntas sought additional allies. He established connections with Kotys, chief of the Odrysians. Kotys had already married his daughter to the Athenian general Iphicrates. Prevented from marrying into Kotys' family, Amyntas soon adopted Iphicrates as his son. After the King's Peace 387 BC, Sparta was anxious to reestablish its presence in the north of Greece. In 385 BC, Bardylis and his Illyrians attacked Epirus instigated and aided by Dionysius of Syracuse A History of Greece to 322 B.C.by N. G. L. Hammond .ISBN 0198730950,1986,page 479,"... Molossi, Alcetas, who was a refugee at his court, Dionysius sent a supply of arms and 2,000 troops to the Illyrians , who burst into Epirus and slaughtered 15,000 Molossians . Sparta intervened as soon as they had learned of the events and expelled the Illyrians , but Alcetas had regained his ..." , in an attempt to restore the Molossian king Alcetas to the throne. When Amyntas sought Spartan aid against the growing threat of Olynthus, the Spartans eagerly responded. That Olynthus was backed by Athens and Thebes, rivals to Sparta for the control of Greece, provided them additional incentive to break up this growing power in the north. Amyntas thus concluded a treaty with the Spartans, who assisted him to reduce Olynthus (379). He also entered into a league with Jason of Pherae, and assiduously cultivated the friendship of Athens.In 371 BC at a Panhellenic congress of the Lacedaemonian allies, he voted in support of the Athenians' claim and joined other Greeks in voting to help Athens to recover possession of Amphipolis Aeschines - On the Embassy 2.32 History of Greece by George Grote . With Olynthus defeated, Amyntas was now able to conclude a treaty with Athens and keep the timber revenues for himself. Amyntas shipped the timber to the house of the Athenian Timotheus, in the Piraeus. By his wife, Eurydice, he had three sons, Alexander II, Perdiccas III and the youngest of whom was the famous Philip II of Macedon. Amyntas died at an advanced age, leaving his throne to his eldest son, Alexander. References See also Duane A. March, "The Kings of Makedon: 399-369 BC," Historia (Franz Steiner Verlag) vol. 44, No. 3 (1995), 257-282 External links Coins of Amyntas III Atheno-Macedonian Alliance during Amyntas III,375/3 BC-Translation of Epigraphy Two Treaties of Amyntas III with Chalcidician League -Epigraphical Database-Translation
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3,188
Allomorph
This article is about a linguistic term. See Pseudomorph for another meaning of the word. An allomorph is a linguistics term for a variant form of a morpheme. The concept occurs when a unit of meaning can vary in sound (phonologically) without changing meaning. It is used in linguistics to explain the comprehension of variations in sound for a specific morpheme. Allomorphy in English suffixes English has several morphemes that vary in sound but not in meaning. Examples include the past tense and the plural morphemes. For example, in English, a past tense morpheme is -ed. It occurs in several allomorphs depending on its phonological environment, assimilating voicing of the previous segment or inserting a schwa when following an alveolar stop: as or in verbs whose stem ends with the alveolar stops or , such as 'hunted' or 'banded' as in verbs whose stem ends with voiceless phonemes other than , such as 'fished' as in verbs whose stem ends voiced phonemes other than , such as 'buzzed' Notice the "other than" restrictions above. This is a common fact about allomorphy: if the allomorphy conditions are ordered from most restrictive (in this case, after an alveolar stop) to least restrictive, then the first matching case usually "wins". Thus, the above conditions could be re-written as follows: as or when the stem ends with the alveolar stops or as when the stem ends with voiceless phonemes as in verbs The fact that the allomorph does not appear after stem-final , despite the fact that the latter is voiceless, is then explained by the fact that appears in that environment, together with the fact that the environments are ordered. Likewise, the fact that the allomorph does not appear after stem-final is because the earlier clause for the allomorph takes priority; and the fact that the allomorph does not appear after stem-final voiceless phonemes is because the preceding clause for the takes priority. Irregular past tense forms, such as "broke" or "was/ were", can be seen as still more specific cases (since they are confined to certain lexical items, like the verb "break"), which therefore take priority over the general cases listed above. Stem allomorphy Allomorphy can also exist in stems or roots, as in Classical Sanskrit: +Vāk (voice) SingularPlural Nominative Genitive Instrumental Locative There are three allomorphs of the stem: , and . The allomorphs are conditioned by the particular case-marking suffixes. The form of the stem , found in the nominative singular and locative plural, is the etymological form of the morpheme. Pre-Indic palatalization of velars resulted in the variant form , which was initially phonologically conditioned. This conditioning can still be seen in the Locative Singular form, where the is followed by the high front vowel . But subsequent merging of and into made the alternation unpredictable on phonetic grounds in the Genitive case (both Singular and Plural), as well as the Nominative Plural and Instrumental Singular. Hence, this allomorphy was no longer directly relatable to phonological processes. Phonological conditioning also accounts for the form found in the Instrumental Plural, where the assimilates in voicing to the following . History The term was originally used to describe variations in chemical structure. It was first applied to language (in writing) in 1948, by E.A. Nida in Language XXIV. Oxford English Dictionary Online: Entry 50006103. Accessed: 2006-09-05 See also Alternation (linguistics) Allophone Consonant mutation Grassmann's Law References
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3,189
Charlotte_Brontë
Charlotte Brontë () (21 April 1816 – 31 March 1855) was a British novelist, the eldest of the three famous Brontë sisters whose novels have become standards of English literature. Charlotte Brontë, who used the pen name Currer Bell, is best known for Jane Eyre, one of the most famous English novels. Life Charlotte was born in Thornton, Yorkshire, England, in 1816, the third of six children, to Patrick Brontë (formerly "Patrick Brunty"), an Irish Anglican clergyman, and his wife, Maria Branwell. In April 1821, the family moved a few miles to Haworth, where Patrick had been appointed Perpetual Curate. Maria Branwell Brontë died of cancer on 15 September 1821, leaving five daughters and a son to the care of her sister Elizabeth Branwell. In August 1824, Charlotte was sent with three of her sisters; Emily, Maria and Elizabeth, to the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire (which she would describe as Lowood School in Jane Eyre). Its poor conditions, Charlotte maintained, permanently affected her health and physical development and hastened the deaths of her two elder sisters, Maria (born 1814) and Elizabeth (born 1815), who died of tuberculosis in June 1825 soon after their father removed them from the school on 1 June. At home in Haworth Parsonage, Charlotte and the other surviving children — Branwell, Emily and Anne — began chronicling the lives and struggles of the inhabitants of their imaginary kingdoms. Charlotte and Branwell wrote Byronic stories about their country — Angria — and Emily and Anne wrote articles and poems about theirs — Gondal. The sagas were elaborate and convoluted (and still exist in part manuscripts) and provided them with an obsessive interest in childhood and early adolescence, which prepared them for their literary vocations in adulthood. Charlotte continued her education at Roe Head, Mirfield, from 1831 to 1832, where she met her lifelong friends and correspondents, Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor. During this period (1833), she wrote her novella The Green Dwarf under the name of Wellesley. Charlotte returned as a teacher from 1835 to 1838. In 1839 she took up the first of many positions as governess to various families in Yorkshire, a career she pursued until 1841. In 1842 she and Emily travelled to Brussels to enroll in a pensionnat run by Constantin Heger (1809 – 1896) and his wife Claire Zoé Parent Heger (1814 – 1891). In return for board and tuition, Charlotte taught English and Emily taught music. Their time at the pensionnat was cut short when Elizabeth Branwell, their aunt who joined the family after the death of their mother to look after the children, died of internal obstruction in October 1842. Charlotte returned alone to Brussels in January 1843 to take up a teaching post at the pensionnat. Her second stay at the pensionnat was not a happy one; she became lonely, homesick and deeply attached to Constantin Heger. She finally returned to Haworth in January 1844 and later used her time at the pensionnat as the inspiration for some of The Professor and Villette. In May 1846, Charlotte, Emily and Anne published a joint collection of poetry under the assumed names of Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell. Although the book failed to attract interest (only two copies were sold), the sisters decided to continue writing for publication and began work on their first novels. Charlotte continued to use the name "Currer Bell" when she published her first two novels. Of this, Brontë later wrote: "Averse to personal publicity, we veiled our own names under those of Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell; the ambiguous choice being dictated by a sort of conscientious scruple at assuming Christian names positively masculine, while we did not like to declare ourselves women, because—without at that time suspecting that our mode of writing and thinking was not what is called 'feminine' -- we had a vague impression that authoresses are liable to be looked on with prejudice; we had noticed how critics sometimes use for their chastisement the weapon of personality, and for their reward, a flattery, which is not true praise". "Biographical Notice of Ellis And Acton Bell", from the preface to the 1910 edition of Wuthering Heights. Cover page of the first edition of Jane Eyre Her novels were deemed coarse by the critics. Much speculation took place concerning the identity of Currer Bell, and whether Bell was a man or a woman. Charlotte's brother, Branwell, the only son of the family, died of chronic bronchitis and marasmus exacerbated by heavy drinking in September 1848, although Charlotte believed his death was due to tuberculosis. Branwell was also a suspected "opium eater", (i.e. a laudanum addict). Emily and Anne both died of pulmonary tuberculosis in December 1848 and May 1849, respectively. Charlotte and her father were now left alone together. In view of the enormous success of Jane Eyre, she was persuaded by her publisher to visit London occasionally, where she revealed her true identity and began to move in a more exalted social circle, becoming friends with Harriet Martineau, Elizabeth Gaskell, William Makepeace Thackeray and G. H. Lewes. Her book had sparked a movement in regards to feminism in literature. The main character, Jane Eyre, in her novel Jane Eyre, was a parallel to herself, a woman who was strong. However, she never left Haworth for more than a few weeks at a time as she did not want to leave her aging father's side. Charlotte Brontë, photograph, 1854 In June 1854, Charlotte married Arthur Bell Nicholls, her father's curate, and became pregnant very soon thereafter. Her health declined rapidly during this time, and according to Gaskell, her earliest biographer, she was attacked by "sensations of perpetual nausea and ever-recurring faintness." www.cnn.com" Real life plot twists of famous authors" Charlotte died, along with her unborn child, on 31 March 1855, at the young age of 38. Her death certificate gives the cause of death as phthisis (tuberculosis), but many biographers suggest she may have died from dehydration and malnourishment, caused by excessive vomiting from severe morning sickness. There is also evidence to suggest that Charlotte died from typhus she may have caught from Tabitha Ackroyd, the Brontë household's oldest servant, who died shortly before her. Charlotte was interred in the family vault in The Church of St. Michael and All Angels, Haworth, West Yorkshire, England. A postum idealized portrait by Duyckinick, 1873, based on a drawing by George Richmond The Life of Charlotte Brontë, the posthumous biography of Charlotte Brontë by fellow novelist Elizabeth Gaskell, was the first of many biographies about Charlotte to be published. Though quite frank in places, Gaskell suppressed details of Charlotte's love for Heger, a married man, as being too much of an affront to contemporary morals and as a possible source of distress to Charlotte's still-living friends, father and husband (Lane 1853 178–183). Gaskell also provided doubtful and inaccurate information about Patrick Brontë, claiming, for example, that he did not allow his children to eat meat. This is refuted by one of Emily Brontë's diary papers, in which she describes the preparation of meat and potatoes for dinner at the parsonage, as Juliet Barker points out in her recent biography, The Brontës. It was discovered that Charlotte wrote 20 manuscript pages of a book, but died before she could finish; however, another author, Clare Boylan, took up the project and the novel was released under the title of Emma Brown: A Novel from the Unfinished Manuscript by Charlotte Brontë in 2007. Under the collective title Brotherly Sisters, Terence Pettigrew tells the Brontë story in fifty-three individual narrative poems. The collection starts with their father's farewell to his native Ireland in 1802 (The Road From Drumballyroney) and ends with a poignant description of Anne Brontë's death, in Scarborough, in 1849 (Do Angels Feel The Cold ?). Charlotte is also the central figure in the play The Gales Of March which tells the story of the Brontë family through her eyes on the eve of her death. Novels Jane Eyre, published 1847 Shirley, published 1849 Villette, published 1853 The Professor, written before Jane Eyre and rejected by many publishing houses, was published posthumously in 1857 Emma, unfinished; Charlotte Brontë wrote only 20 pages of the manuscript. The book was later finished by author Clare Boylan and released in 2003 under the title Emma Brown. Poetry Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell (1846) Selected Poems of The Brontës, Everyman Poetry, (1997) References Margaret Lane (1953) The Brontë Story: a reconsideration of Mrs. Gaskell's Life of Charlotte Brontë. Further reading The Letters of Charlotte Brontë, 3 volumes edited by Margaret Smith The Life of Charlotte Brontë, Elizabeth Gaskell Charlotte Brontë, Winifred Gérin Charlotte Brontë: a passionate life, Lyndal Gordon The Literary Protégées of the Lake Poets, Dennis Low (Chapter 1 contains a revisionist contextualization of Robert Southey's infamous letter to Charlotte Brontë) Charlotte Brontë: Unquiet Soul, Margot Peters In the Footsteps of the Brontës, Ellis Chadwick Charlotte Brontë, Rebecca Fraser The Brontës, Juliet Barker Charlotte Brontë and her Dearest Nell, Barbara Whitehead The Brontë Myth, Lucasta Miller A Life in Letters, selected by Juliet Barker Charlotte Brontë and her Family, Rebecca Fraser The Oxford Reader's Companion to the Brontës, Christine Alexander & Margaret Smith A Brontë Family Chronology, Edward Chitham The Crimes of Charlotte Bronte, James Tilly, 1999 External links Website of the Brontë Parsonage Museum in Haworth, Yorkshire Brontë Parsonage Blog Charlotte Bronte Bibliography Online editions of Charlotte Brontë's works at eBooks@Adelaide Charlotte Brontë — Drawing by George Richmond (National Portrait Gallery) Charlotte Brontë and Her Circle, by Clement K. Shorter, from Project Gutenberg More Information about Charlotte Bronte Charlotte's Web: A Hypertext on Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre Memorial Page for Charlotte Bronte on FindaGrave Dutch website on the Brontës
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3,190
Green_Party_(Ireland)
The Green Party (; lit. Green Alliance) is a green political party in Ireland. It was founded as the Ecology Party of Ireland in 1981 by Dublin teacher Christopher Fettes. The party became the Green Alliance in 1983 and in 1987 was renamed to its current title. Green Party candidates have been elected to all levels of government; local, Dáil and European Parliament, and in 2007 the party gained its first representation in the Northern Ireland Assembly, the Northern Ireland party having become a region of the Irish Green Party in the previous year. The Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland have systems of proportional representation called Single Transferable Vote, which gives smaller parties, such as the Green Party, more opportunity to gain representation. On 14 June 2007, following negotiations that agreed on a programme for government, the Green Party entered into government with Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats. History The party's first electoral outing was when 7 candidates contested the November 1982 general election under the Ecology Party banner, winning 0.2% of the vote. Following a name-change, they contested the 1984 European Parliament elections, with their party founder winning 1.9% in the Dublin constituency. The following year they won their first election when Marcus Counihan was elected to Killarney Urban District Council during the 1985 Local Elections. The party nationally ran 34 candidates and won 0.6% of the vote. The party continued to struggle until the general election of 1989 when the again renamed party won its first seat in the national parliament, the Dáil, when Roger Garland was elected in Dublin South. In the general election of 1997 the party gained a seat when John Gormley won a seat in Dublin South East. However, it was not until the general election of 2002 when it made a breakthrough, getting 6 Teachta Dála (TDs) (Members of Parliament) elected to the Dáil with 4% of the national vote. However, in the election to the European Parliament of June 2004, the party lost both of the European Parliament seats which it had won in 1994 and retained in 1999. In the 2004 local elections at county level it increased its number of councillors from 8 to 18 out of 883 and at town council level its number of councillors increased from 5 to 14 out of 744, a big breakthrough at local level for a small party. It's new councillors included Niall Ó Brolcháin, elected in Galway City, and J. J. Power, elected in Naas, which, when coupled with other elected representatives in Cork, Donegal, Louth, Wicklow, Clare, Carlow and Kilkenny, represents a breakout from its perceived traditional Dublin base. Leadership The party did not have a national leader until 2001. At a special "Leadership Convention" in Kilkenny on 6 October 2001, Trevor Sargent was elected the first official leader of the Green Party. He was re-elected to this position in 2003 and again in 2005. Sargent resigned the leadership in the wake of the general election to the 30th Dáil. During the campaign, Sargent had promised that he would not lead the party into Government with Fianna Fáil. In the election outcome the party retained 6 Dáil seats (though losing 1 seat and gaining another), making them the most likely partner for Fianna Fáil. Sargent and the party negotiated a coalition government and at the 12 June membership meeting to approve the agreement, Sargent announced his resignation as leader in fulfilment of his campaign promise. In the subsequent leadership election, John Gormley became the new leader on 17 July 2007, defeating Patricia McKenna by 478 votes to 263. Deputy Leader The Green Party's deputy Leader is Mary White. She won a seat for the Green Party in the May 2007 general election, following closely lost previous efforts. Current The Green Party currently have six TDs and two Senators. They are party leader John Gormley, deputy leader Mary White, Trevor Sargent (who resigned as leader when the Green Party agreed to coalition with Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats), Eamon Ryan, Ciarán Cuffe and Paul Gogarty. Party Chairman Dan Boyle and Déirdre de Búrca were nominated by the Taoiseach to Seanad Éireann after the formation of the Fianna Fáil–Green Party government in 2007. The Green Party has strong links with its counterpart in Northern Ireland, the Green Party in Northern Ireland, which voted to become a region of the Irish Green Party in 2005 at its Annual Convention, and again in a postal ballot in March 2006. Brian Wilson, formerly a councillor for the Alliance Party, won the Green Party's first seat in the Northern Ireland Assembly in the 2007 election. Although it is a member of the European Federation of Green Parties, the Irish Green Party has adopted a notably more eurosceptic stance than is usually articulated by the Federation. The Green Party also has a youth wing, known as Young Greens, which has several hundred members in branches throughout the country. Founded in 2002, it campaigns for protection of the environment, human rights and more funding for education. It is closely associated with youth members of the Green Party in Northern Ireland. In 2004 it became associated with the Federation of Young European Greens. The National Executive Committee is the organising committee of the party. It comprises the party leader John Gormley, deputy leader Mary White, Chair Dan Boyle, Young Greens representative, Treasurer and ten members elected annually at the party convention Structures / About / Home - Green Party / Comhaontas Glas . As of 21 March 2008, its 15 members are People / Home - Green Party / Comhaontas Glas : John Gormley - Party Leader Mary White - Party Deputy Leader Dan Boyle - Party Chairman Martin Nolan - Party Treasurer Elizabeth Davidson - Deputy National Coordinator Barra Roantree - Young Greens Representative Andrew Byrne Elizabeth Davidson Andrew Murphy - National Coordinator Cadogan Enright Edel Hackett Sara Garbett Phil Kearney Stiofan Nutty Karly Greene Dáil election 2007 Although the party's share of first preference votes increased by some 22% from 3.84% to 4.69% nationally in the 2007 general election, held on 24 May 2007, the party failed to increase the number of TDs returned. The party targeted fifteen constituencies with the aim of winning at least seven seats. Mary White won a seat for the first time in Carlow-Kilkenny becoming that constituency's first ever female TD. However, Dan Boyle lost his seat in Cork South Central leaving the party with the same number of TDs as before. Carlow-Kilkenny – Mary White TD Cavan-Monaghan – Vincent P Martin MCC Clare – Brian Meaney MCC Cork East – Sarah Iremonger Cork North Central – Chris O'Leary MCC Cork North West – Caroline Robinson Cork South Central – Dan Boyle Cork South West – Quentin Gargan Donegal North East – Frank Gallagher Donegal South West – Seán Ó Maolchalann Dublin Central – Patricia McKenna Dublin Mid West – Paul Gogarty TD Dublin North Central – Bronwen Maher MCC Dublin North East – David Healy MCC Dublin North West – Declan Fitzgerald Dublin North – Trevor Sargent TD Dublin North – Joe Corr MCC Dublin South Central – Tony McDermott MCC Dublin South East – John Gormley TD Dublin South West – Elizabeth Davidson Dublin South – Eamon Ryan TD Dublin West – Roderic O'Gorman Dún Laoghaire – Ciarán Cuffe TD Galway East – Máiréad Ní Chróinín Galway West – Niall Ó Brolcháin MCC Kerry North – David Grey Kerry South – John Hickey Kildare North – Shane Fitzgerald MCC Kildare South – J. J. Power MCC Laois-Offaly – Máire McKay Limerick East – Trish Forde Brennan Limerick West – James Nix Longford-Westmeath – Betty Doran TC Louth – Mark Dearey TC Mayo – Peter Enright Meath East – Seán Ó Buachalla Meath West – Brian Flanagan Roscommon-South Leitrim – Garreth McDaid Sligo-North Leitrim – Brian Scanlon Tipperary North – Paul McNally Tipperary South – Bernard Lennon Waterford – Brendan McCann Wexford – Tom Harpur Wicklow – Déirdre de Búrca The Green Party in Government The Green Party entered into government with Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats on 14 June 2007 and has two senior ministers John Gormley, Minister for the Environment, Heritage and Local Government and Eamon Ryan, Minister for Communications, Energy & Natural Resources. Trevor Sargent is the junior minister for Minister of State for Food and Horticulture. The Green Party approached the 2007 General Election on an independent platform, ruling out no coalition partners while expressing its preference for an alternative to the incumbent coalition . The results of the election ruled out the possibility of a Fine Gael/Labour/Green government without support from a combination of the Progressive Democrats, Sinn Féin and various independents (77 seats) leaving it 7 seats short of a majority http://electionsireland.org/results/general/30thdail/resultssummary.cfm . Fine Gael ruled out a potential coalition arrangement with Sinn Féin opening the way for Green Party negotiations with Fianna Fáil. The Negotiations for Government Before the negotiations began Ciarán Cuffe wrote on his blog that "a deal with Fianna Fáil would be a deal with the devil... and [the Green Party would be] decimated as a Party." . The negotiations were undertaken by Dan Boyle, Donall Geoghegan (the party's general secretary) and the at that time party Chair John Gormley. The Green Party walked out after 6 days in what Donall Geoghegan later said was due to there not being "enough in [the deal] to allow [the Green Party] to continue". The negotiations restarted on the 11th June with a draft programme for government being agreed one day later, which under party rules needed 66% of members to endorse it at a special convention. On 13 June 2007, Green members in the Mansion House, Dublin, voted 86% in favour (441 to 67; with 2 spoilt votes) of entering coalition with Fianna Fáil. The following day, the six Green Party TDs voted for the re-election of Bertie Ahern as Taoiseach. This is the first time in Irish history that the Green Party have entered government, and also the first time an all-island party has been in power in Dublin since the 1920s. Criticisms Before their entry into government, the Green Party were vocal supporters of the Shell to Sea movement Shell to Sea' campaign gets cross-party support BreakingNews.ie, 21 November 2006. , the campaign to reroute the M3 motorway away from Tara and (to a lesser extent) the campaign to end United States military use of Shannon airport. Military use of Shannon not a campaign issue, but now contentious Village, 12 June 2007 Since the Green Party entered government, there has been no substantive change in government policy on these issues, which means Eamon Ryan now oversees the Corrib gas project. The Green Party made an inquiry into the irregularities surrounding the project (see Corrib gas controversy) a precondition of government at their last annual conference Prominent Shell to Sea activist to oversee Corrib project Indymedia.ie, 16 June 2007. . The County Mayo branch of the party still supports moves to move the refinery to an alternative location Connaught Telegraph, July 5 2008 . 2008 Budget The 2008 budget, announced on 6 December 2007, did not include a carbon levy on fuels such as petrol, diesel and home heating oil, which the Green Party had sought before the election. . A carbon levy is, however, included in the agreed Programme for Government and will be introduced at some stage during the lifetime of this government http://www.greenparty.ie/government/agreed_programme_for_government . The 2008 budget did include a separate carbon budget announced by Gormley, which introduced new energy efficiency tax credit, a ban on incandescent bulbs from January 2009, and a new scale of Vehicle Registration Tax based on carbon emissions. The Lisbon Treaty In 2007, the Green Party launched an internal debate on the party's stance on the Lisbon Treaty. At a special convention on 19 January 2008 to consider whether or not to support what would become the Twenty-eighth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland, the party voted 63.5% in favour of supporting the Lisbon which did not meet the party's two-third majority requirement for policy issues. As a result, the Green Party itself did not participate in the referendum debate, although individual members were free to be involved in whatever side they chose. References External links Green Party Official website Green Party 2007 election manifesto (from the Wayback Machine) RTÉ News: FF and Green Party agree programme for government (12 June 2007) See also :Category:Irish Green Party politicians Green party Green politics List of environmental organizations List of political parties in the Republic of Ireland
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3,191
Dagome_iudex
"Dagome iudex" is the name applied to one of the earliest documents believed to relate to Poland. "Poland" is not mentioned by that name, but reference is made to Dagome and Ote (Mieszko I and his wife, Oda von Haldensleben) and their sons in 991, placing their territory (the "state in whole which is called Schinesghe") under the protection of the Apostolic See. The document's name derives from two of its opening words. Nature and import of the Dagome iudex The Dagome iudex survives only in the form of a summary, completed c. 1080. It was found in a register compiled by a curial cardinal during the papacy of Gregory VII. Most historians believe that the word "Dagome" is a melding of two names: the Christian "Dago," for "Dagobert" (Mieszko's hypothetical baptismal name), and the Slavic "Me," for "Mieszko." The Latin word "iudex" ("judge") would be used in the meaning of "prince." Another interpretation is that "Dagome iudex" is a corruption of "Ego Mesco dux" ("I, Prince Mieszko"). Place names are misspelled by the person who made the summary. He was also apparently unaware that the document related to territory later called Poland. The boundaries of the "Gniezno" state are described as extending to the "Long Sea" (the Baltic), Prussia, Rus', Kraków, Moravia and the Oder River. The document did not take account of Mieszko's territorial conquests of 989 - 990, Lesser Poland and Silesia. The Dagome iudex is of capital importance for Polish history in giving a general description of the future Polish state in that period. It, however, leaves unanswered many questions. First, it does not explain why Mieszko I placed his state under the protection of the Pope. Also, it is unclear why the document does not mention Mieszko's eldest son, Bolesław I the Brave. Mentioned instead are his sons by his second wife, Oda. No mention is made, too, of the third son from that marriage, Świętopełk. In addition, it is not clear why the city of Kraków, which had probably been conquered by Mieszko before the document was drawn up, is mentioned as a borderland and not as part of the "Shinesghe civitas." Finally, Mieszko I is not referred to as "Dagome" in any other document. Historians suppose that Bolesław's absence from the document might be explained by an old Slavic custom whereby children received their inheritance as soon as they reached the age of majority. Thus Bolesław the Brave might have received Kraków as his part of his father's legacy before the Dagome iudex had been written. Text of the Dagome iudex In the Latin: Item in alio tomo sub Iohanne XV papa Dagome iudex et Ote senatrix et filii eorum: Misicam et Lambertus - nescio cuius gentis homines, puto autem Sardos fuisse, quoniam ipsi a III iudicibus reguntur - leguntur beato Petro contulisse unam civitatem in integro, que vocatur Schinesghe, cum omnibus suis pertinentiis infra hos affines, sicuti incipit a primo latere longum mare, fine Bruzze usque in locum, qui dicitur Russe et fines Russe extendente usque in Craccoa et ab ipsa Craccoa usque ad flumen Oddere recte in locum, qui dicitur Alemure, et ab ipsa Alemura usque in terram Milze recte intra Oddere et exinde ducente iuxta flumen Oddera usque in predictam civitatem Schinesghe. In English translation: "Also in another volume from the times of Pope John XV, Dagome, "Dagome" is commonly identified as Mieszko I. However, the question remains open whether this was a misspelling or his Christian name. If the latter, it might correspond to the names "Dago," "Dagon" or "Dagobert." lord, In classical Latin, the term iudex was used to refer to "a person who is ordered to do some work on behalf of others" and was identical in meaning to the Byzantine archont. However, in mediaeval Latin iudex could also mean a sovereign ruler. Princes of Slavic tribes were sometimes referred to as iudices. Nevertheless, some historians claim that this was a misspelling of the Latin dux ("duke" or "prince"). and Ote, lady, Literally, "old woman." Cf. "senate." and their sons Misico and Lambert It is unclear why Bolesław I the Brave, Mieszko's eldest son and his successor, is not mentioned while the children from Mieszko's marriage to Ote are. (I do not know of which nation those people are, but I think they are Sardinians, for those are ruled by three lords Scribe's note. ) were supposed to give to Saint Peter one state in whole which is called Schinesghe, The origin of the name Schinesghe is unclear. Some historians argue that it is a corruption of "Gniezno," then Poland's capital. Others identify it with the town of Szczecin. with all its lands in borders which run along the long sea, "Long sea": Some historians identify it with the Baltic Sea, others with the province of Pomerania (the Baltic coast), a part of Poland ca. 990. along Prussia to the place called Rus, thence to Kraków and from said Kraków to the River Oder, straight to a place called Alemure, Alemure might be the city of Olomouc, in Moravia. However, this is uncertain. and from said Alemure to the land of Milczanie, and from the borders of that people to the Oder and from that, going along the River Oder, ending at the earlier mentioned city of Schinesghe." Notes The following notes are based on interpretations by the Polish historian Gerard Labuda.
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3,192
Order_of_the_Eastern_Star
General Grand Chapter logo The Order of the Eastern Star is the largest fraternal organization in the world that both men and women can join. It was established in 1850 by Rob Morris, a lawyer and educator from , who had been an official with the Freemasons. It is based on teachings from the Bible, but is open to people of all monotheistic faiths. It has approximately 10,000 chapters in twenty countries and approximately one million members under its General Grand Chapter. Members of the Order are aged 18 and older; men must be Master Masons and women must have specific relationships with Masons. Originally, a woman would have to be the daughter, widow, wife, sister, or mother of a master Mason, but the Order now allows other relatives as well as allowing Rainbow Girls, Triangle Girls, and Job's Daughters to become members when they become of age. History The Order was created by Rob Morris in 1850 when, while confined by illness, he set down the principles of the order in his Rosary of the Eastern Star. By 1855, he had organized a "Supreme Constellation" in New York, which chartered chapters throughout the United States. In 1866, Dr. Morris started working with Robert Macoy, and handed the Order over to him while Morris was travelling in the Holy Land. Macoy organized the current system of Chapters, and modified Dr. Morris' Rosary into a Ritual. On December 1, 1874, Queen Esther "Esther" meaning STAR. Chapter No. 1 became the first Prince Hall Affiliate chapter of the Order of the Eastern Star when it was established in Washington, D.C by Thornton Andrew Jackson. The "General Grand Chapter" was formed in on November 6, 1876. Committees formed at that time created the Ritual of the Order of the Eastern Star in more or less its current form. Emblem and heroines Officers representing the heroines of the order sit around the altar in the center of the chapter room. The emblem of the Order is a five-pointed star with the white ray of the star pointing downwards towards the manger. In the Chapter room, the downward-pointing white ray points to the West. The character-building lessons taught in the Order are stories inspired by Biblical figures: Adah (Jephthah's daughter, from Judges) Ruth, the widow Esther, the wife Martha (sister of Lazarus, from the Gospel of John) Electa (the "elect lady", from II John), the mother Officers Eastern Star meeting room There are 18 main officers in a full chapter: Worthy Matron - presiding officer Worthy Patron - a Master Mason who provides general supervision Associate Matron - assumes the duties of the Worthy Matron in the absence of that officer Associate Patron - assumes the duties of the Worthy Patron in the absence of that officer Secretary Treasurer Conductress - Leads visitors and initiations. Associate Conductress - Assists with introductions and handles ballot box. Chaplain - leads the Chapter in prayer Marshal Organist Adah Ruth Esther Martha Electa Warder - Sits next to the door inside the meeting room, to make sure those that enter the chapter room are members of the Order. Sentinel - Sits next to the door outside the chapter room, to make sure those that wish to enter are members of the Order. Traditionally, a woman who is elected Associate Conductress will the following year be elected to Conductress, then the next year Associate Matron, and the next year Worthy Matron. A man elected Associate Patron will usually the next year be elected Worthy Patron. Usually the woman who is elected to become Associate Matron will let it be known who she wishes to be her Associate Patron, so the next year they will both go to the East together as Worthy Matron and Worthy Patron. There is no male counterpart to the Conductress and Associate Conductress. Only women are allowed to be Matrons, Conductresses, and the Star Points (Adah, Ruth, etc.) and only men can be Patrons. Headquarters Headquarters building in Washington, D.C. The General Grand Chapter headquarters, the International Temple, is located within the embassy section of Washington, D.C., in the former Perry Belmont Mansion. The mansion was built in 1909 for the purpose of entertaining the guests of Perry Belmont. This included Britain's Prince of Wales in 1919. General Grand Chapter purchased the building in 1935. The secretary of General Grand Chapter lives there while serving his or her term of office. The mansion features works of art from around the world, most of which were given as gifts from various international Eastern Star chapters. Charities The Order has a charitable foundation http://www.easternstar.org/oescharities.htm and from 1986-2001 contributed $513,147 to Alzheimer's disease research, juvenile diabetes research, and juvenile asthma research. It also provides bursaries to students of theology and religious music, as well as other scholarships that differ by jurisdiction. In 2000 over $83,000 was donated. Many jurisdictions support a Masonic and/or Eastern Star retirement center or nursing home for older members; some homes are also open to the public. Famous members Clara Barton Clara Barton, U.S. Nurse Masonic First Day Cover Caroline Ingalls Eva McGown http://www.akpub.com/akttt/stmatts/choirwindow.htm by Helen L. Atkinson at ALASKA INTERNET PUBLISHERS, INC Eleanor Roosevelt Carrie Ingalls Swanzey (daughter of Caroline and sister of Laura) Laura Ingalls Wilder Big Muddy online publications Zora Neal Hurston Nikki Giovanni Maya Angelou See also Order of the Amaranth References External links General Grand Chapter homepage New York Grand Chapter homepage DMOZ Open Directory Project Links on Eastern Star Organizations
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3,193
Classical_education_movement
The Classical education movement advocates a form of education based in the traditions of Western culture, with a particular focus on education as understood and taught in the Middle Ages, with a further glance back to the Ancient Greek concept of Paideia. "Classical education" was first developed by Martianus Capella, and systematized by Petrus Ramus. It is an essential part of Ramism. Capella's original goal was to provide a systematic, memorable framework to teach all human knowledge. Seal of the University of Pennsylvania from 1894 depicting the trivium as a stack of books providing the foundation for a quadrivium of mathematics, natural philosophy (empirical science), astronomy, and theology. __TOC__ The overall organization Classical education developed many of the terms now used to describe modern education. Western classical education has three phases, each with a different purpose. The phases are roughly coordinated with human development, and would ideally be exactly coordinated with each individual student's development. "Primary education" teaches students how to learn. "Secondary education" then teaches a conceptual framework that can hold all human knowledge (history), and then fills in basic facts and practices of the major fields of knowledge, and develops the skills (perhaps in a simplified form) of every major human activity. "Tertiary education" then prepares a person to pursue an educated profession, such as law, theology, military strategy, medicine or science. Primary education Primary education was often called the trivium, which covered grammar, logic, and rhetoric. Logic and rhetoric were often taught in part by the Socratic method, in which the teacher raises questions and the class discusses them. By controlling the pace, the teacher can keep the class very lively, yet disciplined. Grammar Grammar consists of language skills such as reading and the mechanics of writing. An important goal of grammar is to acquire as many words and manage as many concepts as possible so as to be able to express and understand clearly concepts of varying degrees of complexity. Very young students can learn these by rote especially through the use of chant and song. Their minds are often referred to as "sponges", that easily absorb a large number of facts. Classical education traditionally included study of Latin and Greek, which greatly reinforced understanding of grammar, and the workings of a language, and so that students could read the Classics of Western Civilization in the words of the authors. In the modern renaissance of classical education, this period refers to the upper elementary school years. Logic Logic (dialectic) is the art of correct reasoning. The traditional text for teaching logic was Aristotle's Logic. In the modern renaissance of classical education, this logic stage (or dialectic stage) refers to the junior high or middle school aged student, who developmentally is beginning to question ideas and authority, and truly enjoys a debate or an argument. Training in logic, both formal and informal, enables students to critically examine arguments and to analyze their own. Rhetoric Rhetoric debate and composition (which is the written form of rhetoric) are taught to somewhat older (often high school aged) students, who by this point in their education have the concepts and logic to criticize their own work and persuade others. According to Aristotle "Rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic." It is concerned with finding "all the available means of persuasion." The student has learned to reason correctly in the Logic stage so that they can now apply those skills to Rhetoric. Students would read and emulate classical poets such as Ovid and others in learning how to present their arguments well. Secondary education Secondary education, classically the quadrivium or "four ways," classically taught astronomy, arithmetic, music and geometry, usually from Aristotle and Euclid. Sometimes architecture was taught, often from the works of Vitruvius. History was always taught to provide a context, and show political and military development. The classic texts were from ancient authors such as Herodotus, Thucydides, Livy, Cicero and Tacitus. Biographies were often assigned as well; the classic example being Plutarch's "Lives." Biographies help show how persons behave in their context, and the wide ranges of professions and options that exist. As more modern texts became available, these were often added to the curriculum. In the Middle Ages, these were the best available texts. In modern terms, these fields might be called history, natural science, accounting and business, fine arts (at least two, one to amuse companions, and another to decorate one's domicile), military strategy and tactics, engineering, agronomy, and architecture. These are taught in a matrix of history, reviewing the natural development of each field for each phase of the trivium. That is, in a perfect classical education, the historical study is reviewed three times: first to learn the grammar (the concepts, terms and skills in the order developed), next time the logic (how these elements could be assembled), and finally the rhetoric, how to produce good, humanly useful and beautiful objects that satisfy the grammar and logic of the field. History is the unifying conceptual framework, because history is the study of everything that has occurred before the present. A skillful teacher also uses the historical context to show how each stage of development naturally poses questions and then how advances answer them, helping to understand human motives and activity in each field. The question-answer approach is called the "dialectic method," and permits history to be taught Socratically as well. Classical educators consider the Socratic method to be the best technique for teaching critical thinking. In-class discussion and critiques are essential in order for students to recognize and internalize critical thinking techniques. This method is widely used to teach both philosophy and law. It is currently rare in other contexts. Basically, the teacher referees the students' discussions, asks leading questions, and may refer to facts, but never gives a conclusion until at least one student reaches that conclusion. The learning is most effective when the students compete strongly, even viciously in the argument, but always according to well-accepted rules of correct reasoning. That is, fallacies should not be allowed by the teacher. By completing a project in each major field of human effort, the student can develop a personal preference for further education and professional training. Tertiary education Tertiary education was usually an apprenticeship to a person with the desired profession. Most often, the understudy was called a "secretary" and had the duty of carrying on all the normal business of the "master." Philosophy and Theology were both widely taught as tertiary subjects in Universities however. The early biographies of nobles show probably the ultimate form of classical education: a tutor. One early, much-emulated classic example was that Alexander the Great was tutored by Aristotle. Modern interpretations of classical education Much of the current and modern renaissance of classical education is owed to the Dorothy Sayers essay "The Lost Tools of Learning", in which she describes the three stages of the trivium—grammar, logic and rhetoric—as tools by which a student can then analyze and master every other subject. Sayers' perspectives were popularized in the United States by the 1991 publication Douglas J. Wilson's "Recovering the Lost Tools of Learning,"which inspired establishment of a number of classical Christian primary and secondary schools, and even a classical Christian college in 1994 (New Saint Andrews College), that organized as the Association of Classical and Christian Schools in 1997. "Wisdom and Eloquence: A Christian Paradigm for Classical Education" by Robert Littlejohn and Charles T. Evans was published in 2006 (Crossway Books), affirming Dorothy Sayers' contribution to the conversation about classical education, but challenging her assertion that the trivium is applicable as a developmental paradigm. Littlejohn and Evans emphasize the importance of curriculum over pedagogy and the liberal arts' 2500 year history of responding and adapting to current educational needs. "The Well-Trained Mind: A Guide to Classical Education at Home," by Jessie Wise and Susan Wise Bauer (W.W. Norton, 1999), is a modern reference on classical education, particularly in a homeschool setting. It provides a history of classical education, an overview of the methodology and philosophy of classical education, and annotated lists of books divided by grade and topic that list the best books for classical education in each category. The Tapestry of Grace curriculum, by Marcia Somerville et al. (Lampstand Press, Ltd.), enables homeschooling parents with children on multiple levels to implement a full classical education by offering lesson plans and helps, and recommending and selling classical books. "The Grammar of Our Civility: Classical Education in America," by Lee T. Pearcy (2005) provides a theoretical and historical account of classical education in the United States and suggests the need for a distinctly American approach to ancient Greece and Rome. Marva Collins has successfully taught a rapid-fire classical education to inner-city deprived children, many of them labeled as "mentally retarded." Also of note is "A New Trivium and Quadrivium," an article by Dr. George Bugliarello (Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, Vol. 23, No. 2, 106-113 (2003)). In it, he argues that the scope of the classical liberal education is inadequate for today's society, and that people should also be conversant with the basic facts of science and technology, since they now form a much more important part of our lives than did the tertiary studies of antiquity. He argues for a new synthesis of science, engineering, and the humanities in which there is a balance between what can be done and what ought to be done, between human desires and earthly consequences, and between our ever-increasing power to affect our surroundings and the ever-present danger of destroying the ecological and environmental systems which allow us to exist. No discussion of classical education could be complete without mentioning Mortimer Adler and Robert Hutchins, both of the University of Chicago, who set forth in the 1930s to restore the "Great Books" of Western civilization to center stage in the curriculum. Although the standard classical works—such as the Harvard Classics—most widely available at the time, were decried by many as out of touch with modern times, Adler and Hutchins sought to expand on the standard "classics" by including more modern works, and by trying to tie them together in the context of what they described as the "Great Ideas," condensed into a "Syntopicon" index and bundled together with a new "five foot shelf" of books as "The Great Books of the Western World." They were wildly popular during the Fifties, and discussion groups of aficionados were found all over the USA, but their popularity waned during the Sixties and such groups are relatively hard to find today. Extensions to the original set are still being published, encompassing selections from both current and older works which extend the "great ideas" into the present age and other fields, including civil rights, the global environment, and discussions of multiculturalism and assimilation. There still exist a number of informal groups and professional organizations which take the classical approach to education seriously, and who undertake it in earnest. Within the classical Christian education movement, David Hicks, author of Norms and Nobility, the Society for Classical Learning, the Association of Classical and Christian Schools, and the CiRCE Institute, founded by Andrew Kern, co-author with Gene Edward Veith of Classical Education: The Movement Sweeping America, play a leading role. In addition to many middle-schools and high schools across the country, there are at present several universities or colleges in the United States wherein such an Oxonian classical education is taking place: St. John's College (two campuses, one in MD and one in NM) Thomas Aquinas College in Santa Paula, CA New Saint Andrews College in Moscow, ID The Torrey Honors Institute at Biola University, in La Mirada, CA Gutenberg College in Eugene, OR Southeastern College at Wake Forest in Wake Forest, NC Shimer College, part of the University of Chicago At each of these institutions some variation of the Canon of Western Great Books is used as the primary course material, and tutor-led "Socratic discussions" are the primary vehicle for ingestion and digestion of the selected works. A more traditional, but less common view of classical education arises from the ideology of the Renaissance, advocating an education grounded in the languages and literatures of Greece and Rome. The demanding and lengthy training period required for learning to read Greek and Latin texts in their original form has been crowded out in most American schools in favor of contemporary subjects. Latin is taught at some schools, but Greek rarely. Parallels in the East In India the classical education system is based upon the study and understanding of the ancient texts the Vedas, a discipline called Vedanga, and subjects based upon that foundation, referred to as Upaveda and incorporating medicine (Ayurveda), music, archery and other martial arts. Similarly, in China the fulcrum of a classical education was the study and understanding of a core canon, the Four Books and Five Classics. See also Trivium, Quadrivium, Liberal arts, Paideia Western canon Western culture The Apogee Foundation Education reform Grammar school Sister Miriam Joseph Rauh Martianus Capella, Petrus Ramus, Ramism External links The Classical Scholar: Strategies for Homeschool Excellence The Lost Tools of Learning, an essay by Dorothy Sayers The Association of Classical and Christian Schools The Center for the Study of The Great Ideas Classical Academic Press Peace Hill Press, a classical curriculum publisher Classical Conversations Memoria Press: Classical Education Publisher A New Trivium and Quadrivium by Dr. George Bugliarello The CiRCE Institute The Great Books Foundation Texas Classical Association website for Greek Chrysoloras' Greek: The Pedagogy of Cultural Transformation Veritas Press: Classical Education curriculum Colleges professing classical education The Torrey Honors Institute in California Thomas Aquinas College in California St. John's College in Maryland (and New Mexico) The University of Chicago and the Ideal of Liberal Education Gutenberg College, a classical great books college in Eugene, OR Secondary schools professing classical education Liberty Classical Academy in Maplewood, MN Grace Christian Academy, Merrick, Long Island, NY Classical Christian School in San Diego New Saint Andrews College, a classical Christian college in Moscow, ID Logos School of Moscow Idaho Highlands Latin School: Classical Christian School in KY Crosstrip Christian, a classical Christian school in TN The Clapham School: A Classical and Christian School based in Wheaton, IL Naperville Christian Academy: A Classical and Christian School based in Naperville, IL Plano Christian Academy: A Classical and Christian School based in Plano, TX Providence Hall: A Classical and Christian School based in Edmond, OK The Academy at Charlemont: A classical and community based progressive education school in Charlemont, MA Holy Spirit Prep School Trinity Academy of Raleigh Evangel Classical Christian School located in Alabaster, Alabama Ridgeview Classical Schools located in Fort Collins, Colorado North Hills Classical Academy: Grand Rapids, Michigan Veritas Christian Academy near San Jose, California Primary Schools professing classical education Liberty Classical Academy in Maplewood, MN Dominion Christian School: Providing both the Biblical world view, and the intellectual tools to rationally defend that world view. Located in Oakton, Virginia. Providence Classical School: Williamsburg, Virginia, home of the colonial capitol and many of our classically educated founding fathers including Thomas Jefferson Freedom Baptist Schools: Christ-Centered Classical Schools founded in 1981 based in Hudsonville, Michigan St. Michael's Catholic School: An elementary school faithful to the Magisterium of the Catholic Church located in West Memphis, Arkansas. Veritas Christian Academy near San Jose, California Atlanta Classical Christian Academy in Smyrna, Georgia - a Christ-centered classical school "Paideia" philosophy Mississippi Teacher Corps Focus Paper on Paideia "From (mis)education to Paideia" by Takis Fotopoulos, Inclusive DemocracyE-Journal, Issue 4, 2005 "Paideia: Making the Grade" by PBS/UNC-TV. Schools following the "paideia" philosophy The Paideia School, Atlanta, Georgia PAideia PACES Classical Program, Houston, Texas Jones Paideia Elementary Magnet, Nashville, Tennessee Merrol Hyde Magnet, Hendersonville, Tennessee Sylvan Park Paideia School, Nashville, Tennessee Chattanooga School for the Liberal Arts Chattanooga, Tennessee Chattanooga School for the Arts & Sciences Chattanooga, Tennessee Powell Elementary, Chicago School District Paideia Academy, Cincinnati, Wisconsin. Paideia Program, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California Luther College, Decorah, Iowa Bluford Communications Magnet School in Greensboro, North Carolina Jesse Wharton Elementary School in Greensboro, North Carolina Southern Guilford High School in Greensboro, North Carolina Welborn Middle School in High Point, North Carolina Westminster Academy in Memphis, Tennessee References The Trivium: The Liberal Arts of Logic, Grammar, and Rhetoric by Sister Miriam Joseph Rauh, C.S.C., Ph.D. (ISBN 978-0967967509)
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Giacomo_Puccini
Giacomo Puccini Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini (December 22, 1858 – November 29, 1924) was an Italian composer whose operas, including La bohème, Tosca, Madama Butterfly and Turandot, are among the most frequently performed in the standard repertoire. Some of his arias, such as "O mio babbino caro" from Gianni Schicchi, "Che gelida manina" from La bohème, and "Nessun dorma" from Turandot, have become part of popular culture. Early life Puccini's birthplace, seen in 1984 Puccini was born in Lucca in Tuscany, into a family with five generations of musical history behind them, including composer Domenico Puccini. His father died when Giacomo was five years old, and he was sent to study with his uncle Fortunato Magi, who considered him to be a poor and undisciplined student. Later, Puccini took the position of church organist and choir master in Lucca, but it was not until he saw a performance of Verdi's Aida that he became inspired to be an opera composer. He and his brother, Michele, walked 18.5 mi (30 km) to see the performance in Pisa. In 1880, with the help of a relative and a grant, Puccini enrolled in the Milan Conservatory to study composition with Amilcare Ponchielli and Antonio Bazzini. In the same year, at the age of 21, he composed the Messa, which marks the culmination of his family's long association with church music in his native Lucca. Although Puccini himself correctly titled the work a Messa, referring to a setting of the full Catholic Mass, today the work is popularly known as his Messa di Gloria, a name that technically refers to a setting of only the first two prayers of the Mass, the Kyrie and the Gloria, while omitting the Credo, the Sanctus, and the Agnus Dei. The work anticipates Puccini's career as an operatic composer by offering glimpses of the dramatic power that he would soon bring forth onto the stage; the powerful "arias" for tenor and bass soloists are certainly more operatic than is usual in church music and, in its orchestration and dramatic power, the Messa compares interestingly with Verdi's Requiem. While studying at the Conservatory, Puccini obtained a libretto from Ferdinando Fontana and entered a competition for a one-act opera in 1882. Although he did not win, Le Villi was later staged in 1884 at the Teatro Dal Verme and it caught the attention of Giulio Ricordi, head of G. Ricordi & Co. music publishers, who commissioned a second opera, Edgar, in 1889. Puccini at Torre del Lago Original poster for Puccini's Tosca From 1891 onwards, Puccini spent most of his time at Torre del Lago, a small community about fifteen miles from Lucca situated between the Tyrrhenian Sea and Lake Massaciuccoli, just south of Viareggio. While renting a house there, he spent time hunting but regularly visited Lucca. By 1900 he had acquired land and built a villa on the lake, now known as the "Villa Museo Puccini". He lived there until 1921 when pollution produced by peat works on the lake forced him to move to Viareggio, a few kilometres north. After his death, a mausoleum was created in the Villa Puccini and the composer is buried there in the chapel, along with his wife and son who died later. The "Villa Museo Puccini" is presently owned by his granddaughter, Simonetta Puccini, and is open to the public. Operas written at Torre del Lago Manon Lescaut (1893), his third opera, was his first great success. It launched his remarkable relationship with the librettists Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa, who collaborated with him on his next three operas, which became his three most famous and most performed operas. These were: La bohème (1896) is considered one of his best works as well as one of the most romantic operas ever composed. It is with Tosca today's most popular opera. Tosca (1900) was arguably Puccini's first foray into verismo, the realistic depiction of many facets of real life including violence. The opera is generally considered of major importance in the history of opera because of its many significant features. Madama Butterfly (1904) was initially greeted with great hostility (mostly organized by his rivals) but, after some reworking, became another of his most successful operas. After 1904, compositions were less frequent. Following his passion for driving fast cars, Puccini was nearly killed in a major accident in 1903. In 1906 Giacosa died and, in 1909, there was scandal after Puccini's wife, Elvira, falsely accused their maid Doria Manfredi of having an affair with Puccini. The maid then committed suicide. Elvira was successfully sued by the Manfredis, and Giacomo had to pay damages. Finally, in 1912, the death of Giulio Ricordi, Puccini's editor and publisher, ended a productive period of his career. However, Puccini completed La fanciulla del West in 1910 and finished the score of La rondine in 1917. In 1918, Il trittico premiered in New York. This work is composed of three one-act operas: a horrific episode (Il tabarro), in the style of the Parisian Grand Guignol, a sentimental tragedy (Suor Angelica), and a comedy (Gianni Schicchi). Of the three, Gianni Schicchi has remained the most popular, containing the popular O mio babbino caro. The final years Giacomo Puccini with conductor Arturo Toscanini A habitual Toscano cigar chain smoker, Puccini began to complain of chronic sore throats towards the end of 1923. A diagnosis of throat cancer led his doctors to recommend a new and experimental radiation therapy treatment, which was being offered in Brussels. Puccini and his wife never knew how serious the cancer was, as the news was only revealed to his son. Puccini died there on November 29, 1924, from complications from the treatment; uncontrolled bleeding led to a heart attack the day after surgery. News of his death reached New York during a performance of La bohème. The opera was immediately stopped, and the orchestra played Chopin's Funeral March for the stunned audience. He was buried in Milan, but in 1926 his son arranged for the transfer of his father's remains to a specially-created chapel inside the Puccini villa at Torre del Lago. Turandot, his final opera, was left unfinished, and the last two scenes were completed by Franco Alfano based on the composer's sketches. Some dispute whether Alfano followed the sketches or not, since the sketches were said to be indecipherable, but he is believed to have done so, since, together with the autographs, he was given (still existing) transcriptions from Guido Zuccoli who was accustomed to interpreting Puccini's handiwork. When Arturo Toscanini conducted the premiere performance in April 1926 (in front of a sold-out crowd, with every prominent Italian except for Benito Mussolini in attendance), he chose not to perform Alfano's portion of the score. The performance reached the point where Puccini had completed the score, at which time Toscanini stopped the orchestra. The conductor turned to the audience and said: "Here the opera finishes, because at this point the Maestro died." (Some record that he said, more poetically, "Here the Maestro laid down his pen.") Toscanini edited Alfano's suggested completion ('Alfano I'), to produce a version now known as 'Alfano II', and this is the version usually used in performance. However, some musicians (eg Ashbrook & Powers, 1991) consider Alfano I to be a more dramatically complete version. In 2002, an official new ending was composed by Luciano Berio from original sketches, but this finale has to date been performed only infrequently. Politics Unlike Wagner and Verdi, Puccini did not appear to be active in the politics of his day. However, Mussolini, Fascist dictator of Italy at the time, claimed that Puccini applied for admission to the National Fascist Party. While it has been proven that Puccini was indeed among the early supporters of the Fascist party at the time of the election campaign of 1919 (in which the Fascist candidates were utterly defeated, earning a meagre 4,000 votes), there appear to be no records or proof of any application given to the party by Puccini. In addition, it can be noted that had Puccini done so, his close friend Toscanini (an extreme anti-Fascist) would probably have severed all friendly connection with him and ceased conducting his operas. This notwithstanding, Fascist propaganda appropriated Puccini's figure, and one of the most widely played marches during Fascist street parades and public ceremonies was the "Inno a Roma" (Hymn to Rome), composed in 1919 by Puccini to lyrics by Fausto Salvatori, based on these verses from Horace's Carmen saeculare: Alme Sol, curru nitido diem qui / Promis et celas alius que et idem / Nasceris, possis nihil urbe Roma / Visere maius. (O Sun, that unchanged, yet ever new, / Lead'st out the day and bring'st it home, / May nothing be present to thy view / Greater than Rome!) Style The subject of Puccini's style is one that has been long avoided by musicologists; this avoidance can perhaps be attributed to the perception that his work, with its emphasis on melody and evident popular appeal, lacked "seriousness" (a similar prejudice beset Rachmaninoff during his lifetime). Despite the place Puccini clearly occupies in the popular tradition of Verdi, his style of orchestration also shows the strong influence of Wagner, matching specific orchestral configurations and timbres to different dramatic moments. His operas contain an unparalleled manipulation of orchestral colors, with the orchestra often creating the scene's atmosphere. The structures of Puccini's works are also noteworthy. While it is to an extent possible to divide his operas into arias or numbers (like Verdi's), his scores generally present a very strong sense of continuous flow and connectivity, perhaps another sign of Wagner's influence. Like Wagner, Puccini used leitmotifs to connote characters (or combinations of characters). This is apparent in Tosca, where the three chords which signal the beginning of the opera are used throughout to announce Scarpia. Several motifs are also linked to Mimi and the bohemians in La bohème and to Cio-Cio-San's eventual suicide in Butterfly. Unlike Wagner, though, Puccini's motifs are static: where Wagner's motifs develop into more complicated figures as the characters develop, Puccini's remain more or less identical throughout the opera (in this respect anticipating the themes of modern musical theatre). Another distinctive quality in Puccini's works is the use of the voice in the style of speech: characters sing short phrases one after another as if they were talking to each other. Puccini is celebrated, on the other hand, for his melodic gift, and many of his melodies are both memorable and enduringly popular. These melodies are often made of sequences from the scale, a very distinctive example being Quando me'n vo''' (Musetta's Waltz) from La bohème and E lucevan le stelle from Act III of Tosca. Today, it is rare not to find at least one Puccini aria included in an operatic singer's CD album or recital. Unusual for operas written by Italian composers up until that time, many of Puccini’s operas are set outside Italy – in exotic places such as Japan (Madama Butterfly), gold-mining country in California (La fanciulla del West), Paris and the Riviera (La rondine), and China (Turandot). Pulitzer Prize-winning music critic Lloyd Schwartz summarized Puccini thus: "Is it possible for a work of art to seem both completely sincere in its intentions and at the same time counterfeit and manipulative? Puccini built a major career on these contradictions. But people care about him, even admire him, because he did it both so shamelessly and so skillfully. How can you complain about a composer whose music is so relentlessly memorable, even — maybe especially — at its most saccharine?" Music Although Puccini is mainly known for his operas, he also wrote some other orchestral pieces, sacred music, chamber music and songs for voice and piano. Puccini's operas Le Villi, libretto by Ferdinando Fontana (in one act – premiered at the Teatro Dal Verme, 31 May 1884) second version (in two acts – premiered at the Teatro Regio, 26 December 1884) third version (in two acts – premiered at the Teatro alla Scala, 24 January 1885) fourth version (in two acts – premiered at the Teatro dal Verme, 7 November 1889) Edgar, libretto by Ferdinando Fontana (in four acts – premiered at the Teatro alla Scala, 21 April 1889) second version (in four acts – premiered at the Teatro del Giglio, 5 September 1891) third version (in three acts – premiered at the Teatro Comunale, 28 January 1892) fourth version (in three acts – premiered at the Teatro Colón di Buenos Aires, 8 July 1905) Manon Lescaut, libretto by Luigi Illica, Marco Praga and Domenico Oliva (premiered at the Teatro Regio, 1 February 1893) second version (premiered at the Teatro Coccia, 21 December 1893) La bohème, libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa (premiered at the Teatro Regio, 1 February 1896) Tosca, libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa (premiered at the Teatro Costanzi, 14 January 1900) Madama Butterfly, libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa (in two acts – premiered at the Teatro alla Scala, 17 February 1904) second version (in two acts – premiered at the Teatro Grande di Brescia, 28 May 1904) third version (premiered at Covent Garden, London 10 July 1905) fourth version (premiered at the Opéra-Comique in Paris, 28 December 1906) fifth version (premiered at the Teatro Carcano, 9 December 1920) La fanciulla del West, libretto by Guelfo Civinini and Carlo Zangarini (premiered at the Metropolitan, 10 December 1910) second version (premiered at the Teatro alla Scala, 29 Decembre 1912) La rondine, libretto by Giuseppe Adami (premiered at the Opéra of Monte Carlo, 27 March 1917) second version (premiered at the Opéra of Monte Carlo, 10 April 1920) third version (possible premier at the Teatro Verdi, 11 April 1924); orchestration of the third act completed in 1994 by Lorenzo Ferrero (premièred at Teatro Regio, 22 March 1994) Il trittico (premiered at the Metropolitan, 14 December 1918)Il tabarro, libretto by Giuseppe Adami Suor Angelica, libretto by Giovacchino ForzanoGianni Schicchi, libretto by Giovacchino Forzano Turandot, libretto by Renato Simoni and Giuseppe Adami (incomplete at the time of Puccini's death, completed by Franco Alfano: premiered at the Teatro alla Scala, 25 April 1926; an alternative completion was commissioned from Luciano Berio in 2002) Puccini's other works and versions (with dates of premieres and locations)A te (c.1875)Preludio a orchestra (1876)Plaudite populi (Lucca, 1877)Credo (Lucca, 1878)Vexilla Regis (1878)Messa a 4 voci con orchestra (Lucca, 1880) Published in 1951 as Messa di GloriaAdagio in A major (1881)Largo Adagetto in F major (c.1881-83)Salve del ciel Regina (c.1882)Mentìa l’avviso (c.1882)Preludio Sinfonico in A major (Milan, 1882)Fugues (c.1883)Scherzo in D (1883)Storiella d’amore (1883)Capriccio Sinfonico (Milan, 1883)Sole ed amore (1888) Crisantemi (String Quartet, 1890, "Alla memoria di Amadeo di Savoia Duca d'Aosta")Minuetto n.1 (String Quartet, published about 1892, "A.S.A.R. Vittoria Augusta di Borbone, Principessa di Capua")Minuetto n.2 (String Quartet, published about 1892, "All'esimio violinista prof. Augusto Michelangeli")Minuetto n.3 (String Quartet, published about 1892, "All'amico maestro Carlo Carignani")Piccolo valzer (1894)Avanti Urania! (1896)Scossa elettrica (1896) Inno a Diana (1897)E l'uccellino (1899) Terra e mare (1902) Canto d’anime (1904)Requiem (27 January 1905, Milan) Casa mia, casa mia (1908) Sogno d'or (1913)Pezzo per pianoforte (1916) Morire? (c.1917) - sometimes used in an alternate ending to La rondineInno a Roma (1 June 1919, Rome) Centres for Puccini Studies Founded in 1996 in Lucca, the Centro studi Giacomo Puccini embraces a wide range of approaches to the study of Puccini's work. In the USA, the American Center for Puccini Studies specializes in the presentation of unusual performing editions of composer's works and introduces many neglected or unknown Puccini pieces to the music loving public. It was founded in 2004 by a leading Puccini artist and scholar, Dr. Harry Dunstan. Detailed information about both organizations exists on their websites. Samples See also Festival Puccini; the annual Festival of Puccini's operas in Torre del Lago. Julian Budden; author on Puccini, and sometime President of Centro Studi di Giacomo Puccini Ferdinando Fontana; librettist for Puccini's first two operas Notes References Jim Svejda. The Record Shelf Guide to the Classical Repertoire (1990) ISBN 1559580518 Ashbrook W & Powers H (1991) Puccini's Turandot:The End of the Great Tradition, Princeton Univ. Press Carner, Mosco (1959) Puccini:A Critical Biography'', Alfred Knopf External links Giacomo Puccini at w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de San Diego Opera's Operapaedia at www.operapaedia.org Centro Studi di Giacomo Puccini American Center for Puccini Studies Festival Puccini e la sua Lucca Encyclopaedia Britannica, Giacomo Puccini Puccini cylinder recordings, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library. Manon Lescaut MP3 Creative Commons Recording Puccini's music in movies Free MP3 Puccini's operas
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preservation_digitization:1 digitization_project:1 santa_barbara:1
3,195
Relativist_fallacy
The relativist fallacy, also known as the subjectivist fallacy, is a formal fallacy committed, roughly speaking, when one person claims that something may be true for one person but not true for someone else. The fallacy is supposed to rest on the law of non-contradiction. The fallacy, it is said, applies only to objective facts, or what are alleged to be objective facts, rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences, and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time. On this formulation, the very name "relativist fallacy" begs the question against anyone who earnestly (however mistakenly or not) holds that there are no "objective facts." So some more work has to be done, in a non-question-begging way, to make it clear wherein, exactly, the fallacy lies. There are at least two ways to interpret "the relativist fallacy": either as identical to relativism (generally), or as the ad hoc adoption of a relativist stance purely to defend a controversial position. On the one hand, those discussions of the relativist fallacy which make the fallacy out to be identical to relativism (e.g., linguistic relativism or cultural relativism) are themselves committing a commonly-identified fallacy of informal logic, namely, begging the question against an earnest, intelligent, logically-competent relativist. It is itself a fallacy to describe a controversial view as a "fallacy"—not, at least, without arguing that it is a fallacy. In any event, it will not do to argue as follows: To advocate relativism, even some sophisticated relativism, is to commit the relativist fallacy. If one commits a fallacy, one says something false or not worth serious consideration. Therefore, to advocate relativism, even some sophisticated relativism, is to say something false or not worth serious consideration. This is an example of circular reasoning. On the other hand, if someone adopts a simple relativist stance as an ad hoc defense of a controversial or otherwise compromised position—saying, in effect, that "what is true for you is not necessarily true for me," and thereby attempting to avoid having to mount any further defense of the position—one might be said to have committed a fallacy. The accusation of having committed a fallacy might rest on either of two grounds: (1) the relativism on which the bogus defense rests is so simple and meritless that it straightforwardly contradicts the Law of Non-Contradiction; or (2) the defense (and thus the fallacy itself) is an example of ad hoc reasoning. It puts one in the position of asserting or implying that truth or standards of logical consistency are relative to a particular thinker or group and that under some other standard, the position is correct despite its failure to stand up to logic. On any interpretation of the fallacy, in determining whether the relativist fallacy has been committed, one should distinguish between things which are true for a particular person, and things which are true about that person. Take, for example, the statement proffered by Jim, "More Americans than ever are overweight." One may introduce arguments for and against this proposition, based upon such things as standards of statistical analysis, the definition of "overweight," etc. It is a position which answers to objective logical debate. If Joe answers Jim, saying "That may be true for you, but it is not true for me," he has given an answer which is fallacious as well as being somewhat meaningless in the context of Jim's original statement. Conversely, take the new statement by Jim, who is tall, "] is grossly overweight." Joe, who is , and weighs an exact, well-conditioned , replies, "That may be true for you, but it is not true for me." In this context, Joe's reply is both meaningful and arguably accurate. As he is discussing something which is true about himself, he is not barred from making an argument which considers subjective facts, and so he does not commit the fallacy. See also Formal fallacy Informal fallacy
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3,196
Continuity_Irish_Republican_Army
The Continuity Irish Republican Army (CIRA) is an Irish republican paramilitary organisation that emerged from a split in the Provisional IRA in 1986. It considers itself a direct continuation of the Irish Republican Army (the army of the unilaterally-declared 1919–1922 Irish Republic) that fought in the Irish War of Independence; as such, its supporters regard it as the national army of the Irish Republic occupying all 32 counties of the island of Ireland. It is designated as an illegal organisation in the Republic of Ireland and a designated terrorist organisation in the United Kingdom and the United States. Origins 1986 IRA General Army Convention The Continuity IRA has its origins in a split in the Provisional IRA. In September 1986, the Provisional IRA held a meeting of its General Army Convention (GAC), the organisation’s supreme decision-making body. It was the first GAC in sixteen years. The meeting, which like all such meetings was secret, was convened to discuss among other resolutions, the articles of the Provisional IRA constitution which dealt with abstentionism, its opposition to the taking of seats in Dáil Éireann. J Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army: The IRA, Poolbeg, revised third edition, Dublin, 1997, ISBN 1 85371 813 0 The GAC passed motions (by the necessary two-thirds majority) allowing members of the Provisional IRA to discuss and debate the taking of parliamentary seats, and the removal of the ban on members of the organisation from supporting any successful republican candidate who took their seat in Dáil Éireann. "Essentially since the spring of 1972, the crucial player in the armed struggle has been the Provisional IRA—now the IRA. (Authors Italics) J. Bowyer Bell, IRA: Tactics & Targets, Poolbeg, First Published 1990, Reprinted 1993, This Edition 1998, Dublin, ISBN 1 85371 603 0. The Provisional IRA convention delegates opposed to the change in the Constitution claimed that the convention was gerrymandered "by the creation of new IRA organisational structures for the convention, including the combinations of Sligo-Roscommon-Longford and Wicklow-Wexford-Waterford." Robert White, Ruairí Ó Brádaigh, The Life and Politics of an Irish Revolutionary, 2006, p. 309. The only IRA body that supported this viewpoint was the outgoing IRA Executive. Those members of the outgoing Executive who opposed the change comprised a quorum. They met, dismissed those in favour of the change, and set up a new Executive. They contacted Tom Maguire, who had legitimated the Provisionals in 1969, and asked him for support. Maguire had also been contacted by supporters of Gerry Adams, then and now President of Sinn Féin, and a supporter of the change in the Provisional IRA constitution. Maguire rejected Adams' supporters, supported the IRA Executive members opposed to the change, and named the new organisers the Continuity Army Council. Robert White, Ruairí Ó Brádaigh, the Life and Politics of an Irish Revolutionary. 2006. Indiana University Press. p310 In a 1986 statement, he rejected "the legitimacy of an Army Council styling itself the Council of the Irish Republican Army which lends support to any person or organisation styling itself as Sinn Féin and prepared to enter the partition parliament of Leinster House." In 1987, Maguire described the "Continuity Executive" as the "lawful Executive of the Irish Republican Army." Ruairí Ó Brádaigh, Dilseacht, The Story of Comdt. General Tom Maguire and the Second (all-Ireland) Dáil, 1997, pp. 65-66. Claim to legitimacy Thus, similar to the claim put forward by the Provisional IRA after its split from the Official IRA in 1969, the Continuity IRA claims to be the legitimate continuation of the 'Irish Republican Army' or Óglaigh na hÉireann. This argument is based on the view that the surviving anti-Treaty members of the Second Dáil delegated their "authority" to the IRA Army Council in 1938. As further justification for this claim, Tom Maguire, one of those anti-Treaty members of the Second Dáil, issued a statement in favour of the Continuity IRA as he had done in 1969 in favour of the Provisionals. J. Bowyer Bell, in his The Irish Troubles, describes Maguire's opinion in 1986, "abstentionism was a basic tenet of republicanism, a moral issue of principle. Abstentionism gave the movement legitimacy, the right to wage war, to speak for a Republic all but established in the hearts of the people". J. Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army, The IRA, Poolbeg, revised third edition, Dublin, 1997, ISBN 1 85371 813 0, p. 575. Maguire's stature was such that a delegation from Gerry Adams sought his support in 1986, but was rejected. Robert W. White, Ruairí Ó Brádaigh, The Life and Politics of an Irish Revolutionary, 2006, p. 310.</ref> Although the vast majority of the Irish people rejected this view, until recently even Gerry Adams agreed with the view that the legitimate political authority in Ireland was vested in the Army Council. Relationship to other organisations These changes within the military wing of the Republican Movement were accompanied by changes in the political wing and at the 1986 Sinn Féin Ard Fheis (party conference), which followed the IRA Convention, the party's policy of abstentionism, which forbade Sinn Féin elected representatives from taking seats in the Oireachtas, the parliament of Ireland, was dropped. On November 2, the 628 delegates present cast their votes, the result being 429 to 161. The traditionalists, having lost at both conventions, walked out of the Mansion House, met that evening at the West County Hotel, and reformed as Republican Sinn Féin. J Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army, The IRA, Poolbeg, revised third edition, Dublin, 1997, ISBN 1 85371 813 0 According to a report in the Cork Examiner, the Continuity IRA's first chief of staff was Dáithí Ó Conaill, who also served as the first chairman of RSF from 1986 to 1987. The Continuity IRA and RSF perceive themselves as forming a "true" Republican Movement. See text of Ruairí Ó Brádaigh's 2005 Bodenstown oration Structure and status The leadership of the Continuity IRA is believed to be based in the Munster and Ulster areas. It is alleged that its chief of staff is a Limerick man and that a number of other key members are from that county. He is believed to have been in this position since the death of Dáithí Ó Conaill, the first chief of staff, in 1991. In 2004 the United States (US) government believed the Continuity IRA consisted of fewer than fifty hardcore activists. In 2005, Irish Minister for Justice, Equality & Law Reform Michael McDowell told Dáil Éireann that the organisation had a maximum of 150 members. The CIRA is an illegal organisation under UK (section 11(1) of the Terrorism Act 2000) and Irish law due to the use of 'IRA' in the group's name in a situation analogous to that of the Real Irish Republican Army (RIRA). Membership of the organisation is punishable by a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment under UK law. On 13 July 2004, the US government designated the CIRA as a 'Foreign Terrorist Organization' (FTO). US Department of State, Office of Counterterrorism Fact sheet 2005 This made it illegal for Americans to provide material support to the CIRA, requires US financial institutions to block the group's assets and denies alleged CIRA members visas into the US.<ref>{{cite web | title = CIRA added to US terror list | author = | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/3891791.stm | publisher = BBC News | date = 13 July 2004 | accessdate = 2007-05-18}} External aid and arsenal The US government suspects the Continuity IRA of having received funds and arms from supporters in the United States. Security sources in Ireland have expressed the suspicion that, in cooperation with the RIRA, the Continuity IRA may have acquired arms and material from the Balkans. They also suspect that the Continuity IRA arsenal contains some weapons that were taken from Provisional IRA arms dumps, including a few dozen rifles, machine guns, and pistols; a small amount of the explosive Semtex; and a few dozen detonators. Activities CIRA video Initially, the Continuity IRA did not reveal its existence, either in the form of press statements or paramilitary activity. Although the Garda Síochána had suspicions that the organisation existed, they were unsure of its name, labelling it the "Irish National Republican Army". On January 21, 1994, on the 75th anniversary of the First Dáil Éireann, Continuity IRA volunteers offered a "final salute" to Tom Maguire by firing over his grave, and a public statement and a photo were published in Saoirse. "Final Salute to Comdt-General Tom Maguire," Saoirse, Feabhra-February, 1994, p. 2; see also, Robert White, Ruairi O Bradaigh, the Life and Politics of an Irish Revolutionary. 2006. Indiana University Press, pp. 323-24. It was only after the Provisional IRA declared a ceasefire in 1994 that the Continuity IRA became active, announcing its intention to continue the campaign against British rule. The CIRA continues to oppose the Belfast Agreement and, unlike the Provisional IRA (and the Real IRA in 1998), as of 2009 the CIRA has not announced a ceasefire or agreed to participate in weapons decommissioning - nor is there any evidence that it will. In the Eighteenth Independent Monitoring Commission's report, the RIRA, the CIRA and the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) were deemed a potential future threat. The CIRA was labeled "active, dangerous and committed and... capable of a greater level of violent and other crime." More than the other Republican and loyalist paramilitaries. Like the Óglaigh na hÉireann (ONH) and the RIRA, they too sought funds for expansion. They are also known to have worked with the INLA. IMC May 2008 Report The Continuity IRA has been involved in a number of bombing and shooting incidents. Targets of the CIRA have included British military, police service (Royal Ulster Constabulary, etc.), and Ulster loyalist paramilitaries. As of 2005, the CIRA is believed to have an established presence or capability of launching attacks on the island of Britain. A bomb defused in Dublin in December 2005 was believed to have been the work of the CIRA. In February 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission (IMC) blamed the CIRA for planting four bombs in Northern Ireland during the final quarter of 2005, as well as several hoax bomb warnings. The IMC also blames the CIRA for the killings of two former CIRA members in Belfast, who had established a rival organisation. The CIRA continued to be active in both planning and undertaking attacks on the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI). The IMC said they tried to create troubles to lure police forth, while they have also taken to stoning and using petrol bombs. In addition, other assaults , robbery, tiger kidnapping, extortion, fuel laundering and smuggling were undertaken by the group. The CIRA also actively took part in recruiting and training members, including disgruntled former Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) members. As a result of this continued activity the IMC said the group remained "a very serious threat." On 10 March 2009 the CIRA claimed responsibility for the fatal shooting of a PSNI officer in Craigavon, County Armagh, the first police fatality in Northern Ireland since 1998. The officer was shot dead by a sniper as he and a colleague investigated "suspicious activity" at a house nearby, the window was the broken by youths and the occupant phoned the PSNI, The officers then responded and a sniper shot and killed PC Stephen Carroll. Internal tension CIRA Graffiti In 2005, several members of the CIRA, who were serving prison sentences in Portlaoise Prison for paramilitary activity, left the organisation. Some transferred to the INLA landing of the prison, but the majority of those who left are now independent and on E4 landing. The remaining CIRA prisoners have moved to D Wing. Supporters of the Continuity IRA leadership claim that this resulted from an internal disagreement, which although brought to a conclusion, was followed by some people leaving the organisation anyway. Supporters of the disaffected members established the Concerned Group for Republican Prisoners in their support. Most of those who had left went back to the CIRA, or disassociated themselves from the CGRP. As of 2009, only one prisoner is still aligned to the CGRP. In February 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission claimed in a report on paramilitary activity that two groups, styling themselves as Saoirse na hÉireann and Óglaigh na hÉireann, had been formed after a split in the Continuity IRA. Eighth Report of the Independent Monitoring Commission, 1 February 2006 References
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3,197
Analog_television
Analog (or analogue) television encodes television picture and sound information and transmits it as an analog signal: one in which the message conveyed by the broadcast signal is a function of deliberate variations in the amplitude and/or frequency of the signal. All systems preceding digital television, such as NTSC, PAL or SECAM are analog television systems. Broadcasters using analog television systems encode their signal using NTSC, PAL or SECAM analog encoding and then modulate this signal onto a VHF or UHF carrier. An analog television picture is "drawn" on the screen an entire frame each time, in the manner of a motion picture (cinematograph) film, irrespective of the picture content. Analog television technology Analog television, EE 498 Course Notes, University of Washington like all other motion picture systems, exploits the properties of the human eye to create the illusion of moving images. The human eye retains an image for a fraction of a second, which is called "persistence of vision". Due to the persistence of vision effect, a rapid sequence of images will be perceived as an integrated moving image. If the rate of frames is too low, the sequence of images is not intuitively linked by the brain, causing the illusion of animation to be lost. The common frame rate of 24 frames per second, (which superseded more experimental frame rates during the sound revolution of the late 1920s) is used for motion pictures to create a smooth moving image. When the American television standards were developed, 30 Hz was chosen as the frame rate, modified to 29.97 Hz when color was introduced. Systems used in Europe have a frame rate of 25 frames per second. When on screen images are bright, the persistence of vision effect does not last as long, which means that more frames have to be projected per second. Motion picture projectors resolve this problem by using shutters. Since shutters cannot be used for televisions, television engineers increased the repetition rate to two "flashes" per frame by interlacing and scanning a single frame twice. These interlacing repeated frames do come at a cost, and in some cases, the repeated frames cause aberrations such as serrations on the edge of moving objects, misalignment, interline flicker, or a shimmering effect. In black and white television based on a cathode ray tube (CRT), a single electron beam scans a phosphor screen from left to right and then returns to the top. The electron beam is brightness-modulated to create intensity changes which cause the different shades of grey. Analog television equipment has been manufactured using alternative forms of display, such as LCD, but the picture display is still updated a frame at a time in the same manner as the flying-spot CRT. To support color signals contained in the broadcast, a color synchronization signal called a "color burst" is added to the basic black and white information. When color television was introduced, engineers ensured that black and white televisions would still be able to display signals that were broadcast in color. To do this, the original monochrome information is still transmitted in the color signal, and then the color difference information is added on top. Analog broadcast television systems comes in a variety of frame rates and resolutions. Further differences exist in the frequency and modulation of the audio carrier. The monochrome combinations still existing in the 1950s are standardized by the ITU as capital letters A through N. When color television was introduced, the hue and saturation information was added to the monochrome signals in a way that black & white televisions ignore. This way backwards compatibility was achieved. That concept is true for all analog television standards. However there are three standards for the way the additional color information can be encoded and transmitted. The first was the American NTSC (National Television Systems Committee) color television system. The European PAL (Phase Alternation Line rate) and the French-Former Soviet Union SECAM (Séquentiel Couleur Avec Mémoire) standard were developed later and attempt to cure certain defects of the NTSC system. PAL's color encoding is similar to the NTSC systems. SECAM, though, uses a different modulation approach than PAL or NTSC. In principle all three color encoding systems can be combined with any of the scan line/frame rate combinations. Therefore, in order to describe a given signal completely, it's necessary to quote the color system and the broadcast standard as capital letter. For example the United States uses NTSC-M, the UK uses PAL-I, France uses SECAM-L, much of Western Europe uses PAL-B/G, most of Eastern Europe uses PAL-D/K or SECAM-D/K and so on. However not all of these possible combinations actually exist. NTSC is currently only used with system M, even though there were experiments with NTSC-A (405 line) and NTSC-I (625 line) in the UK. PAL is used with a variety of 625-line standards (B,G,D,K,I) but also with the North American 525-line standard, accordingly named PAL-M. Likewise, SECAM is used with a variety of 625-line standards. For this reason many people refer to any 625/25 type signal as "PAL" and to any 525/30 signal as "NTSC", even when referring to digital signals, e.g. on DVD-Video which don't contain any analog color encoding, thus no PAL or NTSC signals at all. Even though this usage is common, it's misleading as that is not the original meaning of the terms PAL/SECAM/NTSC. Digital In weak signal areas (left) analog images become grainy, while digital (right) stay the same, until they break up or disappear. Many countries have, or have decided to, cease analog transmissions to switch to digital broadcasting — this is generally referred to as Digital switchover. In the United States, analog transmission was scheduled to end on February 17, 2009. However, on February 4 Congress voted to delay analog shutdown until June 12, 2009. In Canada, it will cease on August 31, 2011. Ottawa Citizen, August 18, 2007. Australia will begin ending Analog transmissions in 2009.. Common analog television systems NTSC PAL SECAM Slow-scan television Narrow-bandwidth television See also Broadcast television system Terrestrial television Analog transmission References
Analog_television |@lemmatized analog:19 analogue:1 television:26 encode:5 picture:8 sound:2 information:6 transmit:3 signal:16 one:1 message:1 convey:1 broadcast:6 function:1 deliberate:1 variation:1 amplitude:1 frequency:2 system:15 precede:1 digital:6 ntsc:14 pal:14 secam:9 broadcaster:1 use:14 modulate:2 onto:1 vhf:1 uhf:1 carrier:2 drawn:1 screen:3 entire:1 frame:16 time:2 manner:2 motion:4 cinematograph:1 film:1 irrespective:1 content:1 technology:1 ee:1 course:1 note:1 university:1 washington:1 like:1 exploit:1 property:1 human:2 eye:2 create:3 illusion:2 move:3 image:8 retain:1 fraction:1 second:4 call:2 persistence:3 vision:3 due:1 effect:3 rapid:1 sequence:2 perceive:1 integrated:1 moving:1 rate:9 low:1 intuitively:1 link:1 brain:1 cause:3 animation:1 lose:1 common:3 per:4 supersede:1 experimental:1 revolution:1 late:1 smooth:1 american:3 standard:8 develop:2 hz:2 choose:1 modify:1 color:15 introduce:3 europe:3 bright:1 last:1 long:1 mean:1 project:1 projector:1 resolve:1 problem:1 shutter:2 since:1 cannot:1 engineer:2 increase:1 repetition:1 two:1 flash:1 interlace:2 scan:4 single:2 twice:1 repeat:2 come:2 cost:1 case:1 aberration:1 serration:1 edge:1 object:1 misalignment:1 interline:1 flicker:1 shimmering:1 black:4 white:4 base:1 cathode:1 ray:1 tube:1 crt:2 electron:2 beam:2 phosphor:1 leave:2 right:2 return:1 top:2 brightness:1 intensity:1 change:1 different:2 shade:1 grey:1 equipment:1 manufacture:1 alternative:1 form:1 display:3 lcd:1 still:4 update:1 fly:1 spot:1 support:1 contain:2 synchronization:1 burst:1 add:3 basic:1 ensure:1 would:1 able:1 original:2 monochrome:3 difference:2 variety:3 resolution:1 exist:3 modulation:2 audio:1 combination:3 standardize:1 itu:1 capital:2 letter:2 n:1 hue:1 saturation:1 way:3 ignore:1 backwards:1 compatibility:1 achieve:1 concept:1 true:1 however:3 three:2 additional:1 first:1 national:1 committee:1 european:1 phase:1 alternation:1 line:7 french:1 former:1 soviet:1 union:1 séquentiel:1 couleur:1 avec:1 mémoire:1 later:1 attempt:1 cure:1 certain:1 defect:1 encoding:2 similar:1 though:3 approach:1 principle:1 combine:1 therefore:1 order:1 describe:1 give:1 completely:1 necessary:1 quote:1 example:1 united:2 state:2 uk:2 us:2 france:1 l:1 much:1 western:1 b:2 g:3 eastern:1 k:3 possible:1 actually:1 currently:1 even:3 experiment:1 also:2 north:1 accordingly:1 name:1 likewise:1 reason:1 many:2 people:1 refer:3 type:1 e:1 dvd:1 video:1 thus:1 usage:1 misleading:1 meaning:1 term:1 weak:1 area:1 become:1 grainy:1 stay:1 break:1 disappear:1 country:1 decide:1 cease:2 transmission:4 switch:1 broadcasting:1 generally:1 switchover:1 schedule:1 end:2 february:2 congress:1 vote:1 delay:1 shutdown:1 june:1 canada:1 august:2 ottawa:1 citizen:1 australia:1 begin:1 slow:1 narrow:1 bandwidth:1 see:1 terrestrial:1 reference:1 |@bigram ntsc_pal:3 pal_secam:4 motion_picture:4 persistence_vision:3 cathode_ray:1 tube_crt:1 frequency_modulation:1 hue_saturation:1 backwards_compatibility:1 soviet_union:1 pal_ntsc:2
3,198
Buddhist_philosophy
Buddhist philosophy deals extensively with problems in metaphysics, phenomenology, ethics, and epistemology. The Buddha's general outlook has been described as neither ontological nor metaphysical, but empirical. David Kalupahana, Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, page 70. He assumed an unsympathetic attitude toward speculative and religious thought in general. Gunnar Skirbekk, Nils Gilje, A history of Western thought: from ancient Greece to the twentieth century. 7th edition published by Routledge, 2001, page 25. A basic idea of the Buddha is that the world must be thought of in procedural terms, not in terms of things or substances. Gunnar Skirbekk, Nils Gilje, A history of Western thought: from ancient Greece to the twentieth century. 7th edition published by Routledge, 2001, page 26. The Buddha advised viewing reality as comprised of dependently originated phenomena; Buddhists view this approach to experience as avoiding the two extremes of reification and nihilism. David Kalupahana, Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidass, 2006, page 1. Particular points of Buddhist philosophy have often been the subject of disputes between different schools of Buddhism. While theory for its own sake is not valued in Buddhism, theory pursued in the interest of enlightenment is consistent with Buddhist values and ethics. Philosophy Historical context Early Buddhism displays a strong streak of skepticism; the Buddha cautioned his followers to stay aloof from intellectual disputation for its own sake, saying that this is fruitless and distracts from the practices leading to enlightenment. However, the Buddha's doctrine did have an important philosophical component: it negated the major claims of rival positions while building upon them at a new philosophical and religious level. In a skeptical vein, he asserted the insubstantiality of the ego, and in doing so countered those Upanishadic sages who sought knowledge of an unchanging ultimate self. The Buddha created a new position in opposition to their theories, and held that attachment to a permanent self in this world of change is the cause of suffering and the main obstacle to liberation. The same skeptical approach negates the existence of any high god or spiritual substance, and undercuts both traditional and iconoclastic spiritual goals. He broke new ground by going on to explain the source for the apparent ego: it is merely the result of the aggregates (skandhas) which make up experience. In this breaking down into constituent elements, the Buddha was heir to earlier element philosophies which had sought to characterize existing things as made up of a set of basic elements. The Buddha, however, eliminated mythological rhetoric, systematized world components into five groups, and used this approach not to characterize a substantial object, but to explain a delusion. He coordinated material components with psychological ones. The Buddha criticized the religious sages' theories of an Absolute as yet another reification, instead giving a path to self-perfection as a means of transcending the world of name and form. Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, page 202. Epistemology Decisive in distinguishing Buddhism from what is commonly called Hinduism is the issue of epistemological justification. All schools of Indian logic recognize various sets of valid justifications for knowledge, or pramana – Buddhism recognizes a set that is smaller than the others'. All accept perception and inference, for example, but for some schools of Hinduism and Buddhism the received textual tradition is an epistemological category equal to perception and inference (although this is not necessarily true for some other schools). The Theravada commentary, ascribed to Dhammapala, on the Nettipakarana, says (Pali pamāṇa is equivalent to Sanskrit pramāṇa): "na hi pāḷito aññaṃ pamāṇataraṃ atthi (quoted in Pali Text Society edition of the Nettipakarana, 1902, page XI) which Nanamoli translates as: "for there is no other criterion beyond a text" (The Guide, Pali Text Society, 1962, page xi Thus, in the Hindu schools, if a claim was made that could not be substantiated by appeal to the textual canon, it would be considered as ridiculous as a claim that the sky was green and, conversely, a claim which could not be substantiated via conventional means might still be justified through textual reference, differentiating this from the epistemology of hard science. Some schools of Buddhism, on the other hand, rejected an inflexible reverence of accepted doctrine. As the Buddha said, according to the canonical scriptures: Kalama Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya III.65 Early Buddhist philosophers and exegetes of one particular early school (as opposed to Mahayana), the Sarvastivadins, created a pluralist metaphysical and phenomenological system, in which all experiences of people, things and events can be broken down into smaller and smaller perceptual or perceptual-ontological units called dharmas. Other schools incorporated some parts of this theory and criticized others. The Sautrantikas, another early school, and the Theravadins, the only surviving early Buddhist school, criticized the realist standpoint of the Sarvastivadins. The Mahayanist Nagarjuna, one of the most influential Buddhist thinkers, promoted classical Buddhist emphasis on phenomena and attacked Sarvastivada realism and Sautrantika nominalism in his magnum opus The Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way. Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, pages 221-222. Dependent Origination What some consider the original positive Buddhist contribution to the field of metaphysics is pratītyasamutpāda. It states that events are not predetermined, nor are they random, and it rejects notions of direct causation, which are necessarily undergirded by a substantialist metaphysics. Instead, it posits the arising of events under certain conditions which are inextricable, such that the processes in question at no time are considered to be entities. Pratitya-samutpada goes on to posit that certain specific events, concepts, or realities are always dependent on other specific things. Craving, for example, is always dependent on, and caused by, emotion. Emotion is always dependent on contact with our surroundings. This chain of causation purports to show that the cessation of decay, death, and sorrow is indirectly dependent on the cessation of craving. asserted a direct connection between, even identity of, dependent origination, anatta, and śūnyatā. He pointed out that implicit in the early Buddhist concept of dependent origination is the lack of any substantial being (anatta) underlying the participants in origination, so that they have no independent existence, a state identified as emptiness (śūnyatā), or emptiness of a nature or essence (sva-bhāva). Interpenetration 'Interpenetration' or 'coalescence' (Wylie: zung 'jug; Sanskrit: yuganaddha; Chinese: 通達). http://rywiki.tsadra.org/index.php/zung_'jug This doctrine comes from the Avatamsaka Sutra, a Mahayana scripture, and its associated schools. It holds that all 'phenomena' (Sanskrit: dharmas) are intimately connected (and mutually arising). Two images are used to convey this idea. The first is known as Indra's net. The net is set with jewels which have the extraordinary property that they reflect all of the other jewels. The second image is that of the 'world text'. This image portrays the world as consisting of an enormous text which is as large as the Universe itself. The 'words' of the text are composed of the phenomena that make up the world. However, every atom of the world contains the whole text within it. It is the work of a Buddha to let out the text so that beings can be liberated from suffering. The upaya doctrine of interpenetration influenced the Japanese monk Kūkai, who founded the Shingon school of Buddhism. The upaya doctrine of interpenetration is iconographically represented by Yab-yum. Interpenetration and Essence-Function are mutually informing in the East Asian Buddhist traditions, especially the Korean Buddhist tradition. Ethics Although there are many ethical tenets in Buddhism that differ depending on whether one is a monk or a layman, and depending on individual schools, the Buddhist system of ethics can be summed up in the Eightfold Path. The purpose of living an ethical life is to escape the suffering inherent in samsara. Skillful actions condition the mind in a positive way and lead to future happiness, while the opposite is true for unskillful actions. Ethical discipline also provides the mental stability and freedom to embark upon mental cultivation via meditation. Philosophy or religion Buddhism can be regarded as either a practical philosophy or a belief-based religion. In the South and East Asian cultures in which Buddhism developed, the distinction between philosophy and religion did not exist. As such, the Western need to classify Buddhism as one or the other is somewhat spurious and may be a mere semantic problem. Proponents of the view that Buddhism is a philosophy argue (a) that Buddhism is non-theistic, having no particular use for the existence or non-existence of a god or gods; and (b) that religion entails theism. However, both prongs of this argument are contested by proponents of the alternative view, that Buddhism is a religion. Another argument for Buddhism qua philosophy is that Buddhism does not have doctrines in the same sense as other religions; instead, Buddhism offers specific methods for applying its philosophical principles. Regardless of its formal classification, Buddhism can be practiced either as a religion or as a philosophy. A similar argument is made with reference to Taoism. Lama Anagorika Govinda expressed it as follows in A Living Buddhism for the West: History Early development Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude that the Buddha must at least have taught something of the kind: Mitchell, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 2002, page 34 and table of contents the three characteristics the five aggregates dependent arising karma and rebirth the four noble truths the eightfold path nirvana Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories. Skorupski, Buddhist Forum, vol I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London, 1990, page 5; Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol 21 (1998), part 1, pages 4, 11 According to such scholars, there was something they variously call Earliest Buddhism, original Buddhism or pre-canonical Buddhism. The Buddha rejected certain precepts of Indian philosophy that were prominent during his lifetime. See for example Thanissaro Bhikkhu's commentary on the Mulapariyaya Sutta, . According to some scholars, the philosophical outlook of Earliest Buddhism was primarily negative, in the sense that it focused on what doctrines to reject more than on what doctrines to accept. This dimension is also found in the Madhyamaka school. It includes critical rejections of all views, which is a form of philosophy, but it is reluctant to posit its own. Only knowledge that is useful in achieving enlightenment is valued. According to this theory, the cycle of philosophical upheavals that in part drove the diversification of Buddhism into its many schools and sects only began once Buddhists began attempting to make explicit the implicit philosophy of the Buddha and the early Suttas. Other scholars reject this theory. After the death of the Buddha, attempts were made to gather his teachings and transmit them in a commonly agreed form, first orally, then also in writing (The Tripitaka). Later developments The main Buddhist philosophical schools are the Abhidharma schools, (particularly Theravada and Sarvastivada), and the Mahayana schools (the latter includes the Madhyamika, Yogacara, Huayan, and Tiantai schools). Cataphatic presentations The Tathagatagarbha doctrine of some schools of Mahayana Buddhism, the Theravada doctrine of bhavanga, and the Yogachara store consciousness were all identified at some point with the "luminous mind" of the Nikayas. The Tathagatagarbha sutras, in a depature from mainstream Buddhist language, insist that the true self lies at the very heart of the Buddha himself and of nirvana, as well as being concealed within the mass of mental and moral contaminants that blight all beings. Such doctrines saw a shift from a largely apophatic (negative) philosophical trend within Buddhism to a decidedly more cataphatic (positive) modus. The tathagatagarbha (or Buddha-nature) does not, according to some scholars, represent a substantial self; rather, it is a positive language expression of "sunyata" and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices. In this interpretation, the intention of the teaching of tathagatagarbha is soteriological rather than theoretical. Heng-Ching Shih, "The Significance Of 'Tathagatagarbha' – A Positive Expression Of 'Sunyata.'" http://zencomp.com/greatwisdom/ebud/ebdha191.htm. Sallie B. King, The Doctrine of Buddha Nature is Impeccably Buddhist, http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/nlarc/pdf/Pruning%20the%20bodhi%20tree/Pruning%209.pdf ) The word "atman" is used in a way idionsyncratic to these sutras; the "true self" is described as the perfection of the wisdom of not-self in the Buddha-Nature Treatise, for example. Sallie B. King, The Doctrine of Buddha Nature is Impeccably Buddhist, http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/nlarc/pdf/Pruning%20the%20bodhi%20tree/Pruning%209.pdf ) Language that had previously been used by essentialist non-Buddhist philosophers was now adopted, with new definitions, by Buddhists to promote orthodox teachings. Prior to the period of these scriptures, Mahayana metaphysics had been dominated by teachings on emptiness in the form of Madhyamaka philosophy. The language used by this approach is primarily negative, and the Tathagatagarbha genre of sutras can be seen as an attempt to state orthodox Buddhist teachings of dependent origination using positive language instead, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism. In these sutras the perfection of the wisdom of not-self is stated to be the true self; the ultimate goal of the path is then characterized using a range of positive language that had been used in Indian philosophy previously by essentialist philosophers, but which was now transmuted into a new Buddhist vocabulary to describe a being who has successfully completed the Buddhist path. Sallie B. King, The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature is impeccably Buddhist. , pages 1-6. Comparison with other philosophies Baruch Spinoza, though he argued for the existence of a permanent reality, asserts that all phenomenal existence is transitory. In his opinion sorrow is conquered "by finding an object of knowledge which is not transient, not ephemeral, but is immutable, permanent, everlasting." Buddhism teaches that such a quest is bound to fail. David Hume, after a relentless analysis of the mind, concluded that consciousness consists of fleeting mental states. Hume's Bundle theory is a very similar concept to the Buddhist skandhas, though his denial of causation lead him to opposite conclusions in other areas. Arthur Schopenhauer's philosophy had some parallels in Buddhism. Ludwig Wittgenstein's "word games" map closely to the warning of intellectual speculation as a red herring to understanding, such as the Parable of the Poison Arrow. Friedrich Nietzsche, although himself dismissive of Buddhism as yet another nihilism, developed his philosophy of accepting life-as-it-exists and self-cultivation as extremely similar to Buddhism as better understood in the West Heidegger's ideas on Being and nothingness have been held by some to be similar to Buddhism today. God Is Dead: What Next An alternative approach to the comparison of Buddhist thought with Western philosophy is to use the concept of the Middle Way in Buddhism as a critical tool for the assessment of Western philosophies. In this way Western philosophies can be classified in Buddhist terms as eternalist or nihilist. Robert Ellis A Buddhist theory of moral objectivity(Ph.D. thesis) See also Critical Buddhism God in Buddhism List of Buddhist terms and concepts List of Buddhist topics List of sutras Madhyamaka Mindstream Reality in Buddhism Thoughtform Buddhist philosophers Asanga Buddha Chandrakirti Dignaga Dharmakirti Dogen Fazang Jinul Jizang Nagarjuna Vasubandhu Wonhyo Notes References Elías Capriles. The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings. Published on the Web: http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip Daniel Perdue: Debate in Tibetan Buddhism, Publisher : Snow Lion Publications, 1992, ISBN 0937938769, EAN 9780937938768 External links Buddhism in a Nutshell
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3,199
Hydropower
Hoover Dam provides hydropower in the form of hydroelectricity. Hydropower, hydraulic power or water power is power that is derived from the force or energy of moving water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Prior to the widespread availability of commercial electric power, hydropower was used for irrigation, and operation of various machines, such as watermills, textile machines, sawmills, dock cranes, and domestic lifts. Another method used a trompe, which produces compressed air from falling water, which could then be used to power other machinery at a distance from the water. History Waterwheels and mills Hydropower has been used for hundreds of years. In India, water wheels and watermills were built; in Imperial Rome, water powered mills produced flour from grain, and were also used for sawing timber and stone. The power of a wave of water released from a tank was used for extraction of metal ores in a method known as hushing. Hushing was widely used in Britain in the Medieval and later periods to extract lead and tin ores. It later evolved into hydraulic mining when used during the California gold rush. In China and the rest of the Far East, hydraulically operated "pot wheel" pumps raised water into irrigation canals. In the 1830s, at the peak of the canal-building era, hydropower was used to transport barge traffic up and down steep hills using inclined plane railroads. Direct mechanical power transmission required that industries using hydropower had to locate near the waterfall. For example, during the last half of the 19th century, many grist mills were built at Saint Anthony Falls, utilizing the 50 foot (15 m) drop in the Mississippi River. The mills contributed to the growth of Minneapolis. Hydraulic power pipes Hydraulic power networks also existed, using pipes carrying pressurized liquid to transmit mechanical power from a power source, such as a pump, to end users. These were extensive in Victorian cities in the United Kingdom. Natural manifestations In hydrology, hydropower is manifested in the force of the water on the riverbed and banks of a river. It is particularly powerful when the river is in flood. The force of the water results in the removal of sediment and other materials from the riverbed and banks of the river, causing erosion and other alterations. Modern usage There are several forms of water power currently in use or development. Some are purely mechanical but many primarily generate electricity. Broad categories include: Waterwheels, used for hundreds of years to power mills and machinery Hydroelectricity, usually referring to hydroelectric dams, or run-of-the-river setups (eg hydroelectric-powered watermills) Damless hydro, which captures the kinetic energy in rivers, streams and oceans Vortex power, which creates vortices which can then be tapped for energy Tidal power, which captures energy from the tides in horizontal direction Tidal stream power, which does the same vertically Wave power, which uses the energy in waves Osmotic power, which channels river water into a container separated from sea water by a semipermeable membrane. Marine current power which captures the kinetic energy from marine currents. Ocean thermal energy conversion which exploits the temperature difference between deep and shallow waters. Hydroelectric power Hydroelectric power now supplies about 715,000 megawatts or 19% of world electricity http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/wuhy.html . Large dams are still being designed. The world's largest is the Three Gorges Dam on the third longest river in the world, the Yangtze River. Apart from a few countries with an abundance of hydro power, this energy source is normally applied to peak load demand, because it is readily stopped and started. It also provides a high-capacity, low-cost means of energy storage, known as "pumped storage". Hydropower produces essentially no carbon dioxide or other harmful emissions, in contrast to burning fossil fuels, and is not a significant contributor to global warming through CO2. Hydroelectric power can be far less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuels or nuclear energy. Areas with abundant hydroelectric power attract industry. Environmental concerns about the effects of reservoirs may prohibit development of economic hydropower sources. The chief advantage of hydroelectric dams is their ability to handle seasonal (as well as daily) high peak loads. When the electricity demands drop, the dam simply stores more water (which provides more flow when it releases). Some electricity generators use water dams to store excess energy (often during the night), by using the electricity to pump water up into a basin. Electricity can be generated when demand increases. In practice the utilization of stored water in river dams is sometimes complicated by demands for irrigation which may occur out of phase with peak electrical demands. Not all hydroelectric power requires a dam; a run-of-river project only uses part of the stream flow and is a characteristic of small hydropower projects. A developing technology example is the Gorlov helical turbine. Tidal power Harnessing the tides in a bay or estuary has been achieved in France (since 1966), Canada and Russia, and could be achieved in other areas with a large tidal range. The trapped water turns turbines as it is released through the tidal barrage in either direction. A possible fault is that the system would generate electricity most efficiently in bursts every six hours (once every tide). This limits the applications of tidal energy; tidal power is highly predictable but not able to follow changing electrical demand. Tidal stream power A relatively new technology, tidal stream generators draw energy from currents in much the same way that wind generators do. The higher density of water means that a single generator can provide significant power. This technology is at the early stages of development and will require more research before it becomes a significant contributor. Several prototypes have shown promise. Wave power Harnessing power from ocean surface wave motion might yield much more energy than tides. The feasibility of this has been investigated, particularly in Scotland in the UK. Generators either coupled to floating devices or turned by air displaced by waves in a hollow concrete structure would produce electricity. Numerous technical problems have frustrated progress. A prototype shore based wave power generator is being constructed at Port Kembla in Australia and is expected to generate up to 500 MWh annually. The Wave Energy Converter has been constructed (as of July 2005) and initial results have exceeded expectations of energy production during times of low wave energy. Wave energy is captured by an air driven generator and converted to electricity. For countries with large coastlines and rough sea conditions, the energy of waves offers the possibility of generating electricity in utility volumes. Small scale hydro power Small scale hydro or micro-hydro power has been increasingly used as an alternative energy source, especially in remote areas where other power sources are not viable. Small scale hydro power systems can be installed in small rivers or streams with little or no discernible environmental effect on things such as fish migration. Most small scale hydro power systems make no use of a dam or major water diversion, but rather use water wheels. There are some considerations in a micro-hydro system installation. The amount of water flow available on a consistent basis, since lack of rain can affect plant operation. Head, or the amount of drop between the intake and the exit. The more head, the more power that can be generated. There can be legal and regulatory issues, since most countries, cities, and states have regulations about water rights and easements. Over the last few years, the U.S. Government has increased support for alternative power generation. Many resources such as grants, loans, and tax benefits are available for small scale hydro systems. In poor areas, many remote communities have no electricity. Micro hydro power, with a capacity of 100 kW or less, allows communities to generate electricity1. This form of power is supported by various organizations such as the UK's Practical Action. Micro-hydro power can be used directly as "shaft power" for many industrial applications. Alternatively, the preferred option for domestic energy supply is to generate electricity with a generator or a reversed electric motor which, while less efficient, is likely to be available locally and cheaply. Resources in the United States There is a common misconception that economically developed nations have harnessed all of their available hydropower resources. In the United States, according to the US Department of Energy, "previous assessments have focused on potential projects having a capacity of 1 MW and above". This may partly explain the discrepancy. More recently, in 2004, an extensive survey was conducted by the US-DOE which counted sources under 1 MW (mean annual average), and found that only 40% of the total hydropower potential had been developed. A total of 170 GW (mean annual average) remains available for development. Of this, 34% is within the operating envelope of conventional turbines, 50% is within the operating envelope of microhydro technologies (defined as less than 100 kW), and 16% is within the operating envelope of unconventional systems. http://www.fieldstoneenergy.com/pdfs/US%20DepartmentofEnergy.pdf In 2005, the US generated 1012 kilowatt hours of electricity. The total undeveloped hydropower resource is equivalent to about one-third of total US electricity generation in 2005. Developed hydropower accounted for 6.4% of total US electricity generated in 2005. Physics A hydropower resource can be measured according to the amount of available power, or energy per unit time. In large reservoirs, the available power is generally only a function of the hydraulic head and rate of fluid flow. In a reservoir, the head is the height of water in the reservoir relative to its height after discharge. Each unit of water can do an amount of work equal to its weight times the head. The amount of energy released by lowering an object of mass by a height in a gravitational field is where is the acceleration due to gravity. The energy available to hydroelectric dams is the energy that can be liberated by lowering water in a controlled way. In these situations, the power is related to the mass flow rate. Substituting for and expressing in terms of the volume of liquid moved per unit time (the rate of fluid flow ) and the density of water, we arrive at the usual form of this expression: For in watts, is measured in kg/m³, is measured in m³/s, (standard gravity) is measured in m/s², and is measured in metres. Some hydropower systems such as water wheels can draw power from the flow of a body of water without necessarily changing its height. In this case, the available power is the kinetic energy of the flowing water. where is the velocity of the water, or with where A is the area through which the water passes, also Over-shot water wheels can efficiently capture both types of energy. See also Deep lake water cooling International Hydropower Association (IHA) Renewable energy Trompe Water power engine References Micro-hydro power, Adam Harvey, 2004, Intermediate Technology Development Group, retrieved 1 January 2005 from http://www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/micro_hydro_power.pdf. Microhydropower Systems, U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 2005 External links International Hydropower Association International Centre for Hydropower (ICH) hydropower portal with links to numerous organizations related to hydropower worldwide Practical Action (ITDG) a UK charity developing micro-hydro power and giving extensive technical documentation. microhydropower.net Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Hydropower Ashden Awards hydro power winners be-x-old:Гідраэнэргія
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