Unnamed: 0
int64 0
7.84k
| id
stringlengths 1
79
| raw_text
stringlengths 15
171k
| vw_text
stringlengths 51
47.3k
|
|---|---|---|---|
3,000 | Hummer | Hummer is a brand of off-road vehicles sold by General Motors (GM). The original H1 was based on the military High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV, or Humvee). However, the Hummer H2 and the Hummer H3 were based on other, smaller civilian-market vehicles. History Hummers were originally built by AM General Corporation, which was formerly AMC Jeep's General Products division, The History of AM General in its Mishawaka, Indiana assembly plant. They were created under a contract for the United States armed forces. The first model, the Hum-Vee, was built in a variety of military-based equipment and versions. These included troop carriers, gun turrets and radar. The U.S. military, on receiving their quota, have adapted some of the vehicles, including modifications to facilitate a directional microwave crowd control beam (Active Denial System). AM General had planned to sell a civilian version of the Hum-Vee as far back as the late 1980s. In 1990, two matching white Hum-Vees were driven from London to Beijing over the rough roads of central Soviet Union. The Hummers made the trip with ease, for they were built to drive on off-road terrain. The highlights of this journey were broadcast in the United States on ESPN. This publicity would pale in comparison to the attention that the HMMWV received for its service in Operation: Desert Storm the following year. Also, a privately-owned Hum-Vee was modified into the first Snow-Vee, including the addition of caterpillar tracks, a new rear compartment and a new engine. This vehicle was designed for use in and just below the Arctic Circle, and the Antarctic. In 1992, AM General began selling a civilian version of the M998 High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV or Hum-Vee) vehicle to the public under the brand name "Hummer", called the Hummer H1. In 1998, AM General sold the brand name to General Motors, but continued to manufacture the vehicles. GM is responsible for the marketing and distribution of all Hummers produced by AM General. In the next few years, GM introduced two new homegrown models, the H2 and H3, and renamed the original vehicle H1. AM General continued to build the H1 until it was discontinued in 2006, Page expired - MSN Money and is contracted by GM to produce the H2. The H3 is built in Shreveport, LA alongside the Chevrolet Colorado and GMC Canyon pickups, with which it shares the GMT-355 platform (custom modified and designated GMT-345). 2006 Hummer lineup: H3, H1, and H2 (L-R) The Hummer also began to be exported and sold through importers and distributors in 33 countries by 2006. '"HUMMER Sustains Steady, Upward Sales Trend In North America And Overseas" GM Media Online, 10 October 2006, retrieved on 23 February 2009. On 10 October 2006, GM began producing the Hummer H3 at its Port Elizabeth plant in South Africa for international markets. The Hummers built their first only left-hand drive, but right-hand drive versions were added and exported to Australia and other markets. The H2 is also assembled in Kaliningrad, Russia, by Avtotor, starting in June 2004. The plant produces a few hundred vehicles annually, and its output is limited to local consumption (five dealers in Russia initially). On Tuesday 3 June 2008, one day prior to GM's annual shareholder meeting, Rick Wagoner, GM's CEO at that time, said the brand is being reviewed, and has the possibility of either being sold, having the production line completely redesigned, or being discontinued. GM Closing 4 Truck and SUV Plants in North America - washingtonpost.com This is due to the decreasing demand for large SUVs as a result of higher oil prices. Almost immediately after the announcement, a pair of Indian automakers, including Mahindra & Mahindra, expressed interest in purchasing all or part of Hummer. Indian Automakers Eyeing Hummer? On 17 February 2009, GM announced that it would decide by 31 March 2009, whether to sell off or eliminate the Hummer. However, the announcement has been delayed. As of April 2009, the company has no plans to continue the nameplate after the 2010 model year. Owners of Saturns, Hummers grapple with threat of demise - buffalonews.com GM President Fritz Henderson stated several interested parties approached GM regarding the Hummer business. On 5 April 2009, Société de Participation Financière Eidos Canada Inc. made an unsolicited bid for Hummer. Models There are three current and possibly two future models in the HUMMER line: Production models HUMMER H1 (discontinued) HUMMER H1 Alpha (discontinued) HUMMER H2 HUMMER H2 SUT HUMMER H3 HUMMER H3T HUMMER H3x HUMMER H3 Alpha Concept vehicles HUMMER HX Modified vehicles Hummer H6 "Hummer H2 Gets "All Stretched Out" To Become the H6" Edmund's Inside Line, date posted: March 16, 2006, retrieved on August 25, 2008. Civilian model details Hummer H1 The first car in the Hummer Range, was the Hummer H1 based on the High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (Hum-Vee). Originally released in 1992, this vehicle was designed by American Motors' AM General subsidiary for the U.S. Military. Five years previously, AMC had been bought by Chrysler. Hummer H2 The Hummer H2 is the second vehicle in the Hummer range. There are two models available: H2 SUV and H2 SUT. Plug-in Hybrid Raser Technologies of Utah wants to use technology similar to that in the Chevy Volt to make the HUMMER a 100 MPG fuel sipper. Details are sketchy, as Raser plans to debut the prototype on April 20–23 at the Society of Automotive Engineers World Congress in Detroit. But Raser is saying that using their E-REV (Extended-Range Electric Vehicle) powertrain technology, the HUMMER plug-in hybrid will run up to 40 miles per day on its battery alone, then a small 4 cylinder combustion engine will kick in to generate more electricity. Hummer H3 The H3 is the smallest of the Hummer models and is based on the GMT355 platform shared with the Chevrolet Colorado and GMC Canyon compact pickup trucks. Off-road abilities As of April 2009, Hummer is the only brand in the United States whose entire model range lineup comes standard with a low-range transfer case, relatively high-ground clearance, and off-road tires. Additionally, no two-wheel drive Hummers are offered at this time. Racing Team Hummer Racing was created in 1993 and showcases the Hummer's abilities. Led by off-road racer Rod Hall, Team HUMMER competes in the Stock classes of both BitD and SCORE, which feature production-based vehicles with stock frames, stock suspension designs, and production-based engines. Specialized racing shock absorbers, tires, and other minor modifications are allowed, along with the required supporting components and mandatory safety equipment. Team Hummer stock-class H3 driven by Hall finished first in class with the H3 in the 2005 Baja 1000. The team's latest victories came in April 2008, when Team HUMMER swept the stock class races at the Terrible's Town 250. Racing with Team HUMMER: The Results Team HUMMER has tallied one of the most impressive records in production-class racing, earning 11 class wins at the Baja 1000. Dakar Rally A highly modified, two-wheel drive Hummer was raced by Robby Gordon in the 2006, 2007 (8th place) and 2009 Dakar Rally. Licensing GM has been active in licensing the Hummer. Various companies have licensed the Hummer trademarks for use on colognes, flashlights, bicycles, Hummer Bikes shoes, coats, hats, laptops, HUMMER Laptops. This product has been decomissioned clothing, CD players and other items. Hummerstuff.com Production Facilities AM General Hummer H1 Assembly Plant, Mishawaka, Indiana – 500,000 square foot plant opened 1984 to build HMVEE and began production of the Hummer/H1 in 1992 AM General Hummer H2 Assembly Plant, Mishawaka, Indiana – 673,000 square foot plant opened 2002 General Motors South Africa Struandale Assembly Plant, Port Elizabeth, East Cape, South Africa - built in 1996, expanded to 75 625 square metres in 2006 to build H3 General Motors Shreveport Operations, Shreveport, Louisiana – additional 296,000 square feet added to plant built by GM (1981) in 2005 to accommodate the production of the H3 Avtotor Kaliningrad, Russia – licensed version of H2 starting 2008 Owner efforts A military convoy of Hummers leaving Washington, DC the day after the Inauguration of Barack Obama Since all Hummer vehicles have heavy-duty capabilities, they have been employed by owners for aid in large disaster situations. Hummer Owners Prepared for Emergencies (HOPE) was created by the efforts of The Hummer Club, INC. and the American Red Cross. Together, the two organizations train Hummer owners with CPR and First Aid skills, and basic off-highway skills so that they may assist victims during a disaster situation. GM paid the Red Cross $4 million to participate in the organization. HUMMER Owners Become Unique Disaster Volunteers Starting in the early-1990s, when AM General started selling to the civilian market, Hummers began making appearances in the Film and Television industry. Some earlier and noticeable appearances include seaQuest DSV which used the Hummer H1 in place of Humvees, and Earth 2 which featured a large, "solar-powered" Hummer Concept truck as their main mode of conveyance. More recently noticeable appearances include CSI: Miami, being driven by the chief of the crime lab Lt. Horatio Caine (played by David Caruso), during the 6th season of CSI: Miami, they received all new 2008 H2's with redesigned interior and in the 2007 Transformers movie the Autobot known as Ratchet transforms into a search and rescue Hummer H2. Criticisms Criticism of Hummers includes the criticism of SUVs in general, although at a higher degree. Specific extra criticisms of Hummers include: Size Hummers are significantly bigger than other SUVs; this can cause problems parking, driving and fitting in a garage. Hummer Cons: The Downsides Of Owning a Hummer H1 or H2 Safety and ecology Safety and ecological perceptions from other road users has attracted a lot of criticism. Drive.com.au review, with statements such as 'The mere mention of its name gets many people incandescent with rage'] H2 Hummer: Do You Need Attention This Badly? - The Car Family Reviews - National Motorists Association The Hummer (usually the H2) has been singled out and attacked as a symbol of ecological irresponsibility, sometimes using violent means. Eco T-shirts: Anti-Hummer, anti-4x4 t-shirt Eco-Terrorists Vandalize Hummer » Outside The Beltway | OTB Hummer Owner Gets Angry Message - washingtonpost.com Poor fuel economy Even compared to other heavy passenger vehicles, Hummers have very poor fuel economy. Because the H2 is built to the over-8500-lb GVW class, its fuel economy is neither published by the EPA nor counted toward Corporate Average Fuel Economy. "Road Test: 2003 Hummer H2: a tweaked Tahoe or the real thing?", Motor Trend magazine, retrieved on 2008-06-23. For instance, H2 in one engine configuration averages about on highways, in the city, and has a curb weight of over , making it technically illegal for use on some streets. "Road Test: 2003 Hummer H2, Overview", Motor Trend magazine, retrieved on 2008-06-23. Safety Crash data for Hummers is less complete than for other SUVs. Because of its weight, it takes longer and further to stop in emergency braking situations. As a Class 3 truck, Hummers are exempt from many DOT safety regulations. Hummer FAQ - Little Known Facts About Hummer H1 and H2 Vehicles The H1 lacks standard safety features, including child safety locks, child seat tethers, side air bags and stability control. Large blind spots make parking difficult and possibly dangerous. See also Criticism of sport utility vehicles High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (Hum-Vee) Jeep Unimog References External links GM's HUMMER homepage AM General official site | Hummer |@lemmatized hummer:86 brand:5 road:9 vehicle:22 sell:8 general:18 motor:7 gm:16 original:2 base:7 military:5 high:7 mobility:4 multipurpose:4 wheel:6 hmmwv:3 humvee:2 however:2 small:3 civilian:5 market:4 history:2 originally:2 build:11 corporation:1 formerly:1 amc:2 jeep:2 product:2 division:1 mishawaka:3 indiana:3 assembly:4 plant:10 create:3 contract:2 united:3 state:4 arm:1 force:1 first:6 model:10 hum:7 vee:7 variety:1 equipment:2 version:5 include:9 troop:1 carrier:1 gun:1 turret:1 radar:1 u:2 receive:3 quota:1 adapt:1 modification:2 facilitate:1 directional:1 microwave:1 crowd:1 control:2 beam:1 active:2 denial:1 system:1 plan:3 far:2 back:1 late:2 two:7 match:1 white:1 vees:1 drive:10 london:1 beijing:1 rough:1 central:1 soviet:1 union:1 make:6 trip:1 ease:1 terrain:1 highlight:1 journey:1 broadcast:1 espn:1 publicity:1 would:2 pale:1 comparison:1 attention:2 service:1 operation:2 desert:1 storm:1 following:1 year:4 also:4 privately:1 modify:4 snow:1 addition:1 caterpillar:1 track:1 new:4 rear:1 compartment:1 engine:4 design:3 use:7 arctic:1 circle:1 antarctic:1 begin:5 public:1 name:3 call:1 continue:3 manufacture:1 responsible:1 marketing:1 distribution:1 produce:4 next:1 introduce:1 homegrown:1 rename:1 discontinue:4 page:1 expire:1 msn:1 money:1 shreveport:3 la:1 alongside:1 chevrolet:2 colorado:2 gmc:2 canyon:2 pickup:2 share:2 gmt:2 platform:2 custom:1 designate:1 lineup:2 l:1 r:1 export:2 importer:1 distributor:1 country:1 sustains:1 steady:1 upward:1 sale:1 trend:3 north:2 america:2 overseas:1 medium:1 online:1 october:2 retrieve:4 february:2 port:2 elizabeth:2 south:3 africa:3 international:1 leave:2 hand:2 right:1 add:2 australia:1 assemble:1 kaliningrad:2 russia:3 avtotor:2 start:4 june:2 hundred:1 annually:1 output:1 limit:1 local:1 consumption:1 five:2 dealer:1 initially:1 tuesday:1 one:3 day:3 prior:1 annual:1 shareholder:1 meeting:1 rick:1 wagoner:1 ceo:1 time:2 say:2 review:3 possibility:1 either:1 production:8 line:3 completely:1 redesign:1 close:1 truck:4 suv:6 washingtonpost:2 com:5 due:1 decrease:1 demand:1 large:4 result:2 oil:1 price:1 almost:1 immediately:1 announcement:2 pair:1 indian:2 automaker:2 mahindra:2 express:1 interest:1 purchase:1 part:1 eye:1 announce:1 decide:1 march:2 whether:1 eliminate:1 delay:1 april:5 company:2 nameplate:1 owner:7 saturn:1 grapple:1 threat:1 demise:1 buffalonews:1 president:1 fritz:1 henderson:1 several:1 interested:1 party:1 approach:1 regard:1 business:1 société:1 de:1 participation:1 financière:1 eidos:1 canada:1 inc:2 unsolicited:1 bid:1 three:1 current:1 possibly:2 future:1 alpha:2 sut:2 concept:2 hx:1 get:3 stretch:1 become:2 edmund:1 inside:1 date:1 post:1 august:1 detail:2 car:2 range:5 release:1 american:2 subsidiary:1 previously:1 buy:1 chrysler:1 second:1 available:1 plug:2 hybrid:2 raser:3 technology:3 utah:1 want:1 similar:1 chevy:1 volt:1 mpg:1 fuel:5 sipper:1 sketchy:1 debut:1 prototype:1 society:1 automotive:1 engineer:1 world:1 congress:1 detroit:1 e:1 rev:1 extend:1 electric:1 powertrain:1 run:1 mile:1 per:1 battery:1 alone:1 cylinder:1 combustion:1 kick:1 generate:1 electricity:1 compact:1 ability:2 whose:1 entire:1 come:2 standard:2 low:1 transfer:1 case:1 relatively:1 ground:1 clearance:1 tire:2 additionally:1 offer:1 race:5 team:7 racing:2 showcases:1 lead:1 racer:1 rod:1 hall:2 competes:1 stock:5 class:8 bitd:1 score:1 feature:3 frame:1 suspension:1 specialize:1 shock:1 absorber:1 minor:1 allow:1 along:1 required:1 supporting:1 component:1 mandatory:1 safety:7 finish:1 baja:2 victory:1 sweep:1 terrible:1 town:1 tally:1 impressive:1 record:1 earn:1 win:1 dakar:2 rally:2 highly:1 robby:1 gordon:1 place:2 license:4 various:1 trademark:1 cologne:1 flashlight:1 bicycle:1 bike:1 shoe:1 coat:1 hat:1 laptop:2 decomissioned:1 clothing:1 cd:1 player:1 item:1 hummerstuff:1 facility:1 square:4 foot:3 open:2 hmvee:1 struandale:1 east:1 cape:1 expand:1 metre:1 louisiana:1 additional:1 accommodate:1 effort:2 convoy:1 washington:1 dc:1 inauguration:1 barack:1 obama:1 since:1 heavy:2 duty:1 capability:1 employ:1 aid:2 disaster:3 situation:3 prepare:1 emergency:2 hope:1 club:1 red:2 cross:2 together:1 organization:2 train:1 cpr:1 skill:2 basic:1 highway:2 may:1 assist:1 victim:1 pay:1 million:1 participate:1 unique:1 volunteer:1 early:2 appearance:3 film:1 television:1 industry:1 noticeable:2 seaquest:1 dsv:1 earth:1 solar:1 power:1 main:1 mode:1 conveyance:1 recently:1 csi:2 miami:2 chief:1 crime:1 lab:1 lt:1 horatio:1 caine:1 play:1 david:1 caruso:1 season:1 redesigned:1 interior:1 transformer:1 movie:1 autobot:1 know:1 ratchet:1 transforms:1 search:1 rescue:1 criticisms:1 criticism:5 although:1 degree:1 specific:1 extra:1 size:1 significantly:1 big:1 cause:1 problem:1 park:2 fit:1 garage:1 con:1 downside:1 ecology:1 ecological:2 perception:1 user:1 attract:1 lot:1 au:1 statement:1 mere:1 mention:1 many:2 people:1 incandescent:1 rage:1 need:1 badly:1 family:1 national:1 motorist:1 association:1 usually:1 single:1 attack:1 symbol:1 irresponsibility:1 sometimes:1 violent:1 mean:1 eco:2 shirt:2 anti:2 terrorist:1 vandalize:1 outside:1 beltway:1 otb:1 angry:1 message:1 poor:2 economy:4 even:1 compare:1 passenger:1 lb:1 gvw:1 neither:1 publish:1 epa:1 counted:1 toward:1 corporate:1 average:2 test:2 tweaked:1 tahoe:1 real:1 thing:1 magazine:2 instance:1 configuration:1 city:1 curb:1 weight:2 technically:1 illegal:1 street:1 overview:1 crash:1 data:1 less:1 complete:1 take:1 longer:1 stop:1 braking:1 exempt:1 dot:1 regulation:1 faq:1 little:1 known:1 fact:1 lack:1 child:2 lock:1 seat:1 tether:1 side:1 air:1 bag:1 stability:1 blind:1 spot:1 difficult:1 dangerous:1 see:1 sport:1 utility:1 unimog:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 official:1 site:1 |@bigram mobility_multipurpose:4 multipurpose_wheel:4 hummer_hummer:7 hum_vee:6 gun_turret:1 soviet_union:1 truck_suv:1 washingtonpost_com:2 mahindra_mahindra:1 plug_hybrid:2 combustion_engine:1 pickup_truck:1 shock_absorber:1 dakar_rally:2 shreveport_louisiana:1 washington_dc:1 barack_obama:1 seaquest_dsv:1 csi_miami:2 external_link:1 |
3,001 | Capoeira | Capoeira is an Afro-Brazilian art form that combines elements of martial arts, games, music, and dance. It was created in Brazil by slaves brought from Africa, especially from present day Angola some time after the 16th century. It was developed in the regions known as Bahia, Pernambuco and Rio de Janeiro. Participants form a roda, or circle, and take turns either playing musical instruments (such as the Berimbau), singing, or ritually sparring in pairs in the center of the circle. The sparring is marked by fluid acrobatic play, feints, and extensive use of sweeps, kicks, and headbutts. Less frequently used techniques include elbow strikes, slaps, punches, and body throws. Its origins and purpose are a matter of debate, with theories ranging from views of Capoeira as a uniquely Brazilian folk dance with improvised fighting movements to claims that it is a battle-ready fighting form directly descended from ancient African techniques. While many believe that the form displays a combination of African and Brazilian martial arts, historians are divided between those who believe it is a direct descendant of African fighting styles and those who believe it is a uniquely Brazilian dance form distilled from various African and Brazilian influences. One popular explanation holds that it is an African fighting style that was developed in Brazil, as expressed by a proponent named Salvano, who said, "Capoeira cannot exist without black men but its birthplace is Brazil". Even the etymology of the word capoeira is debated. The Portuguese word capão means "capon", or a castrated rooster, and could mean that the style appears similar to two roosters fighting. Kongo scholar K. Kia Bunseki Fu-Kiau also suggested capoeira could be derived from the Kikongo word kipura, which describes a rooster's movements in a fight.Afro-Brazilian scholar Carlos Eugenio has suggested that the sport took its name from a large round basket called a "capa" commonly worn on the head by urban slaves. Others claim the term derives from the Tupi-Guarani words kaá ("leaf", "plant") and puéra (past aspect marker), meaning "formerly a forest". Another claim is that given that capoeira in Portuguese literally means "chicken coop", it could simply be a derisive term used by slave owners to refer to the displays as chicken fights. Afro-Brazilian art form Some interpretations emphasize Capoeira as a fighting style designed for rebellion, but disguised by a façade of dance. Many attempted to discredit this view, arguing that capoeira is not aggressive in nature, and did not originate as a fighting style. Supporting the martial interpretation are renderings in the 1835 Voyage Pittoresque dans le Brésil (Picturesque Voyage to Brazil) ethnographic artist Johann Moritz Rugendas depicted Capoeira or the Dance of War, lending historical credence to the idea that Capoeira is a combative art-form with many dance elements. The island of Martinique is famous for Danymé (also known as Ladja). As with capoeira, there is a ring of spectators into which each contestant enters, moving in a counter-clockwise direction and dancing toward drummers. This move, known as Kouwi Lawon (or "Circular Run" in Creole), is an exact parallel to the capoeira interlude called dá volta ao mundo or "take a turn around the world." In Cuba, a mock-combat dance called Mani was performed to yuka drums El Juego de Mani. A dancer (manisero) would stand in the middle of a ring of spectator-participants and, moving to the sound of the songs and drums, would pick someone from the circle and attempt to knock them down. Some of the manisero's moves and kicks were comparable to those of Afro-Brazilian capoeira, including its basic leg-sweep (rasteira), which is also used in samba duro, a dance originating from El Salvador. Exactly as in Martinique, the Cuban master drummer's patterns would mirror the contestants' actions and supply accents to accompany certain blows. Maya Talmon-Chvaicer suggested capoeira may have been influenced by a ritual fight-dance called N'golo (the zebra dance) from Southern Angola, which was performed during the "Efundula, a puberty rite for women of the Mucope, Muxilenge, and Muhumbe tribes of southern Angola." Maya Talmon-Chvaicer, The Hidden History of Capoeira: A Collision of Cultures in the Brazilian Battle Dance, p.19 Since the 1960s, the N'golo theory has become popular amongst some practitioners of capoeira Angola, although it is not universally accepted. However, basic intuition lends to the fact that slaves in the New World would have sought both violent and jovial means of coping with their oppression, a widely accepted thought. Status in Brazil For some time, Capoeira was prohibited in Brazil. In 1890, Brazilian president Deodoro da Fonseca signed an act that prohibited the practice of capoeira nationwide, with severe punishment for those caught. It was nevertheless practiced by the poorer population on public holidays, during work-free hours, and on other similar occasions. Riots, also caused by police interference, were common. In spite of the ban, Mestre Bimba (Manuel dos Reis Machado) created a new style, the "Capoeira Regional" (as opposed to the traditional "Capoeira Angola" of Mestre Pastinha). Mestre Bimba was finally successful in convincing the authorities of the cultural value of capoeira, thus ending the official ban in the 1930s. Mestre Bimba founded the first capoeira school in 1932, the Academia-escola de Capoeira Regional at the Engenho de Brotas in Salvador-Bahia. He was then considered "the father of modern capoeira". In 1937, he earned the state board of education certificate. In 1942, Mestre Bimba opened his second school at the Terreiro de Jesus - rua das Laranjeiras. The school is still open today and supervised by his pupil, known as "Vermelho-27". Outside Brazil Capoeira is growing in popularity worldwide. There have been comparisons drawn between the Afro-North American art form of the blues and capoeira. Both were practiced and developed by African-American slaves, both retained distinctive African aesthetics and cultural qualities; both were shunned and looked-down upon by the majority societies within which they developed, and both fostered a deep sense of Afrocentric pride especially amongst poorer and darker-skinned Blacks. In the mid-1970s when masters of the art form -- mestre capoeiristas, began to emigrate and teach capoeira in the United States, it was still primarily practiced among the poorest and blackest of Brazilians. With its immigration to the U.S., however, much of the stigma with which it was historically associated in Brazil was shed. Today there are many capoeira schools all over the world (capoeira is gaining ground in Japan) and throughout the United States, and with its growing popularity in the U.S. it has attracted a broad spectrum of multicultural, multiracial students. Capoeira has gained popularity among non-Brazilian and non-African practitioners for the fluidity of its movements. Music A capoeira bateria led by Mestre Cobra Mansa featuring three berimbaus and a pandeiro. Music is integral to capoeira. It sets the tempo and style of game that is to be played within the roda. The music is composed of instruments and song. The tempos differ from very slow (Angola) to very fast (são bento regional). Many of the songs are sung in a call and response format while others are in the form of a narrative. Capoeiristas sing about a wide variety of subjects. Some songs are about history or stories of famous capoeiristas. Other songs attempt to inspire players to play better. Some songs are about what is going on within the roda. Sometimes the songs are about life or love lost. Others have lighthearted and playful lyrics. Capoeiristas change their playing style significantly as the songs or rhythm from the berimbau commands. In this manner, it is truly the music that drives capoeira. There are three basic kinds of songs in capoeira. A ladainha (litany) is a narrative solo usually sung at the beginning of a roda, often by the mestre (master). These ladainhas will often be famous songs previously written by a mestre, or they may be improvised on the spot. A ladainha is usually followed by a chula or louvação, following a call and response pattern that usually thanks God and one's teacher, among other things. Each call is usually repeated word-for-word by the responders. The ladainha and chula are often omitted in regional games. Finally, corridos are songs that are sung while a game is being played, again following the call and response pattern. The responses to each call do not simply repeat what was said, however, but change depending on the song. The instruments are played in a row called the bateria. Three instruments are berimbaus, which look like an archer's bow using a steel string and a gourd for resonance. It is played by striking the string with a stick, and the pitch is regulated by a stone. Legend has it that, in the old times, knives or other sharp objects were attached to the top of the berimbau for protection and in case a large fight broke out. In 'the little book of capoeira' - 'Nestor Capoeira, It is said Mestre Pastinha would tell of a small sickle sharpened on both edges which he would keep in his pocket. He was fond of saying "If it had a third edge I would sharpen that one too, for those who wish to do me harm." Pastinha also spoke of how this blade could be attached to the end of a berimbau. These three bows are the Berra boi (also called the bass or Gunga), Medio, Viola, and lead the rhythm. Other instruments in the bateria are: two pandeiros (tambourines), a reco-reco (rasp), and an agogô (double gong bell). The atabaque (conga-like drum), a common feature in most capoeira baterias, is considered an optional instrument, and is not required for a full bateria in some groups. Ranks While the variety in styles lead to a variety of ranking systems, there is a standard trend that most systems of capoeira follow. In order of ascension, those ranks are aluno (student), graduado (graduated), formado (formed), professor (teacher), and mestre (master). Usually at their first batizado (baptism), a capoeirista will be given the rank of aluno. In some styles, this may also come with a corda (rope) and/or apelido (nickname). Aluno translates to student in English, and so an aluno is a student of capoeira. Their rank is a recognition of their readiness to learn. After an aluno becomes well versed in the capoeira they are learning, they can be recognized as an aluno graduado (graduated student). This means they've learned enough about capoeira to be trusted to teach others of it. At this point, they would continue to learn not only capoeira, but how to teach capoeira. It could be considered the equivalent of a black belt in eastern martial arts. An aluno graduado can then become an aluno formado (formed student). They have formed their own capoeira and are now ready to teach others. A formado will usually be an instructor assisting the head of whichever school they are a part of. The aluno formado goes on to become a professor. There is not much difference between formado and professor. The main difference being a professor might have his own school in which to teach while a formado would usually be an assistant instructor. The final rank in capoeira would be a mestre (master). As the name states, the mestre is a master of capoeira. Mestres tend to be the true voices of capoeira. All other ranks are usually assigned by a mestre, but this rank is hard to assign. For the most part, a capoeirista becomes a mestre when the capoeira community recognizes them as one. Roda "Roda de Capoeira" The Roda ( Hoh-Dah ) or "Roda de Capoeira" is the circle of people within which capoeira is played. Its circular shape is maintained to keep focus on the players and musicians and retain the energy created by the capoeira game. The people who make up the roda's circular shape clap and sing along to the music being played by the musicians in the bateria or drum set for the two partners engaged in a capoeira "game" (jogo). The "mouth" of the roda is located directly in front of the bateria. It is at this point where the players begin every game and generally where any new players must enter. In some capoeira schools an individual in the audience can "buy in" to engage one of the two players and begin another game. The minimum roda size is usually a circle of about 3 meters (10 feet) in diameter. Though they can be smaller and are often larger, up to 10 meters in diameter (30 feet). The rhythm being played on the berimbau sets the pace and goals of the game played within the roda. Slow music limits the game to slow yet complex ground moves and handstands. Contact in capoeira is generally not made but rather feigned or done theatrically. In Capoeira Angola, the game rarely involves contact but the danger and possibility of it is always present. In capoeira contemporanea, during some rhythms (e.g. Benguela, Iuna) strikes are shown but not finished while in others (e.g., São Bento Grande de Regional) the players have more freedom to strike each other and make contact. Often games with contact are played at a fast pace, however it is the specific "toque" played on the berimbau, regardless of its speed, which dictates the type of game to be played. For the participants, the roda is a microcosm of life and the world around them. Most often in the roda, the capoeirista's greatest opponent is himself and philosophy plays a large part in capoeira. A good teacher will strive to teach respect, safety, Malicia, and freedom. Modern capoeira is often criticized by more traditional practitioners of capoeira as being in the process of losing its playfulness and dialogue due to the prevalence of impressive acrobatics and martial elements over the playful and intricate interactions of capoeira Angola. Dominance in the roda is as much psychological and artistic as it is a question of who is taken down. Capoeira is uniquely social. Networking with other groups and students from other teachers can teach a capoeirista more about the art and improve their skills. The jogo (game/match) Capoeiristas outside (Porto Alegre, Brasil) Capoeiristas outside Capoeira does not focus on injuring the opponent. Rather, it emphasizes skill. Capoeiristas often prefer to show the movement without completing it, enforcing their superiority in the roda. If an opponent cannot dodge a slow attack, there is no reason to use a faster one. Each attack that comes in gives players a chance to practice an evasive technique. Ginga The ginga (literally: rocking back and forth; to swing) is the fundamental movement in capoeira. Capoeira Angola and Capoeira Regional have distinctive forms of ginga. Both are accomplished by maintaining both feet approximately shoulder-width apart and then moving one foot backwards and then back to the base, describing a triangular step on the ground. This movement is done to prepare the body for other movements. The rest of the body is also involved in the ginga: coordination of the arms (in such a way as to prevent the body from being kicked), torso (many core muscles may be engaged depending on the player's style), and the leaning of the body (forward and back in relation to the position of the feet; the body leans back to avoid kicks, and forward to create opportunities to show attacks). The overall movement should match the rhythm being played by the bateria. Attacks Capoeira primarily attacks with kicks, sweeps, and head strikes. Some schools teach punches and hand strikes, but they are not as common. A possible explanation for the primary use of feet is the common West African belief that hands are for creation and feet for destruction. Another common explanation is that slaves in Brazil were commonly shackled at the wrists, restricting them from using their hands. Lastly, striking with the hands is often seen as unelegant and disruptive to the flow of the game. Elbow strikes are commonly used in place of hand strikes. "Cabeçadas" or headbutts are as common as they are in many of the fighting arts of the African Diaspora. Knee strikes are sometimes seen. Capoeira also uses acrobatic and athletic movements to maneuver around the opponent. Cartwheels called "aú" (a very common acrobatic movement), handstands (bananeira), headspins (pião de cabeça), hand-spins (pião de mão), handsprings (gato), sitting movements, turns, jumps, flips (mortal), and large dodges are all very common in capoeira though vary greatly depending on the form and rhythm. Fakes and feints are also an extremely important element in capoeira games and the setting of traps or illusory movements are very common. Defenses Capoeira defenses consists of evasive moves and rolls. A series of ducks called esquivas, which literally means "escape", are also staple of a capoeiristas' defensive vocabulary. There are typically different esquivas for every step of the Ginga, depending on the direction of the kick and intention of the defender. A common defense is the rolê, which is a rolling move that combines a duck and a low movement. This move allows the defensive players to quickly evade an attack and position themselves around the aggressor in order to lay up for an attack. It is this combination of attacks and defense which gives a game of capoeira its perceived 'fluidity' and choreography. Other evasive moves such as rasteira, vingativa, tesoura de mão or queda allow the capoeirista to move away or dangerously close in an attempt to trip up the aggressor in the briefest moment of vulnerability (usually in a mid-kick.) Combinations There are also styles of moves that combine both elements of attack and defense. An example is the au batido. The move begins as an evasive cartwheel which then turns into a blocking/kick, either as a reflexive response to a blocking move from the opposing player or when an opportunity to do so presents itself, e.g., at an opponent's drop of guard. Two kicks called meia-lua-de-frente and armada are often combined to create a double spinning kick. Chamada The Chamada is a ritual that takes place within the game of Capoeira Angola. Chamada means 'call', and consists of one player 'calling' their opponent to participate in the ritual. There is an understood dialogue of gestures of the body that are used to call the opponent, and to signal the end of the ritual. The ritual consists of one player signaling, or calling the opponent, who then approaches the player and meets the player to walk side by side within the roda. The player who initiated the ritual then decides when to signal an end to the ritual, whereby the two players return to normal play. The critical points of the chamada occur during the approach, and the chamada is considered a 'life lesson', communicating the fact that the approach is a dangerous situation. Approaching people, animals, or life situations is always a critical moment when one must be aware of the danger of the situation. The purpose of the chamada is to communicate this lesson, and to enhance the awareness of people participating in the ritual. During the ritual, after the opposing player has appropriately approached the caller of the chamada, the players walk side by side inside the circle in which the game is played. This is another critical situation, because both players are now very vulnerable due to the close proximity and potential for surprise attack. Experienced practitioners and masters of the art will sometimes test a student's awareness by suggesting strikes, head-butts, or trips during a chamada to demonstrate when the student left themselves open to attack. The end of a chamada is called by the player that initiated the ritual, and consists of a gesture inviting the player to return to normal play. This is another critical moment when both players are vulnerable to surprise attack. The chamada can result in a highly developed sense of awareness and helps practitioners learn the subtleties of anticipating another person's intentions. The chamada can be very simple, consisting solely of the basic elements, or the ritual can be quite elaborate including a competitive dialogue of trickery, or even theatric embellishments. Volta ao mundo Volta ao mundo means "around the world". http://www.capoeira-infos.org/ressources/textes/t_marks_capoeira_angola.html "Capoeira Angola" by Dr. Morton Marks The volta ao mundo takes place after an exchange of movements has reached a conclusion, or after there has been a disruption in the harmony of the game. In either of these situations, one player will begin walking around the perimeter of the circle, and the other player will join the "around the world" before returning to the normal game. Malandragem As students master the basic moves, their game naturally acquires a more cunning slant as they begin to perfect the art of trickery, or malandragem. This involves a lot of improvisation and modifications of basic moves into a flurry of feints and fakes to trick the opponent into responding wrongly. These attempts can be blatant or subtle at discretion of the players. Effective malandragem lies in the development of sharp observation skills and a keen innate ability to anticipate the moves of the opponent and prepare an appropriate response. Some capoeiristas take this aspect of the art to heights akin to the guile of theatrics and drama. Games displaying elaborate performances and even staging skits reenacting historic cultural aspects of capoeira are commonly demonstrated amongst the most learned of the arts. Styles of capoeira Capoeira has two main classifications: traditional and modern. Angola refers to the traditional form of the game. This is the oldest form, approximately 500 years old, with roots in African traditions that are even older, and is the root form from which all other forms of capoeira are based. Modern forms of capoeira can be classified as regional and contemporanea. Capoeira Angola Capoeira Angola is considered to be the more dance-like form of capoeira and is often characterized by deeply held traditions, sneakier movements and with the players playing their games in closer proximity to each other than in regional or contemporanea. Capoeira Angola is often characterized as being slower and lower to the ground than other major forms of capoeira, although in actual practice, the speed varies in accordance to the music. Capoeira Angola is also known for the chamada, a physical call-and-response used to challenge an opponent or to change the style in the roda. The father of the best known modern Capoeira Angola schools is considered to be Grão-Mestre Pastinha who lived in Salvador, Bahia. Today, most of the Capoeira Angola schools that are accessible in the United States come from mestres in Pastinha's lineage. He was not the only Capoeira Angola mestre, but is considered to be the "Father of Capoeira Angola" http://capoeira.union.rpi.edu/history.php?chapter=Pastinha Mestre Pastinha and Angola bringing this style of Capoeira into the modern setting of an academy. Capoeira Angola is much more commonly practised outside of Brazil, with "academies" being more commonly found in Europe and the US much less so than in Brazil proper.... Capoeira regional Regional is the more common form of Capoeira, it is practiced much more widely in Brazil. Capoeira Regional was developed by Mestre Bimba to make capoeira more effective and bring it closer to its fighting origins, and less associated with the criminal elements of Brazil. The Capoeira Regional style is often considered to consist of faster and more athletic play than the more traditional Capoeira Angola. Later, modern regional came to be (see the next section about capoeira Contemporânea). Developed by other people from Bimba's regional, this type of game is characterized by high jumps, acrobatics, and spinning kicks. This regional should not be confused with the original style created by Mestre Bimba. Regional ranks capoeiristas (capoeira players) by ability, denoting different skill with the use of a corda (colored rope, also known as cordel or cordão) worn as a belt. Angola does not use such a formal system of ranking, relying instead upon the discretion of a student's mestre. In both forms, though, recognition of advanced skill comes only after many years of constant practice. Capoeira Contemporânea Contemporânea is a term for groups that train multiple styles of capoeira simultaneously. Very often students of Capoeira Contemporânea train elements of Regional and Angola as well as newer movements that would not fall under either of those styles. This is controversial because many practitioners argue that Angola must be practiced alone, or that Regional can only be practiced alone for the student to truly understand the form of the game. Other practitioners argue that a capoeirista should have a working knowledge of traditional and modern capoeira, and encourage training both forms simultaneously. This is an issue of great disagreement amongst capoeiristas. The label Contemporânea also applies to many groups who do not trace their lineage through Mestre Bimba or Mestre Pastinha and do not strongly associate with either tradition. In recent years, the various philosophies of modern capoeira have been expressed by the formation of schools, particularly in North America, which focus on, and continue to develop their specific form of, the modern art. This has become a defining characteristic of many schools, to the point that a seasoned student can sometimes tell what school a person trains from, based solely on the way they play the game. Some schools teach a blended version of the many different styles. Traditionally, rodas in these schools will begin with a period of Angola, in which the school's mestre, or an advanced student, will sing a ladainha, (a long, melancholy song, often heard at the start of an Angola game). After some time, the game will eventually increase in tempo, until, at the mestre's signal, the toque of the berimbaus changes to that of traditional Regional. Each game, Regional and Angola stresses different strengths and abilities. Regional emphasizes speed and quick reflexes, whereas Angola underscores a great deal of thought given to each move, almost like a game of chess. Schools that teach a blend of these try to offer this mix as a way of using the strengths of both games to influence a player. Capoeira in popular culture As capoeira's popularity spread throughout the world, so too did its use in popular culture. Capoeira players (capoeiristas) have been seen in television commercials, video games and music videos for a number of years. Movies An action movie made in 1993 called Only the Strong focuses on capoeira. It was directed by Sheldon Lettich and was the only movie that featured capoeira throughout. In the movie Never Back Down a Capoeria type fighter is featured as part of the tournament entitled the Beat Down, but he is easily put down by the main antagonist Ryan. Capoeira was a featured style of dance in the Canadian version of "So You Think You Can Dance". Although not named as capoeira, the character portrayed by Moses Gunn in an episode of the 70s TV show Kung Fu fights in a martial arts style that he explains: "was taught to me by my father despite it being prohibited by the Brazilian government, as we were slaves." In the action movie "The Protector" Lateef Crowder plays a character simply known as Capoeira Fighter who appears twice to fight the main character of the movie. In the 2004 debut of "Catwoman" Halle Berry states on the DVD she studied Capoeira as Catwoman's fighting style Video games Capoeira is the dance of the Male troll in the popular online game World of Warcraft. Eddy Gordo, Tiger Jackson and Christie Monteiro, characters in the popular fighting game series Tekken, use the Capoeira fighting style. As Mokujin, Tetsujin and Combot randomly copy the fighting styles of other characters, they can use the fighting style too. Elena of the Street Fighter series utilizes the Capoeira fighting style to take advantage of her long legs. Blanka also uses a modified version of capoeira, but the similarities are not too obvious. The game Def Jam: Icon features a capoeira style called Jah Breakah. The indie game Capoeira Legends for PC revolves entirely around the capoeira theme. The PC game Rumble Fighter for PC incorporates capoeira as one of the advanced fighting styles. Comic books In the manga novel Another Note, a spin-off of the Death Note series, Naomi Misora tells L that she uses a capoeira fighting style. In the 13th Death Note manga, page 11 makes note of L having "somehow mastered" capoeira. Naomi Misora is a character of Death Note(Desu Noto) who is an FBI Agent who works for L (Lawliet) and happens to be attacked by a thug who tried to hit her with a backback full of sand and eventually L wanted to learn coperia... Special events Capoeira performance in Recoleta, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Capoeira regional groups periodically hold Batizados ("baptisms" into the art of capoeira). Members being "baptized" are normally given a corda (cord belt) and an apelido (capoeira nickname) if they haven't already earned one. Batizados are major events to which a number of groups and masters from near and far are normally invited. Sometimes a Batizado is also held in conjunction with a Troca de Corda (change of belts), in which students already baptized who have trained hard and been deemed worthy by their teachers are awarded higher-ranking belts as an acknowledgment of their efforts. Such ceremonies provide opportunities to see a variety of different capoeira styles, watch mestres play, and see some of the best of the game. Batizados and Trocas de Cordoes do not occur in capoeira Angola, which does not have a system of belts. However, some contemporary schools of capoeira have combined the study of both arts and may require their students to be learned in the ways of capoeira Angola before being awarded a higher belt. Related activities Samba de roda Performed by many capoeira groups, samba de roda is a traditional Afro-Brazilian dance that has been associated with capoeira for many years. The orchestra is composed by pandeiro (tambourine), atabaque (drum), berimbau-viola (berimbau with the smallest cabaça and the highest pitch), chocalho (rattle – a percussion instrument), accompanied by singing and clapping. Maculelê Maculelê as dance is sometimes practiced by itself, but is quite often practiced alongside capoeira, and is featured in many capoeira performances. It should be noted that maculelê and capoeira are fairly similar in style. Puxada de rede Puxada de Rede is a Brazilian folkloric theatrical play, seen in many capoeira performances. It is based on a traditional Brazilian legend involving the loss of a fisherman in a sea-faring accident Important mestres '' Manuel dos Reis Machado (Mestre Bimba), a founder of the Luta Regional Bahiana. Vicente Ferreira Pastinha (Mestre Pastinha), a founder of the Centro Esportivo Capoeira Angola. Manoel Loka Leite (Mestre Loka), organized Capuraginga Schools ABADÁ-Capoeira Grupo Axé Capoeira Senavox Omulu Guanabara Grupo Maculelê Capoeira Nago United Capoeira Association Capuraginga See also List of capoeira techniques Capoeira music Capoeira toques Malicia Ocean's 12 Notes External links Open Directory - Sports: Martial Arts: Capoeira: Schools and Instruction The Art of Capoeira- short BBC article on Capoeira Greek Capoeira Community- The Capoeira Community in Greece Capoeira Online- The largest online Capoeira community since 1996 with over 45,000 members. | Capoeira |@lemmatized capoeira:154 afro:6 brazilian:16 art:20 form:27 combine:5 element:8 martial:7 game:41 music:10 dance:18 create:6 brazil:13 slave:7 bring:3 africa:1 especially:2 present:3 day:1 angola:33 time:4 century:1 develop:7 region:1 know:7 bahia:3 pernambuco:1 rio:1 de:18 janeiro:1 participant:3 roda:20 circle:7 take:8 turn:4 either:5 play:25 musical:1 instrument:7 berimbau:8 singing:1 ritually:1 spar:1 pair:1 center:1 sparring:1 mark:2 fluid:1 acrobatic:3 feint:3 extensive:1 use:20 sweep:3 kick:11 headbutts:2 less:3 frequently:1 technique:4 include:3 elbow:2 strike:11 slap:1 punch:2 body:7 throw:1 origin:2 purpose:2 matter:1 debate:2 theory:2 range:1 view:2 uniquely:3 folk:1 improvised:1 fight:13 movement:16 claim:3 battle:2 ready:2 directly:2 descend:1 ancient:1 african:11 many:16 believe:3 display:3 combination:3 historian:1 divide:1 direct:2 descendant:1 fighting:10 style:32 distil:1 various:2 influence:3 one:13 popular:6 explanation:3 hold:4 express:2 proponent:1 name:4 salvano:1 say:4 cannot:2 exist:1 without:2 black:4 men:1 birthplace:1 even:4 etymology:1 word:6 portuguese:2 capão:1 mean:8 capon:1 castrated:1 rooster:3 could:5 appear:2 similar:3 two:7 kongo:1 scholar:2 k:1 kia:1 bunseki:1 fu:2 kiau:1 also:18 suggest:4 derive:2 kikongo:1 kipura:1 describe:2 carlos:1 eugenio:1 sport:2 large:6 round:1 basket:1 call:22 capa:1 commonly:6 wear:1 head:4 urban:1 others:6 term:3 tupi:1 guarani:1 kaá:1 leaf:1 plant:1 puéra:1 past:1 aspect:3 marker:1 meaning:1 formerly:1 forest:1 another:7 give:6 literally:3 chicken:2 coop:1 simply:3 derisive:1 owner:1 refer:1 interpretation:2 emphasize:2 design:1 rebellion:1 disguise:1 façade:1 attempt:5 discredit:1 argue:3 aggressive:1 nature:1 originate:2 support:1 rendering:1 voyage:2 pittoresque:1 dans:1 le:1 brésil:1 picturesque:1 ethnographic:1 artist:1 johann:1 moritz:1 rugendas:1 depict:1 war:1 lend:2 historical:1 credence:1 idea:1 combative:1 island:1 martinique:2 famous:3 danymé:1 ladja:1 ring:2 spectator:2 contestant:2 enters:1 move:18 counter:1 clockwise:1 direction:2 toward:1 drummer:2 kouwi:1 lawon:1 circular:3 run:1 creole:1 exact:1 parallel:1 interlude:1 dá:1 volta:4 ao:4 mundo:4 around:8 world:8 cuba:1 mock:1 combat:1 mani:2 perform:3 yuka:1 drum:5 el:2 juego:1 dancer:1 manisero:2 would:11 stand:1 middle:1 sound:1 song:13 pick:1 someone:1 knock:1 comparable:1 basic:6 leg:2 rasteira:2 samba:3 duro:1 salvador:3 exactly:1 cuban:1 master:10 pattern:3 mirror:1 action:3 supply:1 accent:1 accompany:2 certain:1 blow:1 maya:2 talmon:2 chvaicer:2 may:5 ritual:11 n:2 golo:2 zebra:1 southern:2 efundula:1 puberty:1 rite:1 woman:1 mucope:1 muxilenge:1 muhumbe:1 tribe:1 hidden:1 history:3 collision:1 culture:3 p:1 since:2 become:6 amongst:4 practitioner:7 although:3 universally:1 accept:2 however:5 intuition:1 fact:2 new:4 seek:1 violent:1 jovial:1 cop:1 oppression:1 widely:2 thought:2 status:1 prohibit:3 president:1 deodoro:1 da:2 fonseca:1 sign:1 act:1 practice:11 nationwide:1 severe:1 punishment:1 catch:1 nevertheless:1 poor:3 population:1 public:1 holiday:1 work:2 free:1 hour:1 occasion:1 riot:1 cause:1 police:1 interference:1 common:11 spite:1 ban:2 mestre:28 bimba:9 manuel:2 real:2 machado:2 regional:23 oppose:3 traditional:9 pastinha:10 finally:2 successful:1 convince:1 authority:1 cultural:3 value:1 thus:1 end:5 official:1 found:1 first:2 school:20 academia:1 escola:1 engenho:1 brotas:1 consider:8 father:4 modern:10 earn:2 state:6 board:1 education:1 certificate:1 open:4 second:1 terreiro:1 jesus:1 rua:1 laranjeiras:1 still:2 today:3 supervise:1 pupil:1 vermelho:1 outside:4 grow:2 popularity:4 worldwide:1 comparison:1 draw:1 north:2 american:2 blue:1 retain:2 distinctive:2 aesthetic:1 quality:1 shun:1 look:2 upon:2 majority:1 society:1 within:7 foster:1 deep:1 sense:2 afrocentric:1 pride:1 darker:1 skinned:1 mid:2 capoeiristas:12 begin:7 emigrate:1 teach:11 united:3 primarily:2 among:3 immigration:1 u:3 much:6 stigma:1 historically:1 associate:4 shed:1 gain:2 ground:4 japan:1 throughout:3 attract:1 broad:1 spectrum:1 multicultural:1 multiracial:1 student:17 non:2 fluidity:2 bateria:7 lead:3 cobra:1 mansa:1 feature:6 three:4 berimbaus:3 pandeiro:2 integral:1 set:3 tempo:3 compose:2 differ:1 slow:5 fast:3 são:2 bento:2 sing:7 response:7 format:1 narrative:2 wide:1 variety:4 subject:1 story:1 inspire:1 player:29 good:2 go:2 sometimes:6 life:4 love:1 lose:2 lighthearted:1 playful:2 lyric:1 change:5 playing:1 significantly:1 rhythm:6 command:1 manner:1 truly:2 drive:1 kind:1 ladainha:4 litany:1 solo:1 usually:10 beginning:1 often:16 ladainhas:1 previously:1 write:1 improvise:1 spot:1 follow:4 chula:2 louvação:1 thank:1 god:1 teacher:5 thing:1 repeat:2 responder:1 omit:1 corridos:1 depend:4 row:1 like:4 archer:1 bow:2 steel:1 string:2 gourd:1 resonance:1 stick:1 pitch:2 regulate:1 stone:1 legend:2 old:4 knife:1 sharp:2 object:1 attach:2 top:1 protection:1 case:1 break:1 little:1 book:2 nestor:1 tell:3 small:3 sickle:1 sharpen:2 edge:2 keep:2 pocket:1 fond:1 third:1 wish:1 harm:1 speak:1 blade:1 berra:1 boi:1 bass:1 gunga:1 medio:1 viola:2 pandeiros:1 tambourine:2 reco:2 rasp:1 agogô:1 double:2 gong:1 bell:1 atabaque:2 conga:1 baterias:1 optional:1 require:2 full:2 group:7 rank:10 system:4 standard:1 trend:1 order:2 ascension:1 aluno:9 graduado:3 graduate:1 formado:6 professor:4 batizado:2 baptism:2 capoeirista:6 come:5 corda:4 rope:2 apelido:2 nickname:2 translates:1 english:1 recognition:2 readiness:1 learn:7 well:2 verse:1 recognize:2 graduated:1 enough:1 trust:1 point:4 continue:2 equivalent:1 belt:7 eastern:1 instructor:2 assist:1 whichever:1 part:4 difference:2 main:4 might:1 assistant:1 final:1 mestres:4 tend:1 true:1 voice:1 assign:2 hard:2 community:4 hoh:1 dah:1 people:5 shape:2 maintain:2 focus:4 musician:2 energy:1 make:6 clap:2 along:1 partner:1 engage:3 jogo:2 mouth:1 locate:1 front:1 every:2 generally:2 must:3 enter:1 individual:1 audience:1 buy:1 minimum:1 size:1 meter:2 foot:7 diameter:2 though:3 pace:2 goal:1 limit:1 yet:1 complex:1 handstand:2 contact:4 rather:2 feign:1 theatrically:1 rarely:1 involve:4 danger:2 possibility:1 always:2 contemporanea:3 e:3 g:3 benguela:1 iuna:1 show:4 finish:1 grande:1 freedom:2 specific:2 toque:3 regardless:1 speed:3 dictate:1 type:3 microcosm:1 great:3 opponent:11 philosophy:2 strive:1 respect:1 safety:1 malicia:2 criticize:1 process:1 playfulness:1 dialogue:3 due:2 prevalence:1 impressive:1 acrobatics:2 intricate:1 interaction:1 dominance:1 psychological:1 artistic:1 question:1 social:1 network:1 improve:1 skill:5 match:2 porto:1 alegre:1 brasil:1 injure:1 prefer:1 complete:1 enforce:1 superiority:1 dodge:2 attack:13 reason:1 faster:1 chance:1 evasive:4 ginga:5 rocking:1 back:5 forth:1 swing:1 fundamental:1 accomplish:1 approximately:2 shoulder:1 width:1 apart:1 backwards:1 base:4 triangular:1 step:2 prepare:2 rest:1 coordination:1 arm:1 way:4 prevent:1 torso:1 core:1 muscle:1 leaning:1 forward:2 relation:1 position:2 lean:1 avoid:1 opportunity:3 overall:1 hand:6 possible:1 primary:1 west:1 belief:1 creation:1 destruction:1 shackle:1 wrist:1 restrict:1 lastly:1 see:8 unelegant:1 disruptive:1 flow:1 place:3 cabeçadas:1 diaspora:1 knee:1 athletic:2 maneuver:1 cartwheel:2 aú:1 bananeira:1 headspins:1 pião:2 cabeça:1 spin:3 mão:2 handspring:1 gato:1 sit:1 jump:2 flip:1 mortal:1 vary:1 greatly:1 fake:2 extremely:1 important:2 setting:2 trap:1 illusory:1 defense:5 consists:2 roll:2 series:4 duck:2 esquivas:2 escape:1 staple:1 defensive:2 vocabulary:1 typically:1 different:5 intention:2 defender:1 rolê:1 low:2 allow:2 quickly:1 evade:1 aggressor:2 lay:1 perceive:1 choreography:1 vingativa:1 tesoura:1 queda:1 away:1 dangerously:1 close:4 trip:2 brief:1 moment:3 vulnerability:1 example:1 au:1 batido:1 block:2 reflexive:1 drop:1 guard:1 meia:1 lua:1 frente:1 armada:1 spinning:1 chamada:12 participate:2 understood:1 gesture:2 signal:3 consist:4 signaling:1 approach:5 meet:1 walk:3 side:4 initiate:2 decide:1 whereby:1 return:3 normal:3 critical:4 occur:2 lesson:2 communicate:2 dangerous:1 situation:5 animal:1 aware:1 enhance:1 awareness:3 appropriately:1 caller:1 inside:1 vulnerable:2 proximity:2 potential:1 surprise:2 experienced:1 test:1 butt:1 demonstrate:2 leave:1 invite:2 result:1 highly:1 developed:1 help:1 subtlety:1 anticipate:2 person:2 simple:1 solely:2 quite:2 elaborate:2 competitive:1 trickery:2 theatric:1 embellishment:1 http:2 www:1 info:1 org:1 ressources:1 textes:1 html:1 dr:1 morton:1 exchange:1 reach:1 conclusion:1 disruption:1 harmony:1 perimeter:1 join:1 malandragem:3 naturally:1 acquire:1 cunning:1 slant:1 perfect:1 lot:1 improvisation:1 modification:1 flurry:1 trick:1 respond:1 wrongly:1 blatant:1 subtle:1 discretion:2 effective:2 lie:1 development:1 observation:1 keen:1 innate:1 ability:3 appropriate:1 height:1 akin:1 guile:1 theatrics:1 drama:1 performance:4 stag:1 skit:1 reenact:1 historic:1 learned:1 classification:1 refers:1 year:5 root:2 tradition:3 classify:1 characterize:3 deeply:1 sneakier:1 major:2 actual:1 varies:1 accordance:1 physical:1 challenge:1 best:2 known:1 grão:1 live:1 accessible:1 lineage:2 union:1 rpi:1 edu:1 php:1 chapter:1 academy:2 practised:1 find:1 europe:1 proper:1 criminal:1 later:1 next:1 section:1 contemporânea:5 high:3 confuse:1 original:1 denote:1 color:1 cordel:1 cordão:1 worn:1 formal:1 ranking:1 rely:1 instead:1 advanced:3 constant:1 train:5 multiple:1 simultaneously:2 fall:1 controversial:1 alone:2 understand:1 working:1 knowledge:1 encourage:1 issue:1 disagreement:1 label:1 apply:1 trace:1 strongly:1 recent:1 formation:1 particularly:1 america:1 defining:1 characteristic:1 seasoned:1 blended:1 version:3 traditionally:1 rodas:1 period:1 long:2 melancholy:1 hear:1 start:1 eventually:2 increase:1 stress:1 strength:2 emphasizes:1 quick:1 reflex:1 whereas:1 underscore:1 deal:1 almost:1 chess:1 blend:1 try:2 offer:1 mix:1 spread:1 television:1 commercial:1 video:3 number:2 movie:6 strong:1 sheldon:1 lettich:1 never:1 capoeria:1 fighter:4 tournament:1 entitle:1 beat:1 easily:1 put:1 antagonist:1 ryan:1 featured:1 canadian:1 think:1 character:6 portray:1 moses:1 gunn:1 episode:1 tv:1 kung:1 explain:1 despite:1 government:1 protector:1 lateef:1 crowder:1 twice:1 debut:1 catwoman:2 halle:1 berry:1 dvd:1 study:2 male:1 troll:1 online:3 warcraft:1 eddy:1 gordo:1 tiger:1 jackson:1 christie:1 monteiro:1 tekken:1 mokujin:1 tetsujin:1 combot:1 randomly:1 copy:1 elena:1 street:1 utilize:1 advantage:1 blanka:1 modified:1 similarity:1 obvious:1 def:1 jam:1 icon:1 jah:1 breakah:1 indie:1 legends:1 pc:3 revolve:1 entirely:1 theme:1 rumble:1 incorporate:1 comic:1 manga:2 novel:1 note:7 death:3 naomi:2 misora:2 l:4 page:1 somehow:1 desu:1 noto:1 fbi:1 agent:1 lawliet:1 happen:1 thug:1 hit:1 backback:1 sand:1 want:1 coperia:1 special:1 event:2 recoleta:1 buenos:1 aire:1 argentina:1 periodically:1 batizados:3 member:2 baptize:2 normally:2 cord:1 already:2 near:1 far:1 conjunction:1 troca:1 deem:1 worthy:1 award:2 higher:1 acknowledgment:1 effort:1 ceremony:1 provide:1 watch:1 trocas:1 cordoes:1 contemporary:1 related:1 activity:1 orchestra:1 cabaça:1 chocalho:1 rattle:1 percussion:1 maculelê:4 practiced:1 alongside:1 fairly:1 puxada:2 rede:2 folkloric:1 theatrical:1 loss:1 fisherman:1 sea:1 faring:1 accident:1 founder:2 luta:1 bahiana:1 vicente:1 ferreira:1 centro:1 esportivo:1 manoel:1 loka:2 leite:1 organize:1 capuraginga:2 abadá:1 grupo:2 axé:1 senavox:1 omulu:1 guanabara:1 nago:1 unite:1 association:1 list:1 ocean:1 external:1 link:1 directory:1 instruction:1 short:1 bbc:1 article:1 greek:1 greece:1 |@bigram afro_brazilian:5 martial_art:5 de_janeiro:1 dans_le:1 counter_clockwise:1 el_salvador:1 capoeira_angola:20 universally_accept:1 mestre_bimba:8 mestre_pastinha:6 salvador_bahia:2 porto_alegre:1 http_www:1 quick_reflex:1 kung_fu:1 halle_berry:1 def_jam:1 buenos_aire:1 aire_argentina:1 deem_worthy:1 percussion_instrument:1 external_link:1 |
3,002 | Economy_of_Jamaica | Jamaica has natural resources, primarily bauxite, and an ideal climate conducive to agriculture and tourism. The discovery of bauxite in the 1940s and the subsequent establishment of the bauxite-alumina industry shifted Jamaica's economy from sugar and bananas. By the 1970s, Jamaica had emerged as a world leader in export of these minerals as foreign investment increased. The country faces some serious problems but has the potential for growth and modernization. The Jamaican economy suffered its fourth consecutive year of negative growth (0.4%) in 1999. All sectors excepting bauxite/alumina, energy, and tourism shrank in 1998 and 1999. In 2000, Jamaica experienced its first year of positive growth since 1995. Nominal economic growth has continued to the upside approximately in line with US growth since. This is the result of the government's continued tight macroeconomic policies, which have been largely successful. Inflation fell from 25% in 1995 to single digits in 2000, reaching a multidecade low of 4.3% in 2004. Through periodic intervention in the market, the central bank also has prevented any abrupt drop in the exchange rate. However, the Jamaican dollar has been slipping, despite intervention, resulting in an average exchange rate of J$73.40 per US$1.00 and J107.64 per €1.00 (May 2008). FXHistory - Historical Currency Exchange Rates In addition, inflation has been trending upward since 2004 and is projected to once again reach a double digit rate of 12-13% through the year 2008 due to a combination of unfavorable weather damaging crops and increasing agricultural imports and high energy prices. Jamaica's economic and financial market outlook for 2008 - JAMAICAOBSERVER.COM Weakness in the financial sector, speculation, and lower levels of investment erode confidence in the productive sector. The government continues its efforts to raise new sovereign debt in local and international financial markets in order to meet its U.S. dollar debt obligations, to mop up liquidity to maintain the exchange rate and to help fund the current budget deficit. Jamaican Government economic policies encourage foreign investment in areas that earn or save foreign exchange, generate employment, and use local raw materials. The government provides a wide range of incentives to investors, including remittance facilities to assist them in repatriating funds to the country of origin; tax holidays which defer taxes for a period of years; and duty-free access for machinery and raw materials imported for approved enterprises. Free trade zones have stimulated investment in garment assembly, light manufacturing, and data entry by foreign firms. However, over the last 5 years, the garment industry has suffered from reduced export earnings, continued factory closures, and rising unemployment. This may be attributed to intense competition, absence of North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) parity, drug contamination delaying deliveries, and the high cost of operation, including security costs. The Government of Jamaica hopes to encourage economic activity through a combination of privatization, financial sector restructuring, reduced interest rates, and by boosting tourism and related productive activities. Primary industries Agriculture Jamaican agriculture, along with forestry and fishing accounts for about 6.6% of GDP in 1999. Sugar, the leading export crop, is produced in nearly all the parishes in Jamaica. Sugar production in 2000 was estimated at 175,000 tons, a decrease from 290,000 tons in 1999. Sugar formed 7.1% of the exports in 1999 & Jamaica formed 4.8% of production in the Caribbean. Sugar is also used for the production of by-products such as molasses, rum & some wallboard is made from bagasse. Banana production in 1999 was 130,000 tons. Bananas formed 2.4% of the exports in 1999 & Jamaica formed 7.5% of production in the Caribbean. Coffee is mainly grown around the Blue Mountains and in hilly areas, where one type, Blue Mountain coffee, is considered among the best in the world because at those heights in the Blue Mountains the cooler climate causes the berries to take longer to ripen and the beans develop more of the substances which on roasting give coffee its flavor. Coffee formed 1.9% of the exports in 1999. The picking season lasts from August to March. The coffee is exported from Kingston. Cocoa is grown throughout Jamaica and local sales absorb about 1/3 of the output to be made into instant drinks and confectionery. Citrus fruit is mainly grown in the central parts of Jamaica, particularly between the elevations of 1,000-2,500 feet.The picking season lasts from November to April. Two factories in may Pen and Bog Walk produces fruit juices, canned fruit, essential oils & marmalade.Coconuts are grown on the northern and eastern coasts, which provide enough copra to supply factories to make butterine, margarine, lard, edible oil & laundry soap. Other export crops are pimento, ginger, tobacco, sisal and other fruit are exported. Rice is grown around swampy areas around the Black River & around Long Bay in Hanover and Westmoreland parishes for local consumption. Animal husbandry Pastures form a good percentage of the land in Jamaica. Many properties specialize in cattle rearing. Livestock holdings were 400,000 head of cattle, 440,000 goats, 180,000 hogs & 30,000 sheep. Although animal products & numbers of livestock are increasing, this isn't enough for local requirements for a growing population. Dairying has increased since the erection of a condensed milk factory at Bog Walk in 1940. Even so, the supply of dairy products is not enough for local requirements and there are large imports of powdered milk, butter and cheese. Fishing The fishing industry grew during the 1980s, primarily from the focus on inland fishing. Several thousand fishermen make a living from fishing. The shallow waters and cays off the south coast are richer than the northern waters. Other fishermen live on the Pedro Cays, to the south of Jamaica. Jamaica supplies about half of its fish requirements; major imports of frozen and salted fish are imported from the USA & Canada. The total catch in 2000 was 5,676 tons, a decrease from 11,458 tons in 1997; the catch was mainly marine, with freshwater carp, barbel, etc., crustaceans & molluscs. Catfish are responsible for over 4% of Jamaican inhabitants' deaths due to the deadly venom found on the tips of their dorsal and pectoral fins. However these deadly fish are considered a dilicacy among the Jamaican population, due to the high levels of vitamin B12 which is found within the fatty tissue which is abundant in this fish. Forestry By the late 1980s, only 185,000 hectares (457,000 acres) of Jamaica's original 1,000,000 hectares (2,500,000 acres) of forest remained. Roundwood production was 881,000 cu m (31.1 million cu ft) in 2000. About 68% of the timber cut in 2000 was used as fuel wood while 32% was used for industrial use. The forests that once covered Jamaica now exist only in mountainous areas. They only supply 20% of the island timber requirements. The remaining forest is protected from further exploitation. Other accessible mountain areas are being reforested, mainly with pines, mahoe and mahogany. Mining Jamaica is the third-leading producer of bauxite and alumina in 1998, with 12.6 million tons of bauxite, accounting for 10.4% of world production & 3.46 million tons of alumina , accounting for 7.4% of world production. Mining and quarrying contributed 4.1% to GDP in 1999. Bauxite and alumina formed 55.2% of exports in 1999 and is the second-leading money earner after tourism. Jamaica has reserved of over 2 billion tonnes and is expected to last 100 years. Bauxite is found in the central parishes of St.Elizabeth, Manchester, Clarendon, St.Catherine, St.Ann & Trelawny. There are 4 alumina plants and 6 mines. Jamaica has deposits of several million tons of gypsum on the southern slopes of the Blue Mountains. Jamaica produced 330,441 tons of gypsum and some of this was used in the local cement industry and the manufacturing of building materials. Other minerals present in Jamaica include marble, limestone and silica and ores of copper, lead, zinc, manganese and iron. Some of these are worked in small quantities. Petroleum has been sought, but so far none has been found. Industry The manufacturing sector is an essential contributor to the Jamaican economy. Though manufacturing accounted for 13.9% of GDP in 1999. Jamaican companies contribute many manufactures such as food processing; oil refining; produced chemicals, construction materials, plastic goods, paints, pharmaceuticals, cartons , leather goods and cigars & assembled electronics, textiles and apparel. The garment industry is a major job employed thousands of locals and they formed 12.9% of exports in 1999 earning US$159 million dollars. Chemicals formed 3.3% of the exports in 1999 earning US$40 million dollars. An oil refinery is located near Kingston converts crude petroleum obtained from Venezuela into gasoline and other products. These are mainly for local use. The construction industry is growing due to new hotels and attractions being built for tourism. Construction and installation formed 10.4% of the GDP in 1999. Manufactured goods were imported and formed 30.3% of the imports and cost US$877 million dollars in 1999. Tertiary industries Tourism Tourism is now the principal earner of foreign exchange which earns over $1 billion each year. The tourist economy employs hundred of thousands of Jamaicans in many occupations. Most tourist activity is centered on the northern coast of the island and in the communities of Montego Bay, Port Antonio and Kingston. Which are the some of the biggest cities in Jamaica. Financial services Another service is the financial services industry. The 1990s saw a rapid expansion in banking, investment, and insurance services. In 1999, financial institutions formed 7.8% of the GDP in 1999. There are many banks such as Century National Bank, National Commercial Bank, Pan Caribbean Bank, Scotia-Bank, Royal Bank of Canada and First Caribbean Int'l Bank. Retail The absence of large commercial centers, other than Kingston, Montego Bay and Ocho Rios has resulted in a poorly developed retail sector in Jamaica. While Kingston and Montego Bay are home to a number of retail stores, including American fast-food franchises such as Domino's, Pizza Hut & Dairy Queen and the majority of the towns in the interior of the country such as Mandeville, May Pen and Spanish Town have small shops, public markets, and temporary roadside stands. Statistics GDP: purchasing power parity - US$11.3 billion (2004 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 1.9% (2004 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - US$4,100 (2004 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 6.1% industry: 32.7% services: 61.3% (2004 est.) Population below poverty line: 19.7% (2002 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.7% highest 10%: 30.3% (2000) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 9.4% (1999 est.) Labor force: 1.14 million (2004) Labor force - by occupation: services 63.4%, agriculture 20.1%, industry 16.6% (2003) Unemployment rate: 15% (2004) Budget: revenues: $2.27 billion expenditures: $3.66 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.265 billion (FY98/99 est.) Industries: tourism, bauxite, textiles, food processing, light manufactures, rum, cement, metal, paper, chemical products. Industrial production growth rate: NA% Electricity - production: 6,386 GWh (1998) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 92.7% hydro: 2.21% nuclear: 0% other: 5.09% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 5,939 GWh (1998) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) Agriculture - products: sugarcane, bananas, coffee, citrus, potatoes, vegetables; poultry, goats, milk Exports: $1.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) Exports - commodities: alumina, bauxite, sugar, bananas, rum Exports - partners: United States 39.5%, European Union (excluding UK) 15.6%, United Kingdom 12.1%, Canada 11.5% (1998) Imports: $2.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, construction materials, fuel, food, chemicals, fertilizers Imports - partners: United States 50.9%, European Union (excluding UK) 9.5%, Caricom countries 10.4%, Latin America 6% (1998) Debt - external: $3.8 billion (1998 est.) Economic aid - recipient: $102.7 million (1995) Currency: 1 Jamaican dollar (J$) = 100 cents Exchange rates: Jamaican dollars (J$) per US$1 – 80.83 (January 2009), 70.0 (December 2007), 62.5 (September 2005), 45.7 (June 2001), 41.139 (December 1999), 9.044 (1999), 36.550 (1998), 35.404 (1997), 37.120 (1996), 35.142 (1995) Fiscal year: 1 April–31 March See also : Jamaica References | Economy_of_Jamaica |@lemmatized jamaica:24 natural:1 resource:1 primarily:2 bauxite:10 ideal:1 climate:2 conducive:1 agriculture:6 tourism:8 discovery:1 subsequent:1 establishment:1 alumina:7 industry:13 shift:1 economy:4 sugar:6 banana:5 emerge:1 world:4 leader:1 export:16 mineral:2 foreign:5 investment:5 increase:4 country:4 face:1 serious:1 problem:1 potential:1 growth:7 modernization:1 jamaican:11 suffer:2 fourth:1 consecutive:1 year:8 negative:1 sector:7 except:1 energy:2 shrank:1 experience:1 first:2 positive:1 since:4 nominal:1 economic:5 continue:4 upside:1 approximately:1 line:2 u:9 result:3 government:5 tight:1 macroeconomic:1 policy:2 largely:1 successful:1 inflation:3 fell:1 single:1 digit:2 reach:2 multidecade:1 low:3 periodic:1 intervention:2 market:4 central:3 bank:8 also:3 prevent:1 abrupt:1 drop:1 exchange:7 rate:11 however:3 dollar:7 slip:1 despite:1 average:1 j:3 per:4 may:4 fxhistory:1 historical:1 currency:2 addition:1 trend:1 upward:1 project:1 double:1 due:4 combination:2 unfavorable:1 weather:1 damage:1 crop:3 agricultural:1 import:11 high:4 price:2 financial:7 outlook:1 jamaicaobserver:1 com:1 weakness:1 speculation:1 level:2 erode:1 confidence:1 productive:2 effort:1 raise:1 new:2 sovereign:1 debt:3 local:9 international:1 order:1 meet:1 obligation:1 mop:1 liquidity:1 maintain:1 help:1 fund:2 current:1 budget:2 deficit:1 encourage:2 area:5 earn:4 save:1 generate:1 employment:1 use:7 raw:2 material:5 provide:2 wide:1 range:1 incentive:1 investor:1 include:5 remittance:1 facility:1 assist:1 repatriate:1 origin:1 tax:2 holiday:1 defer:1 period:1 duty:1 free:3 access:1 machinery:2 approved:1 enterprise:1 trade:2 zone:1 stimulate:1 garment:3 assembly:1 light:2 manufacturing:4 data:1 entry:1 firm:1 last:4 reduced:1 earnings:1 factory:4 closure:1 rise:1 unemployment:2 attribute:1 intense:1 competition:1 absence:2 north:1 american:2 agreement:1 nafta:1 parity:3 drug:1 contamination:1 delay:1 delivery:1 cost:3 operation:1 security:1 hope:1 activity:3 privatization:1 restructuring:1 reduce:1 interest:1 boost:1 related:1 primary:1 along:1 forestry:2 fishing:3 account:4 gdp:9 lead:4 produce:4 nearly:1 parish:3 production:11 estimate:1 ton:9 decrease:2 form:12 caribbean:4 product:6 molasses:1 rum:3 wallboard:1 make:4 bagasse:1 coffee:6 mainly:5 grow:8 around:4 blue:4 mountain:3 hilly:1 one:1 type:1 consider:2 among:2 best:1 height:1 mountains:2 cooler:1 cause:1 berry:1 take:1 long:2 ripen:1 bean:1 develop:2 substance:1 roast:1 give:1 flavor:1 picking:2 season:2 august:1 march:2 kingston:5 cocoa:1 throughout:1 sale:1 absorb:1 output:1 instant:1 drink:1 confectionery:1 citrus:2 fruit:4 part:1 particularly:1 elevation:1 foot:1 november:1 april:2 two:1 pen:2 bog:2 walk:2 juice:1 essential:2 oil:4 marmalade:1 coconut:1 northern:3 eastern:1 coast:3 enough:3 copra:1 supply:4 butterine:1 margarine:1 lard:1 edible:1 laundry:1 soap:1 pimento:1 ginger:1 tobacco:1 sisal:1 rice:1 swampy:1 black:1 river:1 bay:4 hanover:1 westmoreland:1 consumption:3 animal:2 husbandry:1 pasture:1 good:4 percentage:2 land:1 many:4 property:1 specialize:1 cattle:2 rear:1 livestock:2 holding:1 head:1 goat:2 hog:1 sheep:1 although:1 number:2 requirement:4 population:3 dairying:1 erection:1 condensed:1 milk:3 even:1 dairy:2 large:2 powdered:1 butter:1 cheese:1 fish:6 focus:1 inland:1 several:2 thousand:3 fisherman:2 living:1 shallow:1 water:2 cay:2 south:2 rich:1 live:1 pedro:1 half:1 major:2 frozen:1 salted:1 usa:1 canada:3 total:1 catch:2 marine:1 freshwater:1 carp:1 barbel:1 etc:1 crustacean:1 mollusc:1 catfish:1 responsible:1 inhabitant:1 death:1 deadly:2 venom:1 find:4 tip:1 dorsal:1 pectoral:1 fin:1 dilicacy:1 vitamin:1 within:1 fatty:1 tissue:1 abundant:1 late:1 hectare:2 acre:2 original:1 forest:3 remain:2 roundwood:1 cu:2 million:9 ft:1 timber:2 cut:1 fuel:3 wood:1 industrial:2 cover:1 exist:1 mountainous:1 island:2 protect:1 exploitation:1 accessible:1 reforest:1 pine:1 mahoe:1 mahogany:1 mining:2 third:1 producer:1 quarrying:1 contribute:2 second:1 money:1 earner:2 reserve:1 billion:9 tonne:1 expect:1 st:3 elizabeth:1 manchester:1 clarendon:1 catherine:1 ann:1 trelawny:1 plant:1 mine:1 deposit:1 gypsum:2 southern:1 slope:1 cement:2 building:1 present:1 marble:1 limestone:1 silica:1 ore:1 copper:1 zinc:1 manganese:1 iron:1 work:1 small:2 quantity:1 petroleum:2 seek:1 far:1 none:1 contributor:1 though:1 company:1 manufacture:3 food:4 processing:2 refining:1 chemical:4 construction:4 plastic:1 paint:1 pharmaceutical:1 carton:1 leather:1 cigar:1 assembled:1 electronics:1 textile:2 apparel:1 job:1 employ:2 refinery:1 locate:1 near:1 convert:1 crude:1 obtain:1 venezuela:1 gasoline:1 hotel:1 attraction:1 build:1 installation:1 tertiary:1 principal:1 tourist:2 hundred:1 occupation:2 center:2 community:1 montego:3 port:1 antonio:1 big:1 city:1 service:6 another:1 saw:1 rapid:1 expansion:1 banking:1 insurance:1 institution:1 century:1 national:2 commercial:2 pan:1 scotia:1 royal:1 int:1 l:1 retail:3 ocho:1 rio:1 poorly:1 home:1 store:1 fast:1 franchise:1 domino:1 pizza:1 hut:1 queen:1 majority:1 town:2 interior:1 mandeville:1 spanish:1 shop:1 public:1 temporary:1 roadside:1 stand:1 statistic:1 purchasing:2 power:2 est:10 real:1 caput:1 composition:1 poverty:1 household:1 income:1 share:1 consumer:1 labor:2 force:2 revenue:1 expenditure:2 capital:1 metal:1 paper:1 na:1 electricity:5 gwh:2 source:1 fossil:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 kwh:2 sugarcane:1 potato:1 vegetable:1 poultry:1 f:2 b:2 commodity:2 partner:2 united:3 state:2 european:2 union:2 exclude:2 uk:2 kingdom:1 transport:1 equipment:1 fertilizer:1 caricom:1 latin:1 america:1 external:1 aid:1 recipient:1 cent:1 january:1 december:2 september:1 june:1 fiscal:1 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram bauxite_alumina:4 sugar_banana:2 budget_deficit:1 raw_material:2 export_earnings:1 agreement_nafta:1 forestry_fishing:1 citrus_fruit:1 fruit_juice:1 animal_husbandry:1 dairy_product:1 butter_cheese:1 pectoral_fin:1 hectare_acre:2 cu_ft:1 mining_quarrying:1 marble_limestone:1 textile_apparel:1 oil_refinery:1 crude_petroleum:1 hundred_thousand:1 montego_bay:3 ocho_rio:1 retail_store:1 domino_pizza:1 pizza_hut:1 gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 per_caput:1 caput_purchasing:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 production_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:2 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 export_kwh:1 kwh_electricity:1 import_kwh:1 kwh_agriculture:1 banana_coffee:1 export_commodity:1 commodity_machinery:1 |
3,003 | Granville_rail_disaster | The Granville rail disaster occurred on 18 January 1977 at Granville, a suburb west of Sydney, the state capital of New South Wales, Australia, when a crowded commuter train travelling to Sydney derailed, running into the supports of a road bridge which came down onto two of its passenger carriages. Eighty-three people died, more than 210 were injured and 1,300 were affected. It is the most severe railway disaster in Australia. The crash The crowded 6:09 am Sydney-bound commuter train from Mount Victoria, in the Blue Mountains, was approaching Granville railway station when it left the rails at approximately 8:10 am and hit a row of supports of the overhead Bold Street bridge, constructed from steel and concrete. The derailed engine and first two carriages passed the bridge; the first carriage broke free from the other carriages and was torn open when it collided with a pole beside the track. The remaining carriages ground to a halt, with the second carriage clear of the bridge. The rear half of the third carriage, and forward half of the fourth carriage came to rest under the weakened bridge. Within seconds, with all its supports demolished, the bridge and several motor cars on top of it crashed onto carriages, crushing them and the passengers inside. The passengers killed were in the first, third and fourth carriages. Many of those who died were killed instantly when the bridge crushed them in their seats; Some of the survivors in the crushed carriages saw those killed one seat ahead. Some of the injured were trapped in the train for hours after the accident by part of the bridge crushing a limb or torso. Some were conscious and lucid, talking to rescuers, but died of crush syndrome soon after the weight was removed from their bodies due to the sudden release of muscle myoglobins having built up in the limb, causing renal failure. This resulted in changes to rescue procedures for these kinds of accidents. The train driver, second man, and the motorists driving on the bridge all survived. Aftermath Granville railway station The bridge was rebuilt as a single span without any intermediate support piers. Other bridges similar to the destroyed bridge had their piers reinforced. The inquiry into the accident found that the primary cause of the crash was "the very unsatisfactory condition of the permanent way", being the poor fastening of the track, causing the track to spread and allowing the left front wheel of the locomotive to come off the rail. How this happened was related to the high turnover of staff combined with a lack of standard procedures for track inspections. The posted limit for the track was not shown to be too high, provided appropriate track inspection and maintenance was occurring. The disaster triggered substantial increases in rail maintenance expenditure. Memorial Trust Granville railway disaster memorial on the corner of Railway Pde and Carlton St, across from the disaster site The Granville Memorial Trust was established in the wake of the accident to commemorate the victims and campaign for improvements to rail safety. The Trust organises an annual memorial service on the anniversary of the crash. Families and friends of the victims gather with surviving members of the rescue crews in a march through Granville to the Bold Street bridge where the accident occurred. The ceremony ends with the throwing of 83 roses on to the tracks to mark the number of passengers killed. In 2007, a plaque was placed atop the bridge to mark the efforts of railway workers who assisted in rescuing survivors from the train. Trust members also make submissions on rail safety issues, including recommending that fines for safety breaches be dedicated to rail safety improvements, and campaigning for the establishment of an independent railway safety ombudsman. Telemovie An Australian telemovie made in 1998, The Day of the Roses, follows the coronial investigation. More than two years of intensive research was undertaken to chronicle the historical events that led to Australia's worst peace time disaster. Hearing of this work and just a few weeks before his death from bowel cancer in 1996, unsolicited Coroner Tom Weir telephoned one of the writers of the original film manuscript. He confirmed his conversation in a subsequent four page letter to the manuscript writers. Tom Weir in that telephone conversation and subsequent letter detailed the cover-up conspiracy and how key players at the time tried to subvert the course of justice. The original of this letter is still held by the writers of the manuscript and a copy is also held by the film's producers. He didn’t live to see the telemovie. The official government document detailing the internal inquiry at the time was classified and as such did not see the light of day for almost 20 years. It further clarifies and confirms the extent of the cover-up. Copies of this are also held by the original writers and the film producers. The telemovie focussed on the real cause, several victims, the rescue and other people who assisted victims, and the ongoing annual dropping of roses ceremony from the bridge site. The real strength of the film comes from the extensive assistance the real people involved gave. This is demonstrated in the closing scenes of the film where the real people involved (not actors) dropped the roses off the bridge. Many of the real people involved donated their services to the production of the film. Many scenes of the film were criticised at the time for being unrealistic. Those scenes were how the real people involved remembered them and the official documents actually recorded them. Sometimes truth is stranger than fiction. The film was both critically and popularly acclaimed, winning many awards and getting record breaking ratings. The film had a who's who of Australia actors at the time with some stand-out performances by Paul Mecurio and Rebecca Gibney. Similar accidents Lewisham rail crash Eschede train disaster See also Railway accidents in New South Wales List of rail accidents (1950–1999) References External links Danger Ahead! Granville, Sydney, Australia The Granville Historical Society Documentary on the Granville Train Disaster (video) | Granville_rail_disaster |@lemmatized granville:10 rail:9 disaster:8 occur:3 january:1 suburb:1 west:1 sydney:4 state:1 capital:1 new:2 south:2 wale:2 australia:5 crowd:1 commuter:2 train:7 travel:1 derail:1 run:1 support:4 road:1 bridge:16 come:4 onto:2 two:3 passenger:4 carriage:11 eighty:1 three:1 people:6 die:3 injure:1 affect:1 severe:1 railway:8 crash:5 crowded:1 bound:1 mount:1 victoria:1 blue:1 mountain:1 approach:1 station:2 leave:1 approximately:1 hit:1 row:1 overhead:1 bold:2 street:2 construct:1 steel:1 concrete:1 derailed:1 engine:1 first:3 pass:1 break:1 free:1 tear:1 open:1 collide:1 pole:1 beside:1 track:7 remain:1 ground:1 halt:1 second:3 clear:1 rear:1 half:2 third:2 forward:1 fourth:2 rest:1 weaken:1 within:1 demolish:1 several:2 motor:1 car:1 top:1 crush:4 inside:1 kill:4 many:4 instantly:1 seat:2 survivor:2 crushed:1 saw:1 one:2 ahead:2 injured:1 trap:1 hour:1 accident:8 part:1 limb:2 torso:1 conscious:1 lucid:1 talk:1 rescuer:1 syndrome:1 soon:1 weight:1 remove:1 body:1 due:1 sudden:1 release:1 muscle:1 myoglobin:1 build:1 cause:4 renal:1 failure:1 result:1 change:1 rescue:4 procedure:2 kind:1 driver:1 man:1 motorist:1 drive:1 survive:2 aftermath:1 rebuild:1 single:1 span:1 without:1 intermediate:1 pier:2 similar:2 destroy:1 reinforce:1 inquiry:2 find:1 primary:1 unsatisfactory:1 condition:1 permanent:1 way:1 poor:1 fastening:1 spread:1 allow:1 left:1 front:1 wheel:1 locomotive:1 happen:1 relate:1 high:2 turnover:1 staff:1 combine:1 lack:1 standard:1 inspection:2 posted:1 limit:1 show:1 provided:1 appropriate:1 maintenance:2 trigger:1 substantial:1 increase:1 expenditure:1 memorial:4 trust:4 corner:1 pde:1 carlton:1 st:1 across:1 site:2 establish:1 wake:1 commemorate:1 victim:4 campaign:2 improvement:2 safety:5 organise:1 annual:2 service:2 anniversary:1 family:1 friend:1 gather:1 member:2 crew:1 march:1 ceremony:2 end:1 throwing:1 rose:4 mark:2 number:1 plaque:1 place:1 atop:1 effort:1 worker:1 assist:2 also:4 make:2 submission:1 issue:1 include:1 recommend:1 fine:1 breach:1 dedicate:1 establishment:1 independent:1 ombudsman:1 telemovie:4 australian:1 day:2 follow:1 coronial:1 investigation:1 year:2 intensive:1 research:1 undertake:1 chronicle:1 historical:2 event:1 lead:1 bad:1 peace:1 time:5 hearing:1 work:1 week:1 death:1 bowel:1 cancer:1 unsolicited:1 coroner:1 tom:2 weir:2 telephone:2 writer:4 original:3 film:9 manuscript:3 confirm:2 conversation:2 subsequent:2 four:1 page:1 letter:3 detail:2 cover:2 conspiracy:1 key:1 player:1 try:1 subvert:1 course:1 justice:1 still:1 hold:3 copy:2 producer:2 live:1 see:3 official:2 government:1 document:2 internal:1 classify:1 light:1 almost:1 clarifies:1 extent:1 focus:1 real:6 ongoing:1 dropping:1 strength:1 extensive:1 assistance:1 involve:4 give:1 demonstrate:1 closing:1 scene:3 actor:2 drop:1 donate:1 production:1 criticise:1 unrealistic:1 remember:1 actually:1 record:2 sometimes:1 truth:1 strange:1 fiction:1 critically:1 popularly:1 acclaim:1 win:1 award:1 get:1 breaking:1 rating:1 stand:1 performance:1 paul:1 mecurio:1 rebecca:1 gibney:1 lewisham:1 eschede:1 list:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 danger:1 society:1 documentary:1 video:1 |@bigram commuter_train:2 renal_failure:1 external_link:1 |
3,004 | Butterfly_effect | Point attractors in 2D phase space. The butterfly effect is a phrase that encapsulates the more technical notion of sensitive dependence on initial conditions in chaos theory. Small variations of the initial condition of a dynamical system may produce large variations in the long term behavior of the system. This is sometimes presented as esoteric behavior, but can be exhibited by very simple systems: for example, a ball placed at the crest of a hill might roll into any of several valleys depending on slight differences in initial position. It is a common subject in fiction when presenting scenarios involving time travel and with "what if" scenarios where one storyline diverges at the moment of a seemingly minor event resulting in two significantly different outcomes. Theory Recurrence, the approximate return of a system towards its initial conditions, together with sensitive dependence on initial conditions are the two main ingredients for chaotic motion. They have the practical consequence of making complex systems, such as the weather, difficult to predict past a certain time range (approximately a week in the case of weather), since it is impossible to measure the starting atmospheric conditions completely accurately. Origin of the concept and the term The term "butterfly effect" itself is related to the work of Edward Lorenz, and is based in chaos theory and sensitive dependence on initial conditions, first described in the literature by Jacques Hadamard in 1890 Some Historical Notes: History of Chaos Theory and popularized by Pierre Duhem's 1906 book. The idea that one butterfly could eventually have a far-reaching ripple effect on subsequent historic events seems first to have appeared in a 1952 short story by Ray Bradbury about time travel (see Literature and print here) although Lorenz made the term popular. In 1961, Lorenz was using a numerical computer model to rerun a weather prediction, when, as a shortcut on a number in the sequence, he entered the decimal .506 instead of entering the full .506127 the computer would hold. The result was a completely different weather scenario. Mathis, Nancy: "Storm Warning: The Story of a Killer Tornado", page x. Touchstone, 2007. ISBN 0-7432-8053-2 Lorenz published his findings in a 1963 paper for the New York Academy of Sciences noting that "One meteorologist remarked that if the theory were correct, one flap of a seagull's wings could change the course of weather forever." Later speeches and papers by Lorenz used the more poetic butterfly. According to Lorenz, upon failing to provide a title for a talk he was to present at the 139th meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1972, Philip Merilees concocted Does the flap of a butterfly’s wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas as a title. Although a butterfly flapping its wings has remained constant in the expression of this concept, the location of the butterfly, the consequences, and the location of the consequences have varied widely. The phrase refers to the idea that a butterfly's wings might create tiny changes in the atmosphere that may ultimately alter the path of a tornado or delay, accelerate or even prevent the occurrence of a tornado in a certain location. The flapping wing represents a small change in the initial condition of the system, which causes a chain of events leading to large-scale alterations of events. Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the system might have been vastly different. While the butterfly does not cause the tornado, the flap of its wings is an essential part of the initial conditions resulting in a tornado. Chapter four of F. Scott Fitzgerald's story "Winter Dreams" contains the following sentence: Illustration {|class="wikitable" width=100% |- ! colspan=3|The butterfly effect in the Lorenz attractor |- |colspan=2 align="center"| time 0 ≤ t ≤ 30 (larger) | align="center" | z coordinate (larger) |- |colspan=2 align="center"| |align="center"| |- |colspan=3| These figures show two segments of the three-dimensional evolution of two trajectories (one in blue, the other in yellow) for the same period of time in the Lorenz attractor starting at two initial points that differ only by 10-5 in the x-coordinate. Initially, the two trajectories seem coincident, as indicated by the small difference between the z coordinate of the blue and yellow trajectories, but for t > 23 the difference is as large as the value of the trajectory. The final position of the cones indicates that the two trajectories are no longer coincident at t=30. |- |align="center" colspan=3| A Java animation of the Lorenz attractor shows the continuous evolution. |} Mathematical definition A dynamical system with evolution map displays sensitive dependence on initial conditions if points arbitrarily close become separate with increasing t. If M is the state space for the map , then displays sensitive dependence to initial conditions if there is a δ>0 such that for every point x∈M and any neighborhood N containing x there exist a point y from that neighborhood N and a time τ such that the distance The definition does not require that all points from a neighborhood separate from the base point x. Appearances in popular culture The term is sometimes used in popular media dealing with the idea of time travel, usually inaccurately. Most time travel depictions simply fail to address butterfly effects. According to the actual theory, if history could be "changed" at all (so that one is not invoking something like the Novikov self-consistency principle which would ensure a fixed self-consistent timeline), the mere presence of the time travelers in the past would be enough to change short-term events (such as the weather) and would also have an unpredictable impact on the distant future. Therefore, no one who travels into the past could ever return to the same version of reality he or she had come from and could have therefore not been able to travel back in time in the first place, which would create a phenomenon known as a time paradox. See also Cascading failure Causality Chain reaction Determinism Domino effect Dynamical systems Fractal Snowball effect References Further reading External links The meaning of the butterfly: Why pop culture loves the 'butterfly effect,' and gets it totally wrong, Peter Dizikes, Boston Globe, June 8, 2008 From butterfly wings to single e-mail (Cornell University) New England Complex Systems Institute - Concepts: Butterfly Effect The Chaos Hypertextbook. An introductory primer on chaos and fractals. be-x-old:Эфэкт матылька | Butterfly_effect |@lemmatized point:7 attractor:4 phase:1 space:2 butterfly:16 effect:9 phrase:2 encapsulate:1 technical:1 notion:1 sensitive:5 dependence:5 initial:11 condition:10 chaos:5 theory:6 small:3 variation:2 dynamical:3 system:10 may:2 produce:1 large:5 long:1 term:6 behavior:2 sometimes:2 present:3 esoteric:1 exhibit:1 simple:1 example:1 ball:1 place:2 crest:1 hill:1 might:3 roll:1 several:1 valley:1 depend:1 slight:1 difference:3 position:2 common:1 subject:1 fiction:1 scenario:3 involve:1 time:11 travel:6 one:7 storyline:1 diverge:1 moment:1 seemingly:1 minor:1 event:5 result:3 two:7 significantly:1 different:3 outcome:1 recurrence:1 approximate:1 return:2 towards:1 together:1 main:1 ingredient:1 chaotic:1 motion:1 practical:1 consequence:3 make:2 complex:2 weather:6 difficult:1 predict:1 past:3 certain:2 range:1 approximately:1 week:1 case:1 since:1 impossible:1 measure:1 start:2 atmospheric:1 completely:2 accurately:1 origin:1 concept:3 relate:1 work:1 edward:1 lorenz:9 base:2 first:3 describe:1 literature:2 jacques:1 hadamard:1 historical:1 note:2 history:2 popularize:1 pierre:1 duhem:1 book:1 idea:3 could:5 eventually:1 far:2 reach:1 ripple:1 subsequent:1 historic:1 seem:2 appear:1 short:2 story:3 ray:1 bradbury:1 see:2 print:1 although:2 popular:3 use:3 numerical:1 computer:2 model:1 rerun:1 prediction:1 shortcut:1 number:1 sequence:1 enter:2 decimal:1 instead:1 full:1 would:5 hold:1 mathis:1 nancy:1 storm:1 warning:1 killer:1 tornado:6 page:1 x:6 touchstone:1 isbn:1 publish:1 finding:1 paper:2 new:2 york:1 academy:1 science:2 meteorologist:1 remark:1 correct:1 flap:6 seagull:1 wing:8 change:5 course:1 forever:1 late:1 speech:1 poetic:1 accord:2 upon:1 fail:2 provide:1 title:2 talk:1 meeting:1 american:1 association:1 advancement:1 philip:1 merilees:1 concoct:1 brazil:1 set:1 texas:1 remain:1 constant:1 expression:1 location:3 vary:1 widely:1 refers:1 create:2 tiny:1 atmosphere:1 ultimately:1 alter:1 path:1 delay:1 accelerate:1 even:1 prevent:1 occurrence:1 represent:1 cause:2 chain:2 lead:1 scale:1 alteration:1 trajectory:6 vastly:1 essential:1 part:1 chapter:1 four:1 f:1 scott:1 fitzgerald:1 winter:1 dream:1 contain:2 following:1 sentence:1 illustration:1 class:1 wikitable:1 width:1 colspan:5 align:5 center:5 z:2 coordinate:3 figure:1 show:2 segment:1 three:1 dimensional:1 evolution:3 blue:2 yellow:2 period:1 differ:1 initially:1 coincident:2 indicate:2 value:1 final:1 cone:1 longer:1 java:1 animation:1 continuous:1 mathematical:1 definition:2 map:2 display:2 arbitrarily:1 close:1 become:1 separate:2 increase:1 state:1 δ:1 every:1 neighborhood:3 n:2 exist:1 τ:1 distance:1 require:1 appearance:1 culture:2 medium:1 deal:1 usually:1 inaccurately:1 depiction:1 simply:1 address:1 actual:1 invoke:1 something:1 like:1 novikov:1 self:2 consistency:1 principle:1 ensure:1 fixed:1 consistent:1 timeline:1 mere:1 presence:1 traveler:1 enough:1 also:2 unpredictable:1 impact:1 distant:1 future:1 therefore:2 ever:1 version:1 reality:1 come:1 able:1 back:1 phenomenon:1 know:1 paradox:1 cascade:1 failure:1 causality:1 reaction:1 determinism:1 domino:1 fractal:2 snowball:1 reference:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 meaning:1 pop:1 love:1 get:1 totally:1 wrong:1 peter:1 dizikes:1 boston:1 globe:1 june:1 single:1 e:1 mail:1 cornell:1 university:1 england:1 institute:1 hypertextbook:1 introductory:1 primer:1 old:1 эфэкт:1 матылька:1 |@bigram ray_bradbury:1 association_advancement:1 scott_fitzgerald:1 class_wikitable:1 wikitable_width:1 lorenz_attractor:3 align_center:5 external_link:1 boston_globe:1 chaos_fractal:1 |
3,005 | Nestorianism | Nestorian priests in a procession, wall painting from the caves of Bezeklik Nestorianism is the doctrine that the two individual natures of Christ, the human and the divine, are joined in conjunction ("synapheia") rather than in hypostatic union. Encyclopedia of the Early Church (New York, 1992), v.2, s.v. The doctrine is identified with Nestorius (c. 386–c. 451), Archbishop of Constantinople. This view of Christ was condemned at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, and the conflict over this view led to the Nestorian schism, separating the Assyrian Church of the East from the churches adherent to the First Council of Ephesus, among them being the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Oriental Orthodox Church. Nestorianism originated in the Church in the 5th century out of an attempt to rationally explain and understand the incarnation of the divine Logos, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity as Jesus Christ. Nestorianism taught that the human and divine essences of Christ are separate and that there are two natures, the man Jesus and the divine Logos, united in Christ. In consequence, Nestorians rejected such terminology as "God suffered" or "God was crucified", because the humanity of Christ which suffered is separate from his divinity. Likewise, they rejected the term Theotokos (Giver of birth to God/Mother of God) as a title of the Virgin Mary, suggesting instead the title Christotokos (Giver of birth to Christ/Mother of Christ), because in their view he took only his human nature from his mother, while the divine Logos was pre-existent and external, so calling Mary "Mother of God" was misleading and potentially wrong. The Assyrian Church of the East refused to drop support for Nestorius or to denounce him as a heretic. That church has continued to be called "Nestorian" in the West, to distinguish it from other ancient Eastern churches. However, the Church of the East does not regard its doctrine as truly Nestorian: it teaches the view of Babai the Great - Christ has two qnome (manifest or individuated substance, similar to hypostasis) that are unmingled and eternally united in one parsopa (person). According to some interpretations, the origin of this belief is mostly historical and linguistic: for example, the Greeks had two words for 'person', which translated poorly into Syriac, and the meanings of these terms were not even quite settled during Nestorius's lifetime. There are about 170,000 Nestorians today, mostly living in Syria, Iraq and Iran. Christian Faith : History :: Nestorianism Nestorius Nestorian tombstone with inscriptions in Uyghur, found in Issyk Kul, dated 1312. Nestorius (c. 386–c. 451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern Turkey) and later became Archbishop of Constantinople. He taught that the human and divine aspects of Christ were distinct natures, not unified. He preached against the use of the title Mother of God (Theotokos) for the Virgin Mary and would only call her Mother of Christ (Christotokos). He also argued that God could not suffer on the cross, as he is omnipotent. Therefore, the human part of Christ died on the cross, but not the divine. His opponents accused him of dividing Christ into two persons: they claimed that proposing that God the Word did not suffer and die on the cross, while Jesus the man did, or that God the Word was omniscient, while Jesus the man had limited knowledge, implied two separate persons with separate experiences. Nestorius responded that he believed that Christ was indeed one person (Greek: prosopon), though not one hypostasis. Opposed by Cyril of Alexandria, Nestorius was condemned at the First Council of Ephesus in 431. The Council held that Christ is one hypostasis, and that the Virgin Mary is the mother of God. The condemning pronouncement of the Council resulted in the Nestorian schism and the separation of the Assyrian Church of the East from the Byzantine Church. However, even Ephesus could not settle the issue, and the Byzantine Church was soon split again over the question of whether Christ had one or two natures, leading to the Chalcedonian schism. Christological implications From the point of view of the Chalcedonian theology held by most Western and Orthodox churches, the teaching of Nestorius has important consequences relating to soteriology and the theology of the Eucharist. During the Protestant Reformation, when some groups denied the Real Presence and the communication of attributes between the two natures, they were accused of reviving the heresy of Nestorius. The same charge was levelled at the Catholics Isaac-Joseph Berruyer in the eighteenth century, and Anton Günther in the nineteenth century. Catholic Encyclopedia, article Christology The involvement of the Assyrian Church Cyril of Alexandria worked hard to remove Nestorius and his supporters and followers from power. However, in the Syriac speaking world, Theodore of Mopsuestia was held in very high esteem, and the condemnation of his pupil Nestorius was not received well. His followers were given refuge. The Sassanid Persian kings, who were at constant war with Byzantium, saw the opportunity to assure the loyalty of their Christian subjects and supported the Nestorian schism: They granted protection to Nestorians (462).Painting of a Nestorian nun, 1779. They executed the pro-Byzantine Catholicos Babowai who was then replaced by the Nestorian Bishop of Nisibis Bar Sauma (484). They allowed the transfer of the school of Edessa to the Persian city Nisibis when the Byzantine emperor closed it for its Nestorian tendencies (489). At Nisibis the school became even more famous than at Edessa. The main theological authorities of the school have always been Theodore and his teacher Diodorus of Tarsus. Unfortunately, few of their writings have survived. The writings of Nestorius himself were only added to the curriculum of the school of Edessa-Nisibis in 530, shortly before the Fifth Ecumenical Council in 553 condemned Theodore of Mopsuestia as Nestorius's predecessor. At the end of the 6th century the school went through a theological crisis when its director Henana of Adiabene tried to replace Theodore with his own doctrine, which followed Origen. Babai the Great (551–628), who was also the unofficial head of the Church at that time and revived the Assyrian monastic movement, refuted him and in the process wrote the normative Christology of the Assyrian Church, based on Theodore of Mopsuestia. A small sampling of Babai's work is available in English translation. The Book of Union is his principal surviving work on Christology. In it he explains that Christ has two qnome (essences), which are unmingled and eternally united in one parsopa (personality). This, and not strict Nestorianism, is the teaching of the Assyrian Church. However, the Assyrian Church has continued to be called "Nestorian" in the West to distinguish it from other ancient Eastern churches, despite the fact that Babai's Christology is basically the same as that of Catholicism and Orthodoxy; the Baltimore Catechism teaches that Christ is one "person" (like Babai's parsopa) but has two "natures" (Babai's qnome). The spread of Assyrian "Nestorianism" Nestorian wedding - 1897 Nestorian Archbishop - 1897 The Assyrian Church produced many zealous missionaries, who traveled and preached throughout Persia and Central and East Asia in the seventh and eighth centuries. Also during this time many Nestorian scholars escaped the Byzantines, settled in Nisibis, and Gundishapur in Persia, and Muharraq in Bahrain, bringing with them many ancient Greco-Roman philosophical, scientific, and literary texts. Thus the Nestorians of Persia became one of the most important routes through which a sophisticated knowledge of Greek and Roman philosophy, science, and medicine passed first into Persia (where Nestorians became prominent in scholarship and medicine), and subsequently, after the area was absorbed into the Islamic empire, to the intellectual culture of Islam, where the works of Aristotle and Galen, especially, became formative influences on the development of Islamic philosophy, science, and medicine Lindberg, D.C. (2007). The Beginnings of Western Science (2nd edn.) ch. 8. University of Chicago Press. (and from whence this knowledge would eventually begin to find its way back into Christian western Europe from about the 12th century, leading to the flowering of medieval scholastic philosophy Haskins, C.H. (1927). The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ). “Nestorian” Christianity reached China by 635, and its relics can still be seen in Chinese cities such as Xi'an. The Nestorian Stele, set up on 7 January 781 at the then-capital of Chang'an (modern Xi'an), describes the introduction of Christianity into China from Persia in the reign of Taizong of Tang, and documents found at the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang further elucidate the religion. About the same time Nestorian Christianity penetrated into Mongolia, eventually reaching as far as Korea. Some historians even suggest that they made it to the shores of Japan. In AD 797 , a Japanese history, Shoku Nihongi was published. It states that in AD 736 an envoy returned to Japan from China. He brought with him a Persian physician by the name of Limitsi (or Rimitsui, ), and Kohfu (), a “dignitary of the church of the Luminous Religion”. The “Luminous religion” is (Nestorian) Christianity - because Christ is “the Light of the World”. The Syrian Christians of Kerala, India may have been converted by Nestorian missionaries in the 7th century AD according to one of the two dominant theories about their origin (the other, more traditional theory is that they were converted in 52AD by St Thomas or his delegates ) The Christian community later faced persecution from Emperor Wuzong of Tang (reigned 840–846). He suppressed all foreign religions, including Buddhism and Christianity, which then declined sharply in China. A Syrian monk visiting China a few decades later described many churches in rubble. Nestorianism was particularly active in the 12th century, being a state religion of Khitans in the times of Yelü Dashi. It was also one of the widespread religions in the empire of Genghis Khan, and numerous Nestorian gravestones written in Syriac survive in what is today Kyrgyzstan. Wassilios Klein, Das nestorianische Christentum an den Handelswegen durch Kyrgyzstan bis zum 14. Jh. (Silk Road Studies 3), Turnhout, 2000. The Church experienced a significant revival during the Yuan dynasty. Marco Polo in the 1200s and other medieval Western writers indicate many Nestorian communities remaining in the Middle East, Central Asia, China and Mongolia. Rabban Bar Sauma, a Nestorian traveler from Shang-du (the "Xanadu" of Coleridge's poem, in present-day inner Mongolia), became a diplomat for the Mongol Il-Khanate of Persia to the courts of Constantinople and Rome for talks of a Franco-Mongol alliance against the Muslims at this time. However, the Nestorians clearly were not as vibrant as they had been during Tang times. The communities seem to have petered out during the Ming dynasty from lack of popular support. The legacy of the missionaries remains in the Assyrian churches still to be found in Iraq, Iran, and India. References JENKINS, Philip, "The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia" HarperOne 2008, ISBN 0061472808. BAUM, Wilhelm and WINKLER, Dietmar W (1 January 2003). The Church of the East: A Concise History, London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-29770-2. Google Print, retrieved 16 July 2005. BAUMER, Christoph. (2006). The Church of the East: an Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1-84511-115-X. Edward Walford, translator, The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, 1846. Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-88-6. Nestorius and Nestorianism at the Catholic Encyclopedia Lev N. Gumilev. Poiski vymyshlennogo tsarstva (in Russian, "Looking for the mythical kingdom"). Moscow, Onyx Publishers, 2003. ISBN 5-9503-0041-6. See also Nestorius Nestorian Assyrians Christology Assyrian Church of the East Church of the East & Abroad Babai the Great Nestorianism in China Alopen Johannite Prester John External links “Church of the East” unofficial website | Nestorianism |@lemmatized nestorian:28 priest:1 procession:1 wall:1 paint:1 cave:2 bezeklik:1 nestorianism:9 doctrine:4 two:11 individual:1 nature:7 christ:19 human:5 divine:7 join:1 conjunction:1 synapheia:1 rather:1 hypostatic:1 union:2 encyclopedia:3 early:1 church:33 new:1 york:1 v:2 identify:1 nestorius:15 c:6 archbishop:3 constantinople:3 view:5 condemn:4 first:4 council:6 ephesus:4 conflict:1 lead:3 schism:4 separate:5 assyrian:14 east:12 adherent:1 among:1 roman:3 catholic:4 eastern:3 orthodox:3 oriental:1 originate:1 century:9 attempt:1 rationally:1 explain:2 understand:1 incarnation:1 logo:3 second:1 person:7 holy:1 trinity:1 jesus:4 teach:4 essence:2 man:3 unite:3 consequence:2 nestorians:1 reject:2 terminology:1 god:10 suffer:4 crucify:1 humanity:1 divinity:1 likewise:1 term:2 theotokos:2 giver:2 birth:2 mother:7 title:3 virgin:3 mary:4 suggest:2 instead:1 christotokos:2 take:1 pre:1 existent:1 external:2 call:4 mislead:1 potentially:1 wrong:1 refuse:1 drop:1 support:3 denounce:1 heretic:1 continue:2 west:2 distinguish:2 ancient:3 however:5 regard:1 truly:1 babai:7 great:3 qnome:3 manifest:1 individuate:1 substance:1 similar:1 hypostasis:3 unmingled:2 eternally:2 one:10 parsopa:3 accord:2 interpretation:1 origin:2 belief:1 mostly:2 historical:1 linguistic:1 example:1 greek:3 word:3 translate:1 poorly:1 syriac:3 meaning:1 even:4 quite:1 settle:3 lifetime:1 today:2 live:1 syria:2 iraq:2 iran:2 christian:5 faith:1 history:7 tombstone:1 inscription:1 uyghur:1 find:4 issyk:1 kul:1 dated:1 pupil:2 theodore:6 mopsuestia:4 antioch:1 modern:2 turkey:1 later:3 become:6 aspect:1 distinct:1 unify:1 preach:2 use:1 would:2 also:5 argue:1 could:2 cross:3 omnipotent:1 therefore:1 part:1 die:2 opponent:1 accuse:2 divide:1 claim:1 propose:1 omniscient:1 limit:1 knowledge:3 imply:1 experience:2 respond:1 believe:1 indeed:1 prosopon:1 though:1 oppose:1 cyril:2 alexandria:2 hold:3 pronouncement:1 result:1 separation:1 byzantine:5 issue:1 soon:1 split:1 question:1 whether:1 chalcedonian:2 christological:1 implication:1 point:1 theology:2 western:4 teaching:2 important:2 relate:1 soteriology:1 eucharist:1 protestant:1 reformation:1 group:1 deny:1 real:1 presence:1 communication:1 attribute:1 revive:2 heresy:1 charge:1 level:1 isaac:1 joseph:1 berruyer:1 eighteenth:1 anton:1 günther:1 nineteenth:1 article:1 christology:5 involvement:1 work:4 hard:1 remove:1 supporter:1 follower:2 power:1 speaking:1 world:2 high:1 esteem:1 condemnation:1 receive:1 well:1 give:1 refuge:1 sassanid:1 persian:3 king:1 constant:1 war:1 byzantium:1 saw:1 opportunity:1 assure:1 loyalty:1 subject:1 grant:1 protection:1 painting:1 nun:1 execute:1 pro:1 catholicos:1 babowai:1 replace:2 bishop:1 nisibis:5 bar:2 sauma:2 allow:1 transfer:1 school:5 edessa:3 city:2 emperor:2 close:1 tendency:1 famous:1 main:1 theological:2 authority:1 always:1 teacher:1 diodorus:1 tarsus:1 unfortunately:1 writing:2 survive:3 add:1 curriculum:1 shortly:1 fifth:1 ecumenical:1 predecessor:1 end:1 go:1 crisis:1 director:1 henana:1 adiabene:1 try:1 follow:1 origen:1 unofficial:2 head:1 time:6 monastic:1 movement:1 refute:1 process:1 write:2 normative:1 base:1 small:1 sampling:1 available:1 english:1 translation:1 book:1 principal:1 personality:1 strict:1 despite:1 fact:1 basically:1 catholicism:1 orthodoxy:1 baltimore:1 catechism:1 like:1 spread:1 wedding:1 produce:1 many:5 zealous:1 missionary:3 travel:1 throughout:1 persia:6 central:2 asia:3 seventh:1 eighth:1 scholar:1 escape:1 gundishapur:1 muharraq:1 bahrain:1 bring:2 greco:1 philosophical:1 scientific:1 literary:1 text:1 thus:1 route:1 sophisticated:1 philosophy:3 science:3 medicine:3 pass:1 prominent:1 scholarship:1 subsequently:1 area:1 absorb:1 islamic:2 empire:2 intellectual:1 culture:1 islam:1 aristotle:1 galen:1 especially:1 formative:1 influence:1 development:1 lindberg:1 beginning:1 edn:1 ch:1 university:2 chicago:1 press:2 whence:1 eventually:2 begin:1 way:1 back:1 europe:1 flowering:1 medieval:2 scholastic:1 haskins:1 h:1 renaissance:1 twelfth:1 cambridge:1 harvard:1 christianity:7 reach:2 china:7 relic:1 still:2 see:2 chinese:1 xi:2 stele:1 set:1 january:2 capital:1 chang:1 describe:2 introduction:1 reign:2 taizong:1 tang:3 document:1 mogao:1 near:1 dunhuang:1 far:2 elucidate:1 religion:6 penetrate:1 mongolia:3 korea:1 historian:1 make:1 shore:1 japan:2 ad:5 japanese:1 shoku:1 nihongi:1 publish:1 state:2 envoy:1 return:1 physician:1 name:1 limitsi:1 rimitsui:1 kohfu:1 dignitary:1 luminous:2 light:1 syrian:2 kerala:1 india:2 may:1 convert:2 dominant:1 theory:2 traditional:1 st:1 thomas:1 delegate:1 community:3 face:1 persecution:1 wuzong:1 suppress:1 foreign:1 include:1 buddhism:1 decline:1 sharply:1 monk:1 visit:1 decade:1 rubble:1 particularly:1 active:1 khitans:1 yelü:1 dashi:1 widespread:1 genghis:1 khan:1 numerous:1 gravestone:1 kyrgyzstan:2 wassilios:1 klein:1 das:1 nestorianische:1 christentum:1 den:1 handelswegen:1 durch:1 bi:1 zum:1 jh:1 silk:1 road:1 study:1 turnhout:1 significant:1 revival:1 yuan:1 dynasty:2 marco:1 polo:1 writer:1 indicate:1 remain:2 middle:2 rabban:1 traveler:1 shang:1 du:1 xanadu:1 coleridge:1 poem:1 present:1 day:1 inner:1 diplomat:1 mongol:2 il:1 khanate:1 court:1 rome:1 talk:1 franco:1 alliance:1 muslim:1 clearly:1 vibrant:1 seem:1 petered:1 ming:1 lack:1 popular:1 legacy:1 reference:1 jenkins:1 philip:1 lost:1 thousand:1 year:1 golden:1 age:1 africa:1 harperone:1 isbn:5 baum:1 wilhelm:1 winkler:1 dietmar:1 w:1 concise:1 london:2 routledge:1 google:1 print:1 retrieve:1 july:1 baumer:1 christoph:1 illustrated:1 b:1 tauris:1 x:1 edward:1 walford:1 translator:1 ecclesiastical:1 evagrius:1 reprint:1 evolution:1 publishing:1 lev:1 n:1 gumilev:1 poiski:1 vymyshlennogo:1 tsarstva:1 russian:1 look:1 mythical:1 kingdom:1 moscow:1 onyx:1 publisher:1 abroad:1 alopen:1 johannite:1 prester:1 john:1 link:1 website:1 |@bigram hypostatic_union:1 eastern_orthodox:1 oriental_orthodox:1 jesus_christ:1 virgin_mary:3 issyk_kul:1 theodore_mopsuestia:4 cyril_alexandria:2 protestant_reformation:1 nineteenth_century:1 sassanid_persian:1 ecumenical_council:1 greco_roman:1 taizong_tang:1 genghis_khan:1 bi_zum:1 silk_road:1 yuan_dynasty:1 marco_polo:1 inner_mongolia:1 ming_dynasty:1 b_tauris:1 external_link:1 |
3,006 | Patti_Smith | Patricia Lee "Patti" Smith (born December 30, 1946) is an American singer–songwriter, poet and visual artist who was a highly influential component of the New York City punk rock movement with her 1975 debut album Horses. Called the "Godmother of Punk", she integrated the beat poetry performance style with three-chord rock. Smith's most widely known song is "Because the Night", which was co-written with Bruce Springsteen and reached number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1978. In 2005, Patti Smith was named a Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Minister of Culture, and in 2007, she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Biography Early years Patti Smith was born in Chicago on December 30, 1946. Her mother, Beverly, was a jazz singer and her father, Grant, worked at the Honeywell plant. She spent her entire childhood in Deptford Township, New Jersey. LaGorce, Tammy. "MUSIC; Patti Smith, New Jersey's Truest Rock-Poet", The New York Times, December 11, 2005. Accessed April 25, 2008. "But of all the ways to know Patti Smith, few people, including Ms. Smith, would think to embrace her as Deptford Township's proudest export." Raised the daughter of a Jehovah's Witness mother, she claims she had a strong religious education and a very good Bible education, but left organized religion as a teenager because she felt it was too confining and much later wrote the opening line ("Jesus died for somebody's sins, but not mine") of her cover version of Them's "Gloria" in response to this experience. Smith graduated from Deptford Township High School in 1964. The family was not well-off, and Smith went to work in a factory. Patti Smith was voted "Class Clown" in her senior year. 1967–1973: New York In 1967 she left Glassboro State Teachers College (now Rowan University) and moved to New York City. She met photographer Robert Mapplethorpe there while working at a book store with a friend, poet Janet Hamill. Mapplethorpe's photographs of her became the covers for the Patti Smith Group LPs, and they remained friends until Mapplethorpe's death in 1989. In 1969 she went to Paris with her sister and started busking and doing performance art. When Smith returned to New York City, she lived in the Hotel Chelsea with Mapplethorpe; they frequented the fashionable Max's Kansas City and CBGB nightclubs. The same year Smith appeared with Wayne County in Jackie Curtis's play Femme Fatale. As a member of the St. Mark's Poetry Project, she spent the early '70s painting, writing, and performing. In 1971 she performed – for one night only – in Sam Shepard's Cowboy Mouth. (The published play's notes call for "a man who looks like a coyote and a woman who looks like a crow".) She collaborated with Allen Lanier of Blue Öyster Cult, who recorded several of the songs to which Smith had contributed, including "Debbie Denise" (after her poem "In Remembrance of Debbie Denise"), "Career of Evil", "Fire of Unknown Origin", "The Revenge of Vera Gemini", and "Shooting Shark". During these years, Smith also wrote rock journalism, some of which was published in Rolling Stone and Creem magazines. 1974–1979: Patti Smith Group Performing at Tivolis Koncertsal, Copenhagen, October 6, 1976 By 1974 Patti Smith was performing rock music herself, initially with guitarist and rock archivist Lenny Kaye, and later with a full band comprising Kaye, Ivan Kral on bass, Jay Dee Daugherty on drums and Richard Sohl, on piano. Ivan Kral was a refugee from Czechoslovakia, fleeing in 1968 after the fall of Alexander Dubček. Financed by Robert Mapplethorpe, the band recorded a first single, "Hey Joe / Piss Factory", in 1974. The A-side was a version of the rock standard with the addition of a spoken word piece about fugitive heiress Patty Hearst ("Patty Hearst, you're standing there in front of the Symbionese Liberation Army flag with your legs spread, I was wondering were you gettin' it every night from a black revolutionary man and his women..."). The B-side describes the helpless anger Smith had felt while working on a factory assembly line and the salvation she discovered in the form of a shoplifted book, the 19th century French poet Arthur Rimbaud's Illuminations. Patti Smith Group was signed by Clive Davis of Arista Records, and 1975 saw the release of Smith's first album Horses, produced by John Cale amid some tension. The album fused punk rock and spoken poetry and begins with a cover of Van Morrison's "Gloria", and Smith's opening words: "Jesus died for somebody's sins but not mine." The austere cover photograph by Mapplethorpe has become one of rock's classic images. As Patti Smith Group toured the United States and Europe, punk's popularity grew. The rawer sound of the group's second album, Radio Ethiopia, reflected this. Considerably less accessible than Horses, Radio Ethiopia received poor reviews. However, several of its songs have stood the test of time, and Smith still performs them regularly in concert. On January 23, 1977, while touring in support of the record, Smith accidentally danced off a high stage in Tampa, Florida and fell 15 feet into a concrete orchestra pit, breaking several neck vertebrae. The injury required a period of rest and an intensive round of physical therapy, during which time she was able to reassess, re-energize and reorganize her life. Patti Smith Group produced two further albums before the end of the 1970s. Easter (1978) was her most commercially successful record, containing the single "Because the Night" co-written with Bruce Springsteen. Wave (1979) was less successful, although the songs "Frederick" and "Dancing Barefoot" both received commercial airplay. 1980–1995: Marriage Before the release of Wave, Smith, now separated from long-time partner Allen Lanier, met Fred "Sonic" Smith, former guitar player for Detroit rock band MC5 and his own Sonic's Rendezvous Band, who adored poetry as much as she did. (Wave'''s "Dancing Barefoot" and "Frederick" were both dedicated to him. ) The running joke at the time was that she only married Fred because she would not have to change her name. They had a son, Jackson (b.1982), and later a daughter, Jesse (b.1987). Through most of the 1980s Patti Smith was in semi-retirement from music, living with her family north of Detroit in St. Clair Shores, Michigan. On June 1988 she released the album Dream of Life, which included the song "People Have the Power". Fred Smith died on November 4, 1994. Shortly afterward, Patti faced the unexpected death of her brother Todd and original keyboard player Richard Sohl. When her son Jackson turned 14, Smith decided to move back to New York. After the impact of these deaths, her friends Michael Stipe of R.E.M. and Allen Ginsberg (whom she had known since her early years in New York) urged her to go back out on the road. She toured briefly with Bob Dylan in December 1995 (chronicled in a book of photographs by Stipe). 1996–2003: Re-emergence In 1996, Smith worked with her long-time colleagues to record the haunting Gone Again, featuring "About a Boy", a tribute to Kurt Cobain. Smith was a fan of Cobain, but was more angered than saddened by his suicide. That same year she collaborated with Stipe on "E-Bow the Letter," a song on R.E.M.'s New Adventures in Hi-Fi, which she has also performed live with the band. After release of Gone Again, Patti Smith had recorded two new albums: Peace and Noise in 1997 (with the single "1959", about the invasion of Tibet) and Gung Ho in 2000 (with songs about Ho Chi Minh and Smith's late father). Songs "1959" and "Glitter in Their Eyes" were nominated for Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. A box set of her work up to that time, The Patti Smith Masters, came out in 1996, and 2002 saw the release of Land (1975–2002), a two-CD compilation that includes a memorable cover of Prince's "When Doves Cry". Smith's solo art exhibition Strange Messenger was hosted at The Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh on September 28, 2002. 2004–present TIM festival, Marina da Glória,Rio de Janeiro, October 28, 2006 On April 27, 2004 Patti Smith released Trampin' which included several songs about motherhood, partly in tribute to Smith's mother, who had died two years before. Smith curated the Meltdown festival in London on June 25, 2005, the penultimate event being the first live performance of Horses in its entirety. Guitarist Tom Verlaine took Oliver Ray's place. This live performance was released later in the year as Horses/Horses. In August 2005 Smith gave a literary lecture about the poems of Arthur Rimbaud and William Blake. On July 10, 2005, Smith was named a Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Ministry of Culture. In addition to her influence on rock music, the Minister also noted Smith's appreciation of Arthur Rimbaud. On October 15, 2006, Patti Smith performed at the CBGB nightclub, with a 3½-hour tour de force to close out Manhattan's music venue. She took the stage at 9:30 p.m. (EDT) and closed for the night (and forever for the venue) at a few minutes after 1:00 a.m., performing her song "Elegie", and finally reading a list of punk rock musicians and advocates who had died in the previous years. Smith was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on March 12, 2007. She dedicated her award to the memory of her late husband, Fred, and gave a performance of The Rolling Stones staple "Gimme Shelter." As the closing number of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony, Smith's "People Have the Power" was used for the big celebrity jam that always ends the program. From March 28 to June 22, 2008 the Fondation Cartier pour l'Art Contemporain in Paris hosted a major exhibition of the visual work of Patti Smith, Land 250, drawn from pieces created between 1967 and 2007. At the 2008 Rowan Commencement ceremony, Smith received an honorary doctorate degree for her contributions to popular culture. Smith is the subject of a 2008 documentary film, Patti Smith: Dream of Life. Patti Smith: Dream of Life, Variety, January 29, 2008. Accessed online 23 May 2008. A live album by Patti Smith and Kevin Shields, The Coral Sea was released in July 2008. Activism Smith has been a supporter of the Green Party and backed Ralph Nader in the 2000 United States presidential election. She led the crowd singing "Over the Rainbow" and "People Have the Power" at the campaign's rallies, and also performed at several of Nader's subsequent "Democracy Rising" events. Smith was a speaker and singer at the first protests against the Iraq War organized by Louis Posner of Voter March on September 12, 2002, as U.S. President George W. Bush spoke to the United Nations General Assembly. Smith supported Democratic candidate John Kerry in the 2004 election. Bruce Springsteen continued performing her "People Have the Power" at Vote for Change campaign events. In the winter of 2004/2005, Smith toured again with Nader in a series of rallies against the Iraq War and call for the impeachment of George W. Bush. Smith premiered two new protest songs in London in September 2006. Louise Jury, writing in The Independent, characterized them as "an emotional indictment of American and Israeli foreign policy". Song "Qana"[mp3] was about the Israeli airstrike on the Lebanese village of Qana. "Without Chains"[mp3] is about Murat Kurnaz, a Turkish citizen who was born and raised in Germany, held at Guantanamo Bay detainment camp for four years. Jury's article quotes Smith as saying: In an interview, Smith stated that Kurnaz's family has contacted her and that she wrote a short preface for the book that he was writing. Kurnaz's book, "Five Years of My Life," was published in English by Palgrave Macmillan in March 2008, with Patti's introduction. Macmillan: Five Years of My Life: An Innocent Man in Guantanamo Murat Kurnaz: Books On March 26, 2003, ten days after Rachel Corrie's death, Smith appeared in Austin, Texas, and performed an anti-war concert. She prefaced her song "Wild Leaves" with the following comments and subsequently wrote a new song "Peaceable Kingdom" which was inspired by and is dedicated to Rachel Corrie. She supported Barack Obama in the 2008 U.S. presidential election. Influence Patti Smith has been a great source of inspiration for Michael Stipe of R.E.M. Listening to her album Horses when he was 15 made a huge impact on him. He said later: "I decided then that I was going to start a band." In 1998, Stipe published a collection of photos called Two Times Intro: On the Road with Patti Smith. Stipe sings backing vocals on Smith's songs "Last Call" and "Glitter in Their Eyes". Patti also sings background vocals on R.E.M.'s "E-Bow the Letter". In 2004, Shirley Manson of Garbage spoke of Smith's influence on her at Rolling Stone's issue "The Immortals: 100 Greatest Artists of All Time", in which Patti Smith was counted number 47. The Smiths members Morrissey and Johnny Marr shared an appreciation for Smith's Horses, and their song "The Hand That Rocks the Cradle" is a reworking of one of the album's tracks, "Kimberly". Later, Morrissey did a cover of "Redondo Beach," another song from the same album. In 2004, Sonic Youth released an album called Hidros 3 (to Patti Smith). U2 also cites Patti Smith as influence. In 2005 Scottish singer-songwriter KT Tunstall released the single "Suddenly I See" as a tribute of sorts to Patti Smith. The lyrics describe Tunstall looking at Smith's picture in a magazine, admiring her fame and accomplishments and suddenly realizing what she wants to do with her life. Lamb, Bill, KT Tunstall - Suddenly I See, Top40.About.Com, Retrieved 26 October 2007 The cover of Tunstall's debut album Eye to the Telescope was also inspired by Smith, specifically the famous cover shot from her album Horses, of which Tunstall said: "I aspired to what this image was about - which was a woman dressed in man's clothes with such mystery, but such confidence and attitude and character. I just thought, 'that's so what I want to be when I grow up'." Canadian actress Ellen Page frequently mentions Smith as one of her idols and has done various photo shoots replicating famous Smith photos. She has said that the only time she's been truly star-struck was when she met Smith backstage at a concert in Europe and she has a dog named Patti in homage to Smith. Because of Page's suggestions, Smith's work and name also factor prominently in two of Page's movies, Juno and The Tracey Fragments. In 1978 and 1979, Gilda Radner portrayed a character called Candy Slice on Saturday Night Live based on Smith. Band members 320px |Bowery Ballroom, New York City, December 31, 2007 1974 Lenny Kaye – guitar Richard Sohl – keyboards 1975–1979 Lenny Kaye – guitar Jay Dee Daugherty – drums Richard Sohl – keyboards Bruce Brody – keyboards (1978) Ivan Kral – bass 1988 Fred "Sonic" Smith – guitar Jay Dee Daugherty – drums Richard Sohl – keyboards 1996–2006 Lenny Kaye – guitar Jay Dee Daugherty – drums Tony Shanahan – bass, keyboards Oliver Ray – guitar 2007–present Lenny Kaye – guitar Jay Dee Daugherty – drums Tony Shanahan – bass, keyboards Jackson Smith – guitar Discography Studio albums Horses (1975) Radio Ethiopia (1976) Easter (1978) Wave (1979) Dream of Life (1988) Gone Again (1996) Peace and Noise (1997) Gung Ho (2000) Trampin' (2004) Twelve (2007)Other albums Hey Joe / Radio Ethiopia (1977) Set Free (1978) The Patti Smith Masters (1996) Land (2002) Horses/Horses (2005) iTunes Originals (2008) The Coral Sea (2008) Bibliography Seventh Heaven (1972) Witt (1973) Ha! Ha! Houdini! (1977) Babel (1978) Woolgathering (1992) Early Work (1994) The Coral Sea (1996) Patti Smith Complete (1998) Strange Messenger (2003) Auguries of Innocence (2005) Land 250 (2008) Trois'' (2008) Further reading Notes External links | Patti_Smith |@lemmatized patricia:1 lee:1 patti:33 smith:80 born:1 december:5 american:2 singer:4 songwriter:2 poet:4 visual:2 artist:2 highly:1 influential:1 component:1 new:14 york:8 city:5 punk:5 rock:17 movement:1 debut:2 album:16 horse:12 call:7 godmother:1 integrate:1 beat:1 poetry:4 performance:6 style:1 three:1 chord:1 widely:1 know:3 song:17 night:6 co:2 write:8 bruce:4 springsteen:3 reach:1 number:3 billboard:1 hot:1 chart:1 name:5 commander:2 ordre:2 des:2 art:5 et:2 de:4 lettres:2 french:3 minister:2 culture:3 induct:2 roll:5 hall:3 fame:4 biography:1 early:4 year:12 bear:2 chicago:1 mother:3 beverly:1 jazz:1 father:2 grant:1 work:8 honeywell:1 plant:1 spend:2 entire:1 childhood:1 deptford:3 township:3 jersey:2 lagorce:1 tammy:1 music:5 truest:1 time:10 access:2 april:2 way:1 people:5 include:5 would:2 think:2 embrace:1 proud:1 export:1 raise:2 daughter:2 jehovah:1 witness:1 claim:1 strong:1 religious:1 education:2 good:1 bible:1 leave:2 organize:2 religion:1 teenager:1 felt:2 confine:1 much:2 later:6 opening:2 line:2 jesus:2 die:5 somebody:2 sin:2 mine:2 cover:8 version:2 gloria:2 response:1 experience:1 graduate:1 high:2 school:1 family:3 well:1 go:7 factory:3 vote:2 class:1 clown:1 senior:1 glassboro:1 state:4 teacher:1 college:1 rowan:2 university:1 move:2 meet:3 photographer:1 robert:2 mapplethorpe:6 book:6 store:1 friend:3 janet:1 hamill:1 photograph:3 become:2 group:6 lps:1 remain:1 death:4 paris:2 sister:1 start:2 busk:1 return:1 live:7 hotel:1 chelsea:1 frequent:1 fashionable:1 max:1 kansa:1 cbgb:2 nightclub:2 appear:2 wayne:1 county:1 jackie:1 curtis:1 play:2 femme:1 fatale:1 member:3 st:2 mark:1 project:1 painting:1 writing:1 perform:11 one:4 sam:1 shepard:1 cowboy:1 mouth:1 publish:4 note:3 man:4 look:3 like:2 coyote:1 woman:3 crow:1 collaborate:2 allen:3 lanier:2 blue:1 öyster:1 cult:1 record:7 several:5 contribute:1 debbie:2 denise:2 poem:2 remembrance:1 career:1 evil:1 fire:1 unknown:1 origin:1 revenge:1 vera:1 gemini:1 shoot:2 shark:1 also:8 journalism:1 stone:3 creem:1 magazine:2 tivoli:1 koncertsal:1 copenhagen:1 october:4 initially:1 guitarist:2 archivist:1 lenny:5 kaye:6 full:1 band:7 comprise:1 ivan:3 kral:3 bass:4 jay:5 dee:5 daugherty:5 drum:5 richard:5 sohl:5 piano:1 refugee:1 czechoslovakia:1 flee:1 fall:1 alexander:1 dubček:1 finance:1 first:4 single:4 hey:2 joe:2 piss:1 side:2 standard:1 addition:2 spoken:2 word:2 piece:2 fugitive:1 heiress:1 patty:2 hearst:2 stand:2 front:1 symbionese:1 liberation:1 army:1 flag:1 leg:1 spread:1 wonder:1 gettin:1 every:1 black:1 revolutionary:1 b:3 describe:2 helpless:1 anger:1 assembly:2 salvation:1 discover:1 form:1 shoplifted:1 century:1 arthur:3 rimbaud:3 illumination:1 sign:1 clive:1 davis:1 arista:1 saw:2 release:10 produce:2 john:2 cale:1 amid:1 tension:1 fuse:1 begin:1 van:1 morrison:1 austere:1 classic:1 image:2 tour:5 united:3 europe:2 popularity:1 grow:2 raw:1 sound:1 second:1 radio:4 ethiopia:4 reflect:1 considerably:1 less:2 accessible:1 receive:3 poor:1 review:1 however:1 test:1 still:1 regularly:1 concert:3 january:2 support:3 accidentally:1 dance:3 stage:2 tampa:1 florida:1 fell:1 foot:1 concrete:1 orchestra:1 pit:1 break:1 neck:1 vertebra:1 injury:1 require:1 period:1 rest:1 intensive:1 round:1 physical:1 therapy:1 able:1 reassess:1 energize:1 reorganize:1 life:8 two:7 end:2 easter:2 commercially:1 successful:2 contain:1 wave:4 although:1 frederick:2 barefoot:2 commercial:1 airplay:1 marriage:1 separate:1 long:2 partner:1 fred:5 sonic:4 former:1 guitar:8 player:2 detroit:2 rendezvous:1 adore:1 dedicate:3 run:1 joke:1 marry:1 change:2 son:2 jackson:3 jesse:1 semi:1 retirement:1 north:1 clair:1 shore:1 michigan:1 june:3 dream:4 power:4 november:1 shortly:1 afterward:1 face:1 unexpected:1 brother:1 todd:1 original:2 keyboard:7 turn:1 decide:2 back:4 impact:2 michael:2 stipe:6 r:4 e:6 ginsberg:1 since:1 urge:1 road:2 briefly:1 bob:1 dylan:1 chronicle:1 emergence:1 worked:1 colleague:1 haunting:1 feature:1 boy:1 tribute:3 kurt:1 cobain:2 fan:1 angered:1 sadden:1 suicide:1 bow:2 letter:2 adventure:1 hi:1 fi:1 peace:2 noise:2 invasion:1 tibet:1 gung:2 ho:3 chi:1 minh:1 late:2 glitter:2 eye:3 nominate:1 grammy:1 award:2 best:1 female:1 vocal:3 box:1 set:2 master:2 come:1 land:4 cd:1 compilation:1 memorable:1 prince:1 dove:1 cry:1 solo:1 exhibition:2 strange:2 messenger:2 host:2 andy:1 warhol:1 museum:1 pittsburgh:1 september:3 present:2 tim:1 festival:2 marina:1 da:1 glória:1 rio:1 janeiro:1 trampin:2 motherhood:1 partly:1 curated:1 meltdown:1 london:2 penultimate:1 event:3 entirety:1 tom:1 verlaine:1 take:2 oliver:2 ray:2 place:1 august:1 give:2 literary:1 lecture:1 william:1 blake:1 july:2 ministry:1 influence:4 appreciation:2 hour:1 force:1 close:2 manhattan:1 venue:2 p:1 edt:1 forever:1 minute:1 elegie:1 finally:1 read:2 list:1 musician:1 advocate:1 previous:1 march:5 memory:1 husband:1 rolling:1 staple:1 gimme:1 shelter:1 closing:1 induction:1 ceremony:2 use:1 big:1 celebrity:1 jam:1 always:1 program:1 fondation:1 cartier:1 pour:1 l:1 contemporain:1 major:1 drawn:1 create:1 commencement:1 honorary:1 doctorate:1 degree:1 contribution:1 popular:1 subject:1 documentary:1 film:1 variety:1 online:1 may:1 kevin:1 shield:1 coral:3 sea:3 activism:1 supporter:1 green:1 party:1 ralph:1 nader:3 presidential:2 election:3 lead:1 crowd:1 sing:2 rainbow:1 campaign:2 rally:2 subsequent:1 democracy:1 rise:1 speaker:1 protest:2 iraq:2 war:3 louis:1 posner:1 voter:1 u:2 president:1 george:2 w:2 bush:2 spoke:2 nation:1 general:1 democratic:1 candidate:1 kerry:1 continue:1 winter:1 series:1 impeachment:1 premiered:1 louise:1 jury:2 independent:1 characterize:1 emotional:1 indictment:1 israeli:2 foreign:1 policy:1 qana:2 airstrike:1 lebanese:1 village:1 without:1 chain:1 murat:2 kurnaz:4 turkish:1 citizen:1 germany:1 hold:1 guantanamo:2 bay:1 detainment:1 camp:1 four:1 article:1 quote:1 say:4 interview:1 contact:1 short:1 preface:2 five:2 english:1 palgrave:1 macmillan:2 introduction:1 innocent:1 ten:1 day:1 rachel:2 corrie:2 austin:1 texas:1 anti:1 wild:1 leaf:1 following:1 comment:1 subsequently:1 peaceable:1 kingdom:1 inspire:2 barack:1 obama:1 great:2 source:1 inspiration:1 listen:1 make:1 huge:1 collection:1 photo:3 intro:1 sings:1 last:1 background:1 shirley:1 manson:1 garbage:1 issue:1 immortal:1 count:1 smiths:1 morrissey:2 johnny:1 marr:1 share:1 hand:1 cradle:1 reworking:1 track:1 kimberly:1 redondo:1 beach:1 another:1 youth:1 hidros:1 cite:1 scottish:1 kt:2 tunstall:5 suddenly:3 see:2 sort:1 lyric:1 picture:1 admire:1 accomplishment:1 realize:1 want:2 lamb:1 bill:1 com:1 retrieve:1 telescope:1 specifically:1 famous:2 shot:1 aspire:1 dress:1 clothes:1 mystery:1 confidence:1 attitude:1 character:2 canadian:1 actress:1 ellen:1 page:3 frequently:1 mention:1 idol:1 various:1 replicate:1 truly:1 star:1 struck:1 backstage:1 dog:1 homage:1 suggestion:1 factor:1 prominently:1 movie:1 juno:1 tracey:1 fragment:1 gilda:1 radner:1 portray:1 candy:1 slice:1 saturday:1 base:1 bowery:1 ballroom:1 brody:1 tony:2 shanahan:2 discography:1 studio:1 twelve:1 free:1 itunes:1 bibliography:1 seventh:1 heaven:1 witt:1 ha:2 houdini:1 babel:1 woolgathering:1 complete:1 augury:1 innocence:1 trois:1 far:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram patti_smith:29 singer_songwriter:2 punk_rock:3 bruce_springsteen:3 billboard_hot:1 ordre_des:2 hall_fame:3 jehovah_witness:1 femme_fatale:1 allen_lanier:2 blue_öyster:1 öyster_cult:1 roll_stone:2 lenny_kaye:5 ivan_kral:3 jay_dee:5 dee_daugherty:5 daugherty_drum:5 richard_sohl:5 patty_hearst:2 arthur_rimbaud:3 arista_record:1 tampa_florida:1 neck_vertebra:1 commercially_successful:1 st_clair:1 shortly_afterward:1 allen_ginsberg:1 bob_dylan:1 kurt_cobain:1 hi_fi:1 gung_ho:2 ho_chi:1 chi_minh:1 nominate_grammy:1 grammy_award:1 andy_warhol:1 de_janeiro:1 tom_verlaine:1 rolling_stone:1 commencement_ceremony:1 honorary_doctorate:1 ralph_nader:1 presidential_election:2 w_bush:2 guantanamo_bay:1 palgrave_macmillan:1 barack_obama:1 johnny_marr:1 redondo_beach:1 sonic_youth:1 kt_tunstall:2 gilda_radner:1 saturday_night:1 discography_studio:1 ha_ha:1 external_link:1 |
3,007 | Argot | Argot (; French, Spanish and Catalan for "slang") is a secret language used by various groups—including, but not limited to, thieves and other criminals—to prevent outsiders from understanding their conversations. The term argot is also used to refer to the informal specialized vocabulary from a particular field of study, hobby, job, sport, etc. Victor Hugo was one of the first to research argot extensively . He describes it in his novel, Les Misérables, as the language of the dark; at one point, he says, "What is argot; properly speaking? Argot is the language of misery." Bruce Sterling defines argot as "the deliberately hermetic language of a small knowledge clique... a super-specialized geek cult language that has no traction in the real world." For example: "He philosophized and recited baseball statistics in a Brooklyn argot that was fast-fading." The earliest known recording of the term "argot" was in 1628, and the word probably derives from the name, les argotiers, given to a group of thieves at that time. Guiraud, Pierre. L'Argot. Que sais-je? 700. Paris: PUF, 1958. Under the strictest definition, an argot is a proper language, with its own grammar and style. However, such complete secret languages are uncommon, because the speakers usually have some public language in common, on which the argot is largely based. Argots are mainly versions of other languages with a part of its vocabulary replaced by words unknown to the larger public. For example, the term is used to describe systems such as verlan and louchébem, which retain French syntax and only apply transformations to individual words (and often only to a certain subset of words, such as nouns, or semantic content words). Such systems are examples of argots à clef, or "coded argots." Notes See also Cant Language game Louchébem Verlan | Argot |@lemmatized argot:14 french:2 spanish:1 catalan:1 slang:1 secret:2 language:10 use:3 various:1 group:2 include:1 limited:1 thief:2 criminal:1 prevent:1 outsider:1 understand:1 conversation:1 term:3 also:2 refer:1 informal:1 specialized:2 vocabulary:2 particular:1 field:1 study:1 hobby:1 job:1 sport:1 etc:1 victor:1 hugo:1 one:2 first:1 research:1 extensively:1 describe:2 novel:1 les:2 misérables:1 dark:1 point:1 say:1 properly:1 speak:1 misery:1 bruce:1 sterling:1 defines:1 deliberately:1 hermetic:1 small:1 knowledge:1 clique:1 super:1 geek:1 cult:1 traction:1 real:1 world:1 example:3 philosophize:1 recite:1 baseball:1 statistic:1 brooklyn:1 fast:1 fading:1 early:1 known:1 recording:1 word:5 probably:1 derive:1 name:1 argotiers:1 give:1 time:1 guiraud:1 pierre:1 l:1 que:1 sais:1 je:1 paris:1 puf:1 strict:1 definition:1 proper:1 grammar:1 style:1 however:1 complete:1 uncommon:1 speaker:1 usually:1 public:2 common:1 largely:1 base:1 mainly:1 version:1 part:1 replace:1 unknown:1 large:1 system:2 verlan:2 louchébem:2 retain:1 syntax:1 apply:1 transformation:1 individual:1 often:1 certain:1 subset:1 noun:1 semantic:1 content:1 à:1 clef:1 coded:1 note:1 see:1 cant:1 game:1 |@bigram victor_hugo:1 les_misérables:1 bruce_sterling:1 paris_puf:1 à_clef:1 |
3,008 | Animism | The Wish Tree on Calton Hill, Scotland, viewed on Beltane Eve (April 30). A wish tree is a modern practice based on the animism practised by early pagan peoples of Europe such as the Celts and Anglo-Saxons. Animism (from Latin anima (soul, life) Segal, p. 14 "Animism", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, p. 72 ) is a philosophical, religious or spiritual idea that souls or spirits exist not only in humans and animals but also in plants, rocks, natural phenomena such as thunder, geographic features such as mountains or rivers, or other entities of the natural environment, "The concept that humans possess souls and that souls have life apart from human bodies before and after death are central to animism, along with the ideas that animals, plants, and celestial bodies have spirits" (Wenner) a proposition also known as hylozoism in philosophy. Animism may further attribute souls to abstract concepts such as words, true names or metaphors in mythology. Religions which emphasize animism are mostly ethnic religions or folk religions, such as the various forms of Shamanism, Shinto, or certain currents of Hinduism. Throughout European history, philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, among others, contemplated the possibility that souls exist in animals, plants and people. Definitions There are three differing definitions of what constitutes animism. The most widely held and accepted is that it is a belief in non-human souls. Belief in non-human souls It is generally accepted that "animism" refers to the belief that non-human entities, such as animals and plants, as well as inanimate (spiritless) objects such as rocks, can have souls. Often these entities must be placated by offerings in order to gain favours, or even worshipped. Animism in this sense contrasts with polytheism (the worship of various gods), in that animistic worship is of minor, local deities, whereas polytheism is the worship of major deities. Belief in souls Sir E. B. Tylor used the term "animism" to mean simply "a belief in souls". He did not restrict the term "animism" to religions that attribute souls to non-human entities. With such a definition, virtually all religions can be considered animistic, including Christianity and Islam. Tylor invented this definition as part of a proposed theory of religion in his 1871 book Primitive Culture. According to Tylor, all religion rests on, or stems from, a belief in gods or supernatural beings, which in turn stems from a belief in souls. Motivation Animism in the widest sense, i.e. thinking of inanimate objects as animate, and treating them as if they were animate, is near-universal. Jean Piaget applied the term in child psychology in reference to an implicit understanding of the world in a child's mind which assumes all events are the product of intention or consciousness. Piaget explains this with a cognitive inability to distinguish the external world from one's own psyche. Developmental psychology has since established that the distinction of animate vs. inanimate things is an abstraction acquired by learning. The justification for attributing life to inanimate objects was stated by David Hume in his Natural History of Religion (Section III): "There is a universal tendency among mankind to conceive all beings like themselves, and to transfer to every object those qualities with which they are familiarly acquainted, and of which they are intimately conscious." The Natural History of Religion. D. Hume. p. xix Psychoanalysist Sigmund Freud thought that "primitive men" came up with the animistic system by observing the phenomena of sleep (including dreams) and of death which so much resembles it, and by attempting to explain those states. Freud regarded it as perfectly natural for man to react to the phenomena which aroused his speculations by forming the idea of the soul and then extending it to objects in the external world. Freud, p. ?? Lists of phenomena from the contemplation of which "the savage" was led to believe in animism have been given by Sir E. B. Tylor, Herbert Spencer, Andrew Lang and others; an animated controversy arose between the former as to the priority of their respective lists. Among these phenomena are trance states, dreams and hallucinations. Animism and religion Animism is a belief held in many religions around the world, and is not, as some have purported, a type of religion in itself. It is a belief, such as shamanism, polytheism or monotheism, that is found in several religions. Origin of religion Some theories have been put forward that the belief in animism among early humans were the basis for the later evolution of religions. In this theory, initially put forward by Sir E. B. Tylor, early humans initially worshipped local deities of nature, in a form of animism. These eventually grew into larger, polytheistic deities, such as gods of the sun and moon. World view In many animistic world views found in hunter-gatherer cultures, the human being is often regarded as on a roughly equal footing with animals, plants, and natural forces. Fernandez-Armesto, p. 138 Therefore, it is morally imperative to treat these agents with respect. In this world view, humans are considered a part of nature, rather than superior to, or separate from it. In such societies, ritual is considered essential for survival, as it wins the favor of the spirits of one's source of food, shelter, and fertility and wards off malevolent spirits. In more elaborate animistic religions, such as Shinto, there is a greater sense of a special character to humans that sets them apart from the general run of animals and objects, while retaining the necessity of ritual to ensure good luck, favorable harvests, and so on. Urarina shaman, 1988 Death Most animistic belief systems hold that the spirit survives physical death. In some systems, the spirit is believed to pass to an easier world of abundant game or ever-ripe crops, while in other systems, the spirit remains on earth as a ghost, often malignant. Still other systems combine these two beliefs, holding that the soul must journey to the spirit world without becoming lost and thus wandering as a ghost (e.g., the Navajo religion). Funeral, mourning rituals, and ancestor worship performed by those surviving the deceased are often considered necessary for the successful completion of this journey. From the belief in the survival of the dead arose the practice of offering food, lighting fires, etc., at the grave, at first, maybe, as an act of friendship or filial piety, later as an act of ancestor worship. The simple offering of food or shedding of blood at the grave develops into an elaborate system of sacrifice. Even where ancestor worship is not found, the desire to provide the dead with comforts in the future life may lead to the sacrifice of wives, slaves, animals, and so on, to the breaking or burning of objects at the grave or to the provision of the ferryman's toll: a coin put in the mouth of the corpse to pay the traveling expenses of the soul. But all is not finished with the passage of the soul to the land of the dead. The soul may return to avenge its death by helping to discover the murderer, or to wreak vengeance for itself. There is a widespread belief that those who die a violent death become malignant spirits and endanger the lives of those who come near the haunted spot. In Malay folklore, the woman who dies in childbirth becomes a pontianak, a vampire-like spirit who threatens the life of human beings. People resort to magical or religious means of repelling spiritual dangers from such malignant spirits. It is not surprising to find that many peoples respect and even worship animals (see totem or animal worship), often regarding them as relatives. It is clear that widespread respect was paid to animals as the abode of dead ancestors, and much of the cults to dangerous animals is traceable to this principle; though there is no need to attribute an animistic origin to it. "Animism", Encyclopedia Britannica The practice of head shrinking among Jivaroan and Urarina peoples derives from an animistic belief that if the spirit of one's mortal enemies are not trapped within the head, they can escape slain bodies. After the spirit transmigrates to another body, they can take the form of a predatory animal and even exact revenge. Mythology A large part of mythology is based upon a belief in souls and spirits — that is, upon animism in its more general sense. Myths that portray plants, inanimate objects, and non-human animals as personal beings are examples of animism in its more restrictive sense. However, many mythologies focus largely on corporeal beings rather than "spiritual" ones; the latter may even be entirely absent. Stories of transformation, deluge and doom myths, and myths of the origin of death do not necessarily have any animistic basis. As mythology began to include more numerous and complex ideas about a future life and purely spiritual beings, the overlap between mythology and animism widened. However, a rich mythology does not necessarily depend on a belief in many spiritual beings. Philosophy The term "animism" has been applied to many different philosophical systems. It is used to describe Aristotle's view of the relation of soul and body held also by the Stoics and Scholastics. On the other hand monadology (Leibniz) has also been termed animistic. The name is most commonly applied to vitalism, a view mainly associated with Georg Ernst Stahl and revived by F. Bouillier (1813-1899), which makes life, or life and mind, the directive principle in evolution and growth, holding that all cannot be traced back to chemical and mechanical processes, but that there is a directive force which guides energy without altering its amount. An entirely different class of ideas, also termed animistic, is the belief in the world soul (anima mundi), held by Plato, Schelling and others. Animistic religions African traditional religions African traditional religions, a group of beliefs in various spirits of nature, are commonly described as animistic, yet this fact has for many years been disputed by leading cultural anthropologists. For the most part, the description of African traditional religions in this way reflects more of a bias of European understanding and less of a scientifically balanced and ethnographically informed perspective. In describing African traditional religions, "Animism" is a term that is used as shorthand to describe a richer and more complex interplay between elders, ancestors and nature spirits. Eastern religions Shinto, the traditional religion of Japan, is highly animistic. In Shinto, spirits of nature, or kami, exist everywhere, from the major (such as the goddess of the sun), who can be considered polytheistic, to the minor, who are more likely to be seen as a form of animism. There are some Hindu groups which may be considered animist. The coastal Karnataka has a different tradition of praying the spirits for their good. See also Folk Hinduism Native American Religions Many traditional Native American religions are fundamentally animistic. (viz. Mitakuye_Oyasin). New religions movements Many, though not all, Neopagan religions, practice a form of animism. Most followers of Germanic Neopaganism believe in spirits that are, or live in Nature and technology, which stems from their effort to reconstruct historical Norse Paganism. The New Age movement commonly purports animism in the form of the existence of nature spirits and fairies. Currently Today Animists live in significant numbers in countries such as Malaysia, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Peru, the Philippines, Canada, Russia, Sweden, Thailand, Timor Leste, the United States and Mexico. Modern Neopagans, especially Eco-Pagans, Adler, p. ?? sometimes describe themselves as animists, meaning that they respect the diverse community of living beings and spirits with whom humans share the world/cosmos. Higginbotham, p. ?? Many Pagans and Neopagans believe that there are spirits of nature and place, and that these spirits can sometimes be as powerful as minor deities. Polytheist Pagans may extend the idea of many gods and goddesses to encompass the many spirits of nature, such as those embodied in holy wells, mountains and sacred springs. While some of these many spirits may be seen as fitting into rough categories and sharing similarities with one another, they are also respected as separate individuals. On the other hand, some Wiccans may use the term animist to refer to the idea that a Mother Goddess and Horned God consist of everything that exists. Cunningham, p. ?? See also Anecdotal cognitivism Animatism Asatru Folk religion Hylozoism Panpsychism Shamanism Shinto Sociology of religion Tree worship References and notes Sources Adler, Margot. Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America. Penguin, 2006. "Animism". Encyclopedia Britannica. 11th ed. Vol. 2. 1911. Online Encyclopedia. JRank. 10 July 2008 <http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/ANC_APO/ANIMISM_from_animus_or_anima_mi.html>. "Animism". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006. "Animism". The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. 2001-07. Bartleby.com. Bartleby.com Inc. 10 July 2008 <http://www.bartleby.com/65/an/animism.html>. Armstrong, Karen. A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Ballantine Books, 1994. Cunningham, Scott. Living Wicca: A Further Guide for the Solitary Practitioner. Llewellyn, 2002. Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe. Ideas that Changed the World. Dorling Kindersley, 2003. Higginbotham, Joyce. Paganism: An Introduction to Earth- Centered Religions. Llewellyn, 2002. Segal, Robert. Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Wenner, Sara. "Basic Beliefs of Animism". Emuseum. 2001. Minnesota State University. 10 July 2008 <http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/religion/animism/beliefs.html>. Suggested reading Bird-David, Nurit. 1991. "Animism Revisited: Personhood, environment, and relational epistemology", Current Anthropology 40, pp. 67-91. Reprinted in Graham Harvey (ed.) 2002. Readings in Indigenous Religions (London and New York: Continuum) pp.72-105. Hallowell, A. Irving. "Ojibwa ontology, behavior, and world view" in Stanley Diamond (ed.) 1960. Culture in History (New York: Columbia University Press). Reprinted in Graham Harvey (ed.) 2002. Readings in Indigenous Religions (London and New York: Continuum) pp.17-49. Harvey, Graham. 2005. Animism: Respecting the Living World (London: Hurst and co.; New York: Columbia University Press; Adelaide: Wakefield Press). Ingold, Tim. 2006. 'Rethinking the animate, re-animating thought', Ethnos, 71(1) : 9-20 Wundt, W. (1906). Mythus und Religion, Teil II (Völkerpsychologie, Band II). Leipzig. Quinn, Daniel. The Story of B Käser, Lothar. Animismus. Eine Einführung in die begrifflichen Grundlagen des Welt- und Menschenbildes traditionaler (ethnischer) Gesellschaften für Entwicklungshelfer und kirchliche Mitarbeiter in Übersee; Bad Liebenzell: Liebenzeller Mission, 2004; ISBN 3-921113-61-X; mit dem verkürzten Untertitel Einführung in seine begrifflichen Grundlagen auch bei: Neuendettelsau: Erlanger Verlag für Mission und Okumene, 2004; ISBN 3-87214-609-2. Badenberg, Robert. How about 'Animism'? An Inquiry beyond Label and Legacy. In Mission als Kommunikation, Festschrift für Ursula Wiesemann zu ihrem 75.Geburtstag, Klaus W. Müller (Hg.). Nürnberg: VTR, 2007; ISBN 978-3-937965-75-8 und Bonn: VKW, 2007; ISBN 978-3-938116-33-3. External links Animism, Rinri, Modernization; the Base of Japanese Robotics Urban Legends Reference Pages: Weight of the Soul | Animism |@lemmatized wish:2 tree:3 calton:1 hill:1 scotland:1 view:7 beltane:1 eve:1 april:1 modern:2 practice:4 base:3 animism:36 practise:1 early:3 pagan:5 people:5 europe:1 celt:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 latin:1 anima:2 soul:17 life:9 segal:2 p:8 american:4 heritage:2 dictionary:2 english:2 language:2 philosophical:2 religious:2 spiritual:5 idea:8 souls:5 spirit:25 exist:4 human:14 animal:13 also:8 plant:6 rock:2 natural:6 phenomenon:5 thunder:1 geographic:1 feature:1 mountain:2 river:1 entity:4 environment:2 concept:2 humans:1 possess:1 apart:2 body:5 death:7 central:1 along:1 celestial:1 wenner:2 proposition:1 know:1 hylozoism:2 philosophy:2 may:8 attribute:4 abstract:1 word:1 true:1 name:2 metaphor:1 mythology:7 religion:35 emphasize:1 mostly:1 ethnic:1 folk:3 various:3 form:7 shamanism:3 shinto:5 certain:1 current:2 hinduism:2 throughout:1 european:2 history:5 philosopher:1 plato:2 aristotle:2 thomas:1 aquinas:1 among:5 others:3 contemplate:1 possibility:1 definition:4 three:1 differ:1 constitute:1 widely:1 hold:6 accept:2 belief:21 non:5 generally:1 refers:1 well:2 inanimate:5 spiritless:1 object:8 often:5 must:2 placate:1 offering:2 order:1 gain:1 favour:1 even:5 worship:11 sense:5 contrast:1 polytheism:3 god:6 animistic:15 minor:3 local:2 deity:5 whereas:1 major:2 sir:3 e:5 b:4 tylor:5 use:4 term:8 mean:3 simply:1 restrict:1 virtually:1 consider:6 include:3 christianity:2 islam:2 invent:1 part:4 propose:1 theory:3 book:2 primitive:2 culture:3 accord:1 rest:1 stem:3 supernatural:1 turn:1 motivation:1 wide:1 thinking:1 animate:5 treat:2 near:2 universal:2 jean:1 piaget:2 apply:3 child:2 psychology:2 reference:3 implicit:1 understanding:2 world:14 mind:2 assume:1 event:1 product:1 intention:1 consciousness:1 explain:2 cognitive:1 inability:1 distinguish:1 external:3 one:5 psyche:1 developmental:1 since:1 establish:1 distinction:1 v:1 thing:1 abstraction:1 acquire:1 learn:1 justification:1 state:5 david:2 hume:2 section:1 iii:1 tendency:1 mankind:1 conceive:1 like:2 transfer:1 every:1 quality:1 familiarly:1 acquaint:1 intimately:1 conscious:1 xix:1 psychoanalysist:1 sigmund:1 freud:3 think:2 men:1 come:2 system:7 observe:1 sleep:1 dream:2 much:2 resembles:1 attempt:1 regard:3 perfectly:1 man:1 react:1 arouse:1 speculation:1 extend:2 list:2 contemplation:1 savage:1 lead:3 believe:4 give:1 herbert:1 spencer:1 andrew:1 lang:1 animated:1 controversy:1 arise:2 former:1 priority:1 respective:1 trance:1 hallucination:1 held:1 many:13 around:1 purport:2 type:1 monotheism:1 find:4 several:1 origin:3 put:3 forward:2 basis:2 late:1 evolution:2 initially:2 nature:9 eventually:1 grow:1 large:2 polytheistic:2 sun:2 moon:2 hunter:1 gatherer:1 roughly:1 equal:1 footing:1 force:2 fernandez:2 armesto:2 therefore:1 morally:1 imperative:1 agent:1 respect:6 rather:2 superior:1 separate:2 society:1 ritual:3 essential:1 survival:2 win:1 favor:1 source:2 food:3 shelter:1 fertility:1 ward:1 malevolent:1 elaborate:2 great:1 special:1 character:1 set:1 general:2 run:1 retain:1 necessity:1 ensure:1 good:2 luck:1 favorable:1 harvest:1 urarina:2 shaman:1 survive:2 physical:1 pass:1 easy:1 abundant:1 game:1 ever:1 ripe:1 crop:1 remain:1 earth:2 ghost:2 malignant:3 still:1 combine:1 two:1 journey:2 without:2 become:3 lose:1 thus:1 wander:1 g:1 navajo:1 funeral:1 mourn:1 ancestor:5 perform:1 decease:1 necessary:1 successful:1 completion:1 dead:4 offer:1 light:1 fire:1 etc:1 grave:3 first:1 maybe:1 act:2 friendship:1 filial:1 piety:1 later:1 simple:1 shedding:1 blood:1 develop:1 sacrifice:2 desire:1 provide:1 comfort:1 future:2 wife:1 slave:1 breaking:1 burning:1 provision:1 ferryman:1 toll:1 coin:1 mouth:1 corpse:1 pay:2 traveling:1 expense:1 finish:1 passage:1 land:1 return:1 avenge:1 help:1 discover:1 murderer:1 wreak:1 vengeance:1 widespread:2 die:3 violent:1 endanger:1 haunt:1 spot:1 malay:1 folklore:1 woman:1 childbirth:1 pontianak:1 vampire:1 threaten:1 resort:1 magical:1 repel:1 danger:1 surprising:1 see:5 totem:1 relative:1 clear:1 abode:1 cult:1 dangerous:1 traceable:1 principle:2 though:2 need:1 encyclopedia:5 britannica:2 head:2 shrink:1 jivaroan:1 derive:1 mortal:1 enemy:1 trap:1 within:1 escape:1 slain:1 transmigrate:1 another:2 take:1 predatory:1 exact:1 revenge:1 upon:2 myth:4 portray:1 personal:1 example:1 restrictive:1 however:2 focus:1 largely:1 corporeal:1 latter:1 entirely:2 absent:1 story:2 transformation:1 deluge:1 doom:1 necessarily:2 begin:1 numerous:1 complex:2 purely:1 overlap:1 widen:1 rich:2 depend:1 different:3 describe:5 relation:1 stoic:1 scholastic:1 hand:2 monadology:1 leibniz:1 commonly:3 vitalism:1 mainly:1 associate:1 georg:1 ernst:1 stahl:1 revive:1 f:1 bouillier:1 make:1 directive:2 growth:1 cannot:1 trace:1 back:1 chemical:1 mechanical:1 process:1 guide:2 energy:1 alter:1 amount:1 class:1 mundi:1 schelling:1 african:4 traditional:6 group:2 yet:1 fact:1 year:2 dispute:1 cultural:2 anthropologist:1 description:1 way:1 reflect:1 bias:1 less:1 scientifically:1 balance:1 ethnographically:1 informed:1 perspective:1 shorthand:1 interplay:1 elder:1 eastern:1 japan:2 highly:1 kami:1 everywhere:1 goddess:4 likely:1 hindu:1 animist:4 coastal:1 karnataka:1 tradition:1 pray:1 native:2 fundamentally:1 viz:1 new:7 movement:2 neopagan:1 follower:1 germanic:1 neopaganism:1 live:3 technology:1 effort:1 reconstruct:1 historical:1 norse:1 paganism:2 age:1 existence:1 fairy:1 currently:1 today:1 significant:1 number:1 country:1 malaysia:1 bangladesh:1 india:1 nepal:1 indonesia:1 lao:1 myanmar:1 papua:1 guinea:1 peru:1 philippine:1 canada:1 russia:1 sweden:1 thailand:1 timor:1 leste:1 united:1 mexico:1 neopagans:2 especially:1 eco:1 adler:2 sometimes:2 diverse:1 community:1 living:2 share:2 cosmos:1 higginbotham:2 place:1 powerful:1 polytheist:1 encompass:1 embody:1 holy:1 sacred:1 spring:1 fit:1 rough:1 category:1 similarity:1 individual:1 wiccan:1 refer:1 mother:1 horn:1 consist:1 everything:1 cunningham:2 anecdotal:1 cognitivism:1 animatism:1 asatru:1 panpsychism:1 sociology:1 note:1 margot:1 draw:1 witch:1 druid:1 worshipper:1 america:1 penguin:1 ed:6 vol:1 online:1 jrank:2 july:3 http:3 org:1 html:3 boston:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 columbia:3 bartleby:3 com:3 inc:1 www:2 armstrong:1 karen:1 quest:1 judaism:1 ballantine:1 scott:1 wicca:1 solitary:1 practitioner:1 llewellyn:2 felipe:1 change:1 dorling:1 kindersley:1 joyce:1 introduction:2 centered:1 robert:2 short:1 oxford:2 university:4 press:4 sara:1 basic:1 emuseum:2 minnesota:1 mnsu:1 edu:1 suggest:1 read:1 bird:1 nurit:1 revisit:1 personhood:1 relational:1 epistemology:1 anthropology:1 pp:3 reprint:2 graham:3 harvey:3 reading:2 indigenous:2 london:3 york:4 continuum:2 hallowell:1 irving:1 ojibwa:1 ontology:1 behavior:1 stanley:1 diamond:1 hurst:1 co:1 adelaide:1 wakefield:1 ingold:1 tim:1 rethink:1 ethnos:1 wundt:1 w:2 mythus:1 und:5 teil:1 ii:2 völkerpsychologie:1 band:1 leipzig:1 quinn:1 daniel:1 käser:1 lothar:1 animismus:1 eine:1 einführung:2 begrifflichen:2 grundlagen:2 de:1 welt:1 menschenbildes:1 traditionaler:1 ethnischer:1 gesellschaften:1 für:3 entwicklungshelfer:1 kirchliche:1 mitarbeiter:1 übersee:1 bad:1 liebenzell:1 liebenzeller:1 mission:3 isbn:4 x:1 mit:1 dem:1 verkürzten:1 untertitel:1 seine:1 auch:1 bei:1 neuendettelsau:1 erlanger:1 verlag:1 okumene:1 badenberg:1 inquiry:1 beyond:1 label:1 legacy:1 al:1 kommunikation:1 festschrift:1 ursula:1 wiesemann:1 zu:1 ihrem:1 geburtstag:1 klaus:1 müller:1 hg:1 nürnberg:1 vtr:1 bonn:1 vkw:1 link:1 rinri:1 modernization:1 japanese:1 robotics:1 urban:1 legend:1 page:1 weight:1 |@bigram calton_hill:1 anglo_saxon:1 plato_aristotle:1 thomas_aquinas:1 inanimate_object:3 jean_piaget:1 developmental_psychology:1 david_hume:1 sigmund_freud:1 herbert_spencer:1 hunter_gatherer:1 equal_footing:1 animistic_belief:3 filial_piety:1 shedding_blood:1 encyclopedia_britannica:2 germanic_neopaganism:1 norse_paganism:1 lao_myanmar:1 timor_leste:1 boston_houghton:1 houghton_mifflin:1 bartleby_com:3 http_www:2 www_bartleby:1 dorling_kindersley:1 einführung_die:1 mit_dem:1 external_link:1 |
3,009 | Monolithic_kernel | Structure of monolithic kernel, microkernel and hybrid kernel-based operating systems A monolithic kernel is a kernel architecture where the entire operating system is run in kernel space as supervisor mode. In difference with other architectures (microkernel, hybrid kernels), the monolithic kernel defines alone a high-level virtual interface over computer hardware, with a set of primitives or system calls to implement all operating system services such as process management, concurrency, and memory management in one or more modules. Loadable modules Most modern monolithic kernels such as OpenVMS, Linux, BSD variants such as FreeBSD and NetBSD, and Solaris can dynamically load (and unload) executable modules at runtime. This modularity of the kernel is at the binary (image) level and is not at the kernel architecture level. Modular monolithic kernels are not to be confused with the architectural level of modularity inherent in microkernel (sometimes marketed as hybrid kernel). Practically, dynamically loading modules is simply a more flexible way of handling the kernel image at runtime — as opposed to rebooting with a different kernel image. The modules allow easy extension of the kernel's capabilities as required. Dynamically loadable modules incur a small overhead when compared to building the module into the kernel image. However in some cases loading modules dynamically (as-needed) helps to keep the amount of code running in kernel space to a minimum for example to minimize kernel footprint for embedded devices with limited hardware resources. Namely, an unloaded module need not be stored in the scarce random access memory. Monolithic kernel examples Unix-like kernels Linux Syllable Unix kernels BSD FreeBSD NetBSD OpenBSD Solaris and OpenSolaris AIX DOS DR-DOS MS-DOS Microsoft Windows 9x series (95, 98, Windows 98SE, Me) Mac OS kernel, up to Mac OS 8.6 OpenVMS XTS-400 See also Exokernel Hybrid kernel Kernel (computer science) Microkernel Nanokernel | Monolithic_kernel |@lemmatized structure:1 monolithic:6 kernel:24 microkernel:4 hybrid:4 base:1 operate:1 system:4 architecture:3 entire:1 operating:2 run:2 space:2 supervisor:1 mode:1 difference:1 define:1 alone:1 high:1 level:4 virtual:1 interface:1 computer:2 hardware:2 set:1 primitive:1 call:1 implement:1 service:1 process:1 management:2 concurrency:1 memory:2 one:1 module:9 loadable:2 modern:1 openvms:2 linux:2 bsd:2 variant:1 freebsd:2 netbsd:2 solaris:2 dynamically:4 load:3 unload:1 executable:1 runtime:2 modularity:2 binary:1 image:4 modular:1 confuse:1 architectural:1 inherent:1 sometimes:1 market:1 practically:1 simply:1 flexible:1 way:1 handle:1 oppose:1 reboot:1 different:1 allow:1 easy:1 extension:1 capability:1 require:1 incur:1 small:1 overhead:1 compare:1 build:1 however:1 case:1 need:2 help:1 keep:1 amount:1 code:1 minimum:1 example:2 minimize:1 footprint:1 embedded:1 device:1 limited:1 resource:1 namely:1 unloaded:1 store:1 scarce:1 random:1 access:1 unix:2 like:1 syllable:1 openbsd:1 opensolaris:1 aix:1 dr:1 microsoft:1 windows:2 series:1 mac:2 os:2 xt:1 see:1 also:1 exokernel:1 science:1 nanokernel:1 |@bigram monolithic_kernel:6 supervisor_mode:1 linux_bsd:1 freebsd_netbsd:2 load_unload:1 netbsd_openbsd:1 mac_os:2 |
3,010 | History_of_Guatemala | The history of Guatemala can be traced back to the arrival of the first human settlers, presumed to have migrated from the north at least 12,000 years ago. For much of that time, the civilization that developed there flourished, with little to no contact with cultures from outside of Mesoamerica. The Maya civilization dominated the region for nearly 2000 years before the Spanish arrived in the early 16th century, although most of the Great Classic Maya cities of the Petén region of Guatemala's northern lowlands were abandoned by the year 1000 AD. The states of the central highlands, however, were still flourishing until the arrival of the Spanish Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado, who subjugated the native states, beginning in 1523. Guatemala remained a Spanish colony for nearly 300 years, before gaining its independence in 1821. It was then a part of the Mexican Empire until becoming fully independent in the 1840s. Since then, Guatemala's history has been divided into periods of democratic rule and periods of civil war and military juntas. Most recently, Guatemala emerged from a 36-year civil war, reestablishing a representative government in 1996. Pre-Columbian era Human settlement in Guatemala dates back to the Paleo-Indian period, ca. 9000 BP and earlier. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, but pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation was developed by 3500 BC . Archaic sites have been documented in Quiché in the Highlands and Sipacate, Escuintla on the central Pacific coast (6500 BC). By 2500 BC, small settlements were developing in Guatemala’s Pacific lowlands, including such places as Tilapa, La Blanca, Ocós, El Mesak, and Ujuxte, where the oldest ceramic pottery from Guatemala has been found. A heavy concentration of pottery on the Pacific coast has been documented dating from 2000 BC. Recent excavations suggest that the Highlands were a geographic and temporal bridge between Early Preclassic villages of the Pacific coast and later Petén lowlands cities . Recent excavations in the Antigua Guatemala Valley, at Urías and Rucal, have yielded stratified materials from the Early and Middle Preclassic, the first pottery in the Antigua Valley is very well-made and not simply a copy of either coastal or Piedmont types. Their paste analyses, however, indicate that the vessels were made of clays from different environmental zones, suggesting these were people from the Pacific coast who expanded into the Antigua Valley . There are at least 5000 archaeological sites in Guatemala, 3000 of them in Petén alone. In Monte Alto near La Democracia, Escuintla, giant stone heads and Potbellies (or Barrigones) have been found, dating from 1800 BC. description of discovery (in Spanish) These are ascribed to the Pre-Olmec Monte Alto Culture, and some scholars suggest the Olmec Culture originated in this area of the Pacific Lowlands . However, it has also been argued the only connection between these statues and the later Olmec heads is their size. Nonetheless, it is likely the Monte Alto Culture was the first complex culture of Mesoamerica, and predecessor of all other cultures of the region. In Guatemala, there are some sites with unmistakable Olmec style, such as Chocolá in Suchitepéquez, La Corona, in Peten, and Tak'alik A´baj, in Retalhuleu, the last of which is the only ancient city in the Americas with Olmec and Mayan features. Dr. Richard Hansen, the director of the archaeological project of the Mirador Basin, believes the Maya at Mirador Basin developed the first true political state in America, (The Kan Kingdom), around 1500 BC; and further believes the Olmec were not the mother culture in Mesoamerica, as is often thought. Due to recent findings at Mirador Basin in Northern Petén, Hansen suggests the Olmec and Maya cultures developed separately, and merged in some places like Tak'alik Abaj on the Pacific lowlands. There is no evidence yet to link the Preclassic Maya from Petén and those from the Pacific coast, but undoubtedly, they had cultural and economical links. Nakbé, Mid Preclassic palace remains, Mirador Basin, Petén, Guatemala Northern Guatemala has particularly high densities of Late Pre-classic sites, including Naachtun, Xulnal, El Mirador, Porvenir, Pacaya, La Muralla, Nakbé, El Tintal, Wakná (formerly Güiro), Uaxactún, and Tikal. Of these, El Mirador, Tikal, Nakbé, Tintal, Xulnal and Wakná are the largest in the Maya world, Such size was manifested not only in the extent of the site, but also in the volume or monumentality, especially in the construction of immense platforms to support large temples. Many sites of this era display monumental masks for the first time (Uaxactún, El Mirador, Cival, Tikal and Nakbé ). These masks often seem to depict powerful natural forces such as Sun and Earth The Archeologist divide the cultural History of Mesoamerica in 3 periods: The Pre-Classic from 2000 BC to 250 AD, (Early: 2000 BC to 800 BC, Middle: 800 to 400 BC, and Late 400 BC to 250 AD), Classic from 250 to 900 AD, (Early 250 to 550 AD, Middle from 550 to 700 AD and Late 700 to 900 AD), and Post Classic from 900 to 1500 AD, (Early 900 to 1200 AD, and Late 1200 to 1500 AD) Until a few years ago, the Pre Classic, was thought to be a formative period, with small villages of farmers, that lived in huts, and few permanent buildings, but this concept has been proved to be a big mistake, due to recent findings all over Guatemala, such as an altar in La Blanca, San Marcos, some 3 m in diameter from 1000 BC; Ceremonial sites at Miraflores, and El Naranjo from 800 BC, near Kaminaljuyú, in Guatemala City, El Portón in Baja Verapaz, The Mural paintings in San Bartolo, Petén, the Stucco Masks and monuments in Cival and of course The Mirador Basin major cities of Nakbé, Xulnal, Tintal, Wakná and Mirador, the Cradle of the Maya Civilization, where, the cities were not only numerous, but very sophisticated, and developed, with architectonic structures from 1400 BC. Indeed the two biggest cities of the Maya Civilization (El Mirador and Tintal) are there, with the same religious beliefs, astronomical, mathematical and writing knowledge of those in the Classic period. The Conquest Sent out by Hernán Cortés with 120 horsemen, 300 foot soldiers and several hundred Cholula and Tlascala auxiliaries, Pedro de Alvarado was engaged in the conquest of the highlands of Guatemala from 1523 to 1527. He left Tenochtitlán, with 120 Cavalry units, 160 crossbowers and riflemen, 4 heavy artillery pieces, 300 infantry men, and 20,000 tlaxcaltec, cholulas, and mexicas. He entered Guatemala from Soconusco on the Pacific lowlands, headed for Xetulul Humbatz, Zapotitlan. Alvarado at first allied himself with the Cakchiquel nation to fight against their traditional rivals the K'iche' nation. Alvarado started his conquest in Xepau Olintepeque, defeating the K'iché's 72,000 men, led by Tecún Umán (now Guatemala's national hero). Alvarado then went to Gumarcaj, (Utatlan), the K'iche' capital, and burned it on March 7, 1524. He proceeded to Iximche, and established near there in Tecpan on July 25, 1524, to launch several campaigns to other cities, as Chuitinamit, the capital of the Tzutuhils,(1524), Mixco Viejo, capital of the Poqomams, and Zaculeu, capital of the Mam, (1525). He was named Captain General in 1527. Feeling his position secure, Alvarado turned against his allies Cakchiquels, meeting them in several battles until they were subdued in 1530. Battles with other tribes continued up to 1548, when the Q'eqchi' in Nueva Sevilla, Izabal where defeated, leaving the Spanish in complete control of the region. It should be noted that not all native tribes were subdued by bloodshed. Fray Bartolome de las Casas, pacified the Kekchí in Alta Verapaz without violence. The last cities conquered were Tayasal, capital of the Itzá Maya, and Zacpetén, capital of the Ko'woj Maya, both in 1697, after several attempts, including a failed attempt by Hernán Cortés in 1542. In order to conquer these last Maya sites, the Spaniards had to attack them on three fronts, one coming from Yucatán, another from Belize, and the third one from Alta Verapaz. The 19th century Guatemala gained independence from Spain on September 15, 1821; it briefly became part of the Mexican Empire and then for a period belonged to a federation called The United Provinces of Central America, until the federation broke up in civil war in 1838–1840 (See: History of Central America). Guatemala's Rafael Carrera was instrumental in leading the revolt against the federal government and breaking apart the Union. Carrera dominated Guatemalan politics until 1865, backed by conservatives, large land owners and the church. Town alcaldes of Highland Guatemala in traditional dress, 1891 Guatemala's "Liberal Revolution" came in 1871 under the leadership of Justo Rufino Barrios, who worked to modernize the country, improve trade, and introduce new crops and manufacturing. During this era coffee became an important crop for Guatemala. Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took the country to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain this, losing his life on the battlefield in 1885 against forces in El Salvador. The Early 20th century The U.S.-based multinational United Fruit Company (UFC) started becoming a major force in Guatemala in 1901, during the long presidencies of Manuel José Estrada Cabrera and General Jorge Ubico. During the latter's dictatorship in the 1930s, Guatemala was further opened up to foreign investment, with special favours being made from Ubico to the United Fruit Company in particular. The UFC responded by pouring investment capital into the country, buying controlling shares of the railroad, electric utility, and telegraph, while also winning control of over 40% of the country's best land and de facto control over its only port facility. As a result, Government was often subservient to the interests of the UFC. While the company helped with building some schools, it also opposed building highways because this would compete with its railroad monopoly. The "Ten Years of Spring" In 1944, General Jorge Ubico's dictatorship was overthrown by the "October Revolutionaries", a group of dissident military officers, students, and liberal professionals who were empowered by the wave of revolutions that swept up old, unpopular dictatorships in Venezuela, Cuba, and El Salvador around the same time. The social unrest preceding the coup culminated in the killing of a schoolteacher by an Army soldier, which sparked a broad general strike that paralyzed the country and forced Ubico to surrender power to his generals. Further unrest prompted two young officers at the time, Jacobo Arbenz and Francisco Javier Arana, to lead a final coup and unseat the dictatorship. In a highly popular move, the pair of officers then stepped aside and made way for a general election. This started what is called The Ten Years of Spring, a period of free speech and political activity, proposed land reform, and a perception that great progress could be made in Guatemala. A civilian president, Juan José Arévalo, was elected in 1945 and held the presidency until 1951. A former professor, he brought about social reforms, allowing new political parties and unions (with some restrictions), which placated the public. Arana and Arbenz, still both highly regarded at the time, anticipated to soon succeed Arévalo. Arana tried to prematurely hasten the process of Arévalo's descent in a failed coup which brought about Arana's death in a controversial arrest-gone-wrong. This cleared the way for Arbenz to secure power; as he did in a landslide general election in 1951. Arbenz together with Arévalo further promoted the progressive social change that characterized the latter's presidency, clearing much of the old restrictions on political parties and labour unions, while also purging the army brass of its remaining pro-Arana officers—one of whom was Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas; a man who would play a major role in Guatemalan politics in the coming years. Arbenz also permitted the Communist Guatemalan Party of Labour to achieve legal status in 1952. The party subsequently gained a noticeable role in the government decision-making process that it had not had before. Ethnic Conflict “The quest for democracy had united them, but the definition of democracy would divide them.” The first demonstration of ethnic conflict occurred on October 22, 1944, just two days after Ponce’s demise. Violence occurred at a small town called Patrizia, where about one thousand Indians rose in spontaneous outbursts: “in honor of our General Ponce,” and “we want land.” More than twenty ladinos were killed during this demonstration. When the Junta learned about this, it reacted swiftly. They dispatched soldiers and what happened next could only be described as a “bloodbath.” At least nine hundred Indians were killed and it did not matter whether they were women, children or men. The Chief of Staff of the Guatemalan army described his actions as an “act of warning throughout the Republic for any disorders of this nature.” The conflict in the countryside from 1952-1954 between the Ladinos and Indians was not a new occurrence, but rather a continuation of a dilemma fueled by a complicated mix of class, regional, political, and ethnic differences since the colonial times. It originated from the exploitation of cheap Indian labour which was justified by a variety of derogatory myths concerning Indian capacity for change, work, and accepting civic responsibilities. The small cases of ethnic conflict in rural Guatemala between 1944 and 1952 started an intense response among the Ladino elite for increased vigilance in rural areas, the denial of rights recently won through the revolution to Indians, and the frequent use of the military and violence to suppress the most minor sign of simmering unrest. This fear of ethnic conflict, of violent Indian uprising inspired by the relaxation of centuries of vigilance, helps explain Ladino reaction to the rather reasonable reforms of the revolution. It was this fear, among many other elements, that helped prompt the overthrow of the revolution in 1954. Agrarian Reform and UFCo Conflict In 1953 when the Agrarian Reform was put into practice, one of the largest U.S. companies, the United Fruit Company, had lost 250,000 out of 350,000 manzanas. According to the decree 900 this land had to be taken and redistributed for the agricultural purposes, mainly to the peasant communities and the natives. What remaining land UFCo held was thousands of acres in pastures as well as substantial forest reserves. The Guatemalan government had offered a Q 609,572 in compensation for the rest of the taken land. The company fought the land expropriation. It made a number of valuable arguments. The first one attacked the wording of the Law. The Agrarian Reform Law focused on land development and agriculture, therefore anything in pasture, specified forest cover and cultivated land was to be left untouched by the expropriators. The company argued that most of the land that was taken from them was in fact cultivated and in use. So they claimed it was illegal to take it away. The second argument they had was against the amount of land taken and unsatisfactory compensation offered in comparison. The value of rural property was based on self-declared assessment for the tax purposes. Arevalo’s administration had called for new assessments in 1945, which had to be complete by 1948. UFCo had submitted the assessment by the due date; however when the Agrarian Reform was implemented the company declared that they want the value of its property changed. The government had investigated in 1951, but new assessment was never complete. UFCo used that to say that 1948 assessment was outdated and claimed its land value was a lot greater. They had estimated it as high as Q 15,854,849, which was almost twenty times more than what the Guatemalan government had offered. As a result U.S. State Department and the embassy actively began to support of UFCo. The Guatemalan government had to fight the pressure because although U.S. had recognized, in words, that Guatemala had the right to conduct their own politics and business, U.S. representatives also claimed that they had to interfere because UFCo was their company that had brought in a lot of profit and harming the interests of that company was harming the U.S. economy. Arbenz did not have much choice except either to yield or to fight back. His administration explained that in order for Guatemala to improve its economy the Agrarian Reform was necessary, therefore Arbenz claimed he would adopt policies for a nationalist economic development if necessary. He argued that all foreign investment would be subject to Guatemalan laws. Arbenz was firm in promoting the Agrarian Reform and within a couple of years had acted quickly. He claimed that Guatemalan government was not prepared to make an exception for U.S. concerning decree 900. Because Arbenz could not be pressured to take into consideration the arguments made to prevent expropriation from UFCo, his government was undermined with propaganda. For U.S. the national security was also highly important. They had combined both political and economic interests. The fear of allowing communist practices in Guatemala was shared by the urban elite and middle classes. All the papers, such as El Imparcial, were organized to critique communism and especially the government’s acceptance of it. The opposing political parties organized anticommunism campaigns. Thousands of people were present at the periodic rallies and the membership in anticommunist organizations had grown steadily. Another group that criticized the government was the church. Despite the warning that constitutionally the church was not allowed to interfere with the politics, the church paper Accion social cristiana published articles. One of them was against PGT, a faction Arbenz was attempting to support. The leader of the PGT Jose Fortuny was compared to the devil. The campaign against the communism was exaggerated. Arbenz’ government was attempting to be neutral; however constant pressure eventually had led him to rely more heavily on more dedicated reformers in revolutionary organizations. In government, although Arbenz had attempted to appoint various representatives into cabinet, eventually the moderate representatives had were forces out of the leading positions. There had been a radicalization in major government parties. Those who thought that revolution was an effort to bring about electoral democracy and economic and social reforms either resigned or could not maintain their place in the parties. Some of these moderates who were forced out of the parties had complained that communists were taking over their positions. The propaganda was highly influential because even other Central America countries had concerns about the communism. The public opinion, the U.S. journalists and politicians, was leaning more towards the U.S. interference. By 1952 ‘Liberation army’, had invaded several towns in Oriente. Any attempt to appeal to the United Nation to stop the U.S. invasion had failed. By the June of 1954 Arbenz had resigned. Operation PBSUCCESS Main article Operation PBSUCCESS The Communist Party was never the center of the Communist movement in Guatemala until Jacobo Arbenz came to power in 1951. Prior to 1951, Communism lived within the urban labor forces in small study groups during 1944 to 1953 which it had a tremendous influences on these urban labor forces. Despite of its small size within Guatemala, many leaders were extremely vocal about their beliefs for instance, in their protests and more importantly the literature. In 1949 in Congress, the Communist party only had less than forty members, however, by 1953 it went up to nearly four thousand. Before Arbenz come to power in 1951, the Communist movement preferred to carry out many of their activities through the so-called mass organization. In addition to Arbenz success, Guatemalan Communist Party moved forward its activities into public. After Jacobo Arbenz came to power in 1951, he extended political freedom, allowing Communists in Guatemala to participate in politics. This move by Arbenz let many opponents in Ubico’s regime to recognize themselves as Communists. By 1952, Arbenz supported a land reform, and took unused agricultural land, about 225000 acre, from owners who had large properties, and made it available to rural workers and farmers. These lands were to be taken from the United Fruit Company with compensation; however, the UFC believed the compensation was not enough. Meantime, Arbenz allowed the Communist Party to organize and include leaders among his adviser who were lefty. The propaganda that was led by United Fruits Company against the revolution in Guatemala persuaded the U.S. government to fight against communism in Guatemala. The United States clutched on small details to prove the existence of widespread Communism in Guatemala. The Eisenhower administration at the time in the U.S. were not happy about Arbenz's government, they considered Arbenz to be too close to Communism; there have been reports that Arbenz’s wife was a Communist and part of the Communist Party in Guatemala. Even though it was impossible for the U.S. to gather evidence and information about Guatemala’s relations to the Soviet Union, Americans wanted to believe that Communism existed in Guatemala. Many groups of Guatemalan exiles were armed and trained by the CIA, and commanded by Colonel Carlos Castillo Arms they invaded Guatemala on June 18 1954. The Americans called it an Anti-Communist Coup against Arbenz. The coup was supported by CIA radio broadcasts and so the Guatemalan army refused to resist the coup, Arbenz was forced to resign. In 1954 a military government replaced Arbenz' government and disbanded the legislature and they arrested communist leaders, Castillo Arms became president. Arbenz proceeded to nationalize and redistribute un-utilized land owned by the United Fruit Company, which had a practical monopoly on Guatemalan fruit production and some industry. In response, United Fruit lobbied the Eisenhower administration to remove Arbenz. Of still greater importance, though, was the widespread American concern about the possibility of a so-called "Soviet beachhead" , pg 17, quoting Allen Dulles opening up in the Western Hemisphere. Arbenz's sudden legalization of the Communist party and importing of arms from then Soviet-satellite state of Czechoslovakia, Master’s with Honours Thesis among other events, convinced major policy makers in the White House and CIA to try for Arbenz's forced removal, although his term was to end naturally in two years. This led to a CIA-orchestrated coup in 1954, known as Operation PBSUCCESS, which saw Arbenz toppled and forced into exile by Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas. Despite most Guatemalans' attachment to the original ideals of the 1944 uprising, some private sector leaders and the military began to believe that Arbenz represented a Communist threat and supported his overthrow, hoping that a successor government would continue the more moderate reforms started by Arevalo. After the CIA coup, hundreds of Guatemalans were rounded up and killed. Earthquake of 1976 Damaged hotel, Guatemala City, 1976 1976 Guatemala earthquake Civil war Main article Guatemalan Civil War The Guatemalan Civil War (1960-96) involved the government, right-wing paramilitary organizations, and left-wing insurgents. A variety of factors contributed: social and economic injustice and racism against the indigenous population, the 1954 coup which reversed reforms, weak civilian control of the military, Marxist ideology advocating violent revolution instead of democratic participation and reform, the United States support of the government, and Cuban support of the insurgents. The Historical Clarification Commission (commonly known as the "Truth Commission") after the war estimated that more than 200,000 people were killed — the vast majority of whom were civilian indigenous people. 93% of the human rights abuses reported to the Commission were attributed to the military or other government-supported actors. It also determined that in several instances the government was responsible for acts of genocide. "Guatemala: Memory of Silence," English summary of Commission report. See paragraphs 82 and 108-123 In response to the increasingly autocratic rule of Gen. Ydígoras Fuentes, who took power in 1958 following the murder of Col. Castillo Armas, a group of junior military officers revolted in 1960. When they failed, several went into hiding and established close ties with Cuba. This group became the nucleus of the forces that were in armed insurrection against the government for the next 36 years. Four principal left-wing guerrilla groups — the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP), the Revolutionary Organization of Armed People (ORPA), the Rebel Armed Forces (FAR), and the Guatemalan Party of Labour (PGT) — conducted economic sabotage and targeted government installations and members of government security forces in armed attacks. These organizations combined to form the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) in 1982. At the same time, extreme right-wing groups of self-appointed vigilantes, including the Secret Anti-Communist Army (ESA) and the White Hand (La Mano Blanca), tortured and murdered students, professionals, and peasants suspected of involvement in leftist activities. Shortly after President Julio César Méndez Montenegro took office in 1966, the army launched a major counterinsurgency campaign that largely broke up the guerrilla movement in the countryside. The guerrillas then concentrated their attacks in Guatemala City, where they assassinated many leading figures, including U.S. Ambassador John Gordon Mein in 1968. Méndez Montenegro was the only civilian to head Guatemala until the inauguration of Vinicio Cerezo in 1986. On March 23, 1982, army troops commanded by junior officers staged a coup d'état to prevent the assumption of power by General Ángel Aníbal Guevara, the hand-picked candidate of outgoing President and General Romeo Lucas García. They denounced Guevara's electoral victory as fraudulent. The coup leaders asked retired Gen. Efraín Ríos Montt to negotiate the departure of Lucas Guevara. Ríos Montt had been the candidate of the Christian Democracy Party in the 1974 presidential election and was widely regarded as having been denied his own victory through fraud. Ríos Montt was by this time a lay pastor in the evangelical Protestant Church of the Word. In his inaugural address, he stated that his presidency resulted from the will of God. He was widely perceived as having strong backing from the Reagan administration in the United States. He formed a three-member military junta that annulled the 1965 constitution, dissolved Congress, suspended political parties and canceled the electoral law. After a few months, Ríos Montt dismissed his junta colleagues and assumed the de facto title of "President of the Republic". Guerrilla forces and their leftist allies denounced Ríos Montt who sought to defeat the guerrillas with military actions and economic reforms; in his words, "rifles and beans". In May 1982, the Conference of Catholic Bishops accused Ríos Montt of responsibility for growing militarization of the country and for continuing military massacres of civilians. An army officer was quoted in the New York Times of 18 July 1982 as telling an audience of indigenous Guatemalans in Cunén that: "If you are with us, we'll feed you; if not, we'll kill you." "Guatemala Enlists Religion in Battle", Raymond Bonner, New York Times, 18 July 1982. For a number of years, the U.S. State Department, in its background notes on Guatemala, attributed this quotation to Gen. Ríos Montt himself. See: Background Note: Guatemala, April 2001 via the Internet Archive. The Plan de Sánchez massacre occurred on the same day. The government began to form local civilian defense patrols (PACs). Participation was in theory voluntary, but in practice, many rural Guatemalan men (including young boys and the elderly), especially in the northwest, had no choice but to join either the PACs or be tarred as guerrillas. At their peak, the PACs are estimated to have included 1 million conscripts. Ríos Montt's conscript army and PACs recaptured essentially all guerrilla territory — guerrilla activity lessened and was largely limited to hit-and-run operations. However, Ríos Montt won this partial victory at an enormous cost in civilian deaths. Ríos Montt's brief presidency was probably the most violent period of the 36-year internal conflict, which resulted in thousands of deaths of mostly unarmed indigenous civilians. Although leftist guerrillas and right-wing death squads also engaged in summary executions, forced disappearances, and torture of noncombatants, the vast majority of human rights violations were carried out by the Guatemalan military and the PACs they controlled. The internal conflict is described in great detail in the reports of the Historical Clarification Commission (CEH) and the Archbishop's Office for Human Rights (ODHAG). The CEH estimates that government forces were responsible for 93% of the violations; ODHAG earlier estimated that government forces were responsible for 80%. On August 8, 1983, Ríos Montt was deposed by his own Minister of Defense, General Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores, who succeeded him as de facto president of Guatemala. Mejía justified his coup, saying that "religious fanatics" were abusing their positions in the government and also because of "official corruption". Seven people were killed in the coup, although Ríos Montt survived to found a political party (the Guatemalan Republic Front) and to be elected President of Congress in 1995 and again in 2000. Awareness in the United States of the conflict in Guatemala, and its ethnic dimension, increased with the 1983 publication of the "testimonial" account I, Rigoberta Menchú; Rigoberta Menchú was later awarded the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize for her work in favor of broader social justice. In 1998 a book by U.S. anthropologist David Stoll challenged some of the details in Menchú's book, creating an international controversy. After the publication of Stoll's book, the Nobel Committee reiterated that it had awarded the Peace Prize based on Menchú's uncontested work promoting human rights and the peace process. General Mejía allowed a managed return to democracy in Guatemala, starting with a July 1, 1984 election for a Constituent Assembly to draft a democratic constitution. On May 30, 1985, after nine months of debate, the Constituent Assembly finished drafting a new constitution, which took effect immediately. Vinicio Cerezo, a civilian politician and the presidential candidate of the Christian Democracy Party, won the first election held under the new constitution with almost 70% of the vote, and took office on January 14, 1986. 1986 to 1996: from constitution to peace accords Upon its inauguration in January 1986, President Cerezo's civilian government announced that its top priorities would be to end the political violence and establish the rule of law. Reforms included new laws of habeas corpus and amparo (court-ordered protection), the creation of a legislative human rights committee, and the establishment in 1987 of the Office of Human Rights Ombudsman. The Supreme Court also embarked on a series of reforms to fight corruption and improve legal system efficiency. With Cerezo's election, the military moved away from governing and returned to the more traditional role of providing internal security, specifically by fighting armed insurgents. The first two years of Cerezo's administration were characterized by a stable economy and a marked decrease in political violence. Dissatisfied military personnel made two coup attempts in May 1988 and May 1989, but military leadership supported the constitutional order. The government was heavily criticized for its unwillingness to investigate or prosecute cases of human rights violations. The final two years of Cerezo's government also were marked by a failing economy, strikes, protest marches, and allegations of widespread corruption. The government's inability to deal with many of the nation's problems — such as infant mortality, illiteracy, deficient health and social services, and rising levels of violence — contributed to popular discontent. Presidential and congressional elections were held on November 11, 1990. After a runoff ballot, Jorge Antonio Serrano Elías was inaugurated on January 14, 1991, thus completing the first transition from one democratically elected civilian government to another. Because his Movement of Solidarity Action (MAS) Party gained only 18 of 116 seats in Congress, Serrano entered into a tenuous alliance with the Christian Democrats and the National Union of the Center (UCN). The Serrano administration's record was mixed. It had some success in consolidating civilian control over the army, replacing a number of senior officers and persuading the military to participate in peace talks with the URNG. He took the politically unpopular step of recognizing the sovereignty of Belize, which until then had been officially, though fruitlessly, claimed by Guatemala as a province. The Serrano government reversed the economic slide it inherited, reducing inflation and boosting real growth. On May 25, 1993, Serrano illegally dissolved Congress and the Supreme Court and tried to restrict civil freedoms, allegedly to fight corruption. The autogolpe (or autocoup) failed due to unified, strong protests by most elements of Guatemalan society, international pressure, and the army's enforcement of the decisions of the Court of Constitutionality, which ruled against the attempted takeover. In the face of this pressure, Serrano fled the country. On June 5, 1993, Congress, pursuant to the 1985 constitution, elected the Human Rights Ombudsman, Ramiro de León Carpio, to complete Serrano's presidential term. De León was not a member of any political party; lacking a political base but with strong popular support, he launched an ambitious anticorruption campaign to "purify" Congress and the Supreme Court, demanding the resignations of all members of the two bodies. Despite considerable congressional resistance, presidential and popular pressure led to a November 1993 agreement brokered by the Catholic Church between the administration and Congress. This package of constitutional reforms was approved by popular referendum on January 30, 1994. In August 1994, a new Congress was elected to complete the unexpired term. Controlled by the anti-corruption parties — the populist Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) headed by Ríos Montt, and the center-right National Advancement Party (PAN) — the new Congress began to move away from the corruption that characterized its predecessors. Under de León, the peace process, now brokered by the United Nations, took on new life. The government and the URNG signed agreements on human rights (March 1994), resettlement of displaced persons (June 1994), historical clarification (June 1994), and indigenous rights (March 1995). They also made significant progress on a socioeconomic and agrarian agreement. National elections for president, Congress, and municipal offices were held in November 1995. With almost 20 parties competing in the first round, the presidential election came down to a January 7, 1996 runoff in which PAN candidate Álvaro Arzú Irigoyen defeated Alfonso Portillo Cabrera of the FRG by just over 2% of the vote. Arzú won because of his strength in Guatemala City, where he had previously served as mayor, and in the surrounding urban area. Portillo won all of the rural departments except Petén. Under the Arzú administration, peace negotiations were concluded, and the government signed peace accords ending the 36-year internal conflict in December 1996. (See section on peace process) 1996 Peace Accords to Present The human rights situation remained difficult during Arzú's tenure, although some initial steps were taken to reduce the influence of the military in national affairs. The most notable human rights abuses of this period were the brutal slaying of Bishop Juan José Gerardi two days after he had publicly presented a major Catholic Church sponsored human rights report known as REMHI, and the disappearance of Efraín Bámaca Velásquez, also known as Comandante Everardo, who, it was later revealed, was tortured and assassinated in 1993 without trial by Guatemalan Army officers on the payroll of the CIA. Guatemala held presidential, legislative, and municipal elections on November 7, 1999, and a runoff presidential election on December 26. In the first round the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) won 63 of 113 legislative seats, while the National Advancement Party (PAN) won 37. The New Nation Alliance (ANN) won 9 legislative seats, and three minority parties won the remaining four. In the runoff on December 26, Alfonso Portillo (FRG) won 68% of the vote to 32% for Óscar Berger (PAN). Portillo carried all 22 departments and Guatemala City, which was considered the PAN's stronghold. Portillo was criticized during the campaign for his relationship with the FRG's chairman, former president Ríos Montt. Many charge that some of the worst human rights violations of the internal conflict were committed under Ríos Montt's rule. Nevertheless, Portillo's impressive electoral triumph, with two-thirds of the vote in the second round, gave him a claim to a mandate from the people to carry out his reform program. President Portillo pledged to maintain strong ties to the United States, further enhance Guatemala's growing cooperation with Mexico, and participate actively in the integration process in Central America and the Western Hemisphere. Domestically, he vowed to support continued liberalization of the economy, increase investment in human capital and infrastructure, establish an independent central bank, and increase revenue by stricter enforcement of tax collections rather than increasing taxation. Portillo also promised to continue the peace process, appoint a civilian defense minister, reform the armed forces, replace the military presidential security service with a civilian one, and strengthen protection of human rights. He appointed a pluralist cabinet, including indigenous members and others not affiliated with the FRG ruling party. Progress in carrying out Portillo's reform agenda during his first year in office was slow. As a result, public support for the government sank to nearly record lows by early 2001. Although the administration made progress on such issues as taking state responsibility for past human rights cases and supporting human rights in international fora, it failed to show significant advances on combating impunity in past human rights cases, military reforms, a fiscal pact to help finance peace implementation, and legislation to increase political participation. Faced with a high crime rate, a public corruption problem, often violent harassment and intimidation by unknown assailants of human rights activists, judicial workers, journalists, and witnesses in human rights trials, the government began serious attempts in 2001 to open a national dialogue to discuss the considerable challenges facing the country. In July 2003, the Jueves Negro demonstrations rocked the capital, forcing the closing of the US embassy and the UN mission, as supporters of Ríos Montt called for his return to power. His supporters demanded that the nation's courts overturn a ban against former coup leaders so that he could run as a presidential candidate in the 2003 elections. The supporters were given meals by FRG in return for protesting. On November 9, 2003, Óscar Berger, a former mayor of Guatemala city, won the presidential election with 38.8% of the vote. However, because he failed to achieve a fifty percent majority, he won a runoff election on December 28, defeating the center-left candidate Álvaro Colom. Ríos Montt trailed a distant third with just 11%. In early October 2005, Guatemala was devastated by Hurricane Stan, a relatively weak storm that triggered a flooding disaster that left at least 1,500 people dead. The 2007 presidential election was won by the centre-left Álvaro Colóm. See also History of the west coast of North America Notes References , pg 106 Eric Morier-Genoud, "Sant’ Egidio et la paix. Interviews de Don Matteo Zuppi & Ricardo Cannelli", LFM. Social sciences & missions, no.13, Oct. 2003, pp.119–145 Matt Samson, "The Martyrdom of Manuel Saquic. Constructing Maya Protestantism in the face of war in contemporary Guatemala", LFM. Social sciences & missions, no.13, Oct. 2003, pp.41–74 Malmström, Vincent H. The Origins of Civilization in Mesoamerica: A Geographic Perspective, Department of Geography, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755 Historia General de Guatemala, 1999, several authors ISBN 84-88522-07-4. GREEN, DEE F., AND GARETH W. LOWE (EDS.) 1989 Olmec Diffusion: A Sculptural View from Pacific Guatemala. In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec (Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, eds.): 227–246. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Eng. Kinzer, Stephen. Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq. Henry Holt and Company, LLC. New York, 2006. Further reading Paul J. Dosal, Doing Business with the Dictators: A Political History of United Fruit in Guatemala 1899-1944, Wilmington, De., Scholarly Resources 1993 Greg Grandin, The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War, Chicago 2004 Immerman, R. H., The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention, University of Texas Press: Austin, 1982. Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1993. Piero Gleijeses, Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944-1954. Princeton University Press, 1991 Victoria Sanford, Buried secrets : truth and human rights in Guatemala, New York [u.a.] : Palgrave Macmillan, 2003 Stephen Schlesinger, Stephen Kinzer, Bitter Fruit: The Untold Story of the American Coup in Guatemala, Garden City, NY : Doubleday, 1982 External links Guatemala: Memory of Silence - English summary report of the Historical Clarification Commission report Background Note: Guatemala - Information from the US State Department Rights Action - Website of Rights Action, with special reports on mining, human rights, the struggles of indigenous people, and impunity Network in Solidarity with the People of Guatemala = Website of Network in Solidarity with the People of Guatemala, with special reports on justice and accountability Guatemala Human Rights Commission/USA - Website of the Guatemala Human Rights Commission/USA, with special reports on human rights, genocide trials, impunity, the Merida Initiative, femicide, Bishop Gerardi's assassination, and more. | History_of_Guatemala |@lemmatized history:6 guatemala:71 trace:1 back:4 arrival:2 first:14 human:27 settler:2 presume:1 migrate:1 north:2 least:4 year:18 ago:2 much:3 time:12 civilization:5 develop:6 flourish:2 little:1 contact:1 culture:8 outside:1 mesoamerica:5 maya:12 dominate:2 region:4 nearly:4 spanish:5 arrive:1 early:10 century:5 although:8 great:5 classic:7 city:15 petén:9 northern:3 lowland:5 abandon:1 ad:10 state:16 central:9 highland:5 however:9 still:3 conquistador:1 pedro:2 de:13 alvarado:6 subjugate:1 native:3 begin:6 remain:6 colony:1 gain:4 independence:2 part:3 mexican:2 empire:2 become:6 fully:1 independent:2 since:2 divide:3 period:10 democratic:3 rule:6 civil:7 war:10 military:19 junta:4 recently:2 emerge:1 reestablish:1 representative:4 government:41 pre:5 columbian:1 era:3 settlement:2 date:4 paleo:1 indian:8 ca:1 bp:1 earlier:2 archaeological:3 proof:1 guatemalan:29 hunter:1 gatherer:1 pollen:1 sample:1 pacific:11 coast:7 indicate:2 maize:1 cultivation:1 bc:14 archaic:1 site:8 document:2 quiché:1 sipacate:1 escuintla:2 small:7 include:10 place:3 tilapa:1 la:8 blanca:3 ocós:1 el:11 mesak:1 ujuxte:1 old:3 ceramic:1 pottery:3 find:3 heavy:2 concentration:1 recent:4 excavation:2 suggest:4 geographic:2 temporal:1 bridge:1 preclassic:4 village:2 later:3 antigua:3 valley:3 urías:1 rucal:1 yield:2 stratified:1 material:1 middle:4 well:2 make:13 simply:1 copy:1 either:4 coastal:1 piedmont:1 type:1 paste:1 analysis:1 vessel:1 clay:1 different:1 environmental:1 zone:1 people:11 expand:1 alone:1 monte:3 alto:3 near:3 democracia:1 giant:1 stone:1 head:5 potbelly:1 barrigones:1 description:1 discovery:1 ascribe:1 olmec:9 scholar:1 originate:2 area:3 also:17 argue:3 connection:1 statue:1 late:5 size:3 nonetheless:1 likely:1 complex:1 predecessor:2 unmistakable:1 style:1 chocolá:1 suchitepéquez:1 corona:1 peten:1 tak:2 alik:2 baj:1 retalhuleu:1 last:4 ancient:1 america:11 mayan:1 feature:1 dr:1 richard:1 hansen:2 director:1 project:1 mirador:10 basin:5 believe:5 true:1 political:16 kan:1 kingdom:1 around:2 far:5 mother:1 often:4 think:3 due:4 finding:2 separately:1 merge:1 like:1 abaj:1 evidence:2 yet:1 link:3 undoubtedly:1 cultural:2 economical:1 nakbé:5 mid:1 palace:1 particularly:1 high:3 density:1 naachtun:1 xulnal:3 porvenir:1 pacaya:1 muralla:1 tintal:4 wakná:3 formerly:1 güiro:1 uaxactún:2 tikal:3 large:5 world:1 manifest:1 extent:1 volume:1 monumentality:1 especially:3 construction:1 immense:1 platform:1 support:14 temple:1 many:10 display:1 monumental:1 mask:3 cival:2 seem:1 depict:1 powerful:1 natural:1 force:20 sun:1 earth:1 archeologist:1 post:1 formative:1 farmer:2 live:2 hut:1 permanent:1 building:2 concept:1 prove:2 big:2 mistake:1 altar:1 san:2 marcos:1 diameter:1 ceremonial:1 miraflores:1 naranjo:1 kaminaljuyú:1 portón:1 baja:1 verapaz:3 mural:1 painting:1 bartolo:1 stucco:1 monument:1 course:1 major:7 cradle:1 numerous:1 sophisticated:1 architectonic:1 structure:1 indeed:1 two:10 religious:2 belief:2 astronomical:1 mathematical:1 write:1 knowledge:1 conquest:3 sent:1 hernán:2 cortés:2 horseman:1 foot:1 soldier:3 several:8 hundred:3 cholula:1 tlascala:1 auxiliary:1 engage:2 leave:7 tenochtitlán:1 cavalry:1 unit:1 crossbowers:1 rifleman:1 artillery:1 piece:1 infantry:1 men:4 tlaxcaltec:1 cholulas:1 mexicas:1 enter:2 soconusco:1 lowlands:1 xetulul:1 humbatz:1 zapotitlan:1 ally:3 cakchiquel:2 nation:7 fight:8 traditional:3 rival:1 k:3 iche:2 start:6 xepau:1 olintepeque:1 defeat:5 iché:1 lead:8 tecún:1 umán:1 national:9 hero:1 go:4 gumarcaj:1 utatlan:1 capital:9 burn:1 march:5 proceed:2 iximche:1 establish:4 tecpan:1 july:5 launch:3 campaign:6 chuitinamit:1 tzutuhils:1 mixco:1 viejo:1 poqomams:1 zaculeu:1 mam:1 name:1 captain:1 general:13 feel:1 position:4 secure:2 turn:1 meet:1 battle:3 subdue:2 tribe:2 continue:4 q:3 eqchi:1 nueva:1 sevilla:1 izabal:1 complete:6 control:8 note:5 bloodshed:1 fray:1 bartolome:1 casas:1 pacify:1 kekchí:1 alta:2 without:2 violence:6 conquer:2 tayasal:1 itzá:1 zacpetén:1 ko:1 woj:1 attempt:9 failed:1 order:4 spaniard:1 attack:4 three:3 front:4 one:9 come:7 yucatán:1 another:3 belize:2 third:3 spain:1 september:1 briefly:1 belong:1 federation:2 call:8 united:18 province:2 break:3 see:5 rafael:1 carrera:2 instrumental:1 revolt:2 federal:1 apart:1 union:5 politics:5 conservative:1 land:17 owner:2 church:7 town:3 alcalde:1 dress:1 liberal:2 revolution:10 leadership:2 justo:1 rufino:1 barrio:2 work:4 modernize:1 country:9 improve:3 trade:1 introduce:1 new:17 crop:2 manufacturing:1 coffee:1 important:2 ambition:1 reunite:1 take:18 unsuccessful:1 attain:1 lose:2 life:2 battlefield:1 salvador:2 u:21 base:4 multinational:1 fruit:10 company:15 ufc:4 long:1 presidency:5 manuel:2 josé:3 estrada:1 cabrera:2 jorge:3 ubico:5 latter:2 dictatorship:4 open:3 foreign:3 investment:4 special:4 favour:1 particular:1 respond:1 pour:1 buy:1 share:2 railroad:2 electric:1 utility:1 telegraph:1 win:14 best:1 facto:3 port:1 facility:1 result:5 subservient:1 interest:3 help:4 build:1 school:1 oppose:2 highway:1 would:7 compete:2 monopoly:2 ten:2 spring:2 overthrow:4 october:3 revolutionaries:1 group:8 dissident:1 officer:9 student:2 professional:2 empower:1 wave:1 sweep:1 unpopular:2 venezuela:1 cuba:2 social:10 unrest:3 precede:1 coup:16 culminate:1 killing:1 schoolteacher:1 army:14 spark:1 broad:2 strike:2 paralyze:1 surrender:1 power:8 prompt:2 young:2 jacobo:3 arbenz:32 francisco:1 javier:1 arana:5 final:2 unseat:1 highly:4 popular:5 move:5 pair:1 step:3 aside:1 way:2 election:15 free:1 speech:1 activity:5 propose:1 reform:22 perception:1 progress:4 could:5 civilian:14 president:11 juan:2 arévalo:4 elect:5 hold:5 former:4 professor:1 bring:4 allow:6 party:27 restriction:2 placate:1 public:5 regard:2 anticipate:1 soon:1 succeed:2 tried:1 prematurely:1 hasten:1 process:7 descent:1 fail:7 death:4 controversial:1 arrest:2 wrong:1 clear:2 landslide:1 together:1 promote:3 progressive:1 change:4 characterize:3 labour:4 purge:1 brass:1 pro:1 colonel:3 carlos:3 castillo:5 armas:3 man:1 play:1 role:3 permit:1 communist:18 achieve:2 legal:2 status:1 subsequently:1 noticeable:1 decision:2 ethnic:6 conflict:11 quest:1 democracy:6 unite:1 definition:1 demonstration:3 occur:3 day:3 ponce:2 demise:1 patrizia:1 thousand:5 rise:2 spontaneous:1 outburst:1 honor:1 want:3 twenty:2 ladino:4 kill:6 learn:1 react:1 swiftly:1 dispatch:1 happen:1 next:2 describe:3 bloodbath:1 nine:2 matter:1 whether:1 woman:1 child:1 chief:1 staff:1 action:5 act:3 warn:1 throughout:1 republic:3 disorder:1 nature:1 countryside:2 occurrence:1 rather:3 continuation:1 dilemma:1 fuel:1 complicated:1 mix:1 class:2 regional:2 difference:1 colonial:2 exploitation:1 cheap:1 justify:2 variety:2 derogatory:1 myth:1 concern:4 capacity:1 accept:1 civic:1 responsibility:3 case:4 rural:6 intense:1 response:3 among:4 elite:2 increased:1 vigilance:2 denial:1 right:33 frequent:1 use:3 suppress:1 minor:1 sign:3 simmer:1 fear:3 violent:4 uprising:2 inspire:1 relaxation:1 explain:2 reaction:1 reasonable:1 element:2 agrarian:7 ufco:7 put:1 practice:3 manzanas:1 accord:4 decree:2 redistribute:2 agricultural:2 purpose:2 mainly:1 peasant:2 community:1 held:1 acre:2 pasture:2 substantial:1 forest:2 reserve:1 offer:3 compensation:4 rest:1 expropriation:2 number:3 valuable:1 argument:3 wording:1 law:6 focus:1 development:2 agriculture:1 therefore:2 anything:1 specify:1 cover:1 cultivated:1 untouched:1 expropriators:1 fact:1 cultivate:1 claim:7 illegal:1 away:3 second:2 amount:1 unsatisfactory:1 comparison:1 value:3 property:3 self:2 declare:2 assessment:5 tax:2 arevalo:2 administration:10 submit:1 implement:1 investigate:2 never:2 say:2 outdated:1 lot:2 estimate:5 almost:3 department:6 embassy:2 actively:2 pressure:6 recognize:3 word:3 conduct:2 business:2 interfere:2 profit:1 harm:2 economy:5 choice:2 except:2 necessary:2 adopt:1 policy:3 nationalist:1 economic:7 subject:1 firm:1 within:3 couple:1 quickly:1 prepared:1 exception:1 consideration:1 prevent:2 undermine:1 propaganda:3 security:4 combine:2 urban:4 paper:2 imparcial:1 organize:3 critique:1 communism:8 acceptance:1 anticommunism:1 present:3 periodic:1 rally:1 membership:1 anticommunist:1 organization:6 grow:3 steadily:1 criticize:3 despite:4 warning:1 constitutionally:1 accion:1 cristiana:1 publish:1 article:3 pgt:3 faction:1 leader:7 jose:1 fortuny:1 compare:1 devil:1 exaggerate:1 neutral:1 constant:1 eventually:2 rely:1 heavily:2 dedicated:1 reformer:1 revolutionary:3 appoint:4 various:1 cabinet:2 moderate:3 radicalization:1 effort:1 electoral:4 resign:3 maintain:2 complain:1 influential:1 even:2 opinion:1 journalist:2 politician:2 lean:1 towards:1 interference:1 liberation:1 invade:2 oriente:1 appeal:1 stop:1 invasion:1 june:5 operation:4 pbsuccess:3 main:2 center:4 movement:4 prior:1 labor:2 study:1 tremendous:1 influence:2 extremely:1 vocal:1 instance:2 protest:4 importantly:1 literature:1 congress:11 less:1 forty:1 member:6 four:3 prefer:1 carry:5 mass:1 addition:1 success:2 forward:1 extend:1 freedom:2 participate:3 let:1 opponent:1 regime:2 unused:1 available:1 worker:2 enough:1 meantime:1 adviser:1 lefty:1 persuade:2 clutch:1 detail:3 existence:1 widespread:3 eisenhower:2 happy:1 consider:2 close:2 report:10 wife:1 though:3 impossible:1 gather:1 information:2 relation:1 soviet:3 american:4 exist:1 exile:2 arm:5 train:1 cia:7 command:2 anti:3 radio:1 broadcast:1 refuse:1 resist:1 replace:3 disband:1 legislature:1 nationalize:1 un:2 utilized:1 practical:1 production:1 industry:1 lobby:1 remove:1 importance:1 possibility:1 beachhead:1 pg:2 quote:2 allen:1 dulles:1 western:2 hemisphere:2 sudden:1 legalization:1 importing:1 satellite:1 czechoslovakia:1 master:1 honours:1 thesis:1 event:1 convince:1 maker:1 white:2 house:1 try:2 removal:1 term:3 end:3 naturally:1 orchestrate:1 know:4 saw:1 topple:1 attachment:1 original:1 ideal:1 private:1 sector:1 represent:1 threat:1 hop:1 successor:1 round:4 earthquake:2 damaged:1 hotel:1 involve:1 wing:5 paramilitary:1 insurgent:3 factor:1 contribute:2 injustice:1 racism:1 indigenous:7 population:1 reverse:2 weak:2 marxist:1 ideology:1 advocate:1 instead:1 participation:3 cuban:1 historical:4 clarification:4 commission:8 commonly:1 truth:2 vast:2 majority:3 abuse:3 attribute:2 actor:1 determine:1 responsible:3 genocide:2 memory:2 silence:2 english:2 summary:3 paragraphs:1 increasingly:1 autocratic:1 gen:3 ydígoras:1 fuentes:1 follow:1 murder:2 col:1 junior:2 hiding:1 tie:2 nucleus:1 armed:5 insurrection:1 principal:1 guerrilla:10 poor:1 egp:1 orpa:1 rebel:1 sabotage:1 targeted:1 installation:1 form:3 unity:1 urng:3 extreme:1 vigilante:1 secret:2 esa:1 hand:2 mano:1 torture:3 suspect:1 involvement:1 leftist:3 shortly:1 julio:1 césar:1 méndez:2 montenegro:2 office:6 counterinsurgency:1 largely:2 concentrate:1 assassinate:2 leading:1 figure:1 ambassador:1 john:1 gordon:1 mein:1 inauguration:2 vinicio:2 cerezo:6 troop:1 stag:1 état:1 assumption:1 ángel:1 aníbal:1 guevara:3 picked:1 candidate:6 outgo:1 romeo:1 lucas:2 garcía:1 denounce:2 victory:3 fraudulent:1 ask:1 retired:1 efraín:2 ríos:17 montt:17 negotiate:1 departure:1 christian:3 presidential:12 widely:2 deny:1 fraud:1 lay:1 pastor:1 evangelical:1 protestant:1 inaugural:1 address:1 god:1 perceive:1 strong:4 backing:1 reagan:1 annul:1 constitution:6 dissolve:2 suspend:1 cancel:1 month:2 dismiss:1 colleague:1 assume:1 title:1 seek:1 rifle:1 bean:1 may:5 conference:1 catholic:3 bishop:3 accuse:1 militarization:1 massacre:3 york:5 tell:1 audience:1 cunén:1 feed:1 enlists:1 religion:1 raymond:1 bonner:1 background:3 quotation:1 april:1 via:1 internet:1 archive:1 plan:1 sánchez:1 local:1 defense:3 patrol:1 pacs:1 theory:1 voluntary:1 boy:1 elderly:1 northwest:1 join:1 pac:4 tar:1 peak:1 million:1 conscript:2 recapture:1 essentially:1 territory:1 lessen:1 limited:1 hit:1 run:2 partial:1 enormous:1 cost:1 brief:1 probably:1 internal:5 mostly:1 unarmed:1 squad:1 execution:1 disappearance:2 noncombatant:1 violation:4 ceh:2 archbishop:1 odhag:2 august:2 depose:1 minister:2 óscar:3 humberto:1 mejía:3 victores:1 fanatic:1 official:1 corruption:7 seven:1 survive:1 awareness:1 dimension:1 increase:5 publication:2 testimonial:1 account:1 rigoberta:2 menchú:4 award:2 nobel:2 peace:12 prize:2 favor:1 justice:2 book:3 anthropologist:1 david:2 stoll:2 challenge:2 create:1 international:3 controversy:1 committee:2 reiterate:1 uncontested:1 managed:1 return:4 constituent:2 assembly:2 draft:2 debate:1 finish:1 effect:1 immediately:1 vote:5 january:5 upon:1 announce:1 top:1 priority:1 habeas:1 corpus:1 amparo:1 court:6 protection:2 creation:1 legislative:4 establishment:1 ombudsman:2 supreme:3 embark:1 series:1 system:1 efficiency:1 govern:1 provide:1 specifically:1 stable:1 marked:1 decrease:1 dissatisfied:1 personnel:1 constitutional:2 unwillingness:1 prosecute:1 mark:1 allegation:1 inability:1 deal:1 problem:2 infant:1 mortality:1 illiteracy:1 deficient:1 health:1 service:2 level:1 discontent:1 congressional:2 november:5 runoff:5 ballot:1 antonio:1 serrano:7 elías:1 inaugurate:1 thus:1 transition:1 democratically:1 solidarity:3 seat:3 tenuous:1 alliance:2 democrat:1 ucn:1 record:2 mixed:1 consolidate:1 senior:1 talk:1 politically:1 sovereignty:1 officially:1 fruitlessly:1 slide:1 inherit:1 reduce:2 inflation:1 boost:1 real:1 growth:1 illegally:1 restrict:1 allegedly:1 autogolpe:1 autocoup:1 unified:1 society:1 enforcement:2 constitutionality:1 attempted:1 takeover:1 face:4 flee:1 pursuant:1 ramiro:1 león:3 carpio:1 lack:1 ambitious:1 anticorruption:1 purify:1 demand:2 resignation:1 body:1 considerable:2 resistance:1 agreement:3 broker:2 package:1 approve:1 referendum:1 unexpired:1 populist:1 republican:2 frg:7 advancement:2 pan:5 resettlement:1 displaced:1 person:1 significant:2 socioeconomic:1 municipal:2 álvaro:3 arzú:4 irigoyen:1 alfonso:2 portillo:9 strength:1 previously:1 serve:1 mayor:2 surround:1 negotiation:1 conclude:1 december:4 section:1 situation:1 difficult:1 tenure:1 initial:1 affair:1 notable:1 brutal:1 slaying:1 gerardi:2 publicly:1 sponsor:1 remhi:1 bámaca:1 velásquez:1 comandante:1 everardo:1 reveal:1 trial:3 payroll:1 ann:1 minority:1 berger:2 stronghold:1 relationship:1 chairman:1 charge:1 bad:1 commit:1 nevertheless:1 impressive:1 triumph:1 give:2 mandate:1 program:1 pledge:1 enhance:1 cooperation:1 mexico:1 integration:1 domestically:1 vow:1 continued:1 liberalization:1 infrastructure:1 bank:1 revenue:1 strict:1 collection:1 taxation:1 promise:1 strengthen:1 pluralist:1 others:1 affiliate:1 agenda:1 slow:1 sink:1 low:1 issue:1 past:2 forum:1 show:1 advance:1 combat:1 impunity:3 fiscal:1 pact:1 finance:1 implementation:1 legislation:1 crime:1 rate:1 harassment:1 intimidation:1 unknown:1 assailant:1 activist:1 judicial:1 witness:1 serious:1 dialogue:1 discuss:1 jueves:1 negro:1 rock:1 closing:1 mission:3 supporter:3 overturn:1 ban:1 meal:1 fifty:1 percent:1 left:1 colom:1 trail:1 distant:1 devastate:1 hurricane:1 stan:1 relatively:1 storm:1 trigger:1 flooding:1 disaster:1 dead:1 centre:1 colóm:1 west:1 reference:1 eric:1 morier:1 genoud:1 sant:1 egidio:1 et:1 paix:1 interview:1 matteo:1 zuppi:1 ricardo:1 cannelli:1 lfm:2 science:2 oct:2 pp:2 matt:1 samson:1 martyrdom:1 saquic:1 construct:1 protestantism:1 contemporary:1 malmström:1 vincent:1 h:2 origin:1 perspective:2 geography:1 dartmouth:1 college:1 hanover:1 nh:1 historia:1 author:1 isbn:1 green:1 dee:1 f:1 gareth:1 w:3 lowe:1 ed:2 diffusion:1 sculptural:1 view:1 robert:1 j:2 sharer:1 c:1 grove:1 cambridge:2 university:3 press:3 eng:1 kinzer:2 stephen:3 hawaii:1 iraq:1 henry:1 holt:1 llc:1 reading:1 paul:1 dosal:1 dictator:1 wilmington:1 scholarly:1 resource:1 greg:1 grandin:1 latin:1 cold:1 chicago:1 immerman:1 r:1 intervention:1 texas:1 austin:1 walter:1 lafeber:1 inevitable:1 norton:1 piero:1 gleijeses:1 shatter:1 hope:1 princeton:1 victoria:1 sanford:1 bury:1 palgrave:1 macmillan:1 schlesinger:1 bitter:1 untold:1 story:1 garden:1 ny:1 doubleday:1 external:1 website:3 mining:1 struggle:1 network:2 accountability:1 usa:2 merida:1 initiative:1 femicide:1 assassination:1 |@bigram maya_civilization:3 spanish_conquistador:1 pre_columbian:1 paleo_indian:1 hunter_gatherer:1 mirador_basin:5 san_marcos:1 hernán_cortés:2 pacific_lowlands:1 la_casas:1 el_salvador:2 de_facto:3 francisco_javier:1 juan_josé:2 chief_staff:1 agrarian_reform:6 rely_heavily:1 soviet_union:1 vast_majority:2 stag_coup:1 coup_état:1 ríos_montt:17 presidential_election:5 inaugural_address:1 rigoberta_menchú:2 constituent_assembly:2 presidential_candidate:2 habeas_corpus:1 supreme_court:3 investigate_prosecute:1 infant_mortality:1 democratically_elect:1 unexpired_term:1 displaced_person:1 alfonso_portillo:2 la_paix:1 w_norton:1 palgrave_macmillan:1 untold_story:1 ny_doubleday:1 external_link:1 |
3,011 | Madhuri_Dixit | Madhuri Dixit () (born Madhuri Shankar Dixit on May 15, 1967) is an Indian Bollywood actress. Throughout the late 1980s and 1990s, she established herself as one of Hindi cinema's leading actresses and most accomplished dancers. She appeared in numerous commercial successes and was recognised for several of her performances as well as her dance numbers in films. Dixit is often cited in the media as one of the most prominent female actors in Bollywood. In 2008, she was awarded the Padma Shri, India's fourth-highest civilian award, by the Government of India. Early life Madhuri Dixit is a native of Mumbai, India. She was born Madhuri Shankar Dixit to Shankar and Snehlata Dixit, of a Marathi Chitpavan Brahmin family. Dixit attended Divine Child High School and Mumbai University and wanted to be a micro-biologist. She is an accomplished Kathak dancer and trained for eight years. Film career Madhuri Dixit made her acting debut in Abodh (1984). After a few minor and supporting roles, she landed the lead female role in Tezaab (1988), which shot her to stardom, and for which she received her first Filmfare nomination. She then starred in a number of hits that included Ram Lakhan (1989), Parinda (1989), Tridev (1989), and Kishen Kanhaiya (1990). In 1990, Dixit starred in Indra Kumar's romantic-drama Dil, alongside Aamir Khan. She played the role of Madhu Mehra, a rich and spoiled young girl who falls in love with Raja, played by Khan, and later leaves her house in order to marry him. The film became one of the biggest box-office hits of the year in India, and Dixit's performance earned her the first Filmfare Best Actress Award of her career. She followed Dil with another line of hits, including Saajan (1991), Beta (1992), Khalnayak (1993), Hum Aapke Hain Kaun! (1994), and Raja (1995). Dixit's performance in Beta, that of a woman married to an illiterate, well-meaning man who exposes her scheming mother-in-law, won her a second Filmfare Award for Best Actress. Hum Aapke Hain Kaun! became one of the biggest grossers ever in the history of Hindi cinema. It went on to collect over Rs. 650 million in India and over Rs. 150 million overseas, and won Dixit her third Filmfare Best Actress Award. In that same year, Dixit was also nominated in the same category for her performance in Anjaam, which won her critical acclaim. After an unsuccessful year in 1996, Dixit appeared as Pooja in Yash Chopra's Dil To Pagal Hai (1997). The film was a major national success, both critically and commercially, and Dixit won her fourth Filmfare Best Actress Award. In that same year, Dixit starred in Prakash Jha's critically acclaimed Mrityudand. The film was known for straddling the boundary between a commercial and an art film. It won the Best Feature Film award at the Cinéma Tout Ecran in Geneva and the Bangkok Film Festival. Dixit's performance in the film landed her the Best Actress award at the annual Star Screen Awards. Dixit is not only known for her acting skills, but for her dancing skills as well. Her dance sequences, accompanying famous Bollywood songs such as Ek Do Teen (from Tezaab), Bada Dukh Deenha (from Ram Lakhan), Dhak Dhak (from Beta), Chane Ke Khet Mein (from Anjaam), Choli Ke Peechhe (from Khalnayak), Akhiyan Milaun (from Raja), Piya Ghar Aya (from Yaarana), Key Sera (from Pukar), Maar Daala (from Devdas), among others, have received abundant critical acclaim. In 2002, she starred in Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Devdas with Shahrukh Khan and Aishwarya Rai. Her performance was applauded and earned her a Filmfare Best Supporting Actress Award. The film attracted worldwide attention and was featured at the Cannes Film Festival. The following year a film named after her, Main Madhuri Dixit Banna Chahti Hoon!, was released in which a woman (played by Antara Mali) aspires to become the new Madhuri Dixit by trying her luck in the Bollywood industry. On February 25, 2006 she performed on stage for the first time in six years at the Filmfare Awards to music from her last movie Devdas. Her performance was choreographed by Saroj Khan. Madhuri Dixit has been the muse for the famous Indian painter M.F. Husain who considers her the epitome of womanhood. Hence he made a film named Gaja Gamini (2000) in which Madhuri acted. The film was intended as a tribute to Ms. Dixit herself. In this film she can be seen portraying various forms and manifestations of womanhood including the muse of Kalidasa, Leonardo's Mona Lisa, a rebel, and an incarnation of musical euphoria. On December 7, 2006, Dixit returned to Mumbai along with her husband and sons to start filming for Aaja Nachle (2007). The film released in November 2007 and despite the critics panning it, Dixit's performance was well received, with the New York Times commenting about her that "she's still got it". On Women's International Day in 2007, Dixit topped Rediff's list of the Best Bollywood Actresses Ever. Personal life The President, Smt. Pratibha Devisingh Patil presenting the Padma Shri Award to Ms. Madhuri Dixit In 1999, she married Sriram Madhav Nene, an Indian doctor who resides in USA. A UCLA-trained cardiovascular surgeon who practices in Denver, Nene is also from a Marathi Konkanastha Brahmin family. She has two sons, Arin (born in March 2003 in Colorado) and Raayan (born on March 8, 2005 in Colorado). She has two elder sisters, Rupa and Bharati, and an elder brother, Ajit. Madhuri and her family reside in Denver, Colorado,USA. Awards and nominations Filmfare Awards Won 1990: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Dil. 1992: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Beta 1994: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Hum Aapke Hain Kaun 1997: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Dil To Pagal Hai 2002: Filmfare Best Supporting Actress Award for Devdas Nominated 1988: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Tezaab 1989: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Prem Pratigya 1991: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Saajan 1993: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Khalnayak 1994: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Anjaam 1995: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Raja 1995: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Yaraana 2000: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Pukar 2001: Filmfare Best Supporting Actress Award for Lajja 2008: Filmfare Best Actress Award for Aaja Nachle Star Screen Awards Won 1994: Star Screen Award Best Actress for Hum Aapke Hain Kaun! 1995: Star Screen Award Best Actress for Raja 1997: Star Screen Award Best Actress for Mrityudand 2002: Star Screen Award Best Supporting Actress for Devdas Nominated 2000: Star Screen Award Best Actress for Pukar Zee Cine Awards Won 1998: Zee Cine Award for Best Actor - Female for Dil To Pagal Hai 2002: Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role - Female for Lajja Nominated 2000: Zee Cine Award for Best Actor - Female for Pukar 2003: Zee Cine Award for Best Actor - Female for Devdas IIFA Awards Nominated 2000: IIFA Best Actress Award for Pukar Stardust Awards Nominated 2008: Stardust Star of the Year Award - Female for Aaja Nachle Honours and recognitions 1997: "Kalabhinetri" award by the Government of Andhra Pradesh 2001: National Citizen's Award 2001: Forbes named Dixit among the Top Five Most Powerful Indian Movie Stars. http://www.forbes.com/2001/03/09/0309bollywood.html Forbes.com 2007: "Bollywood's Best Actress Ever" 2008: Padma Shri, India's fourth highest civilian award by the Government of India 2008: Honored at IFFLA Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles Filmography Year Film Role Other notes 1984 Abodh Gauri 1985 Awara Baap 1986 Swati 1987 Mohre Hifazat Janki Uttar Dakshin Chanda 1988 Khatron Ke Khiladi Kavita Dayavan Neela Velhu Tezaab Mohini Nominated, Filmfare Best Actress Award 1989 Vardi Jaya Ram Lakhan Radha Prem Pratigyaa Laxmi Nominated, Filmfare Best Actress Award Ilaaka Vidya Mujrim Sonia Tridev Divya Mathur Kanoon Apna Apna Bharathi Parinda Paro India's official entry to the Oscars Paap Ka Anth 1990 Maha Sangram Kishen Kanhaiya Anju Izzatdaar Mohini Dil Madhu Mehra Winner, Filmfare Best Actress Award Deewana Mujh Sa Nahin Anita Jeevan Ek Sangharsh Madhu Sen Sailaab Dr. Sushma Jamai Raja Rekha Thanedaar Chanda 1991 Pyaar Ka Devata Devi Khilaaf Sweta 100 Days Devi Pratikaar Madhu Saajan Pooja Nominated, Filmfare Best Actress Award Prahaar Shirley 1992 Beta Saraswati Winner, Filmfare Best Actress Award Zindagi Ek Jua Juhi Prem Deewane Shivangi Mehra Khel Seema/Dr.Jadi Buti Sangeet 1993 Dharavi Dreamgirl Sahibaan Sahibaan Khalnayak Ganga (Gangotri Devi) Nominated, Filmfare Best Actress Award Phool Dil Tera Aashiq Sonia Khanna/Savitri Devi Aansoo Bane Angaray 1994 Anjaam Shivani Chopra Nominated, Filmfare Best Actress Award Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! Nisha Choudhury Winner, Filmfare Best Actress Award 1995 Raja Madhu Garewal Nominated, Filmfare Best Actress Award Yaraana Lalita/Shikha Nominated, Filmfare Best Actress Award 1996 Prem Granth Kajri Paapi Devta Raj Kumar 1997 Koyla Gauri Mahaanta Jenny Pinto Mrityudand Phoolva Nominated, Filmfare Best Actress Award Mohabbat Shweta Sharma Dil To Pagal Hai Pooja Winner, Filmfare Best Actress Award 1998 Bade Miyan Chhote Miyan Madhuri Dixit Special appearance Wajood Apoorva Choudhury 1999 Aarzoo Pooja 2000 Pukar Anjali Nominated, Filmfare Best Actress Award Gaja Gamini Gaja Gamini/Sangita/Shakuntala/Monika/Mona Lisa 2001 Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke Neha Lajja Janki Nominated, Filmfare Best Supporting Actress Award 2002 Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam Radha Devdas Chandramukhi Winner, Filmfare Best Supporting Actress Award India's official entry to the Oscars 2007 Aaja Nachle Diya Nominated, Filmfare Best Actress Award References External links |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Filmfare Awards |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- | Madhuri_Dixit |@lemmatized madhuri:12 dixit:28 bear:4 shankar:3 may:1 indian:5 bollywood:6 actress:47 throughout:1 late:1 establish:1 one:4 hindi:2 cinema:2 lead:2 accomplished:2 dancer:2 appear:2 numerous:1 commercial:2 success:2 recognise:1 several:1 performance:8 well:4 dance:2 number:2 film:19 often:1 cite:1 medium:1 prominent:1 female:7 actor:5 award:64 padma:3 shri:3 india:9 fourth:3 high:3 civilian:2 government:3 early:1 life:2 native:1 mumbai:3 snehlata:1 marathi:2 chitpavan:1 brahmin:2 family:3 attend:1 divine:1 child:1 school:1 university:1 want:1 micro:1 biologist:1 kathak:1 train:1 eight:1 year:9 career:2 make:2 acting:2 debut:1 abodh:2 minor:1 support:7 role:5 land:2 tezaab:4 shoot:1 stardom:1 receive:3 first:3 filmfare:40 nomination:2 star:13 hit:3 include:3 ram:3 lakhan:3 parinda:2 tridev:2 kishen:2 kanhaiya:2 indra:1 kumar:2 romantic:1 drama:1 dil:9 alongside:1 aamir:1 khan:4 play:3 madhu:5 mehra:3 rich:1 spoiled:1 young:1 girl:1 fall:1 love:1 raja:7 later:1 leave:1 house:1 order:1 marry:3 become:3 big:2 box:1 office:1 earn:2 best:50 follow:1 another:1 line:1 saajan:3 beta:5 khalnayak:4 hum:6 aapke:5 hain:7 kaun:4 woman:3 illiterate:1 mean:1 man:1 expose:1 scheme:1 mother:1 law:1 win:8 second:1 grossers:1 ever:3 history:1 go:1 collect:1 r:2 million:2 overseas:1 third:1 also:2 nominate:12 category:1 anjaam:4 critical:2 acclaim:3 unsuccessful:1 pooja:4 yash:1 chopra:2 pagal:4 hai:4 major:1 national:2 critically:2 commercially:1 prakash:1 jha:1 mrityudand:3 know:2 straddle:1 boundary:1 art:1 feature:2 cinéma:1 tout:1 ecran:1 geneva:1 bangkok:1 festival:3 annual:1 screen:7 skill:2 dancing:1 sequence:1 accompany:1 famous:2 song:1 ek:3 teen:1 bada:1 dukh:1 deenha:1 dhak:2 chane:1 ke:4 khet:1 mein:1 choli:1 peechhe:1 akhiyan:1 milaun:1 piya:1 ghar:1 aya:1 yaarana:1 key:1 serum:1 pukar:6 maar:1 daala:1 devdas:7 among:2 others:1 abundant:1 sanjay:1 leela:1 bhansali:1 shahrukh:1 aishwarya:1 rai:1 applaud:1 attract:1 worldwide:1 attention:1 cannes:1 following:1 name:3 main:1 banna:1 chahti:1 hoon:1 release:2 antara:1 mali:1 aspire:1 new:2 try:1 luck:1 industry:1 february:1 perform:1 stage:1 time:2 six:1 music:1 last:1 movie:2 choreograph:1 saroj:1 muse:2 painter:1 f:1 husain:1 consider:1 epitome:1 womanhood:2 hence:1 gaja:3 gamini:3 act:1 intend:1 tribute:1 ms:2 see:1 portray:1 various:1 form:1 manifestation:1 kalidasa:1 leonardo:1 mona:2 lisa:2 rebel:1 incarnation:1 musical:1 euphoria:1 december:1 return:1 along:1 husband:1 son:2 start:1 aaja:4 nachle:4 november:1 despite:1 critic:1 pan:1 york:1 comment:1 still:1 get:1 international:1 day:2 top:2 rediff:1 list:1 personal:1 president:1 smt:1 pratibha:1 devisingh:1 patil:1 present:1 sriram:1 madhav:1 nene:2 doctor:1 reside:2 usa:2 ucla:1 trained:1 cardiovascular:1 surgeon:1 practice:1 denver:2 konkanastha:1 two:2 arin:1 march:2 colorado:3 raayan:1 elder:2 sister:1 rupa:1 bharati:1 brother:1 ajit:1 nominated:5 prem:4 pratigya:1 yaraana:2 lajja:3 zee:5 cine:5 supporting:1 iifa:2 stardust:2 honour:1 recognition:1 kalabhinetri:1 andhra:1 pradesh:1 citizen:1 forbes:3 five:1 powerful:1 http:1 www:1 com:2 html:1 honor:1 iffla:1 los:1 angeles:1 filmography:1 note:1 gauri:2 awara:1 baap:1 swati:1 mohre:1 hifazat:1 janki:2 uttar:1 dakshin:1 chanda:2 khatron:1 khiladi:1 kavita:1 dayavan:1 neela:1 velhu:1 mohini:2 vardi:1 jaya:1 radha:2 pratigyaa:1 laxmi:1 ilaaka:1 vidya:1 mujrim:1 sonia:2 divya:1 mathur:1 kanoon:1 apna:2 bharathi:1 paro:1 official:2 entry:2 oscar:2 paap:1 ka:2 anth:1 maha:1 sangram:1 anju:1 izzatdaar:1 winner:5 deewana:1 mujh:1 sa:1 nahin:1 anita:1 jeevan:1 sangharsh:1 sen:1 sailaab:1 dr:2 sushma:1 jamai:1 rekha:1 thanedaar:1 pyaar:2 devata:1 devi:4 khilaaf:1 sweta:1 pratikaar:1 prahaar:1 shirley:1 saraswati:1 zindagi:1 jua:1 juhi:1 deewane:1 shivangi:1 khel:1 seema:1 jadi:1 buti:1 sangeet:1 dharavi:1 dreamgirl:1 sahibaan:2 ganga:1 gangotri:1 phool:1 tera:1 aashiq:1 khanna:1 savitri:1 aansoo:1 bane:1 angaray:1 shivani:1 koun:1 nisha:1 choudhury:2 garewal:1 lalita:1 shikha:1 granth:1 kajri:1 paapi:1 devta:1 raj:1 koyla:1 mahaanta:1 jenny:1 pinto:1 phoolva:1 mohabbat:1 shweta:1 sharma:1 bade:1 miyan:2 chhote:1 special:1 appearance:1 wajood:1 apoorva:1 aarzoo:1 anjali:1 sangita:1 shakuntala:1 monika:1 yeh:1 raaste:1 neha:1 tumhare:1 sanam:1 chandramukhi:1 diya:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 colspan:1 style:1 background:1 |@bigram madhuri_dixit:8 filmfare_best:35 hum_aapke:5 aapke_hain:5 hain_kaun:4 critical_acclaim:2 yash_chopra:1 critically_commercially:1 critically_acclaim:1 shahrukh_khan:1 aishwarya_rai:1 cannes_film:1 mona_lisa:2 denver_colorado:1 award_nomination:1 zee_cine:5 actor_supporting:1 supporting_role:1 andhra_pradesh:1 http_www:1 los_angeles:1 nominate_filmfare:11 winner_filmfare:5 external_link:1 |
3,012 | G_protein-coupled_receptor | A Mu-opioid G-protein-coupled receptor with its agonist G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), also known as seven-transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptor, and G protein-linked receptors (GPLR), comprise a large protein family of transmembrane receptors that sense molecules outside the cell and activate inside signal transduction pathways and, ultimately, cellular responses. G protein-coupled receptors are found only in eukaryotes, including yeast, plants, choanoflagellates, and animals. The ligands that bind and activate these receptors include light-sensitive compounds, odors, pheromones, hormones, and neurotransmitters, and vary in size from small molecules to peptides to large proteins. G protein-coupled receptors are involved in many diseases, and are also the target of around half of all modern medicinal drugs. There are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G-protein coupled receptors: cAMP signal pathway and Phosphatidylinositol signal pathway. Both activate a G protein ligand binding. G-protein is a trimeric protein. The 3 subunits are called α、β and γ. The α subunit can bind with guanosine diphosphate, GDP. This causes phosphorylation of the GDP to guanosine triphosphate, GTP, and activates the α subunit, which then dissociates from the β and γ subunits. The activated α subunit can further affect intracellular signaling proteins or target functional proteins directly. Classification GPCRs can be grouped into 6 classes based on sequence homology and functional similarity: InterPro Class A (or 1) (Rhodopsin-like) Class B (or 2) (Secretin receptor family) Class C (or 3) (Metabotropic glutamate/pheromone) Class D (or 4) (Fungal mating pheromone receptors) Class E (or 5) (Cyclic AMP receptors) Class F (or 6) (Frizzled/Smoothened) The very large rhodopsin A group has been further subdivided into 19 subgroups (A1-A19). More recently, an alternative classification system called GRAFS (Glutamate, Rhodopsin, Adhesion, Frizzled/Taste2, Secretin) has been proposed. The human genome encodes roughly 350 G protein-coupled receptors, which detect hormones, growth factors, and other endogenous ligands. Approximately 150 of the GPCRs found in the human genome have unknown functions. Physiological roles GPCRs are involved in a wide variety of physiological processes. Some examples of their physiological roles include: the visual sense: the opsins use a photoisomerization reaction to translate electromagnetic radiation into cellular signals. Rhodopsin, for example, uses the conversion of 11-cis-retinal to all-trans-retinal for this purpose the sense of smell: receptors of the olfactory epithelium bind odorants (olfactory receptors) and pheromones (vomeronasal receptors) behavioral and mood regulation: receptors in the mammalian brain bind several different neurotransmitters, including serotonin, dopamine, GABA, and glutamate regulation of immune system activity and inflammation: chemokine receptors bind ligands that mediate intercellular communication between cells of the immune system; receptors such as histamine receptors bind inflammatory mediators and engage target cell types in the inflammatory response autonomic nervous system transmission: both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are regulated by GPCR pathways, responsible for control of many automatic functions of the body such as blood pressure, heart rate, and digestive processes cell density sensing: A novel GPCR role in regulating cell density sensing. Figure 2. G-protein-coupled receptor mechanism. Receptor structure GPCRs are integral membrane proteins that possess seven membrane-spanning domains or transmembrane helices (Figure 1). The extracellular parts of the receptor can be glycosylated. These extracellular loops also contain two highly-conserved cysteine residues that form disulfide bonds to stabilize the receptor structure. Some seven-transmembrane helix proteins channelrhodopsin) that resemble GPCRs may contain ion channels, within their protein. Early structural models for GPCRs were based on their weak analogy to bacteriorhodopsin, for which a structure had been determined by both electron diffraction (, ) and X ray-based crystallography (). In 2000, the first crystal structure of a mammalian GPCR, that of bovine rhodopsin (), was solved. While the main feature, the seven transmembrane helices, is conserved, the relative orientation of the helices differ significantly from that of bacteriorhodopsin. In 2007, the first structure of a human GPCR was solved (, ). This was followed immediately by a higher resolution structure of the same receptor (). This human β2-adrenergic receptor GPCR structure, proved to be highly similar to the bovine rhodopsin in terms of the relative orientation of the seven-transmembrane helices. However the conformation of the second extracellular loop is entirely different between the two structures. Since this loop constitutes the "lid" that covers the top of the ligand binding site, this conformational difference highlights the difficulties in constructing homology models of other GPCRs based only on the rhodopsin structure. Mechanism The G protein-coupled receptor is activated by an external signal in the form of a ligand or other signal mediator. This creates a conformational change in the receptor, causing activation of a G protein. Further effect depends on the type of G protein. Ligand binding GPCRs include receptors for sensory signal mediators (e.g., light and olfactory stimulatory molecules); adenosine, bombesin, bradykinin, endothelin, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), hepatocyte growth factor, melanocortins, neuropeptide Y, opioid peptides, opsins, somatostatin, tachykinins, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide family, and vasopressin; biogenic amines (e.g., dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, histamine, glutamate (metabotropic effect), glucagon, acetylcholine (muscarinic effect), and serotonin); chemokines; lipid mediators of inflammation (e.g., prostaglandins, prostanoids, platelet-activating factor, and leukotrienes); and peptide hormones (e.g., calcitonin, C5a anaphylatoxin, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), gonadotropic-releasing hormone (GnRH), neurokinin, thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), and oxytocin). GPCRs that act as receptors for stimuli that have not yet been identified are known as orphan receptors. Whereas, in other types of receptors that have been studied, ligands bind externally to the membrane, the ligands of GPCRs typically bind within the transmembrane domain. Conformational change The transduction of the signal through the membrane by the receptor is not completely understood. It is known that the inactive G protein is bound to the receptor in its inactive state. Once the ligand is recognized, the receptor shifts conformation and, thus, mechanically activates the G protein, which detaches from the receptor. The receptor can now either activate another G protein or switch back to its inactive state. This is an overly simplistic explanation, but suffices to convey the overall set of events. It is believed that a receptor molecule exists in a conformational equilibrium between active and inactive biophysical states. The binding of ligands to the receptor may shift the equilibrium toward the active receptor states. http://www.bio-balance.com/ Three types of ligands exist: Agonists are ligands that shift the equilibrium in favour of active states; inverse agonists are ligands that shift the equilibrium in favour of inactive states; and neutral antagonists are ligands that do not affect the equilibrium. It is not yet known how exactly the active and inactive states differ from each other. Activation of G protein If a receptor in an active state encounters a G protein, it may activate it (Figure 2, blue protein in part B). Some evidence suggests that receptors and G proteins are actually pre-coupled. For example, binding of G proteins to receptors affects the receptor's affinity for ligands. Activated G proteins are bound to GTP. Further signal transduction depends on the type of G protein. The enzyme adenylate cyclase (Figure 2, green protein in panel C) is an example of a cellular protein that can be regulated by a G protein, in this case the G protein Gs. Adenylate cyclase activity is activated when it binds to a subunit of the activated G protein (Figure 2, Panel D). Activation of adenylate cyclase ends when the G protein returns to the GDP-bound state (Figure 2, panels E and A). GPCR signaling without G proteins In the late 1990s, evidence began accumulating to suggest that some GPCRs are able to signal without G proteins. The ERK2 mitogen-activated protein kinase, a key signal transduction mediator downstream of receptor activation in many pathways, has been shown to be activated in response to cAMP-mediated receptor activation in the slime mold D. discoideum despite the absence of the associated G protein α- and β-subunits. In mammalian cells, the much-studied β2-adrenoceptor has been demonstrated to activate the ERK2 pathway after arrestin-mediated uncoupling of G-protein-mediated signaling. Therefore it seems likely that some mechanisms previously believed to be purely related to receptor desensitisation are actually examples of receptors switching their signaling pathway rather than simply being switched off. In kidney cells, the bradykinin receptor B2 has been shown to interact directly with a protein tyrosine phosphatase. The presence of a tyrosine-phosphorylated ITIM (immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif) sequence in the B2 receptor is necessary to mediate this interaction and subsequently the antiproliferative effect of bradykinin. Two principal pathways There are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G-protein linked receptors: cAMP signal pathway and Phosphatidylinositol signal pathway. cAMP signal pathway The cAMP signal transduction contains 5 main characters: stimulative hormone receptor (Rs) or inhibitory hormone receptor (Ri)；Stimulative regulative G-protein (Gs) or inhibitory regulative G-protein (Gi)；Adenylyl cyclase; Protein Kinase A (PKA); and cAMP phosphodiesterase. Stimulative hormone receptor (Rs) is a receptor that can bind with stimulative signal molecules, while inhibitory hormone (Ri) is a receptor that can bind with inhibitory signal molecules. Stimulative regulative G-protein is a G-protein linked to stimulative hormone receptor (Rs) and its α subunit upon activation could stimulate the activity of an enzyme or other intracellular metabolism. On the contrary, inhibitory regulative G-protein is a linked to an inhibitory hormone receptor and its α subunit upon activation could inhibit the activity of an enzyme or other intracellular metabolism. The Adenylyl cyclase is a 12 transmembrane glucoprotein that catalyzes ATP to form cAMP with the help of cofactor Mg2+or Mn2+. The cAMP produced is a second messenger in cellular metabolism and is an allosteric activator to Protein kinase A. Protein kinase A is an important enzyme in cell metabolism due to its ability to regulate cell metabolism by phosphorylating specific committed enzyme in matabolic pathway and it can also regulate specific gene expression, cellular secretion and membrane permeability. The protein enzyme contains two catalytic subunits and two regulative subunits. When there is no cAMP，the complex is inactive. After cAMP binds with the regulative subunits, it alters the conformation of these subunits, causing the dissociation of the regulative subunits, which activate protein kinase A and allow for further biological effects. cAMP phosphodiesterase is an enzyme that can degrade cAMP to 5'-AMP, which will terminate the signal. Phosphatidylinositol signal pathway In phosphatidylinositol signal pathway the extracellular signal molecule binds with the G-protein receptor on cell surface and active phospholipase C which is located on the plasma membrane. The lipase hydrolyzes phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) into two second messegers: Inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) and Diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3 binds with the receptor in the membrane of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, help open the Ca2+ channel and DAG will help activate Protein Kinase C (PKC), which will cause series of biological effects. DAG will help activate Protein Kinase C, which phosphorylates many other proteins, changing their catalytic activities, leading to cellular responses. The effects of Ca2+ is also remarkable: it cooperates with DAG in activating PKC and can activate CaM kinase pathway, in which calcium modulated protein calmodulin (CaM) binds Ca2+, undergoes a change in conformation, and activates CaM kinase II, which has unique ability to increase its binding affinity to CaM by autophosphorylation, making CaM unavailable for the activation of other enzymes. The kinase then phosphorylates target enzymes, regulating their activities. The two signal pathways are connected together by Ca2+-CaM, which is also a regulatory subunit of adenylyl cyclase and phosphodiesterase in cAMP signal pathway. Receptor regulation GPCRs become desensitized when exposed to their ligand for a prolonged period of time. There are two recognized forms of desensitization: 1) homologous desensitization, in which the activated GPCR is downregulated; and 2) heterologous desensitization, wherein the activated GPCR causes downregulation of a different GPCR. The key reaction of this downregulation is the phosphorylation of the intracellular (or cytoplasmic) receptor domain by protein kinases. Phosphorylation by cAMP-dependent protein kinases Cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinases (protein kinase A) are activated by the signal chain coming from the G protein (that was activated by the receptor) via adenylate cyclase and cyclic AMP (cAMP). In a feedback mechanism, these activated kinases phosphorylate the receptor. The longer the receptor remains active, the more kinases are activated, the more receptors are phosphorylated. In β2-adrenoceptors, this phosphorylation results in the switching of the coupling from the Go class of G-protein to the Gi class. cAMP-dependent PKA mediated phosphorylation is also known as heterologous desensitisation, because it is not specific to ligand bound receptor. In fact any receptor causing an increase in PKA activity will cause increased amounts of this type of desensitisation of other receptors coupled to Go (e.g., dopamine receptor D2 activation may lead to β2-adrenoceptor desensitisation of this type). Phosphorylation by GRKs The G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) are protein kinases that phosphorylate only active GPCRs. Phosphorylation of the receptor can have two consequences: Translocation: The receptor is, along with the part of the membrane it is embedded in, brought to the inside of the cell, where it is dephosphorylated within the acidic vesicular environment and then brought back. This mechanism is used to regulate long-term exposure, for example, to a hormone, by allowing resensitisation to follow desensitisation. Alternatively, the receptor may undergo lysozomal degradation, or remain internalised, where it is thought to participate in the initiation of signalling events, the nature of which depend on the internalised vesicle's subcellular localisation. Arrestin linking: The phosphorylated receptor can be linked to arrestin molecules that prevent it from binding (and activating) G proteins, effectively switching it off for a short period of time. This mechanism is used, for example, with rhodopsin in retina cells to compensate for exposure to bright light. In many cases, arrestin binding to the receptor is a prerequisite for translocation. For example, beta-arrestin bound to β2-adrenoreceptors acts as an adaptor for binding with clathrin, and with the beta-subunit of AP2 (clathrin adaptor molecules); thus the arrestin here acts as a scaffold assembling the componenets needed for clathrin-mediated endocytosis of β2-adrenoreceptors. Receptor oligomerization It is generally accepted that G-protein-coupled receptors can form heteromers such as homo- and heterodimers as well as more complex oligomeric structures, and indeed heterodimerization has been shown to be essential for the function of receptors such as the metabotropic GABA(B) receptors. However, it is presently unproven that true heterodimers exist. Present biochemical and physical techniques lack the resolution to differentiate between distinct homodimers assembled into an oligomer or true 1:1 heterodimers. It is also unclear what the functional significance of oligomerization might be, although it is thought that the phenomenon may contribute to the pharmacological heterogeneity of GPCRs in a manner not previously anticipated. This is an actively-studied area in GPCR research. The best-studied example of receptor oligomerisation are the metabotropic GABAB receptors. These receptors are formed by heterodimerization of GABABR1 and GABABR2 subunits. Expression of the GABABR1 without the GABABR2 in heterologous systems leads to retention of the subunit in the endoplasmic reticulum. Expression of the GABABR2 subunit alone, meanwhile, leads to surface expression of the subunit, although with no functional activity (i.e., the receptor does not bind agonist and cannot initiate a response following exposure to agonist). Expression of the two subunits together leads to plasma membrane expression of functional receptor. It has been shown that GABABR2 binding to GABABR1 causes masking of a retention signal of functional receptors. Plants GCR2 is a G-protein-coupled receptor for the plant hormone abscisic acid that has been identified in Arabidopsis thaliana. Another putative receptor is GCR1 for which no ligand has been identified yet. Dictyostelium A novel GPCR containing a lipid kinase domain has recently been identified in Dictyostelium that regulates cell density sensing. References See also Orphan receptor External links Wikipedia:MeSH D12.776#MeSH D12.776.543.750.100 --- receptors.2C g-protein-coupled | G_protein-coupled_receptor |@lemmatized mu:1 opioid:2 g:51 protein:70 couple:12 receptor:93 agonist:5 gpcrs:15 also:9 know:5 seven:5 transmembrane:8 domain:5 heptahelical:1 serpentine:1 link:6 gplr:1 comprise:1 large:3 family:3 sense:4 molecule:9 outside:1 cell:13 activate:24 inside:2 signal:31 transduction:7 pathway:19 ultimately:1 cellular:6 response:5 find:2 eukaryote:1 include:5 yeast:1 plant:3 choanoflagellates:1 animal:1 ligand:14 bind:24 light:3 sensitive:1 compound:1 odor:1 pheromone:4 hormone:14 neurotransmitter:2 vary:1 size:1 small:1 peptide:3 involve:4 many:5 disease:1 target:4 around:1 half:1 modern:1 medicinal:1 drug:1 two:12 principal:3 camp:16 phosphatidylinositol:5 binding:4 trimeric:1 subunit:21 call:2 α:7 β:3 γ:3 guanosine:2 diphosphate:1 gdp:3 cause:8 phosphorylation:7 triphosphate:2 gtp:2 dissociate:1 activated:4 far:2 affect:3 intracellular:4 functional:6 directly:2 classification:2 group:2 class:9 base:5 sequence:2 homology:2 similarity:1 interpro:1 rhodopsin:8 like:1 b:3 secretin:2 c:5 metabotropic:4 glutamate:4 fungal:1 mat:1 e:8 cyclic:3 amp:4 f:1 frizzle:2 smoothen:1 subdivide:1 subgroup:1 recently:2 alternative:1 system:6 graf:1 adhesion:1 propose:1 human:4 genome:2 encodes:1 roughly:1 coupled:2 detect:1 growth:2 factor:3 endogenous:1 approximately:1 unknown:1 function:3 physiological:3 role:3 wide:1 variety:1 process:2 example:9 visual:1 opsin:2 use:4 photoisomerization:1 reaction:2 translate:1 electromagnetic:1 radiation:1 conversion:1 ci:1 retinal:2 trans:1 purpose:1 smell:1 olfactory:3 epithelium:1 odorants:1 vomeronasal:1 behavioral:1 mood:1 regulation:3 mammalian:3 brain:1 several:1 different:3 serotonin:2 dopamine:3 gaba:3 immune:2 activity:8 inflammation:2 chemokine:1 ligands:5 mediate:7 intercellular:1 communication:1 histamine:2 inflammatory:2 mediator:5 engage:1 type:7 autonomic:1 nervous:2 transmission:1 sympathetic:1 parasympathetic:1 regulate:8 gpcr:11 responsible:1 control:1 automatic:1 body:1 blood:1 pressure:1 heart:1 rate:1 digestive:1 density:3 sensing:2 novel:2 figure:6 mechanism:6 structure:10 integral:1 membrane:9 possess:1 spanning:1 helix:5 extracellular:4 part:3 glycosylated:1 loop:3 contain:5 highly:2 conserve:2 cysteine:1 residue:1 form:6 disulfide:1 bond:1 stabilize:1 proteins:1 channelrhodopsin:1 resemble:1 may:6 ion:1 channel:2 within:3 early:1 structural:1 model:2 weak:1 analogy:1 bacteriorhodopsin:2 determine:1 electron:1 diffraction:1 x:1 ray:1 crystallography:1 first:2 crystal:1 bovine:2 solve:2 main:2 feature:1 relative:2 orientation:2 differ:2 significantly:1 follow:3 immediately:1 high:1 resolution:2 adrenergic:1 prove:1 similar:1 term:2 however:2 conformation:4 second:3 entirely:1 since:1 constitute:1 lid:1 cover:1 top:1 site:1 conformational:4 difference:1 highlight:1 difficulty:1 construct:1 external:2 create:1 change:4 activation:9 effect:7 depend:3 sensory:1 stimulatory:1 adenosine:1 bombesin:1 bradykinin:3 endothelin:1 aminobutyric:1 acid:2 hepatocyte:1 melanocortins:1 neuropeptide:1 somatostatin:1 tachykinins:1 vasoactive:1 intestinal:1 polypeptide:1 vasopressin:1 biogenic:1 amine:1 epinephrine:1 norepinephrine:1 glucagon:1 acetylcholine:1 muscarinic:1 chemokines:1 lipid:2 prostaglandin:1 prostanoids:1 platelet:1 activating:1 leukotrienes:1 calcitonin:1 anaphylatoxin:1 follicle:1 stimulate:2 fsh:1 gonadotropic:1 release:2 gnrh:1 neurokinin:1 thyrotropin:1 trh:1 oxytocin:1 act:3 stimulus:1 yet:3 identify:4 orphan:2 whereas:1 study:2 externally:1 typically:1 completely:1 understood:1 inactive:7 state:9 recognize:1 shifts:1 thus:2 mechanically:1 detach:1 either:1 another:2 switch:4 back:2 overly:1 simplistic:1 explanation:1 suffices:1 convey:1 overall:1 set:1 event:2 believe:2 exist:3 equilibrium:5 active:8 biophysical:1 shift:3 toward:1 http:1 www:1 bio:1 balance:1 com:1 three:1 favour:2 inverse:1 neutral:1 antagonist:1 exactly:1 encounter:1 blue:1 evidence:2 suggest:2 actually:2 pre:1 affinity:2 enzyme:9 adenylate:4 cyclase:7 green:1 panel:3 case:2 end:1 return:1 bound:3 without:3 late:1 begin:1 accumulate:1 able:1 mitogen:1 kinase:18 key:2 downstream:1 show:4 slime:1 mold:1 discoideum:1 despite:1 absence:1 associated:1 much:1 adrenoceptor:2 demonstrate:1 arrestin:6 uncoupling:1 signaling:1 therefore:1 seem:1 likely:1 previously:2 purely:1 relate:1 desensitisation:5 rather:1 simply:1 kidney:1 interact:1 tyrosine:3 phosphatase:1 presence:1 phosphorylated:3 itim:1 immunoreceptor:1 inhibitory:7 motif:1 necessary:1 interaction:1 subsequently:1 antiproliferative:1 character:1 stimulative:6 r:3 ri:2 regulative:7 gi:2 adenylyl:3 pka:3 phosphodiesterase:3 upon:2 could:2 metabolism:5 contrary:1 inhibit:1 glucoprotein:1 catalyze:1 atp:1 help:4 cofactor:1 produce:1 messenger:1 allosteric:1 activator:1 important:1 due:1 ability:2 phosphorylating:1 specific:3 commit:1 matabolic:1 gene:1 expression:6 secretion:1 permeability:1 catalytic:2 complex:2 alter:1 dissociation:1 allow:2 biological:2 degrade:1 terminate:1 surface:2 phospholipase:1 locate:1 plasma:2 lipase:1 hydrolyze:1 bisphosphate:1 messegers:1 inositol:1 diacylglycerol:1 dag:4 smooth:1 endoplasmic:2 reticulum:2 mitochondrion:1 open:1 pkc:2 series:1 phosphorylates:2 lead:5 remarkable:1 cooperate:1 cam:6 calcium:1 modulate:1 calmodulin:1 undergo:2 ii:1 unique:1 increase:2 autophosphorylation:1 make:1 unavailable:1 connect:1 together:2 regulatory:1 become:1 desensitized:1 expose:1 prolonged:1 period:2 time:2 recognized:1 desensitization:3 homologous:1 downregulated:1 heterologous:3 wherein:1 downregulation:2 cytoplasmic:1 dependent:3 kinases:1 chain:1 come:1 via:1 feedback:1 phosphorylate:2 long:2 remain:2 adrenoceptors:1 result:1 switching:1 coupling:1 go:2 fact:1 increased:1 amount:1 grks:2 consequence:1 translocation:2 along:1 embed:1 bring:2 dephosphorylated:1 acidic:1 vesicular:1 environment:1 exposure:3 resensitisation:1 alternatively:1 lysozomal:1 degradation:1 internalised:2 think:2 participate:1 initiation:1 nature:1 vesicle:1 subcellular:1 localisation:1 linking:1 prevent:1 effectively:1 short:1 retina:1 compensate:1 bright:1 prerequisite:1 beta:2 adrenoreceptors:2 adaptor:2 clathrin:3 scaffold:1 assemble:2 componenets:1 need:1 endocytosis:1 oligomerization:2 generally:1 accept:1 heteromers:1 homo:1 heterodimers:3 well:1 oligomeric:1 indeed:1 heterodimerization:2 essential:1 presently:1 unproven:1 true:2 present:1 biochemical:1 physical:1 technique:1 lack:1 differentiate:1 distinct:1 homodimers:1 oligomer:1 unclear:1 significance:1 might:1 although:2 phenomenon:1 contribute:1 pharmacological:1 heterogeneity:1 manner:1 anticipate:1 actively:1 studied:2 area:1 research:1 best:1 oligomerisation:1 gabab:1 retention:2 alone:1 meanwhile:1 cannot:1 initiate:1 mask:1 abscisic:1 arabidopsis:1 thaliana:1 putative:1 dictyostelium:2 reference:1 see:1 wikipedia:1 mesh:2 |@bigram transmembrane_receptor:1 signal_transduction:6 transduction_pathway:3 ligand_binding:1 α_β:2 β_γ:2 α_subunit:5 guanosine_triphosphate:1 γ_subunit:1 metabotropic_glutamate:1 cyclic_amp:3 electromagnetic_radiation:1 sense_smell:1 serotonin_dopamine:1 chemokine_receptor:1 autonomic_nervous:1 transmembrane_helix:4 disulfide_bond:1 adrenergic_receptor:1 aminobutyric_acid:1 vasoactive_intestinal:1 epinephrine_norepinephrine:1 peptide_hormone:1 follicle_stimulate:1 stimulate_hormone:1 overly_simplistic:1 http_www:1 adenylate_cyclase:4 protein_kinase:11 receptor_activation:3 slime_mold:1 β_subunit:1 hormone_receptor:5 adenylyl_cyclase:3 phospholipase_c:1 plasma_membrane:2 smooth_endoplasmic:1 endoplasmic_reticulum:2 reticulum_mitochondrion:1 dopamine_receptor:1 adaptor_molecule:1 arabidopsis_thaliana:1 external_link:1 mesh_mesh:1 |
3,013 | Kabul | Kabul (Persian کابل Kābul; ; ) Pronunciation in English varies, see National Review, November 20, 2002 , (archaic Caubul), is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with a population of over 2.5 million. The exact number cannot be determined but the total provincial population of Kabul is anywhere between 3.5 to almost 5 million people. It is an economic and cultural centre, situated 5,900 feet (1,800 m) above sea level in a narrow valley, wedged between the Hindu Kush mountains along the Kabul River. The city is linked with Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-e Sharif via a long beltway (circular highway) that stretches across the country. It is also linked by highways with Pakistan to the east and southeast and Tajikistan to the north. Kabul's main products include munitions, cloth, furniture and beet sugar, but, since 1978, a state of nearly continuous war has limited the economic productivity of the city. Kabul is over 3,000 years old, many empires have long fought over the city for its strategic location along the trade routes of Southern and Central Asia. In 1504, Babur captured Kabul and used it as his headquarters until 1526, before his conquest of India. In 1776, Timur Shah Durrani made it the capital of modern Afghanistan. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia - Kabul...Link Since the Soviet war in Afghanistan in the 1980s until very recent, the city has been constantly a target of destruction by rebels or militants. History The city of Kabul is thought to have been established between 2000 BCE and 1500 BCE. The history of Afghanistan, Ghandara.com website In the Rig Veda (composed between 1700–1100 BCE) the word "Kubhā" is mentioned, which appears to refer to the Kabul River. There is a reference to a settlement called Kabura by the Persian Achaemenids around 400 BCE which may be the basis for the use of the name Kabura by Ptolemy. "Kabul" Chambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge (1901 edition) J.B. Lippincott Company, NY, page 385 Alexander the Great conquered Kabul during his conquest of the Persian Empire. The city later became part of the Seleucid Empire before becoming part of the Mauryan Empire. The Bactrians founded the town of Paropamisade near Kabul, but it was later ceded to the Mauryans in the 1st century BCE. Kushano-Hephthalite Kingdoms in 565 CE. According to many noted scholars, the Sanskrit name of Kabul is Kamboj. Ethnologische Forschungen und Sammlung von Material für dieselben, 1871, p 244, Adolf Bastian - Ethnology. The People of India: A Series of Photographic Illustrations, with ..., 1868, p 155, John William Kaye, Meadows Taylor, Great Britain India Office - Ethnology. Supplementary Glossary, p. 304, H. M. Elliot. . Various Census of India, 1867, p 34. Memoir on Cuneiform Inscription, 1849, p 98, Cuneiform inscriptions; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 1849, p 98, Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. It is mentioned as Kophes or Kophene in the classical writings. Gazetteer of Bombay Presidency 1904 maintains that the ancient name of Kabul was Kambojapura, which Ptolemy (160 CE) mentions as Kaboura (from Ka(m)bo(j)pura?). Hiuen Tsang refers to the name as Kaofu, which according to Dr. J. W. McCrindle, Alexander’s Invasion, p 38, J. W. McCrindle; Megasthenes and Arrian, p 180, J. W. McCrindle. Dr Sylvain Lévi, Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India, 1993 edition, p 100, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Jules Bloch, Jean Przyluski, Asian Educational Services - Indo-Aryan philology. Dr. B. C. Law, Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 235, Dr B. C. Law - Kshatriyas; Indological Studies, 1950, p 36; Tribes in Ancient India, 1943, p 3. Dr. R. K. Mukkerji, Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, 1966, p 173, Dr Radhakumud Mookerji - History; Studies in Ancient Hindu Polity: Based on the Arthaṡâstra of Kautilya, 1914, p 40, Narendra Nath Law, Kauṭalya, Radhakumud Mookerji; The Fundamental Unity of India, 2004, p 86; The Fundamental Unity of India (from Hindu Sources), 1914, p 57, Dr Radhakumud Mookerji. N. L. Dey Geographical Dictionary of ancient and Medieval India, Dr Nundo Lal Dey. and many other scholars, The Modern Review, 1907, p 135, Ramananda Chatterjee - India; Literary History of Ancient India in Relation to Its Racial and Linguistic ..., p 165, Chandra Chakraberty; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī - Kamboja (Pakistan) etc. is equivalent to Sanskrit Kamboja (Kamboj/Kambuj). Kaofu was also the appellation of one of the five tribes of the Yuechi who had migrated from across the Hindukush into Kabul valley around the Christian era. The Ancient Geography of India, p 15, A Cunningham. According to some scholars, the fifth clan mentioned among the Tochari/Yuechi may have been a clan of the Kambojas Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 43, Dr J. L. Kamboj. The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom captured Kabul from the Mauryans in the early 2nd century BCE, then lost the city to their subordinates in the Indo-Greek Kingdom in the mid 2nd century BCE. Indo-Scythians expelled the Indo-Greeks by the mid 1st century BCE, but lost the city to the Kushan Empire nearly 100 years later. It was conquered by Kushan Emperor Kujula Kadphises in the early 1st century CE and remained Kushan territory until at least the 3rd century CE. Hill, John E. 2004. The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. Draft annotated English translation...link Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation... Link Kabul was one of the two capital cities of the Kushans. Around 230 CE the Kushans were defeated by the Sassanid Empire and were replaced by Sassanid vassals known as the Kushanshas or Indo-Sassanids. In 420 CE the Kushanshahs (Kushan kings) were driven out of Afghanistan by the Chionites tribe known as the Kidarites, who were then replaced in the 460s by the Hephthalites. The Hephthalites were defeated in 565 CE by a coalition of Persian and Turkish armies, and most of the realm fell to those Empires. Shahi Dynasty Kabul became part of the surviving Shahi Kingdom of Kapisa, who were also known as Kabul-Shahan. Barhatkin was the first Shahi King The Shahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab By Deena Bandhu Pandey Published by Historical Research Institute; [sole distributors: Oriental Publishers], 1973 Original from the University of Michigan Page 6 followed by King Khingala Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God By Robert L. Brown Contributor Robert L. Brown Published by SUNY Press, 1991 Page 50, about 5th Century . The rulers of Kabul-Shahan built a huge defensive wall around the city to protect it from invaders. This wall has survived until today and is considered a historical site. Around 670 CE the Turk Shahi were replaced by the Hindu Shahi dynasty. The Last Shahi Dynasty King Bhimpal was the son of Tirlochanpal , his death in 1028 AD brought to an end the Hindu Shahi dynasty Muhammad Bin Qasim to General Pervez Musharraf: Triumphs,Tribulations, Scars of 1971 Tragedy and Current Challenges By Asif Haroon Edition: illustrated Published by Sang-e-Meel Publications, 2004 Original from the University of Michigan Islamic conquest In 674, the Islamic invasions reached modern-day Afghanistan. Kabul to the east fell in 871 despite the heroic resistance of the Hindushahi. Arabic as a minority language By Jonathan Owens Published by Walter de Gruyter, 2000 Page 181 ISBN 3110165783, 9783110165784 . However, it was not until the 9th century when Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar, a coppersmith turned ruler, established Islam in Kabulistan. Over the remaining centuries to come the city was successively controlled by the Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Timurids, Mughols, Durranis, and finally by the Barakzais. In the 13th century the Mongol horde passed through and took control of the area. It may have been around this time that the name "Kabul" was first given to the city. Markham, Clements R. (1859). Narrative of the Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez De Clavijo to the Court of Timour, at Samarcand, A.D.1403-6. London: Hakluyt Society, pp.125-126. . A Moroccan traveller, Ibn Battuta, visiting Kabul in 1333 writes: Nancy Hatch Dupree at American University of Afghanistan - The Story of Kabul (Mongols) In the 14th century, Kabul rose again as a trading center under the kingdom of Timur (Tamerlane), who married the sister of Kabul's ruler at the time. But as Timurid power waned, the city was captured in 1504 by Babur and made into his headquarters or capital. Haidar, an Indian poet who visited at the time wrote "Dine and drink in Kabul: it is mountain, desert, city, river and all else." Modern history Nadir Shah of Persia invaded and captured the city in 1738 but was assassinated nine years later. Ahmad Shah Durrani, an Afghan military commander and personal bodyguard of Nader, took the throne in 1747, asserted Pashtun rule and further expanded his new Afghan Empire. His son Timur Shah Durrani, after inheriting power, transferred the capital of Afghanistan from Kandahar to Kabul in 1776. Encyclopaedia Britannica - The Durrani dynasty (from Afghanistan)...Link Timur Shah died in 1793 and was succeeded by his son Zaman Shah Durrani. In 1826, the kingdom was claimed by Dost Mohammed Khan and taken from him by the British Indian Army in 1839, who installed the unpopular puppet Shah Shuja. An 1841 local uprising resulted in the loss of the British mission and the subsequent Massacre of Elphinstone's army of approximately 16,000 people, which included civilians and camp followers on their retreat from Kabul to Jalalabad. In 1842 the British returned, plundering Bala Hissar in revenge before retreating back to India. Dost Mohammed returned to the throne. Aerial view of Kabul in 1969. The British invaded in 1878 as Kabul was under Sher Ali Khan's rule, but the British residents were again massacred. The invaders again came in 1879 under General Roberts, partially destroying Bala Hissar before retreating to India. Amir Abdur Rahman was left in control of the country. In the early 20th century, King Amanullah Khan rose to power. His reforms included electricity for the city and schooling for girls. He drove a Rolls-Royce, and lived in the famous Darul Aman Palace. In 1919, after the Third Anglo-Afghan War, Amanullah announced Afghanistan's independence from foreign interventions at Eidgah Mosque. In 1929, Ammanullah Khan left Kabul because of a local uprising and his brother Nader Khan took control. King Nader Khan was assassinated in 1933 and his 19-year-old son, Zahir Shah, became the long lasting King of Afghanistan. Kabul University opened for classes in early 1930s, and in 1940s, the city began to grow as an industrial center. The streets of the city began being paved in the 1950s. In the 1960s, Kabul developed a cosmopolitan mood. The first Marks and Spencer store in Central Asia was built there. Kabul Zoo was inaugurated in 1967, which was maintained with the help of visiting German Zoologists. In 1969, a religious uprising at the Pul-e Khishti Mosque protested the Soviet Union's increasing influence over Afghan politics and religion. This protest ended in the arrest of many of its organizers including Mawlana Faizani, a popular Islamic scholar. In July 1973, Zahir Shah was ousted in a bloodless coup and Kabul became the capital of a republic under Mohammad Daoud Khan, the new President. In 1975 an east-west electric trolleybus system provided public transportation across the city. The system was built with assistance from Czechoslovakia. After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, on December 24, 1979, the Red Army occupied the capital. They turned the city into their command center during the 10-year conflict between the Soviet-allied government and the Mujahideen rebels. The American Embassy in Kabul closed on January 30, 1989. The city fell into the hands of local militias after the 1992 collapse of Mohammad Najibullah's pro-communist government. As these forces divided into warring factions, the city increasingly suffered. In December, the last of the 86 city trolley buses came to a halt because of the conflict. A system of 800 public buses continued to provide transportation services to the city. By 1993 electricity and water in the city was completely out. At this time, Burhannudin Rabbani's militia (Jamiat-e Islami) held power but the nominal prime minister Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's Hezb-e Islami began shelling the city, which lasted until 1996. Kabul was factionalised, and fighting continued between Jamiat-e Islami, Abdul Rashid Dostum and the Hezbi Wahdat. Tens of thousands of civilians were killed and many more fled as refugees. The United Nations estimated that about 90% of the buildings in Kabul were destroyed during these years. Kabul was captured by the Taliban on September 26, 1996, Steve Coll, Ghost Wars (New York: Penguin, 2005), 14. publicly lynching ex-President Najibullah and his brother. During this time, all the fighting between rival groups came to an end. Burhannudin Rabbani, Gulbuddin Heckmatyar, Abdul Rashid Dostum, Ahmad Shah Massoud, and the rest all fled the city. Approximately five years later, in October 2001, the United States invaded Afghanistan. The Taliban abandoned Kabul in the following months because of extensive American bombing, while the Afghan Northern Alliance (former mujahideen or millias) came to retake control of the city. On December 20, 2001, Kabul became the capital of the Afghan Transitional Administration, which transformed to the present government of Afghanistan that is led by US-backed President Hamid Karzai. Since the beginning of 2003, the city is slowly developing with the help of foreign investment. Security was provided by US (Operation Enduring Freedom) and NATO (ISAF) forces until late 2008. Currently, the Afghan National Police (ANP) and the Afghan National Army (ANA) provide security for most of the city. Climate Kabul has a semi-arid climate with precipitation concentrated in the winter (in the form of snow) and spring months. Summers run from June to September and are moderate, with highs in the low 30s and very low humidity. The autumn months of October and November have moderate temperatures and low humidity. Winters are harsh, snowy and long, lasting from December to March. Spring in Kabul starts in late March and is the wettest part of the year. Administration Kabul City is one of the 15 districts of Kabul Province, and is divided into 18 sectors. Each sector covers several neighborhoods of the city. The number of Kabul's sectors were increased from 11 to 18 in 2005. Unlike other cities of the world, Kabul City has two independent councils or administrations at once: Prefecture and Municipality. The Prefect who is also the Governor of Kabul Province is appointed by the Ministry of Interior, and is responsible for the administrative and formal issues of the entire province. The Mayor of Kabul City is selected by the President of Afghanistan, who engages in the city's planning and environmental work. The police and security forces belong to the prefecture and Ministry of Interior. The Chief of Police is selected by the Minister of Interior and is responsible for law enforcement and security of the city. Map of Kabul City. Areas of Kabul City Shahr-e Naw (New City) Wazir Akbar Khan Macro Ryans (1, 2, 3 and 4) Khair Khana (1, 2 and 3) Dashti Barchi Kartey Sakhi Qalai Wazir Khushhall Khan Afshar Klola Pushta and Taimani Kartey Parwan Kartey Naw (New Quarter) Kartey (3 & 4) Darul-Aman Chehlstoon Chendawol Shahr-e Kohna (Old City of Kabul) Deh Buri Bibi Mahroo Demographics Kabul has a population between 2.5 to 3 million or more. Central Statistics Office, Annual Report, Kabul-Afghanistan, LINK Central Statistics Office, Annual Report, Kabul-Afghanistan, LINK The population of the city reflects the general multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, and multi-confessional characteristics of Afghanistan. There is no official governmental data on the exact ethnic make-up of the city. However, it appears that Persian-speakers form the majority of the city's population, with Sunnite Tajiks being the largest group at approximately 45%, http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0311/feature2/images/mp_download.2.pdf followed by Shi'ite Hazaras at 25%. Pashtuns, also Sunnite, form the most important and powerful minority due to their heavy representation in the Afghan political spectrum as well as in the military. There is a sizable Turkic-speaking Uzbek and Turkmen minority in the city. There are also sizable numbers of Aimak, Baloch, Pashai, as well as some Afghan Sikhs and Afghan Hindus. Transport The old terminal of Kabul International Airport, serving domestic flights only. Kabul International Airport serves the country as the main air travel base. The airport is a hub to Ariana Afghan Airlines, which is the national airlines carrier of Afghanistan. Kam Air, Pamir Airways, and Safi Airways also have their hubs in Kabul. Airlines from nearby nations such as Pakistan, Iran, India, and several others also make stops at Kabul Airport. A new international terminal, built by the government of Japan, began operation in 2008. The new terminal is the first of three terminals to be opened so far. The other two will open once air traffic to the city increases. Passengers coming from most foreign nations use mostly Dubai as the connecting city for flights to Kabul. Kabul Airport also has a military air base which serves as the main airport for the Afghan National Air Corps. NATO also uses the Kabul Airport, but most military traffic is based at Bagram Air Base, just north of Kabul. The Afghan National Army and Afghan National Police are in charge of the airport security. Bus service to most major cities of the country is also available in Kabul. The city has public buses (Millie Bus / "National Bus") that take commuters on daily routes to many destinations. The service currently has approximately 800 buses but is gradually expanding and upgrading with more buses being added. Plans are underway to reintroduce the modern trolleybuses that the city once had. Besides the buses, there are yellow taxicabs that can be spotted just about anywhere in and around the city. The Kabul bus system has recently discovered a new source of revenue in whole-bus advertising from MTN similar to "bus wrap" advertising on public transit in more developed nations. There is also an express bus that runs from the city center to Kabul International Airport. Private vehicles are also on the rise in Kabul, with Land Rover, BMW, Toyota, Nissan and Hyundai dealerships in the city. More people are buying new cars as the roads and highways are being improved. The average car driven in Kabul is a Toyota Corolla. With the exception of motorcycles many vehicles in the city operate on LPG. Gas stations are mainly private-owned but the fuel comes from Iran. Bikes on the road are a common sight in the city. Communications GSM/GPRS mobile phone services in the city are provided by Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, Roshan and MTN. In November 2006, the Afghan Ministry of Communications signed a US 64.5 million dollar agreement with a company (ZTE Corporation) on the establishment of a countrywide fibre optical cable network. This will improve telephone, internet, television and radio broadcast services not just in Kabul but throughout the country. Pajhwok Afghan News - Ministry signs contract with Chinese company...Link Internet was introduced in the city in 2002 and has been expanding rapidly. There are a number of post offices throughout the city. Package delivery services like FedEx, TNT N.V., DHL and others are also available. The city has many local language radio stations, including Pashto and Dari, as well as some programs in the English language. The Afghan government has become increasingly intolerant of Indian channels and the un-Islamic culture they bring and threaten to ban them. Besides foreign channels, the local television channels of Afghanistan include: Ayna TV Ariana TV Ariana Afghanistan TV Noor TV Noorin TV Tamadun TV Shamshad TV Tolo TV Lemar TV Saba TV RTA Education All public schools in Kabul reopened in 2002 and are improving every year. The majority of the city's boys and girls are now attending classes. Some of the well known public schools are Amani High School, Durrani High School, Ghulam Haider Khan High School, Sultan Razia School, etc. The city's colleges and universities were also renovated after 2002. Some of them were recently developed while others existed since the early 1900s. Universities in Kabul Kabul University Kabul Polytechnic American University of Afghanistan National Military Academy of Afghanistan University of Afghanistan Kabul Medical University International School of Kabul Tourism and sightseeing The old part of Kabul is filled with bazaars nestled along its narrow, crooked streets. Cultural sites include the Afghan National Museum, notably displaying an impressive statue of Surya excavated at Khair Khana, the ruined Darul Aman Palace, the Mausoleum of Emperor Babur and Chehlstoon Park, the Minar-i-Istiqlal (Column of Independence) built in 1919 after the Third Afghan War, the mausoleum of Timur Shah Durrani, and the imposing Id Gah Mosque (founded 1893). Bala Hissar is a fort destroyed by the British in 1879, in retaliation for the death of their envoy, now restored as a military college. The Minaret of Chakari, destroyed in 1998, had Buddhist swastika and both Mahayana and Theravada qualities. Inside Kabul City Center Other places of interest include Kabul City Center, which is Kabul's first shopping mall, the shops around Flower Street and Chicken Street, Wazir Akbar Khan district, Babur Gardens, Kabul Golf Club, Kabul Zoo, Shah Do Shamshera and other famous Mosques, the Afghan National Gallery, Afghan National Archive, Afghan Royal Family Mausoleum, the OMAR Mine Museum, Bibi Mahroo Hill, Kabul Cemetery, and Paghman Gardens. Tappe-i-Maranjan is a nearby hill where Buddhist statues and Graeco-Bactrian coins from the 2nd century BC have been found. Outside the city proper is a citadel and the royal palace. Paghman and Jalalabad are interesting valleys north and east of the city. Qargha Lake|Lake Qargha Shar-e Naw Park during winter Babur Gardens in winter 2006 Airports Kabul International Airport Parks Bāgh-e Bābur Park (Babur Gardens) Bāghi Bālā Park Lake Qargha Park Zarnegar Park Shar-e Naw Park Bagh-e Zanana Chaman-e-Hozori Mosques Haji Abdul Rahman Mosque (Under construction) Id Gah Mosque Pul-e Khishti Mosque Shah-e Do Shamshera Mosque Mausoleums Mausoleum of Tamim Ansar Museums Kabul Museum National Archives Negaristani Milli Hotels Marriott (Under Construction) Serena Hotel InterContinental Safi Landmark Hotel http://www.lmhotelgroup.com/Lmhotelgroup/safihome.asp Golden Star Hotel http://www.goldenstarkabul.com Heetal Plaza Hotel http://www.heetal.com Reconstruction and developments As of October 2007, there are approximately 16 licensed banks in Kabul: including Da Afghanistan Bank, Afghanistan International Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Punjab National Bank, Habib Bank and others. Western Union offices are also found in many locations throughout the city. A small sized indoor shopping mall (Kabul City Center) with a 4-star (Safi Landmark) hotel on the top six floors opened in 2005. A 5-star Serena Hotel also opened in 2005. Another 5-star Marriott Hotel is under construction. The landmark InterContinental Hotel has also been refurbished and is in operation. The plan for Kabul's nine billion dollar future modern urban development project, the City of Light Development. An initial concept design called the City of Light Development, envisioned by Dr. Hisham N. Ashkouri, Principal of ARCADD, Inc. for the development and the implementation of a privately based investment enterprise has been proposed for multi-function commercial, historic and cultural development within the limits of the Old City of Kabul along the Southern side of the Kabul River and along Jade Meywand Avenue, Kabul - City of Light Project...link revitalizing some of the most commercial and historic districts in the City of Kabul, which contains numerous historic mosques and shrines as well as viable commercial activities among war damaged buildings. Also incorporated in the design is a new complex for the Afghan National Museum. Dr. Ashkouri has signed a Memorandum of Understanding with His Excellency Ambassador Said Tayeb Jawad in Washington, DC to undertake this project and to develop it for actual implementation over the next 20 to 25 years. Dr. Ashkouri has presented the City of Light Plan to President Karzai and has received a letter of support from the President and the Minister of Urban Development in support of this project’s development. About from downtown Kabul, in Bagrami, a wide industrial complex has completed with modern facilities, which will allow companies to operate businesses there. The park has professional management for the daily maintenance of public roads, internal streets, common areas, parking areas, 24 hours perimeter security, access control for vehicles and persons. Another phase with additional of land will be added immediately proceeding the first phase. Afghanistan Industrial Parks Development Authority...Kabul (Bagrami) The city hosts the We Are the Future (WAF) center, a child care center giving children a chance to live their childhoods and develop a sense of hope. The center is managed under the direction of the mayor’s office and the international NGO. Glocal Forum serves as the fundraiser, program planner and coordinator for the WAF center. Launched in 2004, the program is the result of a strategic partnership between the Glocal Forum, the Quincy Jones Listen Up Foundation and Mr. Hani Masri, with the support of the World Bank, UN agencies and major companies. A $25 million Coca-Cola bottling plant was opened in 2006. Financing was provided by a Dubai-based Afghan family. President Hamid Karzai formally opened the facility in an attempt to attract more foreign investment in the city. In late 2007 the government announced that all the residential houses situated on mountains would be removed within a year so that trees and other plants can be grown on the hills. The plan is to try to make the city greener and provide residents with a more suitable place to live, on a flat surface. Once the plan is implemented it will provide water supply and electricity to each house. All the city roads will also be paved under the plan, which will solve transportation problems. Pajhwok Afghan News, Kabul beautification plan announced (December 17, 2007) Gallery See also 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes City of Light Development List of cities in Afghanistan Kabul Express Kabul Golf Club Radio Kabul Notes and references External links Map of Kabul City What's On In Kabul (pdf format) Historical Photos of Kabul The Story of Kabul Kabul Caravan Kabul - City of Light, 9 Billion dollar modern urban development project Sada-e Azadi Radio/TV/Newspaper (ISAF) Kabul travel guide from Wikitravel be-x-old:Кабул | Kabul |@lemmatized kabul:106 persian:5 کابل:1 kābul:1 pronunciation:1 english:4 varies:1 see:2 national:15 review:2 november:3 archaic:1 caubul:1 capital:8 large:2 city:82 afghanistan:29 population:5 million:5 exact:2 number:4 cannot:1 determine:1 total:1 provincial:1 anywhere:2 almost:1 people:7 economic:2 cultural:4 centre:1 situate:2 foot:1 sea:1 level:1 narrow:2 valley:3 wedge:1 hindu:7 kush:2 mountains:1 along:5 river:4 link:11 ghazni:1 kandahar:2 herat:1 mazar:1 e:18 sharif:1 via:1 long:4 beltway:1 circular:1 highway:3 stretch:1 across:3 country:7 also:21 pakistan:3 east:4 southeast:1 tajikistan:1 north:3 main:3 product:1 include:9 munition:1 cloth:1 furniture:1 beet:1 sugar:1 since:4 state:2 nearly:2 continuous:1 war:7 limit:2 productivity:1 year:11 old:7 many:9 empire:8 fight:3 strategic:2 location:2 trade:1 route:2 southern:2 central:4 asia:2 babur:6 capture:5 use:4 headquarters:2 conquest:3 india:16 timur:5 shah:13 durrani:7 make:5 modern:8 britannica:2 concise:1 encyclopedia:1 soviet:4 recent:1 constantly:1 target:1 destruction:1 rebel:2 militant:1 history:5 think:1 establish:2 bce:8 ghandara:1 com:5 website:1 rig:1 veda:1 compose:2 word:1 kubhā:1 mention:4 appear:2 refer:1 reference:2 settlement:1 call:2 kabura:2 achaemenids:1 around:8 may:3 basis:1 name:5 ptolemy:2 chamber:1 encyclopaedia:2 dictionary:2 universal:1 knowledge:1 edition:3 j:6 b:3 lippincott:1 company:5 ny:1 page:4 alexander:2 great:4 conquered:1 later:5 become:7 part:5 seleucid:1 mauryan:1 bactrians:1 found:1 town:1 paropamisade:1 near:1 cede:1 mauryans:2 century:14 kushano:1 hephthalite:1 kingdom:6 ce:9 accord:4 noted:1 scholar:4 sanskrit:2 kamboj:3 ethnologische:1 forschungen:1 und:1 sammlung:1 von:1 material:1 für:1 dieselben:1 p:20 adolf:1 bastian:1 ethnology:2 series:1 photographic:1 illustration:1 john:3 william:1 kaye:1 meadows:1 taylor:1 britain:3 office:6 supplementary:1 glossary:1 h:1 elliot:1 various:1 census:1 memoir:1 cuneiform:2 inscription:2 journal:1 royal:4 asiatic:2 society:3 ireland:2 henry:1 creswicke:1 rawlinson:1 kophes:1 kophene:1 classical:1 writing:1 gazetteer:1 bombay:1 presidency:1 maintain:2 ancient:9 kambojapura:1 kaboura:1 ka:1 bo:1 pura:1 hiuen:1 tsang:1 refers:1 kaofu:2 dr:15 w:3 mccrindle:3 invasion:3 megasthenes:1 arrian:1 sylvain:2 lévi:2 pre:2 aryan:2 dravidian:1 jules:1 bloch:1 jean:1 przyluski:1 asian:2 educational:1 service:7 indo:5 philology:1 c:2 law:4 kṣatriya:1 tribe:4 kshatriya:1 indological:1 study:3 r:2 k:1 mukkerji:1 chandragupta:1 maurya:1 time:6 radhakumud:3 mookerji:3 polity:1 base:7 arthaṡâstra:1 kautilya:1 narendra:1 nath:1 kauṭalya:1 fundamental:2 unity:2 source:2 n:3 l:4 dey:2 geographical:1 medieval:1 nundo:1 lal:1 ramananda:1 chatterjee:1 literary:1 relation:1 racial:1 linguistic:1 chandra:1 chakraberty:1 prācīna:1 kamboja:5 jana:1 aura:1 janapada:1 jiyālāla:1 kāmboja:1 satyavrat:1 śāstrī:1 etc:2 equivalent:1 kambuj:1 appellation:1 one:3 five:2 yuechi:2 migrate:1 hindukush:1 christian:1 era:1 geography:1 cunningham:1 fifth:1 clan:2 among:2 tochari:1 kambojas:1 greco:1 bactrian:2 early:5 lose:2 subordinate:1 greek:2 mid:2 scythian:1 expel:1 kushan:4 conquer:1 emperor:2 kujula:1 kadphises:1 remain:2 territory:1 least:1 hill:5 western:2 region:1 hou:1 hanshu:1 draft:2 annotate:2 translation:2 west:2 weilue:1 魏略:1 yu:1 huan:1 魚豢:1 third:3 chinese:2 account:1 two:3 kushans:2 defeat:2 sassanid:2 replace:3 vassal:1 know:4 kushanshas:1 sassanids:1 kushanshahs:1 king:7 drive:3 chionites:1 kidarites:1 hephthalites:2 coalition:1 turkish:1 army:6 realm:1 fell:3 shahi:7 dynasty:5 survive:2 kapisa:1 shahan:2 barhatkin:1 first:6 shahis:1 punjab:2 deena:1 bandhu:1 pandey:1 publish:4 historical:3 research:1 institute:1 sole:1 distributor:1 oriental:1 publisher:1 original:2 university:10 michigan:2 follow:2 khingala:1 ganesh:1 god:1 robert:3 brown:2 contributor:1 suny:1 press:1 ruler:3 build:5 huge:1 defensive:1 wall:2 protect:1 invader:2 today:1 consider:1 site:2 turk:1 last:4 bhimpal:1 son:4 tirlochanpal:1 death:2 ad:1 bring:2 end:3 muhammad:1 bin:2 qasim:1 general:3 pervez:1 musharraf:1 triumph:1 tribulation:1 scar:1 tragedy:1 current:1 challenge:1 asif:1 haroon:1 illustrate:1 sang:1 meel:1 publication:1 islamic:4 reach:1 day:1 despite:1 heroic:1 resistance:1 hindushahi:1 arabic:1 minority:3 language:3 jonathan:1 owen:1 walter:1 de:2 gruyter:1 isbn:1 however:2 ya:1 qub:1 laith:1 saffar:1 coppersmith:1 turn:2 islam:1 kabulistan:1 come:7 successively:1 control:6 samanids:1 ghaznavids:1 ghorids:1 timurids:1 mughols:1 durranis:1 finally:1 barakzais:1 mongol:2 horde:1 pass:1 take:5 area:4 give:2 markham:1 clements:1 narrative:1 embassy:2 ruy:1 gonzalez:1 clavijo:1 court:1 timour:1 samarcand:1 london:1 hakluyt:1 pp:1 moroccan:1 traveller:1 ibn:1 battuta:1 visit:3 writes:1 nancy:1 hatch:1 dupree:1 american:4 story:2 rise:3 trading:1 center:11 tamerlane:1 marry:1 sister:1 timurid:1 power:4 wan:1 haidar:1 indian:3 poet:1 write:1 dine:1 drink:1 mountain:2 desert:1 else:1 nadir:1 persia:1 invade:3 assassinate:2 nine:2 ahmad:2 afghan:27 military:6 commander:1 personal:1 bodyguard:1 nader:3 throne:2 assert:1 pashtun:2 rule:2 far:2 expand:3 new:10 inherit:1 transfer:1 die:1 succeed:1 zaman:1 claim:1 dost:2 mohammed:2 khan:11 british:6 instal:1 unpopular:1 puppet:1 shuja:1 local:5 uprise:1 result:2 loss:1 mission:1 subsequent:1 massacre:2 elphinstone:1 approximately:5 civilian:2 camp:1 follower:1 retreat:3 jalalabad:2 return:2 plunder:1 bala:3 hissar:3 revenge:1 back:2 aerial:1 view:1 sher:1 ali:1 resident:2 partially:1 destroy:4 amir:1 abdur:1 rahman:2 leave:2 amanullah:2 reform:1 electricity:3 school:8 girl:2 roll:1 royce:1 live:3 famous:2 darul:3 aman:3 palace:3 anglo:1 announce:3 independence:2 foreign:5 intervention:1 eidgah:1 mosque:10 ammanullah:1 uprising:2 brother:2 zahir:2 lasting:1 open:7 class:2 begin:4 grow:2 industrial:3 street:5 pave:2 develop:5 cosmopolitan:1 mood:1 mark:1 spencer:1 store:1 zoo:2 inaugurate:1 help:2 german:1 zoologist:1 religious:1 pul:2 khishti:2 protest:2 union:2 increase:3 influence:1 politics:1 religion:1 arrest:1 organizer:1 mawlana:1 faizani:1 popular:1 july:1 oust:1 bloodless:1 coup:1 republic:1 mohammad:2 daoud:1 president:7 electric:1 trolleybus:2 system:4 provide:8 public:7 transportation:3 assistance:1 czechoslovakia:1 december:5 red:1 occupy:1 command:1 conflict:2 allied:1 government:6 mujahideen:2 close:1 january:1 hand:1 militia:2 collapse:1 najibullah:2 pro:1 communist:1 force:3 divide:2 faction:1 increasingly:2 suffer:1 trolley:1 bus:13 halt:1 continue:2 water:2 completely:1 burhannudin:2 rabbani:2 jamiat:2 islami:3 hold:1 nominal:1 prime:1 minister:3 gulbuddin:2 hekmatyar:1 hezb:1 shell:1 factionalised:1 abdul:3 rashid:2 dostum:2 hezbi:1 wahdat:1 ten:1 thousand:1 kill:1 fled:1 refugee:1 united:2 nation:4 estimate:1 building:2 taliban:2 september:2 steve:1 coll:1 ghost:1 york:1 penguin:1 publicly:1 lynch:1 ex:1 rival:1 group:2 heckmatyar:1 massoud:1 rest:1 flee:1 october:3 abandon:1 following:1 month:3 extensive:1 bombing:1 northern:1 alliance:1 former:1 millias:1 retake:1 transitional:1 administration:3 transform:1 present:2 lead:1 u:3 hamid:2 karzai:3 beginning:1 slowly:1 investment:3 security:6 operation:3 endure:1 freedom:1 nato:2 isaf:2 late:3 currently:2 police:4 anp:1 ana:1 climate:2 semi:1 arid:1 precipitation:1 concentrate:1 winter:4 form:3 snow:1 spring:2 summer:1 run:2 june:1 moderate:2 high:4 low:3 humidity:2 autumn:1 temperature:1 harsh:1 snowy:1 march:2 start:1 wet:1 district:3 province:3 sector:3 cover:1 several:2 neighborhood:1 unlike:1 world:2 independent:1 council:1 prefecture:2 municipality:1 prefect:1 governor:1 appoint:1 ministry:4 interior:3 responsible:2 administrative:1 formal:1 issue:1 entire:1 mayor:2 select:2 engage:1 planning:1 environmental:1 work:1 belong:1 chief:1 enforcement:1 map:2 shahr:2 naw:4 wazir:3 akbar:2 macro:1 ryans:1 khair:2 khana:2 dashti:1 barchi:1 kartey:4 sakhi:1 qalai:1 khushhall:1 afshar:1 klola:1 pushta:1 taimani:1 parwan:1 quarter:1 chehlstoon:2 chendawol:1 kohna:1 deh:1 buri:1 bibi:2 mahroo:2 demographic:1 statistic:2 annual:2 report:2 reflect:1 multi:4 ethnic:2 confessional:1 characteristic:1 official:1 governmental:1 data:1 speaker:1 majority:2 sunnite:2 tajik:1 http:4 ngm:2 nationalgeographic:1 image:1 pdf:2 shi:1 ite:1 hazaras:1 important:1 powerful:1 due:1 heavy:1 representation:1 political:1 spectrum:1 well:5 sizable:2 turkic:1 speaking:1 uzbek:1 turkmen:1 aimak:1 baloch:1 pashai:1 sikh:1 transport:1 terminal:4 international:8 airport:10 serve:3 domestic:1 flight:2 air:6 travel:2 hub:2 ariana:3 airline:3 carrier:1 kam:1 pamir:1 airway:2 safi:3 nearby:2 iran:2 others:4 stop:1 japan:1 three:1 traffic:2 passenger:1 mostly:1 dubai:2 connect:1 corp:1 bagram:1 charge:1 major:2 available:2 millie:1 commuter:1 daily:2 destination:1 gradually:1 upgrade:1 add:2 plan:7 underway:1 reintroduce:1 besides:2 yellow:1 taxicab:1 spot:1 recently:2 discover:1 revenue:1 whole:1 advertising:2 mtn:2 similar:1 wrap:1 transit:1 developed:1 express:2 private:2 vehicle:3 land:2 rover:1 bmw:1 toyota:2 nissan:1 hyundai:1 dealership:1 buy:1 car:2 road:4 improve:3 average:1 corolla:1 exception:1 motorcycle:1 operate:2 lpg:1 gas:1 station:2 mainly:1 fuel:1 bike:1 common:2 sight:1 communication:2 gsm:1 gprs:1 mobile:1 phone:1 wireless:1 etisalat:1 roshan:1 sign:3 dollar:3 agreement:1 zte:1 corporation:1 establishment:1 countrywide:1 fibre:1 optical:1 cable:1 network:1 telephone:1 internet:2 television:2 radio:4 broadcast:1 throughout:3 pajhwok:2 news:2 contract:1 introduce:1 rapidly:1 post:1 package:1 delivery:1 like:1 fedex:1 tnt:1 v:1 dhl:1 pashto:1 dari:1 program:3 intolerant:1 channel:3 un:2 culture:1 threaten:1 ban:1 ayna:1 tv:11 noor:1 noorin:1 tamadun:1 shamshad:1 tolo:1 lemar:1 saba:1 rta:1 education:1 reopen:1 every:1 boy:1 attend:1 amani:1 ghulam:1 haider:1 sultan:1 razia:1 college:2 renovate:1 exist:1 polytechnic:1 academy:1 medical:1 tourism:1 sightsee:1 fill:1 bazaar:1 nestle:1 crooked:1 museum:5 notably:1 display:1 impressive:1 statue:2 surya:1 excavate:1 ruin:1 mausoleum:5 park:11 minar:1 istiqlal:1 column:1 imposing:1 id:2 gah:2 founded:1 fort:1 retaliation:1 envoy:1 restore:1 minaret:1 chakari:1 buddhist:2 swastika:1 mahayana:1 theravada:1 quality:1 inside:1 place:2 interest:2 shop:3 mall:2 flower:1 chicken:1 garden:4 golf:2 club:2 shamshera:2 gallery:2 archive:2 family:2 omar:1 mine:1 cemetery:1 paghman:2 tappe:1 maranjan:1 graeco:1 coin:1 bc:1 find:2 outside:1 proper:1 citadel:1 qargha:3 lake:3 shar:2 airports:1 bāgh:1 bābur:1 bāghi:1 bālā:1 zarnegar:1 bagh:1 zanana:1 chaman:1 hozori:1 haji:1 construction:3 tamim:1 ansar:1 negaristani:1 milli:1 hotel:9 marriott:2 serena:2 intercontinental:2 landmark:3 www:3 lmhotelgroup:2 safihome:1 asp:1 golden:1 star:4 goldenstarkabul:1 heetal:2 plaza:1 reconstruction:1 development:11 licensed:1 bank:9 da:1 standard:1 charter:1 azizi:1 habib:1 small:1 sized:1 indoor:1 top:1 six:1 floor:1 another:2 refurbish:1 billion:2 future:2 urban:3 project:5 light:6 initial:1 concept:1 design:2 envision:1 hisham:1 ashkouri:3 principal:1 arcadd:1 inc:1 implementation:2 privately:1 enterprise:1 propose:1 function:1 commercial:3 historic:3 within:2 side:1 jade:1 meywand:1 avenue:1 revitalize:1 contain:1 numerous:1 shrine:1 viable:1 activity:1 damage:1 incorporate:1 complex:2 memorandum:1 understand:1 excellency:1 ambassador:1 say:1 tayeb:1 jawad:1 washington:1 dc:1 undertake:1 actual:1 next:1 receive:1 letter:1 support:3 downtown:1 bagrami:2 wide:1 complete:1 facility:2 allow:1 business:1 professional:1 management:1 maintenance:1 internal:1 hour:1 perimeter:1 access:1 person:1 phase:2 additional:1 immediately:1 proceed:1 authority:1 host:1 waf:2 child:2 care:1 chance:1 childhood:1 sense:1 hope:1 manage:1 direction:1 ngo:1 glocal:2 forum:2 serf:1 fundraiser:1 planner:1 coordinator:1 launch:1 partnership:1 quincy:1 jones:1 listen:1 foundation:1 mr:1 hani:1 masri:1 agency:1 coca:1 cola:1 bottling:1 plant:2 financing:1 formally:1 attempt:1 attract:1 residential:1 house:2 would:1 remove:1 tree:1 try:1 greener:1 suitable:1 flat:1 surface:1 implement:1 supply:1 solve:1 problem:1 beautification:1 earthquakes:1 list:1 note:1 external:1 format:1 photo:1 caravan:1 sada:1 azadi:1 newspaper:1 guide:1 wikitravel:1 x:1 кабул:1 |@bigram hindu_kush:2 timur_shah:4 shah_durrani:5 britannica_concise:1 concise_encyclopedia:1 rig_veda:1 seleucid_empire:1 mauryan_empire:1 cuneiform_inscription:2 bombay_presidency:1 indo_aryan:1 chandragupta_maurya:1 greco_bactrian:1 bactrian_kingdom:1 indo_scythian:1 kushan_empire:1 hou_hanshu:1 hanshu_draft:1 draft_annotate:2 west_weilue:1 yu_huan:1 sassanid_empire:1 shahi_dynasty:4 suny_press:1 hindu_shahi:2 bin_qasim:1 pervez_musharraf:1 de_gruyter:1 ya_qub:1 london_hakluyt:1 hakluyt_society:1 ibn_battuta:1 nancy_hatch:1 hatch_dupree:1 nadir_shah:1 ahmad_shah:2 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 dost_mohammed:2 shah_shuja:1 sher_ali:1 abdur_rahman:1 amanullah_khan:1 roll_royce:1 anglo_afghan:1 zahir_shah:2 soviet_union:1 bloodless_coup:1 daoud_khan:1 mujahideen_rebel:1 mohammad_najibullah:1 trolley_bus:1 e_islami:3 prime_minister:1 gulbuddin_hekmatyar:1 abdul_rashid:2 rashid_dostum:2 steve_coll:1 shah_massoud:1 hamid_karzai:2 endure_freedom:1 semi_arid:1 akbar_khan:2 multi_confessional:1 nationalgeographic_com:1 shi_ite:1 land_rover:1 toyota_corolla:1 gsm_gprs:1 mobile_phone:1 pajhwok_afghan:2 shop_mall:2 abdul_rahman:1 http_www:3 marriott_hotel:1 billion_dollar:2 memorandum_understand:1 washington_dc:1 quincy_jones:1 coca_cola:1 external_link:1 guide_wikitravel:1 |
3,014 | Haber_process | The Haber process, also called the Haber–Bosch process, is the nitrogen fixation reaction of nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas, over an enriched iron catalyst, to produce ammonia. Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production by Vaclav Smil (2001) ISBN 0-262-19449-X Hager, Thomas (2008). The Alchemy of Air. Harmony Books, New York. ISBN 9780307351784. Fertilizer Industry: Processes, Pollution Control and Energy Conservation by Marshall Sittig (1979) Noyes Data Corp., N.J. ISBN 0-8155-0734-8 "Heterogeneous Catalysts: A study Guide" The Haber process is important because ammonia is difficult to produce on an industrial scale, and the fertilizer generated from the ammonia is responsible for sustaining one-third of the Earth's population. Despite the fact that 78.1% of the air we breathe is nitrogen, the gas is relatively unreactive because nitrogen molecules are held together by strong triple bonds. It was not until the early 20th century that this method was developed to harness the atmospheric abundance of nitrogen to create ammonia, which can then be oxidized to make the nitrates and nitrites essential for the production of nitrate fertilizer and munitions. History Fritz Haber, 1918 Early in the twentieth century several chemists tried and failed to produce ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen. The enormous technical problems associated with the process were first solved by German chemist Fritz Haber (with the invaluable help of Robert Le Rossignol, who developed and built the necessary high-pressure devices). They first demonstrated their success in the summer of 1909, producing ammonia from air drop by drop, at the rate of about a cup every two hours. The process was purchased by the German chemical company BASF, which assigned Carl Bosch the difficult task of scaling up Haber's tabletop machine to industrial-level production. Hager, Thomas (2008). The Alchemy of Air. Harmony Books, New York. ISBN 9780307351784. Haber and Bosch were later awarded Nobel prizes, in 1918 and 1931 respectively, for their work in overcoming the chemical and engineering problems posed by the use of large-scale high-pressure technology. Ammonia was first manufactured using the Haber process on an industrial scale in 1913 in BASF's Oppau plant in Germany. During World War I, production was shifted from fertilizer to explosives, particularly through the conversion of ammonia into a synthetic form of Chile saltpeter, which could then be changed into other substances for the production of gunpowder and high explosives (the Allies had access to large amounts of saltpeter from natural deposits in Chile that belonged almost totally to British industrials; Germany had to produce its own). It has been suggested that without this process, Germany would not have fought in the war , or would have had to surrender years earlier. Prior to the use of natural gas as a hydrogen source, electricity was used to electrolyse water. The Vemork 60 MW hydro electric plant in Norway was constructed purely to produce hydrogen via electrolysis of water as a precursor to ammonia production, and up until the second world war provided the majority of Europe's ammonia. The Process Nowadays, the bulk of the hydrogen required is produced from methane (natural gas) using heterogeneous catalysis, because this requires far less external energy input compared to the electrolysis of water. However, the source of the hydrogen makes no difference to the Haber-Bosch process, which is only concerned with synthesizing ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen. Synthesis gas preparation First, the methane is cleaned, mainly to remove sulfur impurities that would poison the catalysts. The clean methane is then reacted with steam over a catalyst of nickel oxide. This is called steam reforming: CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2 Secondary reforming then takes place with the addition of air to convert the methane that did not react during steam reforming. 2CH4 + O2 → 2CO + 4H2 CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O Then the water gas shift reaction yields more hydrogen from CO and steam. CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 The gas mixture is now passed into a methanator, which converts most of the remaining CO into methane for recycling: CO + 3H2 → CH4 + H2O This last step is necessary as carbon monoxide poisons the catalyst. The overall reaction so far turns methane and steam into carbon dioxide, steam, and hydrogen. Ammonia synthesis - Haber Process The final stage, which is the actual Haber Process, is the synthesis of ammonia using a form of magnetite, iron oxide, as the catalyst: N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g), ΔH = −92.4 kJmol-1 This is done at 15–25 MPa (150–250 bar) and between 300 and 550 °C, passing the gases over four beds of catalyst, with cooling between each pass to maintain a reasonable equilibrium constant. On each pass only about 15% conversion occurs, but any unreacted gases are recycled, so that eventually an overall conversion of 98% can be achieved. The steam reforming, shift conversion, carbon dioxide removal, and methanation steps each operate at absolute pressures of about 2.5–3.5 MPa (25–35 bar), and the ammonia synthesis loop operates at absolute pressures ranging from 6–18 MPa (60–180 bar), depending upon which proprietary design is used. There are many engineering and construction companies that offer proprietary designs for ammonia synthesis plants. Haldor Topsoe of Denmark, Lurgi AG of Germany, Uhde of Germany, Saipem/Snamprogetti of Italy and Kellogg, Brown and Root of the United States are among the most experienced companies in that field. Reaction rate and equilibrium There are two opposing considerations in this synthesis: the position of the equilibrium and the rate of reaction. At room temperature, the reaction is slow and the obvious solution is to raise the temperature. This may increase the rate of the reaction but, since the reaction is exothermic, it also has the effect, according to Le Chatelier's Principle, of favouring the reverse reaction and thus reducing the amount of product, given by: +Variation in Keq for the Equilibrium N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ↔ 2NH3 (g) as a Function of Temperature Chemistry the Central Science" Ninth Ed., by: Brown, Lemay, Bursten, 2003, ISBN 0-13-038168-3 Temperature (°C) Keq 300 4.34 x 10–3 400 1.64 x 10–4 450 4.51 x 10–5 500 1.45 x 10–5 550 5.38 x 10–6 600 2.25 x 10–6 As the temperature increases, the equilibrium is shifted and hence, the amount of product drops dramatically according to the Van't Hoff equation. Thus one might suppose that a low temperature is to be used and some other means to increase rate. However, the catalyst itself requires a temperature of at least 400 °C to be efficient. Pressure is the obvious choice to favour the forward reaction because there are 4 moles of reactant for every 2 moles of product (see entropy), and the pressure used (around 200 atm) alters the equilibrium concentrations to give a profitable yield. Economically, though, pressure is an expensive commodity. Pipes and reaction vessels need to be strengthened, valves more rigorous, and there are safety considerations of working at 200 atm. In addition, running pumps and compressors takes considerable energy. Thus the compromise used gives a single pass yield of around 15%. Another way to increase the yield of the reaction would be to remove the product (i.e. ammonia gas) from the system. In practice, gaseous ammonia is not removed from the reactor itself, since the temperature is too high; but it is removed from the equilibrium mixture of gases leaving the reaction vessel. The hot gases are cooled enough, whilst maintaining a high pressure, for the ammonia to condense and be removed as liquid. Unreacted hydrogen and nitrogen gases are then returned to the reaction vessel to undergo further reaction. Catalysts The catalyst has no effect on the position of chemical equilibrium; rather, it provides an alternative pathway with lower activation energy and hence increases the reaction rate, while remaining chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. The first Haber–Bosch reaction chambers used osmium and uranium as catalysts. However, under Bosch's direction in 1909, the BASF researcher Alwin Mittasch discovered a much less expensive iron-based catalyst that is still used today. In industrial practice, the iron catalyst is prepared by exposing a mass of magnetite, an iron oxide, to the hot hydrogen feedstock. This reduces some of the magnetite to metallic iron, removing oxygen in the process. However, the catalyst maintains most of its bulk volume during the reduction, and so the result is a highly porous material whose large surface area aids its effectiveness as a catalyst. Other minor components of the catalyst include calcium and aluminium oxides, which support the porous iron catalyst and help it maintain its surface area over time, and potassium, which increases the electron density of the catalyst and so improves its activity. The reaction mechanism, involving the heterogeneous catalyst, is believed to be as follows: N2(g) → N2(adsorbed) N2(adsorbed) → 2N(adsorbed) H2(g) → H2(adsorbed) H2(adsorbed) → 2H(adsorbed) N(adsorbed) + 3H(adsorbed)→ NH3(adsorbed) NH3(adsorbed) → NH3(g) Reaction 5 occurs in three steps, forming NH, NH2, and then NH3. Experimental evidence points to reaction 2 as being the slow, rate-determining step. A major contributor to the elucidation of this mechanism is Gerhard Ertl. Economic and environmental aspects The Haber process now produces 100 million tons of nitrogen fertilizer per year, mostly in the form of anhydrous ammonia, ammonium nitrate, and urea. 3-5% of world natural gas production is consumed in the Haber process (~1-2% of the world's annual energy supply) http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp . That fertilizer is responsible for sustaining one-third of the Earth's population, as well as various deleterious environmental consequences. Hager, Thomas (2008). The Alchemy of Air. Harmony Books, New York. ISBN 9780307351784. Generation of hydrogen using electrolysis of water, using renewable energy, is not currently competitive cost-wise with hydrogen from fossil fuels, such as natural gas, and is responsible for 4% of current hydrogen production. Notably, the rise of this industrial process led to the "Nitrate Crisis" in Chile, when the industrials who owned the nitrate mines (most of them British) left the country — since the natural nitrate mines were no longer profitable — closing the mines and leaving a large unemployed Chilean population behind. See also Chemical kinetics Reaction rate Rate equation Timeline of hydrogen technologies References External links What is the Haber-Bosch Process? Haber-Bosch process Britannica guide to Nobel Prizes: Fritz Haber Nobel e-Museum - Biography of Fritz Haber Uses and Production of Ammonia Haber Process for Ammonia Synthesis | Haber_process |@lemmatized haber:20 process:19 also:3 call:2 bosch:9 nitrogen:9 fixation:1 reaction:22 gas:16 hydrogen:14 enriched:1 iron:7 catalyst:18 produce:8 ammonia:21 enrich:1 earth:3 fritz:5 carl:2 transformation:1 world:5 food:1 production:9 vaclav:1 smil:1 isbn:6 x:7 hager:3 thomas:3 alchemy:3 air:6 harmony:3 book:3 new:3 york:3 fertilizer:7 industry:1 pollution:1 control:1 energy:6 conservation:1 marshall:1 sittig:1 noyes:1 data:1 corp:1 n:2 j:1 heterogeneous:3 study:1 guide:2 important:1 difficult:2 industrial:5 scale:4 generate:1 responsible:3 sustain:2 one:3 third:2 population:3 despite:1 fact:1 breathe:1 relatively:1 unreactive:1 molecule:1 hold:1 together:1 strong:1 triple:1 bond:1 early:2 century:2 method:1 develop:2 harness:1 atmospheric:2 abundance:1 create:1 oxidize:1 make:2 nitrate:6 nitrites:1 essential:1 munition:1 history:1 twentieth:1 several:1 chemist:2 try:1 fail:1 enormous:1 technical:1 problem:2 associate:1 first:5 solve:1 german:2 invaluable:1 help:2 robert:1 le:2 rossignol:1 build:1 necessary:2 high:5 pressure:8 device:1 demonstrate:1 success:1 summer:1 drop:3 rate:9 cup:1 every:2 two:2 hour:1 purchase:1 chemical:4 company:3 basf:3 assign:1 task:1 tabletop:1 machine:1 level:1 later:1 award:1 nobel:3 prize:2 respectively:1 work:2 overcome:1 engineering:2 pose:1 use:14 large:4 technology:2 manufacture:1 oppau:1 plant:3 germany:5 war:3 shift:4 explosive:2 particularly:1 conversion:4 synthetic:1 form:4 chile:3 saltpeter:2 could:1 change:1 substance:1 gunpowder:1 ally:1 access:1 amount:3 natural:6 deposit:1 belong:1 almost:1 totally:1 british:2 industrials:2 suggest:1 without:1 would:4 fight:1 surrender:1 year:2 earlier:1 prior:1 source:2 electricity:1 electrolyse:1 water:5 vemork:1 mw:1 hydro:1 electric:1 norway:1 construct:1 purely:1 via:1 electrolysis:3 precursor:1 second:1 provide:2 majority:1 europe:1 nowadays:1 bulk:2 require:3 methane:6 catalysis:1 far:2 less:2 external:2 input:1 compare:1 however:4 difference:1 concerned:1 synthesize:1 synthesis:7 preparation:1 clean:2 mainly:1 remove:6 sulfur:1 impurity:1 poison:2 react:2 steam:7 nickel:1 oxide:4 reforming:3 co:5 secondary:1 reform:1 take:2 place:1 addition:2 convert:2 yield:4 mixture:2 pass:2 methanator:1 remain:2 recycle:2 last:1 step:4 carbon:3 monoxide:1 overall:2 turn:1 dioxide:2 final:1 stage:1 actual:1 magnetite:3 g:9 δh:1 kjmol:1 mpa:3 bar:3 c:3 four:1 bed:1 cool:2 pas:3 maintain:4 reasonable:1 equilibrium:8 constant:1 occur:1 unreacted:2 eventually:1 achieve:1 removal:1 methanation:1 operate:2 absolute:2 loop:1 range:1 depend:1 upon:1 proprietary:2 design:2 many:1 construction:1 offer:1 haldor:1 topsoe:1 denmark:1 lurgi:1 ag:1 uhde:1 saipem:1 snamprogetti:1 italy:1 kellogg:1 brown:2 root:1 united:1 state:1 among:1 experienced:1 field:1 oppose:1 consideration:2 position:2 room:1 temperature:8 slow:2 obvious:2 solution:1 raise:1 may:1 increase:6 since:3 exothermic:1 effect:2 accord:2 chatelier:1 principle:1 favour:2 reverse:1 thus:3 reduce:2 product:4 give:3 variation:1 keq:2 function:1 chemistry:1 central:1 science:1 ninth:1 ed:1 lemay:1 bursten:1 hence:2 dramatically:1 van:1 hoff:1 equation:2 might:1 suppose:1 low:2 mean:1 least:1 efficient:1 choice:1 forward:1 mole:2 reactant:1 see:2 entropy:1 around:2 atm:2 alter:1 concentration:1 profitable:2 economically:1 though:1 expensive:2 commodity:1 pipe:1 vessel:3 need:1 strengthen:1 valves:1 rigorous:1 safety:1 run:1 pump:1 compressor:1 considerable:1 compromise:1 single:1 another:1 way:1 e:2 system:1 practice:2 gaseous:1 reactor:1 leave:3 hot:2 enough:1 whilst:1 condense:1 liquid:1 return:1 undergo:1 catalysts:1 rather:1 alternative:1 pathway:1 activation:1 chemically:1 unchanged:1 end:1 chamber:1 osmium:1 uranium:1 direction:1 researcher:1 alwin:1 mittasch:1 discover:1 much:1 base:1 still:1 today:1 prepare:1 expose:1 mass:1 feedstock:1 metallic:1 oxygen:1 volume:1 reduction:1 result:1 highly:1 porous:2 material:1 whose:1 surface:2 area:2 aid:1 effectiveness:1 minor:1 component:1 include:1 calcium:1 aluminium:1 support:1 time:1 potassium:1 electron:1 density:1 improve:1 activity:1 mechanism:2 involve:1 believe:1 follow:1 adsorb:10 occurs:1 three:1 nh:1 experimental:1 evidence:1 point:1 determine:1 major:1 contributor:1 elucidation:1 gerhard:1 ertl:1 economic:1 environmental:2 aspect:1 million:1 ton:1 per:1 mostly:1 anhydrous:1 ammonium:1 urea:1 consume:1 annual:1 supply:1 http:1 www:1 org:1 ifa:1 statistic:1 indicator:1 asp:1 well:1 various:1 deleterious:1 consequence:1 generation:1 renewable:1 currently:1 competitive:1 cost:1 wise:1 fossil:1 fuel:1 current:1 notably:1 rise:1 lead:1 crisis:1 mine:3 country:1 longer:1 close:1 unemployed:1 chilean:1 behind:1 kinetics:1 timeline:1 reference:1 link:1 britannica:1 museum:1 biography:1 us:1 |@bigram haber_bosch:6 nitrogen_fixation:1 fritz_haber:5 carl_bosch:2 nitrate_fertilizer:1 twentieth_century:1 nobel_prize:2 hydro_electric:1 steam_reforming:3 carbon_monoxide:1 monoxide_poison:1 carbon_dioxide:2 reaction_exothermic:1 le_chatelier:1 chatelier_principle:1 van_hoff:1 aluminium_oxide:1 adsorb_adsorb:7 anhydrous_ammonia:1 ammonia_ammonium:1 ammonium_nitrate:1 http_www:1 renewable_energy:1 fossil_fuel:1 external_link:1 |
3,015 | Elementary_particle | Standard Model of Elementary Particles In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle not known to have substructure; that is, it is not known to be made up of smaller particles. If an elementary particle truly has no substructure, then it is one of the basic building blocks of the universe from which all other particles are made. In the Standard Model, the quarks, leptons, and gauge bosons are elementary particles. Historically, the hadrons (mesons and baryons such as the proton and neutron) and even whole atoms were once regarded as elementary particles. A central feature in elementary particle theory is the early 20th century idea of "quanta", which revolutionised the understanding of electromagnetic radiation and brought about quantum mechanics. For mathematical purposes, elementary particles are normally treated as point particles, although some particle theories such as string theory posit a physical dimension. Overview An overview of the various families of elementary and composite particles, and the theories describing their interactions All elementary particles are either bosons or fermions (depending on their spin). The spin-statistics theorem identifies the resulting quantum statistics that differentiates fermions from bosons. According to this methodology: particles normally associated with matter are fermions, having half-integer spin; they are divided into twelve flavours. Particles associated with fundamental forces are bosons, having integer spin. Fermions: Quarks — up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom Leptons — electron neutrino, electron, muon neutrino, muon, tauon neutrino, tauon Bosons: Gauge bosons — gluon, W and Z bosons, photon Other bosons — Higgs boson, graviton Standard Model The Standard Model of particle physics contains 12 flavors of elementary fermions, plus their corresponding antiparticles, as well as elementary bosons that mediate the forces and the still undiscovered Higgs boson. However, the Standard Model is widely considered to be a provisional theory rather than a truly fundamental one, since it is fundamentally incompatible with Einstein's general relativity. There are likely to be hypothetical elementary particles not described by the Standard Model, such as the graviton, the particle that would carry the gravitational force or the sparticles, supersymmetric partners of the ordinary particles. Fundamental fermions The 12 fundamental fermionic flavours are divided into three generations of four particles each. Six of the particles are quarks. The remaining six are leptons, three of which are neutrinos, and the remaining three of which have an electric charge of −1: the electron and its two cousins, the muon and the tauon. + Particle Generations Leptons First generation Second generation Third generationName Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol electron muon tauon electron neutrino muon neutrino tauon neutrino Quarks First generation Second generation Third generation up quark charm quark top quark down quark strange quark bottom quark Antiparticles There are also 12 fundamental fermionic antiparticles which correspond to these 12 particles. The antielectron (positron) is the electron's antiparticle and has an electric charge of +1 and so on: + Particle Generations Antileptons First generation Second generation Third generationName Symbol Name Symbol Name Symbol antielectron (positron) antimuon antitauon electron antineutrino muon antineutrino tauon antineutrino Antiquarks First generation Second generation Third generation up antiquark charm antiquark top antiquark down antiquark strange antiquark bottom antiquark Quarks Quarks and antiquarks have never been detected to be isolated, a fact explained by confinement. Every quark carries one of three color charges of the strong interaction; antiquarks similarly carry anticolor. Color charged particles interact via gluon exchange in the same way that charged particles interact via photon exchange. However, gluons are themselves color charged, resulting in an amplification of the strong force as color charged particles are separated. Unlike the electromagnetic force which diminishes as charged particles separate, color charged particles feel increasing force. However, color charged particles may combine to form color neutral composite particles called hadrons. A quark may pair up to an antiquark: the quark has a color and the antiquark has the corresponding anticolor. The color and anticolor cancel out, forming a color neutral meson. Alternatively, three quarks can exist together, one quark being "red", another "blue", another "green". These three colored quarks together form a color-neutral baryon. Symmetrically, three antiquarks with the colors "antired", "antiblue" and "antigreen" can form a color-neutral antibaryon. Quarks also carry fractional electric charges, but since they are confined within hadrons whose charges are all integral, fractional charges have never been isolated. Note that quarks have electric charges of either +2/3 or −1/3, whereas antiquarks have corresponding electric charges of either −2/3 or +1/3. Evidence for the existence of quarks comes from deep inelastic scattering: firing electrons at nuclei to determine the distribution of charge within nucleons (which are baryons). If the charge is uniform, the electric field around the proton should be uniform and the electron should scatter elastically. Low-energy electrons do scatter in this way, but above a particular energy, the protons deflect some electrons through large angles. The recoiling electron has much less energy and a jet of particles is emitted. This inelastic scattering suggests that the charge in the proton is not uniform but split among smaller charged particles: quarks. Fundamental bosons In the Standard Model, vector (spin-1) bosons (gluons, photons, and the W and Z bosons) mediate forces, while the Higgs boson (spin-0) is responsible for particles having intrinsic mass. Gluons Gluons are the mediators of the strong interaction and carry both colour and anticolour. Although gluons are massless, they are never observed in detectors due to colour confinement; rather, they produce jets of hadrons, similar to single quarks. The first evidence for gluons came from annihilations of electrons and antielectrons at high energies which sometimes produced three jets — a quark, an antiquark, and a gluon. Electroweak bosons There are three weak gauge bosons: W+, W−, and Z0; these mediate the weak interaction. The massless photon mediates the electromagnetic interaction. Higgs boson Although the weak and electromagnetic forces appear quite different to us at everyday energies, the two forces are theorized to unify as a single electroweak force at high energies. This prediction was clearly confirmed by measurements of cross-sections for high-energy electron-proton scattering at the HERA collider at DESY. The differences at low energies is a consequence of the high masses of the W and Z bosons, which in turn are a consequence of the Higgs mechanism. Through the process of spontaneous symmetry breaking, the Higgs selects a special direction in electroweak space that causes three electroweak particles to become very heavy (the weak bosons) and one to remain massless (the photon). Although the Higgs mechanism has become an accepted part of the Standard Model, the Higgs boson itself has not yet been observed in detectors. Indirect evidence for the Higgs boson suggests its mass lies below 200-250 GeV. Quark experiment predicts heavier Higgs In this case, the LHC experiments may be able to discover this last missing piece of the Standard Model. Beyond the Standard Model Although all experimental evidence confirms the predictions of the Standard Model, many physicists find this model to be unsatisfactory due to its many undetermined parameters, many fundamental particles, the non-observation of the Higgs boson and other more theoretical considerations such as the hierarchy problem. There are many speculative theories beyond the Standard Model which attempt to rectify these deficiencies. Grand unification One extension of the Standard Model attempts to combine the electroweak interaction with the strong interaction into a single 'grand unified theory' (GUT). Such a force would be spontaneously broken into the three forces by a Higgs-like mechanism. The most dramatic prediction of grand unification is the existence of X and Y bosons, which cause proton decay. However, the non-observation of proton decay at Super-Kamiokande rules out the simplest GUTs, including SU(5) and SO(10). Supersymmetry Supersymmetry extends the Standard Model by adding an additional class of symmetries to the Lagrangian. These symmetries exchange fermionic particles with bosonic ones. Such a symmetry predicts the existence of supersymmetric particles, abbreviated as sparticles, which include the sleptons, squarks, neutralinos and charginos. Each particle in the Standard Model would have a superpartner whose spin differs by 1/2 from the ordinary particle. Due to the breaking of supersymmetry, the sparticles are much heavier than their ordinary counterparts; they are so heavy that existing particle colliders would not be powerful enough to produce them. However, some physicists believe that sparticles will be detected when the Large Hadron Collider at CERN begins running. String theory String Theory is a theory of physics where all "particles" that make up matter are composed of strings (measuring at the Planck length) that exist in an 11-dimensional (according to M-theory, the leading version) universe. These strings vibrate at different frequencies which determine mass, electric charge, color charge, and spin. A string can be open (a line) or closed in a loop (a one-dimensional sphere, like a circle). As a string moves through space it sweeps out something called a world sheet. String theory predicts 1- to 10-branes (a 1-brane being a string and a 10-brane being a 10-dimensional object) which prevent tears in the "fabric" of space using the uncertainty principle (e.g. the electron orbiting a hydrogen atom has the probability, albeit small, that it could be anywhere else in the universe at any given moment). String theory posits that our universe is merely a 4-brane, inside which exist the 3 space dimensions and the 1 time dimension that we observe. The remaining 6 theoretical dimensions are either very tiny and curled up (and too small to affect our universe in any way) or simply do not/cannot exist in our universe (because they exist in a grander scheme called the "multiverse" outside our known universe). Some predictions of the string theory include existence of extremely massive counterparts of ordinary particles due to vibrational excitations of the fundamental string and existence of a massless spin-2 particle behaving like the graviton. Preon theory According to preon theory there are one or more orders of particles more fundamental than those (or most of those) found in the Standard Model. The most fundamental of these are normally called preons, which is derived from "pre-quarks". In essence, preon theory tries to do for the Standard Model what the Standard Model did for the particle zoo that came before it. Most models assume that almost everything in the Standard Model can be explained in terms of three to half a dozen more fundamental particles and the rules that govern their interactions. Interest in preons has waned since the simplest models were experimentally ruled out in the 1980s. See also Subatomic particle List of particles Notes References Further reading Feynman, R.P. & Weinberg, S. (1987). Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 Dirac Memorial Lectures, New York: Cambridge University Press. External links Greene, Brian, "Elementary particles". The Elegant Universe, NOVA (PBS) particleadventure.org: The Standard Model Unsolved Mysteries. Beyond The Standard Model What is the World Made of? The Naming of Quarks particleadventure.org: Particle chart University of California: Particle Data Group CERNCourier: Season of Higgs and melodrama Pentaquark information page Interactions.org Particle physics news Symmetry Magazine, a joint Fermilab/SLAC publication Energy relationship between photons and gravitons "Sized Matter: perception of the extreme unseen" — Michigan University project for artistic visualisation of subatomic particles. be-x-old:Элементарная часціца | Elementary_particle |@lemmatized standard:21 model:24 elementary:14 particle:58 physic:5 fundamental:12 know:2 substructure:2 make:3 small:4 truly:2 one:9 basic:1 building:1 block:1 universe:8 quark:26 lepton:4 gauge:3 boson:24 historically:1 hadron:5 meson:2 baryon:3 proton:7 neutron:1 even:1 whole:1 atom:2 regard:1 central:1 feature:1 theory:17 early:1 century:1 idea:1 quantum:3 revolutionise:1 understanding:1 electromagnetic:4 radiation:1 bring:1 mechanic:1 mathematical:1 purpose:1 normally:3 treat:1 point:1 although:5 string:12 posit:2 physical:1 dimension:4 overview:2 various:1 family:1 composite:2 describe:2 interaction:9 either:4 fermion:6 depend:1 spin:9 statistic:2 theorem:1 identifies:1 result:2 differentiate:1 accord:3 methodology:1 associate:2 matter:3 half:2 integer:2 divide:2 twelve:1 flavour:2 force:12 charm:3 strange:3 top:3 bottom:3 electron:15 neutrino:6 muon:6 tauon:6 gluon:9 w:5 z:3 photon:6 higgs:13 graviton:4 contain:1 flavor:1 plus:1 corresponding:2 antiparticle:4 well:1 mediate:4 still:1 undiscovered:1 however:5 widely:1 consider:1 provisional:1 rather:2 since:3 fundamentally:1 incompatible:1 einstein:1 general:1 relativity:1 likely:1 hypothetical:1 would:4 carry:5 gravitational:1 sparticles:4 supersymmetric:2 partner:1 ordinary:4 fermionic:3 three:12 generation:13 four:1 six:2 remain:4 neutrinos:1 electric:7 charge:21 two:2 cousin:1 first:5 second:4 third:4 generationname:2 symbol:6 name:4 also:3 correspond:2 antielectron:3 positron:2 antilepton:1 antimuon:1 antitauon:1 antineutrino:3 antiquark:14 never:3 detect:2 isolate:2 fact:1 explain:2 confinement:2 every:1 color:15 strong:4 similarly:1 anticolor:3 interact:2 via:2 exchange:3 way:3 amplification:1 separate:2 unlike:1 diminish:1 feel:1 increase:1 may:3 combine:2 form:4 neutral:4 call:4 pair:1 cancel:1 alternatively:1 exist:6 together:2 red:1 another:2 blue:1 green:1 symmetrically:1 antired:1 antiblue:1 antigreen:1 antibaryon:1 fractional:2 confine:1 within:2 whose:2 integral:1 note:2 whereas:1 evidence:4 existence:5 come:3 deep:1 inelastic:2 scattering:3 firing:1 nucleus:1 determine:2 distribution:1 nucleon:1 uniform:3 field:1 around:1 scatter:2 elastically:1 low:2 energy:9 particular:1 deflect:1 large:2 angle:1 recoil:1 much:2 less:1 jet:3 emit:1 suggest:2 split:1 among:1 vector:1 responsible:1 intrinsic:1 mass:4 mediator:1 colour:2 anticolour:1 massless:4 observe:3 detector:2 due:4 produce:3 similar:1 single:3 annihilation:1 high:4 sometimes:1 electroweak:5 weak:4 appear:1 quite:1 different:2 u:1 everyday:1 theorize:1 unify:1 prediction:4 clearly:1 confirm:2 measurement:1 cross:1 section:1 hera:1 collider:3 desy:1 difference:1 consequence:2 turn:1 mechanism:3 process:1 spontaneous:1 symmetry:5 breaking:2 select:1 special:1 direction:1 space:4 cause:2 become:2 heavy:3 accepted:1 part:1 yet:1 indirect:1 lie:1 gev:1 experiment:2 predicts:2 heavier:1 case:1 lhc:1 able:1 discover:1 last:1 miss:1 piece:1 beyond:3 experimental:1 many:4 physicist:2 find:2 unsatisfactory:1 undetermined:1 parameter:1 non:2 observation:2 theoretical:2 consideration:1 hierarchy:1 problem:1 speculative:1 attempt:2 rectify:1 deficiency:1 grand:3 unification:2 extension:1 unified:1 gut:2 spontaneously:1 break:1 like:3 dramatic:1 x:2 decay:2 super:1 kamiokande:1 rule:3 simplest:1 include:3 su:1 supersymmetry:3 extend:1 add:1 additional:1 class:1 lagrangian:1 bosonic:1 predict:1 abbreviate:1 sleptons:1 squark:1 neutralinos:1 charginos:1 superpartner:1 differs:1 counterpart:2 powerful:1 enough:1 believe:1 cern:1 begin:1 run:1 compose:1 measure:1 planck:1 length:1 dimensional:3 lead:1 version:1 vibrate:1 frequency:1 open:1 line:1 close:1 loop:1 sphere:1 circle:1 move:1 sweep:1 something:1 world:2 sheet:1 branes:1 brane:3 object:1 prevent:1 tear:1 fabric:1 use:1 uncertainty:1 principle:1 e:1 g:1 orbit:1 hydrogen:1 probability:1 albeit:1 could:1 anywhere:1 else:1 give:1 moment:1 merely:1 inside:1 time:1 tiny:1 curl:1 affect:1 simply:1 cannot:1 grander:1 scheme:1 multiverse:1 outside:1 known:1 extremely:1 massive:1 vibrational:1 excitation:1 behaving:1 preon:3 order:1 preons:2 derive:1 pre:1 essence:1 try:1 zoo:1 assume:1 almost:1 everything:1 term:1 dozen:1 govern:1 interest:1 wan:1 simple:1 experimentally:1 see:1 subatomic:2 list:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 feynman:1 r:1 p:1 weinberg:1 law:1 dirac:1 memorial:1 lecture:1 new:1 york:1 cambridge:1 university:3 press:1 external:1 link:1 greene:1 brian:1 elegant:1 nova:1 pb:1 particleadventure:2 org:3 unsolved:1 mystery:1 made:1 naming:1 quarks:1 chart:1 california:1 data:1 group:1 cerncourier:1 season:1 melodrama:1 pentaquark:1 information:1 page:1 news:1 magazine:1 joint:1 fermilab:1 slac:1 publication:1 relationship:1 size:1 perception:1 extreme:1 unseen:1 michigan:1 project:1 artistic:1 visualisation:1 old:1 элементарная:1 часціца:1 |@bigram elementary_particle:11 quark_lepton:1 gauge_boson:3 proton_neutron:1 electromagnetic_radiation:1 quantum_mechanic:1 boson_fermion:1 fermion_boson:1 muon_neutrino:2 neutrino_muon:2 boson_gluon:2 z_boson:3 boson_photon:1 higgs_boson:7 corresponding_antiparticle:1 quark_quark:2 electron_antineutrino:1 quark_antiquark:2 neutral_meson:1 inelastic_scattering:2 higgs_mechanism:2 spontaneous_symmetry:1 symmetry_breaking:1 electroweak_interaction:1 fermionic_particle:1 supersymmetric_particle:1 particle_collider:1 hadron_collider:1 hydrogen_atom:1 anywhere_else:1 subatomic_particle:2 external_link:1 |
3,016 | Performing_arts | The performing arts are those forms of art which differ from the plastic arts insofar as the former uses the artist's own body, face and presence as a medium, and the latter uses materials such as clay, metal or paint which can be molded or transformed to create some physical art object. The term "performing arts" first appeared in the English language in the year 1711. Types of performing arts Performing arts include the dance, music, opera, drama, and circus arts. Artists who participate in these arts in front of an audience are called performers, including actors, comedians, dancers, musicians, and singers. Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields, such as songwriting and stagecraft. Performers often adapt their appearance, such as with costumes and stage makeup, etc. There is also a specialized form of fine art in which the artists perform their work live to an audience. This is called Performance art. Most performance art also involves some form of plastic art, perhaps in the creation of props. Dance was often referred to as a plastic art during the Modern dance era. Music Music as an academic discipline mainly focuses on two career paths, music performance (focused on the orchestra and the concert hall) and music education (training music teachers). Students learn to play instruments, but also study music theory, musicology, history of music and composition. In the arts tradition, music is also used to broaden skills of non-musicians by teaching skills such as concentration and listening. Drama "Drama" (Greek "to do", 'seeing place') is the branch of the performing arts concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience using combinations of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle — indeed any one or more elements of the other performing arts. In addition to the standard narrative dialogue style of plays, theatre takes such forms as Musicals, opera, ballet, Illusion, mime, classical Indian dance, kabuki, mummers' plays, Improvisational theatre, stand-up comedy, pantomime and Non-conventional or Arthouse theatre. Kudiyattam, an example of performance art. Artist Guru Mani Madhava Chakyar Dance Dance (from Old French dancier, perhaps from Frankish) generally refers to human movement either used as a form of expression or presented in a social, spiritual or performance setting. Dance is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (bee dance, mating dance), motion in inanimate objects (the leaves danced in the wind), and certain musical forms or genres. Choreography is the art of making dances, and the person who does this is called a choreographer. Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic artistic and moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as Folk dance) to codified, virtuoso techniques such as ballet. In sports, gymnastics, figure skating and synchronized swimming are dance disciplines while Martial arts 'kata' are often compared to dances. History of Western performing arts Sophocles, as depicted in the Nordisk familjebok. Starting in the 6th century BC, the Classical period of performing art began in Greece, ushered in by the tragic poets such as Sophocles. These poets wrote plays which, in some cases, incorporated dance (see Euripides). The Hellenistic period began the widespread use of comedy. However, by the 6th century AD, Western performing arts had been largely ended, as the Dark Ages began. Between the 9th century and 14th century, performing art in the West was limited to religious historical enactments and morality plays, organized by the Church in celebration of holy days and other important events. Renaissance In the 15th century performing arts, along with the arts in general, saw a revival as the Renaissance began in Italy and spread throughout Europe plays, some of which incorporated dance were performed and Domenico da Piacenza was credited with the first use of the term ballo (in De Arte Saltandi et Choreas Ducendi) instead of danza (dance) for his baletti or balli which later came to be known as Ballets. The first Ballet per se is considered to be Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx's Ballet Comique de la Reine (1581). commedia dell'arte show, dated 1657. (Louvre) By the mid-16th century commedia dell'arte became popular in Europe, introducing the use of improvisation. This period also introduced the Elizabethan masque, featuring music, dance and elaborate costumes as well as professional theatrical companies in England. William Shakespeare's plays in the late 16th century developed from this new class of professional performance. In 1597, the first opera, Dafne was performed and throughout the 17th century, opera would rapidly become the entertainment of choice for the aristocracy in most of Europe, and eventually for large numbers of people living in cities and towns throughout Europe. Modern era The introduction of the proscenium arch in Italy during the 17th century established the traditional theater form that persists to this day. Meanwhile, in England, the Puritans forbid acting, bringing a halt to performing arts which lasted until 1660. After this period, women began to appear in both French and English plays. The French introduced a formal dance instruction in the late 17th century. It is also during this time that the first plays were performed in the American Colonies. During the 18th century the introduction of the popular opera buffa brought opera to the masses as an accessible form of performance. Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro and Don Giovanni are landmarks of the late 18th century opera. At the turn of the 19th century Beethoven and the Romantic movement ushered in a new era that lead first to the spectacles of grand opera and then to the great musical dramas of Giuseppe Verdi and the Gesamtkunstwerk (total work of art) of the operas of Richard Wagner leading directly to the music of the 20th century. The 19th century was a period of growth for the performing arts for all social classes, the technical introduction of gaslight to theaters in the United States, burlesque (a British import that became popular in the U.S.), minstrel dancing, and variety theater. In ballet, women make great progress in the previously male-dominated art. Isadora Duncan, one of the developers of free dance. Modern dance began in the late 19th century and early 20th century in response to the restrictions of traditional ballet. Konstantin Stanislavski's "System" revolutionized acting in the early 20th century, and continues to have a major influence on actors of stage and screen to the current day. Both impressionism and modern realism were introduced to the stage during this period. With the invention of the motion picture in the late 19th century by Thomas Edison, and the growth of the motion picture industry in Hollywood in the early 20th century, film became a dominant performance medium throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. The Darktown Follies and the later cultural growth of the Harlem Renaissance spanned the 1910s to the early 1940s. Rhythm and blues, a cultural phenomenon of black America became a distinctive genera in the early 20th century. In the 1930s Jean Rosenthal introduced what would be come modern stage lighting, changing the nature of the stage as the Broadway musical became a phenomenon in the United States. George Gershwin and Rodgers & Hammerstein radically re-shaped the medium as the Great depression ended and World War II erupted. Post-War performance Post-World War II performing arts were highlighted by the resurgence of both ballet and opera in Europe and the United States. Portrait of Alvin Ailey. Alvin Ailey's revolutionary American Dance Theater was created in the 1950s, signaling the radical changes that were to come to performing arts in the 1950s and 1960s as new cultural themes bombarded the public consciousness in the United States and abroad. Postmodernism in performing arts dominated the 1960s to large extent. Rock and roll evolved from rhythm and blues during the 1950s, and became the staple musical form of popular entertainment. In 1968, Hair introduced the rock opera. History of Eastern performing arts Middle East The earliest recorded theatrical event dates back to 2000 BC with the passion plays of Ancient Egypt. This story of the god Osiris was performed annually at festivals throughout the civilization, marking the known beginning of a long relationship between theatre and religion. The most popular forms of theater in the medieval Islamic world were puppet theatre (which included hand puppets, shadow plays and marionette productions) and live passion plays known as ta'ziya, where actors re-enact episodes from Muslim history. In particular, Shia Islamic plays revolved around the shaheed (martyrdom) of Ali's sons Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Live secular plays were known as akhraja, recorded in medieval adab literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ta'ziya theater. India Folk theatre and dramatics can be traced to the religious ritualism of the Vedic peoples in the 2nd millenium BC. This folk theatre of the misty past was mixed with dance, food, ritualism, plus a depiction of events from daily life. It was the last element which made it the origin of the classical theatre of later times. Many historians, notably D. D. Kosambi, Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, Adya Rangacharaya, etc. have referred to the prevalence of ritualism amongst Indo-Aryan tribes in which some members of the tribe acted as if they were wild animals and some others were the hunters. Those who acted as mammals like goats, buffaloes, reindeer, monkeys, etc. were chased by those playing the role of hunters. Bharata Muni (fl. 5th–2nd century BC) was an ancient Indian writer best known for writing the Natya Shastra of Bharata, a theoretical treatise on Indian performing arts, including theatre, dance, acting, and music, which has been compared to Aristotle's Poetics. Bharata is often known as the father of Indian theatrical arts. His Natya Shastra seems to be the first attempt to develop the technique or rather art, of drama in a systematic manner. The Natya Shastra tells us not only what is to be portrayed in a drama, but how the portrayal is to be done. Drama, as Bharata Muni says, is the imitation of men and their doings (loka-vritti). As men and their doings have to be respected on the stage, so drama in Sanskrit is also known by the term roopaka which means portrayal. The Ramayana and Mahabharata can be considered the first recognized plays that originated in India. These epics provided the inspiration to the earliest Indian dramatists and they do it even today. Indian dramatists such as Bhasa in the second century BC wrote plays that were heavily inspired by the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Kālidāsa in the first century BC, is arguably considered to be ancient India's greatest dramatist. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are the Mālavikāgnimitram (Mālavikā and Agnimitra), Vikramuurvashiiya (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), and Abhijñānaśākuntala (The Recognition of Shakuntala). The last was inspired by a story in the Mahabharata and is the most famous. It was the first to be translated into English and German. In comparison to Bhasa, who drew heavily from the epics, Kālidāsa can be considered an original playwright. The next great Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti (c. 7th century). He is said to have written the following three plays: Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita. Among these three, the last two cover between them, the entire epic of Ramayana. The powerful Indian emperor Harsha (606-648) is credited with having written three plays: the comedy Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and the Buddhist drama Nagananda. Many other dramatists followed during the Middle Ages. China There are references to theatrical entertainments in China as early as 1500 BC during the Shang Dynasty; they often involved music, clowning and acrobatic displays. The Tang Dynasty is sometimes known as 'The Age of 1000 Entertainments'. During this era, Emperor Xuanzong formed an acting school known as the Children of the Pear Garden to produce a form of drama that was primarily musical. During the Han Dynasty, shadow puppetry first emerged as a recognized form of theatre in China. There were two distinct forms of shadow puppetry, Cantonese southern and Pekingese northern. The two styles were differentiated by the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the rods on the puppets, as opposed to the type of play performed by the puppets. Both styles generally performed plays depicting great adventure and fantasy, rarely was this very stylized form of theatre used for political propaganda. Cantonese shadow puppets were the larger of the two. They were built using thick leather which created more substantial shadows. Symbolic color was also very prevalent; a black face represented honesty, a red one bravery. The rods used to control Cantonese puppets were attached perpendicular to the puppets’ heads. Thus, they were not seen by the audience when the shadow was created. Pekingese puppets were more delicate and smaller. They were created out of thin, translucent leather usually taken from the belly of a donkey. They were painted with vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colorful shadow. The thin rods which controlled their movements were attached to a leather collar at the neck of the puppet. The rods ran parallel to the bodies of the puppet then turned at a ninety degree angle to connect to the neck. While these rods were visible when the shadow was cast, they laid outside the shadow of the puppet; thus they did not interfere with the appearance of the figure. The rods attached at the necks to facilitate the use of multiple heads with one body. When the heads were not being used, they were stored in a muslin book or fabric lined box. The heads were always removed at night. This was in keeping with the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets would come to life at night. Some puppeteers went so far as to store the heads in one book and the bodies in another, to further reduce the possibility of reanimating puppets. Shadow puppetry is said to have reached its highest point of artistic development in the eleventh century before becoming a tool of the government. In the Sung Dynasty, there were many popular plays involving acrobatics and music. These developed in the Yuan Dynasty into a more sophisticated form with a four or five act structure. Yuan drama spread across China and diversified into numerous regional forms, the best known of which is Beijing Opera, which is still popular today. Southeast Asia Theatre in Southeast Asia was mostly influenced by Indian theatre. In Thailand, it has been a tradition from the Middle Ages to stage plays based on plots drawn from Indian epics. In particular, the theatrical version of Thailand's national epic Ramakien, a version of the Indian Ramayana, remains popular in Thailand even today. In Cambodia, at the ancient capital Angkor Wat, stories from the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata have been carved on the walls of temples and palaces. Similar reliefs are found at Borobudur in Indonesia. Japan During the 14th century, there were small companies of actors in Japan who performed short, sometimes vulgar comedies. A director of one of these companies, Kan'ami (1333-1384), had a son, Zeami Motokiyo (1363-1443) who was considered one of the finest child actors in Japan. When Kan'ami's company performed for Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), the Shogun of Japan, he implored Zeami to have a court education for his arts. After Zeami succeeded his father, he continued to perform and adapt his style into what is today Noh. A mixture of pantomime and vocal acrobatics, this style has fascinated the Japanese for hundreds of years. Japan, after a long period of civil wars and political disarray, was unified and at peace primarily due to shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu (1600-1668). However, alarmed at increasing Christian growth, he cut off contact from Japan to Europe and China and outlawed Christianity. When peace did come, a flourish of cultural influence and growing merchant class demanded its own entertainment. The first form of theatre to flourish was Ningyō jōruri (commonly referred to as Bunraku). The founder of and main contributor to Ningyō jōruri, Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1725), turned his form of theatre into a true art form. Ningyō jōruri is a highly stylized form of theatre using puppets, today about 1/3d the size of a human. The men who control the puppets train their entire lives to become master puppeteers, when they can then operate the puppet's head and right arm and choose to show their faces during the performance. The other puppeteers, controlling the less important limbs of the puppet, cover themselves and their faces in a black suit, to imply their invisibility. The dialogue is handled by a single person, who uses varied tones of voice and speaking manners to simulate different characters. Chikamatsu wrote thousands of plays during his lifetime, most of which are still used today. Kabuki began shortly after Bunraku, legend has it by an actress named Okuni, who lived around the end of the sixteenth century. Most of Kabuki's material came from Nõ and Bunraku, and its erratic dance-type movements are also an effect of Bunraku. However, Kabuki is less formal and more distant than Nõ, yet very popular among the Japanese public. Actors are trained in many varied things including dancing, singing, pantomime, and even acrobatics. Kabuki was first performed by young girls, then by young boys, and by the end of the sixteenth century, Kabuki companies consisted of all men. The men who portrayed women on stage were specifically trained to elicit the essence of a woman in their subtle movements and gestures. See also Arts List of basic performing arts topics The Apogee Foundation Blossom Theatre, West Bengal, India Fine art Performance art Performing arts presenters Performing arts education Ratan Thiyam United States copyright law in the performing arts References | Performing_arts |@lemmatized performing:7 art:46 form:21 differ:1 plastic:3 insofar:1 former:1 use:16 artist:4 body:5 face:4 presence:1 medium:3 latter:1 us:1 material:2 clay:1 metal:1 paint:3 mold:1 transform:1 create:5 physical:1 object:2 term:3 perform:27 first:13 appear:2 english:3 language:2 year:2 type:3 include:5 dance:27 music:15 opera:12 drama:11 circus:1 participate:1 front:2 audience:4 call:3 performer:2 actor:6 comedian:1 dancer:1 musician:2 singer:1 also:12 support:1 worker:1 related:1 field:1 songwriting:1 stagecraft:1 often:5 adapt:2 appearance:2 costume:2 stage:8 makeup:1 etc:3 specialized:1 fine:3 work:2 live:5 performance:11 involve:3 perhaps:2 creation:1 prop:1 refer:4 modern:5 era:4 academic:1 discipline:2 mainly:1 focus:2 two:5 career:1 path:1 orchestra:1 concert:1 hall:1 education:3 train:4 teacher:1 student:1 learn:1 play:25 instrument:1 study:1 theory:1 musicology:1 history:4 composition:1 tradition:2 broaden:1 skill:2 non:3 teach:1 concentration:1 listening:1 greek:1 see:5 place:1 branch:1 concern:1 act:7 story:4 combination:1 speech:1 gesture:2 sound:1 spectacle:2 indeed:1 one:7 element:2 addition:1 standard:1 narrative:1 dialogue:2 style:5 theatre:17 take:2 musical:6 ballet:8 illusion:1 mime:1 classical:3 indian:12 kabuki:6 mummer:1 improvisational:1 stand:1 comedy:4 pantomime:3 conventional:1 arthouse:1 kudiyattam:1 example:1 guru:1 mani:1 madhava:2 chakyar:1 old:2 french:3 dancier:1 frankish:1 generally:2 human:3 movement:6 either:1 expression:1 present:1 social:3 spiritual:1 setting:1 describe:1 method:2 verbal:1 communication:1 animal:2 bee:1 mat:1 motion:3 inanimate:1 leaf:1 wind:1 certain:1 genre:1 choreography:1 make:4 person:2 choreographer:1 definition:1 constitute:1 dependent:1 cultural:5 aesthetic:1 artistic:2 moral:1 constraint:1 range:1 functional:1 folk:3 codify:1 virtuoso:1 technique:2 sport:1 gymnastics:1 figure:2 skating:1 synchronized:1 swimming:1 martial:1 kata:1 compare:2 western:2 sophocles:2 depict:2 nordisk:1 familjebok:1 start:1 century:30 bc:7 period:7 begin:7 greece:1 usher:2 tragic:1 poet:2 write:7 case:1 incorporate:1 euripides:1 hellenistic:1 widespread:1 however:3 ad:1 largely:1 end:4 dark:1 age:4 west:2 limit:1 religious:2 historical:1 enactment:1 morality:1 organize:1 church:1 celebration:1 holy:1 day:3 important:2 event:3 renaissance:3 along:1 general:1 saw:1 revival:1 italy:2 spread:2 throughout:5 europe:6 incorporated:1 domenico:1 da:1 piacenza:1 credit:2 ballo:1 de:3 arte:3 saltandi:1 et:1 chorea:1 ducendi:1 instead:1 danza:1 baletti:1 balli:1 later:1 come:6 know:8 per:1 se:1 consider:5 balthasar:1 beaujoyeulx:1 comique:1 la:1 reine:1 commedia:2 dell:2 show:2 dated:1 louvre:1 mid:1 become:9 popular:9 introduce:6 improvisation:1 elizabethan:1 masque:1 feature:1 elaborate:1 well:1 professional:2 theatrical:5 company:5 england:2 william:1 shakespeare:1 late:7 develop:3 new:3 class:3 dafne:1 would:3 rapidly:1 entertainment:5 choice:1 aristocracy:1 eventually:1 large:3 number:1 people:2 city:1 town:1 introduction:3 proscenium:1 arch:1 establish:1 traditional:2 theater:6 persist:1 meanwhile:1 puritan:1 forbid:1 bring:2 halt:1 last:4 woman:4 formal:2 instruction:1 time:2 american:2 colony:1 buffa:1 mass:1 accessible:1 mozart:1 marriage:1 figaro:1 giovanni:1 landmark:1 turn:3 beethoven:1 romantic:2 lead:2 grand:1 great:6 giuseppe:1 verdi:1 gesamtkunstwerk:1 total:1 richard:1 wagner:1 directly:1 growth:4 technical:1 gaslight:1 united:5 state:5 burlesque:1 british:1 import:1 u:2 minstrel:1 dancing:2 variety:1 progress:1 previously:1 male:1 dominated:1 isadora:1 duncan:1 developer:1 free:1 early:8 response:1 restriction:1 konstantin:1 stanislavski:1 system:1 revolutionize:1 continue:2 major:1 influence:3 screen:1 current:1 impressionism:1 realism:1 invention:1 picture:2 thomas:1 edison:1 industry:1 hollywood:1 film:1 dominant:1 darktown:1 folly:1 harlem:1 span:1 rhythm:2 blue:2 phenomenon:2 black:3 america:1 distinctive:1 genus:1 jean:1 rosenthal:1 lighting:1 change:2 nature:1 broadway:1 george:1 gershwin:1 rodgers:1 hammerstein:1 radically:1 shape:1 depression:1 world:3 war:4 ii:2 erupt:1 post:2 highlight:1 resurgence:1 portrait:1 alvin:2 ailey:2 revolutionary:1 signal:1 radical:1 theme:1 bombard:1 public:2 consciousness:1 abroad:1 postmodernism:1 dominate:1 extent:1 rock:2 roll:1 evolve:1 staple:1 hair:1 eastern:1 middle:3 east:1 recorded:1 date:1 back:1 passion:2 ancient:4 egypt:1 god:1 osiris:1 annually:1 festival:1 civilization:1 mark:1 known:2 beginning:1 long:2 relationship:1 religion:1 medieval:2 islamic:2 puppet:18 hand:1 shadow:10 marionette:1 production:1 ta:2 ziya:2 enact:1 episode:1 muslim:1 particular:2 shia:1 revolve:1 around:2 shaheed:1 martyrdom:1 ali:3 son:2 hasan:1 ibn:2 husayn:1 secular:1 akhraja:1 record:1 adab:1 literature:1 though:1 less:3 common:1 puppetry:4 india:4 dramatics:1 trace:1 ritualism:3 vedic:1 millenium:1 misty:1 past:1 mixed:1 food:1 plus:1 depiction:1 daily:1 life:3 origin:1 many:4 historian:1 notably:1 kosambi:1 debiprasad:1 chattopadhyaya:1 adya:1 rangacharaya:1 prevalence:1 amongst:1 indo:1 aryan:1 tribe:2 member:1 wild:1 others:1 hunter:2 mammal:1 like:1 goat:1 buffalo:1 reindeer:1 monkey:1 chase:1 role:1 bharata:4 muni:2 fl:1 writer:1 best:2 natya:3 shastra:3 theoretical:1 treatise:1 aristotle:1 poetics:1 father:2 seem:1 attempt:1 rather:1 systematic:1 manner:2 tell:1 portray:2 portrayal:2 say:3 imitation:1 men:5 doings:2 loka:1 vritti:1 respect:1 sanskrit:1 roopaka:1 mean:1 ramayana:5 mahabharata:4 recognize:2 originate:1 epic:6 provide:1 inspiration:1 dramatist:5 even:3 today:6 bhasa:2 second:1 heavily:2 inspire:2 kālidāsa:3 arguably:1 three:4 famous:2 mālavikāgnimitram:1 mālavikā:1 agnimitra:1 vikramuurvashiiya:1 pertain:1 vikrama:1 urvashi:1 abhijñānaśākuntala:1 recognition:1 shakuntala:1 translate:1 german:1 comparison:1 draw:2 original:1 playwright:1 next:1 bhavabhuti:1 c:1 following:1 malati:1 mahaviracharita:1 uttar:1 ramacharita:1 among:2 cover:2 entire:2 powerful:1 emperor:2 harsha:1 ratnavali:1 priyadarsika:1 buddhist:1 nagananda:1 follow:1 china:5 reference:2 shang:1 dynasty:5 clown:1 acrobatic:1 display:1 tang:1 sometimes:2 xuanzong:1 acting:1 school:1 child:2 pear:1 garden:1 produce:1 primarily:2 han:1 emerge:1 distinct:1 cantonese:3 southern:1 pekingese:2 northern:1 differentiate:1 positioning:1 rod:6 oppose:1 adventure:1 fantasy:1 rarely:1 stylized:2 political:2 propaganda:1 build:1 thick:1 leather:3 substantial:1 symbolic:1 color:1 prevalent:1 represent:1 honesty:1 red:1 bravery:1 control:4 attach:3 perpendicular:1 head:6 thus:3 delicate:1 small:2 thin:2 translucent:1 usually:1 belly:1 donkey:1 vibrant:1 cast:2 colorful:1 collar:1 neck:3 run:1 parallel:1 ninety:1 degree:1 angle:1 connect:1 visible:1 lay:1 outside:1 interfere:1 facilitate:1 multiple:1 store:2 muslin:1 book:2 fabric:1 line:1 box:1 always:1 remove:1 night:2 keep:1 superstition:1 leave:1 intact:1 puppeteer:3 go:1 far:2 another:1 reduce:1 possibility:1 reanimate:1 reach:1 high:1 point:1 development:1 eleventh:1 tool:1 government:1 sung:1 acrobatics:3 yuan:2 sophisticated:1 four:1 five:1 structure:1 across:1 diversify:1 numerous:1 regional:1 beijing:1 still:2 southeast:2 asia:2 mostly:1 thailand:3 base:1 plot:1 version:2 national:1 ramakien:1 remain:1 cambodia:1 capital:1 angkor:1 wat:1 carve:1 wall:1 temple:1 palace:1 similar:1 relief:1 find:1 borobudur:1 indonesia:1 japan:6 short:1 vulgar:1 director:1 kan:2 ami:2 zeami:3 motokiyo:1 ashikaga:1 yoshimitsu:1 shogun:2 implore:1 court:1 succeed:1 noh:1 mixture:1 vocal:1 fascinate:1 japanese:2 hundred:1 civil:1 disarray:1 unify:1 peace:2 due:1 tokugawa:1 ieyasu:1 alarm:1 increase:1 christian:1 cut:1 contact:1 outlaw:1 christianity:1 flourish:2 grow:1 merchant:1 demand:1 ningyō:3 jōruri:3 commonly:1 bunraku:4 founder:1 main:1 contributor:1 chikamatsu:2 monzaemon:1 true:1 highly:1 size:1 master:1 operate:1 right:1 arm:1 choose:1 limb:1 suit:1 imply:1 invisibility:1 handle:1 single:1 varied:2 tone:1 voice:1 speak:1 simulate:1 different:1 character:1 thousand:1 lifetime:1 shortly:1 legend:1 actress:1 name:1 okuni:1 sixteenth:2 nõ:2 erratic:1 effect:1 distant:1 yet:1 thing:1 singing:1 young:2 girl:1 boy:1 consist:1 specifically:1 elicit:1 essence:1 subtle:1 arts:1 list:1 basic:1 topics:1 apogee:1 foundation:1 blossom:1 bengal:1 presenter:1 ratan:1 thiyam:1 copyright:1 law:1 |@bigram performing_art:7 actor_comedian:1 improvisational_theatre:1 inanimate_object:1 figure_skating:1 martial_art:1 nordisk_familjebok:1 per_se:1 la_reine:1 commedia_dell:2 dell_arte:2 marriage_figaro:1 giuseppe_verdi:1 richard_wagner:1 isadora_duncan:1 motion_picture:2 thomas_edison:1 harlem_renaissance:1 george_gershwin:1 rodgers_hammerstein:1 revolve_around:1 hasan_ibn:1 husayn_ibn:1 millenium_bc:1 indo_aryan:1 aristotle_poetics:1 ramayana_mahabharata:3 epic_ramayana:2 shang_dynasty:1 tang_dynasty:1 han_dynasty:1 yuan_dynasty:1 southeast_asia:2 angkor_wat:1 |
3,017 | Ada_(programming_language) | Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages. It was originally designed by a team led by Jean Ichbiah of CII Honeywell Bull under contract to the United States Department of Defense (DoD) from 1977 to 1983 to supersede the hundreds of programming languages then used by the DoD. Ada is strongly typed and compilers are validated for reliability in mission-critical applications, such as avionics software. Ada is an international standard; the current version (known as Ada 2005) is defined by joint ISO/ANSI standard (ISO-8652:1995), combined with major Amendment ISO/IEC 8652:1995/Amd 1:2007. Ada was named after Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), who is often credited as being the first computer programmer. J. Fuegi and J. Francis, "Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes'." Annals of the History of Computing 25 #4 (October-December 2003): 16-26. Digital Object Identifier Features Ada was originally targeted at embedded and real-time systems. The Ada 95 revision, designed by S. Tucker Taft of Intermetrics between 1992 and 1995, improved support for systems, numerical, financial, and object-oriented programming (OOP). Notable features of Ada include: strong typing, modularity mechanisms (packages), run-time checking, parallel processing (tasks), exception handling, and generics. Ada 95 added support for object-oriented programming, including dynamic dispatch. Ada supports run-time checks in order to protect against access to unallocated memory, buffer overflow errors, off-by-one errors, array access errors, and other detectable bugs. These checks can be disabled in the interest of runtime efficiency, but can often be compiled efficiently. It also includes facilities to help program verification. For these reasons, Ada is widely used in critical systems, where any anomaly might lead to very serious consequences, i.e., accidental death or injury. Examples of systems where Ada is used include avionics, weapon systems (including thermonuclear weapons), and spacecraft. Ada also supports a large number of compile-time checks to help avoid bugs that would not be detectable until run-time in some other languages or would require explicit checks to be added to the source code. Ada is designed to detect small problems in very large software systems. For example, Ada detects each misspelled variable (due to the rule to declare each variable name), and Ada pinpoints unclosed if-statements, which require "END IF" rather than mismatching with any "END" token. Also, Ada can spot procedure calls with incorrect parameters, which is a common problem in large, complex software where most of the statements are procedure calls. Ada's dynamic memory management is high-level and type-explicit, requiring explicit instantiation of the Unchecked_Deallocation package to explicitly free allocated memory. The specification does not require any particular implementation. Though the semantics of the language allow automatic garbage collection of inaccessible objects, most implementations do not support it. Ada does support a limited form of region-based storage management. Invalid accesses can always be detected at run time (unless of course the check is turned off) and sometimes at compile time. The syntax of Ada is simple, consistent and readable. It minimizes choices of ways to perform basic operations, and prefers English keywords (eg "OR") to symbols (eg. "||"). Ada uses the basic mathematical symbols (i.e.: "+", "-", "*" and "/") for basic mathematical operations but avoids using other symbols. Code blocks are delimited by words such as "declare", "begin" and "end". Conditional statements are closed with "end if", avoiding a dangling else that could pair with the wrong nested if-expression in other languages. Ada was designed to use the English language standard for comments: the em-dash, as a double-dash ("--") to denote comment text. Comments stop at end of line, so there is no danger of unclosed comments accidentally eating whole sections of source code. Comments can be nested: prefixing each line (or column) with "--" will skip all that code, while being clearly denoted as a column of repeated "--" down the page. There is no limit to the nesting of comments, thereby allowing prior code, with commented-out sections, to be commented-out as even larger sections. All Unicode characters are allowed in comments, such as for symbolic formulas (E[0]=m×c²). To the compiler, the double-dash is treated as end-of-line, allowing continued parsing of the language as a context-free grammar. The semicolon (";") is a statement terminator, and the null or no-operation statement is null;. A single ; without a statement to terminate is not allowed. This allows for a better quality of error messages. Code for complex systems is typically maintained for many years, by programmers other than the original author. It can be argued that these language design principles apply to most software projects, and most phases of software development, but when applied to complex, safety critical projects, benefits in correctness, reliability, and maintainability take precedence over (arguable) costs in initial development. Unlike most ISO standards, the Ada language definition (known as the Ada Reference Manual or ARM, or sometimes the Language Reference Manual or LRM) is free content. Thus, it is a common reference for Ada programmers and not just programmers implementing Ada compilers. Apart from the reference manual, there is also an extensive rationale document which explains the language design and the use of various language constructs. This document is also widely used by programmers. When the language was revised, a new rationale document was written. One notable Free Software tool that is used by many Ada programmers to aid them in writing Ada source code is GPS, the GNAT Programming Studio. History In the 1970s, the US Department of Defense (DoD) was concerned by the number of different programming languages being used for its embedded computer system projects, many of which were obsolete or hardware-dependent, and none of which supported safe modular programming. In 1975, the High Order Language Working Group (HOLWG) was formed with the intent to reduce this number by finding or creating a programming language generally suitable for the department's requirements. The result was Ada. The total number of high-level programming languages in use for such projects fell from over 450 in 1983 to 37 by 1996. The working group created a series of language requirements documents—the Strawman, Woodenman, Tinman, Ironman and Steelman documents. Many existing languages were formally reviewed, but the team concluded in 1977 that no existing language met the specifications. Requests for proposals for a new programming language were issued and four contractors were hired to develop their proposals under the names of Red (Intermetrics led by Benjamin Brosgol), Green (CII Honeywell Bull, led by Jean Ichbiah), Blue (SofTech, led by John Goodenough), and Yellow (SRI International, led by Jay Spitzen). In April 1978, after public scrutiny, the Red and Green proposals passed to the next phase. In May 1979, the Green proposal, designed by Jean Ichbiah at CII Honeywell Bull, was chosen and given the name Ada—after Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace. This proposal was influenced by the programming language LIS that Ichbiah and his group had developed in the 1970s. The preliminary Ada reference manual was published in ACM SIGPLAN Notices in June 1979. The Military Standard reference manual was approved on December 10, 1980 (Ada Lovelace's birthday), and given the number MIL-STD-1815 in honor of Ada Lovelace's birth year. In 1981, C. A. R. Hoare took advantage of his Turing Award speech to criticize Ada for being overly complex and hence unreliable C.A.R. Hoare, "The Emperor's Old Clothes." Communications of the ACM, 1981. , but subsequently seemed to recant in the foreword he wrote for an Ada textbook D.A. Watt, B.A. Wichmann and W. Findlay, "Ada: Language and Methodology." Prentice-Hall, 1987. . caption|Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace. In 1987, the US Department of Defense began to require the use of Ada (the Ada mandate) for every software project where new code was more than 30% of result, though exceptions to this rule were often granted. This requirement was effectively removed in 1997, as the DoD began to embrace COTS (commercial off-the-shelf) technology. Similar requirements existed in other NATO countries. Because Ada is a strongly typed language, it has been used outside the military in commercial aviation projects, where a software bug can cause fatalities. The fly-by-wire system software in the Boeing 777 was written in Ada. The Canadian Automated Air Traffic System was written in 1 million lines of Ada (SLOC count). It featured advanced (for the time) distributed processing, a distributed Ada database, and object-oriented design. Standardization The language became an ANSI standard in 1983 (ANSI/MIL-STD 1815A), and without any further changes became an ISO standard in 1987 (ISO-8652:1987). This version of the language is commonly known as Ada 83, from the date of its adoption by ANSI, but is sometimes referred to also as Ada 87, from the date of its adoption by ISO. Ada 95, the joint ISO/ANSI standard (ISO-8652:1995) is the latest standard for Ada. It was published in February 1995, making Ada 95 the first ISO standard object-oriented programming language. To help with the standard revision and future acceptance, the US Air Force funded the development of the GNAT Compiler. Presently, the GNAT Compiler is part of the GNU Compiler Collection. Work has continued on improving and updating the technical content of the Ada programming language. A Technical Corrigendum to Ada 95 was published in October 2001, and a major Amendment, ISO/IEC 8652:1995/Amd 1:2007, was published on March 9, 2007. Other related standards include ISO 8651-3:1988 Information processing systems—Computer graphics—Graphical Kernel System (GKS) language bindings—Part 3: Ada "Hello, world!" in Ada A common example of a language's syntax is the Hello world program: with Ada.Text_IO; procedure Hello is begin Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line("Hello, world!"); end Hello; Ada also provides alternative constructions that are more streamlined. See also APSE List of programming languages SPARK (programming language) VHDL PL/SQL JOVIAL Ravenscar profile Comparison of programming languages AuroraUX an OpenSolaris OS with Ada userland Notes References International Standards ISO/IEC 8652: Information technology—Programming languages—Ada ISO/IEC 15291: Information technology—Programming languages—Ada Semantic Interface Specification (ASIS) ISO/IEC 18009: Information technology—Programming languages—Ada: Conformity assessment of a language processor (ACATS) IEEE Standard 1003.5b-1996, the POSIX Ada binding Ada Language Mapping Specification, the CORBA IDL to Ada mapping Rationale (These documents have been published in various forms including print.) Jean D. Ichbiah, John G. P. Barnes, Robert J. Firth and Mike Woodger, Rationale for the Design of the Ada® Programming Language, 1986. John G. P. Barnes, Ada 95 rationale : the language : the standard libraries, 1995. John Barnes, Rationale for Ada 2005, 2005, 2006. Books Jan Skansholm: Ada 95 From the Beginning, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-40376-5 Geoff Gilpin: Ada: A Guided Tour and Tutorial, Prentice hall, ISBN 978-0-13-004045-9 John Barnes: Programming in Ada 2005, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-321-34078-7 John Barnes: Programming in Ada plus Language Reference Manual, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-56539-0 John Barnes: Programming in Ada 95, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-34293-6 John Barnes: High Integrity Ada: The SPARK Approach, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-17517-7 John Barnes: High Integrity Software: The SPARK Approach to Safety and Security, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-321-13616-0 John Beidler: Data Structures and Algorithms: An Object-Oriented Approach Using Ada 95, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-94834-1 Dean W. Gonzalez: Ada Programmer's Handbook, Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0-8053-2529-8 M. Ben-Ari: Ada for Software Engineers, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-97912-0 Norman Cohen: Ada as a Second Language, McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, ISBN 0-07-011607-5 Alan Burns, Andy Wellings: Real-Time Systems and Programming Languages. Ada 95, Real-Time Java and Real-Time POSIX., Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-72988-1 Alan Burns, Andy Wellings: Concurrency in Ada, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62911-X Colin Atkinson: Object-Oriented Reuse, Concurrency and Distribution: An Ada-Based Approach, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-56527-7 Grady Booch, Doug Bryan: Software Engineering with Ada, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-8053-0608-0 Daniel Stubbs, Neil W. Webre: Data Structures with Abstract Data Types and Ada, Brooks Cole, ISBN 0-534-14448-9 Pascal Ledru: Distributed Programming in Ada with Protected Objects, Dissertation.com, ISBN 1-58112-034-6 Fintan Culwin: Ada, a Developmental Approach, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-264680-3 John English, Fintan Culwin: Ada 95 the Craft of Object Oriented Programming, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-230350-7 David A. Wheeler: Ada 95, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-94801-5 David R. Musser, Alexander Stepanov: The Ada Generic Library: Linear List Processing Packages, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-97133-5 Michael B. Feldman: Software Construction and Data Structures with Ada 95, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-88795-9 Simon Johnston: Ada 95 for C and C++ Programmers, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-40363-3 Michael B. Feldman, Elliot B. Koffman: Ada 95, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-36123-X Nell Dale, Chip Weems, John McCormick: Programming and Problem Solving with Ada 95, Jones & Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0-7637-0293-5 Nell Dale, John McCormick: Ada Plus Data Structures: An Object-Oriented Approach, 2nd edition, Jones & Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0-7637-3794-1 Bruce C. Krell: Developing With Ada: Life-Cycle Methods, Bantam Dell Pub Group, ISBN 0-553-09102-6 Judy Bishop: Distributed Ada: Developments and Experiences, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39251-9 Bo Sanden: Software Systems Construction With Examples in Ada, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-030834-X Bruce Hillam: Introduction to Abstract Data Types Using Ada, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-045949-6 David Rudd: Introduction to Software Design and Development With Ada, Brooks Cole, ISBN 0-314-02829-3 Ian C. Pyle: Developing Safety Systems: A Guide Using Ada, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-204298-3 Louis Baker: Artificial Intelligence With Ada, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-003350-1 Alan Burns, Andy Wellings: HRT-HOOD: A Structured Design Method for Hard Real-Time Ada Systems, North-Holland, ISBN 0-444-82164-3 Walter Savitch, Charles Peterson: Ada: An Introduction to the Art and Science of Programming, Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0-8053-7070-6 Mark Allen Weiss: Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in Ada, Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0-8053-9055-3 Henry Ledgard: ADA: AN INTRODUCTION (Second Edition), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-90814-5 Dines Bjørner; Ole N. Oest (eds.): Towards a Formal Description of Ada, London: Springer-Verlag, 1980. ISBN 3-540-10283-3 Archives Ada Programming Language Materials, 1981-1990. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. External links ACM SIGAda Ada-Europe Organization ISO Home of Ada Standards Interview with S.Tucker Taft, Maintainer of Ada | Ada_(programming_language) |@lemmatized ada:108 structured:2 statically:1 type:5 imperative:1 object:12 orient:9 high:6 level:3 computer:4 program:8 language:45 extend:1 pascal:2 originally:2 design:11 team:2 lead:6 jean:4 ichbiah:5 cii:3 honeywell:3 bull:3 contract:1 united:1 state:1 department:4 defense:3 dod:4 supersede:1 hundred:1 use:16 strongly:2 compiler:6 validate:1 reliability:2 mission:1 critical:3 application:1 avionics:2 software:15 international:3 standard:16 current:1 version:2 know:3 define:1 joint:2 iso:16 ansi:5 combine:1 major:2 amendment:2 iec:5 amd:2 name:4 lovelace:6 often:3 credit:1 first:2 programmer:8 j:3 fuegi:1 francis:1 babbage:2 creation:1 note:2 annals:1 history:2 compute:1 october:2 december:2 digital:1 identifier:1 feature:3 target:1 embedded:1 real:5 time:12 system:16 revision:2 tucker:2 taft:2 intermetrics:2 improve:2 support:7 numerical:1 financial:1 programming:23 oop:1 notable:2 include:7 strong:1 typing:1 modularity:1 mechanism:1 package:3 run:4 checking:1 parallel:1 processing:3 tasks:1 exception:2 handling:1 generic:2 added:1 dynamic:2 dispatch:1 check:5 order:2 protect:1 access:3 unallocated:1 memory:3 buffer:1 overflow:1 error:4 one:2 array:1 detectable:2 bug:3 disable:1 interest:1 runtime:1 efficiency:1 compile:3 efficiently:1 also:8 facility:1 help:3 verification:1 reason:1 widely:2 anomaly:1 might:1 serious:1 consequence:1 e:3 accidental:1 death:1 injury:1 example:4 weapon:2 thermonuclear:1 spacecraft:1 large:4 number:5 avoid:2 would:2 require:5 explicit:3 add:1 source:3 code:8 detect:2 small:1 problem:3 detects:1 misspell:1 variable:2 due:1 rule:2 declare:2 pinpoint:1 unclosed:2 statement:6 end:7 rather:1 mismatch:1 token:1 spot:1 procedure:3 call:2 incorrect:1 parameter:1 common:3 complex:4 management:2 instantiation:1 explicitly:1 free:4 allocate:1 specification:4 particular:1 implementation:2 though:2 semantics:1 allow:6 automatic:1 garbage:1 collection:2 inaccessible:1 limited:1 form:3 region:1 base:2 storage:1 invalid:1 always:1 unless:1 course:1 turn:1 sometimes:3 syntax:2 simple:1 consistent:1 readable:1 minimize:1 choice:1 way:1 perform:1 basic:3 operation:3 prefers:1 english:3 keywords:1 eg:2 symbols:1 mathematical:2 symbol:2 avoids:1 block:1 delimit:1 word:1 begin:4 conditional:1 close:1 dangling:1 else:1 could:1 pair:1 wrong:1 nested:1 expression:1 comment:9 em:1 dash:3 double:2 denote:2 text:1 stop:1 line:4 danger:1 accidentally:1 eat:1 whole:1 section:3 nest:1 prefix:1 column:2 skip:1 clearly:1 repeat:1 page:1 limit:1 nesting:1 thereby:1 prior:1 even:1 unicode:1 character:1 symbolic:1 formula:1 treat:1 continued:1 parsing:1 context:1 grammar:1 semicolon:1 terminator:1 null:2 single:1 without:2 terminate:1 good:1 quality:1 message:1 typically:1 maintain:1 many:4 year:2 original:1 author:1 argue:1 principles:1 apply:2 project:6 phase:2 development:5 safety:3 benefit:1 correctness:1 maintainability:1 take:2 precedence:1 arguable:1 cost:1 initial:1 unlike:1 definition:1 reference:8 manual:6 arm:1 lrm:1 content:2 thus:1 implement:1 apart:1 extensive:1 rationale:6 document:6 explain:1 various:2 construct:1 revise:1 new:3 write:5 tool:1 aid:1 gps:1 gnat:3 studio:1 u:3 concern:1 different:1 embed:1 obsolete:1 hardware:1 dependent:1 none:1 safe:1 modular:1 work:3 group:4 holwg:1 intent:1 reduce:1 find:1 create:2 generally:1 suitable:1 requirement:4 result:2 total:1 fell:1 series:1 strawman:1 woodenman:1 tinman:1 ironman:1 steelman:1 exist:3 formally:1 review:1 conclude:1 meet:1 request:1 proposal:5 issue:1 four:1 contractor:1 hire:1 develop:4 red:2 benjamin:4 brosgol:1 green:3 blue:1 softech:1 john:14 goodenough:1 yellow:1 sri:1 jay:1 spitzen:1 april:1 public:1 scrutiny:1 pass:1 next:1 may:1 choose:1 give:2 augusta:2 countess:2 influence:1 lis:1 preliminary:1 publish:8 acm:3 sigplan:1 notice:1 june:1 military:2 approve:1 birthday:1 mil:2 std:2 honor:1 birth:1 c:6 r:3 hoare:2 advantage:1 turing:1 award:1 speech:1 criticize:1 overly:1 hence:1 unreliable:1 emperor:1 old:1 clothes:1 communication:1 subsequently:1 seem:1 recant:1 foreword:1 textbook:1 watt:1 b:4 wichmann:1 w:3 findlay:1 methodology:1 prentice:7 hall:7 caption:1 king:1 mandate:1 every:1 grant:1 effectively:1 remove:1 embrace:1 cot:1 commercial:2 shelf:1 technology:4 similar:1 nato:1 country:1 typed:1 outside:1 aviation:1 cause:1 fatality:1 fly:1 wire:1 boeing:1 canadian:1 automate:1 air:2 traffic:1 million:1 sloc:1 count:1 advanced:1 distribute:4 database:1 standardization:1 become:2 change:1 commonly:1 date:2 adoption:2 refer:1 late:1 february:1 make:1 future:1 acceptance:1 force:1 fund:1 presently:1 part:2 gnu:1 continue:1 update:1 technical:2 corrigendum:1 march:1 related:1 information:4 process:1 graphic:1 graphical:1 kernel:1 gks:1 binding:1 hello:5 world:3 provide:1 alternative:1 construction:3 streamlined:1 see:1 apse:1 list:2 spark:3 vhdl:1 pl:1 sql:1 jovial:1 ravenscar:1 profile:1 comparison:1 auroraux:1 opensolaris:1 userland:1 semantic:1 interface:1 asis:1 conformity:1 assessment:1 processor:1 acats:1 ieee:1 posix:2 bind:1 mapping:1 corba:1 idl:1 map:1 print:1 g:2 p:2 barnes:8 robert:1 firth:1 mike:1 woodger:1 library:2 book:1 jan:1 skansholm:1 beginning:1 addison:12 wesley:12 isbn:38 geoff:1 gilpin:1 guided:1 tour:1 tutorial:1 plus:2 integrity:2 approach:6 security:1 beidler:1 data:7 structure:5 algorithm:2 springer:5 verlag:5 dean:1 gonzalez:1 handbook:1 cummings:3 company:3 ben:1 ari:1 engineer:1 wiley:1 son:1 norman:1 cohen:1 second:2 mcgraw:2 hill:2 science:2 engineering:2 math:1 alan:3 burn:3 andy:3 wellings:3 java:1 concurrency:2 cambridge:2 university:3 press:2 x:3 colin:1 atkinson:1 reuse:1 distribution:1 grady:1 booch:1 doug:1 bryan:1 daniel:1 stubbs:1 neil:1 webre:1 abstract:2 brook:2 cole:2 ledru:1 protected:1 dissertation:1 com:1 fintan:2 culwin:2 developmental:1 craft:1 david:3 wheeler:1 musser:1 alexander:1 stepanov:1 linear:1 michael:2 feldman:2 simon:1 johnston:1 elliot:1 koffman:1 nell:2 dale:2 chip:1 weems:1 mccormick:2 solve:1 jones:2 bartlett:2 publisher:2 edition:2 bruce:2 krell:1 life:1 cycle:1 method:2 bantam:1 dell:1 pub:1 judy:1 bishop:1 experience:1 bo:1 sanden:1 hillam:1 introduction:4 rudd:1 ian:1 pyle:1 guide:1 louis:1 baker:1 artificial:1 intelligence:1 hrt:1 hood:1 hard:1 north:1 holland:1 walter:1 savitch:1 charles:2 peterson:1 art:1 mark:1 allen:1 weiss:1 analysis:1 henry:1 ledgard:1 dines:1 bjørner:1 ole:1 n:1 oest:1 eds:1 towards:1 formal:1 description:1 london:1 archive:1 material:1 institute:1 minnesota:1 minneapolis:1 external:1 link:1 sigada:1 europe:1 organization:1 home:1 interview:1 maintainer:1 |@bigram statically_type:1 jean_ichbiah:4 defense_dod:2 iso_iec:5 ada_lovelace:3 orient_programming:4 programming_oop:1 buffer_overflow:1 thermonuclear_weapon:1 automatic_garbage:1 garbage_collection:1 reliability_maintainability:1 augusta_ada:2 countess_lovelace:2 mil_std:2 r_hoare:2 communication_acm:1 prentice_hall:7 gnu_compiler:1 pl_sql:1 addison_wesley:12 guided_tour:1 ada_addison:5 springer_verlag:5 benjamin_cummings:3 wiley_son:1 mcgraw_hill:2 brook_cole:2 jones_bartlett:2 bartlett_publisher:2 bantam_dell:1 artificial_intelligence:1 charles_babbage:1 minnesota_minneapolis:1 external_link:1 |
3,018 | Mouse_(computing) | A contemporary computer mouse, with the most common standard features: two buttons and a scroll wheel, which can also act as a third button In computing, a mouse (plural mouses, mice, or mouse devices) is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons. It sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or features can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a Graphical User Interface. The name mouse, originated at the Stanford Research Institute, derives from the resemblance of early models (which had a cord attached to the rear part of the device, suggesting the idea of a tail) to the common mouse. The first marketed integrated mouse shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal computer navigation came with the Xerox 8010 Star Information System in 1981. However, the mouse remained relatively obscure until the appearance of the Apple Macintosh; in 1984 a prominent PC columnist commented the release of this new computer with a mouse: “There is no evidence that people want to use these things.” John C. Dvorak, San Francisco Examiner, 19 February 1984 A mouse now comes with most computers and many other varieties can be bought separately. Etymology and plural The first known publication of the term "mouse" as a pointing device is in Bill English's 1965 publication "Computer-Aided Display Control". Oxford English Dictionary, "mouse", sense 13 The Compact Oxford English Dictionary (third edition) and the fourth edition of The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language endorse both computer mice and computer mouses as correct plural forms for computer mouse. Some authors of technical documents may prefer either mouse devices or the more generic pointing devices. The plural mouses treats mouse as a "headless noun." Two manuals of style in the computer industry – Sun Technical Publication's Read Me First: A Style Guide for the Computer Industry and Microsoft Manual of Style for Technical Publications from Microsoft Press – recommend that technical writers use the term mouse devices instead of the alternatives. Technologies Early mice Douglas Engelbart at the Stanford Research Institute invented the first mouse prototype in 1963 http://www.macworld.com/article/137400/2008/12/mouse40.html Retrieved 16 April 2009 . He initially received inspiration for the design after reviewing a series of experiments conducted in the early 1960s by American geneticist Clarence Cook Little. Intrigued by Little's examination of laboratory mice at the National Cancer Institute, Engelbart endeavored to design a more efficient method for controlling computers, based on small movements of the hand corresponding to a point on a screen. The term "mouse" is a play on this connection, originally coined by Bill English, Engelbart's friend and colleague at the institute. He never received any royalties for it, as his patent ran out before it became widely used in personal computers. The invention of the mouse was just a tiny piece of Engelbart's much larger project, aimed at augmenting human intellect. "Evolving Collective Intelligence" by Engelbart, Landau and Clegg Eleven years earlier, the Royal Canadian Navy had invented the trackball using a Canadian five-pin bowling ball as a user interface for their DATAR system. Ferranti-Packard: Pioneers in Canadian Electrical Manufacturing, Norman R. Ball, John N. Vardalas, McGill-Queen's Press, 1993 Several other experimental pointing-devices developed for Engelbart's oN-Line System (NLS) exploited different body movements for example, head-mounted devices attached to the chin or nose but ultimately the mouse won out because of its simplicity and convenience. The first mouse, a bulky device (pictured) used two gear-wheels perpendicular to each other: the rotation of each wheel translated into motion along one axis. Engelbart received patent US3541541 on November 17, 1970 for an "X-Y Position Indicator for a Display System". http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/53.html Retrieved 31 December 2006 At the time, Engelbart envisaged that users would hold the mouse continuously in one hand and type on a five-key chord keyset with the other. http://page.mi.fu-berlin.de/~encyclop/Engelbart.htm Retrieved 31 December 2006 The concept was preceded in the 19th century by the telautograph, which also anticipated the fax machine. Mechanical mouse devices Mechanical mouse, shown with the top cover removed Operating a mechanical mouse. 1: moving the mouse turns the ball.2: X and Y rollers grip the ball and transfer movement.3: Optical encoding disks include light holes.4: Infrared LEDs shine through the disks. 5: Sensors gather light pulses to convert to X and Y velocities. Bill English, builder of Engelbart's original mouse, invented the ball mouse in 1972 while working for Xerox PARC. Byte, issue 9/1981, pp. 58-68 The ball-mouse replaced the external wheels with a single ball that could rotate in any direction. It came as part of the hardware package of the Xerox Alto computer. Perpendicular chopper wheels housed inside the mouse's body chopped beams of light on the way to light sensors, thus detecting in their turn the motion of the ball. This variant of the mouse resembled an inverted trackball and became the predominant form used with personal computers throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The Xerox PARC group also settled on the modern technique of using both hands to type on a full-size keyboard and grabbing the mouse when required. The ball mouse utilizes two rollers rolling against two sides of the ball. One roller detects the forward–backward motion of the mouse and other the left–right motion. The motion of these two rollers causes two disc-like encoder wheels to rotate, interrupting optical beams to generate electrical signals. The mouse sends these signals to the computer system by means of connecting wires. The driver software in the system converts the signals into motion of the mouse pointer along X and Y axes on the screen. Ball mice and wheel mice were manufactured for Xerox by Jack Hawley, doing business as The Mouse House in Berkeley, California, starting in 1975. Based on another invention by Jack Hawley, proprietor of the Mouse House, Honeywell produced another type of mechanical mouse. Instead of a ball, it had two wheels rotating at off axes. Keytronic later produced a similar product. Modern computer mice took form at the École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) under the inspiration of Professor Jean-Daniel Nicoud and at the hands of engineer and watchmaker André Guignard. http://news.softpedia.com/news/Of-Mice-and-Men-and-PCs-43129.shtml Retrieved 31 December 2006 This new design incorporated a single hard rubber mouseball and three buttons, and remained a common design until the mainstream adoption of the scroll-wheel mouse during the 1990s. Another type of mechanical mouse, the "analog mouse" (now generally regarded as obsolete), uses potentiometers rather than encoder wheels, and is typically designed to be plug-compatible with an analog joystick. The "Color Mouse," originally marketed by Radio Shack for their Color Computer (but also usable on MS-DOS machines equipped with analog joystick ports, provided the software accepted joystick input) was the best-known example. Mechanical or opto-mechanical A mouse described as simply "mechanical" has a contact-based incremental rotary encoder, a system prone to drag and unreliability of contact. Opto-mechanical mice still use a ball or crossed wheels, but detect shaft rotation using an optical encoder with lower friction and more certain performance. Optical mice An optical mouse uses a light-emitting diode and photodiodes to detect movement relative to the underlying surface, rather than moving some of its parts as in a mechanical mouse. Early optical mice Early optical mice, first demonstrated by two independent inventors in 1980, came in two different varieties: Some, such as those invented by Steve Kirsch of MIT and Mouse Systems Corporation, used an infrared LED and a four-quadrant infrared sensor to detect grid lines printed with infrared absorbing ink on a special metallic surface. Predictive algorithms in the CPU of the mouse calculated the speed and direction over the grid. Others, invented by Richard F. Lyon and sold by Xerox, used a 16-pixel visible-light image sensor with integrated motion detection on the same chip and tracked the motion of light dots in a dark field of a printed paper or similar mouse pad. http://www.digibarn.com/collections/devices/xerox-mousepad/index.html Retrieved 31 December 2006 These two mouse types had very different behaviors, as the Kirsch mouse used an x-y coordinate system embedded in the pad, and would not work correctly when the pad was rotated, while the Lyon mouse used the x-y coordinate system of the mouse body, as mechanical mice do. The optical sensor from a Microsoft Wireless IntelliMouse Explorer (v. 1.0A) Modern optical mice Modern surface-independent optical mice work by using an optoelectronic sensor to take successive pictures of the surface on which the mouse operates. As computing power grew cheaper, it became possible to embed more powerful special-purpose image-processing chips in the mouse itself. This advance enabled the mouse to detect relative motion on a wide variety of surfaces, translating the movement of the mouse into the movement of the pointer and eliminating the need for a special mouse-pad. This advance paved the way for widespread adoption of optical mice. Optical mice illuminate the surface that they track over, using an LED or a laser diode. Changes between one frame and the next are processed by the image processing part of the chip and translated into movement on the two axes using an optical flow estimation algorithm. For example, the Avago Technologies ADNS-2610 optical mouse sensor processes 1512 frames per second: each frame consisting of a rectangular array of 18×18 pixels, and each pixel can sense 64 different levels of gray. http://www.avagotech.com/assets/downloadDocument.do?id=1568 Accessed 31 December 2006 Infrared optical mice Some newer optical mice including some from Logitech's LX series use an infrared sensor instead of a light emitting diode. This saves power and can be more accurate. Laser mice The laser mouse uses an infrared laser diode instead of an LED to illuminate the surface beneath their sensor. As early as 1998, Sun Microsystems provided a laser mouse with their Sun SPARCstation servers and workstations. Computer Engineering Tips - Mouse Retrieved 31 December 2006 However, laser mice did not enter the mainstream market until 2004, when Logitech, in partnership with Agilent Technologies, introduced its MX 1000 laser mouse. Logitech - MX1000 Laser Cordless Mouse This mouse uses a small infrared laser instead of an LED and has significantly increased the resolution of the image taken by the mouse. The laser enables around 20 times more surface tracking power to the surface features used for navigation compared to conventional optical mice, via interference effects. Color of optical mouse diodes Example of a Logitech optical mouse with a blue diode The color of the optical mouse's light-emitting diodes varies with each model. Red was (and still is today) the most common, as red diodes were the cheapest when optical mice first arrived on the market. Today, a wide array of colors exist, such as blue or green. Some models' diodes even change color, cycling through colors of the rainbow for instance. Power-saving in optical mice A wireless mouse on a mouse pad Manufacturers often engineer their optical mice especially battery-powered wireless models to save power when possible. In order to do this, the mouse dims or blinks the laser or LED when in standby-mode (Each mouse has a different standby time). This function may also increase the laser / LED life. Mice designed specifically for gamers, such as the Logitech G5 or the Razer Copperhead, often lack this feature in an attempt to reduce latency and to improve responsiveness. A typical implementation in Logitech mice has four power states, where the sensor is pulsed at different rates per second: 1500 - full on condition for accurate response while moving, illumination appears bright. 100 - fallback active condition while not moving, illumination appears dull. 10 - Standby 2 - Sleep state Some other mice turn the sensor fully off in the sleep state, requiring a button click to wake. Optical mice utilizing infrared elements (LEDs or lasers) offer substantial increases in battery life. Some Logitech mice, such as the V450 848nm laser mouse, are capable of functioning on two AA batteries for a full year, due to the low power requirements of the infrared laser. Optical versus mechanical mice The Logitech iFeel optical mouse uses a red LED to project light onto the tracking surface. Unlike mechanical mice, which can become clogged with lint, optical mice have no rolling parts; therefore, they do not require maintenance other than removing debris that might collect under the light emitter. However, they generally cannot track on glossy and transparent surfaces, including some mouse-pads, sometimes causing the cursor to drift unpredictably during operation. Mice with less image-processing power also have problems tracking fast movement, though high-end mice can track at 2 m/s (80 inches per second) and faster. Some models of laser mice can track on glossy and transparent surfaces, and have a much higher sensitivity than either their mechanical or optical counterparts but are more expensive than their LED based or mechanical counterparts. http://www.earthv.com/articles.asp?ArticleID=2290&PageID=3 Retrieved 31 December 2006 As of 2006, mechanical mice have lower average power demands than their optical counterparts. In practice this is only significant when the mouse is either used with a battery-powered computer, such as a notebook model, or is a battery-powered wireless mouse. Optical models will outperform mechanical mice on uneven, slick, soft, sticky, or loose surfaces, and generally in mobile situations lacking mouse pads. Because optical mice render movement based on an image which the LED (or infared diode) illuminates, use with multi-colored mouse pads may result in unreliable performance; however, laser mice do not suffer these problems and will track on such surfaces. The advent of affordable high-speed, low-resolution cameras and the integrated logic in optical mice provides an ideal laboratory for experimentation on next-generation input-devices. Experimenters can obtain low-cost components simply by taking apart a working mouse and changing the optics or by writing new software. Glass laser mouse Glass laser mouse (or Glaser mouse) has the same capability of a laser mouse but can also be used on top of mirror or transparent glass with few problems. Inertial and gyroscopic mice Often called "air mice" since they do not require a surface to operate, inertial mice use a tuning fork or other accelerometer (US Patent 4787051) to detect movement for every axis supported. The most common models (manufactured by Logitech and Gyration) work using 2 degrees of rotational freedom and are insensitive to spatial translation. The user requires only small wrist rotations to move the cursor, reducing user fatigue (see gorilla arm). Usually cordless, they often have a switch to deactivate the movement circuitry between use, allowing the user freedom of movement without affecting the pointer position. A patent for an inertial mouse claims that such mice consume less power than optically based mice, and offer increased sensitivity, reduced weight and increased ease-of-use. Fresh Patents - Highly Sensitive Inertial Mouse Retrieved 31 December 2006 In combination with a wireless keyboard an inertial mouse can offer alternative ergonomic arrangements which do not require a flat work surface, potentially alleviating some types of repetitive motion injuries related to workstation posture. 3D mice Also known as bats, flying mice, or wands, these devices generally function through ultrasound. Probably the best known example would be 3DConnexion/Logitech's SpaceMouse from the early 1990s. In the late 1990s Kantek introduced the 3D RingMouse. This wireless mouse was worn on a ring around a finger, which enabled the thumb to access three buttons. The mouse was tracked in three dimensions by a base station. http://www.byte.com/art/9602/sec17/art6.htm Retrieved 31 December 2006 Despite a certain appeal, it was finally discontinued because it did not provide sufficient resolution. A recent consumer 3D pointing device is the Wii Remote. While primarily a motion-sensing device (that is, it can determine its orientation and direction of movement), Wii Remote can also detect its spatial position by comparing the distance and position of the lights from the IR emitter using its integrated IR camera (since the nunchuk lacks a camera, it can only tell its current heading and orientation). The obvious drawback to this approach is that it can only produce spatial coordinates while its camera can see the sensor bar. In February, 2008, at the Game Developers' Conference (GDC), a company called Motion4U introduced a 3D mouse add-on called "OptiBurst" for Autodesk's Maya application. The mouse allows users to work in true 3D with 6 degrees of freedom. The primary advantage of this system is speed of development with organic (natural) movement. Multiple-mouse systems Some systems allow two or more mice to be used at once as input devices. 16-bit era home computers such as the Amiga used this to allow computer games with two players interacting on the same computer. The same idea is sometimes used in collaborative software, e.g. to simulate a whiteboard that multiple users can draw on without passing a single mouse around. There have also been propositions of having a single operator use two mice simultaneously as a more sophisticated means of controlling various graphics and multimedia applications IEEE Xplore - Design and implementation of the double mouse system for a Window environment . Connectivity and communication protocols To transmit their input, typical cabled mice use a thin electrical cord terminating in a standard connector, such as RS-232C, PS/2, ADB or USB. Cordless mice instead transmit data via infrared radiation (see IrDA) or radio (including Bluetooth), although many such cordless interfaces are themselves connected through the aforementioned wired serial buses. While the electrical interface and the format of the data transmitted by commonly available mice is currently standardized on USB, in the past it varied between different manufacturers. A bus mouse used a dedicated interface card for connection to an IBM PC or compatible computer. Serial interface and protocol Standard PC mice once used the RS-232C serial port via a D-subminiature connector, which provided power to run the mouse's circuits as well as data on mouse movements. The Mouse Systems Corporation version used a five-byte protocol and supported three buttons. The Microsoft version used an incompatible three-byte protocol and only allowed for two buttons. Due to the incompatibility, some manufacturers sold serial mice with a mode switch: "PC" for MSC mode, "MS" for Microsoft mode. FreeDOS-32 - Serial Mouse driver PS/2 interface and protocol With the arrival of the IBM PS/2 personal-computer series in 1987, IBM introduced the eponymous PS/2 interface for mice and keyboards, which other manufacturers rapidly adopted. The most visible change was the use of a round 6-pin mini-DIN, in lieu of the former 5-pin connector. In default mode (called stream mode) a PS/2 mouse communicates motion, and the state of each button, by means of 3-byte packets. Computer Engineering Tips- PS/2 Mouse Interface For any motion, button press or button release event, a PS/2 mouse sends, over a bi-directional serial port, a sequence of three bytes, with the following format: Bit 7Bit 6Bit 5Bit 4Bit 3Bit 2Bit 1Bit 0Byte 1YVXVYSXS1MBRBLBByte 2X movementByte 3Y movement Here, XS and YS represent the sign bits of the movement vectors, XV and YV indicate an overflow in the respective vector component, and LB, MB and RB indicate the status of the left, middle and right mouse buttons (1 = pressed). PS/2 mice also understand several commands for reset and self-test, switching between different operating modes, and changing the resolution of the reported motion vectors. In Linux, a PS/2 mouse is detected as a /dev/psaux device. Extensions: IntelliMouse and others A Microsoft IntelliMouse relies on an extension of the PS/2 protocol: the ImPS/2 or IMPS/2 protocol (the abbreviation combines the concepts of "IntelliMouse" and "PS/2"). It initially operates in standard PS/2 format, for backwards compatibility. After the host sends a special command sequence, it switches to an extended format in which a fourth byte carries information about wheel movements. The IntelliMouse Explorer works analogously, with the difference that its 4-byte packets also allow for two additional buttons (for a total of five). http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/device/input/mcompat.mspx Retrieved 31 December 2006 The Typhoon mouse uses 6-byte packets which can appear as a sequence of two standard 3-byte packets, such that ordinary PS/2 driver can handle them. http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/linux/kbd/scancodes-13.html Retrieved 31 December 2006 Mouse-vendors also use other extended formats, often without providing public documentation. For 3D or 6DOF input, vendors have made many extensions both to the hardware and to software. In the late 90's Logitech created ultrasound based tracking which gave 3D input to a few millimeters accuracy, which worked well as an input device but failed as a money making product. In 2008, Motion4U introduced its "OptiBurst" system using IR tracking for use as a Maya plugin. Apple Desktop Bus Apple Macintosh Plus mice, 1986 In 1986 Apple first implemented the Apple Desktop Bus allowing the daisy-chaining together of up to 16 devices, including arbitrarily many mice and other devices on the same bus with no configuration whatsoever. Featuring only a single data pin, the bus used a purely polled approach to computer/mouse communications and survived as the standard on mainstream models (including a number of non-Apple workstations) until 1998 when iMac began the industry-wide switch to using USB. Beginning with the "Bronze Keyboard" PowerBook G3 in May 1999, Apple dropped the external ADB port in favor of USB, but retained an internal ADB connection in the PowerBook G4 for communication with its built-in keyboard and trackpad until early 2005. Tactile mice In 2000, Logitech introduced the "tactile mouse", which contained a small actuator that made the mouse vibrate. Such a mouse can augment user-interfaces with haptic feedback, such as giving feedback when crossing a window boundary. To surf by touch requires the user to be able to feel depth or hardness; this ability was realized with the first electrorheological tactile mice Heckner. T., C. Kessler, S. Egersdörfer, G. J. Monkman. - Computer based platform for tactile actuator analysis - Actuator'06, Bremen, 14-16 June 2006 but never marketed. Applications of mice in user-interfaces Computer-users usually utilize a mouse to control the motion of a cursor in two dimensions in a graphical user interface. Clicking or hovering can select files, programs or actions from a list of names, or (in graphical interfaces) through pictures called "icons" and other elements. For example, a text file might be represented by a picture of a paper notebook, and clicking while the pointer hovers this icon might cause a text editing program to open the file in a window. (See also point-and-click) Users can also employ mice gesturally; meaning that a stylized motion of the mouse cursor itself, called a "gesture", can issue a command or map to a specific action. For example, in a drawing program, moving the mouse in a rapid "x" motion over a shape might delete the shape. Gestural interfaces occur more rarely than plain pointing-and-clicking; and people often find them more difficult to use, because they require finer motor-control from the user. However, a few gestural conventions have become widespread, including the drag-and-drop gesture, in which: The user presses the mouse button while the mouse cursor hovers over an interface object The user moves the cursor to a different location while holding the button down The user releases the mouse button For example, a user might drag-and-drop a picture representing a file onto a picture of a trash can, thus instructing the system to delete the file. Other uses of the mouse's input occur commonly in special application-domains. In interactive three-dimensional graphics, the mouse's motion often translates directly into changes in the virtual camera's orientation. For example, in the first-person shooter genre of games (see below), players usually employ the mouse to control the direction in which the virtual player's "head" faces: moving the mouse up will cause the player to look up, revealing the view above the player's head. When mice have more than one button, software may assign different functions to each button. Often, the primary (leftmost in a right-handed configuration) button on the mouse will select items, and the secondary (rightmost in a right-handed) button will bring up a menu of alternative actions applicable to that item. For example, on platforms with more than one button, the Mozilla web browser will follow a link in response to a primary button click, will bring up a contextual menu of alternative actions for that link in response to a secondary-button click, and will often open the link in a new tab or window in response to a click with the tertiary (middle) mouse button. Common mouse operations Performing different operations on the mouse provide the activation of specific actions on the interface, with different meanings. GUIs may define and trigger a separate event for each gesture. Low level gestures Click - pressing and releasing a button. (left) Single-click - clicking the main button. (left) Double-click - clicking the button two times in quick succession counts as a different gesture than two separate single clicks. (left) Triple-click - clicking the button three times in quick succession. Right-click - clicking the secondary button. Drag - pressing and holding a button, then moving the mouse without releasing. Button chording (a.k.a. Rocker navigation). Combination of right-click then left-click. Combination of left-click then right-click or keyboard letter. Combination of left or right-click and the mouse wheel. Clicking with a modifier key. Standard semantic gestures Rollover Selection Menu traversal Drag and drop Pointing Goal crossing Buttons In contrast to the motion-sensing mechanism, the mouse's buttons have changed little over the years, varying mostly in shape, number, and placement. Engelbart's very first mouse had a single button; Xerox PARC soon designed a three-button model, but reduced the count to two for Xerox products. After experimenting with 4-button prototypes Apple reduced it back to one button with the Macintosh in 1984, while Unix workstations from Sun and others used three buttons. OEM bundled mice usually have between one and three buttons, although in the aftermarket many mice have always had five or more. Apple Mighty Mouse with capacitance triggered buttons A mouse click is the action of pressing (i.e. 'clicking', an onomatopoeia) a button in order to trigger an action, usually in the context of a graphical user interface (GUI). 'Clicking' an onscreen button is accomplished by pressing on the real button mouse while the cursor is placed over the icon. The reason for the clicking noise made is due to the specific switch technology used nearly universally in computer mice. This switch is called a micro switch or cherry switch and uses a stiff but flexible metal strip that is bent to actuate the switch. The bending of the metal makes a snapping or clicking noise. The three-button scrollmouse has become the most commonly available design. As of 2007 (and roughly since the late 1990s), users most commonly employ the second button to invoke a contextual menu in the computer's software user interface, which contains options specifically tailored to the interface element over which the mouse pointer currently sits. By default, the primary mouse button sits located on the left-hand side of the mouse, for the benefit of right-handed users; left-handed users can usually reverse this configuration via software. On systems with three-button mice, pressing the center button (a middle click) typically opens a system-wide noncontextual menu. In the X Window System, middle-clicking by default pastes the contents of the primary buffer at the pointer's position. Many users of two-button mice emulate a three-button mouse by clicking both the right and left buttons simultaneously. One, two, three or more buttons? One button mouse Three-button mouse Five button mouse The issue of whether pack-in bundled mice "should" have exactly one button or more than one has attracted an enormous amount of controversy. From the first Macintosh until late 2005 Apple shipped every computer with a single-button mouse, whereas most other platforms used multi-button mice. Apple and its advocates promoted single-button mice as more user-friendly, and portrayed multi-button mice as confusing for novice users. The Macintosh user interface, by design, always has and still does make all functions available with a single-button mouse. Apple's Human Interface Guidelines still specify that all software-providers need to make functions available with a single button mouse. However, X Window System applications, which Mac OS X can also run, have developed with the use of two-button or even three-button mice in mind, causing even simple operations like "cut and paste" to become awkward on the Macintosh. While there has always been an aftermarket for mice with two, three, or more buttons among experienced Macintosh users and extensive configurable support to complement such devices in all major software packages on the platform, Mac OS X shipped with hardcoded support for multi-button mice. On August 2, 2005, Apple introduced their Mighty Mouse multi-button mouse, which has four independently-programmable buttons and a trackball-like "scroll ball" which allows the user to scroll in any direction. Since the mouse uses touch-sensitive technology, users can treat it as a one-, two-, three-, or four-button mouse, as desired. Advocates of multiple-button mice argue that support for a single-button mouse often leads to clumsy workarounds in interfaces where a given object may have more than one appropriate action. One workaround was the double click, first used on the Apple Lisa, to allow both the "select" and "open" operation to be performed with a single button. Several common workarounds exist, and some are specified by the Apple Human Interface Guidelines. One such workaround (that favored on Apple platforms) has the user hold down one or more keys on the keyboard before pressing the mouse button (typically control on a Macintosh for contextual menus). This has the disadvantage that it requires that both the user's hands be engaged. It also requires that the user perform actions on completely separate devices in concert; that is, holding a key on the keyboard while pressing a button on the mouse. This can be a difficult task for a disabled user, although can be remedied by allowing keys to stick so that they do not need to be pressed down. Another involves the press-and-hold technique. In a press-and-hold, the user presses and holds the single button. After a certain period, software perceives the button press not as a single click but as a separate action. This has two drawbacks: first, a slow user may press-and-hold inadvertently. Second, the user must wait for the software to detect the click as a press-and-hold, otherwise the system might interpret the button-depression as a single click. Furthermore, the remedies for these two drawbacks conflict with each other: the longer the lag time, the more the user must wait; and the shorter the lag time, the more likely it becomes that some user will accidentally press-and-hold when meaning to click. Studies have found all of the above workarounds less usable than additional mouse buttons for experienced users. Most machines running Unix or a Unix-like operating system run the X Window System which almost always encourages a three-button mouse. X numbers the buttons by convention. This allows user instructions to apply to mice or pointing devices that do not use conventional button placement. For example, a left-handed user may reverse the buttons, usually with a software setting. With non-conventional button placement, user directions that say "left mouse button" or "right mouse button" are confusing. The ground-breaking Xerox Parc Alto and Dorado computers from the mid-1970s used three-button mice, and each button was assigned a color. Red was used for the left (or primary) button, yellow for the middle (secondary), and blue for the right (meta or tertiary). This naming convention lives on in some SmallTalk environments, such as Squeak, and can be less confusing than the right, middle and left designations. Acorn's RISC OS based computers necessarily use all three mouse buttons throughout their WIMP based GUI. RISC OS refers to the three buttons (from left to right) as Select, Menu and Adjust. Select functions in the same way as the "Primary" mouse button in other operating systems. Menu will bring up a context-sensitive menu appropriate for the position of the mouse pointer, and this often provides the only means of activating this menu. This menu in most applications equates to the "Application Menu" found at the top of the screen in Mac OS, and underneath the window title under Microsoft Windows. Adjust serves for selecting multiple items in the "Filer" desktop, and for altering parameters of objects within applications although its exact function usually depends on the programmer. Additional buttons Aftermarket manufacturers have long built mice with five or more buttons. Depending on the user's preferences and software environment, the extra buttons may allow forward and backward web-navigation, scrolling through a browser's history, or other functions, including mouse related functions like quick-changing the mouse's resolution/sensitivity. As with similar features in keyboards, however, not all software supports these functions. The additional buttons become especially useful in computer games, where quick and easy access to a wide variety of functions (for example, weapon-switching in first-person shooters; however, the scroll wheel generally provides this functionality) can give a player an advantage. Because software can map mouse-buttons to virtually any function, keystroke, application or switch, extra buttons can make working with such a mouse more efficient and easier. In the matter of the number of buttons, Douglas Engelbart favored the view "as many as possible". The prototype that popularised the idea of three buttons as standard had that number only because "we could not find anywhere to fit any more switches". Wheels The scroll wheel, a notably different form of mouse-button, consists of a small wheel that the user can rotate to provide immediate one-dimensional input. Usually, this input translates into "scrolling" up or down within the active window or GUI-element. The wheel is often - but not always - engineered to turn in short steps, rather than continuously, to allow the operator to more easily intuit how far they are scrolling. The scroll wheel nearly always includes a third (center) button, activated by pushing the wheel down into the mouse. The scroll wheel can provide convenience, especially when navigating a long document. In conjunction with the control key (Ctrl), the mouse wheel may often be used for zooming in and out; applications that support this feature include Adobe Reader, Microsoft Word, Internet Explorer, Opera, Mozilla Firefox and Mulberry, and in Mac OS X, holding the control key while scrolling zooms in on the entire screen. Some applications also allow the user to scroll left and right by pressing the shift key while using the mouse wheel. Manufacturers may refer to scroll-wheels by different names for branding purposes; Genius, for example, usually brand their scroll-wheel-equipped products "Netscroll". Mouse Systems introduced the scroll-wheel commercially in 1995, http://itotd.com/articles/330/the-evolution-of-scrolling/ Retrieved on 31 December 2006 marketing it as the Mouse Systems ProAgio and Genius EasyScroll. However, mainstream adoption of the scroll wheel mouse did not occur until Microsoft released the Microsoft IntelliMouse in 1996. It became a commercial success in 1997 when their Microsoft Office application suite and their Internet Explorer browser started supporting its wheel-scrolling feature. Since then the scroll wheel has become a standard feature of many mouse models. Some mouse models have two wheels, or wheels that can be moved sideways (such as the MX Revolution), separately assigned to horizontal and vertical scrolling. Designs exist which make use of a "rocker" button instead of a wheel a pivoting button that a user can press at the top or bottom, simulating "up" and "down" respectively. A peculiar early example was a mouse by Saitek which had a joystick-style hatswitch on it. A more recent form of mouse wheel is the tilt-wheel. Tilt wheels are essentially conventional mouse wheels that have been modified with a pair of sensors articulated to the tilting mechanism. These sensors are mapped, by default, to horizontal scrolling. A third variety of built-in scrolling device, the scroll ball, essentially consists of a trackball embedded in the upper surface of the mouse. The user can scroll in all possible directions in very much the same way as with the actual mouse, and in some mice, can use it as a trackball. Mice featuring a scroll ball include Apple's Mighty Mouse and the IOGEAR 4D Web Cruiser Optical Scroll Ball Mouse. IBM's ergonomics laboratory designed a mouse with a pointing stick in it, envisioned to be used for scrolling, zooming or (with appropriate software) controlling a second mouse cursor. Some mice, like some models by Genius, have an optical sensor instead of a wheel. This sensor allows to scroll in both horizontal and vertical directions. Mouse speed The computer industry often measures mouse sensitivity in terms of counts per inch (CPI), commonly expressed less correctly as dots per inch (DPI) the number of steps the mouse will report when it moves one inch. In early mice, this specification was called pulses per inch (ppi). If the default mouse-tracking condition involves moving the pointer by one screen-pixel or dot on-screen per reported step, then the CPI does equate to DPI: dots of pointer motion per inch of mouse motion. The CPI or DPI as reported by manufacturers depends on how they make the mouse; the higher the CPI, the faster the pointer moves with mouse movement. However, software can adjust the mouse sensitivity, making the cursor move faster or slower than its CPI. software can change the speed of the pointer dynamically, taking into account the mouse's absolute speed and the movement from the last stop-point. In most software this setting is named "speed" – referring to "pointer precision". However, some software names this setting "acceleration", but this term is in fact incorrect. The mouse acceleration, in the majority of mouse software, refers to the setting allowing the user to modify the pointer acceleration – the change in speed of the pointer over time while the mouse movement is constant. For simple software, when the mouse starts to move, the software will count the number of "counts" received from the mouse and will move the pointer across the screen by that number of pixels (or multiplied by a rate factor, typically less than 1). The pointer will move slowly on the screen, having a good precision. When the movement of the mouse passes the value set for "threshold", the software will start to move the pointer more quickly, with a greater rate factor. Usually, the user can set the value of the second rate factor by changing the "acceleration" setting. Operating systems sometimes apply acceleration, referred to as "ballistics", to the motion reported by the mouse. For example, versions of Windows prior to Windows XP doubled reported values above a configurable threshold, and then optionally doubled them again above a second configurable threshold. These doublings applied separately in the X and Y directions, resulting in very nonlinear response. For example one can see how the things work in Microsoft Windows NT. Starting with Windows XP OS version of Microsoft and many OS versions for Apple Macintosh, computers use a ballistics calculation that compensates for screen-resolution in a slightly different way, which affects the way the mouse feels. Ballistics are further affected by the choice of driver software. Accessories Mousepad Engelbart's original mouse did not require a mousepad; the mouse had two large wheels which could roll on virtually any surface. However, most subsequent mechanical mice starting with the steel roller ball mouse have required a mousepad for optimal performance. The mousepad, the most common mouse accessory, appears most commonly in conjunction with mechanical mice, because in order to roll smoothly, the ball requires more friction than common desk surfaces usually provide. So-called "hard mousepads" for gamers or optical/laser mice also exist. Although most optical and laser mice do not require a pad, some users find that using a mousepad provides more comfort and less jitter of the pointer on the display. Whether to use a hard or soft mousepad with an optical mouse is largely a matter of personal preference. One exception occurs when the desk surface creates problems for the optical or laser tracking, for example, a transparent or reflective surface. Other cases may involve keeping desk or table surfaces free of scratches and deterioration; when the grain pattern on the surface causes inaccurate tracking of the pointer, or when the mouse-user desires a more comfortable mousing surface to work on and reduced collection of debris under the mouse. Foot covers Mouse foot-covers (or foot-pads) consists of low-friction or polished plastic. This makes the mouse glide with less resistance over a surface. Some higher quality models have teflon feet to reduce friction even further. Mice in the marketplace Around 1981 Xerox included mice with its Xerox Star, based on the mouse used in the 1970s on the Alto computer at Xerox PARC. Sun Microsystems, Symbolics, Lisp Machines Inc., and Tektronix also shipped workstations with mice, starting in about 1981. Later, inspired by the Star, Apple Computer released the Apple Lisa, which also used a mouse. However, none of these products achieved large-scale success. Only with the release of the Apple Macintosh in 1984 did the mouse see widespread use. The Macintosh design, commercially successful and technically influential, led many other vendors to begin producing mice or including them with their other computer products (in 1985, Atari ST, Commodore Amiga, Windows 1.0, and GEOS for the Commodore 64). The widespread adoption of graphical user interfaces in the software of the 1980s and 1990s made mice all but indispensable for controlling computers. In November 2008, Logitech built their billionth mouse. Logitech's billionth mouse Mice in gaming Mice often function as an interface for PC-based computer games and sometimes for video game consoles. They often appear in combination with the keyboard. First-person shooters Logitech G5 Laser Mouse designed for gaming Due to the cursor-like nature of the crosshairs in first-person shooter (FPS), a combination of mouse and keyboard provides a popular way to play FPS games. Players use the X-axis of the mouse for looking (or turning) left and right, leaving the Y-axis for looking up and down. The left button usually controls primary fire. Many gamers prefer this primarily in FPS games over a gamepad or joypad because it allows them to look around easily, quickly and accurately. If the game supports multiple fire-modes, the right button often provides secondary fire from the selected weapon. The right button may also provide bonus options for a particular weapon, such as allowing access to the scope of a sniper rifle or allowing the mounting of a bayonet or silencer. Gamers can use a scroll wheel for changing weapons, or for controlling scope-zoom magnification. On most FPS games, programming may also assign more functions to additional buttons on mice with more than three controls. A keyboard usually controls movement (for example, WASD, for moving forward, left, backward and right, respectively) and other functions such as changing posture. Since the mouse serves for aiming, a mouse that tracks movement accurately and with less lag (latency) will give a player an advantage over players with less accurate or slower mice. An early technique of players, circle-strafing, saw a player continuously strafing while aiming and shooting at an opponent by walking in circle around the opponent with the opponent at the center of the circle. Players could achieve this by holding down a key for strafing while continuously aiming the mouse towards the opponent. Games using mice for input have such a degree of popularity that many manufacturers, such as Logitech, Cyber Snipa and Razer USA Ltd, make peripherals such as mice and keyboards specifically for gaming. Such mice may feature adjustable weights, high-resolution optical or laser components, additional buttons, ergonomic shape, and other features such as adjustable DPI. Invert mouse setting Many games, such as first- or third-person shooters, have a setting named "invert mouse" or similar (not to be confused with "button inversion", sometimes performed by left-handed users) which allows the user to look downward by moving the mouse forward and upward by moving the mouse backward (the opposite of non-inverted movement). This control system resembles that of aircraft control sticks, where pulling back causes pitch up and pushing forward causes pitch down; computer joysticks also typically emulate this control-configuration. After id Software's Doom, the game that popularized FPS games but which did not support vertical aiming with a mouse (the y-axis served for forward/backward movement), competitor 3D Realms' Duke Nukem 3D became one of the first games that supported using the mouse to aim up and down. It and other games using the Build engine had an option to invert the Y-axis. The "invert" feature actually made the mouse behave in a manner that users regard as non-inverted (by default, moving mouse forward resulted in looking down). Soon after, id Software released Quake, which introduced the invert feature as users know it. Other games using the Quake engine have come on the market following this standard, likely due to the overall popularity of Quake. Home consoles In 1988 the educational video game system, the VTech Socrates, featured a wireless mouse with an attached mouse pad as an optional controller used for some games. In the early 1990s the Super Nintendo Entertainment System video game system featured a mouse in addition to its controllers. The Mario Paint game in particular used the mouse's capabilities, as did its successor on the Nintendo 64. Sega released official mice for their Genesis/Mega Drive, Saturn and Dreamcast consoles. Sony Computer Entertainment released an official mouse product for the PlayStation console, and included one along with the Linux for PlayStation 2 kit. However, users can attach virtually any USB mouse to the PlayStation 2 console. In addition the PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 also support USB mice. Recently the Wii also has this latest development added on in a recent software update. See also Computer accessibility Footmouse Graphics tablet Gesture recognition Human–computer interaction Mouse gesture Mouse keys Mousepad Pointing stick (TrackPoint, PointStick, Track-Stick etc.) Pointing device Repetitive strain injury Touchpad Trackball USB WIMP (computing) Telautograph Rotational mouse Notes References Agilent Technologies (2004). ADNS-2610 Optical Mouse Sensor. (pdf format) Retrieved 2004-11-16. Squeak Wiki (16 March 2004). FAQ: Mouse Buttons. Revision 24. Retrieved 2004-11-17. Inertial mouse system, United States Patent 4787051 External links Timeline of Mouse History (Macworld) Interview with Doug Engelbart on 40th Anniversary of the Mouse The Earliest Computer Mice The Xerox Alto ball mouse and Star optical mouse Primary Material on the Apple Mouse MouseSite including 1968 demonstration Mouse Interrupts in DOS The PS/2 mouse interface – Detailed description of the data protocol, including the Microsoft Intellimouse wheel-and-five-buttons extensions Serial-port mouse protocols howstuffworks.com article on how computer mice work BBC News Channel – First Ever Computer Mouse Demo be-x-old:Кампутарная мыш | Mouse_(computing) |@lemmatized contemporary:1 computer:49 mouse:348 common:9 standard:10 feature:17 two:33 button:112 scroll:27 wheel:41 also:27 act:1 third:5 compute:3 plural:4 device:27 point:11 function:17 detect:11 dimensional:4 motion:25 relative:3 support:13 surface:26 physically:1 consist:5 object:4 held:1 one:26 user:61 hand:13 sometimes:6 element:5 allow:22 perform:5 various:2 system:34 dependent:1 operation:6 extra:3 add:3 control:20 input:13 typically:6 translate:6 pointer:20 display:4 fine:2 graphical:5 interface:26 name:6 originate:1 stanford:2 research:2 institute:4 derive:1 resemblance:1 early:13 model:14 cord:2 attach:3 rear:1 part:6 suggest:1 idea:3 tail:1 first:20 market:6 integrated:3 ship:4 intend:1 personal:5 navigation:4 come:5 xerox:14 star:4 information:2 however:14 remain:2 relatively:1 obscure:1 appearance:1 apple:22 macintosh:11 prominent:1 pc:6 columnist:1 comment:1 release:11 new:5 evidence:1 people:2 want:1 use:78 thing:2 john:2 c:2 dvorak:1 san:1 francisco:1 examiner:1 february:2 many:13 variety:5 buy:1 separately:3 etymology:1 know:4 publication:4 term:5 pointing:3 bill:3 english:6 aided:1 oxford:2 dictionary:3 sense:2 compact:1 edition:2 fourth:2 american:2 heritage:1 language:1 endorse:1 correct:1 form:5 author:1 technical:4 document:2 may:16 prefer:2 either:3 generic:1 treat:2 headless:1 noun:1 manual:2 style:4 industry:4 sun:5 read:1 guide:1 microsoft:15 press:19 recommend:1 writer:1 instead:8 alternative:4 technology:6 douglas:2 engelbart:14 invent:6 prototype:2 http:11 www:8 macworld:2 com:9 article:4 html:4 retrieve:14 april:1 initially:2 receive:4 inspiration:2 design:14 review:1 series:3 experiment:2 conduct:1 geneticist:1 clarence:1 cook:1 little:3 intrigue:1 examination:1 laboratory:3 national:1 cancer:1 endeavor:1 efficient:2 method:1 base:13 small:5 movement:26 correspond:1 screen:9 play:2 connection:3 originally:2 coin:1 friend:1 colleague:1 never:2 royalty:1 patent:6 run:5 become:12 widely:1 invention:2 tiny:1 piece:1 much:3 large:3 project:2 aim:6 augment:2 human:4 intellect:1 evolve:1 collective:1 intelligence:1 landau:1 clegg:1 eleven:1 year:3 earlier:1 royal:1 canadian:3 navy:1 trackball:6 five:8 pin:4 bowl:1 ball:20 datar:1 ferranti:1 packard:1 pioneer:1 electrical:4 manufacturing:1 norman:1 r:2 n:1 vardalas:1 mcgill:1 queen:1 several:3 experimental:1 develop:2 line:2 nls:1 exploit:1 different:16 body:3 example:18 head:3 mounted:1 chin:1 nose:1 ultimately:1 win:2 simplicity:1 convenience:2 bulky:1 picture:6 gear:1 perpendicular:2 rotation:3 along:3 axis:6 november:2 x:18 position:6 indicator:1 org:1 december:12 time:8 envisage:1 would:3 hold:13 continuously:4 type:6 key:10 chord:1 keyset:1 page:1 mi:1 fu:1 berlin:1 de:2 encyclop:1 htm:2 concept:2 precede:1 century:1 telautograph:2 anticipate:1 fax:1 machine:4 mechanical:19 show:1 top:4 cover:3 remove:2 operate:7 move:22 turn:5 roller:5 grip:1 transfer:1 optical:41 encode:1 disk:2 include:16 light:12 hole:1 infrared:11 led:2 shine:1 sensor:17 gather:1 pulse:3 convert:2 velocity:1 builder:1 original:2 work:12 parc:5 byte:10 issue:3 pp:1 replace:1 external:3 single:17 could:4 rotate:5 direction:9 hardware:2 package:2 alto:4 chopper:1 house:3 inside:1 chop:1 beam:2 way:7 thus:2 variant:1 resemble:2 inverted:2 predominant:1 throughout:2 group:1 settle:1 modern:4 technique:3 full:3 size:1 keyboard:13 grab:1 require:14 utilizes:1 roll:3 side:2 forward:7 backward:5 left:12 right:19 cause:8 disc:1 like:7 encoder:4 interrupt:2 generate:1 signal:3 send:2 mean:6 connect:2 wire:2 driver:4 software:30 ax:3 manufacture:2 jack:2 hawley:2 business:1 berkeley:1 california:1 start:7 another:4 proprietor:1 honeywell:1 produce:4 keytronic:1 later:2 similar:4 product:7 take:5 école:1 polytechnique:1 fédérale:1 lausanne:1 epfl:1 professor:1 jean:1 daniel:1 nicoud:1 engineer:3 watchmaker:1 andré:1 guignard:1 news:3 softpedia:1 men:1 shtml:1 incorporate:1 hard:3 rubber:1 mouseball:1 three:25 mainstream:4 adoption:4 analog:3 generally:5 regard:2 obsolete:1 potentiometer:1 rather:3 plug:1 compatible:2 joystick:5 color:9 radio:2 shack:1 usable:2 equip:2 port:5 provide:16 accept:1 best:2 opto:2 describe:1 simply:2 contact:2 incremental:1 rotary:1 prone:1 drag:5 unreliability:1 still:4 cross:3 shaft:1 low:7 friction:4 certain:3 performance:3 emit:3 diode:9 photodiodes:1 underlie:1 demonstrate:1 independent:2 inventor:1 steve:1 kirsch:2 mit:1 corporation:2 lead:11 four:4 quadrant:1 grid:2 print:1 absorb:1 ink:1 special:5 metallic:1 predictive:1 algorithm:2 cpu:1 calculate:1 speed:8 others:3 richard:1 f:1 lyon:2 sell:2 pixel:5 visible:2 image:6 detection:1 chip:3 track:15 dot:4 dark:1 field:1 printed:1 paper:2 pad:11 digibarn:1 collection:2 mousepad:9 index:1 behavior:1 coordinate:3 embed:3 correctly:2 wireless:7 intellimouse:7 explorer:4 v:1 optoelectronic:1 successive:1 power:12 grow:1 cheap:2 possible:4 powerful:1 purpose:2 process:4 advance:2 enable:3 wide:5 eliminate:1 need:3 pave:1 widespread:4 illuminate:3 laser:25 change:13 frame:3 next:2 flow:1 estimation:1 avago:1 adns:2 per:8 second:8 rectangular:1 array:2 level:2 gray:1 avagotech:1 asset:1 downloaddocument:1 id:3 access:4 logitech:16 lx:1 save:2 accurate:3 mice:5 beneath:1 microsystems:2 sparcstation:1 server:1 workstation:5 engineering:2 tip:2 enter:1 partnership:1 agilent:2 introduce:9 mx:2 cordless:4 significantly:1 increase:4 resolution:7 around:6 compare:2 conventional:4 via:4 interference:1 effect:1 diodes:1 blue:3 varies:1 red:4 today:2 arrive:1 exist:4 green:1 even:4 cycle:1 rainbow:1 instance:1 saving:1 manufacturer:8 often:17 especially:3 battery:5 powered:2 order:3 dim:1 blink:1 standby:3 mode:8 life:3 specifically:3 gamers:4 razer:2 copperhead:1 lack:3 attempt:1 reduce:6 latency:2 improve:1 responsiveness:1 typical:2 implementation:2 state:5 rate:4 condition:3 response:5 illumination:2 appear:5 bright:1 fallback:1 active:2 dull:1 sleep:2 fully:1 click:33 wake:1 utilize:2 offer:3 substantial:1 capable:1 aa:1 due:5 requirement:1 versus:1 ifeel:1 onto:2 unlike:1 clogged:1 lint:1 rolling:1 therefore:1 maintenance:1 debris:2 might:6 collect:1 emitter:2 cannot:1 glossy:2 transparent:4 cursor:10 drift:1 unpredictably:1 less:10 processing:1 problem:4 fast:2 though:1 high:6 end:1 inch:6 faster:2 sensitivity:5 counterpart:3 expensive:1 earthv:1 asp:1 articleid:1 pageid:1 average:1 demand:1 practice:1 significant:1 notebook:2 outperform:1 uneven:1 slick:1 soft:2 sticky:1 loose:1 mobile:1 situation:1 render:1 infared:1 multi:5 result:3 unreliable:1 suffer:1 advent:1 affordable:1 camera:5 integrate:1 logic:1 ideal:1 experimentation:1 generation:1 experimenter:1 obtain:1 cost:1 component:3 apart:1 working:1 optic:1 write:1 glass:3 glaser:1 capability:2 mirror:1 inertial:6 gyroscopic:1 call:9 air:1 since:6 tuning:1 fork:1 accelerometer:1 u:1 every:2 gyration:1 degree:3 rotational:2 freedom:3 insensitive:1 spatial:3 translation:1 wrist:1 fatigue:1 see:8 gorilla:1 arm:1 usually:14 switch:12 deactivate:1 circuitry:1 without:4 affect:3 claim:1 consume:1 optically:1 increased:1 weight:2 ease:1 fresh:1 highly:1 sensitive:3 combination:6 ergonomic:2 arrangement:1 flat:1 potentially:1 alleviate:1 repetitive:2 injury:2 relate:1 posture:2 bat:1 fly:1 wand:1 ultrasound:2 probably:1 known:1 spacemouse:1 late:5 kantek:1 ringmouse:1 wear:1 ring:1 finger:1 thumb:1 dimension:2 station:1 art:1 despite:1 appeal:1 finally:1 discontinue:1 sufficient:1 recent:3 consumer:1 wii:3 remote:2 primarily:2 sensing:2 determine:1 orientation:3 distance:1 ir:3 nunchuk:1 tell:1 current:1 heading:1 obvious:1 drawback:3 approach:2 bar:1 game:24 developer:1 conference:1 gdc:1 company:1 optiburst:2 autodesk:1 maya:2 application:12 true:1 primary:9 advantage:3 development:2 organic:1 natural:1 multiple:5 bit:3 era:1 home:2 amiga:2 player:12 interact:1 collaborative:1 e:2 g:2 simulate:2 whiteboard:1 draw:1 pass:2 proposition:1 operator:2 simultaneously:2 sophisticated:1 graphic:3 multimedia:1 ieee:1 xplore:1 double:5 window:14 environment:3 connectivity:1 communication:3 protocol:8 transmit:3 cable:1 thin:1 terminating:1 connector:3 rs:1 p:12 adb:3 usb:7 data:5 radiation:1 irda:1 bluetooth:1 although:5 aforementioned:1 serial:7 bus:6 format:6 commonly:6 available:4 currently:2 standardize:1 past:1 vary:2 dedicated:1 card:1 ibm:4 subminiature:1 circuit:1 well:2 version:5 incompatible:1 incompatibility:1 msc:1 ms:1 freedos:1 ps:2 arrival:1 eponymous:1 rapidly:1 adopt:1 round:1 mini:1 din:1 lieu:1 former:1 default:6 stream:1 communicates:1 packet:4 event:2 sends:1 bi:1 directional:1 sequence:3 following:1 movementbyte:1 represent:3 sign:1 vector:3 xv:1 yv:1 indicate:2 overflow:1 respective:1 lb:1 mb:1 rb:1 status:1 middle:6 understand:1 command:3 reset:1 self:1 test:1 report:6 linux:3 dev:1 psaux:1 extension:4 relies:1 imp:1 imps:1 abbreviation:1 combine:1 backwards:1 compatibility:1 host:1 extended:2 carry:1 analogously:1 difference:1 additional:6 total:1 whdc:1 mcompat:1 mspx:1 typhoon:1 ordinary:1 handle:1 tue:1 nl:1 aeb:1 kbd:1 scancodes:1 vendor:3 public:1 documentation:1 make:15 create:2 give:5 millimeter:1 accuracy:1 fail:1 money:1 plugin:1 desktop:3 plus:1 implement:1 daisy:1 chain:1 together:1 arbitrarily:1 configuration:4 whatsoever:1 purely:1 poll:1 survive:1 number:8 non:4 imac:1 begin:3 bronze:1 powerbook:2 drop:4 favor:3 retain:1 internal:1 build:5 trackpad:1 tactile:4 contain:2 actuator:3 vibrate:1 haptic:1 feedback:2 boundary:1 surf:1 touch:2 able:1 feel:2 depth:1 hardness:1 ability:1 realize:1 electrorheological:1 heckner:1 kessler:1 egersdörfer:1 j:1 monkman:1 platform:5 analysis:1 bremen:1 june:1 clicking:4 hovering:1 select:7 file:5 program:3 action:10 list:1 icon:3 text:2 hovers:2 edit:1 open:4 employ:3 gesturally:1 stylized:1 gesture:8 map:3 specific:3 drawing:1 rapid:1 shape:4 delete:2 gestural:2 occur:4 rarely:1 plain:1 find:5 difficult:2 motor:1 convention:3 location:1 trash:1 instruct:1 us:1 domain:1 interactive:1 directly:1 virtual:2 person:5 shooter:5 genre:1 face:1 look:6 reveal:1 view:2 assign:4 leftmost:1 item:3 secondary:5 rightmost:1 bring:3 menu:12 applicable:1 mozilla:2 web:3 browser:3 follow:2 link:4 contextual:3 tab:1 tertiary:2 activation:1 meaning:1 gui:4 define:1 trigger:3 separate:4 pressing:3 leave:10 main:1 quick:4 succession:2 count:5 triple:1 chording:1 k:1 rocker:2 letter:1 modifier:1 semantic:1 rollover:1 selection:1 traversal:1 goal:1 contrast:1 mechanism:2 mostly:1 placement:3 soon:2 prototypes:1 back:2 unix:3 oem:1 bundle:1 aftermarket:3 always:6 mighty:3 capacitance:1 onomatopoeia:1 context:2 onscreen:1 accomplish:1 real:1 place:1 reason:1 noise:2 nearly:2 universally:1 micro:1 cherry:1 stiff:1 flexible:1 metal:2 strip:1 bent:1 actuate:1 bending:1 snapping:1 scrollmouse:1 roughly:1 invoke:1 option:3 tailor:1 sit:1 sits:1 locate:1 benefit:1 reverse:2 center:3 noncontextual:1 paste:2 content:1 buffer:1 emulate:2 whether:2 pack:1 bundled:1 exactly:1 attract:1 enormous:1 amount:1 controversy:1 whereas:1 advocate:2 promote:1 friendly:1 portray:1 confuse:4 novice:1 guideline:2 specify:2 provider:1 mac:4 mind:1 simple:2 cut:1 awkward:1 among:1 experienced:2 extensive:1 configurable:3 complement:1 major:1 hardcoded:1 august:1 independently:1 programmable:1 desire:2 argue:1 clumsy:1 workarounds:3 appropriate:3 workaround:2 lisa:2 disadvantage:1 engage:1 completely:1 concert:1 task:1 disabled:1 remedied:1 stick:5 involve:3 period:1 perceive:1 slow:3 inadvertently:1 must:2 wait:2 otherwise:1 interpret:1 depression:1 furthermore:1 remedy:1 conflict:1 long:3 lag:3 short:2 likely:2 accidentally:1 study:1 operating:1 almost:1 encourage:1 instruction:1 apply:3 set:6 say:1 ground:1 break:1 dorado:1 mid:1 yellow:1 meta:1 naming:1 smalltalk:1 squeak:2 designation:1 acorn:1 risc:2 necessarily:1 wimp:2 os:3 refers:2 adjust:3 activate:2 equate:2 underneath:1 title:1 serf:1 filer:1 alter:1 parameter:1 within:2 exact:1 depend:2 programmer:1 preference:2 history:2 related:1 useful:1 easy:2 weapon:4 switching:1 functionality:1 virtually:3 keystroke:1 matter:2 popularise:1 anywhere:1 fit:1 notably:1 immediate:1 step:3 easily:2 intuit:1 far:3 push:2 navigate:1 conjunction:2 ctrl:1 zoom:4 adobe:1 reader:1 word:1 internet:2 opera:1 firefox:1 mulberry:1 entire:1 shift:1 refer:3 branding:1 genius:3 brand:1 netscroll:1 commercially:2 itotd:1 evolution:1 marketing:1 proagio:1 easyscroll:1 commercial:1 success:2 office:1 suite:1 scrolling:3 sideways:1 revolution:1 horizontal:3 vertical:3 pivot:1 bottom:1 respectively:2 peculiar:1 saitek:1 hatswitch:1 tilt:2 essentially:2 modify:2 pair:1 articulate:1 tilting:1 upper:1 actual:1 iogear:1 cruiser:1 ergonomics:1 envision:1 measure:1 cpi:5 express:1 dpi:4 specification:1 ppi:1 depends:1 dynamically:1 account:1 absolute:1 last:1 stop:1 setting:3 precision:2 acceleration:5 fact:1 incorrect:1 majority:1 constant:1 across:1 multiply:1 factor:3 slowly:1 good:1 value:3 threshold:3 quickly:2 great:1 ballistics:3 prior:1 xp:2 optionally:1 doubling:1 nonlinear:1 nt:1 calculation:1 compensate:1 slightly:1 choice:1 accessory:2 subsequent:1 steel:1 optimal:1 smoothly:1 desk:3 comfort:1 jitter:1 largely:1 exception:1 tracking:2 reflective:1 case:1 keep:1 table:1 free:1 scratch:1 deterioration:1 grain:1 pattern:1 inaccurate:1 comfortable:1 reduced:1 foot:4 polish:1 plastic:1 glide:1 resistance:1 quality:1 teflon:1 marketplace:1 symbolics:1 lisp:1 inc:1 tektronix:1 inspire:1 none:1 achieve:2 scale:1 successful:1 technically:1 influential:1 atari:1 st:1 commodore:2 windows:1 geos:1 indispensable:1 billionth:2 video:3 console:5 nature:1 crosshairs:1 fps:5 popular:1 fire:3 gamepad:1 joypad:1 accurately:2 bonus:1 particular:2 scope:2 sniper:1 rifle:1 mounting:1 bayonet:1 silencer:1 magnification:1 programming:1 wasd:1 serve:2 circle:3 strafing:1 saw:1 strafe:2 shoot:1 opponent:4 walk:1 towards:1 popularity:2 cyber:1 snipa:1 usa:1 ltd:1 peripheral:1 adjustable:2 invert:6 inversion:1 downward:1 upward:1 opposite:1 aircraft:1 pull:1 pitch:2 doom:1 popularize:1 competitor:1 realm:1 duke:1 nukem:1 engine:2 actually:1 behave:1 manner:1 quake:3 overall:1 educational:1 vtech:1 socrates:1 attached:1 optional:1 controller:2 super:1 nintendo:2 entertainment:2 addition:2 mario:1 paint:1 successor:1 sega:1 official:2 genesis:1 mega:1 drive:1 saturn:1 dreamcast:1 sony:1 playstation:4 kit:1 xbox:1 recently:1 update:1 accessibility:1 footmouse:1 tablet:1 recognition:1 interaction:1 trackpoint:1 pointstick:1 etc:1 strain:1 touchpad:1 note:1 reference:1 pdf:1 wiki:1 march:1 faq:1 revision:1 united:1 timeline:1 interview:1 doug:1 anniversary:1 material:1 mousesite:1 demonstration:1 detailed:1 description:1 protocols:1 howstuffworks:1 bbc:1 channel:1 ever:1 demo:1 old:1 кампутарная:1 мыш:1 |@bigram scroll_wheel:12 graphical_user:4 user_interface:9 apple_macintosh:4 san_francisco:1 francisco_examiner:1 pointing_device:3 computer_aided:1 douglas_engelbart:2 http_www:8 mcgill_queen:1 infrared_led:1 xerox_parc:5 xerox_alto:2 forward_backward:3 école_polytechnique:1 analog_joystick:2 radio_shack:1 joystick_input:1 emit_diode:3 infrared_sensor:2 laser_diode:2 pixel_pixel:1 sun_microsystems:2 server_workstation:1 agilent_technology:2 battery_powered:2 tuning_fork:1 button_mouse:27 infrared_radiation:1 ibm_pc:1 pc_compatible:1 pin_connector:1 bi_directional:1 mouse_button:16 backwards_compatibility:1 mouse_cursor:4 person_shooter:5 web_browser:1 interface_gui:1 clicking_noise:1 apple_lisa:2 unix_unix:1 naming_convention:1 context_sensitive:1 microsoft_window:2 internet_explorer:2 mozilla_firefox:1 horizontal_vertical:2 window_xp:2 window_nt:1 commercially_successful:1 commodore_amiga:1 sniper_rifle:1 duke_nukem:1 nintendo_entertainment:1 nintendo_sega:1 playstation_console:2 playstation_xbox:1 mouse_gesture:1 external_link:1 doug_engelbart:1 bbc_news:1 |
3,019 | Malt | Malted barley Malting is a process applied to cereal grains, in which the grains are made to germinate by soaking in water<ref>[http://www.howtobrew.com/section1/chapter3.html "How to brew manually by John Palmer]</ref> and are then quickly halted from germinating further by drying/heating with hot air. What is malting? Thus, malting is a combination of two processes: the sprouting process and the kiln-drying process. These latter terms are often preferred when referring to the field of brewing for batches of beer or other beverages as they provide more in-depth information. The term "malt" refers to several products of the process: the grains to which this process has been applied, for example malted barley; the sugar, heavy in maltose, derived from such grains, such as the baker's malt used in various cereals; or a product based on malted milk, similar to a malted milkshake (i.e., "malts"). Whisky or beer made from malted barley or rye can also be called malt, as in Alfred Edward Housman's aphorism "malt does more than Milton can, to justify God's ways to Man." Uses Homebrewing malt extracts: liquid in a can and spray dried. Malted grain is used to make malt beer, malt whisky, malted shakes, malt vinegar, Maltesers, and some baked goods, such as malt loaf. Malting grains develops the enzymes that are required to modify the grain's starches into sugars, including monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, etc.) and disaccharides (sucrose, etc.). It also develops other enzymes, such as proteases, which break down the proteins in the grain into forms which can be utilized by yeast. Barley is the most commonly malted grain in part because of its high diastatic power or enzyme content. Also very important is the retention of the grain's husk even after threshing, unlike the bare seeds of threshed wheat or rye. This protects the growing acrospire (developing plant embryo) from damage during malting, which can easily lead to mold growth. It also allows the mash of converted grain to create a filter bed during lautering (see brewing). Other grains may be malted, especially wheat. Maltings A maltings, sometimes called malthouse, or malting floor, is a building that houses the process of converting barley into malt, for use in the brewing or distilling process. http://www.ukmalt.com/howmaltismade/maltmade.asp This is done by kiln-drying the sprouted barley. This is usually done by spreading the sprouted barley on a perforated wooden floor. Smoke, coming from an oasting fireplace (via smoke channels) is then used to heat the wooden floor (and thus, the sprouted grain with it). The temperature thus employed is usually around 55° Celsius (131° Fahrenheit). A typical floor maltings is a long, single-story building with a floor that slopes slightly from one end of the building to the other. Floor maltings began to be phased out in the 1940s in favor of 'pneumatic plants'. Here large industrial fans are used to blow air through the germinating grain beds and to pass hot air through the malt being kilned. Like floor maltings these pneumatic plants are batch processes but of considerably greater size, typically 100 tonne batches compared with 20 tonne batches for a floor maltings. Malt categories Malt is often divided into two categories by brewers: base malts and specialty malts. Base malts have enough diastatic power to convert their own starch and usually that of some amount of starch from unmalted grain, called adjuncts. Specialty malts have little diastatic power; they are used to provide flavor, color, or "body" (viscosity) to the finished beer. Caramel or crystal malts are specialty malts that have been subjected to heat treatment that converts their starches to sugars non-enzymatically. Within these categories are a variety of types distinguished largely by the kilning temperature (see mash ingredients). In addition, malts are distinguished by the two major species of barley used for malting, two-row and six-row. Goldhammer, Ted (2008), The Brewer's Handbook, 2nd ed., Apex, ISBN 0-9675212-3-8, pp. 31 ff. A new technology, called fluid bed technology, permits the production of malt granules. Malt granules are the dried liquid extract from malt using in the brewing or distilling process. See also Mash ingredients Beer style Malta (soft drink) Malt beverage Malt liquor Malt granules References Notes Bibliography D.E. Briggs, Malts and Malting, Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers (30 Sep 1998), ISBN 0412298007 Christine Clark, The British Malting Industry Since 1830, Hambledon Continuum (1 Jul 1998), ISBN 1852851708 External links Make Your Own Malt, Brew Your Own'' magazine (ISSN 1081-826X ), August 1997, pp. 32-36. UK Malt The website of The Maltsters' Association of Great Britain. UK Malting Barley information and malt images. TIME Magazine Article about Malt Granules from GranMalt in the TIME Magazine. | Malt |@lemmatized malt:45 barley:9 malting:4 process:10 apply:2 cereal:2 grain:15 make:4 germinate:2 soak:1 water:1 ref:2 http:2 www:2 howtobrew:1 com:2 html:1 brew:2 manually:1 john:1 palmer:1 quickly:1 halt:1 dry:3 heat:3 hot:2 air:3 thus:3 combination:1 two:4 sprout:1 kiln:2 drying:1 latter:1 term:2 often:2 prefer:1 refer:1 field:1 brewing:4 batch:4 beer:5 beverage:2 provide:2 depth:1 information:2 refers:1 several:1 product:2 example:1 sugar:3 heavy:1 maltose:1 derive:1 baker:1 use:9 various:1 base:3 malted:2 milk:1 similar:1 milkshake:1 e:2 whisky:2 rye:2 also:5 call:4 alfred:1 edward:1 housman:1 aphorism:1 milton:1 justify:1 god:1 way:1 man:1 homebrewing:1 extract:2 liquid:2 spray:1 shake:1 vinegar:1 maltesers:1 baked:1 good:1 loaf:1 develop:3 enzyme:3 require:1 modify:1 starch:4 include:1 monosaccharide:1 glucose:1 fructose:1 etc:2 disaccharide:1 sucrose:1 protease:1 break:1 protein:1 form:1 utilize:1 yeast:1 commonly:1 part:1 high:1 diastatic:3 power:3 content:1 important:1 retention:1 husk:1 even:1 thresh:1 unlike:1 bare:1 seed:1 threshed:1 wheat:2 protect:1 grow:1 acrospire:1 plant:3 embryo:1 damage:1 easily:1 lead:1 mold:1 growth:1 allow:1 mash:3 convert:4 create:1 filter:1 bed:3 lautering:1 see:3 may:1 especially:1 maltings:6 sometimes:1 malthouse:1 floor:8 building:3 house:1 distilling:2 ukmalt:1 howmaltismade:1 maltmade:1 asp:1 sprouted:3 usually:3 spread:1 perforated:1 wooden:2 smoke:2 come:1 oasting:1 fireplace:1 via:1 channel:1 temperature:2 employ:1 around:1 celsius:1 fahrenheit:1 typical:1 long:1 single:1 story:1 slop:1 slightly:1 one:1 end:1 begin:1 phase:1 favor:1 pneumatic:2 large:1 industrial:1 fan:1 blow:1 germinating:1 pass:1 kilned:1 like:1 considerably:1 great:2 size:1 typically:1 tonne:2 compare:1 category:3 divide:1 brewer:2 specialty:3 enough:1 amount:1 unmalted:1 adjunct:1 little:1 flavor:1 color:1 body:1 viscosity:1 finish:1 caramel:1 crystal:1 subject:1 treatment:1 non:1 enzymatically:1 within:1 variety:1 type:1 distinguish:2 largely:1 kilning:1 ingredient:2 addition:1 major:1 specie:1 row:2 six:1 goldhammer:1 ted:1 handbook:1 ed:1 apex:1 isbn:3 pp:2 ff:1 new:1 technology:2 fluid:1 permit:1 production:1 granule:4 dried:1 style:1 malta:1 soft:1 drink:1 liquor:1 reference:1 note:1 bibliography:1 briggs:1 kluwer:1 academic:1 plenum:1 publisher:1 sep:1 christine:1 clark:1 british:1 industry:1 since:1 hambledon:1 continuum:1 jul:1 external:1 link:1 magazine:3 issn:1 august:1 uk:2 website:1 maltster:1 association:1 britain:1 image:1 time:2 article:1 granmalt:1 |@bigram malt_barley:3 cereal_grain:1 http_www:2 malt_whisky:2 barley_rye:1 malt_extract:1 malt_grain:3 starch_sugar:2 monosaccharide_glucose:1 glucose_fructose:1 disaccharide_sucrose:1 wheat_rye:1 barley_malt:1 malt_granule:4 soft_drink:1 malt_beverage:1 kluwer_academic:1 hambledon_continuum:1 external_link:1 |
3,020 | Dentistry | A Dentist and Dental Assistant perform surgery on a patient. Dentistry is the known evaluation, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders and conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body. Dentistry Definitions, hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed 11 December 2007. This definition was adopted the association's House of Delegates in 1997. Dentistry is widely considered necessary for complete overall health. Those in the practice of dentistry are known as dentists. Other people aiding in oral health service include dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, and dental therapists. Dentistry is that branch of medicine which deals with the study and practice of diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases of the mouth, the maxilla, and the face. Complete Surgery Dentistry usually encompasses very important practices related to the oral cavity. The most common treatments involve the dental surgery on the teeth as a treatment for dental caries. Decayed teeth can be filled with dental amalgam, dental composite, dental porcelain and precious or non-precious metals. Oral and maxillofacial surgery is a more specialized form of dental surgery. Dentists can prescribe medication, x-rays, and devices for home or in-office use. Many oral diseases (such as bilateral odontogenic keratocysts) and abnormalities (such as several unerupted teeth) can indicate systemic, neural, or other diseases. Most general practitioners of dentistry perform restorative, prosthetic, endodontic therapy, periodontal therapy, and exodontia, as well as performing examinations. Many general practitioners are comfortable treating complex cases, as well as placing implants and extracting third molars(wisdom teeth). All dentists must achieve a certain degree of skill in various disciplines in order to graduate from dental school and become an accredited dentist. Prevention Dentists also encourage prevention of dental caries through proper hygiene (tooth brushing and flossing), fluoride, and tooth polishing, although excessive brushing can cause damage to the gums. Dental sealants are plastic materials applied to one or more teeth, for the intended purpose of preventing dental caries or other forms of tooth decay. Recognized but less conventional preventive agents include xylitol, which is bacteriostatic, American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2006) Policy on the Use of Xylitol in Caries Prevention. casein derivatives, and proprietary products such as Cavistat BasicMints. Experimental chewy mint beats tooth decay Education and licensing The first dental school, Baltimore College of Dental Surgery opened in Baltimore, Maryland in 1840, and in 1867, Harvard Dental School became the second dental school affiliated with a university.Studies showed that dentists graduated from different countries, or even from different dental schools in one country, . may have different clinical decisions for the same clinical condition. For example, dentists graduated from Israeli dental schools may recommend more often for the removal of asymptomatic impacted third molar (wisdom teeth) than dentists graduated from Latin-American or Eastern European dental schools. In England, the 1878 British Dentists Act and 1879 Dentists Register limited the title of "dentist" and "dental surgeon" to qualified and registered practitioners. Gelbier, Stanley. 125 Years of Developments in Dentistry. British Dental Journal (2005); 199, 470-473. Page accessed 11 December 2007. The 1879 register is referred to as the "Dental Register". The practice of dentistry in the United Kingdom became fully regulated with the 1921 Dentists Act, which required the registration of anyone practicing dentistry. History of Dental Surgery in Edinburgh, hosted on the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh website. Page accessed 11 December 2007. The British Dental Association, formed in 1880 with Sir John Tomes as president, played a major role in prosecuting dentists practicing illegally. Gelbier, Stanley. 125 Years of Developments in Dentistry. British Dental Journal (2005); 199, 470-473. Page accessed 11 December 2007. A dentist is a healthcare professional qualified to practice dentistry after graduating with a degree of either Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD), Bachelor of Dentistry (BDent), Bachelor of Dental Science (BDSc), or Bachelor of Dental Surgery/Chirurgiae (BDS) or (BChD) or equivalent. In most western countries, to become a qualified dentist one must usually complete at least 4 years of postgraduate study; within the European Union the education has to be at least 5 years. Dentists usually complete between 5–8 years of post secondary education before practicing. Though not mandatory, many dentists choose to complete an internship or residency focusing on specific aspects of dental care after they have received their dental degree. Specialties Official specialties In addition to general dentistry, there are about 9 recognized dental specialties in the US, Canada, and Australia. To become a specialist requires one to train in a residency or advanced graduate training program. Once residency is completed, the doctor is granted a certificate of specialty training. Many specialty programs have optional or required advanced degrees such as a masters degree: (MS, MSc, MDS, MSD, MDSc, MMSc, or MDent), doctoral degree: (DClinDent, DMSc, or PhD), or medical degree: (MD/MBBS specific to Maxillofacial Surgery and sometimes Oral Medicine). Dental public health (study of dental epidemiology and social health policies), Endodontics (root canal therapy and study of diseases of the dental pulp), Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology (study, diagnosis, and sometimes the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases), Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology (study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases), Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery (extractions, implants, and facial surgery), Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopaedics (straightening of teeth and modification of midface and mandibular growth), Periodontics (study and treatment of diseases of the periodontium (non-surgical and surgical), and placement and maintenance of dental implants), Pediatric dentistry (i.e. dentistry for children, formerly known as "pedodontics"), Prosthodontics (dentures, bridges and the restoration of implants. Some prosthodontists further their training in "oral and maxillofacial prosthodontics"--a discipline concerned with the replacement of missing facial structures—such as ears, eyes, nose, etc.) Specialists in these fields are designated registrable (U.S. "Board Eligible") and warrant exclusive titles such as orthodontist, oral and maxillofacial surgeon, endodontist, pediatric dentist, periodontist, or prosthodontist upon satisfying certain local (U.S. "Board Certified"), (Australia/NZ: "FRACDS"), or (Canada: "FRCD(C)") registry requirements. The American Board of Dental Sleep Medicine (ABDSM) provides board-certification examinations annually for qualified dentists. These dentists collaborate with sleep physicians at accredited sleep centers and can provide oral appliance therapy and upper airway surgery to treat sleep-related breathing disorders. While Diplomate status granted by the ABDSM is not one of the recognized dental specialties, it is recognized by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM). A few other post-graduate formal advanced education programs: GPR, GDR, MTP residencies (advanced clinical and didactic training with intense hospital experience) and AEGD, SEGD, and GradDipClinDent programs (advanced training in clinical dentistry) are recognized but do not lead to specialization. Other dental education exists where no postgraduate formal university training is required: cosmetic dentistry, dental implant, temporo-mandibular joint therapy. These usually require the attendance of one or more continuing education courses that typically last for one to several days. There are restrictions on allowing these dentists to call themselves specialists in these fields. The specialist titles are registrable titles and controlled by the local dental licensing bodies. Other specialities Dental anesthesiology, the study of how to relieve pain through advanced use of local and general anesthesia techniques is not yet considered to be one of the recognized dental specialties. However, CODA is in the process of accrediting all dental anesthesiology programs. Special needs dentistry is dentistry for those with developmental and acquired disabilities. It is a recognized specialty by the Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons. It has also been recently recognised as a specialty by the General Dental Council in the United Kingdom. The American Board of Special Care Dentistry is hoping to also obtain accreditation for special needs dentistry by CODA., Oral Biology - Research in Dental and Craniofacial Biology Forensic odontology consists of the gathering and use of dental evidence in law. This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field. The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity. Geriatric dentistry or geriodontics is the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal ageing and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals. Veterinary dentistry, a speciality of veterinary medicine, is the field of dentistry applied to the care of animals. AVDC Home EVDC web site Aviation dentistry, a subcategory of (military) aviation medicine deals with dental topics related to aircrews, e.g., dental barotrauma and barodontalgia. In addition, the aircrew population is a unique high-risk group to several diseases and harmful conditions due to irregular work shifts with irregular self-oral care habits and irregular meals (usually carbonated drinks and high energy snacks) and work-related stress. History Farmer at the dentist, Johann Liss, c. 1616-17. Medieval dentist extracting a tooth. London; c. 1360-75. Army Dental Surgery. Display at Army Medical Services Museum. Typical of dental surgeries, civil and military, during the 1940s and 1950s. A modern Dentist's chair in a Public Hospital Na Wa, Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand. The Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan has yielded evidence of dentistry being practiced as far back as 7000 BCE. Coppa, A. et al. 2006. Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry. Nature. Volume 440. 6 April, 2006. This earliest form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead craftsmen. BBC (2006). Stone age man used dentist drill. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective. MSNBC (2008). Dig uncovers ancient roots of dentistry. A Sumerian text from 5000 BC describes a "tooth worm" as the cause of dental caries. History of Dentistry: Ancient Origins, hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed 9 January 2007. Evidence of this belief has also been found in ancient India, Egypt, Japan, and China. The legend of the worm is also found in the writings of Homer, and as late as the 1300s AD the surgeon Guy de Chauliac still promoted the belief that worms cause tooth decay. Suddick, Richard P. and Norman O. Harris. "Historical Perspectives of Oral Biology: A Series". Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, 1(2), pages 135-151, 1990. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC but which may reflect previous manuscripts from as early as 3000 BC, includes the treatment of several dental ailments. Arab, M. Sameh. Medicine in Ancient Egypt. Page accessed 15 December 2007. Ancient Egyptian Dentistry, hosted on the University of Oklahoma website. Page accessed 15 December 2007. In the 18th century BC, the Code of Hammurabi referenced dental extraction twice as it related to punishment. Wilwerding, Terry. History of Dentistry, hosted on the Creighton University School of Dentistry website, page 4. Page accessed 15 December 2007. Examination of the remains of some ancient Egyptians and Greco-Romans reveals early attempts at dental prosthetics and surgery. Medicine in Ancient Egypt 3 Ancient Greek scholars Hippocrates and Aristotle wrote about dentistry, including the eruption pattern of teeth, treating decayed teeth and gum disease, extracting teeth with forceps, and using wires to stabilize loose teeth and fractured jaws. History of Dentistry Ancient Origins The first use of dental appliances or bridges comes from the Etruscans from as early as 700 BC. History of Dentistry Research Page, Newsletter Roman medical writer Cornelius Celsus wrote extensively of oral diseases as well as dental treatments such as narcotic-containing emollients and astringents. Dentistry - Skill And Superstition Dental Treatment in the Ancient Times Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. During the Middle Ages and throughout the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession in itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. Barbers usually limited their practice to extracting teeth which alleviated pain and associated chronic tooth infection. Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac invented the dental pelican Antique Dental Instruments (resembling a pelican's beak) which was used up until the late 18th century. The pelican was replaced by the dental key which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 20th century. The first book focused solely on dentistry was the "Artzney Buchlein" in 1530, History of Dentistry Middle Ages and the first dental textbook written in English was called "Operator for the Teeth" by Charles Allen in 1685. The story of dentistry: Dental History Timeline, hosted on the British Dental Association website. Page accessed 11 December 2007. It was between 1650 and 1800 that the science of modern dentistry developed. It is said that the 17th century French physician Pierre Fauchard started dentistry science as we know it today, and he has been named "the father of modern dentistry". History of Dentistry Articles Among many of his developments were the extensive use of dental prosthesis, the introduction of dental fillings as a treatment for dental caries and the statement that sugar derivate acids such as tartaric acid are responsible for dental decay. There has been a problem of quackery in the history of dentistry, and accusations of quackery among some dental practitioners persist today. Priority patients UK NHS priority patients include patients with congenital abnormalities (such as cleft palates and hypodontia), patients who have suffered orofacial trauma and those being treated for cancer in the head and neck region. These are treated in a multidisciplinary team approach with other hospital based dental specialties orthodontics and maxillofacial surgery. Other priority patients include those with infections (either third molars or necrotic teeth which can often infect the brain) or avulsed permanent teeth, as well as patients with a history of smoking or smokeless tobacco with ulcers in the oral cavity. Geography Organizations See also Sagittal section of a tooth Barodontalgia Biodontics Calculus Crown Dental amalgam Dental brace Dental cavities Dental extraction Dental fear Dental implants Dental notation Dental restoration Dentin Eco-friendly dentistry Fluoridation Fluoride therapy Gingivitis Halitosis Dental laboratory Minimal intervention dentistry Oral and maxillofacial surgery Oral hygiene Patron Saint of dentistry (Saint Apollonia) Periodontitis Plaque Toothache Xerostomia Lists List of dentists List of oral health and dental topics List of basic dentistry topics List of dental schools in the United States References External links Communication and information in orthodontics History of Dentistry in the 20th Century by the ADA Information resource for UK dental professionals Ancient dentistry discovered Dentistry in blog Dentpedia.info - Dental Encyclopedia | Dentistry |@lemmatized dentist:29 dental:93 assistant:2 perform:5 surgery:18 patient:7 dentistry:56 known:1 evaluation:1 diagnosis:4 prevention:6 treatment:11 disease:12 disorder:3 condition:3 oral:23 cavity:4 maxillofacial:12 area:1 adjacent:1 associated:1 structure:2 impact:1 human:1 body:2 definition:2 host:6 american:7 association:5 website:6 page:12 access:9 december:8 adopt:1 house:1 delegate:1 widely:1 consider:2 necessary:1 complete:6 overall:1 health:6 practice:10 know:3 people:1 aid:1 service:2 include:6 hygienist:1 technician:1 therapist:1 branch:1 medicine:10 deal:2 study:9 mouth:1 maxilla:1 face:1 usually:6 encompass:1 important:1 relate:4 common:1 involve:3 teeth:15 caries:6 decay:6 fill:1 amalgam:2 composite:1 porcelain:1 precious:2 non:2 metal:1 specialized:1 form:5 prescribe:1 medication:1 x:1 ray:1 device:1 home:2 office:1 use:12 many:5 bilateral:1 odontogenic:1 keratocysts:1 abnormality:2 several:5 unerupted:1 indicate:1 systemic:1 neural:1 general:6 practitioner:4 restorative:1 prosthetic:1 endodontic:1 therapy:6 periodontal:1 exodontia:1 well:4 examination:3 comfortable:1 treat:6 complex:1 case:1 place:1 implant:6 extract:4 third:3 molar:3 wisdom:2 must:2 achieve:1 certain:2 degree:7 skill:2 various:1 discipline:2 order:1 graduate:7 school:9 become:5 accredited:2 also:6 encourage:1 proper:1 hygiene:2 tooth:10 brushing:2 floss:1 fluoride:2 polishing:1 although:1 excessive:1 cause:3 damage:1 gum:2 sealant:1 plastic:1 material:1 apply:2 one:8 intended:1 purpose:1 prevent:1 recognize:7 less:1 conventional:1 preventive:1 agent:1 xylitol:2 bacteriostatic:1 academy:2 pediatric:3 policy:2 casein:1 derivative:1 proprietary:1 product:1 cavistat:1 basicmints:1 experimental:1 chewy:1 mint:1 beat:1 education:6 license:1 first:4 baltimore:2 college:3 open:1 maryland:1 harvard:1 second:1 affiliate:1 university:4 show:2 different:3 country:3 even:1 may:4 clinical:4 decision:1 example:1 israeli:1 recommend:1 often:3 removal:1 asymptomatic:1 impacted:1 latin:1 eastern:1 european:2 england:1 british:5 act:2 register:3 limit:2 title:4 surgeon:5 qualify:2 registered:1 gelbier:2 stanley:2 year:5 development:3 journal:2 refer:1 united:3 kingdom:2 fully:1 regulate:1 require:5 registration:1 anyone:1 history:12 edinburgh:2 royal:2 sir:1 john:1 tome:1 president:1 play:1 major:1 role:1 prosecute:1 illegally:1 healthcare:1 professional:3 either:2 doctor:3 dds:1 dmd:1 bachelor:3 bdent:1 science:3 bdsc:1 chirurgiae:1 bd:1 bchd:1 equivalent:1 western:1 qualified:2 least:2 postgraduate:2 within:1 union:1 post:2 secondary:1 though:1 mandatory:1 choose:1 internship:1 residency:4 focus:2 specific:2 aspect:1 care:6 receive:1 specialty:10 official:1 addition:2 u:3 canada:2 australia:2 specialist:4 train:1 advanced:6 training:7 program:5 grant:2 certificate:1 optional:1 master:1 msc:1 md:2 msd:1 mdsc:1 mmsc:1 mdent:1 doctoral:1 dclindent:1 dmsc:1 phd:1 medical:3 mbbs:1 sometimes:2 public:2 epidemiology:1 social:1 endodontics:1 root:2 canal:1 pulp:1 pathology:1 related:4 radiology:1 radiologic:1 interpretation:1 extraction:5 facial:2 orthodontics:3 dentofacial:1 orthopaedics:1 straighten:1 modification:1 midface:1 mandibular:2 growth:1 periodontics:1 periodontium:1 surgical:2 placement:1 maintenance:1 e:2 child:1 formerly:1 pedodontics:1 prosthodontics:2 denture:1 bridge:2 restoration:2 prosthodontist:2 concern:1 replacement:1 miss:1 ear:1 eye:1 nose:1 etc:1 field:4 designate:1 registrable:2 board:5 eligible:1 warrant:1 exclusive:1 orthodontist:1 endodontist:1 periodontist:1 upon:1 satisfy:1 local:3 certify:1 nz:1 fracds:1 frcd:1 c:3 registry:1 requirement:1 sleep:5 abdsm:2 provide:2 certification:1 annually:1 collaborate:1 physician:3 center:1 appliance:2 upper:1 airway:1 breathing:1 diplomate:1 status:1 aasm:1 formal:2 gpr:1 gdr:1 mtp:1 didactic:1 intense:1 hospital:3 experience:2 aegd:1 segd:1 graddipclindent:1 lead:1 specialization:1 exist:1 cosmetic:1 temporo:1 joint:1 attendance:1 continuing:1 course:1 typically:1 last:1 day:1 restriction:1 allow:1 call:2 control:1 licensing:1 speciality:2 anesthesiology:2 relieve:1 pain:2 anesthesia:1 technique:1 yet:1 however:1 coda:2 process:1 accredit:1 special:3 needs:1 developmental:1 acquired:1 disability:1 australasian:1 recently:1 recognise:1 council:1 hop:1 obtain:1 accreditation:1 need:1 biology:4 research:2 craniofacial:1 forensic:2 odontology:1 consist:1 gathering:1 evidence:3 law:1 function:1 primarily:1 documentation:1 verification:1 identity:1 geriatric:1 geriodontics:1 delivery:1 older:1 adult:1 problem:2 associate:2 normal:1 ageing:1 age:4 part:1 interdisciplinary:1 team:2 veterinary:2 animal:1 avdc:1 evdc:1 web:1 site:1 aviation:2 subcategory:1 military:2 topic:3 aircrew:2 g:1 barotrauma:1 barodontalgia:2 population:1 unique:1 high:2 risk:1 group:1 harmful:1 due:1 irregular:3 work:2 shift:1 self:1 habit:1 meal:1 carbonate:1 drink:1 energy:1 snack:1 stress:1 farmer:1 johann:1 li:1 medieval:1 london:1 army:2 display:1 museum:1 typical:1 civil:1 modern:4 chair:1 na:1 wa:1 nakhon:1 phanom:1 province:1 thailand:1 indus:1 valley:1 civilization:1 pakistan:1 yield:1 far:1 back:2 bce:1 coppa:1 et:1 al:1 early:5 neolithic:1 tradition:1 nature:1 volume:1 april:1 cure:1 bow:1 drill:2 operate:1 perhaps:1 skilled:1 bead:1 craftsman:1 bbc:1 stone:1 man:1 reconstruction:1 ancient:12 method:1 reliable:1 effective:1 msnbc:1 dig:1 uncovers:1 sumerian:1 text:1 bc:5 describe:1 worm:3 origin:1 january:1 belief:2 find:2 india:1 egypt:3 japan:1 china:1 legend:1 writing:1 homer:1 late:2 ad:1 guy:2 de:2 chauliac:2 still:1 promote:1 suddick:1 richard:1 p:1 norman:1 harris:1 historical:1 perspective:1 series:1 critical:1 review:1 edwin:1 smith:1 papyrus:1 write:4 century:9 reflect:1 previous:1 manuscript:1 ailment:1 arab:1 sameh:1 egyptian:2 oklahoma:1 code:1 hammurabi:1 reference:2 twice:1 punishment:1 wilwerding:1 terry:1 creighton:1 remains:1 greco:1 roman:2 reveal:1 attempt:1 prosthetics:1 greek:1 scholar:1 hippocrates:1 aristotle:1 eruption:1 pattern:1 forceps:2 wire:1 stabilize:1 loose:1 fracture:1 jaw:1 origins:1 come:1 etruscan:1 newsletter:1 writer:1 cornelius:1 celsus:1 extensively:1 narcotic:1 containing:1 emollient:1 astringent:1 superstition:1 time:1 historically:1 variety:1 illness:1 middle:2 throughout:1 profession:1 procedure:1 barber:2 alleviate:1 chronic:1 infection:2 instrument:2 date:1 invent:1 pelican:3 antique:1 resemble:1 beak:1 replace:2 key:1 turn:1 book:1 solely:1 artzney:1 buchlein:1 textbook:1 english:1 operator:1 charles:1 allen:1 story:1 timeline:1 develop:1 say:1 french:1 pierre:1 fauchard:1 start:1 today:2 name:1 father:1 article:1 among:2 extensive:1 prosthesis:1 introduction:1 filling:1 statement:1 sugar:1 derivate:1 acid:2 tartaric:1 responsible:1 quackery:2 accusation:1 persist:1 priority:3 uk:2 nhs:1 congenital:1 cleft:1 palate:1 hypodontia:1 suffer:1 orofacial:1 trauma:1 cancer:1 head:1 neck:1 region:1 multidisciplinary:1 approach:1 base:1 necrotic:1 infect:1 brain:1 avulse:1 permanent:1 smoking:1 smokeless:1 tobacco:1 ulcer:1 geography:1 organization:1 see:1 sagittal:1 section:1 biodontics:1 calculus:1 crown:1 brace:1 fear:1 notation:1 dentin:1 eco:1 friendly:1 fluoridation:1 gingivitis:1 halitosis:1 laboratory:1 minimal:1 intervention:1 patron:1 saint:2 apollonia:1 periodontitis:1 plaque:1 toothache:1 xerostomia:1 list:5 basic:1 state:1 external:1 link:1 communication:1 information:2 ada:1 resource:1 discover:1 blog:1 dentpedia:1 info:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram oral_cavity:3 dental_surgery:8 dental_caries:5 precious_metal:1 oral_maxillofacial:9 maxillofacial_surgery:5 prescribe_medication:1 tooth_decay:3 baltimore_maryland:1 doctoral_degree:1 dental_implant:3 relieve_pain:1 health_care:1 veterinary_medicine:1 indus_valley:1 et_al:1 code_hammurabi:1 greco_roman:1 alleviate_pain:1 acid_tartaric:1 tartaric_acid:1 eco_friendly:1 patron_saint:1 external_link:1 |
3,021 | Casuistry | Casuistry () is an applied ethics term referring to case-based reasoning. Casuistry is used in juridical and ethical discussions of law and ethics, and often is a critique of principle or rule-based reasoning. "Casuistry", Dictionary of the History of Ideas, University of Virginia Library. On line. Critics use the term pejoratively for the use of clever but unsound reasoning, especially in relation to moral questions (see sophistry). Casuistry is reasoning used to resolve moral problems by applying theoretical rules to particular instances. Examples For example, while a principle-based approach might claim that lying is always morally wrong, the casuist would argue that, depending upon the details of the case, lying might or might not be illegal or unethical. For instance, the casuist might conclude that a person is wrong to lie in legal testimony under oath, but might argue that lying actually is the best moral choice if the lie saves a life (Thomas Sanchez and others thus theorized a doctrine of mental reservation). For the casuist, the circumstances of a case are essential for evaluating the proper response. Typically, casuistic reasoning begins with a clear-cut paradigmatic case (from paradigm, the Greek word παράδειγμα, paradeigma, "pattern" and "example", in turn derived from παραδεικνύναι paradeiknunai, "demonstrate"). In legal reasoning, for example, this might be a precedent case, such as pre-meditated murder. From it, the casuist would ask how closely the given case currently under consideration matches the paradigmatic case. Cases like the paradigmatic case ought to be treated likewise; cases unlike the paradigm ought to be treated differently. Thus, a man is properly charged with pre-meditated murder if the circumstances surrounding his case closely resemble the exemplar pre-meditated murder case. The less a given case is like the paradigm, the weaker the justification is for treating that case like the paradigmatic case. Meanings Casuistry is a method of case reasoning especially useful in treating cases that involve moral dilemmas. It is also a branch of applied ethics. Casuistry is the basis of case law in common law, and the standard form of reasoning applied in common law. The casuist morality Casuistry takes a relentlessly practical approach to morality. Rather than using theories as starting points, casuistry begins with an examination of cases. By drawing parallels between paradigms, so called "pure cases," and the case at hand, a casuist tries to determine a moral response appropriate to a particular case. Casuistry has been described as "theory modest" (Arras, see below). One of the strengths of casuistry is that it does not begin with, nor does it overemphasize, theoretical issues. Casuistry does not require practitioners to agree about ethical theories or evaluations before making policy. Instead, they can agree that certain paradigms should be treated in certain ways, and then agree on the similarities, the so-called warrants between a paradigm and the case at hand. Since most people, and most cultures, substantially agree about most pure ethical situations, casuistry often creates ethical arguments that can persuade people of different ethnic, religious and philosophical beliefs to treat particular cases in the same ways. For this reason, casuistry is widely considered to be the basis for the English common law and its derivatives. Casuistry is prone to abuses wherever the analogies between cases are false. History Western casuistry dates from Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), yet the zenith of casuistry was from A.D. 1550 to A.D. 1650, when the Jesuit religious order extensively used casuistry, particularly in practicing the private, Roman Catholic confession . The term casuistry quickly became pejorative with Blaise Pascal's attack on the misuse of casuistry. In Provincial Letters (1656–7) he scolded the Jesuits for using casuistic reasoning in confession to placate wealthy Church donors, whilst punishing poor penitents. Pascal charged that aristocratic penitents could confess their sins one day, re-commit the sin the next day, generously donate the following day, then return to re-confess their sins and only receive the lightest punishment; Pascal's criticisms darkened casuistry's reputation. Since the seventeenth century, casuistry has been widely considered a degenerate form of reasoning. Critics of casuistry focus on its specious argumentation as intentionally misleading. It was not until publication of The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning (1988), by Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin, Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin, The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning, Berkeley, U. California Press (1990, ISBN 0-520-06960-9). that a revival of casuistry occurred. They argue that the abuse of casuistry is the problem, not casuistry itself (itself an example of casuistic reasoning). Properly used, casuistry is powerful reasoning. Jonsen and Toulmin offer casuistry in dissolving the contradictory tenets of absolutism and relativism: “the form of reasoning constitutive of classical casuistry is rhetorical reasoning”. Jonsen, 1991, p. 297. Moreover, Utilitarianism and Pragmatism commonly are identified as philosophies employing the rhetorical reasoning of casuistry. Casuistry in early modern times The casuistic method was popular among Catholic thinkers in the early modern period, and not only among the Jesuits, as it is commonly thought. Famous casuistic authors include Antonio Escobar y Mendoza's Summula casuum conscientiae (1627), which had enjoyed a great success, Thomas Sanchez, Vincenzo Filliucci (Jesuit and penitentiary at St Peter's), Antonino Diana, Paul Laymann (Theologia Moralis, 1625), John Azor (Institutiones Morales, 1600), Etienne Bauny, Louis Cellot, Valerius Reginaldus, Hermann Busembaum (d. 1668), etc. One of the main theses of casuists was the necessity to adapt the rigorous morals of the Early Fathers of Christianity to modern morals, which led in some extreme cases to justify what Innocent XI later called "laxist moral" (i.e. justification of usury, homicide, regicide, lying through "mental reservation", adultery and loss of virginity before marriage, etc. — all due cases registered by Pascal in the Provincial Letters). The progress of casuistry was interrupted towards the middle of the 17th century by the controversy which arose concerning the doctrine of probabilism, which stipulated that one could choose to follow a "probable opinion," that is, supported by a theologian or another, even if it contradicted a more probable opinion or a quotation from one of the Fathers of the Church. The controversy divided Catholic theologians into two camps, Rigorists and Laxists. Casuistry was much mistrusted by early Protestant theologians, because it justified many of the abuses that they sought to reform. It was famously attacked by the Catholic and Jansenist philosopher Pascal, during the formulary controversy against the Jesuits, in his Provincial Letters as the use of rhetorics to justify moral laxity, which became identified by the public with Jesuitism; hence the everyday use of the term to mean complex and sophistic reasoning to justify moral laxity. By the middle of the 18th century, the name of "casuistry" became a synonym of moral laxity. In 1679 Pope Innocent XI publicly condemned sixty-five of the more radical propositions (stricti mentalis), taken chiefly from the writings of Escobar, Suarez and other casuists as propositiones laxorum moralistarum and forbade anyone to teach them under penalty of excommunication. Kelly, J. N. D., The Oxford History of the Popes, Oxford University Press, 1986. ISBN 0192820850 (p. 287). Despite this papal condemnation, both Catholicism and Protestantism permit the use of ambiguous and equivocal statements in specific circumstances. J.-P. Cavaillé, Ruser sans mentir, de la casuistique aux sciences sociales : le recours à l’équivocité, entre efficacité pragmatique et souci éthique, in Serge Latouche, P.-J. Laurent, O. Servais & M. Singleton, Les Raisons de la ruse. Une perspective anthropologique et psychanalytique, Actes du colloque international « La raison rusée », Louvain la Neuve, mars 2001, Paris, La Découverte, 2004, pp. 93–118 . Alphonsus Maria de Liguori (d. 1787), founder of the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, then brought some attention back to casuistry by publishing again Hermann Busembaum's Medulla Theologiae Moralis, the last edition of it being published in 1785 and receiving the approbation of the Holy See in 1803. Busembaum's Medulla had been burnt in Toulouse in 1757 because of its justification of regicide, deemed particularly scandalous after Damiens' assassination attempt against Louis XV. Casuistry in modern times In modern times, casuistry has successfully been applied to law, bioethics and business ethics, and its reputation is somewhat rehabilitated. G. E. Moore dealt with casuistry in chapter 1.4 of his Principia Ethica; he claimed that "the defects of casuistry are not defects of principle; no objection can be taken to its aim and object. It has failed only because it is far too difficult a subject to be treated adequately in our present state of knowledge." He also asserted, "Casuistry is the goal of ethical investigation. It cannot be safely attempted at the beginning of our studies, but only at the end." G. E. Moore, Principia Ethica, (1903); 2nd ed. Thomas Baldwin, Cambridge and New York, Cambridge U. Press (1993), p. 57. ISBN 0521448484 A good reference, analysing the methodological structure of casuistic argument, is The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning (1990), by Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin (ISBN 0-520-06960-9). References External links Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Casuistry Accountancy as computational casuistics, article on how modern compliance regimes in accountancy and law apply casuistry Casuistry - Catholic Encyclopedia Mortimer Adler's Great Ideas - Casuistry 1911 Encyclopedia Summary of casuistry by Jeramy Townsley Casuistry - Online Guide to Ethics and Moral Philosophy Casuistry - Oxford Encyclopedia of Rhetoric catalogued at she-philosopher.com See also Qiyas Blue Laws School of Salamanca Case-based reasoning Dispensation (Catholic Church) Applied ethics Rhetoric Rhetorical reason List of thought processes Portal:Thinking Situation ethics | Casuistry |@lemmatized casuistry:49 applied:2 ethic:7 term:4 refer:1 case:28 base:4 reasoning:11 use:11 juridical:1 ethical:5 discussion:1 law:8 often:2 critique:1 principle:3 rule:2 dictionary:2 history:7 idea:3 university:2 virginia:1 library:1 line:1 critic:2 pejoratively:1 clever:1 unsound:1 especially:2 relation:1 moral:15 question:1 see:4 sophistry:1 reason:11 resolve:1 problem:2 apply:5 theoretical:2 particular:3 instance:2 example:5 approach:2 might:6 claim:2 lie:6 always:1 morally:1 wrong:2 casuist:8 would:2 argue:3 depend:1 upon:1 detail:1 illegal:1 unethical:1 conclude:1 person:1 legal:2 testimony:1 oath:1 actually:1 best:1 choice:1 save:1 life:1 thomas:3 sanchez:2 others:1 thus:2 theorize:1 doctrine:2 mental:2 reservation:2 circumstance:3 essential:1 evaluate:1 proper:1 response:2 typically:1 casuistic:6 begin:3 clear:1 cut:1 paradigmatic:4 paradigm:6 greek:1 word:1 παράδειγμα:1 paradeigma:1 pattern:1 turn:1 derive:1 παραδεικνύναι:1 paradeiknunai:1 demonstrate:1 precedent:1 pre:3 meditate:3 murder:3 ask:1 closely:2 give:2 currently:1 consideration:1 match:1 like:3 ought:2 treat:7 likewise:1 unlike:1 differently:1 man:1 properly:2 charge:2 surround:1 resemble:1 exemplar:1 less:1 weak:1 justification:3 meaning:1 method:2 useful:1 involve:1 dilemma:1 also:3 branch:1 basis:2 common:3 standard:1 form:3 morality:2 take:3 relentlessly:1 practical:1 rather:1 theory:3 start:1 point:1 examination:1 draw:1 parallel:1 call:3 pure:2 hand:2 try:1 determine:1 appropriate:1 describe:1 modest:1 arras:1 one:5 strength:1 overemphasize:1 issue:1 require:1 practitioner:1 agree:4 evaluation:1 make:1 policy:1 instead:1 certain:2 way:2 similarity:1 warrant:1 since:2 people:2 culture:1 substantially:1 situation:2 create:1 argument:2 persuade:1 different:1 ethnic:1 religious:2 philosophical:1 belief:1 widely:2 consider:2 english:1 derivative:1 prone:1 abuse:6 wherever:1 analogy:1 false:1 western:1 date:1 aristotle:1 b:1 c:1 yet:1 zenith:1 jesuit:5 order:1 extensively:1 particularly:2 practice:1 private:1 roman:1 catholic:6 confession:2 quickly:1 become:3 pejorative:1 blaise:1 pascal:5 attack:2 misuse:1 provincial:3 letter:3 scold:1 placate:1 wealthy:1 church:3 donor:1 whilst:1 punish:1 poor:1 penitent:2 aristocratic:1 could:2 confess:2 sin:3 day:3 commit:1 next:1 generously:1 donate:1 following:1 return:1 receive:2 light:1 punishment:1 criticism:1 darken:1 reputation:2 seventeenth:1 century:3 degenerate:1 focus:1 specious:1 argumentation:1 intentionally:1 mislead:1 publication:1 albert:3 jonsen:5 stephen:3 toulmin:4 berkeley:1 u:2 california:1 press:3 isbn:4 revival:1 occur:1 powerful:1 offer:1 dissolve:1 contradictory:1 tenet:1 absolutism:1 relativism:1 constitutive:1 classical:1 rhetorical:3 p:5 moreover:1 utilitarianism:1 pragmatism:1 commonly:2 identify:2 philosophy:2 employ:1 early:4 modern:6 time:3 popular:1 among:2 thinker:1 period:1 think:1 famous:1 author:1 include:1 antonio:1 escobar:2 mendoza:1 summula:1 casuum:1 conscientiae:1 enjoy:1 great:2 success:1 vincenzo:1 filliucci:1 penitentiary:1 st:1 peter:1 antonino:1 diana:1 paul:1 laymann:1 theologia:1 moralis:2 john:1 azor:1 institutiones:1 morale:1 etienne:1 bauny:1 louis:2 cellot:1 valerius:1 reginaldus:1 hermann:2 busembaum:3 etc:2 main:1 thesis:1 necessity:1 adapt:1 rigorous:1 father:2 christianity:1 lead:1 extreme:1 justify:4 innocent:2 xi:2 later:1 laxist:1 e:3 usury:1 homicide:1 regicide:2 adultery:1 loss:1 virginity:1 marriage:1 due:1 register:1 progress:1 interrupt:1 towards:1 middle:2 controversy:3 arise:1 concern:1 probabilism:1 stipulate:1 choose:1 follow:1 probable:2 opinion:2 support:1 theologian:3 another:1 even:1 contradict:1 quotation:1 divide:1 two:1 camp:1 rigorists:1 laxists:1 much:1 mistrust:1 protestant:1 many:1 seek:1 reform:1 famously:1 jansenist:1 philosopher:2 formulary:1 rhetoric:3 laxity:3 public:1 jesuitism:1 hence:1 everyday:1 mean:1 complex:1 sophistic:1 name:1 synonym:1 pope:2 publicly:1 condemn:1 sixty:1 five:1 radical:1 proposition:1 stricti:1 mentalis:1 chiefly:1 writing:1 suarez:1 propositiones:1 laxorum:1 moralistarum:1 forbid:1 anyone:1 teach:1 penalty:1 excommunication:1 kelly:1 j:3 n:1 oxford:3 despite:1 papal:1 condemnation:1 catholicism:1 protestantism:1 permit:1 ambiguous:1 equivocal:1 statement:1 specific:1 cavaillé:1 ruser:1 sans:1 mentir:1 de:3 la:5 casuistique:1 aux:1 science:1 sociales:1 le:2 recours:1 à:1 l:1 équivocité:1 entre:1 efficacité:1 pragmatique:1 et:2 souci:1 éthique:1 serge:1 latouche:1 laurent:1 servais:1 singleton:1 raisons:1 ruse:1 une:1 perspective:1 anthropologique:1 psychanalytique:1 act:1 du:1 colloque:1 international:1 raison:1 rusée:1 louvain:1 neuve:1 mar:1 paris:1 découverte:1 pp:1 alphonsus:1 maria:1 liguori:1 founder:1 congregation:1 holy:2 redeemer:1 bring:1 attention:1 back:1 publish:2 medulla:2 theologiae:1 last:1 edition:1 approbation:1 burn:1 toulouse:1 deem:1 scandalous:1 damiens:1 assassination:1 attempt:2 xv:1 successfully:1 bioethics:1 business:1 somewhat:1 rehabilitated:1 g:2 moore:2 dealt:1 chapter:1 principia:2 ethica:2 defect:2 objection:1 aim:1 object:1 fail:1 far:1 difficult:1 subject:1 adequately:1 present:1 state:1 knowledge:1 assert:1 goal:1 investigation:1 cannot:1 safely:1 beginning:1 study:1 end:1 ed:1 baldwin:1 cambridge:2 new:1 york:1 good:1 reference:2 analyse:1 methodological:1 structure:1 external:1 link:1 accountancy:2 computational:1 casuistics:1 article:1 compliance:1 regime:1 encyclopedia:3 mortimer:1 adler:1 summary:1 jeramy:1 townsley:1 online:1 guide:1 catalogue:1 com:1 qiyas:1 blue:1 school:1 salamanca:1 dispensation:1 list:1 thought:1 process:1 portal:1 thinking:1 |@bigram applied_ethic:2 morally_wrong:1 pre_meditate:3 closely_resemble:1 blaise_pascal:1 confess_sin:2 abuse_casuistry:4 albert_jonsen:3 stephen_toulmin:3 pope_innocent:1 catholicism_protestantism:1 du_colloque:1 la_raison:1 louvain_la:1 la_neuve:1 la_découverte:1 louis_xv:1 principia_ethica:2 external_link:1 mortimer_adler:1 |
3,022 | Military_of_Mauritania | The military forces of Mauritania are listed by the IISS Military Balance 2007 as comprising 15,870 personnel with an additional 5,000 paramilitaries. Currently, the Mauritanian military is involved in Operation Enduring Freedom - Trans Sahara. The Army is 15,000 strong, according to the IISS, with two camel corps battalions, one battalion of T-54/55 battle tanks, one armoured reconnaissance squadron, eight garrison infantry battalions, seven motorised infantry battalions, one commando/para battalion, 3 artillery battalions, 4 air defence batteries, one engineer company, and one guard battalion. The Navy has 620 personnel and 10 patrol and coastal combatants, with bases at Nouadhibou and Nouakchott. The small Air Force has 250 personnel, 2 FTB-337 aircraft, 15 transport aircraft of various types, and 4 SF-260E trainers. The 5,000 paramilitaries are divided in the Gendarmerie (3000), and the National Guard (2000) who both report to the Ministry of the Interior. Military equipment Tanks T-55 - 35 Armored Cars Panhard AML-60/90 - 20/39 Panhard M3 - 15? Alvis Saracen - 5 Alvis Saladin - 40 Artillery D-30 howitzers Air defence SA-9 Gaskin short-range SAM systems (4) SA-7 Grail MANPADS 57 mm AZP S-60 AA guns (2) ZPU-4 AA guns Current inventory ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service Mauritanian military aviation OrBat ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Basler BT-67 | | transport | BT-67 | Unknown (11?) | |----- | Cessna 337 | | light transport | FTB-337 | 2 | |----- | SF260 Marchetti | | basic flying training | SF260E | 4 | |----- | Harbin Y-12 | | transport | Y-12 | Unknown (1?) | |----- | Harbin Z-9 | | utility helicopter | Z-9 | 2 | |----- | EADS CASA C-212 Aviocar | | transport & patrol | C-212-200 | 1 | One will be delivered in 2008 from Spain. |} CIA World Fact Book dataMilitary branches:Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Guard, National Police, Presidential GuardMilitary manpower - availability:males age 15-49: 644,294 (2002 est.)Military manpower - fit for military service:males age 15-49: 312,276 (2002 est.)Military expenditures - dollar figure:$37.1 million (FY01)Military expenditures - percent of GDP:''' 3.7% (FY01) References CIA World Factbook: Mauritania IISS Military Balance 2007, p.235-6 | Military_of_Mauritania |@lemmatized military:10 force:3 mauritania:2 list:1 iiss:2 balance:2 comprise:1 personnel:3 additional:1 paramilitary:2 currently:1 mauritanian:2 involve:1 operation:1 endure:1 freedom:1 trans:1 sahara:1 army:2 strong:1 accord:1 iis:1 two:1 camel:1 corps:1 battalion:7 one:6 battle:1 tank:2 armour:1 reconnaissance:1 squadron:1 eight:1 garrison:1 infantry:2 seven:1 motorise:1 commando:1 para:1 artillery:2 air:4 defence:2 battery:1 engineer:1 company:1 guard:3 navy:2 patrol:2 coastal:1 combatant:1 base:1 nouadhibou:1 nouakchott:1 small:1 ftb:2 aircraft:3 transport:5 various:1 type:2 sf:1 trainer:1 divide:1 gendarmerie:2 national:4 report:1 ministry:1 interior:1 equipment:1 armored:1 car:1 panhard:2 aml:1 alvis:2 saracen:1 saladin:1 howitzer:1 sa:2 gaskin:1 short:1 range:1 sam:1 system:1 grail:1 manpad:1 mm:1 azp:1 aa:2 gun:2 zpu:1 current:1 inventory:1 style:6 text:6 align:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 origin:1 version:1 service:2 aviation:1 orbat:1 note:1 basler:1 bt:2 unknown:2 cessna:1 light:1 marchetti:1 basic:1 fly:1 train:1 harbin:2 z:2 utility:1 helicopter:1 eads:1 casa:1 c:2 aviocar:1 deliver:1 spain:1 cia:2 world:2 fact:1 book:1 datamilitary:1 branch:1 police:1 presidential:1 guardmilitary:1 manpower:2 availability:1 male:2 age:2 est:2 fit:1 expenditure:1 dollar:1 figure:1 million:1 expenditures:1 percent:1 gdp:1 reference:1 factbook:1 p:1 |@bigram iiss_military:2 endure_freedom:1 infantry_battalion:2 motorise_infantry:1 panhard_aml:1 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 aviation_orbat:1 utility_helicopter:1 manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 military_expenditures:1 expenditures_percent:1 |
3,023 | Carbon_sink | A carbon sink is a natural or manmade reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period. The main natural sinks are: Absorption of carbon dioxide by the oceans Photosynthesis by plants and algae The main manmade sinks are: Landfills Carbon capture and storage proposals The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as CO2 sequestration or carbon sequestration. Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol, which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset. Kyoto Protocol Because growing vegetation absorbs carbon dioxide, the Kyoto Protocol allows countries with large areas of forest (or other vegetation) to deduct a certain amount from their emissions, thus making it easier for them to achieve the desired net emission levels. Some countries seek to trade emission rights in carbon emission markets, purchasing the unused carbon emission allowances of other countries. If overall limits on greenhouse gas emission are put into place, cap and trade market mechanisms are purported to find cost-effective ways to reduce emissions. There is as yet no carbon audit regime for all such markets globally, and none is specified in the Kyoto Protocol. National carbon emissions are self-declared. In the Clean Development Mechanism, only afforestation and reforestation are eligible to produce carbon audit regimes (CERs) in the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol (2008–2012). Forest conservation activities or activities avoiding deforestation, which would result in emission reduction through the conservation of existing carbon stocks, are not eligible at this time. Manguiat, M. S. Z., Verheyen, R., Mackensen, J. & Scholz, G. (2005), Legal aspects in the implementation of CDM forestry projects, number 59 in ‘IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Papers’, IUCN. Available from: http://www.iucn.org/themes/law/pdfdocuments/EPLP59EN.pdf Also, agricultural carbon sequestration is not possible yet. Rosenbaum, K. L., Schoene, D. & Mekouar, A. (2004), Climate change and the forest sector. Possible national and subnational legislation, number 144 in ‘FAO Forestry Papers’, FAO. Available from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5647e/y5647e00.HTM Storage in terrestrial and marine environments Soils Soils represent a short to long-term carbon storage medium, and contains more carbon than all terrestrial vegetation and the atmosphere combined. Plant litter and other biomass accumulates as organic matter in soils, and is degraded by chemical weathering and biological degradation. More recalcitrant organic carbon polymers such as cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin, aliphatic compounds, waxes and terpenoids are collectively retained as humus. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V67-4PKG610-2&_user=866177&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=866177&md5=fc8af43e2355ab834430eebc8b81ef1d Organic matter tends to accumulate in litter and soils of colder regions such as the boreal forests of North America and the Taiga of Russia. Leaf litter and humus are rapidly oxidized and poorly retained in sub-tropical and tropical climate conditions due to high temperatures and extensive leaching by rainfall. Areas where shifting cultivation or slash and burn agriculture are practiced are generally only fertile for 2–3 years before they are abandoned. These tropical jungles are similar to coral reefs in that they are highly efficient at conserving and circulating necessary nutrients, which explains their lushness in a nutrient desert. Much organic carbon retained in many agricultural areas worldwide has been severely depleted due to intensive farming practices. Grasslands contribute to soil organic matter, stored mainly in their extensive fibrous root mats. Due in part to the climactic conditions of these regions (e.g. cooler temperatures and semi-arid to arid conditions), these soils can accumulate significant quantities of organic matter. This can vary based on rainfall, the length of the winter season, and the frequency of naturally occurring lightning-induced grass-fires. While these fires release carbon dioxide, they improve the quality of the grasslands overall, in turn increasing the amount of carbon retained in the retained humic material. They also deposit carbon directly to the soil in the form of char that does not significantly degrade back to carbon dioxide. Forest fires release absorbed carbon back into the atmosphere, as does deforestation due to rapidly increased oxidation of soil organic matter. Organic matter in peat bogs undergoes slow anaerobic decomposition below the surface. This process is slow enough that in many cases the bog grows rapidly and fixes more carbon from the atmosphere than is released. Over time, the peat grows deeper. Peat bogs inter approximately one-quarter of the carbon stored in land plants and soils. Under some conditions, forests and peat bogs may become sources of CO2, such as when a forest is flooded by the construction of a hydroelectric dam. Unless the forests and peat are harvested before flooding, the rotting vegetation is a source of CO2 and methane comparable in magnitude to the amount of carbon released by a fossil-fuel powered plant of equivalent power. Regenerative agriculture Regenerative agriculture, if practiced on the planet’s 3.5 billion tillable acres, could sequester up to 40% of current CO2 emissions. A report recently released by Rodale Institute and based on nearly 30 years of research in its side-by-side studies of organic and conventional agriculture. Timothy LaSalle of Rodale on the surprising climate benefits of organic farming | By Anna Lappé | Grist | Grist Feature | 09 May 2008 Agricultural carbon sequestration has the potential to substantially mitigate global warming impacts. When using biologically based regenerative practices, this dramatic benefit can be accomplished with no decrease in yields or farmer profits. Organically managed soils can convert carbon dioxide from a greenhouse gas into a food-producing asset. In 2006, U.S. carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel combustion were estimated at nearly 6.5 billion tons. If a 2,000 (lb/ac)/year sequestration rate was achieved on all of cropland in the United States, nearly 1.6 billion tons of carbon dioxide would be sequestered per year, mitigating close to one quarter of the country's total fossil fuel emissions. This is the emission-cutting equivalent of taking one car off the road for every two acres under 21st century regenerative agricultural management (based on a vehicle average of 15,000 miles per year at 23 mpg; U.S. EPA data). Oceans Air-sea exchange of CO2 Oceans are natural CO2 sinks, and represent the largest active carbon sink on Earth. This role as a sink for CO2 is driven by two processes, the solubility pump and the biological pump. The former is primarily a function of differential CO2 solubility in seawater and the thermohaline circulation, while the latter is the sum of a series of biological processes that transport carbon (in organic and inorganic forms) from the surface euphotic zone to the ocean's interior. A small fraction of the organic carbon transported by the biological pump to the seafloor is buried in anoxic conditions under sediments and ultimately forms fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas. At the present time, approximately one third of anthropogenic emissions are estimated to be entering the ocean. The solubility pump is the primary mechanism driving this, with the biological pump playing a negligible role. This stems from the limitation of the biological pump by ambient light and nutrients required by the phytoplankton that ultimately drive it. Total inorganic carbon is not believed to limit primary production in the oceans, so its increasing availability in the ocean does not directly affect production (the situation on land is different, since enhanced atmospheric levels of CO2 essentially "fertilize" land plant growth). However, ocean acidification by invading anthropogenic CO2 may affect the biological pump by negatively impacting calcifying organisms such as coccolithophores, foraminiferans and pteropods. Climate change may also affect the biological pump in the future by warming and stratifying the surface ocean, thus reducing the supply of limiting nutrients to surface waters. In January 2009, the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration announced a joint study to determine whether the ocean off the California coast was serving as a carbon source or a carbon sink. Principal instrumentation for the study will be self-contained CO2 monitors placed on buoys in the ocean. They will measure the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean and the atmosphere just above the water surface. Chemical & Engineering News, 19 Jan. 2009, "Battelle announces CO2 Monitor", p. 66 Enhancing natural sequestration Forests Forests are carbon stores, and they are carbon dioxide sinks when they are increasing in density or area. In Canada's boreal forests as much as 80% of the total carbon is stored in the soils as dead organic matter. CFS Science Policy Note May, 2007 url=http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/news/473 A 40-year study of African, Asian, and South American tropical forests by the University of Leeds, shows tropical forests absorb about 18% of all carbon dioxide added by fossil fuels, thus buffering some effects of global warming. University of Leeds (2009, February 19). One-fifth Of Fossil-fuel Emissions Absorbed By Threatened Forests. ScienceDaily. Retrieved February 19, 2009, from http://www.sciencedaily.com /releases/2009/02/090218135031.htm Tropical reforestation can mitigate global warming until all available land has been reforested with mature forests. However, the global cooling effect of carbon sequestration by forests is partially counterbalanced in that reforestation can decrease the reflection of sunlight (albedo). Mid-to-high latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only a temporary cooling benefit. In the United States in 2004 (the most recent year for which EPA statistics are available), forests sequestered 10.6% (637 teragrams ) of the carbon dioxide released in the United States by the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas; 5657 teragrams ). Urban trees sequestered another 1.5% (88 teragrams). To further reduce U.S. carbon dioxide emissions by 7%, as stipulated by the Kyoto Protocol, would require the planting of "an area the size of Texas [8% of the area of Brazil] every 30 years". William H. Schlesinger, dean of the Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences at Duke University, in Durham, North Carolina. Carbon offset programs are planting millions of fast-growing trees per year to reforest tropical lands, for as little as $0.10 per tree; over their typical 40-year lifetime, one million of these trees will fix 0.9 teragrams of carbon dioxide . In Canada, reducing timber harvesting would have very little impact on carbon dioxide emissions because of the combination of harvest and stored carbon in manufactured wood products along with the regrowth of the harvested forests. Additionally, the amount of carbon released from harvesting is small compared to the amount of carbon lost each year to forest fires and other natural disturbances. CFS Science Policy Note May, 2007 url=http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/news/473 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded that "a sustainable forest management strategy aimed at maintaining or increasing forest carbon stocks, while producing an annual sustained yield of timber fibre or energy from the forest, will generate the largest sustained mitigation benefit". Sustainable management practices keep forests growing at a higher rate over a potentially longer period of time, thus providing net sequestration benefits in addition to those of unmanaged forests. Life expectancy of forests varies throughout the world, influenced by tree species, site conditions and natural disturbance patterns. In some forests carbon may be stored for centuries, while in other forests carbon is released with frequent stand replacing fires. Forests that are harvested prior to stand replacing events allow for the retention of carbon in manufactured forest products such as lumber. However, only a portion of the carbon removed from logged forests ends up as durable goods and buildings. The remainder ends up as sawmill by-products such as pulp, paper and pallets, which often end with incineration (resulting in carbon release into the atmosphere) at the end of their lifecycle. For instance, of the 1,692 teragrams of carbon harvested from forests in Oregon and Washington (U.S) from 1900 to 1992, only 23% is in long-term storage in forest products. Oceans One way to increase the carbon sequestration efficiency of the oceans is to add micrometre-sized iron particles in the form of either hematite (iron oxide) or melanterite (iron sulfate) to certain regions of the ocean. This has the effect of stimulating growth of plankton. Iron is an important nutrient for phytoplankton, usually made available via upwelling along the continental shelves, inflows from rivers and streams, as well as deposition of dust suspended in the atmosphere. Natural sources of ocean iron have been declining in recent decades, contributing to an overall decline in ocean productivity (NASA, 2003). Yet in the presence of iron nutrients plankton populations quickly grow, or 'bloom', expanding the base of biomass productivity throughout the region and removing significant quantities of CO2 from the atmosphere via photosynthesis. A test in 2002 in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica suggests that between 10,000 and 100,000 carbon atoms are sunk for each iron atom added to the water. More recent work in Germany (2005) suggests that any biomass carbon in the oceans, whether exported to depth or recycled in the euphotic zone, represents long-term storage of carbon. This means that application of iron nutrients in select parts of the oceans, at appropriate scales, could have the combined effect of restoring ocean productivity while at the same time mitigating the effects of human caused emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Because the effect of periodic small scale phytoplankton blooms on ocean ecosystems is unclear, more studies would be helpful. Phytoplankton have a complex effect on cloud formation via the release of substances such as dimethyl sulfide (DMS) that are converted to sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere, providing cloud condensation nuclei, or CCN. But the effect of small scale plankton blooms on overall DMS production is unknown. Other nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates, and silica as well as iron may cause ocean fertilization. There has been some speculation that using pulses of fertilization (around 20 days in length) may be more effective at getting carbon to ocean floor than sustained fertilization. There is some controversy over seeding the oceans with iron however, due to the potential for increased toxic phytoplankton growth (e.g. "red tide"), declining water quality due to overgrowth, and increasing anoxia in areas harming other sea-life such as zooplankton, fish, coral, etc. Soils Since the 1850s, a large proportion of the world's grasslands have been tilled and converted to croplands, allowing the rapid oxidation of large quantities of soil organic carbon. However, in the United States in 2004 (the most recent year for which EPA statistics are available), agricultural soils including pasture land sequestered 0.8% (46 teragrams) as much carbon as was released in the United States by the combustion of fossil fuels (5988 teragrams). The annual amount of this sequestration has been gradually increasing since 1998. Methods that significantly enhance carbon sequestration in soil include no-till farming, residue mulching, cover cropping, and crop rotation, all of which are more widely used in organic farming than in conventional farming. Pimentel, David, et al., Bioscience: 55:7, July 2005 Because only 5% of US farmland currently uses no-till and residue mulching, there is a large potential for carbon sequestration. Conversion to pastureland, particularly with good management of grazing, can sequester even more carbon in the soil. Terra preta, an anthropogenic, high-carbon soil, is also being investigated as a sequestration mechanism. By pyrolysing biomass, about half of its carbon can be reduced to charcoal, which can persist in the soil for centuries, and makes a useful soil amendment, especially in tropical soils (biochar or agrichar). Savanna Controlled burns on far north Australian savannas can result in an overall carbon sink. One working example is the West Arnhem Fire Management Agreement, started to bring "strategic fire management across 28,000 km² of Western Arnhem Land". Deliberately starting controlled burns early in the dry season results in a mosaic of burnt and unburnt country which reduces the area of burning compared with stronger, late dry season fires. In the early dry season there are higher moisture levels, cooler temperatures, and lighter wind than later in the dry season; fires tend to go out overnight. Early controlled burns also results in a smaller proportion of the grass and tree biomass being burnt. Emission reductions of 256,000 tonnes of CO2 have been made as of 2007. Artificial sequestration For carbon to be sequestered artificially (i.e. not using the natural processes of the carbon cycle) it must first be captured, or it must be significantly delayed or prevented from being re-released into the atmosphere (by combustion, decay, etc.) from an existing carbon-rich material, by being incorporated into an enduring usage (such as in construction). Thereafter it can be passively stored or remain productively utilized over time in a variety of ways. For example, upon harvesting, wood (as a carbon-rich material) can be immediately burned or otherwise serve as a fuel, returning its carbon to the atmosphere, or it can be incorporated into construction or a range of other durable products, thus sequestering its carbon over years or even centuries. One ton of dry wood is equivalent to 1.8 tons of carbon dioxide. Indeed, a very carefully-designed and durable, energy-efficient and energy-capturing building has the potential to sequester (in its carbon-rich construction materials), as much as or more carbon than was released by the acquisition and incorporation of all its materials and than will be released by building-function "energy-imports" during the structure's (potentially multi-century) existence. Such a structure might be termed "carbon neutral" or even "carbon negative". Building construction and operation (electricity usage, heating, etc) are estimated to contribute nearly half of the annual human-caused carbon additions to the atmosphere. Natural-gas purification plants often already have to remove carbon dioxide, either to avoid dry ice clogging gas tankers or to prevent carbon-dioxide concentrations exceeding the 3% maximum permitted on the natural-gas distribution grid. Beyond this, one of the most likely early applications of carbon capture is the capture of carbon dioxide from flue gases at power stations (in the case of coal, this is known as "clean coal"). A typical new 1000 MW coal-fired power station produces around 6 million tons of carbon dioxide annually. Adding carbon capture to existing plants can add significantly to the costs of energy production; scrubbing costs aside, a 1000 MW coal plant will require the storage of about 50 million barrels of carbon dioxide a year. However, scrubbing is relatively affordable when added to new plants based on coal gasification technology, where it is estimated to raise energy costs for households in the United States using only coal-fired electricity sources from 10 cents per kW·h to 12 cents. Carbon capture Currently, capture of carbon dioxide is performed on a large scale by absorption of carbon dioxide onto various amine-based solvents. Other techniques are currently being investigated, such as pressure swing adsorption, temperature swing adsorption, gas separation membranes, and cryogenics. Recent pilot studies include flue capture and conversion to baking soda and use of algae for conversion to fuel or feed(reference needed). In coal-fired power stations, the main alternatives to retrofitting amine-based absorbers to existing power stations are two new technologies: coal gasification combined-cycle and oxy-fuel combustion. Gasification first produces a "syngas" primarily of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which is burned, with carbon dioxide filtered from the flue gas. Oxy-fuel combustion burns the coal in oxygen instead of air, producing only carbon dioxide and water vapour, which are relatively easily separated. Some of the combustion products must be returned to the combustion chamber, either before or after separation, otherwise the temperatures would be too high for the turbine. Another long-term option is carbon capture directly from the air using hydroxides. The air would literally be scrubbed of its CO2 content. This idea offers an alternative to non-carbon-based fuels for the transportation sector. Examples of carbon sequestration at coal plants include converting carbon from smokestacks into baking soda, utility company Luminant's pilot version at its Big Brown Steam Electric Station in Fairfield, Texas Skyonic plans to circumvent storage problems of liquid CO2 by storing baking soda in mines, landfills, or simply to be sold as industrial or food-grade baking soda. and algae-based carbon capture, circumventing storage by converting algae into fuel or feed. GreenFuel Technologies Corp. Oceans Another proposed form of carbon sequestration in the ocean is direct injection. In this method, carbon dioxide is pumped directly into the water at depth, and expected to form "lakes" of liquid CO2 at the bottom. Experiments carried out in moderate to deep waters (350 - 3600 m) indicate that the liquid CO2 reacts to form solid CO2 clathrate hydrates, which gradually dissolve in the surrounding waters. This method, too, has potentially dangerous environmental consequences. The carbon dioxide does react with the water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3; however, most (as much as 99%) remains as dissolved molecular CO2. The equilibrium would no doubt be quite different under the high pressure conditions in the deep ocean. In addition, if deep-sea bacterial methanogens that reduce carbon dioxide were to encounter the carbon dioxide sinks, levels of methane gas may increase, leading to the generation of an even worse greenhouse gas Potent greenhouse-gas methane has been rising | csmonitor.com . The resulting environmental effects on benthic life forms of the bathypelagic, abyssopelagic and hadopelagic zones are unknown. Even though life appears to be rather sparse in the deep ocean basins, energy and chemical effects in these deep basins could have far-reaching implications. Much more work is needed here to define the extent of the potential problems. Carbon storage in or under oceans may not be compatible with the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter . An additional method of long-term ocean-based sequestration is to gather crop residue such as corn stalks or excess hay into large weighted bales of biomass and deposit it in the alluvial fan areas of the deep ocean basin. Dropping these residues in alluvial fans would cause the residues to be quickly buried in silt on the sea floor, sequestering the biomass for very long time spans. Alluvial fans exist in all of the world's oceans and seas where river deltas fall off the edge of the continental shelf such as the Mississippi alluvial fan in the gulf of Mexico and the Nile alluvial fan in the Mediterranean Sea. A downside, however, would be an increase in aerobic bacteria growth due to the introduction of biomass, leading to more competition for oxygen resources in the deep sea, similar to the oxygen minimum zone. Geological sequestration The method of geo-sequestration or geological storage involves injecting carbon dioxide directly into underground geological formations. Declining oil fields, saline aquifers, and unminable coal seams have been suggested as storage sites. Caverns and old mines that are commonly used to store natural gas are not considered, because of a lack of storage safety. CO2 has been injected into declining oil fields for more than 40 years, to increase oil recovery. This option is attractive because the storage costs are offset by the sale of additional oil that is recovered. Typically, 10-15% additional recovery of the original oil in place is possible. Further benefits are the existing infrastructure and the geophysical and geological information about the oil field that is available from the oil exploration. Another benefit of injecting CO2 into Oil fields is that CO2 is soluble in oil. Dissolving CO2 in oil lowers the viscosity of the oil and reduces its interfacial tension which increases the oils mobility. All oil fields have a geological barrier preventing upward migration of oil. As most oil and gas has been in place for millions to tens of millions of years, depleted oil and gas reservoirs can contain carbon dioxide for millennia. Identified possible problems are the many 'leak' opportunities provided by old oil wells, the need for high injection pressures and acidification which can damage the geological barrier. Other disadvantages of old oil fields are their limited geographic distribution and depths, which require high injection pressures for sequestration. Below a depth of about 1000 m, carbon dioxide is injected as a supercritical fluid, a material with the density of a liquid, but the viscosity and diffusivity of a gas. Unminable coal seams can be used to store CO2, because CO2 absorbs to the coal surface, ensuring safe long-term storage. In the process it releases methane that was previously adsorbed to the coal surface and that may be recovered. Again the sale of the methane can be used to offset the cost of the CO2 storage. Release or burning of methane would of course at least partially offset the obtained sequestration result – except when the gas is allowed to escape into the atmosphere in significant quantities: methane has a higher global warming potential than CO2. Saline aquifers contain highly mineralized brines and have so far been considered of no benefit to humans except in a few cases where they have been used for the storage of chemical waste. Their advantages include a large potential storage volume and relatively common occurrence reducing the distance over which CO2 has to be transported. The major disadvantage of saline aquifers is that relatively little is known about them compared to oil fields. Another disadvantage of saline aquifers is that as the salinity of the water increases, less CO2 can be dissolved into aqueous solution. To keep the cost of storage acceptable the geophysical exploration may be limited, resulting in larger uncertainty about the structure of a given aquifer. Unlike storage in oil fields or coal beds, no side product will offset the storage cost. Leakage of CO2 back into the atmosphere may be a problem in saline-aquifer storage. However, current research shows that several trapping mechanisms immobilize the CO2 underground, reducing the risk of leakage. A major research project examining the geological sequestration of carbon dioxide is currently being performed at an oil field at Weyburn in south-eastern Saskatchewan. In the North Sea, Norway's Statoil natural-gas platform Sleipner strips carbon dioxide out of the natural gas with amine solvents and disposes of this carbon dioxide by geological sequestration. Sleipner reduces emissions of carbon dioxide by approximately one million tonnes a year. The cost of geological sequestration is minor relative to the overall running costs. As of April 2005, BP is considering a trial of large-scale sequestration of carbon dioxide stripped from power plant emissions in the Miller oilfield as its reserves are depleted. In October 2007, the Bureau of Economic Geology at The University of Texas at Austin received a 10-year, $38 million subcontract to conduct the first intensively monitored, long-term project in the United States studying the feasibility of injecting a large volume of CO2 for underground storage "Bureau of Economic Geology Receives $38 Million for First Large-Scale U.S. Test Storing Carbon Dioxide Underground" . The project is a research program of the Southeast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (SECARB), funded by the National Energy Technology Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The SECARB partnership will demonstrate CO2 injection rate and storage capacity in the Tuscaloosa-Woodbine geologic system that stretches from Texas to Florida. Beginning in fall 2007, the project will inject CO2 at the rate of one million tons per year, for up to 1.5 years, into brine up to below the land surface near the Cranfield oil field about east of Natchez, Mississippi. Experimental equipment will measure the ability of the subsurface to accept and retain CO2. Mineral sequestration Mineral sequestration aims to trap carbon in the form of solid carbonate salts. This process occurs slowly in nature and is responsible for the deposition and accumulation of limestone (calcium carbonate) over geologic time. Carbonic acid in groundwater slowly reacts with complex silicates to dissolve calcium, magnesium, alkalis and silica and leave a residue of clay minerals. The dissolved calcium and magnesium react with bicarbonate to precipitate calcium and magnesium carbonates, a process that organisms use to make shells. When the organisms die, their shells are deposited as sediment and eventually turn into limestone. Limestones have accumulated over billions of years of geologic time and contain much of Earth's carbon. Ongoing research aims to speed up similar reactions involving alkali carbonates "Carbon-capture Technology To Help UK Tackle Global Warming", ScienceDaily July 27, 2007, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/07/070727091001.htm . One proposed reaction is that of the olivine-rich rock dunite, or its hydrated equivalent serpentinite with carbon dioxide to form the carbonate mineral magnesite, plus silica and iron oxide (magnetite). Serpentinite sequestration is favored because of the non-toxic and stable nature of magnesium carbonate. The ideal reactions involve the magnesium endmember components of the olivine (reaction 1) or serpentine (reaction 2), the latter derived from earlier olivine by hydration and silicification (reaction 3). The presence of iron in the olivine or serpentine reduces the efficiency of sequestration, since the iron components of these minerals break down to iron oxide and silica (reaction 4). Serpentinite reactions Reaction 1 Mg-Olivine + Carbon dioxide → Magnesite + Silica Mg2SiO4 + 2CO2 → 2MgCO3 + SiO2 + H2O Reaction 2 Serpentine + carbon dioxide → Magnesite + silica + water Mg3[Si2O5(OH)4] + 3CO2 → 3MgCO3 + 2SiO2 + 2H2O Reaction 3 Mg-Olivine + Water + Silica → Serpentine 3Mg2SiO4 + 2SiO2 + 4H2O → 2Mg3[Si2O5(OH)4 Reaction 4 Fe-Olivine + Water → Magnetite + Silica + Hydrogen 3Fe2SiO4 + 2H2O → 2Fe3O4 + 3SiO2 + 2H2 Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks is a metal-organic framework carbon dioxide sink which could be used to keep industrial emissions of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. CBC News article New materials can selectively capture CO2, scientists say published February 15, 2008 References See also Biochar Carbon capture and storage Carbon cycle Carbon flux Carbon offset CO2 sequestration Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Iron fertilization Carbonic fertilization North American Carbon Program External links General Carbon Sequestration News Recent news articles on CO2 capture and storage. Gulf Coast Carbon Center University of Texas at Austin research center that investigates geologic storage of anthropogenic carbon dioxide in the Gulf Coast region. SinksWatch - An initiative to track and scrutinize carbon sink projects National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) Carbon Sequestration Home Page U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science Carbon Sequestration Research Programs The Carbon Offset Opportunity Program: A Tool for Collaborative Carbon Sequestration Project Development Carbon Capture and Sequestration Technologies Program at MIT International industry R&D group focussed on CO2 sequestration CO2 Capture Project Carbon Mitigation Initiative Southeast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (SECARB) 'Catalyst' on Australian science TV on geosequestration The U.S. North American Carbon Program Collection of recent news articles on CO2 capture and storage Synthetic Trees Could Purify Air The Consortium for Agricultural Soil Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases Scottish Centre for Carbon Storage Research Can geosequestration save the coal industry? Research Short documentary on Australian research into limits on carbon uptake by trees FAO (2004) Carbon sequestration in dryland soils IEA Reports: Putting carbon back into the ground (pdf) and Ocean storage of CO2 (pdf) Haszeldine (2005) Deep geological CO2 storage: principles, and prospecting for bio-energy disposal sites (pdf) The Role of Carbon in Agricultural Soils in Carbon Sequestration - A Better Alternative for Climate Change? Chapter 1: Agricultural Sinks (1999) University of Maryland pdf format doc format Schlesinger, W.H. 1991. Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change. Academic Press, San Diego. Peat bogs may be soaking up 10 to 20% of the excess CO2 generated by human activity DMS and Climate Carbon Store in U.S. Forests Action Collection of recent news articles on CO2 capture and storage Britain entertains the idea Seattle Times, 20 February 2004, Canada pumps CO2 underground(Weyburn oil field) United States pumps CO2 underground Observer 24 April 2005 Seabed supplies a cure for global warming crisis Tyndall Centre - Assessing the potential for geological carbon sequestration in the UK "Baking soda could help save planet" - Luminant pilot in Texas The Carbon Sink | Carbon_sink |@lemmatized carbon:153 sink:17 natural:15 manmade:2 reservoir:2 accumulate:4 store:12 contain:6 chemical:5 compound:2 indefinite:1 period:3 main:3 absorption:2 dioxide:45 ocean:34 photosynthesis:2 plant:12 algae:4 landfill:2 capture:19 storage:31 proposal:1 process:8 remove:4 atmosphere:16 know:3 sequestration:41 public:1 awareness:1 significance:1 grow:7 since:5 passage:1 kyoto:6 protocol:6 promote:1 use:15 form:11 offset:8 vegetation:4 absorbs:2 allow:4 country:5 large:13 area:10 forest:36 deduct:1 certain:2 amount:6 emission:22 thus:6 make:5 easy:1 achieve:2 desired:1 net:2 level:4 seek:1 trade:2 right:1 market:3 purchase:1 unused:1 allowance:1 overall:6 limit:5 greenhouse:5 gas:21 put:2 place:4 cap:1 mechanism:5 purport:1 find:1 cost:10 effective:2 way:3 reduce:11 yet:3 audit:2 regime:2 globally:1 none:1 specify:1 national:5 self:2 declare:1 clean:2 development:2 afforestation:1 reforestation:3 eligible:2 produce:6 cer:1 first:5 commitment:1 conservation:2 activity:3 avoid:2 deforestation:2 would:11 result:8 reduction:2 exist:6 stock:2 time:10 manguiat:1 z:1 verheyen:1 r:2 mackensen:1 j:1 scholz:1 g:3 legal:1 aspect:1 implementation:1 cdm:1 forestry:2 project:8 number:2 iucn:3 environmental:3 policy:3 law:2 paper:3 available:7 http:7 www:5 org:2 theme:1 pdfdocuments:1 pdf:5 also:6 agricultural:8 possible:4 rosenbaum:1 k:1 l:1 schoene:1 mekouar:1 climate:7 change:6 sector:2 subnational:1 legislation:1 fao:4 docrep:1 htm:3 terrestrial:2 marine:2 environment:2 soil:23 represent:3 short:2 long:9 term:8 medium:1 combine:2 litter:3 biomass:8 accumulates:1 organic:16 matter:8 degrade:2 weathering:1 biological:8 degradation:1 recalcitrant:1 polymer:1 cellulose:2 hemi:1 lignin:1 aliphatic:1 wax:1 terpenoids:1 collectively:1 retain:5 humus:2 sciencedirect:1 com:4 science:6 articleurl:1 search:1 view:1 c:1 tend:2 colder:1 region:5 boreal:2 north:6 america:1 taiga:1 russia:1 leaf:1 rapidly:3 oxidize:1 poorly:1 sub:1 tropical:8 condition:7 due:7 high:10 temperature:5 extensive:2 leaching:1 rainfall:2 shift:1 cultivation:1 slash:1 burn:7 agriculture:4 practice:5 generally:1 fertile:1 year:21 abandon:1 jungle:1 similar:3 coral:2 reef:1 highly:2 efficient:2 conserve:1 circulate:1 necessary:1 nutrient:8 explain:1 lushness:1 desert:1 much:8 many:3 worldwide:1 severely:1 deplete:3 intensive:1 farming:4 grassland:4 contribute:4 mainly:1 fibrous:1 root:1 mat:1 part:2 climactic:1 e:3 cooler:2 semi:1 arid:2 significant:3 quantity:4 vary:1 base:11 length:2 winter:1 season:6 frequency:1 naturally:1 occur:2 lightning:1 induced:1 grass:2 fire:9 release:18 improve:1 quality:2 turn:2 increase:13 retained:1 humic:1 material:7 deposit:3 directly:5 char:1 significantly:4 back:4 absorb:3 increased:1 oxidation:2 peat:6 bog:5 undergoes:1 slow:2 anaerobic:1 decomposition:1 surface:8 enough:1 case:3 fix:2 deep:9 inter:1 approximately:3 one:13 quarter:2 land:9 may:15 become:1 source:5 flood:1 construction:5 hydroelectric:1 dam:1 unless:1 harvest:7 flooding:1 rot:1 methane:7 comparable:1 magnitude:1 fossil:8 fuel:14 power:7 equivalent:4 regenerative:4 planet:2 billion:4 tillable:1 acre:2 could:6 sequester:10 current:2 report:2 recently:1 rodale:2 institute:2 nearly:4 research:11 side:3 study:8 conventional:2 timothy:1 lasalle:1 surprising:1 benefit:8 farm:1 anna:1 lappé:1 grist:2 feature:1 potential:8 substantially:1 mitigate:4 global:9 warming:5 impact:3 biologically:1 dramatic:1 accomplish:1 decrease:2 yield:2 farmer:1 profit:1 organically:1 manage:1 convert:5 food:2 asset:1 u:10 combustion:8 estimate:4 ton:6 lb:1 ac:1 rate:4 cropland:1 united:7 state:8 per:6 close:1 total:3 cut:1 take:1 car:1 road:1 every:2 two:3 century:5 management:6 vehicle:1 average:1 mile:1 mpg:1 epa:3 data:1 air:5 sea:8 exchange:1 active:1 earth:3 role:3 drive:3 solubility:3 pump:11 former:1 primarily:2 function:2 differential:1 seawater:1 thermohaline:1 circulation:1 latter:2 sum:1 series:1 transport:3 inorganic:2 euphotic:2 zone:5 interior:1 small:5 fraction:1 seafloor:1 bury:2 anoxic:1 sediment:2 ultimately:2 forms:1 oil:24 present:1 third:1 anthropogenic:4 enter:1 primary:2 play:1 negligible:1 stem:1 limitation:1 ambient:1 light:2 require:4 phytoplankton:5 believe:1 production:4 availability:1 affect:3 situation:1 different:2 enhance:3 atmospheric:2 essentially:1 fertilize:1 growth:4 however:9 acidification:2 invade:1 negatively:1 calcify:1 organism:2 coccolithophores:1 foraminiferans:1 pteropods:1 future:1 warm:3 stratify:1 supply:2 water:13 january:1 monterey:1 bay:1 aquarium:1 oceanic:1 administration:1 announce:1 joint:1 determine:1 whether:2 california:1 coast:3 serve:2 principal:1 instrumentation:1 monitor:3 buoy:1 measure:2 partial:1 pressure:5 engineering:1 news:8 jan:1 battelle:1 announces:1 p:1 density:2 canada:3 dead:1 cfs:2 note:2 url:2 cf:2 nrcan:2 gc:2 ca:2 african:1 asian:1 south:2 american:3 university:6 leeds:2 show:2 add:6 buffer:1 effect:11 february:4 fifth:1 threatened:1 sciencedaily:4 retrieve:1 reforest:2 mature:1 cooling:2 partially:2 counterbalance:1 reflection:1 sunlight:1 albedo:3 mid:1 latitude:1 low:1 snow:1 flat:1 ground:2 model:1 compare:4 difference:1 suggest:4 expand:2 temperate:1 offer:2 temporary:1 recent:8 statistic:2 teragrams:7 coal:17 urban:1 tree:8 another:5 far:4 stipulate:1 planting:1 size:2 texas:6 brazil:1 william:1 h:3 schlesinger:2 dean:1 nicholas:1 school:1 duke:1 durham:1 carolina:1 program:7 million:10 fast:1 little:3 typical:2 lifetime:1 timber:2 combination:1 stored:1 manufactured:2 wood:3 product:7 along:2 regrowth:1 harvested:1 additionally:1 lose:1 disturbance:2 intergovernmental:1 panel:1 conclude:1 sustainable:2 strategy:1 aim:3 maintain:1 annual:3 sustained:3 fibre:1 energy:12 generate:2 mitigation:3 keep:3 potentially:3 provide:3 addition:3 unmanaged:1 life:4 expectancy:1 varies:1 throughout:2 world:3 influence:1 specie:1 site:3 pattern:1 frequent:1 stand:2 replace:2 prior:1 event:1 retention:1 lumber:1 portion:1 log:1 end:4 durable:3 good:3 building:3 remainder:1 sawmill:1 pulp:1 pallet:1 often:2 incineration:1 lifecycle:1 instance:1 oregon:1 washington:1 efficiency:2 micrometre:1 iron:15 particle:1 either:3 hematite:1 oxide:3 melanterite:1 sulfate:2 stimulate:1 plankton:3 important:1 usually:1 via:3 upwelling:1 continental:2 shelf:2 inflow:1 river:2 stream:1 well:3 deposition:2 dust:1 suspend:1 decline:5 decade:1 productivity:3 nasa:1 presence:2 population:1 quickly:2 bloom:3 test:2 southern:1 around:3 antarctica:1 atom:2 work:3 germany:1 export:1 depth:4 recycle:1 mean:1 application:2 select:1 appropriate:1 scale:6 combined:1 restore:1 human:4 cause:4 periodic:1 ecosystem:1 unclear:1 helpful:1 complex:2 cloud:2 formation:2 substance:1 dimethyl:1 sulfide:1 dm:3 aerosol:1 condensation:1 nucleus:1 ccn:1 unknown:2 nitrate:1 phosphate:1 silica:8 fertilization:5 speculation:1 pulse:1 day:1 get:1 floor:2 controversy:1 seed:1 toxic:2 red:1 tide:1 overgrowth:1 anoxia:1 harm:1 zooplankton:1 fish:1 etc:3 proportion:2 till:3 croplands:1 rapid:1 include:5 pasture:1 gradually:2 method:5 residue:6 mulching:2 cover:1 cropping:1 crop:2 rotation:1 widely:1 pimentel:1 david:1 et:1 al:1 bioscience:1 july:2 farmland:1 currently:4 conversion:3 pastureland:1 particularly:1 grazing:1 even:5 terra:1 preta:1 investigate:3 pyrolysing:1 half:2 charcoal:1 persist:1 useful:1 amendment:1 especially:1 biochar:2 agrichar:1 savanna:2 control:3 australian:3 example:3 west:1 arnhem:2 agreement:1 start:2 bring:1 strategic:1 across:1 western:1 deliberately:1 early:5 dry:6 mosaic:1 burnt:2 unburnt:1 burning:2 strong:1 late:1 moisture:1 wind:1 later:1 go:1 overnight:1 tonne:2 artificial:1 artificially:1 cycle:3 must:3 delay:1 prevent:3 decay:1 rich:4 incorporate:2 enduring:1 usage:2 thereafter:1 passively:1 remain:2 productively:1 utilize:1 variety:1 upon:1 immediately:1 otherwise:2 return:2 range:1 indeed:1 carefully:1 design:1 acquisition:1 incorporation:1 build:1 import:1 structure:3 multi:1 existence:1 might:1 neutral:1 negative:1 operation:1 electricity:2 heating:1 purification:1 already:1 ice:1 clog:1 tanker:1 concentration:1 exceed:1 maximum:1 permit:1 distribution:2 grid:1 beyond:1 likely:1 flue:3 station:5 new:4 mw:2 fired:3 annually:1 scrub:3 aside:1 barrel:1 relatively:4 affordable:1 gasification:3 technology:7 raise:1 household:1 cent:2 kw:1 perform:2 onto:1 various:1 amine:3 solvent:2 technique:1 swing:2 adsorption:2 separation:2 membrane:1 cryogenics:1 pilot:3 bake:4 soda:5 fee:1 reference:2 need:3 alternative:3 retrofit:1 absorber:1 oxy:2 syngas:1 hydrogen:2 monoxide:1 filter:1 oxygen:3 instead:1 vapour:1 easily:1 separate:1 chamber:1 turbine:1 option:2 hydroxide:1 literally:1 content:1 idea:2 non:2 transportation:1 smokestack:1 utility:1 company:1 luminant:2 version:1 big:1 brown:1 steam:1 electric:1 fairfield:1 skyonic:1 plan:1 circumvent:2 problem:4 liquid:4 mine:2 simply:1 sell:1 industrial:2 grade:1 baking:1 feed:1 greenfuel:1 corp:1 propose:2 direct:1 injection:4 expect:1 lake:1 bottom:1 experiment:1 carry:1 moderate:1 indicate:1 react:4 solid:2 clathrate:1 hydrate:1 dissolve:4 surrounding:1 dangerous:1 consequence:1 carbonic:3 acid:2 dissolved:2 molecular:1 equilibrium:1 doubt:1 quite:1 bacterial:1 methanogen:1 encounter:1 lead:2 generation:1 bad:1 potent:1 rise:1 csmonitor:1 benthic:1 bathypelagic:1 abyssopelagic:1 hadopelagic:1 though:1 appear:1 rather:1 sparse:1 basin:3 reach:1 implication:1 define:1 extent:1 compatible:1 convention:1 prevention:1 pollution:1 dump:1 waste:2 additional:3 gather:1 corn:1 stalk:1 excess:2 hay:1 weighted:1 bale:1 alluvial:5 fan:5 drop:1 silt:1 span:1 deltas:1 fall:2 edge:1 mississippi:2 gulf:3 mexico:1 nile:1 mediterranean:1 downside:1 aerobic:1 bacteria:1 introduction:1 competition:1 resource:1 minimum:1 geological:11 geo:1 involve:3 inject:6 underground:6 field:11 saline:5 aquifer:6 unminable:2 seam:2 cavern:1 old:3 commonly:1 consider:3 lack:1 safety:1 recovery:2 attractive:1 sale:2 recover:2 typically:1 original:1 infrastructure:1 geophysical:2 information:1 exploration:2 soluble:1 lower:1 viscosity:2 interfacial:1 tension:1 oils:1 mobility:1 barrier:2 upward:1 migration:1 ten:1 millennium:1 identify:1 leak:1 opportunity:2 damage:1 disadvantage:3 limited:1 geographic:1 supercritical:1 fluid:1 diffusivity:1 ensure:1 safe:1 previously:1 adsorb:1 course:1 least:1 obtained:1 except:2 escape:1 mineralize:1 brine:2 advantage:1 volume:2 common:1 occurrence:1 distance:1 major:2 salinity:1 le:1 aqueous:1 solution:1 acceptable:1 uncertainty:1 give:1 unlike:1 bed:1 leakage:2 several:1 trap:2 immobilize:1 risk:1 examine:1 weyburn:2 eastern:1 saskatchewan:1 norway:1 statoil:1 platform:1 sleipner:2 strip:2 disposes:1 reduces:1 minor:1 relative:1 running:1 april:2 bp:1 trial:1 miller:1 oilfield:1 reserve:1 october:1 bureau:2 economic:2 geology:2 austin:2 receive:2 subcontract:1 conduct:1 intensively:1 feasibility:1 southeast:2 regional:2 partnership:3 secarb:3 fund:1 laboratory:2 department:2 doe:1 demonstrate:1 capacity:1 tuscaloosa:1 woodbine:1 geologic:4 system:1 stretch:1 florida:1 begin:1 near:1 cranfield:1 east:1 natchez:1 experimental:1 equipment:1 ability:1 subsurface:1 accept:1 mineral:5 carbonate:6 salt:1 slowly:2 nature:2 responsible:1 accumulation:1 limestone:3 calcium:4 groundwater:1 silicate:1 magnesium:5 alkali:2 leave:1 clay:1 bicarbonate:1 precipitate:1 organisms:1 shell:2 die:1 eventually:1 ongoing:1 speed:1 reaction:12 help:2 uk:2 tackle:1 olivine:7 rock:1 dunite:1 hydrated:1 serpentinite:3 magnesite:3 plus:1 magnetite:2 favor:1 stable:1 ideal:1 endmember:1 component:2 serpentine:4 derive:1 hydration:1 silicification:1 break:1 mg:2 oh:2 fe:1 zeolitic:2 imidazolate:2 framework:3 metal:1 cbc:1 article:4 selectively:1 scientist:1 say:1 publish:1 see:1 flux:1 center:3 external:1 link:1 general:1 sinkswatch:1 initiative:2 track:1 scrutinize:1 netl:1 home:1 page:1 office:1 tool:1 collaborative:1 mit:1 international:1 industry:2 group:1 focus:1 catalyst:1 tv:1 geosequestration:2 collection:2 synthetic:1 purify:1 consortium:1 scottish:1 centre:2 save:2 documentary:1 uptake:1 dryland:1 iea:1 haszeldine:1 principle:1 prospect:1 bio:1 disposal:1 chapter:1 maryland:1 format:2 doc:1 w:1 biogeochemistry:1 analysis:1 academic:1 press:1 san:1 diego:1 soak:1 action:1 britain:1 entertain:1 seattle:1 unite:1 observer:1 seabed:1 cure:1 crisis:1 tyndall:1 assess:1 |@bigram carbon_dioxide:45 carbon_sequestration:18 kyoto_protocol:6 greenhouse_gas:5 http_www:5 cellulose_lignin:1 aliphatic_compound:1 www_sciencedirect:1 sciencedirect_com:1 boreal_forest:2 slash_burn:1 coral_reef:1 intensive_farming:1 semi_arid:1 peat_bog:4 hydroelectric_dam:1 fossil_fuel:8 global_warming:5 dioxide_emission:3 thermohaline_circulation:1 organic_inorganic:1 anoxic_condition:1 monterey_bay:1 oceanic_atmospheric:1 gc_ca:2 www_sciencedaily:2 sciencedaily_com:2 temperate_zone:1 north_carolina:1 intergovernmental_panel:1 life_expectancy:1 pulp_paper:1 continental_shelf:2 carbon_atom:1 dimethyl_sulfide:1 organic_farming:1 et_al:1 terra_preta:1 flue_gas:2 coal_fired:3 coal_gasification:2 swing_adsorption:2 bake_soda:4 oxy_fuel:2 carbon_monoxide:1 combustion_chamber:1 clathrate_hydrate:1 potentially_dangerous:1 carbonic_acid:2 potent_greenhouse:1 csmonitor_com:1 gulf_mexico:1 aerobic_bacteria:1 saline_aquifer:5 coal_seam:2 interfacial_tension:1 supercritical_fluid:1 aqueous_solution:1 texas_austin:2 calcium_carbonate:1 calcium_magnesium:3 magnesium_carbonate:2 external_link:1 san_diego:1 |
3,024 | Telecommunications_in_Macau | Owing to Macau's population (circa 500,000) and its small market, only a few options are available for the local people on media. With the fact that radio signals, newspapers and magazines from Hong Kong are available in Macau, the local media are always a minority group in terms of sales and number of viewers. Newspapers There are seventeen newspapers (twelve in Chinese, four in Portuguese and two in English). Aomen Ribao (or Ou Mun Iat Pou, Macau Daily News) is reportedly owned by the Communist Party of China and has the largest circulation (40,00). Additionally, Chinese-language newspapers from Hong Kong are popular. Macau has eight Chinese-language, three Portuguese-language and two English-language daily. The Macau Daily Times is Macau's only English-language newspaper edited seven days a week. Macau Post Daily is published from Monday to Friday. It is owned by a local publishing company, Everbright Co. Ltd., which is locally owned. Radio stations Radios and Radio Stations: There are 250,000 radios; two twenty-hour FM radio stations, one Portuguese, one Chinese; and four AM stations. Hong Kong radio stations also are popular in Macau. Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (2005) Radios: 160,000 (1997) Television See also: List of Chinese language television channels Televisions and Television Channels: There are 70,300 television sets (1997 estimate); two television channels: one Portuguese and one Chinese. Hong Kong Television networks TVB and ATV can be received and are widely watched by Macau residents. Television broadcast stations: 3 (2006) Televisions: 49,000 (1997) Telephone The number of telephone lines has been increasing since the mid-1990s. In 1997 there were 222,456 telephones; by 1999, 300,066 lines were in use. In 1999 there were 686 telephone lines per 1,000 people. Cellular-telephone-use statistics were not available. International access is via Hong Kong and Mainland China and via Intelsat (Indian Ocean). Alcatel-Lucent has been granted a contract in February 2007 to collocate a CDMA 2000 1xEV-DO (Revision A) high-speed wireless network in Macau for China Unicom. Following the completion of the upgrades in related software and hardware, China Unicom will be equipped with the facilities needed to provide high-speed mobile data services for users in Macau, including broadcasting and video telephony. Telephones - main lines in use: 175,592 (July, 2006) Telephones - mobile cellular: 325,016 (July, 2006) Telephone system: fairly modern communication facilities maintained for domestic and international services domestic: N/A international: HF radiotelephone communication facility; access to international communications carriers provided via Hong Kong and Mainland China; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) Users: 88,653 (2005) Internet Internet Service Providers (ISPs): CTM (Companhia de Telecomunicações de Macau S.A.R.L.) Country code (Top level domain): .mo Broadband internet access The Macao Telecommunications Company (CTM) in 2000 launched the first broadband Internet access in the territory, on a network built by Cisco Systems. Macao Telecom Launches Broadband Internet Service See also Media of Macau Communications in Hong Kong Communications in China List of Chinese language television channels References and notes CIA - The World Factbook - Macau | Telecommunications_in_Macau |@lemmatized owe:1 macau:14 population:1 circa:1 small:1 market:1 option:1 available:3 local:3 people:2 medium:3 fact:1 radio:9 signal:1 newspaper:5 magazine:1 hong:7 kong:7 always:1 minority:1 group:1 term:1 sale:1 number:2 viewer:1 seventeen:1 twelve:1 chinese:7 four:2 portuguese:4 two:4 english:3 aomen:1 ribao:1 ou:1 mun:1 iat:1 pou:1 daily:4 news:1 reportedly:1 communist:1 party:1 china:6 large:1 circulation:1 additionally:1 language:7 popular:2 eight:1 three:1 time:1 edit:1 seven:1 day:1 week:1 post:1 publish:1 monday:1 friday:1 publishing:1 company:2 everbright:1 co:1 ltd:1 locally:1 station:8 twenty:1 hour:1 fm:2 one:4 also:3 broadcast:2 shortwave:1 television:10 see:2 list:2 channel:4 set:1 estimate:1 network:3 tvb:1 atv:1 receive:1 widely:1 watch:1 resident:1 telephone:8 line:4 increase:1 since:1 mid:1 use:3 per:1 cellular:2 statistic:1 international:4 access:4 via:3 mainland:2 intelsat:2 indian:2 ocean:2 alcatel:1 lucent:1 grant:1 contract:1 february:1 collocate:1 cdma:1 revision:1 high:2 speed:2 wireless:1 unicom:2 follow:1 completion:1 upgrade:1 related:1 software:1 hardware:1 equip:1 facility:3 need:1 provide:2 mobile:2 data:1 service:4 user:2 include:1 broadcasting:1 video:1 telephony:1 main:1 july:2 system:2 fairly:1 modern:1 communication:5 maintain:1 domestic:2 n:1 hf:1 radiotelephone:1 carrier:1 satellite:1 earth:1 internet:5 provider:1 isps:1 ctm:2 companhia:1 de:2 telecomunicações:1 r:1 l:1 country:1 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 mo:1 broadband:3 macao:2 telecommunication:1 launch:2 first:1 territory:1 build:1 cisco:1 telecom:1 reference:1 note:1 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 |@bigram hong_kong:7 monday_friday:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 alcatel_lucent:1 mobile_cellular:1 radiotelephone_communication:1 station_intelsat:1 provider_isps:1 broadband_internet:3 |
3,025 | Advanced_Encryption_Standard | In cryptography, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is an encryption standard adopted by the U.S. government. The standard comprises three block ciphers, AES-128, AES-192 and AES-256, adopted from a larger collection originally published as Rijndael. Each AES cipher has a 128-bit block size, with key sizes of 128, 192 and 256 bits, respectively. The AES ciphers have been analyzed extensively and are now used worldwide, as was the case with its predecessor, the Data Encryption Standard (DES). AES was announced by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as U.S. FIPS PUB 197 (FIPS 197) on November 26, 2001 after a 5-year standardization process in which fifteen competing designs were presented and evaluated before Rijndael was selected as the most suitable (see Advanced Encryption Standard process for more details). It became effective as a standard May 26, 2002. , AES is one of the most popular algorithms used in symmetric key cryptography. It is available in many different encryption packages. AES is the first publicly accessible and open cipher approved by the NSA for top secret information (see Security of AES, below). The Rijndael cipher was developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, and submitted by them to the AES selection process. Rijndael is a portmanteau of the names of the two inventors and is . Description of the cipher AES is based on a design principle known as a Substitution permutation network, it is fast in both software and hardware, is relatively easy to implement, and requires little memory. Unlike its predecessor DES, AES does not use a Feistel network. AES has a fixed block size of 128 bits and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits, whereas Rijndael can be specified with block and key sizes in any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 bits and a maximum of 256 bits. Assuming one byte equals 8 bits, the fixed block size of 128 bits is 128 ÷ 8 = 16 bytes. AES operates on a 4×4 array of bytes, termed the state (versions of Rijndael with a larger block size have additional columns in the state). Most AES calculations are done in a special finite field. The AES cipher is specified as a number of repetitions of transformation rounds that convert the input plain-text into the final output of cipher-text. Each round consists of several processing steps, including one that depends on the encryption key. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform cipher-text back into the original plain-text using the same encryption key. High-level description of the algorithm KeyExpansion using Rijndael's key schedule Initial Round AddRoundKey Rounds SubBytes—a non-linear substitution step where each byte is replaced with another according to a lookup table. ShiftRows—a transposition step where each row of the state is shifted cyclically a certain number of steps. MixColumns—a mixing operation which operates on the columns of the state, combining the four bytes in each column AddRoundKey—each byte of the state is combined with the round key; each round key is derived from the cipher key using a key schedule. Final Round (no MixColumns) SubBytes ShiftRows AddRoundKey The SubBytes step In the SubBytes step, each byte in the state is replaced with its entry in a fixed 8-bit lookup table, S; bij = S(aij). In the SubBytes step, each byte in the array is updated using an 8-bit substitution box, the Rijndael S-box. This operation provides the non-linearity in the cipher. The S-box used is derived from the multiplicative inverse over GF(28), known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible affine transformation. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a derangement), and also any opposite fixed points. The ShiftRows step In the ShiftRows step, bytes in each row of the state are shifted cyclically to the left. The number of places each byte is shifted differs for each row. The ShiftRows step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. For the block of size 128 bits and 192 bits the shifting pattern is the same. In this way, each column of the output state of the ShiftRows step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. (Rijndael variants with a larger block size have slightly different offsets). In the case of the 256-bit block, the first row is unchanged and the shifting for second, third and fourth row is 1 byte, 3 bytes and 4 bytes respectively - although this change only applies for the Rijndael cipher when used with a 256-bit block, which is not used for AES. The MixColumns step In the MixColumns step, each column of the state is multiplied with a fixed polynomial c(x). In the MixColumns step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The MixColumns function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with ShiftRows, MixColumns provides diffusion in the cipher. Each column is treated as a polynomial over GF(28) and is then multiplied modulo with a fixed polynomial . The MixColumns step can also be viewed as a multiplication by a particular MDS matrix in Finite field. This process is described further in the article Rijndael mix columns. The AddRoundKey step In the AddRoundKey step, each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round subkey using the XOR operation (⊕). In the AddRoundKey step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main key using Rijndael's key schedule; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining each byte of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise XOR. Optimization of the cipher On systems with 32-bit or larger words, it is possible to speed up execution of this cipher by combining SubBytes and ShiftRows with MixColumns, and transforming them into a sequence of table lookups. This requires four 256-entry 32-bit tables, which utilizes a total of four kilobytes (4096 bytes) of memory—one kilobyte for each table. A round can now be done with 16 table lookups and 12 32-bit exclusive-or operations, followed by four 32-bit exclusive-or operations in the AddRoundKey step. http://www.springerlink.com/index/UVX5NQGNN55VK199.pdf "Efficient software implementation of AES on 32-bit platforms". Lecture Notes in Computer Science: 2523. 2003 If the resulting four kilobyte table size is too large for a given target platform, the table lookup operation can be performed with a single 256-entry 32-bit table by the use of circular rotates. Using a byte-oriented approach it is possible to combine the SubBytes, ShiftRows, and MixColumns steps into a single round operation. Security As of 2006, the only successful attacks against AES implementations have been side-channel attacks. The National Security Agency (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for US Government non-classified data. In June 2003, the US Government announced that AES may be used to protect classified information: The design and strength of all key lengths of the AES algorithm (i.e., 128, 192 and 256) are sufficient to protect classified information up to the SECRET level. TOP SECRET information will require use of either the 192 or 256 key lengths. The implementation of AES in products intended to protect national security systems and/or information must be reviewed and certified by NSA prior to their acquisition and use." AES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys. By 2006, the best known attacks were on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys. John Kelsey, Stefan Lucks, Bruce Schneier, Mike Stay, David Wagner, and Doug Whiting, Improved Cryptanalysis of Rijndael, Fast Software Encryption, 2000 pp213–230 For cryptographers, a cryptographic "break" is anything faster than an exhaustive search, thus an attack against a 128-bit-key AES requiring 2120 operations (compared to 2128 possible keys) would be considered a break. The largest successful publicly-known brute force attack has been against a 64-bit RC5 key by distributed.net. Other debates center around the mathematical structure of AES. Unlike most other block ciphers, AES has a very neat algebraic description. During the AES process, developers of competing algorithms wrote of Rijndael, "...we are concerned about [its] use...in security-critical applications." However, at the end of the AES process, Bruce Schneier, a developer of the competing algorithm Twofish, wrote that while he thought academic attacks on Rijndael would be developed someday, "I do not believe that anyone will ever discover an attack that will allow someone to read Rijndael traffic." Bruce Schneier, AES Announced, October 15, 2000 In 2002, a theoretical attack, termed the "XSL attack", was announced by Nicolas Courtois and Josef Pieprzyk, showing a potential weakness in the AES algorithm. Several cryptography experts have found problems in the underlying mathematics of the proposed attack, suggesting that the authors may have made a mistake in their estimates. Whether this line of attack can be made to work against AES remains an open question. Side-channel attacks Side-channel attacks do not attack the underlying cipher and so have nothing to do with its security as described here, but attack implementations of the cipher on systems which inadvertently leak data. There are several such known attacks on certain implementations of AES. In April 2005, D.J. Bernstein announced a cache-timing attack that he used to break a custom server that used OpenSSL's AES encryption. The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible (the server reports back the number of machine cycles taken by the encryption operation), and the attack required over 200 million chosen plaintexts. Bruce Schneier called the research a "nice timing attack." In October 2005, Dag Arne Osvik, Adi Shamir and Eran Tromer presented a paper demonstrating several cache-timing attacks against AES. One attack was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 operations triggering encryptions, in a total of 65 milliseconds. This attack requires the attacker to be able to run programs on the same system that is performing AES. Tadayoshi Kohno wrote a paper entitled "Attacking and Repairing the WinZip Encryption Scheme" showing possible attacks against the WinZip implementation (the zip archive's metadata isn't encrypted). FIPS validation AES-CBC vs AES-CFB in time trials with a 128-bit block. The Cryptographic Module Validation Program (CMVP) is operated jointly by the United States Government's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Computer Security Division and the Communications Security Establishment (CSE) of the Government of Canada. The use of validated cryptographic modules is required by the United States Government for all unclassified uses of cryptography. The Government of Canada also recommends the use of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules in unclassified applications of its departments. Although NIST publication 197 ("FIPS 197") is the unique document that covers the AES algorithm, vendors typically approach the CMVP under FIPS 140 and ask to have several algorithms (such as Triple DES or SHA1) validated at the same time. Therefore, it is rare to find cryptographic modules that are uniquely FIPS 197 validated and NIST itself does not generally take the time to list FIPS 197 validated modules separately on its public web site. Instead, FIPS 197 validation is typically just listed as an "FIPS approved: AES" notation (with a specific FIPS 197 certificate number) in the current list of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules. FIPS validation is challenging to achieve both technically and fiscally. There is a standardized battery of tests as well as an element of source code review that must be passed over a period of several days. The cost to perform these tests through an approved laboratory can be significant (e.g., well over $10,000 US) and does not include the time it takes to write, test, document and prepare a module for validation. After validation, modules must be resubmitted and reevaluated if they are changed in any way. Test vectors Test vectors are a set of known ciphers for a given input and key. For example, for the 128-bit key "00010203050607080A0B0C0D0F101112" (16 bytes represented as two hexadecimal characters per byte), and an input "506812A45F08C889B97F5980038B8359" the AES-128 cipher output should be "D8F532538289EF7D06B506A4FD5BE9C9". Following are some more test vectors: Assume that all tests use this input "4EC137A426DABF8AA0BEB8BC0C2B89D6" AES-128 key "95A8EE8E89979B9EFDCBC6EB9797528D" Ciphered output "D9B65D1232BA0199CDBD487B2A1FD646", deciphered output "9570C34363565B393503A001C0E23B65" AES-192 key "95A8EE8E89979B9EFDCBC6EB9797528D432DC26061553818" Ciphered output "B18BB3E7E10732BE1358443A504DBB49", deciphered output "29DFD75B85CEE4DE6E26A808CDC2C9C3" AES-256 key "95A8EE8E89979B9EFDCBC6EB9797528D432DC26061553818EA635EC5D5A7727E" Ciphered output "2F9CFDDBFFCDE6B9F37EF8E40D512CF4", deciphered output "110A3545CE49B84BBB7B35236108FA6E" Implementations Libraries AES speed at 128, 192 and 256-bit key sizes. Rijndael is free for any use public or private, commercial or non-commercial. The authors of Rijndael used to provide a homepage Original homepage and archived copy for the algorithm. Care should be taken when implementing AES in software. Like most encryption algorithms, Rijndael was designed on big-endian systems. For this reason, little-endian systems return correct test vector results only through considerable byte-swapping, with efficiency reduced as a result. The algorithm operates on plaintext blocks of 16 bytes. Encryption of shorter blocks is possible only by padding the source bytes, usually with null bytes. This can be accomplished via several methods, the simplest of which assumes that the final byte of the cipher identifies the number of Null bytes of padding added. Careful choice must be made in selecting the mode of operation of the cipher. The simplest mode encrypts and decrypts each 128-bit block separately. In this mode, called "electronic code book (ECB)", blocks that are identical will be encrypted identically. This will make some of the plaintext structure visible in the ciphertext. Selecting other modes, such as empressing a sequential counter over the block prior to encryption (CTR mode) and removing it after decryption avoids this problem. Current list of FIPS 197 validated cryptographic modules (hosted by NIST) Current list of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules with validated AES implementations (hosted by NIST) - Most of these involve a commercial implementation of AES algorithms. Look for "FIPS-approved algorithms" entry in the "Level / Description" column followed by "AES" and then a specific certificate number. Actionscript 3 BSD licensed cryptography library that provides several common algorithms including AES-128, AES-192 and AES-256 C/ASM library GPL-licensed Nettle library also includes an AES implementation LGPL-licensed written in C A compact byte-oriented AES-256 implementation (C, OpenBSD license) A byte-oriented public domain in C BSD licensed from Brian Gladman Public-domain from D.J. Bernstein Public domain C from Philip J. Erdelsky Cryptographic Application Programming Interface or CAPI, Microsoft's Cryptography API A simple commented implementation in C/C++ aimed at beginners C++ library Botan has implemented Rijndael since its very first release in 2001 Crypto++ A comprehensive C++ semi-public-domain implementation of encryption and hash algorithms. FIPS validated Chris Lomont's version of AES under the zlib License C# /.NET "Keep Your Data Secure with the New Advanced Encryption Standard" A detailed explanation with C# implementation by James D. McCaffrey. As of version 3.5 of the .NET Framework, the System.Security.Cryptography namespace contains both a fully managed implementation of AES and a managed wrapper around the CAPI AES implementation. Bouncy Castle Crypto Library Java Java Cryptography Extension, integrated in the Java Runtime Environment since version 1.4.2 (see example code) Bouncy Castle Crypto Library JavaScript Clipperz Crypto Library, includes an efficient implementation. Direct implementation of standard transparently coded, with counter mode of operation Calculator showing intermediate values Simple 128/192/256-bit AES with hexadecimal inputs Gibberish Library, OpenSSL compatible with CBC operation, and very efficient. MIT Licensed SlowAES, JavaScript and Python implementation. Apache 2.0 Licensed pidCrypt Crypto Library, both CTR and CBC mode of operation. ISC Licensed Delphi Martin Offenwanger's GPL-licensed AES source code written in Delphi Arnaud Bouchez's another AES source code written in Delphi and i386 assembler David Barton's implementation in Delphi, as part of a suite of hashes and ciphers called DCPcrypt: OIS-Certified open source Lisp ironclad, Common Lisp cryptography library. Common Lisp AES implementations using 8 and 32 bits arithmetic. Emacs Lisp Other languages LGPL 128bit Implementation in PHP (Registration required) phpseclib LGPL implementation in PHP supporting 128, 192, and 256-bit keys. Rijndael Inspector Program made in Flash to encrypt/decrypt using AES-128. AES CryptText A VB5/6 Source-Code (cls) implementation of the AES-Rijndael Block Cipher. Crypt::Rijndael for Perl Crypto for Erlang implements AES (binding for Openssl) Mcrypt for PHP dcrypt for the D (programming language) implements AES Applications Archive and compression tools 7z WinZip PKZIP RAR Disk encryption DiskCryptor FileVault FreeOTFE LUKS TrueCrypt Disk Utility (Mac OS X) GELI & GBDE (FreeBSD) Many disk drives incorporate AES encryption in firmware. Security for communications in Local Area Networks IEEE 802.11i, an amendment to the original IEEE 802.11 standard specifying security mechanisms for wireless networks, uses AES-128 in CCM mode. The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) Local area network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), uses AES-128 for encryption. Miscellaneous OpenSSL includes AES cipher support as of version 0.9.7 (released in 2002) and is dual-licensed under the terms of the OpenSSL License and the original SSLeay license. FIPS validated via IBM IPsec YaSSL includes AES cipher support YaSSL HomePage Peter Selingers ccrypt file encryption utility for UNIX, GPL-licensed GPG, GPL-licensed, includes AES, AES-192, and AES-256 as options. The Wizard's Toolkit, ImageMagick license SmartFTP's AES CTR Encryption Tool, Free IronKey Uses AES Encryption Pidgin (software) Has a plugin that allows for AES Encryption: Pidgin-Encryption See also Full Disk Encryption Data Encryption Standard (DES) - AES has replaced this standard Triple DES - AES has replaced this standard Advanced Encryption Standard process Whirlpool - hash function also co-created by Vincent Rijmen Notes References Nicolas Courtois, Josef Pieprzyk, "Cryptanalysis of Block Ciphers with Overdefined Systems of Equations". pp267–287, ASIACRYPT 2002. Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, "The Design of Rijndael: AES - The Advanced Encryption Standard." Springer-Verlag, 2002. ISBN 3-540-42580-2. External links FIPS PUB 197: the official AES standard (PDF file) AES Algorithm (Rijndael) Information Rijndael Specification (original submission) Explanation of the AES algorithm Animation of the AES encryption process Coding AES in C | Advanced_Encryption_Standard |@lemmatized cryptography:9 advanced:3 encryption:30 standard:18 aes:88 adopt:2 u:5 government:7 comprise:1 three:2 block:19 cipher:30 large:6 collection:1 originally:1 publish:1 rijndael:27 bit:36 size:12 key:32 respectively:3 analyze:1 extensively:1 use:33 worldwide:1 case:2 predecessor:2 data:5 des:1 announce:5 national:4 institute:2 technology:2 nist:6 fips:19 pub:2 november:1 year:1 standardization:1 process:9 fifteen:1 compete:3 design:6 present:2 evaluate:1 select:3 suitable:1 see:4 advance:2 detail:1 become:1 effective:1 may:3 one:6 popular:1 algorithm:15 symmetric:1 available:1 many:2 different:2 package:1 first:4 publicly:2 accessible:1 open:3 approve:3 nsa:3 top:2 secret:3 information:7 security:11 develop:2 two:4 belgian:1 cryptographer:2 joan:2 daemen:2 vincent:3 rijmen:3 submit:1 selection:1 portmanteau:1 name:1 inventor:1 description:4 base:2 principle:1 know:4 substitution:3 permutation:1 network:5 fast:2 software:5 hardware:1 relatively:1 easy:1 implement:5 require:8 little:2 memory:2 unlike:2 de:4 feistel:1 fix:1 whereas:1 specify:3 multiple:1 minimum:1 maximum:1 assume:3 byte:36 equal:1 fixed:6 operate:5 array:2 term:3 state:18 version:5 additional:1 column:10 calculation:1 special:1 finite:2 field:2 number:7 repetition:1 transformation:3 round:18 convert:1 input:8 plain:2 text:4 final:3 output:11 consist:1 several:8 step:20 include:9 depend:1 set:2 reverse:1 apply:2 transform:2 back:2 original:5 high:2 level:3 keyexpansion:1 schedule:3 initial:1 addroundkey:7 subbytes:7 non:5 linear:2 replace:4 another:2 accord:1 lookup:5 table:9 shiftrows:9 transposition:1 row:10 shift:6 cyclically:3 certain:3 mixcolumns:10 mixing:1 operation:14 combine:9 four:9 derive:3 entry:4 bij:1 aij:1 update:1 box:5 provide:5 linearity:2 multiplicative:1 inverse:2 gf:2 good:1 property:2 avoid:2 attack:24 simple:4 algebraic:2 construct:1 function:3 invertible:2 affine:1 also:7 choose:1 point:2 derangement:1 opposite:1 bytes:1 left:2 place:1 differs:1 offset:3 leave:1 unchanged:2 second:2 similarly:1 third:2 fourth:2 shifting:2 pattern:1 way:3 compose:1 variant:1 slightly:1 although:2 change:2 multiply:2 polynomial:3 c:13 x:2 take:5 affect:1 together:1 diffusion:1 treat:1 modulo:1 view:1 multiplication:1 particular:1 md:1 matrix:1 describe:1 far:1 article:1 mix:1 subkey:6 xor:2 main:1 add:2 corresponding:1 bitwise:1 optimization:1 system:8 word:1 possible:6 speed:3 execution:1 sequence:1 utilize:1 total:2 kilobyte:3 exclusive:2 follow:3 http:1 www:1 springerlink:1 com:1 index:1 pdf:2 efficient:3 implementation:24 platform:2 lecture:1 note:2 computer:2 science:1 result:3 give:3 target:1 perform:3 single:2 circular:1 rotates:1 orient:3 approach:2 successful:2 side:3 channel:3 agency:1 review:3 finalist:1 secure:2 enough:1 classify:2 june:1 protect:3 classified:1 strength:1 length:2 e:2 sufficient:1 either:1 product:1 intend:1 must:4 certify:2 prior:2 acquisition:1 best:1 known:2 john:1 kelsey:1 stefan:1 luck:1 bruce:4 schneier:4 mike:1 stay:1 david:2 wagner:1 doug:1 whiting:1 improved:1 cryptanalysis:2 cryptographic:9 break:3 anything:1 faster:1 exhaustive:1 search:1 thus:1 compare:1 would:2 consider:1 brute:1 force:1 distribute:1 net:3 debate:1 center:1 around:2 mathematical:1 structure:2 neat:1 developer:2 algorithms:2 write:7 concern:1 critical:1 application:4 however:1 end:1 twofish:1 think:1 academic:1 someday:1 believe:1 anyone:1 ever:1 discover:1 allow:2 someone:1 read:1 traffic:1 october:2 theoretical:1 xsl:1 nicolas:2 courtois:2 josef:2 pieprzyk:2 show:3 potential:1 weakness:1 expert:1 find:2 problem:2 underlying:1 mathematics:1 propose:1 suggest:1 author:2 make:5 mistake:1 estimate:1 whether:1 line:3 work:1 remain:1 question:1 underlie:1 nothing:1 described:1 inadvertently:1 leak:1 april:1 j:3 bernstein:2 cache:2 timing:2 custom:2 server:3 openssl:5 much:1 time:6 report:1 machine:1 cycle:1 million:1 chosen:1 plaintexts:1 call:3 research:1 nice:1 dag:1 arne:1 osvik:1 adi:1 shamir:1 eran:1 tromer:1 paper:2 demonstrate:1 able:2 obtain:1 entire:1 trigger:1 millisecond:1 attacker:1 run:1 program:4 tadayoshi:1 kohno:1 entitle:1 attacking:1 repair:1 winzip:3 scheme:1 zip:1 archive:3 metadata:1 encrypt:3 validation:6 cbc:3 v:1 cfb:1 trial:1 module:10 cmvp:2 jointly:1 united:2 states:1 division:1 communication:2 establishment:1 cse:1 canada:2 validated:2 unclassified:2 us:1 recommend:1 validate:9 department:1 publication:1 unique:1 document:2 cover:1 vendor:1 typically:2 ask:1 triple:2 therefore:1 rare:1 uniquely:1 generally:1 list:5 separately:2 public:6 web:1 site:1 instead:1 notation:1 specific:2 certificate:2 current:3 challenge:1 achieve:1 technically:1 fiscally:1 standardized:1 battery:1 test:8 well:2 element:1 source:6 code:6 pass:1 period:1 day:1 cost:1 approved:1 laboratory:1 significant:1 g:2 prepare:1 resubmitted:1 reevaluate:1 vector:4 example:2 represent:1 hexadecimal:2 character:1 per:1 decipher:3 library:11 free:2 private:1 commercial:3 homepage:3 copy:1 care:1 like:1 big:1 endian:2 reason:1 return:1 correct:1 considerable:1 swapping:1 efficiency:1 reduce:1 plaintext:2 shorter:1 pad:2 usually:1 null:2 accomplish:1 via:2 method:1 simplest:1 identify:1 careful:1 choice:1 mode:8 encrypts:1 decrypts:1 electronic:1 book:1 ecb:1 identical:1 identically:1 visible:1 ciphertext:1 empressing:1 sequential:1 counter:2 ctr:3 remove:1 decryption:1 avoids:1 host:2 involve:1 look:1 actionscript:1 bsd:2 license:14 common:3 asm:1 gpl:4 licensed:2 nettle:1 lgpl:3 compact:1 openbsd:1 domain:4 brian:1 gladman:1 philip:1 erdelsky:1 interface:1 capi:2 microsoft:1 api:1 commented:1 aim:1 beginner:1 botan:1 since:2 release:2 crypto:6 comprehensive:1 semi:1 hash:3 chris:1 lomont:1 zlib:1 keep:1 new:1 detailed:1 explanation:2 james:1 mccaffrey:1 framework:1 namespace:1 contain:1 fully:1 manage:2 wrapper:1 bouncy:2 castle:2 java:3 extension:1 integrate:1 runtime:1 environment:1 javascript:2 clipperz:1 direct:1 transparently:1 cod:2 calculator:1 intermediate:1 value:1 gibberish:1 compatible:1 mit:1 slowaes:1 python:1 apache:1 pidcrypt:1 isc:1 delphi:4 martin:1 offenwanger:1 arnaud:1 bouchez:1 assembler:1 barton:1 part:1 suite:1 dcpcrypt:1 ois:1 lisp:4 ironclad:1 arithmetic:1 emacs:1 language:2 php:3 registration:1 phpseclib:1 support:3 inspector:1 flash:1 decrypt:1 crypttext:1 cl:1 crypt:1 perl:1 erlang:1 bind:1 mcrypt:1 dcrypt:1 programming:1 compression:1 tool:2 pkzip:1 rar:1 disk:4 diskcryptor:1 filevault:1 freeotfe:1 luks:1 truecrypt:1 utility:2 mac:1 os:1 geli:1 gbde:1 freebsd:1 drive:1 incorporate:1 firmware:1 local:2 area:2 ieee:2 amendment:1 mechanism:1 wireless:1 ccm:1 itu:1 hn:1 create:2 gigabit:1 exist:1 home:1 wiring:1 power:1 phone:1 coaxial:1 cable:1 miscellaneous:1 dual:1 ssleay:1 ibm:1 ipsec:1 yassl:2 peter:1 selingers:1 ccrypt:1 file:2 unix:1 gpg:1 option:1 wizard:1 toolkit:1 imagemagick:1 smartftp:1 ironkey:1 pidgin:2 plugin:1 full:1 whirlpool:1 co:1 reference:1 overdefined:1 equation:1 asiacrypt:1 springer:1 verlag:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 specification:1 submission:1 animation:1 |@bigram aes_encryption:7 block_cipher:4 cipher_aes:3 aes_aes:7 aes_cipher:6 fips_pub:2 multiplicative_inverse:1 mixcolumns_step:5 input_output:1 http_www:1 www_springerlink:1 springerlink_com:1 bruce_schneier:4 chosen_plaintexts:1 adi_shamir:1 cryptographic_module:7 united_states:1 states_government:1 fips_validate:8 big_endian:1 little_endian:1 bsd_license:2 java_runtime:1 apache_license:1 gpl_license:2 emacs_lisp:1 encrypt_decrypt:1 mac_os:1 coaxial_cable:1 springer_verlag:1 external_link:1 |
3,026 | Aerodynamics | A vortex is created by the passage of an aircraft wing, revealed by smoke. Vortices are one of the many phenomena associated to the study of aerodynamics. The equations of aerodynamics show that the vortex is created by the difference in pressure between the upper and lower surface of the wing. At the end of the wing, the lower surface effectively tries to 'reach over' to the low pressure side, creating rotation and the vortex. Aerodynamics is a branch of dynamics concerned with studying the motion of air, particularly when it interacts with a moving object. Aerodynamics is a subfield of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, with much theory shared between them. Aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, with the difference being that gas dynamics applies to all gases. Understanding the motion of air (often called a flow field) around an object enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. Typical properties calculated for a flow field include velocity, pressure, density and temperature as a function of position and time. By defining a control volume around the flow field, equations for the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy can be defined and used to solve for the properties. The use of aerodynamics through mathematical analysis, empirical approximation and wind tunnel experimentation form the scientific basis for heavier-than-air flight. Aerodynamic problems can be identified in a number of ways. The flow environment defines the first classification criterion. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane, the shock waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket or the flow of air over a hard drive head are examples of external aerodynamics. Internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet engine or through an air conditioning pipe. The ratio of the problem's characteristic flow speed to the speed of sound comprises a second classification of aerodynamic problems. A problem is called subsonic if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, transonic if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), supersonic when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and hypersonic when the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; minimum Mach numbers for hypersonic flow range from 3 to 12. The influence of viscosity in the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems involve only negligible viscous effects on the solution, in which case viscosity can be considered to be nonexistent. The approximations to these problems are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called viscous flows. History A drawing of a design for a flying machine by Leonardo da Vinci (c. 1488). This machine was an ornithopter, with flapping wings similar to a bird, first appeared in his Codex on the Flight of Birds in 1505.Images and stories of flight have appeared throughout recorded history, such as the story of Icarus and Daedalus, the manned kite flight of Yuan Huangtou, and the parachute flight, though possibly a controlled flexible winged flight, of Abbas Ibn Firnas. Although observations of some aerodynamic effects like wind resistance (a.k.a. drag) were recorded by the likes of Aristotle, Avicenna, Aydin Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), pp. 477–82 Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo Galilei, very little effort was made to develop governing laws for understanding the nature of flight prior to the 17th century. In 1505, Leonardo da Vinci wrote the Codex on the Flight of Birds, one of the earliest treatises on aerodynamics. He notes for the first time that the center of gravity of a flying bird does not coincide with its center of pressure, and he describes the construction of an ornithopter, with flapping wings similar to a bird. Sir Isaac Newton was the first person to develop a theory of air resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists. As part of that theory, Newton believed that drag was due to the dimensions of a body, the density of the fluid, and the velocity raised to the second power. These beliefs all turned out to be correct for low flow speeds. Newton also developed a law for the drag force on a flat plate inclined towards the direction of the fluid flow. Using F for the drag force, ρ for the density, S for the area of the flat plate, V for the flow velocity, and θ for the inclination angle, his law is expressed below. Unfortunately, this equation is completely incorrect for the calculation of drag (unless the flow speed is hypersonic). Drag on a flat plate is closer to being linear with the angle of inclination as opposed to acting quadratically. This formula can lead one to believe that flight is more difficult than it actually is, and it may have contributed to a delay in manned flight. A drawing of a glider by Sir George Cayley, one of the early attempts at creating an aerodynamic shape.Sir George Cayley is credited as the first person to separate the forces of lift and drag which are in effect on any flight vehicle. Cayley believed that the drag on a flying machine must be counteracted by a means of propulsion in order for level flight to occur. Cayley also looked to nature for aerodynamic shapes with low drag. One of the shapes he investigated were the cross-sections of trout. This may appear counterintuitive, however, the bodies of fish are shaped to produce very low resistance as they travel through water. Their cross-sections are sometimes very close to that of modern low drag airfoils. These empirical findings led to a variety of air resistance experiments on various shapes throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, and Lord Rayleigh. Equations for fluid flow with friction were developed by Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes. To simulate fluid flow, many experiments involved immersing objects in streams of water or simply dropping them off the top of a tall building. Towards the end of this time period Gustave Eiffel used his Eiffel Tower to assist in the drop testing of flat plates. Of course, a more precise way to measure resistance is to place an object within an artificial, uniform stream of air where the velocity is known. The first person to experiment in this fashion was Francis Herbert Wenham, who in doing so constructed the first wind tunnel in 1871. Wenham was also a member of the first professional organization dedicated to aeronautics, the Royal Aeronautical Society of the United Kingdom. Objects placed in wind tunnel models are almost always smaller than in practice, so a method was needed to relate small scale models to their real-life counterparts. This was achieved with the invention of the dimensionless Reynolds number by Osbourne Reynolds. Reynolds also experimented with laminar to turbulent flow transition in 1883. By the late 19th century, two problems were identified before heavier-than-air flight could be realized. The first was the creation of low-drag, high-lift aerodynamic wings. The second problem was how to determine the power needed for sustained flight. During this time, the groundwork was laid down for modern day fluid dynamics and aerodynamics, with other less scientifically inclined enthusiasts testing various flying machines with little success. A replica of the Wright Brothers' wind tunnel is on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center. Wind tunnels were key in the development and validation of the laws of aerodynamics.In 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight. Renard and German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz explored the wing loading of birds, eventually concluding that humans could not fly under their own power by attaching wings onto their arms. Otto Lilienthal, following the work of Sir George Cayley, was the first person to become highly successful with glider flights. Lilienthal believed that thin, curved airfoils would produce high lift and low drag. Octave Chanute provided a great service to those interested in aerodynamics and flying machines by publishing a book outlining all of the research conducted around the world up to 1893. With the information contained in that book and the personal assistance of Chanute himself, the Wright brothers had just enough knowledge of aerodynamics to fly the first manned aircraft on December 17, 1903, just in time to beat the efforts of Samuel Pierpont Langley. The Wright brothers' flight confirmed or disproved a number of aerodynamics theories. Newton's drag force theory was finally proved incorrect. The first flight led to a more organized effort between aviators and scientists, leading the way to modern aerodynamics. During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Wilhelm Kutta, and Nikolai Zhukovsky independently created theories that connected circulation of a fluid flow to lift. Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil and lifting-line theories as well as work with boundary layers. Prandtl, a professor at Gottingen University, instructed many students who would play important roles in the development of aerodynamics like Theodore von Kármán and Max Munk. As aircraft began to travel faster, aerodynamicists realized that the density of air began to change as it came into contact with an object, leading to a division of fluid flow into the incompressible and compressible regimes. In compressible aerodynamics, density and pressure both change, which is the basis for calculating the speed of sound. Newton was the first to develop a mathematical model for calculating the speed of sound, but it was not correct until Pierre-Simon Laplace accounted for the molecular behavior of gases and introduced the heat capacity ratio. The ratio of the flow speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach, who was one of the first to investigate the properties of supersonic flow which included Schlieren photography techniques to visualize the changes in density. William John Macquorn Rankine and Pierre Henri Hugoniot independently developed the theory for flow properties before and after a shock wave. Jakob Ackeret led the initial work on calculating the lift and drag on a supersonic airfoil. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds around Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly. Because of the increase in drag approaching Mach 1, aerodynamicists and aviators disagreed on whether manned supersonic flight was achievable. A computer generated model of NASA's X-43A hypersonic research vehicle flying at Mach 7 using a computational fluid dynamics code.On September 30, 1935 an exclusive conference was held in Rome with the topic of high velocity flight and the possibility of breaking the sound barrier. Participants included von Kármán, Prandtl, Ackeret, Eastman Jacobs, Adolf Busemann, Geoffrey Ingram Taylor, Gaetano Arturo Crocco, and Enrico Pistolesi. The new research presented was impressive. Ackeret presented a design for a supersonic wind tunnel. Busemann gave perhaps the best presentation on the need for aircraft with swept wings for high speed flight. Eastman Jacobs, working for NACA, presented his optimized airfoils for high subsonic speeds which led to some of the high performance American aircraft during World War II. Supersonic propulsion was also discussed. The sound barrier was broken using the Bell X-1 aircraft twelve years later, thanks in part to those individuals. By the time the sound barrier was broken, much of the subsonic and low supersonic aerodynamics knowledge had matured. The Cold War fueled an ever evolving line of high performance aircraft. Computational fluid dynamics was started as an effort to solve for flow properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to the point where entire aircraft can be designed using a computer. With some exceptions, the knowledge of hypersonic aerodynamics has matured between the 1960s and the present decade. Therefore, the goals of an aerodynamicist have shifted from understanding the behavior of fluid flow to understanding how to engineer a vehicle to interact appropriately with the fluid flow. For example, while the behavior of hypersonic flow is understood, building a scramjet aircraft to fly at hypersonic speeds has seen very limited success. Along with building a successful scramjet aircraft, the desire to improve the aerodynamic efficiency of current aircraft and propulsion systems will continue to fuel new research in aerodynamics. Introductory terminology Lift Drag Reynolds number Mach number Continuity assumption Gases are composed of molecules which collide with one another and solid objects. If density and velocity are taken to be well-defined at infinitely small points, and are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another, the discrete molecular nature of a gas is ignored. The continuity assumption becomes less valid as a gas becomes more rarefied. In these cases, statistical mechanics is a more valid method of solving the problem than continuous aerodynamics. The Knudsen number can be used to guide the choice between statistical mechanics and the continuous formulation of aerodynamics. Laws of Conservation Aerodynamic problems are often solved using conservation laws as applied to a fluid continuum. In many basic problems, three conservation principles are used: Continuity: If a certain mass of fluid enters a volume, it must either exit the volume or change the mass inside the volume. Conservation of Momentum: Application of Newton's second law of motion to a continuum. Conservation of Energy: Although energy can be converted from one form to another, the total energy in a given system remains constant. Incompressible aerodynamics An incompressible flow is characterized by a constant density despite flowing over surfaces or inside ducts. A flow can be considered incompressible as long as its speed is low. For higher speeds, the flow will begin to compress as it comes into contact with surfaces. The Mach number is used to distinguish between incompressible and compressible flows. Subsonic flow Subsonic (or low-speed) aerodynamics is the study of inviscid, incompressible and irrotational aerodynamics where the differential equations used are a simplified version of the governing equations of fluid dynamics. . It is a special case of Subsonic aerodynamics. In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether to incorporate the effects of compressibility. Compressibility is a description of the amount of change of density in the problem. When the effects of compressibility on the solution are small, the aerodynamicist may choose to assume that density is constant. The problem is then an incompressible low-speed aerodynamics problem. When the density is allowed to vary, the problem is called a compressible problem. In air, compressibility effects are usually ignored when the Mach number in the flow does not exceed 0.3 (about 335 feet per second or 228 miles per hour or 102 meters per second at 60oF). Above 0.3, the problem should be solved by using compressible aerodynamics. Compressible aerodynamics According to the theory of aerodynamics, a flow is considered to be compressible if its change in density with respect to pressure is non-zero along a streamline. This means that - unlike incompressible flow - changes in density must be considered. In general, this is the case where the Mach number in part or all of the flow exceeds 0.3. The Mach .3 value is rather arbitrary, but it is used because gas flows with a Mach number below that value demonstrate changes in density with respect to the change in pressure of less than 5%. Furthermore, that maximum 5% density change occurs at the stagnation point of an object immersed in the gas flow and the density changes around the rest of the object will be significantly lower. Transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flows are all compressible. Transonic flow The term Transonic refers to a range of velocities just below and above the local speed of sound (generally taken as Mach 0.8–1.2). It is defined as the range of speeds between the critical Mach number, when some parts of the airflow over an aircraft become supersonic, and a higher speed, typically near Mach 1.2, when all of the airflow is supersonic. Between these speeds some of the airflow is supersonic, and some is not. Supersonic flow Supersonic aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound. Calculating the lift on the Concorde during cruise can be an example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem. Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. Fluids react to differences in pressure; pressure changes are how a fluid is "told" to respond to its environment. Therefore, since sound is in fact an infinitesimal pressure difference propagating through a fluid, the speed of sound in that fluid can be considered the fastest speed that "information" can travel in the flow. This difference most obviously manifests itself in the case of a fluid striking an object. In front of that object, the fluid builds up a stagnation pressure as impact with the object brings the moving fluid to rest. In fluid traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance can propagate upstream, changing the flow pattern ahead of the object and giving the impression that the fluid "knows" the object is there and is avoiding it. However, in a supersonic flow, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally does strike the object, it is forced to change its properties -- temperature, density, pressure, and Mach number -- in an extremely violent and irreversible fashion called a shock wave. The presence of shock waves, along with the compressibility effects of high-velocity (see Reynolds number) fluids, is the central difference between supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics problems. Hypersonic flow In aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly supersonic. In the 1970s, the term generally came to refer to speeds of Mach 5 (5 times the speed of sound) and above. The hypersonic regime is a subset of the supersonic regime. Hypersonic flow is characterized by high temperature flow behind a shock wave, viscous interaction, and chemical dissociation of gas. Associated terminology The incompressible and compressible flow regimes produce many associated phenomena, such as boundary layers and turbulence. Boundary layers The concept of a boundary layer is important in many aerodynamic problems. The viscosity and fluid friction in the air is approximated as being significant only in this thin layer. This principle makes aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically. Turbulence In aerodynamics, turbulence is characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes in the flow. This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time. Flow that is not turbulent is called laminar flow. Aerodynamics in other fields Aerodynamics is important in a number of applications other than aerospace engineering. It is a significant factor in any type of vehicle design, including automobiles. It is important in the prediction of forces and moments in sailing. It is used in the design of large components such as hard drive heads. Structural engineers also use aerodynamics, and particularly aeroelasticity, to calculate wind loads in the design of large buildings and bridges. Urban aerodynamics seeks to help town planners and designers improve comfort in outdoor spaces, create urban microclimates and reduce the effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics studies the ways atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affect ecosystems. The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation, gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the performance of the engine. See also List of aerospace engineering topics List of engineering topics Automotive aerodynamics Aeronautics Fluid dynamics Aerostatics Nose cone design Bernoulli's principle Navier-Stokes equations Center of pressure Computational Fluid Dynamics Transonic flows. Supersonic flows. Hypersonic flows. Sound barrier References Further reading General Aerodynamics Subsonic Aerodynamics Transonic Aerodynamics Supersonic Aerodynamics Hypersonic Aerodynamics History of Aerodynamics Aerodynamics Related to Engineering Ground Vehicles Fixed-Wing Aircraft Helicopters Missiles Model Aircraft Related Branches of Aerodynamics Aerothermodynamics Aeroelasticity Boundary Layers Turbulence External links NASA Beginner's Guide to Aerodynamics Aerodynamics for Students Applied Aerodynamics: A Digital Textbook Aerodynamics for Pilots Aerodynamics and Race Car Tuning Aerodynamic Related Projects eFluids Bicycle Aerodynamics Application of Aerodynamics in Formula One (F1) Aerodynamics in Car Racing Aerodynamics of Birds Aerodynamics and dragonfly wings | Aerodynamics |@lemmatized vortex:4 create:6 passage:3 aircraft:14 wing:12 reveal:1 smoke:1 one:12 many:6 phenomenon:2 associate:3 study:7 aerodynamics:61 equation:7 show:1 difference:6 pressure:16 upper:1 low:15 surface:4 end:2 effectively:1 try:1 reach:1 side:1 rotation:1 branch:2 dynamic:11 concern:1 motion:4 air:13 particularly:2 interact:2 move:2 object:19 subfield:1 fluid:29 gas:12 much:4 theory:11 share:1 often:3 use:17 synonymously:1 applies:1 understand:4 call:7 flow:65 field:5 around:7 enable:1 calculation:2 force:7 moment:2 act:2 typical:1 property:7 calculate:6 include:5 velocity:9 density:17 temperature:3 function:1 position:1 time:9 define:5 control:2 volume:4 conservation:6 mass:3 momentum:4 energy:4 solve:6 mathematical:2 analysis:1 empirical:2 approximation:2 wind:8 tunnel:6 experimentation:1 form:3 scientific:1 basis:2 heavy:2 flight:23 aerodynamic:12 problem:23 identify:2 number:16 way:4 environment:2 first:17 classification:3 criterion:1 external:3 solid:3 various:3 shape:6 evaluate:1 lift:9 drag:19 airplane:1 shock:5 wave:5 front:2 nose:2 rocket:1 hard:2 drive:2 head:2 example:3 internal:3 instance:1 encompass:1 airflow:4 jet:1 engine:3 condition:1 pipe:1 ratio:3 characteristic:3 speed:39 sound:18 comprise:1 second:6 subsonic:11 less:4 transonic:7 present:5 normally:1 approximately:1 supersonic:21 great:4 hypersonic:15 aerodynamicists:4 disagree:2 precise:2 definition:1 minimum:1 mach:17 range:3 influence:1 viscosity:4 dictate:1 third:1 involve:3 negligible:1 viscous:3 effect:8 solution:2 case:5 consider:5 nonexistent:1 inviscid:2 cannot:2 neglect:1 history:3 drawing:2 design:7 fly:9 machine:5 leonardo:3 da:3 vinci:3 c:1 ornithopter:2 flap:2 similar:2 bird:7 appear:3 codex:2 image:1 story:2 throughout:2 recorded:1 icarus:1 daedalus:1 man:3 kite:1 yuan:1 huangtou:1 parachute:1 though:1 possibly:1 flexible:1 winged:1 abbas:1 ibn:2 firnas:1 although:2 observation:1 like:3 resistance:5 k:1 record:1 aristotle:1 avicenna:1 aydin:1 sayili:1 sīnā:1 buridan:1 projectile:1 annals:1 new:3 york:1 academy:1 science:1 pp:1 galileo:1 galilei:1 little:2 effort:4 make:4 develop:9 govern:2 law:7 nature:3 prior:1 century:3 write:1 early:2 treatise:1 note:1 center:4 gravity:1 coincide:1 describe:2 construction:1 sir:4 isaac:1 newton:6 person:5 part:4 believe:4 due:1 dimension:1 body:2 raise:1 power:4 belief:1 turn:1 correct:2 also:7 flat:4 plate:4 incline:1 towards:2 direction:1 f:1 ρ:1 area:1 v:1 θ:1 inclination:2 angle:2 express:1 unfortunately:1 completely:1 incorrect:2 unless:1 closer:1 linear:1 oppose:1 quadratically:1 formula:2 lead:7 difficult:1 actually:1 may:3 contribute:1 delay:1 manned:1 glider:2 george:4 cayley:5 attempt:1 credit:2 separate:1 vehicle:5 must:3 counteract:1 mean:2 propulsion:3 order:1 level:1 occur:2 look:1 investigate:2 cross:2 section:2 trout:1 counterintuitive:1 however:2 fish:1 produce:3 travel:3 water:2 sometimes:1 close:1 modern:3 airfoil:5 finding:1 variety:1 experiment:4 jean:1 le:1 rond:1 alembert:1 gustav:1 kirchhoff:1 lord:1 rayleigh:1 friction:2 claude:1 louis:1 navier:2 gabriel:1 stokes:2 simulate:1 immersing:1 stream:2 simply:1 drop:2 top:1 tall:1 building:2 period:1 gustave:1 eiffel:2 tower:1 assist:1 testing:1 course:1 measure:1 place:2 within:1 artificial:1 uniform:1 know:2 fashion:2 francis:1 herbert:1 wenham:2 construct:1 member:1 professional:1 organization:1 dedicate:1 aeronautics:2 royal:1 aeronautical:2 society:1 united:1 kingdom:1 model:5 almost:1 always:1 small:4 practice:1 method:2 need:4 relate:1 scale:1 real:1 life:1 counterpart:1 achieve:1 invention:1 dimensionless:1 reynolds:5 osbourne:1 laminar:2 turbulent:2 transition:1 late:1 two:2 could:2 realize:2 creation:1 high:12 determine:1 sustained:2 groundwork:1 lay:1 day:1 scientifically:1 inclined:1 enthusiast:1 test:1 success:2 replica:1 wright:3 brother:3 display:1 virginia:1 space:3 key:1 development:2 validation:1 charles:1 renard:2 french:1 engineer:3 become:5 reasonably:1 predict:1 german:1 physicist:1 hermann:1 von:4 helmholtz:1 explore:1 loading:1 eventually:1 conclude:1 human:1 attach:1 onto:1 arm:1 otto:1 lilienthal:2 follow:1 work:5 highly:2 successful:2 thin:3 curve:1 would:2 octave:1 chanute:2 provide:1 service:1 interested:1 publish:1 book:2 outline:1 research:4 conduct:1 world:2 information:2 contain:1 personal:1 assistance:1 enough:1 knowledge:3 december:1 beat:1 samuel:1 pierpont:1 langley:1 confirm:1 disprove:1 finally:2 prove:1 organized:1 aviator:2 scientist:1 frederick:1 w:1 lanchester:2 martin:1 wilhelm:1 kutta:2 nikolai:1 zhukovsky:2 independently:2 connect:1 circulation:2 go:1 dimensional:1 expand:1 upon:1 ludwig:1 prandtl:3 mathematics:1 behind:2 line:2 well:2 boundary:5 layer:6 professor:1 gottingen:1 university:1 instruct:1 student:2 play:1 important:5 role:1 theodore:2 kármán:3 max:1 munk:1 begin:3 faster:1 change:15 come:3 contact:2 division:1 incompressible:9 compressible:9 regime:4 pierre:2 simon:1 laplace:1 account:1 molecular:2 behavior:3 introduce:2 heat:2 capacity:1 name:1 ernst:1 schlieren:1 photography:1 technique:1 visualize:1 william:1 john:1 macquorn:1 rankine:1 henri:1 hugoniot:1 jakob:1 ackeret:3 initial:1 hugh:1 latimer:1 dryden:1 term:3 increase:2 rapidly:2 approach:1 whether:2 achievable:1 computer:2 generate:1 nasa:2 x:2 computational:3 code:1 september:1 exclusive:1 conference:1 hold:1 rome:1 topic:3 possibility:1 break:3 barrier:4 participant:1 eastman:2 jacob:2 adolf:1 busemann:2 geoffrey:1 ingram:1 taylor:1 gaetano:1 arturo:1 crocco:1 enrico:1 pistolesi:1 impressive:1 give:3 perhaps:1 best:1 presentation:1 swept:1 naca:1 optimized:1 performance:3 american:1 war:2 ii:1 discuss:1 bell:1 twelve:1 year:1 later:1 thanks:1 individual:1 mature:2 cold:1 fuel:2 ever:1 evolve:1 start:1 complex:1 grow:1 point:4 entire:1 exception:1 decade:1 therefore:2 goal:1 aerodynamicist:3 shift:1 appropriately:1 understood:1 build:3 scramjet:2 see:3 limited:1 along:3 desire:1 improve:2 efficiency:1 current:1 system:2 continue:1 introductory:1 terminology:2 continuity:3 assumption:2 compose:1 molecule:1 collide:1 another:3 take:2 infinitely:1 assume:2 vary:2 continuously:1 discrete:1 ignore:2 valid:2 rarefied:1 statistical:2 mechanic:3 continuous:2 knudsen:1 guide:2 choice:1 formulation:1 apply:1 continuum:2 basic:1 three:1 principle:3 certain:1 enters:1 either:1 exit:1 inside:2 application:3 convert:1 total:1 remain:1 constant:3 characterize:3 despite:1 duct:1 long:1 compress:1 distinguish:1 irrotational:1 differential:1 simplified:1 version:1 special:1 decision:1 incorporate:1 compressibility:5 description:1 amount:1 choose:1 allow:1 usually:1 exceed:2 foot:1 per:3 mile:1 hour:1 meter:1 accord:1 respect:2 non:1 zero:1 streamline:1 unlike:1 general:2 value:2 rather:1 arbitrary:1 demonstrate:1 furthermore:1 maximum:1 stagnation:2 immerse:1 rest:2 significantly:1 refers:1 local:1 generally:2 critical:1 typically:1 near:1 concorde:1 cruise:1 behaves:1 differently:1 react:1 told:1 respond:1 since:1 fact:1 infinitesimal:1 propagate:3 fast:1 obviously:1 manifest:1 strike:2 impact:1 bring:1 traveling:1 disturbance:2 upstream:2 pattern:2 ahead:1 impression:1 avoid:1 thus:1 extremely:1 violent:1 irreversible:1 presence:1 central:1 refer:1 subset:1 interaction:1 chemical:1 dissociation:1 turbulence:4 concept:1 approximate:1 significant:2 tractable:1 mathematically:1 chaotic:1 stochastic:1 diffusion:1 convection:1 rapid:1 variation:1 aerospace:2 engineering:4 factor:1 type:1 automobile:1 prediction:1 sail:1 large:2 component:1 structural:1 aeroelasticity:2 load:1 bridge:1 urban:3 seek:1 help:1 town:1 planner:1 designer:1 comfort:1 outdoor:1 microclimates:1 reduce:1 pollution:1 environmental:1 atmospheric:1 affect:2 ecosystem:1 ventilation:1 piping:1 automotive:2 detail:1 strongly:1 list:2 aerostatics:1 cone:1 bernoulli:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 related:3 ground:1 fix:1 helicopter:1 missile:1 aerothermodynamics:1 link:1 beginner:1 applied:1 digital:1 textbook:1 pilot:1 race:2 car:2 tune:1 project:1 efluids:1 bicycle:1 dragonfly:1 |@bigram shock_wave:5 subsonic_speed:3 hypersonic_flow:8 inviscid_flow:1 viscous_flow:1 leonardo_da:3 da_vinci:3 abbas_ibn:1 ibn_firnas:1 sayili_ibn:1 ibn_sīnā:1 sīnā_buridan:1 buridan_motion:1 projectile_annals:1 galileo_galilei:1 isaac_newton:1 le_rond:1 rond_alembert:1 gustav_kirchhoff:1 lord_rayleigh:1 gustave_eiffel:1 eiffel_tower:1 laminar_turbulent:1 aeronautical_engineer:1 von_helmholtz:1 octave_chanute:1 von_kármán:3 simon_laplace:1 ernst_mach:1 hugh_latimer:1 swept_wing:1 statistical_mechanic:2 incompressible_flow:2 differential_equation:1 thin_layer:1 laminar_flow:1 nose_cone:1 navier_stokes:1 external_link:1 beginner_guide:1 |
3,027 | Irredentism | Irredentism is any position advocating annexation of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common ethnicity or prior historical possession, actual or alleged. Some of these movements are also called pan-nationalist movements. It is a feature of identity politics and cultural and political geography. Because most borders have been moved and redrawn over time, a great many countries could theoretically present irredentist claims to their neighbours. The Nazi Anschluss of Austria in 1938 is perhaps the most famous historical example of this idea in practice. Similar Serbian occupation and annexation of allied Montenegro after World War I and its aspirations towards areas of Croatia populated by the Serbian minority during the 1990's, as well as continuing aspirations towards the Bosnian entity Republika Srpska, Kosovo and today's independent Montenegro offer a similar example. However, some states are the subject of potential irredentism from their inception. Post-WWI Eastern Europe, the Balkans, and the Near East had borders carved out by the Allies that left many of the new states in that region unsatisfied due to minority populations and conflicting historical claims. Many of Africa's borders were artificially imposed by European colonial powers. The result split ethnic groups between different countries, such as the Yoruba who are divided among Nigeria and Benin. In some cases, the irredentist arguing continued well past the Second World War and on to the present day. An area that may be subjected to a potential claim is therefore sometimes called an irredenta. Not all irredentas are involved in actual irredentism. Origins The word was coined in Italy from the phrase Italia irredenta ("unredeemed Italy"). This originally referred to Austro-Hungarian rule over mostly or partly Italian-inhabited territories such as Trentino and Trieste during the 19th and early 20th century. A common way to express a claim to adjacent territories on the grounds of historical or ethnic association is by using the epithet "Greater" before the country name. This conveys the image of national territory at its maximum conceivable extent with the country "proper" at its core. It must be noted that the use of "Greater" does not always convey an irredentistic meaning. For instance, Greater Romania is the common translation given to the Romanian term "Romania Mare", which is the name given between the two World Wars to the Kingdom of Romania. Romania claimed irredenta over Transylvania and Bessarabia after World War I. During the unification of Germany, the term Großdeutschland (or greater Germany) referred to a possible German nation consisting of the states that later comprised the Second German Empire and Austria; the term lesser Germany, or small Germany, or Kleindeutschland, referred to a possible German state without Austria. These were also called the "little German" solution and the "big German" solution to the question of unification. The term was also used by Germans referring to Greater Germany, a state consisting of pre World War I Germany, actual Austria and the Sudetenland. Constitutional irredentism Some states formalize their irredentist claims by including them in their constitutional documents. Afghanistan The Afghan border with Pakistan, known as the Durand Line, was "arbitrarily" drawn by colonial officials of the British Empire in 1893 following the Second Afghan War, and "imposed" on the then-weak Afghan royal family. Accordingly, the Pashtun tribes inhabiting the border areas were arbitrarily divided; the tribes have never accepted the still-porous border. The Durand Line was not intended as a permanent border, and clashes broke out in the 1950s and 1960s between Afghanistan and Pakistan over the issue. All Afghan governments of the past century have declared, with varying intensity, a long-term goal of re-uniting all Pashtun-dominated areas under Afghan rule. Argentina Part III, Section 1 of the Constitution of Argentina states that "The Argentine Nation ratifies its legitimate and non-prescribing sovereignty over the Malvinas (Falkland Islands), South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and over the corresponding maritime and insular zones, as they are an integral part of the national territory. The recovery of said territories and the full exercise of sovereignty, respectful of the way of life of their inhabitants and according to the principles of international law, are a permanent and unrelinquished goal of the Argentine people." People's Republic of China The preamble to the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states "Taiwan is part of the sacred territory of the People's Republic of China. It is the lofty duty of the entire Chinese people, including our compatriots in Taiwan, to accomplish the great task of reunifying the motherland." The PRC claim to sovereignty over Taiwan is generally based on the successor state theory, whereby the PRC is the legally recognized successor state to the Republic of China. Official territorial claims according to the Constitution of the Republic of China (Taiwan). Republic of China Article 4 of the 'Constitution of the Republic of China originally stated that: "The territory of the Republic of China within its existing national boundaries shall not be altered except by a resolution of the National Assembly" although recent constitutional changes have moved this power to that of a national referendum. The Republic of China has not formally renounced claims to the areas currently controlled by the People's Republic of China, Mongolia, and parts of Russia (Tuvan Republic), Burma and other Central Asian states bordering China, though it no longer actively pursues these claims. Ironically, for the ROC to renounce claims on the Mainland would be regarded as a declaration of Taiwan independence by the PRC which could likely provoke military intervention. Comoros Article 1 of the Constitution of the Union of the Comoros begins: "The Union of the Comoros is a republic, composed of the autonomous islands of Mohéli, Mayotte, Anjouan, and Grande Comore." Mayotte, geographically a part of the Comoro Islands, was the only island of the four to vote against independence from France (a 63%-37% majority) in the referendum held December 22, 1974. The total vote was 94%-5% in favor of independence. Mayotte is currently a "departmental collectivity" of the French Republic. Ireland/United Kingdom From 1937 until 1999, articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland provided that "[t]he national territory consists of the whole island of Ireland". However, "[p]ending the re-integration of the national territory", the powers of the state were restricted to legislate only for the area that had ceded from the United Kingdom. Arising from the Northern Ireland peace process, the matter was mutually resolved in 1999. Ireland's constitution was altered by referendum and its territorial claim to Northern Ireland was dropped. The amended constitution asserts that while it is the entitlement of "every person born in the island of Ireland ... to be part of the Irish Nation" and to hold Irish citizenship, "a united Ireland shall be brought about only by peaceful means with the consent of a majority of the people, democratically expressed, in both jurisdictions in the island." Certain joint policy and executive bodies were created between Northern Ireland, the part of the island that remained in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, and these were given executive authority. The advisory and consultative role of the government of Ireland in the government of Northern Ireland granted by the United Kingdom, that had begun with the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement, was maintained. The two states also settled the long-running dispute concerning their respective names: Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland with both governments agreeing to use those names. Pakistan From 1950 onward Pakistan has claimed Jammu & Kashmir, as part of their state's "national territory." Pakistan also claims so-called Azad Kashmir, also known as Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (POK). Palestine Article 3 of the Basic Law of the State of Palestine, which was ratified in 2002 by the Palestinian National Authority and serves as an interim constitution, states that "Jerusalem is the capital of Palestine." Somalia Prior to its break-up as a functioning state, the Somali constitution contained paragraphs explicitly claiming adjacent territories to form a "Greater Somalia". The present Transitional Federal Charter (TFC) of the new Transitional Federal Government (TFG) clearly claims territories which comprise the self-declared independent nation of Somaliland, thus asserting sovereignty over territory of the former Somali Republic. NOTE: Section VI of the Constitution of Australia refers to Australia's states as being "...such of the colonies of New South Wales, New Zealand, Queensland, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia, and South Australia, including the northern territory of South Australia, as for the time being are parts of the Commonwealth, and such colonies or territories as may be admitted into or established by the Commonwealth as States". This is not normally seen as an irredentist claim on New Zealand; instead it reflects the fact that New Zealand was invited to take part in the process of federation, but withdrew from the process at an early stage. "Why New Zealand did not become an Australian state" Other claims Spain continues to claim the British overseas territory of Gibraltar, ceded to Britain in 1713 under the Treaty of Utrecht, and argues its case at the United Nations claiming its territorial integrity is affected. Morocco makes similar claims against Spain over the North African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla. Portugal does not recognize as Spanish the territory of Olivenza conquered by Spain during the Napoleonic Wars. Some of the most violent irredentist conflicts of recent times in Europe flared up as a consequence of the break-up of the former Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. The wars in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina were largely about creating a new political framework of states, each of which would be ethnically and politically homogeneous. The conflict erupted further south with the ethnic Albanian majority in Kosovo seeking to switch allegiance to the adjoining state of Albania. (See Chazan, 1991, Irredentism and international politics.) Greece claims that the use of the name Republic of Macedonia by its northern neighbor signifies an irredentist claim on the northern province of Macedonia in Greece. Other pacifist movements claims a pacific reunification of Yugoslavia. Southeast Asia too is another region in which armed irredentist movements have been active for almost a century, due to the Balkanization of North-East India, Burma and Bangladesh under British colonialism. Most prominent amongst them are the Naga fight for Greater Nagaland, the Chin struggle for a unified Chinland and other self-determinist movements by the ethnic indigenous peoples of the erstwhile Assam both under the British and post-British Assam under India. Some have alleged irredentism by Armenia in its support of the predominantly Armenian-populated region of Nagorno-Karabakh to gain independence from Azerbaijan. However, Armenia denies direct involvement in the Nagorno-Karabakh War. In the view of Nadia Milanova, Nagorno-Karabakh represents a combination of separatism and irredentism. Nadia Milanova. The Territory-Identity Nexus in the Conflict over Nagorno Karabakh: Implications for OSCE Peace Efforts, Human Rights Without Frontiers International, 2003 The Syrian Social Nationalist Party, which operates in Lebanon and Syria, works for the unification of most modern states of the Levant and beyond in a single state referred to as Greater Syria. The proposed pan-Arab "Syrian" country includes Israel, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait; and southern Turkey, northern Egypt, and southwestern Iran. Japan claims the South Korean-administered Liancourt Rocks and the Russian-administered Kuril Islands, the four southernmost isles of the island chain north of Hokkaido, annexed by the Soviet Union following World War II. Irredentism is commonplace in Africa due to the artificially declared political boundaries of former European colonial nation-states passes through tribal boundaries. The Ethiopian Great Imperium of Eastern Africa in some Ethiopian nationalist circles: To extend the ancient Ethiopian empire into the former Ethiopian province of Eritrea, the Sudan including Christian Southern Sudan, Fachoda and the Darfur region, neighboring Djibouti, Somalia, parts of Egypt, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique and even into Yemen. Irredentism is also found in the United States by some Chicano nationalists and Mexican-American activists in the controversial La Raza and Aztlan movements. They call for the return of formerly Mexican-dominated lands in the Southwestern United States back to Mexico after the US annexed lands in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to become the present-day states of California, Texas, Arizona, New Mexico; and parts of Colorado, Nevada and Utah. Venezuela keeps its claim over the Guayana Esequiba territory in nearby Guyana. See also List of irredentist claims or disputes Annexationism Ethnic nationalism Expansionism Lebensraum Reconquista (Mexico) Revanchism Status quo ante bellum Territorial dispute References | Irredentism |@lemmatized irredentism:9 position:1 advocate:1 annexation:2 territory:20 administer:3 another:2 state:30 ground:2 common:3 ethnicity:1 prior:2 historical:4 possession:1 actual:3 allege:2 movement:6 also:8 call:5 pan:2 nationalist:4 feature:1 identity:2 politics:2 cultural:1 political:3 geography:1 border:8 move:2 redrawn:1 time:3 great:12 many:3 country:5 could:2 theoretically:1 present:4 irredentist:8 claim:27 neighbour:1 nazi:1 anschluss:1 austria:4 perhaps:1 famous:1 example:2 idea:1 practice:1 similar:3 serbian:2 occupation:1 allied:1 montenegro:2 world:6 war:10 aspiration:2 towards:2 area:6 croatia:2 populate:1 minority:2 well:2 continue:3 bosnian:1 entity:1 republika:1 srpska:1 kosovo:2 today:1 independent:2 offer:1 however:3 subject:2 potential:2 inception:1 post:2 wwi:1 eastern:2 europe:2 balkan:1 near:1 east:2 carve:1 ally:1 leave:1 new:9 region:4 unsatisfied:1 due:3 population:1 conflict:4 africa:3 artificially:2 impose:2 european:2 colonial:3 power:3 result:1 split:1 ethnic:5 group:1 different:1 yoruba:1 divide:2 among:1 nigeria:1 benin:1 case:2 argue:2 past:2 second:3 day:2 may:2 therefore:1 sometimes:1 irredenta:4 involve:1 origins:1 word:1 coin:1 italy:2 phrase:1 italia:1 unredeemed:1 originally:2 refer:5 austro:1 hungarian:1 rule:2 mostly:1 partly:1 italian:1 inhabited:1 trentino:1 trieste:1 early:3 century:3 way:2 express:2 adjacent:2 association:1 use:5 epithet:1 name:5 convey:2 image:1 national:9 maximum:1 conceivable:1 extent:1 proper:1 core:1 must:1 note:2 always:1 irredentistic:1 meaning:1 instance:1 romania:4 translation:1 give:3 romanian:1 term:5 mare:1 two:2 kingdom:6 transylvania:1 bessarabia:1 unification:3 germany:6 großdeutschland:1 possible:2 german:6 nation:6 consisting:2 later:1 comprise:2 empire:3 less:1 small:1 kleindeutschland:1 without:2 little:1 solution:2 big:1 question:1 pre:1 sudetenland:1 constitutional:3 formalize:1 include:5 document:1 afghanistan:2 afghan:5 pakistan:6 know:2 durand:2 line:2 arbitrarily:2 draw:1 official:2 british:5 follow:2 weak:1 royal:1 family:1 accordingly:1 pashtun:2 tribes:1 inhabit:1 tribe:1 never:1 accept:1 still:1 porous:1 intend:1 permanent:2 clash:1 break:3 issue:1 government:5 declare:1 vary:1 intensity:1 long:2 goal:2 unite:1 dominate:1 argentina:2 part:12 iii:1 section:2 constitution:11 argentine:2 ratify:2 legitimate:1 non:1 prescribe:1 sovereignty:4 malvinas:1 falkland:1 island:11 south:7 georgia:1 sandwich:1 corresponding:1 maritime:1 insular:1 zone:1 integral:1 recovery:1 say:1 full:1 exercise:1 respectful:1 life:1 inhabitant:1 accord:2 principle:1 international:3 law:2 unrelinquished:1 people:8 republic:16 china:11 preamble:1 taiwan:5 sacred:1 lofty:1 duty:1 entire:1 chinese:1 compatriot:1 accomplish:1 task:1 reunify:1 motherland:1 prc:3 generally:1 base:1 successor:2 theory:1 whereby:1 legally:1 recognize:2 territorial:4 article:4 within:1 exist:1 boundary:3 shall:2 alter:2 except:1 resolution:1 assembly:1 although:1 recent:2 change:1 referendum:3 formally:1 renounce:2 currently:2 control:1 mongolia:1 russia:1 tuvan:1 burma:2 central:1 asian:1 though:1 longer:1 actively:1 pursue:1 ironically:1 roc:1 mainland:1 would:2 regard:1 declaration:1 independence:4 likely:1 provoke:1 military:1 intervention:1 comoros:3 union:3 begin:2 compose:1 autonomous:1 mohéli:1 mayotte:3 anjouan:1 grande:1 comore:1 geographically:1 comoro:1 four:2 vote:2 france:1 majority:3 hold:2 december:1 total:1 favor:1 departmental:1 collectivity:1 french:1 ireland:14 united:9 provide:1 consist:1 whole:1 p:1 end:1 integration:1 restrict:1 legislate:1 cede:2 arise:1 northern:9 peace:2 process:3 matter:1 mutually:1 resolve:1 drop:1 amended:1 assert:2 entitlement:1 every:1 person:1 bear:1 irish:3 citizenship:1 bring:1 peaceful:1 mean:1 consent:1 democratically:1 jurisdiction:1 certain:1 joint:1 policy:1 executive:2 body:1 create:2 remain:1 authority:2 advisory:1 consultative:1 role:1 grant:1 anglo:1 agreement:1 maintain:1 settle:1 run:1 dispute:3 concern:1 respective:1 britain:2 agree:1 onward:1 jammu:1 kashmir:3 azad:1 occupy:1 pok:1 palestine:3 basic:1 palestinian:1 serve:1 interim:1 jerusalem:1 capital:1 somalia:3 functioning:1 somali:2 contain:1 paragraphs:1 explicitly:1 form:1 transitional:2 federal:2 charter:1 tfc:1 tfg:1 clearly:1 self:2 declared:2 somaliland:1 thus:1 former:4 vi:1 australia:5 refers:1 colony:2 wale:1 zealand:4 queensland:1 tasmania:1 victoria:1 western:1 commonwealth:2 admit:1 establish:1 normally:1 see:3 instead:1 reflect:1 fact:1 invite:1 take:1 federation:1 withdraw:1 stage:1 become:2 australian:1 spain:3 overseas:1 gibraltar:1 treaty:2 utrecht:1 integrity:1 affect:1 morocco:1 make:1 north:3 african:1 enclave:1 ceuta:1 melilla:1 portugal:1 spanish:1 olivenza:1 conquer:1 napoleonic:1 violent:1 flare:1 consequence:1 yugoslavia:2 bosnia:1 herzegovina:1 largely:1 framework:1 ethnically:1 politically:1 homogeneous:1 erupt:1 far:1 albanian:1 seek:1 switch:1 allegiance:1 adjoin:1 albania:1 chazan:1 greece:2 macedonia:2 neighbor:2 signifies:1 province:2 pacifist:1 pacific:1 reunification:1 southeast:1 asia:1 arm:1 active:1 almost:1 balkanization:1 india:2 bangladesh:1 colonialism:1 prominent:1 amongst:1 naga:1 fight:1 nagaland:1 chin:1 struggle:1 unified:1 chinland:1 determinist:1 indigenous:1 erstwhile:1 assam:2 armenia:2 support:1 predominantly:1 armenian:1 populated:1 nagorno:4 karabakh:4 gain:1 azerbaijan:1 denies:1 direct:1 involvement:1 view:1 nadia:2 milanova:2 represent:1 combination:1 separatism:1 nexus:1 implication:1 osce:1 effort:1 human:1 right:1 frontier:1 syrian:2 social:1 party:1 operate:1 lebanon:1 syria:2 work:1 modern:1 levant:1 beyond:1 single:1 propose:1 arab:1 israel:1 jordan:1 iraq:1 kuwait:1 southern:2 turkey:1 egypt:2 southwestern:2 iran:1 japan:1 korean:1 liancourt:1 rock:1 russian:1 kuril:1 southernmost:1 isle:1 chain:1 hokkaido:1 annex:1 soviet:1 ii:1 commonplace:1 pass:1 tribal:1 ethiopian:4 imperium:1 circle:1 extend:1 ancient:1 eritrea:1 sudan:2 christian:1 fachoda:1 darfur:1 djibouti:1 uganda:1 kenya:1 tanzania:1 mozambique:1 even:1 yemen:1 find:1 chicano:1 mexican:2 american:1 activist:1 controversial:1 la:1 raza:1 aztlan:1 return:1 formerly:1 dominated:1 land:2 back:1 mexico:3 u:1 annexed:1 guadalupe:1 hidalgo:1 california:1 texas:1 arizona:1 colorado:1 nevada:1 utah:1 venezuela:1 keep:1 guayana:1 esequiba:1 nearby:1 guyana:1 list:1 annexationism:1 nationalism:1 expansionism:1 lebensraum:1 reconquista:1 revanchism:1 status:1 quo:1 ante:1 bellum:1 reference:1 |@bigram irredentist_claim:5 anschluss_austria:1 republika_srpska:1 nigeria_benin:1 austro_hungarian:1 preamble_constitution:1 grande_comore:1 comoro_island:1 jammu_kashmir:1 azad_kashmir:1 treaty_utrecht:1 territorial_integrity:1 enclave_ceuta:1 ceuta_melilla:1 croatia_bosnia:1 bosnia_herzegovina:1 republic_macedonia:1 southeast_asia:1 nagorno_karabakh:4 liancourt_rock:1 kuril_island:1 soviet_union:1 kenya_tanzania:1 la_raza:1 treaty_guadalupe:1 guadalupe_hidalgo:1 status_quo:1 quo_ante:1 |
3,028 | Command-line_interface | Screenshot of a sample Bash session, taken on an old release of Gentoo Linux. Screenshot of Apple Computer's CommandShell in A/UX 3.0.1. Screenshot of Windows PowerShell 1.0, running under Windows Vista The cmd.exe command-line interface in Windows Vista A command-line interface (CLI) is a mechanism for interacting with a computer operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks. This text-only interface contrasts with the use of a mouse pointer with a graphical user interface (GUI) to click on options, or menus on a text user interface (TUI) to select options. This method of instructing a computer to perform a given task is referred to as "entering" a command: the system waits for the user to conclude the submitting of the text command by pressing the "Enter" key (a descendant of the "carriage return" key of a typewriter keyboard). A command-line interpreter then receives, analyses, and executes the requested command. The command-line interpreter may be run in a text terminal or in a terminal emulator window as a remote shell client such as PuTTY. Upon completion, the command usually returns output to the user in the form of text lines on the CLI. This output may be an answer if the command was a question, or otherwise a summary of the operation. The concept of the CLI originated when teletype machines (TTY) were connected to computers in the 1950s, and offered results on demand, compared to 'batch' oriented mechanical punch card input technology. Dedicated text-based CRT terminals followed, with faster interaction and more information visible at one time, then graphical terminals enriched the visual display of information. Currently personal computers encapsulate both functions in software. The CLI continues to co-evolve with GUIs like those provided by Microsoft Windows, Mac OS and the X Window System. In some applications, such as MATLAB and AutoCAD, a CLI is integrated with the GUI, with the benefits of both. Usage A CLI is used whenever a large vocabulary of commands or queries, coupled with a wide (or arbitrary) range of options, can be entered more rapidly as text than with a pure GUI. This is typically the case with operating system command shells. Also, some computer languages (such as Python, Forth, LISP and many dialects of BASIC) provide an interactive command line mode to allow for experimentation. CLIs are often used by programmers and system administrators, in engineering and scientific environments, and by technically advanced personal computer users. CLIs are also popular among people with visual disability, since the commands and feedbacks can be displayed using Refreshable Braille displays. A program that implements such a text interface is often called a command-line interpreter or shell. Examples include the various Unix shells (sh, ksh, csh, tcsh, bash, etc.), the historical CP/M, and MS-DOS/IBM-DOS's COMMAND.COM, the latter two based heavily on DEC's RSX and RSTS CLIs. (DOS, i.e. MS-DOS/IBM-DOS, is actually is based on CP/M, DOS having been originally written as a substitute for CP/M-86 when its release was delayed.) In November 2006, Microsoft released version 1.0 of Windows PowerShell (formerly codenamed Monad), which combined features of traditional Unix shells with their object-oriented .NET Framework. MinGW and Cygwin are open source packages for Windows that offer a Unix like CLI. Microsoft provides MKS Inc.'s ksh implementation MKS Korn shell for Windows through their Services for UNIX add-on. The latest versions of the Macintosh operating system are based on a variation of Unix called Darwin. On these computers, users can access a Unix-like command-line interface called Terminal found in the Applications Utilities folder. (This terminal uses bash by default.) Screenshot of the MATLAB 7.4 command-line interface and GUI. Some applications provide both a CLI and a GUI. The engineering/scientific numerical computation package MATLAB provides no GUI for some calculations, but the CLI can handle any calculation. The three-dimensional-modelling program Rhinoceros 3D provides a CLI as well as a distinct scripting language. In some computing environments, such as the Oberon or Smalltalk user interface, most of the text which appears on the screen may be used for giving commands. Anatomy of a shell CLI A CLI can generally be considered as consisting of syntax and semantics. The syntax is the grammar that all commands must follow. In the case of operating systems (OS), MS-DOS and Unix each define their own set of rules that all commands must follow. In the case of embedded systems, each vendor, such as Nortel, Juniper Networks or Cisco Systems, defines their own proprietary set of rules that all commands within their CLI conform to. These rules also dictate how a user navigates through the system of commands. The semantics define what sort of operations are possible, on what sort of data these operations can be performed, and how the grammar represents these operations and data—the symbolic meaning in the syntax. Two different CLIs may agree on either syntax or semantics, but it is only when they agree on both that they can be considered sufficiently similar to allow users to use both CLIs without needing to learn anything, as well as to enable re-use of scripts. A simple CLI will display a prompt, accept a "command line" typed by the user terminated by the Enter key, then execute the specified command and provide textual display of results or error messages. Advanced CLIs will validate, interpret and parameter-expand the command line before executing the specified command, and optionally capture or redirect its output. Unlike a button or menu item in a GUI, a command line is typically self-documenting, stating exactly what the user wants done. In addition, command lines usually include many defaults that can be changed to customize the results. Useful command lines can be saved by assigning a character string or alias to represent the full command, or several commands can be grouped to perform a more complex sequence — for instance, compile the program, install it, and run it — creating a single entity, called a command procedure or script which itself can be treated as a command. These advantages mean that a user must figure out a complex command or series of commands only once, because they can be saved, to be used again. The commands given to a CLI shell are often in one of the following forms: [doSomething] [how] [toFiles] [doSomething] [how] [sourceFile] [destinationFile] [doSomething] [how] < [inputFile] > [outputFile] [doSomething] [how] | [doSomething] [how] | [do Something] [how] > [outputFile] doSomething is, in effect, a verb, how an adverb (for example, should the command be executed "verbosely" or "quietly") and toFiles an object or objects (typically one or more files) on which the command should act. The '>' in the third example is a redirection operator, telling the command-line interpreter to send the output of the command not to the screen but to the file named on the right of the '>'. This will overwrite the file. Using '>>' will redirect the output and append it to the file. Another redirection operator is the pipe ('|'), which tells the CLI to use the output of one command as the input to the next command; this "operator-stream" mechanism can be very powerful. Programming languages in interactive mode Some programming languages (such as BASIC, Python, LISP, Forth ...) also provide an interactive command line for experimentation or even for normal everyday work. CLI and resource protection In some CLIs, the commands issued are not coupled to any conceptual place within a command hierarchy. A user can specify relative or absolute paths to any command or data. Examples of this include MS-DOS, Windows, and UNIX, which provide forms of a change directory command which allows access to any directory in the system. In some systems, protection of resources is provided by a system of resource ownership by privileged groups, and password-protected user accounts which are members of specific groups. MS-DOS provides no such resource protection, nor do versions of Windows prior to the Windows NT family. (Both of these were designed as single-user systems, where it was assumed that the owner would simply not allow people that she/he did not fully trust to have physical access to the computer at all. UNIX, by contrast, originated as a time-sharing system in corporate and university environments.) Other CLIs (such as those in network routers) limit the set of commands that a user can perform to a subset, determined by location within a command hierarchy, grouped by association with security, system, interface, etc. The location within this hierarchy and the options available are often referred to as a mode. In these systems the user might traverse through a series of sub-hierarchies, each with their own subset of commands. For example, if the CLI had two modes called interface and system, the user would enter the word 'interface' at the command prompt and then enter an interface mode, where a certain subset of commands and data are available. At this point system commands are not accessible and would not be accessible until the user explicitly exits the interface mode and enters the system mode. Command prompt A command prompt (or just prompt) is a sequence of (one or more) characters used in a command-line interface to indicate readiness to accept commands. Its intent is to literally prompt the user to take action. A prompt usually ends with one of the characters $, %, #, :, > and often includes other information, such as the path of the current working directory. It is common for prompts to be modifiable by the user. Depending on the environment, they may include colors, special characters, and other elements like the current time, in order, for instance, to make the prompt more informative or visually pleasing, to distinguish sessions on various machines, or to indicate the current level of nesting of commands. In DOS's COMMAND.COM and in the Windows command-line interpreter cmd.exe the prompt is modifiable by issuing a prompt command or by changing the value of the %PROMPT% environment variable. The default of most modern systems, the C:\> style is obtained, for instance, with "prompt $P$G". The default of older DOS systems, C> is obtained by just "prompt", although on some systems this produces the newer C:\> style; on those systems "prompt $N$G" can be used to switch to the older style. On many Unix systems, the $PS1 variable can be used, although other variables also may have an impact on the prompt (depending on what shell is being used). In the bash shell, a prompt of the form [time] user@host: work_dir $ could be set by issuing the command export PS1='[\t] \u@\H: \W $' In zsh the $RPROMPT variable controls an optional "prompt" on the right hand side of the display. It is not a real prompt in that the location of text entry does not change. It is used to display information on the same line as the prompt, but right justified. In RISC OS, the command prompt is a '*' symbol, and thus (OS)CLI commands are often referred to as "star commands" RISC OS 3 User Guide, Part 3: Outside the desktop (page 125) Published by Acorn Computers Limited, ISBN1 85250 124 2, Edition 2 Part number 0496,075 Issue 1 March 1992 . It is also possible to access the same commands from other command lines (such as the BBC BASIC command line), by preceding the command with a '*'. References See also Command-line interpreter Console application In the Beginning...was the Command Line GUI vs. CLI Scripting language Shell (computing) Shell script Run command in Microsoft Windows Command-line argument Terminal emulator External links In the Beginning... Was the Command Line — Short book about CLIs by Neal Stephenson. Braille Monitors — Device to display CLI as Braille-script. TOP Linux Commands A List and a brief explanation of top Linux commands | Command-line_interface |@lemmatized screenshot:4 sample:1 bash:4 session:2 take:2 old:3 release:3 gentoo:1 linux:3 apple:1 computer:10 commandshell:1 ux:1 window:14 powershell:2 run:4 vista:2 cmd:2 exe:2 command:77 line:25 interface:15 cli:29 mechanism:2 interact:1 operate:2 system:25 software:2 type:2 perform:5 specific:2 task:2 text:10 contrast:2 use:16 mouse:1 pointer:1 graphical:2 user:23 gui:9 click:1 option:4 menu:2 tui:1 select:1 method:1 instruct:1 give:3 refer:3 enter:7 wait:1 conclude:1 submitting:1 press:1 key:3 descendant:1 carriage:1 return:2 typewriter:1 keyboard:1 interpreter:6 receive:1 analysis:1 execute:4 requested:1 may:6 terminal:7 emulator:2 remote:1 shell:12 client:1 putty:1 upon:1 completion:1 usually:3 output:6 form:4 answer:1 question:1 otherwise:1 summary:1 operation:4 concept:1 originate:2 teletype:1 machine:2 tty:1 connect:1 offer:2 result:3 demand:1 compare:1 batch:1 oriented:1 mechanical:1 punch:1 card:1 input:2 technology:1 dedicate:1 base:4 crt:1 follow:3 fast:1 interaction:1 information:4 visible:1 one:6 time:4 enrich:1 visual:2 display:8 currently:1 personal:2 encapsulate:1 function:1 continue:1 co:1 evolve:1 like:4 provide:11 microsoft:4 mac:1 x:1 application:4 matlab:3 autocad:1 integrate:1 benefit:1 usage:1 whenever:1 large:1 vocabulary:1 query:1 couple:2 wide:1 arbitrary:1 range:1 rapidly:1 pure:1 typically:3 case:3 operating:2 also:7 language:5 python:2 forth:2 lisp:2 many:3 dialect:1 basic:3 interactive:3 mode:7 allow:4 experimentation:2 often:6 programmer:1 administrator:1 engineering:2 scientific:2 environment:5 technically:1 advanced:2 popular:1 among:1 people:2 disability:1 since:1 feedback:1 refreshable:1 braille:3 program:4 implement:1 call:5 example:5 include:5 various:2 unix:10 sh:1 ksh:2 csh:1 tcsh:1 etc:2 historical:1 cp:3 ibm:2 com:2 latter:1 two:3 heavily:1 dec:1 rsx:1 rsts:1 clis:1 dos:1 e:1 actually:1 originally:1 write:1 substitute:1 delay:1 november:1 version:3 formerly:1 codenamed:1 monad:1 combine:1 feature:1 traditional:1 object:3 orient:1 net:1 framework:1 mingw:1 cygwin:1 open:1 source:1 package:2 mks:2 inc:1 implementation:1 korn:1 service:1 add:1 late:1 macintosh:1 variation:1 darwin:1 access:4 found:1 utility:1 folder:1 default:4 numerical:1 computation:1 calculation:2 handle:1 three:1 dimensional:1 model:1 rhinoceros:1 well:2 distinct:1 scripting:1 computing:1 oberon:1 smalltalk:1 appear:1 screen:2 anatomy:1 generally:1 consider:2 consisting:1 syntax:4 semantics:3 grammar:2 must:3 os:1 define:3 set:4 rule:3 embedded:1 vendor:1 nortel:1 juniper:1 network:2 cisco:1 proprietary:1 within:4 conform:1 dictate:1 navigate:1 sort:2 possible:2 data:4 represent:2 symbolic:1 meaning:1 different:1 agree:2 either:1 sufficiently:1 similar:1 without:1 need:1 learn:1 anything:1 enable:1 script:5 simple:1 prompt:21 accept:2 terminate:1 specified:1 textual:1 error:1 message:1 validate:1 interpret:1 parameter:1 expand:1 specify:2 optionally:1 capture:1 redirect:2 unlike:1 button:1 item:1 self:1 documenting:1 state:1 exactly:1 want:1 addition:1 change:4 customize:1 useful:1 save:2 assign:1 character:4 string:1 alias:1 full:1 several:1 group:4 complex:2 sequence:2 instance:3 compile:1 install:1 create:1 single:2 entity:1 procedure:1 treat:1 advantage:1 mean:1 figure:1 series:2 following:1 dosomething:6 tofiles:2 sourcefile:1 destinationfile:1 inputfile:1 outputfile:2 something:1 effect:1 verb:1 adverb:1 verbosely:1 quietly:1 file:4 act:1 third:1 redirection:2 operator:3 tell:2 send:1 name:1 right:3 overwrite:1 append:1 another:1 pipe:1 next:1 stream:1 powerful:1 programming:1 even:1 normal:1 everyday:1 work:1 resource:4 protection:3 issue:4 conceptual:1 place:1 hierarchy:4 relative:1 absolute:1 path:2 directory:3 ownership:1 privileged:1 password:1 protect:1 account:1 member:1 prior:1 nt:1 family:1 design:1 assume:1 owner:1 would:3 simply:1 fully:1 trust:1 physical:1 share:1 corporate:1 university:1 router:1 limit:2 subset:3 determine:1 location:3 association:1 security:1 available:2 might:1 traverse:1 sub:1 word:1 certain:1 point:1 accessible:2 explicitly:1 exit:1 indicate:2 readiness:1 intent:1 literally:1 action:1 end:1 current:3 working:1 common:1 modifiable:2 depend:2 color:1 special:1 element:1 order:1 make:1 informative:1 visually:1 pleasing:1 distinguish:1 level:1 nesting:1 value:1 variable:4 modern:1 c:3 style:3 obtain:2 p:1 g:2 although:2 produce:1 new:1 n:1 switch:1 impact:1 host:1 could:1 export:1 u:1 h:1 w:1 zsh:1 rprompt:1 control:1 optional:1 hand:1 side:1 real:1 entry:1 justified:1 risc:2 symbol:1 thus:1 star:1 guide:1 part:2 outside:1 desktop:1 page:1 publish:1 acorn:1 edition:1 number:1 march:1 bbc:1 precede:1 reference:1 see:1 console:1 beginning:2 v:1 compute:1 argument:1 external:1 link:1 short:1 book:1 neal:1 stephenson:1 monitor:1 device:1 top:2 list:1 brief:1 explanation:1 |@bigram window_vista:2 cmd_exe:2 graphical_user:1 user_interface:3 interface_gui:2 typewriter_keyboard:1 terminal_emulator:2 teletype_machine:1 microsoft_window:2 refreshable_braille:1 korn_shell:1 syntax_semantics:2 cli_shell:1 window_nt:1 external_link:1 neal_stephenson:1 |
3,029 | Binary_relation | In mathematics, a binary relation on a set A is a collection of ordered pairs of elements of A. In other words, it is a subset of the Cartesian product A2 = . More generally, a binary relation between two sets A and B is a subset of . The terms dyadic relation and 2-place relation are synonyms for binary relations. An example is the "divides" relation between the set of prime numbers P and the set of integers Z, in which every prime p is associated with every integer z that is a multiple of p (and not with any integer which is not a multiple of p). In this relation, for instance, the prime 2 is associated with numbers that include −4, 0, 6, 10, but not 1 or 9; and the prime 3 is associated with numbers that include 0, 6, and 9, but not 4 or 13. Binary relations are used in many branches of mathematics to model concepts like "is greater than", "is equal to", and "divides" in arithmetic, "is congruent to" in geometry, "is adjacent to" in graph theory, "is orthogonal to" in linear algebra and many more. The concept of function is defined as a special kind of binary relation. Binary relations are also heavily used in computer science. A binary relation is the special case of an n-ary relation R ⊆ A1 × … × An, that is, a set of n-tuples where the jth component of each n-tuple is taken from the jth domain Aj of the relation. In some systems of axiomatic set theory, relations are extended to classes, which are generalizations of sets. This extension is needed for, among other things, modeling the concepts of "is an element of" or "is a subset of" in set theory, without running into logical inconsistencies such as Russell's paradox. Formal definition A binary relation R is usually defined as an ordered triple (X, Y, G) where X and Y are arbitrary sets (or classes), and G is a subset of the Cartesian product X × Y. The sets X and Y are called the domain and codomain(target), respectively, of the relation, and G is called its graph. The statement (x,y) ∈ R is read "x is R-related to y", and is denoted by xRy or R(x,y). The latter notation corresponds to viewing R as the characteristic function of the set of pairs G. The order of the elements in each pair of G is important: if a ≠ b, then aRb and bRa can be true or false, independently of each other. Is a relation more than its graph? According to the definition above, two relations with the same graph may be different, if they differ in the sets X and Y. For example, if G = {(1,2),(1,3),(2,7)}, then (Z,Z, G), (R, N, G), and (N, R, G) are three distinct relations. Some mathematicians do not consider the sets X and Y to be part of the relation, and therefore define a binary relation as being a subset of X×Y, that is, just the graph G. According to this view, the set of pairs {(1,2),(1,3),(2,7)} is a relation from any set that contains {1,2} to any set that contains {2,3,7}. A special case of this difference in points of view applies to the notion of function. Most authors insist on distinguishing between a function's codomain(target) and its range. Thus, a single "rule" like mapping every real number x to x2 can lead to distinct functions f:R→R and g:R→R+, depending as the images under that rule are understood to be reals or, more particularly, non-negative reals. But others view functions as simply sets of ordered pairs with unique first components. This difference in perspectives does raise some nontrivial issues. As an example, the former camp will consider surjectivity—or being onto—as a property of functions, while the latter will see it as a relationship that functions may bear to sets. Either approach is adequate for most uses, provided that one attends to the necessary changes in language, notation, and the definitions of concepts like restrictions, composition, inverse relation, and so on. The choice between the two definitions usually matters only in very formal contexts, like category theory. Example Example: Suppose there are four objects: {ball, car, doll, gun} and four persons: {John, Mary, So, Venus}. Suppose that John owns the ball, Mary owns the doll, and Venus owns the car. No one owns the gun and So owns nothing. Then the binary relation "is owned by" is given as R=({ball, car, doll, gun}, {John, Mary, So, Venus}, {(ball, John), (doll, Mary), (car, Venus)}). Thus the first element of R is the set of objects, the second is the set of people, and the last element is a set of ordered pairs of the form (object, owner). The pair (ball, John), denoted by ballRJohn means that the ball is owned by John. Two different relations could have the same graph. For example: the relation ({ball, car, doll, gun}, {John, Mary, Venus}, {(ball,John), (doll, Mary), (car, Venus)}) is different from the previous one as everyone is an owner. But the graphs of the two relations are the same. Nevertheless, R is usually identified or even defined as G(R) and "an ordered pair (x, y) ∈ G(R)" is usually denoted as "(x, y) ∈ R". Special types of binary relations Some important classes of binary relations R over X and Y are listed below left-total Klip, Knauer and Mikhalev: p. 3 : for all x in X there exists a y in Y such that xRy (this property, although sometimes also referred to as total, is different from the definition of total in the next section). surjective or right-total: for all y in Y there exists an x in X such that xRy. functional (also called right-definite or right-unique): for all x in X, and y and z in Y it holds that if xRy and xRz then y = z. injective (or left-unique): for all x and z in X and y in Y it holds that if xRy and zRy then x = z. bijective: left-total, right-total, functional, and injective. A bijective relation is sometimes called a 1-to-1 correspondence. A binary relation that is functional is called a partial function; a binary relation that is both left-total and functional is called a function. A binary relation that is both functional and injective is sometimes called a 1-to-1 relation. A binary relation that is both left-total and right-total is sometimes called a correspondence. Relations over a set If X = Y then we simply say that the binary relation is over X. Or it is an endorelation over X. Some important classes of binary relations over a set X are: reflexive: for all x in X it holds that xRx. For example, "greater than or equal to" is a reflexive relation but "greater than" is not. irreflexive (or strict): for all x in X it holds that not xRx. "Greater than" is an example of an irreflexive relation. coreflexive: for all x and y in X it holds that if xRy then x = y. symmetric: for all x and y in X it holds that if xRy then yRx. "Is a blood relative of" is a symmetric relation, because x is a blood relative of y if and only if y is a blood relative of x. antisymmetric: for all x and y in X it holds that if xRy and yRx then x = y. "Greater than or equal to" is an antisymmetric relation, because if x≥y and y≥x, then x=y. asymmetric: for all x and y in X it holds that if xRy then not yRx. "Greater than" is an asymmetric relation, because if x>y then not y>x. transitive: for all x, y and z in X it holds that if xRy and yRz then xRz. "Is an ancestor of" is a transitive relation, because if x is an ancestor of y and y is an ancestor of z, then x is an ancestor of z. total (or linear): for all x and y in X it holds that xRy or yRx (or both). "Is greater than or equal to" is an example of a total relation (this definition for total is different from the one in the previous section). trichotomous: for all x and y in X exactly one of xRy, yRx or x = y holds. "Is greater than" is an example of a trichotomous relation. Euclidean: for all x, y and z in X it holds that if xRy and xRz, then yRz. serial: for all x in X, there exists y in X such that xRy. "Is greater than" is a serial relation on the integers. But it is not a serial relation on the positive integers, because there is no y in the positive integers such that 1>y. . Every reflexive relation is serial. set-like: for every x in X, the class of all y such that yRx is a set. (This makes sense only if we allow relations on proper classes.) The usual ordering < on the class of ordinal numbers is set-like, while its inverse > is not. A relation which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an equivalence relation. A relation which is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive is called a partial order. A partial order which is total is called a total order or a linear order or a chain. A linear order in which every nonempty set has a least element is called a well-order. A relation which is symmetric, transitive, and extendable is also reflexive. Operations on binary relations If R is a binary relation over X and Y, then the following is a binary relation over Y and X: Inverse or converse: R −1, defined as R −1 = { (y, x) | (x, y) ∈ R }. A binary relation over a set is equal to its inverse if and only if it is symmetric. See also duality (order theory). If R is a binary relation over X, then each of the following is a binary relation over X: Reflexive closure: R =, defined as R = = { (x, x) | x ∈ X } ∪ R or the smallest reflexive relation over X containing R. This can be seen to be equal to the intersection of all reflexive relations containing R. Reflexive reduction: R ≠, defined as R ≠ = R \ { (x, x) | x ∈ X } or the largest irreflexive relation over X contained in R. Transitive closure: R +, defined as the smallest transitive relation over X containing R. This can be seen to be equal to the intersection of all transitive relations containing R. Transitive reduction: R −, defined as a minimal relation having the same transitive closure as R. Reflexive transitive closure: R *, defined as R * = (R +) =. If R, S are binary relations over X and Y, then each of the following is a binary relation: Union: R ∪ S ⊆ X × Y, defined as R ∪ S = { (x, y) | (x, y) ∈ R or (x, y) ∈ S }. Intersection: R ∩ S ⊆ X × Y, defined as R ∩ S = { (x, y) | (x, y) ∈ R and (x, y) ∈ S }. If R is a binary relation over X and Y, and S is a binary relation over Y and Z, then the following is a binary relation over X and Z: (see main article composition of relations) Composition: S ∘ R (also denoted R ∘ S), defined as S ∘ R = { (x, z) | there exists y ∈ Y, such that (x, y) ∈ R and (y, z) ∈ S }. The order of R and S in the notation S ∘ R, used here agrees with the standard notational order for composition of functions. Complement If R is a binary relation over X and Y, then the following too: The complement S is defined as x S y iff not x R y. The complement of the inverse is the inverse of the complement. If X = Y the complement has the following properties: If a relation is symmetric, the complement is too. The complement of a reflexive relation is irreflexive and vice versa. The complement of a strict weak order is a total preorder and vice versa. The complement of the inverse has these same properties. Restriction The restriction of a binary relation on a set X to a subset S is the set of all pairs (x, y) in the relation for which x and y are in S. If a relation is reflexive, irreflexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, asymmetric, transitive, total, , a partial order, total order, strict weak order, (weak order), or an equivalence relation, its restrictions are too. However, the transitive closure of a restriction is a subset of the restriction of the transitive closure, i.e., in general not equal. Also, the various concepts of completeness (not to be confused with being "total") do not carry over to restrictions. For example, on the set of real numbers a property of the relation "≤" is that every non-empty subset S of R with an upper bound in R has a least upper bound (also called supremum) in R. However, for a set of rational numbers this supremum is not necessarily rational, so the same property does not hold on the restriction of the relation "≤" to the set of rational numbers. Sets versus classes Certain mathematical "relations", such as "equal to", "member of", and "subset of", cannot be understood to be binary relations as defined above, because their domains and codomains cannot be taken to be sets in the usual systems of axiomatic set theory. For example, if we try to model the general concept of "equality" as a binary relation =, we must take the domain and codomain to be the "set of all sets", which is not a set in the usual set theory. The usual work-around to this problem is to select a "large enough" set A, that contains all the objects of interest, and work with the restriction =A instead of =. Similarly, the "subset of" relation ⊆ needs to be restricted to have domain and codomain P(A) (the power set of a specific set A): the resulting set relation can be denoted ⊆A. Also, the "member of" relation needs to be restricted to have domain A and codomain P(A) to obtain a binary relation ∈A which is a set. Another solution to this problem is to use a set theory with proper classes, such as NBG or Morse–Kelley set theory, and allow the domain and codomain (and so the graph) to be proper classes: in such a theory, equality, membership, and subset are binary relations without special comment. (A minor modification needs to be made to the concept of the ordered triple (X, Y, G), as normally a proper class cannot be a member of an ordered tuple; or of course one can identify the function with its graph in this context.) In most mathematical contexts, references to the relations of equality, membership and subset are harmless because they can be understood implicitly to be restricted to some set in the context. The number of binary relations The number of distinct binary relations on an n-element set is 2n2 : Notes: The number of irreflexive relations is the same as that of reflexive relations The number of (irreflexive transitive relations) is the same as that of partial orders The number of strict weak orders is the same as that of total preorders The total orders are the partial orders which are also total preorders. The number of preorders which are neither a partial order nor a total preorder is therefore the number of preorders minus the number of partial orders minus the number of total preorders plus the number of total orders: 0, 0, 0, 3, and 85, respectively. the number of equivalence relations is the number of partitions, which is the Bell number. The binary relations can be grouped into pairs (relation, ), except that for n = 0 the relation is its own complement. The non-symmetric ones can be grouped into quadruples (relation, complement, , inverse complement). Examples of common binary relations order relations, including strict orders: greater than greater than or equal to less than less than or equal to divides (evenly) is a subset of equivalence relations: equality is parallel to (for affine spaces) is in bijection with isomorphy dependency relation, a symmetric, reflexive relation. independency relation, a symmetric, irreflexive relation. {| class="wikitable" |+ align="top"|Binary relations by property |- | ||reflexive ||symmetric ||transitive ||symbol ||example |- |directed graph | | | |→ | |- |undirected graph | | | | | |- |tournament | | | | | pecking order |- |dependency | | | | | |- |weak order | | | | ≤ | |- |preorder | | | | ≤ | preference |- |partial order | |= antisymmetric | | ≤ | subset |- |partial equivalence | | | | | |- |equivalence relation | | | | ∼, ≅, ≈, ≡ | equality |- |strict partial order | | | | < | proper subset |} See also Confluence (term rewriting) Hasse diagram Incidence structure Logic of relatives Order theory Relation algebra Triadic relation Notes References M. Kilp, U. Knauer, A.V. Mikhalev, Monoids, Acts and Categories with Applications to Wreath Products and Graphs, De Gruyter Expositions in Mathematics vol. 29, Walter de Gruyter, 2000, ISBN 3110152487. | Binary_relation |@lemmatized mathematics:3 binary:40 relation:111 set:49 collection:1 ordered:6 pair:10 element:7 word:1 subset:15 cartesian:2 product:3 generally:1 two:5 b:2 term:2 dyadic:1 place:1 synonyms:1 example:14 divide:3 prime:4 number:21 p:7 integer:6 z:16 every:7 associate:3 multiple:2 instance:1 include:3 use:4 many:2 branch:1 model:3 concept:7 like:6 great:11 equal:11 arithmetic:1 congruent:1 geometry:1 adjacent:1 graph:12 theory:11 orthogonal:1 linear:4 algebra:2 function:12 define:15 special:5 kind:1 also:11 heavily:1 computer:1 science:1 case:2 n:7 ary:1 r:60 tuples:1 jth:2 component:2 tuple:2 take:3 domain:7 aj:1 system:2 axiomatic:2 extend:1 class:12 generalization:1 extension:1 need:4 among:1 thing:1 without:2 run:1 logical:1 inconsistency:1 russell:1 paradox:1 formal:2 definition:6 usually:4 triple:2 x:102 g:14 arbitrary:1 call:13 codomain:6 target:2 respectively:2 statement:1 read:1 relate:1 denote:5 xry:14 latter:2 notation:3 corresponds:1 view:4 characteristic:1 order:30 important:3 arb:1 bra:1 true:1 false:1 independently:1 accord:2 may:2 different:5 differ:1 three:1 distinct:3 mathematician:1 consider:2 part:1 therefore:2 contain:8 difference:2 point:1 applies:1 notion:1 author:1 insist:1 distinguish:1 range:1 thus:2 single:1 rule:2 map:1 real:4 lead:1 f:1 depend:1 image:1 understand:2 particularly:1 non:3 negative:1 others:1 simply:2 unique:3 first:2 perspective:1 raise:1 nontrivial:1 issue:1 former:1 camp:1 surjectivity:1 onto:1 property:7 see:6 relationship:1 bear:1 either:1 approach:1 adequate:1 us:1 provide:1 one:7 attend:1 necessary:1 change:1 language:1 restriction:9 composition:4 inverse:8 choice:1 matter:1 context:4 category:2 suppose:2 four:2 object:4 ball:8 car:6 doll:6 gun:4 person:1 john:8 mary:6 venus:6 nothing:1 give:1 second:1 people:1 last:1 form:1 owner:2 ballrjohn:1 mean:1 could:1 previous:2 everyone:1 nevertheless:1 identify:2 even:1 type:1 list:1 leave:3 total:24 klip:1 knauer:2 mikhalev:2 exist:4 although:1 sometimes:4 refer:1 next:1 section:2 surjective:1 right:5 functional:5 definite:1 hold:13 xrz:3 injective:3 zry:1 bijective:2 correspondence:2 partial:11 left:2 say:1 endorelation:1 reflexive:16 xrx:2 irreflexive:8 strict:6 coreflexive:1 symmetric:11 yrx:6 blood:3 relative:4 antisymmetric:5 asymmetric:3 transitive:16 yrz:2 ancestor:4 trichotomous:2 exactly:1 euclidean:1 serial:4 positive:2 make:2 sense:1 allow:2 proper:5 usual:4 ordering:1 ordinal:1 equivalence:6 chain:1 nonempty:1 least:2 well:1 extendable:1 operation:1 following:5 converse:1 duality:1 closure:6 small:2 intersection:3 reduction:2 large:2 minimal:1 union:1 main:1 article:1 agree:1 standard:1 notational:1 complement:12 follow:1 iff:1 vice:2 versa:2 weak:5 preorder:3 however:2 e:1 general:2 various:1 completeness:1 confuse:1 carry:1 empty:1 upper:2 bound:2 supremum:2 rational:3 necessarily:1 versus:1 certain:1 mathematical:2 member:3 cannot:3 codomains:1 try:1 equality:5 must:1 work:2 around:1 problem:2 select:1 enough:1 interest:1 instead:1 similarly:1 restrict:3 power:1 specific:1 result:1 obtain:1 another:1 solution:1 nbg:1 morse:1 kelley:1 membership:2 comment:1 minor:1 modification:1 normally:1 course:1 reference:2 harmless:1 understood:1 implicitly:1 note:2 preorders:5 neither:1 minus:2 plus:1 partition:1 bell:1 group:2 except:1 quadruple:1 common:1 less:2 evenly:1 parallel:1 affine:1 space:1 bijection:1 isomorphy:1 dependency:2 independency:1 wikitable:1 align:1 top:1 symbol:1 direct:1 undirected:1 tournament:1 peck:1 preference:1 confluence:1 rewrite:1 hasse:1 diagram:1 incidence:1 structure:1 logic:1 triadic:1 kilp:1 u:1 v:1 monoids:1 act:1 application:1 wreath:1 de:2 gruyter:2 exposition:1 vol:1 walter:1 isbn:1 |@bigram ordered_pair:3 cartesian_product:2 n_ary:1 logical_inconsistency:1 russell_paradox:1 domain_codomain:5 hold_xry:9 irreflexive_relation:4 xry_yrx:5 usual_ordering:1 reflexive_symmetric:2 symmetric_transitive:3 equivalence_relation:5 transitive_closure:5 reflexive_transitive:1 vice_versa:2 symmetric_antisymmetric:1 morse_kelley:1 class_wikitable:1 wikitable_align:1 de_gruyter:2 |
3,030 | Geography_of_Lesotho | Lesotho is a mountainous, landlocked country located in Southern Africa. It is an enclave, completely surrounded by South Africa. The total length of the country's borders is . Lesotho covers an area of around , of which a negligible percentage is covered with water. The most notable geographic fact about Lesotho, apart from its status as an enclave, is that it is the only independent state in the world that lies entirely above in elevation. Its lowest point is at , the highest lowest point of any country. Because of its elevation, the country's climate is cooler than in most other regions at the same latitude. Its climate zone can be classified as continental. Location Lesotho is a country in Southern Africa, located at around 29°30' south latitude and 28°30' east longitude. It is the 141st largest country in the world, with a total land area of , of which a negligible percentage is covered with water. Lesotho is completely surrounded by South Africa, making it one of only three countries in the world that are enclaves within another country; the other two are San Marino and Vatican City, both located within Italy. The total length of the South African border is . Lesotho's status as an enclave also means that it is landlocked and largely dependent on South Africa. The nearest major shipping port is Durban. Uprety 2005, p. 9 Physical geography Malealea village in the highlands of Lesotho Lesotho can be roughly divided into three geographic regions: the lowlands, following the southern banks of the Caledon River, and in the Senqu river valley; the highlands formed by the Drakensberg and Maloti mountain ranges in the east and central parts of the country; and the foothills that form a divide between the lowlands and the highlands. The lowest elevation in the country is at the junction of the Makhaleng and Orange (Senqu) rivers near the South African border, which at is the highest lowest point of any country. Lesotho is the only independent state in the world that lies entirely above in elevation. The highest point is the peak of the Thabana Ntlenyana mountain, which reaches an elevation of . Over 80% of Lesotho lies above . Even though very little of Lesotho is covered in water, the rivers that run across the country are an important part of Lesotho's economy. Much of the country's export income comes from water, and much of its power comes from hydroelectricity. The Orange River rises in the Drakensberg mountains in northeastern Lesotho and flows across the entire length of the country before exiting to South Africa at the Mohale's Hoek District in the southwest. The Caledon River marks the northwestern part of the border with South Africa. Other rivers include the Malibamatso, Matsoku and Senqunyane. The bedrock of Lesotho belongs to the Karoo Supergroup, consisting mostly of shale and sandstone. Peatlands can be found in the highlands of Lesotho, most extensively in the mountainous escarpment near the country's eastern border. The summit of Thabana Ntlenyana is partially encircled by bogs. Adams, Goudie, Orme, p. 245 Political geography Districts of Lesotho Lesotho is divided into 10 administrative districts, each with its own capital, called a camptown. The districts are further subdivided into 80 constituencies, which consist of 129 local community councils. Districts (in alphabetical order): Berea Butha-Buthe Leribe Mafeteng Maseru Mohale's Hoek Mokhotlong Qacha's Nek Quthing Thaba-Tseka Climate Snow on the Lesotho Moteng pass Because of its altitude, the country remains cooler throughout the year than most other regions at the same latitude. Lesotho has a continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters. Maseru and its surrounding lowlands often reach 30 °C (86 °F) in the summer. Winters can be cold with the lowlands getting down to −7 °C (19 °F) and the highlands to −18 °C (0 °F) at times. The yearly precipitation varies between around 600 millimetres in the lowland valleys to around 1200 millimetres in areas of the northern and eastern escarpment bordering South Africa. Most of the rain falls as summer thunderstorms: 85% of the annual precipitation falls between the months of October and April. The winters—between May and September—are usually relatively dry. Snow is common in the deserts and low valleys between May and September; the higher peaks can experience snowfall year-round. There is much yearly variance in the amounts of rainfall, which leads to periodic droughts. Natural resources Map of Lesotho Lesotho is poor in natural resources. Economically the most important resource is water. The Lesotho Highlands Water Project allows exporting water from the Malibamatso, Matsoku, Senqu and Senqunyane rivers to South Africa, while also generating hydroelectric power for Lesotho's needs. As of April 2008, the first phase of the project has been completed. The project already accounts for an estimated five percent of Lesotho's GDP, and when fully completed, it could account for as much as 20 percent. The main mineral resource is diamonds from the Letseng diamond mine in the Maluti mountain range. The mine produces very few stones, but has the highest dollar ratio per carat of any diamond mine in the world. Other mineral resources include coal, galena, quartz, agate and uranium deposits, but their exploitation is not considered commercially viable. Clay deposits can be found in the country, and are used for producing tiles, bricks and other ceramics. Much of the population engages in subsistence farming, even though only 10.71% of the country's surface is classified as arable land and 0.13% has permanent crops. Much of the land has been ruined by soil erosion. The most fertile farmlands are in the northern and central lowlands, and in the foothills between the lowlands and the mountains. Large tracts of the fertile farmland to the north of the country—in the Free State region of South Africa—were lost to European colonists in wars during the 19th century. References | Geography_of_Lesotho |@lemmatized lesotho:24 mountainous:2 landlocked:2 country:19 locate:3 southern:3 africa:10 enclave:3 completely:2 surround:3 south:11 total:3 length:3 border:6 cover:4 area:3 around:4 negligible:2 percentage:2 water:7 notable:1 geographic:2 fact:1 apart:1 status:2 independent:2 state:3 world:5 lie:3 entirely:2 elevation:5 low:5 point:4 high:5 climate:4 cool:2 region:4 latitude:3 zone:1 classify:2 continental:2 location:1 east:2 longitude:1 large:2 land:3 make:1 one:1 three:2 enclaves:1 within:2 another:1 two:1 san:1 marino:1 vatican:1 city:1 italy:1 african:2 also:2 mean:1 largely:1 dependent:1 near:3 major:1 ship:1 port:1 durban:1 uprety:1 p:2 physical:1 geography:2 malealea:1 village:1 highland:6 roughly:1 divide:3 lowland:7 follow:1 bank:1 caledon:2 river:8 senqu:3 valley:3 form:2 drakensberg:2 loti:1 mountain:4 range:2 central:2 part:3 foothill:2 junction:1 makhaleng:1 orange:2 peak:2 thabana:2 ntlenyana:2 reach:2 even:2 though:2 little:1 run:1 across:2 important:2 economy:1 much:6 export:2 income:1 come:2 power:2 hydroelectricity:1 rise:1 mountains:1 northeastern:1 flow:1 entire:1 exit:1 mohale:2 hoek:2 district:5 southwest:1 mark:1 northwestern:1 include:2 malibamatso:2 matsoku:2 senqunyane:2 bedrock:1 belongs:1 karoo:1 supergroup:1 consist:2 mostly:1 shale:1 sandstone:1 peatlands:1 find:2 extensively:1 escarpment:2 eastern:2 summit:1 partially:1 encircle:1 bog:1 adam:1 goudie:1 orme:1 political:1 administrative:1 capital:1 call:1 camptown:1 far:1 subdivide:1 constituency:1 local:1 community:1 council:1 alphabetical:1 order:1 berea:1 butha:1 buthe:1 leribe:1 mafeteng:1 maseru:2 mokhotlong:1 qacha:1 nek:1 quthing:1 thaba:1 tseka:1 snow:2 moteng:1 pas:1 altitude:1 remain:1 throughout:1 year:2 hot:1 summer:3 cold:2 winter:3 often:1 c:3 f:3 get:1 time:1 yearly:2 precipitation:2 varies:1 millimetre:2 northern:2 rain:1 fall:2 thunderstorm:1 annual:1 month:1 october:1 april:2 may:2 september:2 usually:1 relatively:1 dry:1 common:1 desert:1 experience:1 snowfall:1 round:1 variance:1 amount:1 rainfall:1 lead:1 periodic:1 drought:1 natural:2 resource:5 map:1 poor:1 economically:1 project:3 allow:1 generate:1 hydroelectric:1 need:1 first:1 phase:1 complete:2 already:1 account:2 estimated:1 five:1 percent:2 gdp:1 fully:1 could:1 main:1 mineral:2 diamond:3 letseng:1 mine:3 maluti:1 produce:2 stone:1 dollar:1 ratio:1 per:1 carat:1 coal:1 galena:1 quartz:1 agate:1 uranium:1 deposit:2 exploitation:1 consider:1 commercially:1 viable:1 clay:1 use:1 tile:1 brick:1 ceramic:1 population:1 engage:1 subsistence:1 farming:1 surface:1 arable:1 permanent:1 crop:1 ruin:1 soil:1 erosion:1 fertile:2 farmland:2 tract:1 north:1 free:1 lose:1 european:1 colonist:1 war:1 century:1 reference:1 |@bigram san_marino:1 marino_vatican:1 lesotho_lesotho:3 alphabetical_order:1 yearly_precipitation:1 annual_precipitation:1 periodic_drought:1 commercially_viable:1 subsistence_farming:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 soil_erosion:1 fertile_farmland:2 |
3,031 | Arcadius | Flavius Arcadius (377/378–May 1, 408) was Byzantine Emperor in the Eastern half of the Roman Empire from 395 until his death. History Arcadius was born in Spain, the elder son of Theodosius I and Aelia Flaccilla, and brother of Honorius, who would become a Western Roman Emperor. His father declared him an Augustus and co-ruler for the Eastern half of the Empire in January, 383. His younger brother was also declared Augustus in 393, for the Western half. As emperors, Honorius was under the control of the Romanized Vandal magister militum Flavius Stilicho while Arcadius was dominated by one of his ministers, Rufinus. Stilicho is alleged by some to have wanted control of both emperors, and is supposed to have had Rufinus assassinated by Gothic mercenaries in 395; though definite proof of Stilicho's involvement in the assassination is lacking, the intense competition and political jealousies engendered by the two figures compose the main thread of the first part of Arcadius' reign. Arcadius' new advisor, the eunuch Eutropius, simply took Rufinus' place as the power behind the Eastern imperial throne. Arcadius was also dominated by his wife Aelia Eudoxia, who convinced her husband to dismiss Eutropius, who was holding the consulate, at the height of his power, in 399. That same year, on the 13th July, Arcadius issued an edict ordering that all remaining non-Christian temples should be immediately demolished. Eudoxia's influence was strongly opposed by John Chrysostom, the Patriarch of Constantinople, who felt that she had used her family's wealth to gain control over the emperor. Eudoxia used her influence to have Chrysostom deposed in 404, but she died later that year. Eudoxia gave to Arcadius four children: three daughters, Pulcheria, Arcadia and Marina, and one son, Theodosius, the future Emperor Theodosius II. Arcadius was dominated for the rest of his rule by Anthemius, the Praetorian Prefect, who made peace with Stilicho in the West. Arcadius himself was more concerned with appearing to be a pious Christian than he was with political or military matters, and he died, only nominally in control of his empire, in 408. Solidus of Arcadius. Character and works In this reign of a weak emperor dominated by court politics, a major theme was the ambivalence felt by prominent individuals and the court parties that formed and regrouped round them towards barbarians, which in Constantinople at this period meant Goths. In the well-documented episode that revolved around Gainas, a number of Gothic foederati stationed in the capital were massacred, the survivors fleeing under the command of Gainas to Thrace, where they were tracked down by imperial troops and slaughtered and Gainas dispatched. The episode has been traditionally interpreted as a paroxysm of anti-barbarian reaction that served to stabilise the East. The main source for the affair is a mythology à clef by Synesius of Cyrene, Aegyptus sive de providentia, (400) The date 400 is argued for by Cameron and Long 1993. an Egyptianising allegory that embodies a covert account of the events, the exact interpretation of which continues to baffle scholars. Synesius' De regno, which claims to be addressed to Arcadius himself, contains a tirade against Goths. A new forum was built in the name of Arcadius, on the seventh hill of Constantinople, the Xērolophos, in which a column was begun to commemorate his 'victory' over Gainas (although the column was only completed after Arcadius' death by Theodosius II). The Pentelic marble portrait head of Arcadius (illustration) was discovered in Istanbul close to the Forum Tauri, in June 1949, in excavating foundations for new buildings of the University at Beyazit. Nezih Firatli, "A Late Antique Imperial Portrait Recently Discovered at Istanbul" American Journal of Archaeology 55.1 (January 1951), pp. 67-71. The neck was designed to be inserted in a torso, but no statue, base or inscription was found. The diadem is a fillet with rows of pearls along its edges and a rectangular stone set about with pearls over the young emperor's forehead. Notes References A. Cameron and J. Long. 1993. Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius (Berkeley/Oxford) External links Laws of Arcadius, extracted from Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis Watts, Edward, "the motifs of Imperrial authority in the bust of Arcadius" This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Arcadius relating to Christianity. | Arcadius |@lemmatized flavius:2 arcadius:19 may:1 byzantine:1 emperor:8 eastern:3 half:3 roman:3 empire:3 death:2 history:1 bear:1 spain:1 elder:1 son:2 theodosius:4 aelia:2 flaccilla:1 brother:2 honorius:2 would:1 become:1 western:2 father:1 declare:2 augustus:2 co:1 ruler:1 january:2 young:2 also:2 control:4 romanized:1 vandal:1 magister:1 militum:1 stilicho:4 dominate:4 one:2 minister:1 rufinus:3 allege:1 want:1 suppose:1 assassinate:1 gothic:2 mercenary:1 though:1 definite:1 proof:1 involvement:1 assassination:1 lack:1 intense:1 competition:1 political:2 jealousy:1 engender:1 two:1 figure:1 compose:1 main:2 thread:1 first:1 part:1 reign:2 new:3 advisor:1 eunuch:1 eutropius:2 simply:1 take:1 place:1 power:2 behind:1 imperial:3 throne:1 wife:1 eudoxia:4 convince:1 husband:1 dismiss:1 hold:1 consulate:1 height:1 year:2 july:1 issue:1 edict:1 ordering:1 remain:1 non:1 christian:2 temple:1 immediately:1 demolish:1 influence:2 strongly:1 oppose:1 john:1 chrysostom:2 patriarch:1 constantinople:3 felt:2 use:2 family:1 wealth:1 gain:1 depose:1 die:2 later:1 give:1 four:1 child:1 three:1 daughter:1 pulcheria:1 arcadia:1 marina:1 future:1 ii:2 rest:1 rule:1 anthemius:1 praetorian:1 prefect:1 make:1 peace:1 west:1 concerned:1 appear:1 pious:1 military:1 matter:1 nominally:1 solidus:1 character:1 work:1 weak:1 court:3 politics:2 major:1 theme:1 ambivalence:1 prominent:1 individual:1 party:1 form:1 regroup:1 round:1 towards:1 barbarian:3 period:1 mean:1 goth:2 well:1 document:1 episode:2 revolve:1 around:1 gainas:4 number:1 foederati:1 station:1 capital:1 massacre:1 survivor:1 flee:1 command:1 thrace:1 track:1 troop:1 slaughter:1 dispatch:1 traditionally:1 interpret:1 paroxysm:1 anti:1 reaction:1 serve:1 stabilise:1 east:1 source:1 affair:1 mythology:1 à:1 clef:1 synesius:2 cyrene:1 aegyptus:1 sive:1 de:2 providentia:1 date:1 argue:1 cameron:2 long:2 egyptianising:1 allegory:1 embody:1 covert:1 account:1 event:1 exact:1 interpretation:1 continue:1 baffle:1 scholar:1 regno:1 claim:1 address:1 contain:1 tirade:1 forum:2 build:1 name:1 seventh:1 hill:1 xērolophos:1 column:2 begin:1 commemorate:1 victory:1 although:1 complete:1 pentelic:1 marble:1 portrait:2 head:1 illustration:1 discover:2 istanbul:2 close:1 tauri:1 june:1 excavate:1 foundation:1 building:1 university:1 beyazit:1 nezih:1 firatli:1 late:1 antique:1 recently:1 american:1 journal:1 archaeology:1 pp:1 neck:1 design:1 insert:1 torso:1 statue:1 base:1 inscription:1 find:1 diadem:1 fillet:1 row:1 pearl:2 along:1 edge:1 rectangular:1 stone:1 set:1 forehead:1 note:1 reference:1 j:1 berkeley:1 oxford:1 external:1 link:1 law:3 extract:1 justinian:1 corpus:1 juris:1 civilis:1 watt:1 edward:1 motif:1 imperrial:1 authority:1 bust:1 list:1 fourth:1 century:1 show:1 pass:1 relate:1 christianity:1 |@bigram magister_militum:1 john_chrysostom:1 patriarch_constantinople:1 emperor_theodosius:1 praetorian_prefect:1 revolve_around:1 à_clef:1 external_link:1 corpus_juris:1 juris_civilis:1 |
3,032 | Convention_(norm) | A convention is a set of agreed, stipulated or generally accepted standards, norms, social norms or criteria, often taking the form of a custom. Certain types of rules or customs may become law and regulatory legislation may be introduced to formalise or enforce the convention (e.g. laws which determine which side of the road vehicles must be driven). In a social context, a convention may retain the character of an "unwritten" law of custom (e.g. the manner in which people greet each other, such as by shaking each other's hands). In physical sciences, numerical values (such as constants, quantities, or scales of measurement) are called conventional if they do not represent a measured property of nature, but originate in a convention, for example an average of many measurements, agreed between the scientists working with these values. General A convention is a rule or a selection from among two or more alternatives, where the rule or alternative is agreed upon among participants. Often the word refers to unwritten customs shared throughout a community. For instance, it is conventional in many societies that strangers being introduced shake hands. Some conventions are explicitly legislated; for example, it is conventional in the United States and in Germany that motorists drive on the right side of the road, whereas in England, Australia and Barbados they drive on the left. The extent to which justice is conventional (as opposed to natural or objective) is historically an important debate among philosophers. The nature of conventions has raised long-lasting philosophical discussion. Quine, Davidson and David Lewis published influential writings on the subject. Lewis's account of convention received an extended critique in Margaret Gilbert's On Social Facts (1989), where an alternative account is offered. Another view of convention comes from Ruth Millikan's Language: A Biological Model (2005), once more against Lewis. The Buddha described conventions — whether linguistic, social, political, moral, ethical, or even religious — as arising dependent on specific conditions. According to his paradigm, when conventions are considered absolute realities, they contribute to dogmatism, which in turn leads to conflict. This does not mean that conventions should be absolutely ignored as unreal and therefore useless. Instead, according to Buddhist thought, a wise person adopts a middle way without holding conventions to be ultimate or ignoring them when they are fruitful. David Kalupahana, Nagarjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way. SUNY Press, 1986, pages 17-18. The author refers specifically to the thought of the Buddha here. Customary or social conventions Social In sociology a social rule refers to any social convention commonly adhered to in a society. These rules are not written in law or otherwise formalized. In social constructionism there is a great focus on social rules. It is argued that these rules are socially constructed, that these rules act upon every member of a society, but at the same time, are re-produced by the individuals. Sociologists representing symbolic interactionism argue that social rules are created through the interaction between the members of a society. The focus on active interaction highlights the fluid, shifting character of social rules. These are specific to the social context, a context that varies through time and place. That means a social rule changes over time within the same society. What was acceptable in the past may no longer be the case. Similarly, rules differ across space: what is acceptable in one society may not be so in another. Social rules reflect what is acceptable or normal behaviour in any situation. Michel Foucault's concept of discourse is closely related to social rules as it offers a possible explanation how these rules are shaped and change. It is the social rules that tell people what is normal behaviour for any specific category. Thus, social rules tell a woman how to behave in a womanly manner, and a man, how to be manly. Other such rules are as follows: strangers being introduced shake hands, as in Western societies, but bow toward each other, in Korea, Japan and China do not bow at each other, in the Jewish tradition in the US, eye contact, a nod of the head toward each other, and a smile, with no bowing; the palm of the hand faces sideways, neither upward nor downward, in a business handshake. present business cards to each other, in business meetings click heels together, in past eras of Western history a woman's curtsey, in some societies in the Mideast, never displaying the sole of the foot toward another, as this would be seen as a grave insult. In many schools, though seats for students are not assigned they are still "claimed" by certain kids, and sitting in someone else's seat is considered an insult Others There are generic conventions which are very closely tied to a particular artistic genre, and may even help to define what that genre is. Other conventions that may simply be expectations are: paintings are rectangular or square stock devices (a comedy ends with a marriage, but a cowboy film can end with the hero riding off into the sunset) Mathematical notation follows the order of operations Government In government, convention is a set of unwritten rules which the participants in the government are expected to follow. These rules can be ignored only if justification is clear, or can be provided. Otherwise, consequences are sure to follow. Consequences may include ignoring some other convention that has until now been followed. According to the traditional doctrine (Dicey), conventions cannot be enforced in courts, because they are non-legal sets of rules. Convention is particularly important in the Commonwealth realms and other governments using the Westminster System of government, where many of the rules of government are unwritten. International law The term convention is also used in international law to refer to certain formal statements of principle such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Conventions are adopted by international bodies such as the International Labour Organization and the United Nations. Conventions so adopted usually apply only to countries that ratify them, and do not automatically apply to member states of such bodies. These conventions are generally seen as having the force of international treaties for the ratifying countries. The best known of these are perhaps the several Geneva Conventions. References External links Rescorla, Michael (2007) Convention, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Law-Ref.org, an index of important international conventions. | Convention_(norm) |@lemmatized convention:29 set:3 agreed:1 stipulate:1 generally:2 accepted:1 standard:1 norm:2 social:18 criterion:1 often:2 take:1 form:1 custom:4 certain:3 type:1 rule:22 may:8 become:1 law:7 regulatory:1 legislation:1 introduce:3 formalise:1 enforce:2 e:2 g:2 determine:1 side:2 road:2 vehicle:1 must:1 drive:3 context:3 retain:1 character:2 unwritten:4 manner:2 people:2 greet:1 shake:3 hand:4 physical:1 science:1 numerical:1 value:2 constant:1 quantity:1 scale:1 measurement:2 call:1 conventional:4 represent:2 measured:1 property:1 nature:2 originate:1 example:2 average:1 many:4 agree:2 scientist:1 work:1 general:1 selection:1 among:3 two:1 alternative:3 upon:2 participant:2 word:1 refer:2 share:1 throughout:1 community:1 instance:1 society:8 stranger:2 explicitly:1 legislate:1 united:2 state:2 germany:1 motorists:1 right:2 whereas:1 england:1 australia:1 barbados:1 left:1 extent:1 justice:1 oppose:1 natural:1 objective:1 historically:1 important:3 debate:1 philosopher:1 raise:1 long:1 last:1 philosophical:1 discussion:1 quine:1 davidson:1 david:2 lewis:3 publish:1 influential:1 writing:1 subject:1 account:2 receive:1 extended:1 critique:1 margaret:1 gilbert:1 fact:1 offer:2 another:3 view:1 come:1 ruth:1 millikan:1 language:1 biological:1 model:1 buddha:2 describe:1 whether:1 linguistic:1 political:1 moral:1 ethical:1 even:2 religious:1 arise:1 dependent:1 specific:3 condition:1 accord:3 paradigm:1 consider:2 absolute:1 reality:1 contribute:1 dogmatism:1 turn:1 lead:1 conflict:1 mean:2 absolutely:1 ignore:4 unreal:1 therefore:1 useless:1 instead:1 buddhist:1 thought:2 wise:1 person:1 adopt:3 middle:2 way:2 without:1 hold:1 ultimate:1 fruitful:1 kalupahana:1 nagarjuna:1 philosophy:2 suny:1 press:1 page:1 author:1 refers:2 specifically:1 customary:1 sociology:1 commonly:1 adhere:1 write:1 otherwise:2 formalize:1 constructionism:1 great:1 focus:2 argue:2 socially:1 construct:1 act:1 every:1 member:3 time:3 produce:1 individual:1 sociologist:1 symbolic:1 interactionism:1 create:1 interaction:2 active:1 highlight:1 fluid:1 shift:1 vary:1 place:1 change:2 within:1 acceptable:3 past:2 longer:1 case:1 similarly:1 differ:1 across:1 space:1 one:1 reflect:1 normal:2 behaviour:2 situation:1 michel:1 foucault:1 concept:1 discourse:1 closely:2 relate:1 possible:1 explanation:1 shape:1 tell:2 category:1 thus:1 woman:2 behave:1 womanly:1 man:1 manly:1 follow:5 western:2 bow:2 toward:3 korea:1 japan:1 china:1 jewish:1 tradition:1 u:1 eye:1 contact:1 nod:1 head:1 smile:1 bowing:1 palm:1 face:1 sideways:1 neither:1 upward:1 downward:1 business:3 handshake:1 present:1 card:1 meeting:1 click:1 heel:1 together:1 era:1 history:1 curtsey:1 mideast:1 never:1 display:1 sole:1 foot:1 would:1 see:2 grave:1 insult:2 school:1 though:1 seat:2 student:1 assign:1 still:1 claim:1 kid:1 sit:1 someone:1 else:1 others:1 generic:1 tie:1 particular:1 artistic:1 genre:2 help:1 define:1 simply:1 expectation:1 painting:1 rectangular:1 square:1 stock:1 device:1 comedy:1 end:2 marriage:1 cowboy:1 film:1 hero:1 rid:1 sunset:1 mathematical:1 notation:1 order:1 operation:1 government:6 expect:1 justification:1 clear:1 provide:1 consequence:2 sure:1 include:1 traditional:1 doctrine:1 dicey:1 cannot:1 court:1 non:1 legal:1 particularly:1 commonwealth:1 realm:1 use:2 westminster:1 system:1 international:6 term:1 also:1 formal:1 statement:1 principle:1 child:1 body:2 labour:1 organization:1 nation:1 usually:1 apply:2 country:2 ratify:1 automatically:1 force:1 treaty:1 ratifying:1 best:1 known:1 perhaps:1 several:1 geneva:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 rescorla:1 michael:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 ref:1 org:1 index:1 |@bigram david_kalupahana:1 suny_press:1 social_constructionism:1 michel_foucault:1 closely_relate:1 upward_downward:1 someone_else:1 commonwealth_realm:1 geneva_convention:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 |
3,033 | Henry_Bruce,_1st_Baron_Aberdare | Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare GCB, PC, FRS (16 April 1815 – 25 February 1895) was a British statesman who served in government during the late 19th century, most notably as Home Secretary and as Lord President of the Council. Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 4 Background and education Aberdare was born at Duffryn, Aberdare, Glamorganshire, the son of John Bruce, a Glamorganshire landowner, by his wife Sarah, daughter of Reverend Hugh Williams Austin. John Bruce's original family name was Knight, but on coming of age in 1805 he assumed the name of Bruce: his mother, through whom he inherited the Duffryn estate, was the daughter of William Bruce, high sheriff of Glamorganshire. Henry was educated at Swansea Grammar School, and in 1837 was called to the bar. Shortly after he had begun to practice, the discovery of coal beneath the Duffryn and other Aberdare Valley estates brought the family great wealth. Political career From 1847 to 1854 Aberdare was stipendiary magistrate for Merthyr Tydfil and Aberdare, resigning the position in the latter year, when he entered parliament as Liberal member for Merthyr Tydfil. During this time, he became involved in the management of the Dowlais Iron Company. In 1862 he became Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, and in 1869, after losing his seat at Merthyr Tydfil, but being re-elected for Renfrewshire, he was made Home Secretary by William Gladstone. His tenure of this office was conspicuous for a reform of the licensing laws, and he was responsible for the Licensing Act 1872, which made the magistrates the licensing authority, increased the penalties for misconduct in public-houses and shortened the number of hours for the sale of drink. In 1873 he relinquished the home secretaryship, at Gladstone's request, to become Lord President of the Council, and was almost simultaneously raised to the peerage as Baron Aberdare, of Duffryn in the County of Glamorgan. Public career after 1874 Statue overlooking the Main Building of Cardiff University The defeat of the Liberal government in the following year terminated Lord Aberdare's official political life, and he subsequently devoted himself to social, educational and economic questions. In 1876 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society; from 1878 to 1891 he was president of the Royal Historical Society; and in 1881 he became president of both the Royal Geographical Society and the Girls' Day School Trust. In 1888 he headed the commission that established the Official Table of Drops, listing how far a person of a particular weight should be dropped when hanged for a capital offence (the only method of 'judicial execution' in Britain, at that time), to ensure an instant and painless death, by cleanly breaking the neck between the 2nd and 3rd vertebrae, an 'exacting science', eventually brought to perfection by Chief Executioner, Albert Pierrepoint. In 1882 he began a connection with West Africa which lasted the rest of his life, by accepting the chairmanship of the National African Company, formed by Sir George Taubman Goldie, which in 1886 received a charter under the title of the Royal Niger Company and in 1899 was taken over by the British government, its territories being constituted the protectorate of Nigeria. West African affairs, however, by no means exhausted Lord Aberdare's energies, and it was principally through his efforts that a charter was in 1894 obtained for the University of Wales at Cardiff. Lord Aberdare, who in 1885 was made a Knight Grand Cross of The Order of the Bath, presided over several Royal Commissions at different times. Family Lord Aberdare married firstly Annabella, daughter of Richard Beadon, in 1846. They had one son and three daughters. After her death in July 1852 he married secondly Norah Creina Blanche, daughter of Sir William Napier, the historian of the Peninsular War, whose biography he edited. They had two sons and seven daughters, of whom the youngest was the mountaineer Charles Granville Bruce. Lord Aberdare died in London on 25 February, 1895, aged 79, and was succeeded in the barony by his only son from his first marriage, Henry. Lady Aberdare died in April 1897. Henry Austin Bruce's grave at Aberffrwd cemetery in Mountain Ash, Wales. Memorial The words on Henry Austin Bruce's grave at Aberffrwd cemetery in Mountain Ash, Wales. Henry Austin Bruce is buried at Aberffrwd Cemetery in Mountain Ash, Wales. His large family plot is surrounded by a chain, and his grave is a simple Celtic cross with double plinth and kerb. In place is written "To God the Judge of all and to the spirits of just men more perfect." It says a lot for the man that his memorial is simple and he is buried with family. Notes References | Henry_Bruce,_1st_Baron_Aberdare |@lemmatized henry:6 austin:5 bruce:9 baron:2 aberdare:13 gcb:1 pc:1 fr:1 april:2 february:2 british:2 statesman:1 serve:1 government:3 late:1 century:1 notably:1 home:4 secretary:3 lord:7 president:4 council:2 chamber:1 biographical:1 dictionary:1 isbn:1 page:1 background:1 education:1 bear:1 duffryn:4 glamorganshire:3 son:4 john:2 landowner:1 wife:1 sarah:1 daughter:6 reverend:1 hugh:1 williams:1 original:1 family:5 name:2 knight:2 come:1 age:2 assume:1 mother:1 inherit:1 estate:2 william:3 high:1 sheriff:1 educate:1 swansea:1 grammar:1 school:2 call:1 bar:1 shortly:1 begin:2 practice:1 discovery:1 coal:1 beneath:1 valley:1 bring:2 great:1 wealth:1 political:2 career:2 stipendiary:1 magistrate:2 merthyr:3 tydfil:3 resign:1 position:1 latter:1 year:2 enter:1 parliament:1 liberal:2 member:1 time:3 become:4 involve:1 management:1 dowlais:1 iron:1 company:3 state:1 department:1 lose:1 seat:1 elect:2 renfrewshire:1 make:3 gladstone:2 tenure:1 office:1 conspicuous:1 reform:1 licensing:3 law:1 responsible:1 act:1 authority:1 increase:1 penalty:1 misconduct:1 public:2 house:1 shorten:1 number:1 hour:1 sale:1 drink:1 relinquish:1 secretaryship:1 request:1 almost:1 simultaneously:1 raise:1 peerage:1 county:1 glamorgan:1 statue:1 overlook:1 main:1 building:1 cardiff:2 university:2 defeat:1 following:1 terminate:1 official:2 life:2 subsequently:1 devote:1 social:1 educational:1 economic:1 question:1 fellow:1 royal:5 society:3 historical:1 geographical:1 girl:1 day:1 trust:1 head:1 commission:2 establish:1 table:1 drop:2 list:1 far:1 person:1 particular:1 weight:1 hang:1 capital:1 offence:1 method:1 judicial:1 execution:1 britain:1 ensure:1 instant:1 painless:1 death:2 cleanly:1 break:1 neck:1 vertebra:1 exact:1 science:1 eventually:1 perfection:1 chief:1 executioner:1 albert:1 pierrepoint:1 connection:1 west:2 africa:1 last:1 rest:1 accept:1 chairmanship:1 national:1 african:2 form:1 sir:2 george:1 taubman:1 goldie:1 receive:1 charter:2 title:1 niger:1 take:1 territory:1 constitute:1 protectorate:1 nigeria:1 affair:1 however:1 mean:1 exhaust:1 energy:1 principally:1 effort:1 obtain:1 wale:4 grand:1 cross:2 order:1 bath:1 preside:1 several:1 different:1 marry:2 firstly:1 annabella:1 richard:1 beadon:1 one:1 three:1 july:1 secondly:1 norah:1 creina:1 blanche:1 napier:1 historian:1 peninsular:1 war:1 whose:1 biography:1 edit:1 two:1 seven:1 young:1 mountaineer:1 charles:1 granville:1 die:2 london:1 succeed:1 barony:1 first:1 marriage:1 lady:1 grave:3 aberffrwd:3 cemetery:3 mountain:3 ash:3 memorial:2 word:1 bury:2 large:1 plot:1 surround:1 chain:1 simple:2 celtic:1 double:1 plinth:1 kerb:1 place:1 write:1 god:1 judge:1 spirit:1 men:1 perfect:1 say:1 lot:1 man:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram chamber_biographical:1 biographical_dictionary:1 merthyr_tydfil:3 peerage_baron:1 neck_vertebra:1 marry_firstly:1 marry_secondly:1 |
3,034 | Amorphous_solid | The amorphous structure of glassy Silica (SiO2). No long range order is present, however there is local ordering with respect to the tetrahedral arrangement of Oxygen (O) atoms around the Silicon (Si) atoms. An amorphous solid is a solid in which there is no long-range order of the positions of the atoms. (Solids in which there is long-range atomic order are called crystalline solids or morphous). Most classes of solid materials can be found or prepared in an amorphous form. For instance, common window glass is an amorphous solid, many polymers (such as polystyrene) are amorphous, and even foods such as cotton candy are amorphous solids. In principle, given a sufficiently high cooling rate, any liquid can be made into an amorphous solid. Cooling reduces molecular mobility. If the cooling rate is faster than the rate at which molecules can organize into a more thermodynamically favorable crystalline state, then an amorphous solid will be formed. Because of entropy considerations, many polymers can be made amorphous solids by cooling even at slow rates. In contrast, if molecules have sufficient time to organize into a structure with two- or three-dimensional order, then a crystalline (or semi-crystalline) solid will be formed. Water is one example. Because of its small molecular size and ability to quickly rearrange, it cannot be made amorphous without resorting to specialized hyperquenching techniques. Amorphous materials can also be produced by additives which interfere with the ability of the primary constituent to crystallize. For example, addition of soda to silicon dioxide results in window glass, and the addition of glycols to water results in a vitrified solid. Some materials, such as metals, are difficult to prepare in an amorphous state. Unless a material has a high melting temperature (as ceramics do) or a low crystallization energy (as polymers tend to), cooling must be done extremely rapidly. As the cooling is performed, the material changes from a supercooled liquid, with properties one would expect from a liquid state material, to a solid. The temperature at which this transition occurs is called the glass transition temperature or Tg. Definition It is difficult to make a distinction between truly amorphous solids and crystalline solids if the size of the crystals is very small. Even amorphous materials have some short-range order at the atomic length scale due the nature of chemical bonding. Furthermore, in very small crystals a large fraction of the atoms are located at or near the surface of the crystal; relaxation of the surface and interfacial effects distort the atomic positions, decreasing the structural order. Even the most advanced structural characterization techniques, such as x-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy, have difficulty in distinguishing between amorphous and crystalline structures on these length scales. The transition from the liquid state to the glass, at a temperature below the equilibrium melting point of the material, is called the glass transition. The glass transition temperature is approximately the temperature at which the viscosity of the liquid exceeds a certain value (about 1012 Pa·s). The transition temperature depends on cooling rate, with the glass transition occurring at higher temperatures for faster cooling rates. The precise nature of the glass transition is the subject of ongoing research. While it is clear that the glass transition is not a first-order thermodynamic transition (such as melting), there is debate as to whether it is a higher-order transition, or merely a kinetic effect. Amorphous thin films Amorphous phases are important constituents of thin films, which are solid layers of a few nm to some tens of µm thickness deposited upon an underlying substrate. So-called structure zone models were developed to describe the microstructure and morphology of thin films as a function of the homologeous temperature Th that is the ratio of deposition temperature over melting temperature . According to these models, a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for the occurrence of amorphous phases is that Th has to be smaller than 0.3, that is the deposition temperature must be below 30% of the melting temperature. For higher values, the surface diffusion of deposited atomic species would allow for the formation of crystallites with long range atomic order. Regarding their applications, amorphous metallic layers played an important role in the discussion of a suspected superconductivity in amorphous metals . Today, optical coatings made from TiO2, SiO2, Ta2O5 etc. and combinations of them in most cases comprise of amorphous phases of these compounds. The technologically most important thin amorphous film is probably represented by few nm thin SiO2 layers serving as isolator above the conducting channel of a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor MOSFET. Also, hydrogenated amorphous silicon, a-Si:H in short, is of technical significance for thin film solar cells. In case of a-Si:H the missing long-range order between silicon atoms is partly induced by the presence by hydrogen in the percent range. The occurrence of amorphous phases turned out as a phenomenon of particular interest for studying thin film growth. Remarkably, the growth of polycrystalline films is often preceded by an initial amorphous layer, the thickness of which may amount to only a few nm. The most investigated example is represented by thin multicrystalline silicon films, where such an initial amorphous layer was observed in many studies, see for instance . Wedge-shaped polycrystals were identified by transmission electron microscopy to grow out of the amorphous phase only after the latter has exceeded a certain thickness, the precise value of which depends on deposition temperature, background pressure and various other process parameters. The phenomenon has been interpreted in the framework of Ostwald’s rule of stages that predicts the formation of phases to proceed with increasing condensation time towards increasing stability . Experimental studies of the phenomenon require a clearly defined state of the substrate surface and its contaminant density etc., upon which the thin film is deposited. See also Glass Superglass Supercooling Vitrification Fused silica Amorphous ice Amorphous silicon Amorphous metal Paracrystalline Physics of glass Phase transformations in solids References Footnotes External links Fragility thy name is glass | Amorphous_solid |@lemmatized amorphous:30 structure:4 glassy:1 silica:2 long:5 range:7 order:11 present:1 however:1 local:1 respect:1 tetrahedral:1 arrangement:1 oxygen:1 atoms:1 around:1 silicon:6 si:3 atom:4 solid:17 position:2 atomic:5 call:4 crystalline:6 morphous:1 class:1 material:8 find:1 prepare:2 form:3 instance:2 common:1 window:2 glass:12 many:3 polymer:3 polystyrene:1 even:4 food:1 cotton:1 candy:1 principle:1 give:1 sufficiently:1 high:5 cool:4 rate:6 liquid:5 make:5 reduces:1 molecular:2 mobility:1 cooling:4 faster:1 molecule:2 organize:2 thermodynamically:1 favorable:1 state:5 entropy:1 consideration:1 slow:1 contrast:1 sufficient:2 time:2 two:1 three:1 dimensional:1 semi:1 water:2 one:2 example:3 small:4 size:2 ability:2 quickly:1 rearrange:1 cannot:1 without:1 resort:1 specialize:1 hyperquenching:1 technique:2 also:3 produce:1 additive:1 interfere:1 primary:1 constituent:2 crystallize:1 addition:2 soda:1 dioxide:1 result:2 glycol:1 vitrified:1 metal:4 difficult:2 unless:1 melting:3 temperature:14 ceramic:1 low:1 crystallization:1 energy:1 tend:1 must:2 extremely:1 rapidly:1 perform:1 change:1 supercooled:1 property:1 would:2 expect:1 transition:11 occur:2 tg:1 definition:1 distinction:1 truly:1 crystal:3 short:2 length:2 scale:2 due:1 nature:2 chemical:1 bonding:1 furthermore:1 large:1 fraction:1 locate:1 near:1 surface:4 relaxation:1 interfacial:1 effect:3 distort:1 decrease:1 structural:2 advanced:1 characterization:1 x:1 ray:1 diffraction:1 transmission:2 electron:2 microscopy:2 difficulty:1 distinguish:1 equilibrium:1 melt:2 point:1 approximately:1 viscosity:1 exceed:2 certain:2 value:3 pa:1 depend:2 fast:1 precise:2 subject:1 ongoing:1 research:1 clear:1 first:1 thermodynamic:1 debate:1 whether:1 merely:1 kinetic:1 thin:9 film:9 phase:7 important:3 layer:5 nm:3 ten:1 µm:1 thickness:3 deposit:2 upon:2 underlying:1 substrate:2 zone:1 model:2 develop:1 describe:1 microstructure:1 morphology:1 function:1 homologeous:1 th:2 ratio:1 deposition:3 accord:1 necessary:1 condition:1 occurrence:2 diffusion:1 deposited:1 specie:1 allow:1 formation:2 crystallite:1 regard:1 application:1 metallic:1 play:1 role:1 discussion:1 suspected:1 superconductivity:1 today:1 optical:1 coating:1 etc:2 combination:1 case:2 comprise:1 compound:1 technologically:1 probably:1 represent:2 serve:1 isolator:1 conduct:1 channel:1 oxide:1 semiconductor:1 field:1 transistor:1 mosfet:1 hydrogenate:1 h:2 technical:1 significance:1 solar:1 cell:1 miss:1 partly:1 induce:1 presence:1 hydrogen:1 percent:1 turn:1 phenomenon:3 particular:1 interest:1 study:3 growth:2 remarkably:1 polycrystalline:1 often:1 precede:1 initial:2 may:1 amount:1 investigated:1 multicrystalline:1 observe:1 see:2 wedge:1 shaped:1 polycrystals:1 identify:1 grow:1 latter:1 background:1 pressure:1 various:1 process:1 parameter:1 interpret:1 framework:1 ostwald:1 rule:1 stage:1 predict:1 proceed:1 increase:2 condensation:1 towards:1 stability:1 experimental:1 require:1 clearly:1 defined:1 contaminant:1 density:1 superglass:1 supercooling:1 vitrification:1 fuse:1 ice:1 paracrystalline:1 physic:1 transformation:1 reference:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 fragility:1 thy:1 name:1 |@bigram amorphous_solid:7 crystalline_solid:3 silicon_dioxide:1 supercooled_liquid:1 ray_diffraction:1 electron_microscopy:2 thin_layer:1 amorphous_silicon:2 wedge_shaped:1 clearly_defined:1 external_link:1 |
3,035 | Comoros | The Comoros (, ; , Juzur al-Qumur), officially the Union of the Comoros (, , al-Ittiād al-Qumuriyy) is an island nation in the Indian Ocean, located off the eastern coast of Africa on the northern end of the Mozambique Channel between northern Madagascar and northeastern Mozambique. The nearest countries to the Comoros are Mozambique, Tanzania, Madagascar, and the Seychelles. At 1,862 km² (863 sq mi) Dominique and Michelle Frémy (2004).Quid 2005 Editions Robert Laffont. p.1175. the Comoros is the third smallest African nation by area; and with a population estimated at 798,000 it is the sixth smallest African nation by population (though it has one of the highest population densities in Africa), and is the southernmost member state of the Arab League. Its name derives from the Arabic word ("moon"). The country officially consists of the four islands in the volcanic Comoros archipelago: Ngazidja (), Mwali (), Nzwani (), and Mahoré (), as well as many smaller islands. The first UN General Assembly Resolution regarding the matter, "Question of the Comorian island of Mayotte (PDF)," United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/31/4, (21 October 1976) states "the occupation by France of the Comorian island of Mayotte constitutes a flagrant encroachment on the national unity of the Comorian State, a Member of the United Nations," rejecting the French-administered referendums and condemning French presence in Mayotte. As defined by the Organization of African Unity, the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries, the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, and the United Nations General Assembly: the most recent UN General Assembly Resolution regarding the matter, "Question of the Comorian island of Mayotte," United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/49/18, (6 December 1994) states "the results of the referendum of 22 December 1974 were to be considered on a global basis and not island by island,...Reaffirms the sovereignty of the Islamic Federal Republic of the Comoros over the island of Mayotte". Several resolutions expressing similar sentiments were passed between 1977 (31/4) and 1994 (49/18). However, the government of the Union of the Comoros (or its predecessors since independence) has never administered the island of Mayotte, which France considers an overseas community and still administers. Since Mayotte was the only island in the archipelago that voted against independence from France, and France has vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions that would affirm Comorian sovereignty over the island. Control never passed to the Comoros and a 29 March 2009 referendum on becoming an overseas department of France in 2011 passed overwhelmingly. The archipelago is notable for its diverse culture and history, as a nation formed at the crossroads of many civilizations. Though in the contested island of Mayotte the sole official language is French, the "Union of the Comoros" has three official languages: Comorian (Shikomor), Arabic and French. The "Union of the Comoros" is the only state to be a member of each of the African Union, Francophonie, Organisation of the Islamic Conference, Arab League, and Indian Ocean Commission, among other international organizations. However, it has had a troubled history since independence in 1975, marked by numerous coups d'état. History Pre-colonial inhabitation The first human inhabitants of the Comoro Islands are thought to have been Polynesian and Melanesian settlers, Malays and Indonesians (Austronesians), travelling by boat. They settled there no later than the sixth century AD, the date of the earliest known archaeological site, found on Nzwani, though some sources speculate that settlement began as early as the first century. The islands of Comoros became populated by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of Africa, the Persian Gulf, Indonesia, and Madagascar. Swahili settlers first reached the islands as a part of the greater Bantu expansion that took place in Africa throughout the first millennium. Development of the Comoros is periodized into phases, beginning with Swahili influence and settlement in the Dembini phase (ninth to tenth centuries), during which each island maintained a single, central village. From the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, trade with the island of Madagascar and merchants from the Middle East flourished, smaller villages emerged, and existing towns expanded. The citizens and historians of the Comoros state that early Arab settlements dated even before their known arrival to the archipelago, and Swahili historians frequently trace genealogies back Arab ancestors who had set travel from Yemen and the ancient kingdom of Saba' in Eden ( thought to be the biblical Eden). Even though people are unsure if this is true. Middle Eastern merchants first introduced Islam to the islands.One most likely fact is that Arabs traded for slaves in Africa spreading their culture. As the religion gained in popularity, large mosques were constructed. The Comoro Islands, like other coastal areas in the region, were important stops in early Islamic trade routes frequented by Persians and Arabs. Despite its distance from the coast, Comoros is situated along the major sea route between Kilwa and Mozambique, an outlet for Zimbabwean gold. By the nineteenth century, the influence of Arabic-speaking Sunni Persians from Shiraz, Iran, dominated the islands. The Shirazi traded along the coasts of East Africa, and the Middle East, and established colonies in the archipelago. Arab influence increased with the ascendancy of Zanzibar under Arab Omani rule, and Comorian culture, especially architecture and religion, increasingly reflected Arabic influence. Many rival sultanates were established in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. By the time Europeans showed interest in the Comoros, the dominant Arab cultural veneer of the islands led many to remind of the society's Arab foundations at the expense of its Swahili and African heritage. More recent western scholarship by Thomas Spear and Randall Pouwells emphasizes African historical predominance over the diffusionist perspective. European contact and French colonization An 1808 map refers to the islands as "Camora". Sultan Said Ali bin Said Omar of Grande Comore (1897) Portuguese explorers first visited the archipelago in 1505. In 1793, Malagasy warriors from Madagascar first started raiding the islands for slaves, and later settled and seized control in many locations. France first established colonial rule in the Comoros in 1841. The first French colonists landed in Mayotte, and Andrian Tsouli, the Malagasy King of Mayotte, signed the Treaty of April 1841, which ceded the island to the French authorities. In 1886, Mohéli was placed under French protection by its Queen Salimba Mochimba. That same year, after consolidating his authority over all of Grande Comore, Sultan Said Ali agreed to French protection of his island, though he retained sovereignty until 1909. Also in 1909, Sultan Said Muhamed of Anjouan abdicated in favor of French rule. The Comoros (or Les Comores) was officially made a French colony in 1912, and the islands were placed under the administration of the French colonial governor general of Madagascar in 1914. The Comoros served as a way station for merchants sailing to the Far East and India until the opening of the Suez Canal significantly reduced traffic passing through the Mozambique Channel. The only native commodities exported by the Comoros were coconuts. French settlers, French-owned companies, and wealthy Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops. After its annexation, France converted Mayotte into a sugar plantation colony. The other islands were soon transformed as well, and the major crops of ylang-ylang, vanilla, coffee, cocoa, and sisal were introduced. Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for Comoros to become independent in 1978. On July 6, 1975, however, the Comorian parliament passed a unilateral resolution declaring independence. The deputies of Mayotte abstained. Referendums were held on all four of the islands. Three voted for independence by large margins, while Mayotte voted against and remains under French administration. Ahmed Abdallah proclaimed the independence of the State of the Comoros (État comorien; دولة القمر) on September 5, 1975 and became its first president. Independence The next 30 years were a period of political turmoil. On August 3, 1975, mercenary Bob Denard, with clandestine support from Jacques Foccart and the French government, removed president Ahmed Abdallah from office in an armed coup and replaced him with United National Front of the Comoros (UNF) member Prince Said Mohammed Jaffar. Months later, in January 1976, Jaffar was ousted in favor of his Minister of Defense Ali Soilih. At this time, the population of Mayotte voted against independence from France in two referendums. The first, held in December 1974, won 63.8% support for maintaining ties with France, while the second, held in February 1976, confirmed that vote with an overwhelming 99.4%. The three remaining islands, ruled by President Soilih, instituted a number of socialist and isolationist policies that soon strained relations with France. On May 13, 1978, Bob Denard returned to overthrow President Soilih and re-instate Abdallah with the support of the French and South African governments. During Soilih's brief rule, he faced seven additional coup attempts until he was finally forced from office and killed. In contrast to Soilih, Abdallah's presidency was marked by authoritarian rule and increased adherence to traditional Islam and the country was renamed the Federal and Islamic Republic of Comoros (République Fédérale Islamique des Comores; جمهورية القمر الإتحادية الإسلامية ). Abdallah continued as president until 1989 when, fearing a probable coup d'état, he signed a decree ordering the Presidential Guard, led by Bob Denard, to disarm the armed forces. Shortly after the signing of the decree, Abdallah was allegedly shot dead in his office by a disgruntled military officer, though later sources claim an anti-tank missile launched into his bedroom killed him. Although Denard was also injured, it is suspected that Abdallah's killer was a soldier under his command. A few days later, Bob Denard was evacuated to South Africa by French paratroopers. Said Mohamed Djohar, Soilih's older half-brother, then became president and served until September 1995 when Bob Denard returned and attempted another coup. This time France intervened with paratroopers and forced Denard to surrender. The French removed Djohar to Reunion, and the Paris-backed Mohamed Taki Abdulkarim became president by election. He led the country from 1996, during a time of labor crises, government suppression, and secessionist conflicts, until his death November 1998. He was succeeded by Interim President Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde. The islands of Anjouan and Mohéli declared their independence from the Comoros in 1997, in an attempt to restore French rule. But France rejected their request, leading to bloody confrontations between federal troops and rebels. In April 1999, Colonel Azali Assoumani, Army Chief of Staff, seized power in a bloodless coup, overthrowing the Interim President Massounde, citing weak leadership in the face of the crisis. This was the Comoros' 18th coup d'état since independence in 1975. But Azali failed to consolidate power and reestablish control over the islands, which was the subject of international criticism. The African Union, under the auspices of President Mbeki of South Africa, imposed sanctions on Anjouan to help broker negotiations and effect reconciliation. The official name of the country was changed to the Union of the Comoros and a new system of political autonomy for each island, plus a union government for the three islands. Azali stepped down in 2002 to run in the democratic election of the President of the Comoros, which he won. Under ongoing international pressure, as a military ruler who had originally come to power by force and was not always democratic while in office, Azali led the Comoros through constitutional changes that enabled new elections. A Loi des compétences law was passed in early 2005 that defines the responsibilities of each governmental body, and is in the process of implementation. The elections in 2006 were won by Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi, a Sunni Muslim Cleric nick-named the "Ayatollah" for his time spent studying Islam in Iran. Azali honored the election results, thus allowing the first peaceful and democratic exchange of power for the archipelago. Colonel Mohammed Bacar, a French-trained former gendarme, seized power as President in Anjouan in 2001. He staged a vote in June 2007 to confirm his leadership that was rejected as illegal by the Comoros federal government and the African Union. On March 25, 2008 hundreds of soldiers from the African Union and Comoros seized rebel-held Anjouan, generally welcomed by the population: there have been reports of hundreds, if not thousands, of people tortured during Bacar’s tenure. Some rebels were killed and injured, but there are no official figures. At least 11 civilians were wounded. Some officials were imprisoned. Bacar fled in a speedboat to the French Indian Ocean territory of Mayotte to seek asylum. Anti-French protests followed in Comoros (see 2008 invasion of Anjouan). Since independence from France, the Comoros experienced more than 20 coups or attempted coups. Geography Map of Comoros The Comoros is formed by Ngazidja (Grande Comore), Mwali (Mohéli), Nzwani (Anjouan), and Mahoré (Mayotte), the major islands in the Comoros Archipelago, as well as many minor islets. The islands are officially known by their Comorian language names, though international sources still use their French names (in parentheses) commonly. The capital and largest city, Moroni, is located on Ngazidja. The archipelago is situated in the Indian Ocean, in the Mozambique Channel, between the African coast (nearest to Mozambique and Tanzania) and Madagascar, with no land borders. At 2,235 km² (863 sq mi), it is one of the smallest countries in the world. The Comoros also has claim to 320 km² (124 sq mi) of territorial seas. The interiors of the islands vary from steep mountains to low hills. The climate is generally tropical and mild, and the two major seasons are distinguishable by their relative raininess. The temperature reaches an average of 29-30 °C (84-86 °F) in March, the hottest month in the rainy season (December to April), and an average low of 19 °C (66 °F) in the cool, dry season (May to November). The islands are subject to cyclones during rainy season which are strong enough to devastate the infrastructure about twice every decade. Ngazidja is the largest of the Comoros Archipelago, approximately equal in area to the other islands combined. It is also the most recent island, and therefore has rocky soil. The island's two volcanoes, Karthala and La Grille, and the lack of good harbors are distinctive characteristics of its terrain. Mwali, with its capital at Fomboni, is the smallest of the four major islands. Nzwani, whose capital is Mutsamudu, has a distinctive triangular shape caused by three mountain chains, Sima, Nioumakele, and Jimilime, emanating from a central peak, Mtingui (1,575 m, 5,177 ft). The oldest of the islands, Mahoré has the richest soil as well as good harbors and local fish populations, due to its ring of coral reefs. Dzaoudzi, a previous capital of all the colonial Comoros, is located on Pamanzi, (), the largest islet of Mahoré. Mahoré's current capital is at Mamoudzou. The term Mayotte (or Mahoré) may also refer to the group of islands, of which the largest is known as Mahoré (), and it includes Mahoré's surrounding islands, most notably Pamanzi (Petite-Terre). Satellite view of Mount Karthala after a Nov. 2005 eruption. Ash obscures the islands (outlined). The islands of the Comoros Archipelago were formed by volcanic activity. Mount Karthala, an active shield volcano located on Ngazidja, is the country's highest point, at 2,361 m or It contains the Comoros' largest patch of its disappearing rainforest. Karthala is currently one of the most active volcanoes in the world, with a minor eruption in May 2006, and prior eruptions as recently as April 2005 and 1991. In the 2005 eruption, which lasted from April 17 to 19, 40,000 citizens were evacuated, and the crater lake in the volcano's 3 by 4 km (2 by 2½ mi) caldera was destroyed. The Comoros also lays claim to the Glorioso Islands, comprising Grande Glorieuse, Île du Lys, Wreck Rock, South Rock, Verte Rocks (three islets), and three unnamed islets, one of France's Îles Éparses or Îles éparses de l'océan indien (Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean) possessions. The Glorioso Islands were administered by the colonial Comoros before 1975, and are therefore sometimes considered part of the Comoros Archipelago. Banc du Geyser, a former island in the Comoros Archipelago, now submerged, is geographically located in the Îles Éparses, but was annexed by Madagascar in 1976 as an unclaimed territory. The Comoros now claims it as part of its exclusive economic zone. Government Politics of the Union of the Comoros takes place in a framework of a federal presidential republic, whereby the President of the Comoros is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. The Constitution of the Union of the Comoros was ratified by referendum on December 23, 2001, and the islands' constitutions and executives were elected in the following months. It had previously been considered a military dictatorship, and the transfer of power from Azali Assoumani to Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi in May 2006 was the first peaceful transfer in Comorian history. Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The preamble of the constitution guarantees an Islamic inspiration in governance, a commitment to human rights, and several specific enumerated rights, democracy, "a common destiny" for all Comorians. Each of the islands (according to Title II of the Constitution) has a great amount of autonomy in the Union, including having their own constitutions (or Fundamental Law), president, and Parliament. The presidency and Assembly of the Union are distinct from each of the Islands' governments. The presidency of the Union rotates between the islands. Anjouan holds the current presidency rotation, and so Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi is President of the Union; Mohéli and Ngazidja follow in four year terms. AFRICAN ELECTIONS DATABASE, Elections in the Comoros. The Comorian legal system rests on Islamic law and an inherited French (Napoleonic code) legal code. Village elders or civilian courts settle most disputes. The judiciary is independent of the legislative and the executive. The Supreme Court acts as a Constitutional Council in resolving constitutional questions and supervising presidential elections. As High Court of Justice, the Supreme Court also arbitrates in cases where the government is accused of malpractice. The Supreme Court consists of two members selected by the president, two elected by the Federal Assembly, and one by the council of each island. Around 80 percent of the central government's annual budget is spent on the country’s complex electoral system which provides for a semi-autonomous government and president for each of the three islands and a rotating presidency for the over-arching Union government. A referendum took place on May 16, 2009 to decide whether to cut down the government's unwieldy political bureaucracy. 52.7% of those eligible voted, and 93.8% of votes were cast in approval of the referendum. The referendum would cause each island's president to become a governor and the ministers to become councilors. As of 2008, Comoros and Mauritania are considered by US-based organization Freedom House as the only real “electoral democracies” of the Arab World. Freedom House Country Report 2008 Military The military resources of the Comoros consist of a small standing army and a 500-member police force, as well as a 500-member defense force. A defense treaty with France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. France maintains a small troop presence in Comoros at government request. France maintains a small maritime base and a Foreign Legion Detachment (DLEM) on Mayotte. See also Military of Comoros. Foreign relations In November 1975, Comoros became the 143rd member of the United Nations. The new nation was defined as comprising the entire archipelago, although France continues to maintain control over the island of Mayotte as an overseas collectivity. Security Council S/PV. 1888 para 247 S/11967 Comoros has repeatedly pressed its claim to the island before the United Nations General Assembly, which adopted a series of resolutions under the caption "Question of the Comorian Island of Mayotte", opining that Mayotte belongs to Comoros under the principle that the territorial integrity of colonial territories should be preserved upon independence. As a practical matter, however, these resolutions have little effect and there is no foreseeable likelihood that Mayotte will become de facto part of Comoros without its people's consent. More recently, the Assembly has maintained this item on its agenda but deferred it from year to year without taking action. Other bodies, including the UN General Assembly, the Organization of African Unity, the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, have similarly questioned French sovereignty over Mayotte. UN General Assembly, Forty-ninth session: Agenda item 36 Comoros also is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, the European Development Fund, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Indian Ocean Commission, and the African Development Bank. On April 10, 2008 Comoros became the 179th nation to accept the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Economy Economic growth and poverty reduction are major priorities for the government. With a rate of 14.3%, unemployment is considered very high. Agriculture, including fishing, hunting, and forestry, is the leading sector of the economy, and 38.4% of the working population is employed in the primary sector. High population densities, as much as 1000 per square kilometer in the densest agricultural zones, for what is still a mostly rural, agricultural economy may lead to an environmental crisis in the near future, especially considering the high rate of population growth. The Comoros' real GDP growth was a low 1.9% in 2004 and real GDP per capita was continuing declining annually in 2004. These declines are explained by factors including declining investment, drops in consumption, rising inflation, and an increase in trade imbalance due in part to lowered cash crop prices, especially vanilla. Comoros has an inadequate transportation system, a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labor force contributes to a subsistence level of economic activity, high unemployment, and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance. Agriculture contributes 40% to GDP, employs 80% of the labor force, and provides most of the exports. Comoros is the world's largest producer of ylang-ylang, and a large producer of vanilla. The government is struggling to upgrade education and technical training, to privatize commercial and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports, to promote tourism, and to reduce the high population growth rate. The Comoros claims the Banc du Geyser and the Glorioso Islands as part of its exclusive economic zone. Comoros is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). Demographics With fewer than a million people, the Comoros is one of the least populous countries in the world, but is also one of the most densely populated, with an average of 275 people per km² (712 people per sq mi). In 2001, 34% of the population was considered urban, but that is expected to grow, since rural population growth is negative, while overall population growth is still relatively high. Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision and World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision, http://esa.un.org/unup/ 11 January 2007 Major urban centers include Moroni, Mutsamudu, Domoni, Fomboni, and Tsémbéhou. The islands of the Comoros share mostly African-Arab origins. Sunni Islam is the dominant religion, representing as much as 98% of the population. Although Arab culture is firmly established throughout the archipelago, a minority of the citizens of Mayotte (the Mahorais) are Roman Catholic and have been strongly influenced by French culture. CIA World Factbook: Comoros Malagasy and Indian minorities also exist, as well as Creole-speaking minorities mostly descended from Réunionnaise. Chinese peoples are also present on Mayotte and parts of Grande Comore (especially Moroni). A small White minority of French with other European (i.e. Dutch, British and Portuguese) ancestry lives in Comoros. Most French left after independence in 1975. The most common language is Comorian, or Shikomor, a descendant of Swahili with Arabic influences. Shingazidja, Shimwali, Shinzwani, and Shimaore are the local dialects spoken on each of the islands, Ngazidja, Mwali, Nzwani, and Mahoré, respectively. French and Arabic are also official languages, along with Comorian. Arabic is widely known as a second language, being the language of Quranic teaching, and French is the language of all other formal education. Malagasy is also spoken by a small number of Malagasy immigrants. Ethnologue report for Comoros. About fifty-seven percent of the population is literate in the Latin alphabet, more with the Arabic alphabet; total literacy is estimated at 62.5%. UNESCO Institute for Statistics, country profile of Comoros; 2004. Comorian has no native script, but both Arabic and Latin scripts have been used. Media and culture Almost all of the educated populace of the Comoros has attended Quranic schools at some point in their life, often before regular schooling. Here boys and girls are taught about the Quran, and memorize it. Some parents specifically choose this early schooling to offset French schools children usually attend later. Since independence and the ejection of French teachers, the education system has been plagued by poor teacher training and poor results, though recent stability may allow for substantial improvements. Comorian () is the most widely used language on the Comoros. It is a close relative of Swahili with a very strong Arabic influence, and is one of the three official languages of the Comoros, next to French and Arabic. Each island has a slightly different dialect; that of Anjouan is called Shindzuani, that of Moheli Shimwali, that of Mayotte Shimaore, and that of Grande Comore Shingazidja. No official alphabet existed in 1992, but Arabic and Latin scripts were both used even though they are not native to the region. There is no national newspaper in Comoros; the leading regional paper is Al-Watwan published on Grande Comore; Kwezi is also published on Mayotte. Radio Comoros is the national radio service and Comoros National TV is the television service. See also Communications in Comoros List of notable Comorians Heads of state of Comoros List of current Comorian islands presidents Transportation in Comoros Wezombeli Flag of the Comoros References This article incorporates text from the Library of Congress Country Studies, which is in the public domain. Further reading The Comoros Islands: Struggle Against Dependency in the Indian Ocean Malyn Newitt Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands Martin and Harriet Ottenheimer Shinzwani-English/English-Shinzwani Dictionary Harriet Ottenheimer Lonely Planet World Guide: Madagascar and Comoros Gemma Pitcher and Patricia C. Wright External links Government Official site of the President of Comoros Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Comoros Humanitarian news and analysis from IRIN Country Profile from BBC News Comoros from UCB Libraries GovPubs Drs. Martin and Harriet Ottenheimer - Comoro Islands Tourism be-x-old:Каморскія выспы | Comoros |@lemmatized comoros:85 juzur:1 al:4 qumur:1 officially:4 union:18 ittiād:1 qumuriyy:1 island:65 nation:15 indian:8 ocean:7 locate:5 eastern:2 coast:5 africa:9 northern:2 end:1 mozambique:7 channel:3 madagascar:9 northeastern:1 near:3 country:15 tanzania:2 seychelles:1 sq:4 mi:5 dominique:1 michelle:1 frémy:1 quid:1 edition:1 robert:1 laffont:1 p:1 third:2 small:11 african:16 area:3 population:18 estimate:2 sixth:2 though:9 one:10 high:9 density:2 southernmost:1 member:11 state:10 arab:15 league:3 name:5 derive:1 arabic:12 word:1 moon:1 consist:3 four:4 volcanic:2 archipelago:15 ngazidja:7 mwali:4 nzwani:5 mahoré:9 well:6 many:6 first:14 un:5 general:10 assembly:11 resolution:9 regard:2 matter:3 question:5 comorian:18 mayotte:27 pdf:1 unite:2 october:1 occupation:1 france:19 constitute:1 flagrant:1 encroachment:1 national:5 unity:3 united:8 reject:3 french:34 administer:3 referendum:9 condemn:1 presence:2 define:3 organization:5 movement:2 non:2 aligned:2 organisation:3 islamic:8 conference:3 recent:4 december:5 result:3 consider:7 global:1 basis:1 reaffirm:1 sovereignty:4 federal:7 republic:3 several:2 express:1 similar:1 sentiment:1 pass:5 however:4 government:20 predecessor:1 since:7 independence:14 never:2 considers:1 overseas:3 community:1 still:4 administers:1 vote:7 veto:1 security:2 council:4 would:2 affirm:1 control:4 march:3 become:11 department:2 overwhelmingly:1 notable:2 diverse:2 culture:6 history:4 form:3 crossroad:1 civilization:1 contested:1 sole:1 official:9 language:10 three:9 shikomor:2 francophonie:1 commission:2 among:1 international:5 troubled:1 mark:2 numerous:1 coup:9 état:4 pre:1 colonial:6 inhabitation:1 human:2 inhabitant:1 comoro:4 think:2 polynesian:1 melanesian:1 settler:3 malay:1 indonesian:1 austronesian:1 travel:2 boat:1 settle:3 later:5 century:6 ad:1 date:2 early:6 known:1 archaeological:1 site:2 find:1 source:3 speculate:1 settlement:3 begin:2 populate:1 succession:1 group:2 persian:3 gulf:1 indonesia:1 swahili:6 reach:3 part:7 great:2 bantu:1 expansion:1 take:4 place:5 throughout:2 millennium:1 development:3 periodized:1 phase:2 influence:7 dembini:1 ninth:2 tenth:1 maintain:6 single:1 central:3 village:3 eleventh:1 fifteenth:1 trade:5 merchant:4 middle:3 east:4 flourish:1 emerge:1 exist:3 town:1 expand:1 citizen:3 historian:2 even:3 know:4 arrival:1 frequently:1 trace:1 genealogy:1 back:2 ancestor:1 set:1 yemen:1 ancient:1 kingdom:1 saba:1 eden:2 biblical:1 people:7 unsure:1 true:1 introduce:2 islam:4 likely:1 fact:1 slave:2 spread:1 religion:3 gain:1 popularity:1 large:9 mosque:1 construct:1 islands:4 like:1 coastal:1 region:2 important:1 stop:1 route:2 frequent:1 despite:1 distance:1 situate:2 along:3 major:7 sea:2 kilwa:1 outlet:1 zimbabwean:1 gold:1 nineteenth:1 speaking:2 sunni:3 shiraz:1 iran:2 dominate:1 shirazi:1 establish:5 colony:3 increase:4 ascendancy:1 zanzibar:1 omani:1 rule:7 especially:4 architecture:1 increasingly:1 reflect:1 rival:1 sultanate:1 sixteenth:1 seventeenth:1 time:5 europeans:1 show:1 interest:1 dominant:2 cultural:1 veneer:1 lead:8 remind:1 society:1 foundation:1 expense:1 heritage:1 western:1 scholarship:1 thomas:1 spear:1 randall:1 pouwells:1 emphasize:1 historical:2 predominance:1 diffusionist:1 perspective:1 european:3 contact:1 colonization:1 map:2 refers:1 camora:1 sultan:3 say:7 ali:3 bin:1 omar:1 grande:7 comore:6 portuguese:2 explorer:1 visit:1 malagasy:5 warrior:1 start:1 raid:1 seize:2 location:1 colonist:1 land:3 andrian:1 tsouli:1 king:1 sign:2 treaty:2 april:6 cede:1 authority:2 mohéli:4 protection:3 queen:1 salimba:1 mochimba:1 year:5 consolidate:2 agree:1 retain:1 also:16 muhamed:1 anjouan:9 abdicate:1 favor:2 les:1 comores:2 make:1 administration:2 governor:2 serve:2 way:1 station:1 sail:1 far:2 india:1 opening:1 suez:1 canal:1 significantly:1 reduce:2 traffic:1 passing:1 native:3 commodity:1 export:4 coconut:1 company:1 wealthy:1 plantation:2 base:3 economy:4 use:5 crop:3 annexation:1 convert:1 sugar:1 soon:2 transform:1 ylang:4 vanilla:3 coffee:1 cocoa:1 sisal:1 agreement:1 independent:2 july:1 parliament:3 unilateral:1 declare:2 deputy:1 abstain:1 hold:4 margin:1 remain:2 ahmed:5 abdallah:10 proclaim:1 comorien:1 دولة:1 القمر:2 september:2 president:20 next:2 period:1 political:3 turmoil:1 august:1 mercenary:1 bob:5 denard:7 clandestine:1 support:3 jacques:1 foccart:1 remove:2 office:4 arm:1 replace:1 front:1 unf:1 prince:1 mohammed:2 jaffar:2 month:3 january:2 oust:1 minister:2 defense:3 soilih:6 two:5 win:3 tie:1 second:2 february:1 confirm:2 overwhelming:1 institute:2 number:2 socialist:1 isolationist:1 policy:1 strain:1 relation:2 may:8 return:2 overthrow:2 instate:1 south:4 brief:1 face:2 seven:2 additional:1 attempt:4 finally:1 force:8 kill:3 contrast:1 presidency:5 authoritarian:1 adherence:1 traditional:1 rename:1 république:1 fédérale:1 islamique:1 des:2 جمهورية:1 الإتحادية:1 الإسلامية:1 continue:3 fear:1 probable:1 decree:2 order:1 presidential:3 guard:1 disarm:1 armed:1 shortly:1 signing:1 allegedly:1 shot:1 dead:1 disgruntled:1 military:7 officer:1 late:1 claim:6 anti:2 tank:1 missile:1 launch:1 bedroom:1 although:3 injure:2 suspect:1 killer:1 soldier:2 command:1 day:1 evacuate:2 paratrooper:2 mohamed:5 djohar:2 old:3 half:1 brother:1 another:1 intervene:1 surrender:1 reunion:1 paris:1 taki:1 abdulkarim:1 election:8 labor:3 crisis:3 suppression:1 secessionist:1 conflict:1 death:1 november:3 succeed:1 interim:2 tadjidine:1 ben:1 massounde:2 restore:1 request:2 bloody:1 confrontation:1 troop:2 rebel:3 colonel:2 azali:6 assoumani:2 army:2 chief:2 staff:1 seized:2 power:8 bloodless:1 cite:1 weak:1 leadership:2 fail:1 reestablish:1 subject:2 criticism:1 auspex:1 mbeki:1 impose:1 sanction:1 help:1 broker:1 negotiation:1 effect:2 reconciliation:1 change:3 new:3 system:6 autonomy:2 plus:1 step:1 run:1 democratic:3 ongoing:1 pressure:1 ruler:1 originally:1 come:1 always:1 constitutional:3 enable:1 loi:1 compétences:1 law:4 responsibility:1 governmental:1 body:2 process:1 implementation:1 sambi:3 muslim:1 cleric:1 nick:1 ayatollah:1 spend:2 study:2 honor:1 thus:1 allow:2 peaceful:2 exchange:1 bacar:3 trained:1 former:2 gendarme:1 stag:1 june:1 illegal:1 hundred:2 held:1 generally:2 welcome:1 report:3 thousand:1 torture:1 tenure:1 figure:1 least:2 civilian:2 wound:1 imprison:1 flee:1 speedboat:1 territory:3 seek:1 asylum:1 protest:1 follow:2 see:3 invasion:1 experience:1 geography:1 minor:2 islet:4 parenthesis:1 commonly:1 capital:5 city:1 moroni:3 border:1 world:10 territorial:3 interior:1 vary:1 steep:1 mountain:2 low:4 hill:1 climate:2 tropical:1 mild:1 season:4 distinguishable:1 relative:2 raininess:1 temperature:1 average:3 c:3 f:2 hot:1 rainy:2 cool:1 dry:1 cyclone:1 strong:2 enough:1 devastate:1 infrastructure:1 twice:1 every:1 decade:1 approximately:1 equal:1 combine:1 therefore:2 rocky:1 soil:2 volcano:4 karthala:4 la:1 grille:1 lack:1 good:2 harbor:2 distinctive:2 characteristic:1 terrain:1 fomboni:2 whose:1 mutsamudu:2 triangular:1 shape:1 cause:2 chain:1 sima:1 nioumakele:1 jimilime:1 emanate:1 peak:1 mtingui:1 ft:1 rich:1 local:2 fish:1 due:2 ring:1 coral:1 reef:1 dzaoudzi:1 previous:1 pamanzi:2 current:3 mamoudzou:1 term:2 refer:1 include:6 surround:1 notably:1 petite:1 terre:1 satellite:1 view:1 mount:2 nov:1 eruption:4 ash:1 obscure:1 outline:1 activity:2 active:2 shield:1 point:2 contain:1 patch:1 disappear:1 rainforest:1 currently:1 prior:1 recently:2 last:1 crater:1 lake:1 km:1 caldera:1 destroy:1 lay:1 glorioso:3 comprise:2 glorieuse:1 île:1 du:3 lys:1 wreck:1 rock:3 verte:1 unnamed:1 îles:3 éparses:3 de:2 l:1 océan:1 indien:1 scattered:1 possession:1 sometimes:1 banc:2 geyser:2 submerge:1 geographically:1 annex:1 unclaimed:1 exclusive:2 economic:5 zone:3 politics:1 framework:2 whereby:1 head:3 multi:1 party:1 constitution:5 ratify:1 executive:3 elect:2 following:1 previously:1 dictatorship:1 transfer:2 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 preamble:1 guarantee:1 inspiration:1 governance:1 commitment:1 right:2 specific:1 enumerate:1 democracy:2 common:2 destiny:1 comorians:2 accord:1 title:1 ii:1 amount:1 fundamental:1 distinct:1 rotate:1 rotation:1 database:1 legal:2 rest:1 inherited:1 napoleonic:1 code:2 elder:1 court:5 dispute:1 judiciary:1 supreme:3 act:1 resolve:1 supervise:1 justice:1 arbitrate:1 case:1 accuse:1 malpractice:1 select:1 around:1 percent:2 annual:1 budget:1 complex:1 electoral:2 provide:3 semi:1 autonomous:1 rotating:1 arch:1 decide:1 whether:1 cut:1 unwieldy:1 bureaucracy:1 eligible:1 voted:1 cast:1 approval:1 councilors:1 mauritania:1 u:1 freedom:2 house:2 real:3 resource:3 standing:1 police:1 naval:1 water:1 training:3 personnel:1 air:1 surveillance:1 maritime:1 foreign:3 legion:1 detachment:1 dlem:1 entire:1 collectivity:1 pv:1 para:1 repeatedly:1 press:1 adopt:1 series:1 caption:1 opine:1 belongs:1 principle:1 integrity:1 preserve:1 upon:1 practical:1 little:1 foreseeable:1 likelihood:1 facto:1 without:2 consent:1 item:2 agenda:2 defer:1 action:1 similarly:1 forty:1 session:1 fund:2 bank:2 monetary:1 accept:1 kyoto:1 protocol:1 convention:1 growth:6 poverty:1 reduction:1 priority:1 rate:3 unemployment:2 agriculture:2 fishing:1 hunting:1 forestry:1 sector:2 work:1 employ:2 primary:1 much:2 per:4 square:1 kilometer:1 dense:1 agricultural:2 mostly:3 rural:2 environmental:1 future:1 gdp:3 caput:1 decline:3 annually:1 explain:1 factor:1 investment:1 drop:1 consumption:1 rise:1 inflation:1 imbalance:1 lower:1 cash:1 price:1 inadequate:1 transportation:2 young:1 rapidly:1 natural:1 educational:1 level:2 contribute:2 subsistence:1 heavy:1 dependence:1 grant:1 technical:2 assistance:1 producer:2 struggle:2 upgrade:1 education:3 privatize:1 commercial:1 industrial:1 enterprise:1 improve:1 health:1 service:3 diversify:1 promote:1 tourism:2 harmonization:1 business:1 ohada:1 demographic:1 million:1 populous:1 densely:1 populated:1 urban:2 expect:1 grow:1 negative:1 overall:1 relatively:1 division:1 social:1 affair:1 secretariat:1 prospect:2 revision:2 urbanization:1 http:1 esa:1 org:1 unup:1 center:1 domoni:1 tsémbéhou:1 share:1 origin:1 represent:1 firmly:1 minority:4 mahorais:1 roman:1 catholic:1 strongly:1 cia:1 factbook:1 creole:1 descend:1 réunionnaise:1 chinese:1 present:1 white:1 e:1 dutch:1 british:1 ancestry:1 live:1 left:1 descendant:1 shingazidja:2 shimwali:2 shinzwani:3 shimaore:2 dialect:2 speak:2 respectively:1 widely:2 quranic:2 teaching:1 formal:1 immigrant:1 ethnologue:1 fifty:1 literate:1 latin:3 alphabet:3 total:1 literacy:1 unesco:1 statistic:1 profile:2 script:3 medium:1 almost:1 educated:1 populace:1 attend:2 school:2 life:1 often:1 regular:1 schooling:2 boys:1 girl:1 teach:1 quran:1 memorize:1 parent:1 specifically:1 choose:1 offset:1 child:1 usually:1 ejection:1 teacher:2 plague:1 poor:2 stability:1 substantial:1 improvement:1 close:1 slightly:1 different:1 call:1 shindzuani:1 moheli:1 newspaper:1 regional:1 paper:1 watwan:1 publish:2 kwezi:1 radio:2 tv:1 television:1 communication:1 list:2 wezombeli:1 flag:1 reference:1 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 library:2 congress:1 public:1 domain:1 read:1 dependency:1 malyn:1 newitt:1 dictionary:2 martin:2 harriet:3 ottenheimer:3 english:2 lonely:1 planet:1 guide:1 gemma:1 pitcher:1 patricia:1 wright:1 external:1 link:1 cabinet:1 information:1 humanitarian:1 news:2 analysis:1 irin:1 bbc:1 ucb:1 govpubs:1 drs:1 x:1 каморскія:1 выспы:1 |@bigram tanzania_madagascar:2 sq_mi:4 comoros_archipelago:6 non_aligned:2 coup_état:3 comoro_island:1 persian_gulf:1 ninth_tenth:1 nineteenth_century:1 shiraz_iran:1 sixteenth_seventeenth:1 grande_comore:6 opening_suez:1 suez_canal:1 sugar_plantation:1 ylang_ylang:2 coffee_cocoa:1 ahmed_abdallah:5 bob_denard:5 anjouan_mohéli:1 azali_assoumani:2 chief_staff:1 bloodless_coup:1 sunni_muslim:1 hundred_thousand:1 rainy_season:2 coral_reef:1 active_volcano:1 glorioso_island:2 île_du:1 îles_éparses:3 preamble_constitution:1 judiciary_independent:1 supreme_court:3 presidential_election:1 semi_autonomous:1 overseas_collectivity:1 territorial_integrity:1 de_facto:1 monetary_fund:1 kyoto_protocol:1 fishing_hunting:1 hunting_forestry:1 square_kilometer:1 per_caput:1 cash_crop:1 organization_harmonization:1 harmonization_business:1 africa_ohada:1 densely_populated:1 prospect_revision:2 sunni_islam:1 lonely_planet:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 ucb_library:1 library_govpubs:1 |
3,036 | Economy_of_Niger | Map and growing season for the Nigerien Sorghum crop. Chart shows Normalized Difference Vegetation Index against Long Rains Dry Season (July - Feb), measuring normal years crop growth in the major Sorghum producing areas of Niger. www.pecad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer/ Map and growing season for the Nigerien Rice crop. Chart shows Normalized Difference Vegetation Index against Long Rains Dry Season (July - Feb), measuring normal years crop growth in the major Rice producing areas of Niger. www.pecad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer/ The economy of Niger is based largely upon internal markets, subsitance agriculture, and the export of raw commodities: food stuffs to neighbors and raw minerals to world markets. Niger, is a landlocked Sub-Sahara African nation, and over the past two decades has consistently been ranked near or at the bottom of worldwide indexes of the Human development index, GDP, and percapita income. Economic activity centres on subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry, re-export trade, and export of uranium. The 50% devaluation of the West African CFA franc in January 1994 boosted exports of livestock, cowpeas, onions, and the products of Niger's small cotton industry. Exports of cattle to neighboring Nigeria, as well as Groundnuts and their oil remain the primary non-mineral exports. The government relies on bilateral and multilateral aid - which was suspended briefly following coup d'états in 1996 and 1999 - for operating expenses and public investment. Short-term prospects depend on continued World Bank and IMF debt relief and extended aid. The post 1999 government has broadly adhered to privatisation and market deregulation plans instituted by these funders. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Niger at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund IMF, 2006 estimates with figures in millions of CFA Francs. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1980 530,000 211.23 CFA Francs 46 1985 647,100 449.37 CFA Francs 69 1990 675,223 272.26 CFA Francs 61 1995 938,800 499.09 CFA Francs 87 2000 1,280,372 710.13 CFA Francs 100 2005 1,841,244 527.12 CFA Francs 113 Average wages in 2007 hover around $1-2 per day. Overall Niger's economy is based largely on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Drought cycles, desertification, a 3.4% population growth rate and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut an already marginal economy. Traditional subsistence farming, herding, small trading, and informal markets dominate an economy that generates few formal sector jobs. Between 1988 and 1995 28% to 30% of the total economy of Niger was in the unregulated Informal sector, including small and even large scale rural and urban production, transport and services. C. Maldonado & J. Gasarian. SECTEUR INFORMEL: FONCTIONS MACRO-ECONOMIQUES ET POLITIQUES GOUVERNEMENTALES: LE CAS DU NIGER. Document de recherche S-INF-1-20. Département du développement des entreprises et des coopératives, Organisation internationale du Travail -- OIT (1998). GDP per capita Current GDP per capita earthtrends.wri.org of Niger grew 10% in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 187% in the Seventies. But this proved unsustainable and it consequently shrank by 27% in the Eighties and a further 48% in the Nineties. Much of this GDP is explained through the exploitation of uranium at Arlit in the far north of the country. Ore is partially processed on site by foreign mining corporations and transported by truck to Benin. Fluctuation of GDP can be mapped to changes in international uranium price, as well as price negations with the main mining company, France's Areva NC. Price rises in the mid 1970s were followed by a collapse in the market price through much of the 1980s and 1990s. Thus the GDP per capita has little direct impact on the average Nigerien, although uranium funds much government operation. The 2006 Human Development Index ranked Niger sixth from worst in the world, with a HDI of 0.370: 174 of 179 nations. Human Development Report 2007/2008. United Nations Development Program. Agriculture Niger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 18% of the population. Fourteen percent of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock production (camels, goats, sheep and cattle), said to support 29% of the population. The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria. Rainfall varies and when insufficient, Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements. Although the rains in 2000 were not good, those in 2001 were plentiful and well distributed. Pearl millet, sorghum, and cassava are Niger's principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Irrigated rice for internal consumption, while expensive, has, since the devaluation of the CFA franc, sold for below the price of imported rice, encouraging additional production. Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are small quantities of garlic, peppers, potatoes, and wheat. Groundnuts, and to a lesser degree Cotton, introduced by former colonial power France in in the 1930s and 1950s respectively, account for most of the world market for Nigerien industrial agriculture. Prior to the mass exploitation of uranium in the early 1970s, groundnut oil was the largest Nigerien export by worth. A majority of Niger's population are rural residents engaged in agriculture, mostly in the south centre and south west of the nation. While these people are dependent on the agricultural market portions of their production and consumption, much of Nigerien farming is subsistence agriculture outside the marketplace. External trade and investment Niger's exports in 2006 Of Niger's exports, foreign exchange earnings from livestock, although impossible to quantify, are second only to those from uranium. Actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and skins are exported and some are transformed into handicrafts. Mining The persistent uranium price slump has brought lower revenues for Niger's uranium sector, although uranium still provides 72% of national export proceeds. The nation enjoyed substantial export earnings and rapid economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s after the opening of two large uranium mines near the northern town of Arlit. When the uranium-led boom ended in the early 1980s, however, the economy stagnated and new investment since then has been limited. Niger's two uranium mines (SOMAIR's open pit mine and COMINAK's underground mine) are owned by a French-led consortium and operated by French interests. The open pit COMINAK uranium mine at Arlit. Exploitable deposits of gold are known to exist in Niger in the region between the Niger River and the border with Burkina Faso. Substantial deposits of phosphates, coal, iron, limestone, and gypsum also have been found. Numerous foreign companies, including American firms, have taken out exploration licenses for concessions in the gold seam in western Niger, which also contains deposits of other minerals. Several oil companies explored for petroleum since 1992 in the Djado plateau in north-eastern Niger and the Agadem basin, north of Lake Chad but made no discoveries worth developing at the time. In June 2007, however, China National Petroleum Corporation (state-owned by the People's Republic of China) signed a US$5 billion agreement to extract oil in the Agadem block, as well as build a 20,000 barrels per day oil refinery and a 2,000 km oil pipeline in the country; production is expected to start in 2009. Niger's known coal reserves, with low energy and high ash content, cannot compete against higher quality coal on the world market. However, the parastatal SONICHAR (Société nigérienne de charbon) in Tchirozerine (north of Agadez) extracts coal from an open pit and fuels an electricity generating plant that supplies energy to the uranium mines. A test Oil well in the Tenere Desert, January 2008. Economic growth After the economic competitiveness created by the January 1994 CFA franc devaluation contributed to an annual average economic growth of 3.5% throughout the mid-1990s, the economy stagnated due the sharp reduction in foreign aid in 1999, which gradually resumed in 2000, and poor rains in 2000. Reflecting the importance of the agricultural sector, the return of good rains was the primary factor underlying a projected growth of 4.5% for 2001. Foreign investment In recent years, the Government of Niger promulgated revisions to the investment code (1997 and 2000), petroleum code (1992), and mining code (1993), all with attractive terms for investors. The present government actively seeks foreign private investment and considers it key to restoring economic growth and development. With the assistance of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), it has undertaken a concerted effort to revitalize the private sector. Currency Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with six other members of the West African Monetary Union. The Treasury of the Government of France supplements the BCEAO's international reserves in order to maintain a fixed rate of 100 CFA (Communauté financière africaine) to the French franc (to the euro as of January 1, 2002). Government restructuring In January 2000, Niger's newly elected government inherited serious financial and economic problems including a virtually empty treasury, past-due salaries (11 months of arrears) and scholarship payments, increased debt, reduced revenue performance, and lower public investment. In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for Highly Indebted Poor Countries and concluded an agreement with the Fund on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). In addition to changes in the budgetary process and public finances, the new government has pursued economic restructuring towards the IMF promoted privatization model. This has included the privatization of water distribution and telecommunications and the removal of price protections for petroleum products, allowing prices to be set by world market prices. Further privatizations of public enterprises are in the works. In its effort comply with the IMF's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility plan, the government also is taking actions to reduce corruption and, as the result of a participatory process encompassing civil society, has devised a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan that focuses on improving health, primary education, rural infrastructure, and judicial restructuring. Foreign Aid The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the IMF and other United Nations agencies (UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, WFP, and UNFPA). Other principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While USAID does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing nearly $10 million each year to Niger’s development. The U.S. also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS. The importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derives from donor resources. In 2005 the UN drew attention to the increased need for foreign aid given severe problems with drought and locusts resulting in a famine endangering the lives around a million people. Statistics GDP: purchasing power parity - $9.6 billion (9.6 G$) (1999 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 2% (1999 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,000 (1999 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 40% industry: 18% services: 42% (1998) Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3% highest 10%: 29.3% (1992) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.8% (1999) Labour force: 70,000 receive regular wages or salaries Labour force - by occupation: agriculture 90%, industry and commerce 6%, government 4% Unemployment rate: NA% Budget: revenues: $377 million, including $146 million from foreign sources expenditures: $377 million, including capital expenditures of $105 million (1999 est.) Industries: uranium mining, cement, brick, textiles, food processing, chemicals, slaughterhouses Industrial production growth rate: 5.1% (2003 est.) Electricity - production: 180 GWh (1998) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 363 GWh (1998) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 196 GWh (1998) Agriculture - products: cowpeas, cotton, peanuts, pearl millet, sorghum, cassava (tapioca), rice; cattle, sheep, goats, camels, donkeys, horses, poultry Exports: $269 million (f.o.b., 1997) Exports - commodities: uranium ore 65%, livestock products, cowpeas, onions (1998 est.) Exports - partners: US, Greece, Japan, France, Nigeria, Benin Imports: $295 million (c.i.f., 1997) Imports - commodities: consumer goods, primary materials, machinery, vehicles and parts, petroleum, cereals Imports - partners: France, Côte d'Ivoire, US, Benelux, Nigeria Debt - external: $1.3 billion (1999 est.) Economic aid - recipient: $222 million (1995) Currency: 1 Communauté financière africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes Exchange rates: Communauté financière africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 670 (January 2000), 560.01 (January 1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995) note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro Fiscal year: calendar year See also List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty List of countries by Human Development Index List of countries by GDP (nominal) List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita List of countries by GDP (PPP) List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita List of countries by GNI (nominal) per capita List of countries by GDP growth List of countries by industrial production growth rate References OECD/ AEO 2007 Niger country study. External links Invest in Niger: Centre de Promotion des Investissements Sis à la Chambre de Commerce d'Agriculture, d'Industrie et d'Atisanat du Niger. http://www.niger-tourisme.com: Ministère du tourisme et de l'artisanat nigérien. The MBendi website, Niger: A South Africa based business research group. Is especially useful for tracking government mining consessions. LA MAISON DE L'AFRIQUE: Niger. Franco-African business group. Institut de Recherche pour le Développement au Niger: French government development office in Niger. United Kingdom Department of International Development:Niger. Canadian International Development Agency:Niger. World Trade Organization MEMBER INFORMATION: Niger. The World Bank, Niger overview and resources. International Monetary Fund: Article IV Executive Board Consultation reports regarding Niger. IMF. Niger: Financial Position in the Fund as of January 31, 2008. IMF. Niger: Transactions with the Fund from May 01, 1984 to January 31, 2008. Estruscan Mining (Canada): corporate report on their Samira Hill Gold Mine, on the Benin border. West African Agricultural Market Observer/Observatoire du Marché Agricole (RESIMAO), a project of the West-African Market Information Network (WAMIS-NET), provides live market and commodity prices from fifty seven regional and local public agricultural markets across Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Niger, Mali, Senegal, Togo, and Nigeria. Sixty commodities are tracked weekly. The project is run by the Benin Ministry of Agriculture, and a number of European, African, and United Nations agencies. | Economy_of_Niger |@lemmatized map:3 grow:4 season:4 nigerien:6 sorghum:4 crop:6 chart:3 show:2 normalize:2 difference:2 vegetation:2 index:7 long:2 rain:6 dry:2 july:2 feb:2 measure:2 normal:2 year:7 growth:15 major:4 produce:2 area:3 niger:50 www:3 pecad:2 fa:2 usda:2 gov:2 cropexplorer:2 rice:5 economy:7 base:3 largely:2 upon:1 internal:2 market:14 subsitance:1 agriculture:11 export:18 raw:2 commodity:5 food:5 stuff:1 neighbor:2 mineral:3 world:11 landlocked:1 sub:1 sahara:1 african:8 nation:8 past:2 two:3 decade:1 consistently:1 rank:2 near:2 bottom:1 worldwide:1 human:4 development:12 gdp:16 percapita:1 income:2 economic:10 activity:1 centre:3 subsistence:5 animal:2 husbandry:1 trade:3 uranium:18 devaluation:3 west:6 cfa:13 franc:15 january:10 boost:1 livestock:6 cowpea:4 onion:3 product:6 small:4 cotton:3 industry:4 cattle:3 nigeria:6 well:5 groundnut:3 oil:7 remain:1 primary:4 non:1 government:14 relies:1 bilateral:1 multilateral:1 aid:8 suspend:1 briefly:1 follow:2 coup:1 états:1 operating:1 expense:1 public:5 investment:7 short:1 term:2 prospect:1 depend:1 continued:1 bank:5 imf:7 debt:4 relief:2 extend:1 post:1 broadly:1 adhere:1 privatisation:1 deregulation:1 plan:3 institute:1 funders:1 macro:2 trend:2 gross:2 domestic:2 price:12 estimate:2 international:7 monetary:4 fund:7 figure:1 million:10 u:6 dollar:1 exchange:3 inflation:2 average:3 wage:2 hover:1 around:2 per:11 day:2 overall:1 large:5 deposit:4 drought:2 cycle:1 desertification:1 population:7 rate:9 drop:1 demand:1 undercut:1 already:1 marginal:1 traditional:1 farming:2 herd:2 trading:1 informal:2 dominate:1 generate:2 formal:1 sector:7 job:1 total:1 unregulated:1 include:8 even:1 scale:1 rural:3 urban:1 production:9 transport:2 service:2 c:2 maldonado:1 j:1 gasarian:1 secteur:1 informel:1 fonctions:1 economiques:1 et:4 politiques:1 gouvernementales:1 le:2 ca:1 du:6 document:1 de:10 recherche:2 inf:1 département:1 développement:2 entreprises:1 coopératives:1 organisation:1 internationale:1 travail:1 oit:1 caput:4 current:1 earthtrends:1 wri:1 org:1 sixty:2 reach:1 peak:1 seventy:1 prove:1 unsustainable:1 consequently:1 shrink:1 eighty:1 ninety:1 much:4 explain:1 exploitation:2 arlit:3 far:2 north:4 country:13 ore:2 partially:1 process:3 site:1 foreign:9 mining:6 corporation:2 truck:1 benin:5 fluctuation:1 change:2 negation:1 main:1 company:3 france:6 areva:1 nc:1 rise:1 mid:2 collapse:1 thus:1 little:1 direct:1 impact:1 although:4 operation:1 sixth:1 bad:1 hdi:1 report:3 united:7 program:2 agricultural:5 mainstay:1 fourteen:1 percent:1 camel:2 goat:2 sheep:2 say:1 support:2 land:1 arable:1 find:2 mainly:1 along:1 southern:1 border:3 rainfall:1 varies:1 insufficient:1 difficulty:1 feed:1 must:1 rely:1 grain:1 purchase:1 meet:1 requirement:1 good:3 plentiful:1 distribute:1 pearl:2 millet:2 cassava:2 principal:2 fed:1 irrigate:1 consumption:4 expensive:1 since:4 sell:1 imported:1 encourage:1 additional:1 commercial:1 quantity:1 garlic:1 pepper:1 potato:1 wheat:1 less:1 degree:1 introduce:1 former:1 colonial:1 power:3 respectively:1 account:1 industrial:3 prior:1 mass:1 early:2 worth:2 majority:1 resident:1 engage:1 mostly:1 south:3 people:3 dependent:1 portion:1 outside:1 marketplace:1 external:4 earnings:2 impossible:1 quantify:1 second:1 actual:1 exceed:1 official:1 statistic:2 often:1 fail:1 detect:1 informally:1 cross:1 hide:1 skin:1 transform:1 handicraft:1 mine:8 persistent:1 slump:1 bring:1 low:4 revenue:3 still:1 provide:2 national:2 proceeds:1 enjoy:1 substantial:2 rapid:1 opening:1 northern:1 town:1 lead:2 boom:1 end:1 however:3 stagnate:2 new:2 limit:1 somair:1 open:3 pit:3 cominak:2 underground:1 french:4 consortium:1 operate:1 interest:1 exploitable:1 gold:3 know:2 exist:1 region:1 river:1 burkina:2 faso:2 phosphate:1 coal:4 iron:1 limestone:1 gypsum:1 also:5 numerous:1 american:1 firm:1 take:2 exploration:1 license:1 concession:1 seam:1 western:1 contain:1 several:1 explore:1 petroleum:5 djado:1 plateau:1 eastern:1 agadem:2 basin:1 lake:1 chad:1 make:1 discovery:1 develop:1 time:1 june:1 china:2 state:4 republic:1 sign:1 billion:3 agreement:2 extract:2 block:1 build:1 barrel:1 refinery:1 km:1 pipeline:1 expect:1 start:1 reserve:2 energy:2 high:3 ash:1 content:1 cannot:1 compete:1 quality:1 parastatal:1 sonichar:1 société:1 nigérienne:1 charbon:1 tchirozerine:1 agadez:1 fuel:2 electricity:6 generating:1 plant:1 supply:1 test:1 tenere:1 desert:1 competitiveness:1 create:1 contribute:2 annual:1 throughout:1 due:2 sharp:1 reduction:4 gradually:1 resume:1 poor:2 reflect:1 importance:2 return:1 factor:1 underlie:1 projected:1 recent:1 promulgate:1 revision:1 code:3 attractive:1 investor:1 present:1 actively:1 seek:1 private:2 considers:1 key:1 restore:1 assistance:1 programme:1 undp:2 undertake:1 concerted:1 effort:2 revitalize:1 currency:3 share:2 common:2 central:2 bceao:2 six:1 member:2 union:2 treasury:2 supplement:1 order:1 maintain:1 fixed:1 communauté:3 financière:3 africaine:3 euro:3 restructuring:3 newly:1 elect:1 inherit:1 serious:1 financial:2 problem:2 virtually:1 empty:1 salary:2 month:1 arrears:1 scholarship:1 payment:1 increased:1 reduce:2 performance:1 december:1 qualify:1 enhanced:1 highly:1 indebted:1 conclude:1 poverty:5 facility:2 prgf:1 addition:1 budgetary:1 finance:1 pursue:1 towards:1 promote:1 privatization:3 model:1 water:1 distribution:1 telecommunication:1 removal:1 protection:1 allow:1 set:1 enterprise:1 work:1 comply:1 action:1 corruption:1 result:2 participatory:1 encompass:1 civil:1 society:1 devise:1 strategy:1 focus:1 improve:1 health:1 education:1 infrastructure:1 judicial:1 important:1 donor:4 european:2 agency:3 unicef:1 fao:1 wfp:1 unfpa:1 belgium:1 germany:1 switzerland:1 canada:2 saudi:1 arabia:1 usaid:1 office:2 nearly:1 partner:3 policy:1 coordination:1 security:1 hiv:1 demonstrate:1 fact:1 fy:1 budget:3 capital:2 derive:1 resource:2 un:1 draw:1 attention:1 increase:1 need:1 give:1 severe:1 locust:1 famine:1 endanger:1 life:1 purchasing:2 parity:2 g:1 est:7 real:1 composition:1 line:1 na:2 household:1 percentage:2 consumer:2 labour:2 force:2 receive:1 regular:1 occupation:1 commerce:2 unemployment:1 source:2 expenditures:1 expenditure:1 cement:1 brick:1 textile:1 processing:1 chemical:1 slaughterhouses:1 gwh:3 fossil:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 kwh:1 import:4 peanut:1 tapioca:1 donkey:1 horse:1 poultry:1 f:2 b:1 greece:1 japan:1 material:1 machinery:1 vehicle:1 part:1 cereal:1 côte:2 ivoire:2 benelux:1 recipient:1 cfaf:3 centime:1 note:1 peg:1 fiscal:1 calendar:1 see:1 list:9 living:1 nominal:3 capita:3 ppp:2 gni:1 reference:1 oecd:1 aeo:1 study:1 link:1 invest:1 promotion:1 investissements:1 sis:1 à:1 la:2 chambre:1 industrie:1 atisanat:1 http:1 tourisme:2 com:1 ministère:1 l:2 artisanat:1 nigérien:1 mbendi:1 website:1 africa:1 business:2 research:1 group:2 especially:1 useful:1 track:1 consessions:1 maison:1 afrique:1 franco:1 institut:1 pour:1 au:1 kingdom:1 department:1 canadian:1 organization:1 information:2 overview:1 article:1 iv:1 executive:1 board:1 consultation:1 regard:1 position:1 transaction:1 may:1 estruscan:1 corporate:1 samira:1 hill:1 observer:1 observatoire:1 marché:1 agricole:1 resimao:1 project:2 network:1 wamis:1 net:1 live:1 fifty:1 seven:1 regional:1 local:1 across:1 guinea:1 mali:1 senegal:1 togo:1 tracked:1 weekly:1 run:1 ministry:1 number:1 |@bigram usda_gov:2 subsistence_agriculture:2 animal_husbandry:1 cfa_franc:12 bilateral_multilateral:1 coup_états:1 gross_domestic:2 monetary_fund:3 fund_imf:1 franc_cfa:5 wage_hover:1 subsistence_crop:2 subsistence_farming:1 et_politiques:1 organisation_internationale:1 du_travail:1 per_caput:4 wri_org:1 prove_unsustainable:1 eighty_ninety:1 goat_sheep:1 sheep_cattle:1 pearl_millet:2 millet_sorghum:2 rain_fed:1 devaluation_cfa:1 export_earnings:1 burkina_faso:2 oil_refinery:1 programme_undp:1 concerted_effort:1 communauté_financière:3 financière_africaine:3 indebted_poor:1 facility_prgf:1 saudi_arabia:1 hiv_aid:1 fy_budget:1 drought_locust:1 gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 caput_purchasing:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 production_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:2 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 export_kwh:1 kwh_electricity:1 import_gwh:1 gwh_agriculture:1 cassava_tapioca:1 cattle_sheep:1 sheep_goat:1 export_commodity:1 uranium_ore:1 nigeria_benin:1 côte_ivoire:2 africaine_franc:2 franc_cfaf:2 centime_exchange:1 peg_euro:1 per_capita:3 gdp_ppp:2 external_link:1 http_www:1 du_tourisme:1 la_maison:1 samira_hill:1 observer_observatoire:1 observatoire_du:1 du_marché:1 marché_agricole:1 agricole_resimao:1 resimao_project:1 network_wamis:1 wamis_net:1 benin_burkina:1 faso_côte:1 mali_senegal:1 senegal_togo:1 togo_nigeria:1 commodity_tracked:1 tracked_weekly:1 |
3,037 | History_of_the_Cayman_Islands | The Cayman Islands are a Caribbean British overseas territory that have been under various governments since their discovery by Europeans. Christopher Columbus sighted the Cayman Islands on May 10, 1503 and named them Las Tortugas after the numerous sea turtles seen swimming in the surrounding watersColumbus had found the two small islands (Cayman Brac and Little Cayman) and it was these two islands that he named "Las Tortugas". The 1523 "Turin map" of the islands was the first to refer to them as Los Lagartos, meaning alligators or large lizards, Roger C. Smith, The maritime heritage of the Cayman Islands, 2000 p.26 By 1530 they were known as the Caymanes after the Carib word caimán for the marine crocodile, either the American or the Cuban crocodile, Crocodylus acutus or C. rhombifer, which also lived there. Recent sub-fossil findings suggest that C. rhombifer, a freshwater species, were prevalent until the 20th century. Settlement The first recorded English visitor was Sir Francis Drake in 1586, who reported that the caymanas were edible, but it was the turtles which attracted ships in search of fresh meat for their crews. Overfishing nearly extinguished the turtles from the local waters. The first recorded permanent inhabitant of the Cayman Islands, Isaac Bodden, was born on Grand Cayman around 1700. He was the grandson of the original settler named Bodden who was likely one of Oliver Cromwell's soldiers at the taking of Jamaica in 1655. A variety of people settled on the islands: pirates, refugees from the Spanish Inquisition, shipwrecked sailors, and slaves. The majority of Caymanians are of African and British descent, with considerable interracial mixing. British Control Britain took formal control of the Caymans, along with Jamaica, under the Treaty of Madrid in 1670 after the first settlers came from Jamaica in 1661-71 to Little Cayman and Cayman Brac. These first settlements were abandoned after attacks by Spanish privateers, but British privateers often used the Cayman Islands as a base and in the 18th century they became an increasingly popular hideout for pirates, even after the end of legitimate privateering in 1713. Following several unsuccessful attempts, permanent settlement of the islands began in the 1730s. The Cayman Islands historically have been popular as a tax haven. In November 1794, ten vessels, which were part of a convoy escorted by HMS Convert, were wrecked on the reef in Gun Bay, on the East end of Grand Cayman, but with the help of local settlers, there was no loss of life. The incident is now remembered as The Wreck of the Ten Sail. Legend has it that there was a member of the Royal Family onboard and that in gratitude for their bravery, King George III decreed that Caymanians should never be conscripted for war service and Parliament legislated that they should never be taxed. However, no real evidence has been found for this. From 1670, the Cayman Islands were effective dependencies of Jamaica, although there was considerable self-government. In 1831, a legislative assembly was established by local consent at a meeting of principal inhabitants held at Pedro Castle on December 5. Elections were held on December 10 and the fledgling legislature passed its first local legislation on December 31 1831. Subsequently The Governor of Jamaica ratified a legislature consisting of eight magistrates appointed by the Governor of Jamaica and 10 (later increased to 27) elected representatives. In 1835, Governor Sligo arrived in Cayman from Jamaica to declare all slaves free in accordance with the Emancipation Act of 1833. Dependency of Jamaica The Cayman Islands were officially declared and administered as a dependency of Jamaica from 1863, but were rather like a parish of Jamaica with the nominated justices of the peace and elected vestrymen in their Legislature. From 1750 to 1898 the Chief Magistrate was the administrating official for the dependency, appointed by the Jamaican governor. In 1898 the Governor of Jamaica began appointing a Commissioner for the Islands. The first Commissioner was Frederick Sanguinetti. In 1959, upon the formation of the Federation of the West Indies the dependency status with regards to Jamaica ceased officially although the Governor of Jamaica remained the Governor of the Cayman Islands and had reserve powers over the Islands. Starting in 1959 the chief official overseeing the day to day affairs of the islands (for the Governor) was the Administrator. Upon Jamaica's independence in 1962, the Cayman Islands broke its administrative links with Jamaica and opted to become a direct dependency of the British Crown, with the chief official of the islands being the Administrator. In 1953 the first airfield in the Cayman Islands was opened as well as the George Town Public hospital. Barclays ushered in the age of formalised commerce by opening the first commercial bank. Governmental Changes Following a two year campaign by women to change their circumstances, in 1959 Cayman received its first written constitution which, for the first time, allowed women to vote. Cayman ceased to be a dependency of Jamaica. During 1966, legislation was passed to enable and encourage the banking industry in Cayman. In 1971 the governmental structure of the Islands was again changed with a Governor now running the Cayman Islands. Athel Long CMG, CBE was the last Administrator and the first Governor of the Cayman Islands. In 1991 a review of the 1972 constitution recommended several constitutional changes to be debated by the Legislative Assembly. The post of Chief Secretary was reinstated in 1992 after having been abolished in 1986. The establishment of the post of Chief Minister was also proposed. However, in November 1992 elections were held for an enlarged Legislative Assembly and the Government was soundly defeated, casting doubt on constitutional reform. The "National Team" of government critics won 12 (later reduced to 11) of the 15 seats, and independents won the other three, after a campaign opposing the appointment of Chief Minister and advocating spending cuts. The unofficial leader of the team, Thomas Jefferson, had been the appointed Financial Secretary until March 1992, when he resigned over public spending disputes to fight the election. After the elections, Mr. Jefferson was appointed Minister and leader of government business; he also held the portfolios of Tourism, Aviation and Commerce in the Executive Council. Three teams with a total of 44 candidates contested the general election held on November 20, 1996: the governing National Team, Team Cayman and the Democratic Alliance Group. The National Team were returned to office but with a reduced majority, winning 9 seats. The Democratic Alliance won 2 seats in George Town, Team Cayman won one in Bodden Town and independents won seats in George Town, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman. Although all administrative links with Jamaica were broken in 1962, the Cayman Islands and Jamaica continue to share many links and experiences, including membership in the Commonwealth of Nations (and Commonwealth citizenship) and a common united church (the United Church in Jamaica and the Cayman Islands) and Anglican diocese (although there is debate about this) as well as a common currency (until 1972). Also, by 1999, 38-40% of the population of the Cayman Islands was of Jamaican origin and in 2004/2005 little over 50% of the expatriates working in the Cayman Islands (i.e. 8,000) were Jamaicans (with the next largest expatriate communities coming from the United States, United Kingdom and Canada). Hurricane Ivan In September 2004, The Cayman Islands were hit by Hurricane Ivan, causing mass devastation, loss of human and animal life (both wild and domestic/livestock) and flooding, with some accounts reporting that 25% or more of Grand Cayman had been underwater and with the lower floors of buildings being completely flooded. This natural disaster also led to the bankruptcy of a heavily invested insurance company called Doyle. The company had re-leased estimates covering 20% damage to be re-insured at minimal fees when in fact the damage was over 65% and every claim was in the millions. The company simply could not keep paying out and the adjusters could not help lower the payments due to the high building code the Islands adhere to. Much suspense was built around the devastation that Hurricane Ivan had caused as the leader of Government business Mr. Mckeeva Bush decided to close the Islands to any and all reporters. This led to severe reports in the media of hundreds dead, when in fact none but two that refused to stay in the shelters were lost. It was also a collective decision within the government at that time to turn away two British warships that had arrived the day after the storm with supplies. This decision was met by outrage from the Islanders who thought that it should have been their decision to make. However, when the Island re-opened in early December to tourists the cruise ships once more started to pour in, all intrigued to see the damage. While there were visible signs of damage, in the vegetation and an apparent lack of construction in some places, the Island was bustling again as some things had been freshly re-built and those that were not were quite on their way. There remain housing issues for many of the residents as of late 2005. Notes | History_of_the_Cayman_Islands |@lemmatized cayman:34 island:21 caribbean:1 british:6 overseas:1 territory:1 various:1 government:7 since:1 discovery:1 european:1 christopher:1 columbus:1 sight:1 islands:11 may:1 name:3 las:1 tortugas:2 numerous:1 sea:1 turtle:3 see:2 swim:1 surrounding:1 waterscolumbus:1 find:2 two:5 small:1 brac:3 little:4 la:1 turin:1 map:1 first:12 refer:1 los:1 lagartos:1 mean:1 alligator:1 large:2 lizard:1 roger:1 c:3 smith:1 maritime:1 heritage:1 p:1 know:1 caymanes:1 carib:1 word:1 caimán:1 marine:1 crocodile:2 either:1 american:1 cuban:1 crocodylus:1 acutus:1 rhombifer:2 also:6 live:1 recent:1 sub:1 fossil:1 finding:1 suggest:1 freshwater:1 specie:1 prevalent:1 century:2 settlement:3 record:2 english:1 visitor:1 sir:1 francis:1 drake:1 report:3 caymanas:1 edible:1 attract:1 ship:2 search:1 fresh:1 meat:1 crew:1 overfishing:1 nearly:1 extinguish:1 local:4 water:1 permanent:2 inhabitant:2 isaac:1 bodden:3 bear:1 grand:3 around:2 grandson:1 original:1 settler:3 likely:1 one:2 oliver:1 cromwell:1 soldier:1 taking:1 jamaica:19 variety:1 people:1 settle:1 pirate:2 refugee:1 spanish:2 inquisition:1 shipwreck:1 sailor:1 slave:2 majority:2 caymanians:2 african:1 descent:1 considerable:2 interracial:1 mixing:1 control:2 britain:1 take:1 formal:1 along:1 treaty:1 madrid:1 come:2 abandon:1 attack:1 privateer:2 often:1 use:1 base:1 become:2 increasingly:1 popular:2 hideout:1 even:1 end:2 legitimate:1 privateering:1 follow:2 several:2 unsuccessful:1 attempt:1 begin:2 historically:1 tax:2 november:3 ten:2 vessel:1 part:1 convoy:1 escort:1 hm:1 convert:1 wreck:2 reef:1 gun:1 bay:1 east:1 help:2 loss:2 life:2 incident:1 remember:1 sail:1 legend:1 member:1 royal:1 family:1 onboard:1 gratitude:1 bravery:1 king:1 george:4 iii:1 decree:1 never:2 conscript:1 war:1 service:1 parliament:1 legislate:1 however:3 real:1 evidence:1 effective:1 dependency:7 although:4 self:1 legislative:3 assembly:3 establish:1 consent:1 meeting:1 principal:1 hold:5 pedro:1 castle:1 december:4 election:5 fledgling:1 legislature:3 pass:2 legislation:2 subsequently:1 governor:10 ratify:1 consisting:1 eight:1 magistrate:2 appoint:5 later:2 increase:1 elect:2 representative:1 sligo:1 arrive:2 declare:2 free:1 accordance:1 emancipation:1 act:1 officially:2 administer:1 rather:1 like:1 parish:1 nominated:1 justice:1 peace:1 vestryman:1 chief:6 administrate:1 official:3 jamaican:3 commissioner:2 frederick:1 sanguinetti:1 upon:2 formation:1 federation:1 west:1 indies:1 status:1 regard:1 cease:2 remain:2 reserve:1 power:1 start:1 oversee:1 day:3 affair:1 administrator:3 independence:1 break:2 administrative:2 link:3 opt:1 direct:1 crown:1 airfield:1 open:3 well:2 town:4 public:2 hospital:1 barclays:1 usher:1 age:1 formalise:1 commerce:2 commercial:1 bank:1 governmental:2 change:4 year:1 campaign:2 woman:2 circumstance:1 receive:1 write:1 constitution:2 time:2 allow:1 vote:1 enable:1 encourage:1 banking:1 industry:1 structure:1 run:1 athel:1 long:1 cmg:1 cbe:1 last:1 review:1 recommend:1 constitutional:2 debate:2 post:2 secretary:2 reinstate:1 abolish:1 establishment:1 minister:3 propose:1 enlarged:1 soundly:1 defeat:1 cast:1 doubt:1 reform:1 national:3 team:7 critic:1 win:6 reduce:1 seat:4 independent:2 three:2 oppose:1 appointment:1 advocate:1 spending:2 cut:1 unofficial:1 leader:3 thomas:1 jefferson:2 financial:1 march:1 resign:1 dispute:1 fight:1 mr:2 business:2 portfolio:1 tourism:1 aviation:1 executive:1 council:1 total:1 candidate:1 contest:1 general:1 govern:1 democratic:2 alliance:2 group:1 return:1 office:1 reduced:1 continue:1 share:1 many:2 experience:1 include:1 membership:1 commonwealth:2 nation:1 citizenship:1 common:2 united:3 church:2 unite:1 anglican:1 diocese:1 currency:1 population:1 origin:1 expatriate:2 work:1 e:1 next:1 community:1 state:1 kingdom:1 canada:1 hurricane:3 ivan:3 september:1 hit:1 cause:2 mass:1 devastation:2 human:1 animal:1 wild:1 domestic:1 livestock:1 flood:2 account:1 underwater:1 low:2 floor:1 building:2 completely:1 natural:1 disaster:1 lead:2 bankruptcy:1 heavily:1 invest:1 insurance:1 company:3 call:1 doyle:1 lease:1 estimate:1 cover:1 damage:4 insure:1 minimal:1 fee:1 fact:2 every:1 claim:1 million:1 simply:1 could:2 keep:1 pay:1 adjuster:1 payment:1 due:1 high:1 code:1 adhere:1 much:1 suspense:1 build:1 mckeeva:1 bush:1 decide:1 close:1 reporter:1 severe:1 medium:1 hundred:1 dead:1 none:1 refuse:1 stay:1 shelter:1 lose:1 collective:1 decision:3 within:1 turn:1 away:1 warship:1 storm:1 supply:1 meet:1 outrage:1 islander:1 think:1 make:1 early:1 tourists:1 cruise:1 started:1 pour:1 intrigue:1 visible:1 sign:1 vegetation:1 apparent:1 lack:1 construction:1 place:1 bustle:1 thing:1 freshly:1 built:1 quite:1 way:1 housing:1 issue:1 resident:1 late:1 note:1 |@bigram christopher_columbus:1 cayman_islands:11 cayman_brac:3 francis_drake:1 grand_cayman:3 oliver_cromwell:1 spanish_inquisition:1 cayman_cayman:1 convoy_escort:1 dependency_jamaica:4 legislative_assembly:3 west_indies:1 soundly_defeat:1 thomas_jefferson:1 anglican_diocese:1 hurricane_ivan:3 |
3,038 | Arithmetic_mean | In mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean (or simply the mean) of a list of numbers is the sum of all of the list divided by the number of items in the list. If the list is a statistical population, then the mean of that population is called a population mean. If the list is a statistical sample, we call the resulting statistic a sample mean. The mean is the most commonly-used type of average and is often referred to simply as the average. The term "mean" or "arithmetic mean" is preferred in mathematics and statistics to distinguish it from other averages such as the median and the mode. Introduction If we denote a set of data by X = (x1, x2, ..., xn), then the sample mean is typically denoted with a horizontal bar over the variable (, enunciated "x bar"). The Greek letter μ is used to denote the arithmetic mean of an entire population. Or, for a random variable that has a defined mean, μ is the probabilistic mean or expected value of the random number. If the set X is a collection of random numbers with probabilistic mean of μ, then for any individual sample, xi, from that collection, μ = E{xi} is the expected value of that sample. In practice, the difference between μ and is that μ is typically unobservable because one observes only a sample rather than the whole population, and if the sample is drawn randomly, then one may treat , but not μ, as a random variable, attributing a probability distribution to it (the sampling distribution of the mean). Both are computed in the same way: It is a U-statistic for the function meaning that it is obtained by averaging a 1-sample statistic over the population. If X is a random variable, then the expected value of X can be seen as the long-term arithmetic mean that occurs on repeated measurements of X. This is the content of the law of large numbers. As a result, the sample mean is used to estimate unknown expected values. Simple algebra will prove that a mean of n + 1 numbers is larger than the mean of n numbers if and only if the new number is larger than the old mean, smaller if and only if it is smaller, and remains stable if and only if it is equal to the old mean. The larger n is, the smaller is the magnitude of the change in the mean relative to the distance between the old mean and the new number. Note that several other "means" have been defined, including the generalized mean, the generalized f-mean, the harmonic mean, the arithmetic-geometric mean, and various weighted means. Examples For three numbers, add them and divide them by 3: For four numbers, add them and divide by 4: Problems with some uses of the mean Not robust While the mean is often used to report central tendency, it is not a robust statistic, meaning that it is greatly influenced by outliers. Notably, for skewed distributions, the arithmetic mean may not accord with one's notion of "middle", and robust statistics such as the median may be a better description of central tendency. A classic example is average income. The arithmetic mean may be misinterpreted as the median to imply that most people's incomes are higher than is in fact the case. When presented with an "average" one may be led to believe that most people's incomes are near this number. This "average" (arithmetic mean) income is higher than most people's incomes, because high income outliers skew the result higher (in contrast, the median income "resists" such skew). However, this "average" says nothing about the number of people near the median income (nor does it say anything about the modal income that most people are near). Nevertheless, because one might carelessly relate "average" and "most people" one might incorrectly assume that most people's incomes would be higher (nearer this inflated "average") than they are. For instance, reporting the "average" net worth in Medina, Washington as the arithmetic mean of all annual net worths would yield a surprisingly high number because of Bill Gates. Consider the scores (1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 9). The arithmetic mean is 3.17, but five out of six scores are below this. Compounding If numbers multiply instead of add, one should average using the geometric mean, not the arithmetic mean. This most often happens when computing the rate of return, as in finance. For example, if a stock fell 10 % in the first year, and rose 30 % in the second year, then it would be incorrect to report its "average" increase per year over this two year period as the arithmetic mean (−10 % + 30 %)/2 = 10 %; the correct average in this case is the compound annual growth rate, which yields an annualized increase per year of only 8.2 %. The reason for this is that each of those percents have different starting points: the 30% is 30% of a smaller number. If the stock starts at $30 and falls 10 %, it is now at $27. If the stock then rises 30 %, it is now $35.1. The arithmetic mean of those rises is 10 %, but since the stock rose by $5.1 in 2 years, an average of 8.2 % would result in the final $35.1 figure [$30(1-10 %)(1+30 %) = $30(1+8.2 %)(1+8.2 %) = $35.1]. If one used the arithmetic mean 10 % in the same way, one would not get the actual increase [$30(1+10 %)(1+10 %) = $36.3]. Stated generally, compounding yields 90% * 130% = 117% overall growth, and annualizing yields , so 8.2% per year. Directions Particular care must be taken when using cyclic data such as phases or angles. Naïvely taking the arithmetic mean of 1° and 359° yields a result of 180°. This is incorrect for two reasons: Firstly, angle measurements are only defined up to a factor of 360° (or 2π, if measuring in radians). Thus one could as easily call these 1° and -1°, or 1° and 719° – each of which gives a different average. Secondly, in this situation, 0° (equivalently, 360°) is geometrically a better average value: there is lower dispersion about it (the points are both 1° from it, and 179° from 180°, the putative average). In general application such an oversight will lead to the average value artificially moving towards the middle of the numerical range. A solution to this problem is to use the optimization formulation (viz, define the mean as the central point: the point about which one has the lowest dispersion), and redefine the difference as a modular distance (i.e., the distance on the circle: so the modular distance between 1° and 359° is 2°, not 358°). See also Average Mean Mode Median Summary statistics Central tendency Generalized mean Geometric mean Variance Standard deviation Inequality of arithmetic and geometric means Muirhead's inequality Sample size Sample mean and covariance Empirical measure Further reading Darrell Huff, How to lie with statistics, Victor Gollancz, 1954 (ISBN 0-393-31072-8). External links Calculations and comparisons between arithmetic and geometric mean between two numbers Relationship between arithmetic mean, harmonic mean, and geometric mean of two numbers Mean or Average | Arithmetic_mean |@lemmatized mathematics:2 statistic:9 arithmetic:18 mean:53 simply:2 list:5 number:18 sum:1 divide:3 item:1 statistical:2 population:6 call:3 sample:12 result:5 commonly:1 use:8 type:1 average:21 often:3 refer:1 term:2 prefer:1 distinguish:1 median:6 mode:2 introduction:1 denote:3 set:2 data:2 x:6 xn:1 typically:2 horizontal:1 bar:2 variable:4 enunciate:1 greek:1 letter:1 μ:7 entire:1 random:5 define:4 probabilistic:2 expect:3 value:6 collection:2 individual:1 xi:2 e:2 expected:1 practice:1 difference:2 unobservable:1 one:11 observe:1 rather:1 whole:1 draw:1 randomly:1 may:5 treat:1 attribute:1 probability:1 distribution:3 compute:2 way:2 u:1 function:1 meaning:1 obtain:1 see:2 long:1 occur:1 repeated:1 measurement:2 content:1 law:1 large:4 estimate:1 unknown:1 simple:1 algebra:1 prove:1 n:3 new:2 old:3 small:4 remain:1 stable:1 equal:1 magnitude:1 change:1 relative:1 distance:4 note:1 several:1 include:1 generalized:1 generalize:2 f:1 harmonic:2 geometric:6 various:1 weighted:1 example:3 three:1 add:3 four:1 problem:2 us:1 robust:3 report:3 central:4 tendency:3 greatly:1 influence:1 outlier:2 notably:1 skewed:1 accord:1 notion:1 middle:2 good:2 description:1 classic:1 income:10 misinterpret:1 imply:1 people:7 high:6 fact:1 case:2 present:1 lead:2 believe:1 near:3 skew:2 contrast:1 resists:1 however:1 say:2 nothing:1 anything:1 modal:1 nevertheless:1 might:2 carelessly:1 relate:1 incorrectly:1 assume:1 would:5 nearer:1 inflated:1 instance:1 net:2 worth:2 medina:1 washington:1 annual:2 yield:5 surprisingly:1 bill:1 gate:1 consider:1 score:2 five:1 six:1 compound:3 multiply:1 instead:1 happen:1 rate:2 return:1 finance:1 stock:4 fell:1 first:1 year:7 rise:4 second:1 incorrect:2 increase:3 per:3 two:4 period:1 correct:1 growth:2 annualized:1 reason:2 percent:1 different:2 start:2 point:4 fall:1 since:1 final:1 figure:1 get:1 actual:1 state:1 generally:1 overall:1 annualizing:1 direction:1 particular:1 care:1 must:1 take:2 cyclic:1 phase:1 angle:2 naïvely:1 firstly:1 factor:1 measuring:1 radian:1 thus:1 could:1 easily:1 give:1 secondly:1 situation:1 equivalently:1 geometrically:1 low:2 dispersion:2 putative:1 general:1 application:1 oversight:1 artificially:1 move:1 towards:1 numerical:1 range:1 solution:1 optimization:1 formulation:1 viz:1 redefine:1 modular:2 circle:1 also:1 summary:1 variance:1 standard:1 deviation:1 inequality:2 muirhead:1 size:1 covariance:1 empirical:1 measure:1 far:1 reading:1 darrell:1 huff:1 lie:1 victor:1 gollancz:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 calculation:1 comparison:1 relationship:1 |@bigram random_variable:3 expected_value:1 μ_μ:1 probability_distribution:1 arithmetic_geometric:3 median_income:2 victor_gollancz:1 external_link:1 |
3,039 | Holy_See | The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and speaks for the whole Catholic Church. It is also recognized by other subjects of international law as a sovereign entity, headed by the Pope, with which diplomatic relations can be maintained. The Holy See's sovereignty has been recognized explicitly in many international agreements and is particularly emphasized in article 2 of the Lateran Treaty of 11 February 1929, in which "Italy recognizes the sovereignty of the Holy See in the international field as an inherent attribute of its nature, in conformity with its tradition, and the requirements of its mission in the world." The Holy See should not be confused with the Vatican City State, which came into existence only in 1929, while the Holy See dates back to early Christian times. Ambassadors are officially accredited not to the Vatican City State but to "the Holy See", and papal representatives to states and international organizations are recognized as representing the Holy See, not the Vatican City State. While all episcopal sees can be referred to as holy, the expression "the Holy See" (without further specification) is normally used in international relations (as well as in the canon law of the Catholic Church) Code of Canon Law, canon 361, Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, canon 48 to refer to the central government of the Catholic Church. Organization The Pope governs the Catholic Church through the Roman Curia. The Roman Curia consists of a complex of offices that administer church affairs at the highest level, including the Secretariat of State, nine Congregations, three Tribunals, eleven Pontifical Councils, and seven Pontifical Commissions. The Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State, directs and coordinates the Curia. The current incumbent, Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone, is the See's equivalent of a prime minister. Archbishop Dominique Mamberti, Secretary of the Section for Relations with States of the Secretariat of State, acts as the Holy See's foreign minister. Bertone and Mamberti were named in their respective roles by Pope Benedict XVI in September 2006. The Secretariat of State is the only body of the Curia that is situated within Vatican City. The others are in buildings in different parts of Rome that have extraterritorial rights similar to those of embassies. Among the most active of the major Curial institutions are the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which oversees the Catholic Church's doctrine; the Congregation for Bishops, which coordinates the appointment of bishops worldwide; the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, which oversees all missionary activities; and the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, which deals with international peace and social issues. Three tribunals are responsible for judicial power. The Sacra Rota is responsible for normal appeals, including decrees of nullity for marriages, with the Apostolic Signatura being the administrative court of appeal and highest ecclesiastical court. The Apostolic Penitentiary is different from those two and, instead of dealing with contentious cases, issues absolutions, dispensations, and indulgences. The Prefecture for the Economic Affairs of the Holy See coordinates the finances of the Holy See departments and supervises the administration of all offices, whatever be their degree of autonomy, that manage these finances. The most important of these is the Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See. The Prefecture of the Papal Household is responsible for the organization of the papal household, audiences, and ceremonies (apart from the strictly liturgical part). The Holy See does not dissolve upon a Pope's death or resignation. It instead operates under a different set of laws sede vacante. During this interregnum, the heads of the dicasteries of the Roman Curia (such as the prefects of congregations) cease immediately to hold office, the only exceptions being the Major Penitentiary, who continues his important role regarding absolutions and dispensations, and the Cardinal Camerlengo, who administers the temporalities (i.e., properties and finances) of the See of St. Peter during this period. The government of the See, and therefore of the Catholic Church, then falls to the College of Cardinals. Canon law prohibits the College and the Camerlengo from introducing any innovations or novelties in the government of the Church during this period. Diplomacy Foreign relations with the Holy See Since medieval times the episcopal see of Rome has been recognized as a sovereign entity. The Holy See (not the State of Vatican City) maintains formal diplomatic relations with 177 sovereign states, Holy See Press Office the European Union, and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta; 69 of the diplomatic missions accredited to the Holy See are situated in Rome, though those countries then have two embassies in the same city, since, by agreement between the Holy See and Italy, the same person cannot be accredited simultaneously to both. Dual accreditation with a country other than Italy is acceptable, whether the mission is situated in Rome or elsewhere. The Holy See also has relations of a special nature with Russia (Mission with an Ambassador) and the Palestine Liberation Organization (Office with a Director). The Holy See maintains 179 permanent diplomatic missions abroad, of which 73 are non-residential, so that it has in all 106 concrete missions, some of which are accredited not only to the country in which they are situated, but also to one or more other countries or international organizations. The diplomatic activities of the Holy See are directed by the Secretariat of State (headed by the Cardinal Secretary of State), through the Section for Relations with States. There are 16 internationally-recognized states with which the Holy See does not have relations. Nine are Muslim (Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Brunei, Comoros, Malaysia, the Maldives, Mauritania, Oman, and Somalia), four are communist states (the People's Republic of China, North Korea, Laos, and Vietnam), two declare Buddhism to be the only state-and legal- religion, Bhutan, Myanmar, as well as Tuvalu. The Holy See has the oldest continuous diplomatic service in the world, tracing its origins to at least as far back as 325 with its original legation to the First Council of Nicaea. The Holy See is the only European subject of international law that has diplomatic relations with Taiwan. It held official relations with China since 1942, and when victory in the Chinese Civil War went to the Communist Party of China, the Holy See's diplomatic representative chose not to withdraw to Taipei with the Kuomintang government. However, the Communist government expelled him, and the Holy See's diplomatic mission was then transferred to Taipei. When in 1971 the seat of China at the United Nations was adjudicated to the government of the People's Republic of China, the Holy See downgraded its mission in Taipei: since then, it has been headed only by a chargé d'affaires. Talks between the mainland government and the Holy See on diplomatic relations have been reported to be ongoing, with the main issue being the treatment of Catholics in mainland China. The government rejects the Holy See's spiritual authority over these, and uses the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association as a means to exclude it. International organizations The Holy See is especially active in international organizations and is a member of the following groups: International Grains Council (IGC) International Committee for Military Medicine (ICMM) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Telecommunication Union (ITU) International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO) Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO)* Universal Postal Union (UPU) International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) * Note: In 1971, the Holy See announced the decision to adhere to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in order to "give its moral support to the principles that form the base of the treaty itself". The Holy See is also a permanent observer of the following international organizations: Council of Europe in Strasbourg International Organization for Migration (IOM) International Labour Organization (ILO) International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Latin Union (LU) Organization of American States (OAS) in Washington Organisation of African Unity (OAU) United Nations UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) World Tourism Organization (WToO) World Trade Organization (WTO) World Health Organization (WHO) World Food Programme (WFP) * Note: the Holy See has been a permanent observer in the United Nations since 1964 and, in July 2004, gained all the rights of full membership except voting. According to Archbishop Celestino Migliore, Holy See Permanent Observer, "We have no vote because this is our choice." He added that the Holy See considers that its current status "is a fundamental step that does not close any path for the future. The Holy See has the requirements defined by the UN statute to be a member state and, if in the future it wished to be so, this resolution would not impede it from requesting it." The Holy See is an observer on an informal basis of the following groups: Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization (AALCO) International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (ISDR, 1990s) International Maritime Organization (IMO) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) World Meteorological Organization in Geneva (WMO) The Holy See sends a delegate to the Arab League in Cairo. It is also a guest of honour to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. Relationship with the Vatican City and other territories Although the Holy See is closely associated with the Vatican City, the independent territory over which the Holy See is sovereign, the two entities are separate and distinct. After the Italian takeover of the Papal States in 1870, the Holy See had no territorial sovereignty. In spite of some uncertainty among jurists as to whether it could continue to act as an independent personality in international matters, the Holy See continued in fact to exercise the right to send and receive diplomatic representatives, maintaining relations with states that included the major powers of Russia, Prussia and Austria-Hungary. Where, in accordance with the decision of the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the Nuncio was not only a member of the Diplomatic Corps but its Dean, this arrangement continued to be accepted by the other ambassadors. In the course of the 59 years during which the Holy See held no territorial sovereignty, the number of states that had diplomatic relations with it, which had been reduced to 16, actually increased to 29. Lecture by Archbishop Giovanni Lajolo, 16 February 2006 The State of the Vatican City was created by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 to "ensure the absolute and visible independence of the Holy See" and "to guarantee to it an indisputable sovereignty in international affairs" (quotations from the treaty). Archbishop Jean-Louis Tauran, the Holy See's former Secretary for Relations with States, said that the Vatican City is a "minuscule support-state that guarantees the spiritual freedom of the Pope with the minimum territory". Lecture by Archbishop Jean-Louis Tauran, 22 April 2002 The Holy See, not the Vatican City, maintains diplomatic relations with states and participates in international organizations. Bilateral and Multilateral Relations of the Holy See Foreign embassies are accredited to the Holy See, not to the Vatican City, and it is the Holy See that establishes treaties and concordats with other sovereign entities. When necessary, the Holy See will enter a treaty on behalf of the Vatican City. Under the terms of the Lateran Treaty, the Holy See has extraterritorial authority over 23 sites in Rome and five Italian sites outside of Rome, including the Pontifical Palace at Castel Gandolfo. The same authority is extended under international law over the Apostolic Nunciature of the Holy See in a foreign country. The terms "Holy See" and "Apostolic See" Every episcopal see is considered holy. In Greek, the adjective "holy" or "sacred" () is constantly applied to all such sees as a matter of course. In the West, the adjective is not commonly added, but it does form part of an official title of two sees: as well as Rome, the Bishopric of Mainz (the former Archbishopric of Mainz), which was also of electoral and primatial rank, bears the title of "the Holy See of Mainz" (Latin: Sancta Sedes Moguntina). The term "see" comes from the Latin word "sedes", meaning "seat", which refers to the Episcopal throne (cathedra). The term "Apostolic See" can refer to any see founded by one of the Apostles, but, when used with the definite article, it is used in the Catholic Church to refer specifically to the see of the Bishop of Rome, whom that Church sees as successor of Saint Peter, the chief of the apostles. See also Global organisation of the Roman Catholic Church References Further reading Books La Due, William J. The Chair of Saint Peter: A History of the Papacy. (ISBN 1-57075-249-4) Heribert Franz Koeck, Die völkerrechtliche Stellung des Heiligen Stuhls. Dargestellt an seinen Beziehungen zu Staaten und internationalen Organisationen, Berlin 1975 Heribert Franz Koeck, Holy See, in: Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Bd. 2, Oxford etc. 1995 External links The Holy See Website YouTube Vatican Channel Primacy of the Apostolic See CIA World Factbook on Holy See Between Venus and Mars, the Church of Rome Chooses Both - The Holy See’s geopolitics analyzed in the light of the dominant doctrines The Holy See in the course of time, from an Orthodox perspective | Holy_See |@lemmatized holy:62 see:77 episcopal:6 jurisdiction:1 bishop:4 rome:10 commonly:2 know:1 pope:6 preeminent:1 roman:5 catholic:11 church:15 form:3 central:2 government:9 diplomatically:1 sphere:1 act:3 speaks:1 whole:1 also:7 recognize:6 subject:2 international:29 law:9 sovereign:6 entity:4 head:4 diplomatic:14 relation:16 maintain:5 sovereignty:5 explicitly:1 many:1 agreement:2 particularly:1 emphasize:1 article:2 lateran:3 treaty:9 february:2 italy:3 field:1 inherent:1 attribute:1 nature:2 conformity:1 tradition:1 requirement:2 mission:8 world:9 confuse:1 vatican:13 city:13 state:27 come:2 existence:1 date:1 back:2 early:1 christian:1 time:3 ambassador:3 officially:1 accredit:5 papal:4 representative:3 organization:26 represent:1 refer:5 expression:1 without:1 specification:1 normally:1 use:4 well:3 canon:6 code:2 eastern:1 govern:1 curia:5 consist:1 complex:1 office:5 administer:2 affair:3 high:3 level:1 include:4 secretariat:5 nine:2 congregation:5 three:2 tribunal:2 eleven:1 pontifical:4 council:5 seven:1 commission:2 cardinal:5 secretary:4 directs:1 coordinate:3 current:2 incumbent:1 tarcisio:1 bertone:2 equivalent:1 prime:1 minister:2 archbishop:5 dominique:1 mamberti:2 section:2 foreign:4 name:1 respective:1 role:2 benedict:1 xvi:1 september:1 body:1 situate:4 within:1 others:1 building:1 different:3 part:3 extraterritorial:2 right:3 similar:1 embassy:3 among:2 active:2 major:3 curial:1 institution:1 doctrine:2 faith:1 oversee:2 appointment:1 worldwide:1 evangelization:1 people:3 missionary:1 activity:2 justice:1 peace:2 deal:2 social:1 issue:3 responsible:3 judicial:1 power:2 sacrum:1 rota:1 normal:1 appeal:2 decree:1 nullity:1 marriage:1 apostolic:7 signatura:1 administrative:1 court:2 ecclesiastical:1 penitentiary:2 two:5 instead:2 contentious:1 case:1 absolution:2 dispensation:2 indulgence:1 prefecture:2 economic:1 finance:3 department:1 supervise:1 administration:2 whatever:1 degree:1 autonomy:1 manage:1 important:2 patrimony:1 household:2 audience:1 ceremony:1 apart:1 strictly:1 liturgical:1 dissolve:1 upon:1 death:1 resignation:1 operate:1 set:1 sede:1 vacante:1 interregnum:1 dicasteries:1 prefect:1 cease:1 immediately:1 hold:3 exception:1 continue:4 regard:1 camerlengo:2 temporality:1 e:1 property:2 st:1 peter:3 period:2 therefore:1 fall:1 college:2 prohibit:1 introduce:1 innovation:1 novelty:1 diplomacy:1 since:5 medieval:1 formal:1 press:1 european:2 union:4 military:2 order:2 malta:1 though:1 country:5 person:1 cannot:1 simultaneously:1 dual:1 accreditation:1 acceptable:1 whether:2 elsewhere:1 special:1 russia:2 palestine:1 liberation:1 director:1 permanent:4 abroad:1 non:2 residential:1 concrete:1 one:2 direct:1 internationally:1 muslim:1 afghanistan:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 brunei:1 comoros:1 malaysia:1 maldives:1 mauritania:1 oman:1 somalia:1 four:1 communist:3 republic:2 china:6 north:1 korea:1 lao:1 vietnam:1 declare:1 buddhism:1 legal:2 religion:1 bhutan:1 myanmar:1 tuvalu:1 old:1 continuous:1 service:1 trace:1 origin:1 least:1 far:2 original:1 legation:1 first:1 nicaea:1 taiwan:1 official:2 victory:1 chinese:2 civil:2 war:1 go:1 party:1 choose:1 withdraw:1 taipei:3 kuomintang:1 however:1 expel:1 transfer:1 seat:2 united:7 nation:10 adjudicate:1 downgrade:1 chargé:1 affaire:1 talk:1 mainland:2 report:1 ongoing:1 main:1 treatment:1 reject:1 spiritual:2 authority:3 patriotic:1 association:1 mean:2 exclude:1 especially:1 member:3 following:3 group:2 grain:1 igc:1 committee:2 medicine:1 icmm:1 atomic:1 energy:1 agency:1 iaea:1 telecommunication:2 itu:1 satellite:1 itso:1 organisation:3 prohibition:1 chemical:1 weapon:1 opcw:1 security:2 co:1 operation:1 europe:3 osce:1 preparatory:1 comprehensive:1 test:1 ban:1 ctbto:1 universal:1 postal:1 upu:1 institute:1 unification:1 private:1 unidroit:1 commissioner:1 refugee:1 unhcr:1 conference:1 trade:2 development:2 unctad:1 intellectual:1 wipo:1 note:2 announce:1 decision:2 adhere:1 nuclear:1 proliferation:1 give:1 moral:1 support:2 principle:1 base:1 observer:4 strasbourg:1 migration:1 iom:1 labour:1 ilo:1 fund:1 agricultural:1 ifad:1 latin:3 lu:1 american:1 oas:1 washington:1 african:2 unity:1 oau:1 unesco:1 educational:1 scientific:1 cultural:1 unite:3 environment:1 programme:3 unep:1 drug:1 control:1 undcp:1 centre:1 human:1 settlement:1 unchs:1 food:2 agriculture:1 fao:1 tourism:1 wtoo:1 wto:1 health:1 wfp:1 july:1 gain:1 full:1 membership:1 except:1 voting:1 accord:1 celestino:1 migliore:1 vote:1 choice:1 add:2 considers:1 status:1 fundamental:1 step:1 close:1 path:1 future:2 define:1 un:1 statute:1 wish:1 resolution:1 would:1 impede:1 request:1 informal:1 basis:1 asian:1 consultative:1 aalco:1 decade:1 natural:1 disaster:1 reduction:1 isdr:1 maritime:1 imo:1 aviation:1 icao:1 peaceful:1 us:1 space:1 uncopuos:1 meteorological:1 geneva:1 wmo:1 send:2 delegate:1 arab:1 league:1 cairo:1 guest:1 honour:1 parliamentary:1 assembly:1 cooperation:1 relationship:1 territory:3 although:1 closely:1 associate:1 independent:2 separate:1 distinct:1 italian:2 takeover:1 territorial:2 spite:1 uncertainty:1 jurist:1 could:1 personality:1 matter:2 fact:1 exercise:1 receive:1 prussia:1 austria:1 hungary:1 accordance:1 congress:1 vienna:1 nuncio:1 corp:1 dean:1 arrangement:1 accept:1 course:3 year:1 number:1 reduce:1 actually:1 increase:1 lecture:2 giovanni:1 lajolo:1 create:1 ensure:1 absolute:1 visible:1 independence:1 guarantee:2 indisputable:1 quotation:1 jean:2 louis:2 tauran:2 former:2 say:1 minuscule:1 freedom:1 minimum:1 april:1 participates:1 bilateral:1 multilateral:1 establish:1 concordat:1 necessary:1 enter:1 behalf:1 term:4 site:2 five:1 outside:1 palace:1 castel:1 gandolfo:1 extend:1 nunciature:1 every:1 consider:1 greek:1 adjective:2 sacred:1 constantly:1 apply:1 west:1 title:2 bishopric:1 mainz:3 archbishopric:1 electoral:1 primatial:1 rank:1 bear:1 sanctum:1 sedes:2 moguntina:1 word:1 throne:1 cathedra:1 found:1 apostle:2 definite:1 specifically:1 successor:1 saint:2 chief:1 global:1 reference:1 read:1 book:1 la:1 due:1 william:1 j:1 chair:1 history:1 papacy:1 isbn:1 heribert:2 franz:2 koeck:2 die:1 völkerrechtliche:1 stellung:1 de:1 heiligen:1 stuhls:1 dargestellt:1 seinen:1 beziehungen:1 zu:1 staaten:1 und:1 internationalen:1 organisationen:1 berlin:1 encyclopedia:1 public:1 bd:1 oxford:1 etc:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 youtube:1 channel:1 primacy:1 cia:1 factbook:1 venus:1 mar:1 chooses:1 geopolitics:1 analyze:1 light:1 dominant:1 doctrines:1 orthodox:1 perspective:1 |@bigram diplomatic_relation:6 pontifical_council:2 prime_minister:1 pope_benedict:1 benedict_xvi:1 sede_vacante:1 prefect_congregation:1 diplomatic_mission:3 palestine_liberation:1 saudi_arabia:1 malaysia_maldives:1 council_nicaea:1 chargé_affaire:1 agency_iaea:1 universal_postal:1 commissioner_refugee:1 migration_iom:1 unity_oau:1 austria_hungary:1 bilateral_multilateral:1 external_link:1 |
3,040 | Egyptian_Lover | Greg Broussard (born August 31, 1963 in Los Angeles, California), better known by his stage name Egyptian Lover is an American musician, vocalist, producer and DJ, and was an important part of the L.A. dance music and rap scene in the early 1980s. History The Egyptian Lover started out as a D.J. in Los Angeles with Uncle Jamms Army D.J.ing dances at the L.A. Sports Arena. He began recording around Los Angeles in 1982 as a member of the Radio Crew. In the early days of hip hop, albums were rare, so most of The Egyptian Lover's successful recordings were 12" singles. He would eventually release some of the earliest rap LPs, which was especially unique for being west-coast based, but they were less popular than his singles. But on the strength of containing an alternate mix of his most popular single "Egypt, Egypt", 1984's On the Nile was moderately successful. After a break in the early 1990s, Egyptian Lover returned in 1994 (see 1994 in music) with Back from the Tomb. His last full-length album in over ten years. 2006 The Egyptian Lover records another new album "Platinum Pyramids". The Egyptian Lover also established his own record company, Egyptian Empire Records, which included artists such as Rodney O & Joe Cooley. Presently In 2005 "The Egyptian Lover" released his first single since 1994, entitled "Party" and backed with "Dancefloor", followed by the album Platinum Pyramids in Feb. 2006. By the end of 2006 The Egyptian Lover went into the studio with Jamie Jupiter and recorded "UFO" and "Futuristic" for Jupiter's new 12" single (never released). In 2006, The Egyptian Lover and Warp Records musician Jimmy Edgar had a collaboration together. In 2007, The Egyptian Lover re-made "Modernaire" by Dez Dickerson (from the film Purple Rain) for the label, Citinite. In 2007, The Egyptian Lover collaborated with the groups "Clone Machine" and "Egypt Ear Werk" (with Luke Eargoggle) In 2008, The Egyptian Lover continues to tour the world and is making a brand new album for 2008. December, 2008 Exclusive songs on iTunes. Electro Pharaoh (featuring keyboards by San Diego-based producer Brian E), Freaky D.J. and Scandinavian Summer. 2008 The Egyptian Lover records with Who Cares on the song "They Killed the Radio" 2008 The Egyptian Lover and Brian E work on the song "U.F.O." In 2008 Egyptian Lover works with Jamie Jones making the song "Galactic Space Bar" 2008 Egyptian Lover and M.I.A. create the track "Rock off Shake off" for new Artist Rye Rye. In 2009 for Egyptian Empire Records 25th Anniversary The Egyptian Lover will attempt to put out Twelve, 12" Singles on Egyptian Empire Records as well as an all new Album. May 2009 The Egyptian Lover collabs with Debonaire on "Do U Wanna Get Down?" for a new Street Sounds Compulation. May 2009 The Egyptian lover makes new Video "Freaky D.J." 2009 The Egyptian Lover is making a brand new album that will include songs, Electro Pharaoh, U.F.O., Freaky D.J., BellyDance, Scandinavian Summer, Do U Wanna Get Down?, and many many more... Touring The Egyptian Lover is currently touring worldwide. He began touring again in 2004 and is still doing European, Asian and North American shows. In 2008, he toured in support of M.I.A.. In the tradition of his origins as a D.J. his performances often begin with him mixing records on turntables and then Segueing into his original compositions. He is currently doing Arenas, Clubs, and Festivals. Discography Albums 1984: On the Nile 1986: One Track Mind 1988: Filthy 1989: King of Ecstasy 1994: Back from the Tomb 1996: Pyramix 1998: Get Into It 2006: Platinum Pyramids EPs 1983: Egypt, Egypt EP 2009: "Electro Pharaoh" External links Westcoastpioneers Biography page discogs site myspace page | Egyptian_Lover |@lemmatized greg:1 broussard:1 bear:1 august:1 los:3 angeles:3 california:1 well:2 know:1 stage:1 name:1 egyptian:24 lover:21 american:2 musician:2 vocalist:1 producer:2 dj:1 important:1 part:1 l:2 dance:2 music:2 rap:2 scene:1 early:4 history:1 start:1 j:6 uncle:1 jamms:1 army:1 ing:1 sport:1 arena:2 begin:3 record:10 around:1 member:1 radio:2 crew:1 day:1 hip:1 hop:1 album:7 rare:1 successful:2 recording:1 single:6 would:1 eventually:1 release:3 lp:1 especially:1 unique:1 west:1 coast:1 base:2 less:1 popular:2 strength:1 contain:1 alternate:1 mix:2 egypt:5 nile:2 moderately:1 break:1 return:1 see:1 back:3 tomb:2 last:1 full:1 length:1 ten:1 year:1 another:1 new:8 platinum:3 pyramid:3 also:1 establish:1 company:1 empire:3 include:2 artist:2 rodney:1 joe:1 cooley:1 presently:1 first:1 since:1 entitle:1 party:1 dancefloor:1 follow:1 feb:1 end:1 go:1 studio:1 jamie:2 jupiter:2 ufo:1 futuristic:1 never:1 warp:1 jimmy:1 edgar:1 collaboration:1 together:1 make:5 modernaire:1 dez:1 dickerson:1 film:1 purple:1 rain:1 label:1 citinite:1 collaborate:1 group:1 clone:1 machine:1 ear:1 werk:1 luke:1 eargoggle:1 continue:1 tour:5 world:1 brand:2 december:1 exclusive:1 song:5 itunes:1 electro:3 pharaoh:3 feature:1 keyboard:1 san:1 diego:1 brian:2 e:2 freaky:3 scandinavian:2 summer:2 care:1 kill:1 work:2 u:4 f:2 jones:1 galactic:1 space:1 bar:1 create:1 track:2 rock:1 shake:1 rye:2 anniversary:1 attempt:1 put:1 twelve:1 may:2 collabs:1 debonaire:1 wanna:2 get:3 street:1 sound:1 compulation:1 video:1 bellydance:1 many:2 currently:2 worldwide:1 still:1 european:1 asian:1 north:1 show:1 support:1 tradition:1 origin:1 performance:1 often:1 turntable:1 segue:1 original:1 composition:1 club:1 festival:1 discography:1 albums:1 one:1 mind:1 filthy:1 king:1 ecstasy:1 pyramix:1 eps:1 ep:1 external:1 link:1 westcoastpioneers:1 biography:1 page:2 discogs:1 site:1 myspace:1 |@bigram los_angeles:3 hip_hop:1 san_diego:1 external_link:1 myspace_page:1 |
3,041 | Jerome | Saint Jerome (c. 347 – September 30, 420) (Formerly Saint Heirom) (; ) was a Roman Catholic priest Saint Jerome, Catholic Encyclopedia and Roman Catholic apologist best known for translating the Vulgate. He is recognized by the Catholic Church as a canonized saint and Doctor of the Church, and his version of the Bible is still an important text in Catholicism. He is also recognized as a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church, where he is known as St Jerome of Stridonium or Blessed Jerome. Though "Blessed" in this context does not have the sense of being less than a saint, as in the West. He is presumed by some to have been an Illyrian. In art, he is often represented as one of the four Latin doctors of the Church along with Augustine of Hippo, Ambrose, and Pope Gregory I. As a prominent member of the Roman clergy, he has often been portrayed anachronistically Saint Jerome and some library lions in the garb of a cardinal. Even when he is depicted as a half-clad anchorite, with cross, skull and Bible for the only furniture of his cell, the red hat or some other indication of his rank as cardinal is as a rule introduced somewhere in the picture. He is also often depicted with a lion, due to a medieval story in which he removed a thorn from a lion's paw, The lion episode, in Vita Divi Hieronymi (Migne Pat. Lat. XXII, c. 209ff.) was translated by Helen Waddell Beasts and Saints (NY: Henry Holt) 1934) (on-line retelling). and less often with an owl, the symbol of wisdom and scholarship. The Collection: St. Jerome, gallery of the religious art collection of New Mexico State University, with explanations. Accessed August 10, 2007. Writing materials and the trumpet of final judgment are also part of his iconography. He is commemorated on 30 September with a memorial. Life Saint Jerome in his Study, by Domenico Ghirlandaio Jerome was born at Stridon, on the border between Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Italy, Michael Walsh, ed. Butler's Lives of the Saints. (HarperCollins Publishers: New York, 1991) pp 307. close to Aquileia. Jerome was possibly an Illyrian, born to Roman Catholic parents, but was not baptized until about 360 or 366, when he had gone to Rome with his friend Bonosus (who may or may not have been the same Bonosus whom Jerome identifies as his friend who went to live as a hermit on an island in the Adriatic) to pursue rhetorical and philosophical studies. He studied under the grammarian Aelius Donatus. There Jerome learned the Greek and Latin languages. Michael Walsh, ed. Butler's Lives of the Saints. (HarperCollins Publishers: New York, 1991) pp 307. As a student in Rome, he sinned casually and afterwards suffered bouts of repentance. To appease his conscience, he would visit on Sundays the sepulchres of the martyrs and the apostles in the catacombs. Robert Payne, The Fathers of the Western Church, (New York: Viking Press, 1951) pp 91. After several years in Rome, he travelled with Bonosus to Gaul and settled in Trier where he seems to have first taken up theological studies, and where he copied, for his friend Tyrannius Rufinus, Hilary of Poitiers' commentary on the Psalms and the treatise De synodis. Next came a stay of at least several months, or possibly years, with Rufinus at Aquileia where he made many Christian friends. Some of these accompanied him when he set out about 373 on a journey through Thrace and Asia Minor into northern Syria. At Antioch, where he stayed the longest, two of his companions died and he himself was seriously ill more than once. During one of these illnesses (about the winter of 373-374), he had a vision that led him to lay aside his secular studies and devote himself to the things of God. He seems to have abstained for a considerable time from the study of the classics and to have plunged deeply into that of the Bible, under the impulse of Apollinaris of Laodicea, then teaching in Antioch and not yet suspected of heresy. St. Jerome reading in the countryside, by Giovanni Bellini Seized with a desire for a life of ascetic penance, he went for a time to the desert of Chalcis, to the southwest of Antioch, known as the Syrian Thebaid, from the number of hermits inhabiting it. During this period, he seems to have found time for study and writing. He made his first attempt to learn Hebrew under the guidance of a converted Jew; and he seems to have been in correspondence with Jewish Christians in Antioch.Possibly during this time he became interested in the Gospel according to the Hebrews, which he would later write was the true Gospel of Matthew. Returning to Antioch in 378 or 379, he was ordained by Bishop Paulinus, apparently unwillingly and on condition that he continue his ascetic life. Soon afterward, he went to Constantinople to pursue a study of Scripture under Gregory Nazianzen. He seems to have spent two years there; the next three (382-385) he was in Rome again, attached to Pope Damasus I and the leading Roman Christians. Invited originally for the synod of 382, held to end the schism of Antioch, he made himself indispensable to the pope, and took a prominent place in his councils. St. Jerome, by Peter Paul Rubens, 1625–1630 Among his other duties, he undertook a revision of the Latin Bible, to be based on the Greek New Testament. He also updated the Psalter then at use in Rome based on the Septuagint. Though he did not realize it yet at this point, translating much of what became the Latin Vulgate Bible would take many years, and be his most important achievement (see Writings- Translations section below). In Rome he was surrounded by a circle of well-born and well-educated women, including some from the noblest patrician families, such as the widows Marcella and Paula, with their daughters Blaesilla and Eustochium. The resulting inclination of these women to the monastic life, and his unsparing criticism of the secular clergy, brought a growing hostility against him amongst the clergy and their supporters. Soon after the death of his patron Damasus (December 10, 384), Jerome was forced to leave his position at Rome after an inquiry by the Roman clergy into allegations that he had improper relations with the widow Paula. Additionally, his condemnation of Blaesilla's zest for life had lead Blaesilla to adopt aescetic practices, but exacerbated her physical weakness to the point that she died just four months after starting to follow his instructions; much of the Roman populace were outraged at Jerome for causing the premature death of such a lively young woman, and his insistance to Paula that Blaesilla should not be mourned, and complaints that her grief was excessive, were seen as heartless, polarising Roman opinion against him. Joyce Salisbury, Encyclopedia of women in the ancient world, Blaesilla In August 385, he returned to Antioch, accompanied by his brother Paulinianus and several friends, and followed a little later by Paula and Eustochium, who had resolved to end their days in the Holy Land. In the winter of 385, Jerome acted as their spiritual adviser. The pilgrims, joined by Bishop Paulinus of Antioch, visited Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and the holy places of Galilee, and then went to Egypt, the home of the great heroes of the ascetic life. At the Catechetical School of Alexandria, Jerome listened to the blind catechist Didymus the Blind expounding the prophet Hosea and telling his reminiscences of Anthony the Great, who had died thirty years before; he spent some time in Nitria, admiring the disciplined community life of the numerous inhabitants of that "city of the Lord", but detecting even there "concealed serpents", i.e., the influence of Origen of Alexandria. Late in the summer of 388 he was back in Palestine, and spent the remainder of his life in a hermit's cell near Bethlehem, surrounded by a few friends, both men and women (including Paula and Eustochium), to whom he acted as priestly guide and teacher. Painting by Niccolò Antonio Colantonio, showing St. Jerome's removal of a thorn from a lion's paw. Amply provided by Paula with the means of livelihood and of increasing his collection of books, he led a life of incessant activity in literary production. To these last thirty-four years of his career belong the most important of his works -- his version of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew text, the best of his scriptural commentaries, his catalogue of Christian authors, and the dialogue against the Pelagians, the literary perfection of which even an opponent recognized. To this period also belong most of his polemics, which distinguished him among the orthodox Fathers, including the treatises against the Origenism of Bishop John II of Jerusalem and his early friend Rufinus. As a result of his writings against Pelagianism, a body of excited partisans broke into the monastic buildings, set them on fire, attacked the inmates and killed a deacon, forcing Jerome to seek safety in a neighboring fortress (416). Jerome died near Bethlehem on September 30, 420. The date of his death is given by the Chronicon of Prosper of Aquitaine. His remains, originally buried at Bethlehem, are said to have been later transferred to the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, though other places in the West claim some relics -- the cathedral at Nepi boasting possession of his head, which, according to another tradition, is in the Escorial. Translations and commentaries St Jerome, by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 1607, at St John's Co-Cathedral, Valletta, Malta Jerome was a scholar at a time when that statement implied a fluency in Greek. He knew some Hebrew when he started his translation project, but moved to Jerusalem to strengthen his grip on Jewish scripture commentary. A wealthy Roman aristocrat, Paula, funded his stay in a monastery in Bethlehem and he completed his translation there. He began in 382 by correcting the existing Latin language version of the New Testament, commonly referred to as the Vetus Latina. By 390 he turned to the Hebrew Bible, having previously translated portions from the Septuagint. He completed this work by 405. Prior to Jerome's Vulgate, all Latin translations of the Old Testament were based on the Septuagint. Jerome's decision to use a Hebrew text instead of the Septuagint went against the advice of most other Christians, including Augustine, who considered the Septuagint inspired. Modern scholarship, however, has cast doubts on the actual quality of Jerome's Hebrew knowledge; the Greek Hexapla is now considered as still the main source also for Jerome's "iuxta Hebraeos" translation of the Old Testament. Pierre Nautin, article Hieronymus, in: Theologische Realenzyklopädie, Vol. 15, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin - New York 1986, p. 304-315, here p. 309-310. For the next fifteen years, until he died, Jerome produced a number of commentaries on Scripture, often explaining his translation choices. His patristic commentaries align closely with Jewish tradition, and he indulges in allegorical and mystical subtleties after the manner of Philo and the Alexandrian school. Unlike his contemporaries, he emphasizes the difference between the Hebrew Bible "apocrypha" and the Hebraica veritas of the protocanonical books. Evidence of this can be found in his introductions to the Solomonic writings, the Book of Tobit, and the Book of Judith. Most notable, however, is the statement from his introduction to the Books of Samuel: This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a helmeted [i.e. defensive] introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is outside of them must be placed aside among the Apocryphal writings. http://www.bible-researcher.com/jerome.html Jerome's commentaries fall into three groups: His translations or recastings of Greek predecessors, including fourteen homilies on the Book of Jeremiah and the same number on the Book of Ezekiel by Origen (translated ca. 380 in Constantinople); two homilies of Origen of Alexandria on the Song of Solomon (in Rome, ca. 383); and thirty-nine on the Gospel of Luke (ca. 389, in Bethlehem). The nine homilies of Origen on the Book of Isaiah included among his works were not done by him. Here should be mentioned, as an important contribution to the topography of Palestine, his book De situ et nominibus locorum Hebraeorum, a translation with additions and some regrettable omissions of the Onomasticon of Eusebius. To the same period (ca. 390) belongs the Liber interpretationis nominum Hebraicorum, based on a work supposed to go back to Philo and expanded by Origen. Original commentaries on the Old Testament. To the period before his settlement at Bethlehem and the following five years belong a series of short Old Testament studies: De seraphim, De voce Osanna, De tribus quaestionibus veteris legis (usually included among the letters as 18, 20, and 36); Quaestiones hebraicae in Genesim; Commentarius in Ecclesiasten; Tractatus septem in Psalmos 10-16 (lost); Explanationes in Michaeam, Sophoniam, Nahum, Habacuc, Aggaeum. About 395 he composed a series of longer commentaries, though in rather a desultory fashion: first on the remaining seven minor prophets, then on Isaiah (ca. 395-ca. 400), on the Book of Daniel (ca. 407), on Ezekiel (between 410 and 415), and on Jeremiah (after 415, left unfinished). New Testament commentaries. These include only Philemon, Galatians, Ephesians, and Titus (hastily composed 387-388); Matthew (dictated in a fortnight, 398); Mark, selected passages in Luke, Revelation, and the prologue to the Gospel of John. Treating Revelation in his cursory fashion, he made use of an excerpt from the commentary of the North African Tichonius, which is preserved as a sort of argument at the beginning of the more extended work of the Spanish presbyter Beatus of Liébana. But before this he had already devoted to the Revelation another treatment, a rather arbitrary recasting of the commentary of Saint Victorinus, with whose chiliastic views he was not in accord, substituting for the chiliastic conclusion a spiritualizing exposition of his own, supplying an introduction, and making certain changes in the text. The works of Hippolytus of Rome and Irenaeus greatly influenced Jerome's interpretation of prophecy. Farrar, Lives, vol. 2, p. 229. He noted the distinction between the original Septuagint and Theodotion's later substitution. Jerome, Preface to Daniel, in APNF, 2d series, vol. 6, p. 492. Jerome warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the “synagogue of the Antichrist”. See Jerome’s The Dialogue against the Luciferians, p.334 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. “He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist,” he wrote to Pope Damasus I. See Jerome’s Letter to Pope Damasus, p.19 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. He believed that “the mystery of iniquity” written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when “every one chatters about his views.” See Jerome’s Against the Pelagians, Book I, p.449 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed. He warned a noble woman of Gaul: “He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ “shall consume with the spirit of his mouth.” “Woe unto them,” he cries, “that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days.”... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun run all parts of Gaul. The whole country between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, Gepids, Herules, Saxons, Burgundians, Allemanni, and—alas! for the commonweal!-- even Pannonians. See Jerome’s Letter to Ageruchia, p.236-7 in A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church : St. Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893. Second Series By Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. His Commentary on Daniel was expressly written to offset the criticisms of Porphyry, Eremantle, note on Jerome's commentary on Daniel, in NPAF, 2d series, Vol. 6, p. 500. who taught that Daniel related entirely to the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and was written by an unknown individual living in the second century BC. Against Porphyry, Jerome identified Rome as the fourth kingdom of chapters two and seven, but his view of chapters eight and 11 was more complex. Jerome held that chapter eight describes the activity of Antiochus Epiphanes, who is understood as a "type" of a future antichrist; 11:24 onwards applies primarily to a future antichrist but was partially fulfilled by Antiochus. Instead, he advocated that the “little horn” was the Antichrist: We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings... after they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor. See Jerome’s Commentary on Daniel In his Commentary on Daniel, he noted, “Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form.” See Jerome’s Commentary on Daniel Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God’s Temple inasmuch as he made “himself out to be like God.” See Jerome’s Commentary on Daniel Jerome identified the four prophetic kingdoms symbolized in Daniel 2 as the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Medes and Persians, Macedon, and Rome. Jerome, Commentaria in Danelem, chap. 2, verses 31-40 Jerome identified the stone cut out without hands as "namely, the Lord and Savior". Jerome, Commentaria in Danieluem, chap. 2, verse 40 Jerome refuted Porphyry's application of the little horn of chapter seven to Antiochus. He expected that at the end of the world, Rome would be destroyed, and partitioned among ten kingdoms before the little horn appeared. Jerome, Commentario in Danielem, chap. 7, verse 8 Jerome believed that Cyrus of Persia is the higher of the two horns of the Medo-Persian ram of Daniel 8:3. Jerome, Commentario in Danielem The he-goat is Greece smiting Persia. Jerome, Commentaria in Danielem, chap. 8, verse 5 Alexander is the great horn, which is then succeeded by Alexander's half brother Philip and three of his generals. Historical writings One of Jerome's earliest attempts in the department of history was his Chronicle (or Chronicon or Temporum liber), composed ca. 380 in Constantinople; this is a translation into Latin of the chronological tables which compose the second part of the Chronicon of Eusebius, with a supplement covering the period from 325 to 379. Despite numerous errors taken over from Eusebius, and some of his own, Jerome produced a valuable work, if only for the impulse which it gave to such later chroniclers as Prosper, Cassiodorus, and Victor of Tunnuna to continue his annals. Three other works of a hagiological nature are: the Vita Pauli monachi, written during his first sojourn at Antioch (ca. 376), the legendary material of which is derived from Egyptian monastic tradition; the Vitae Patrum (Vita Pauli primi eremitae), a biography of Saint Paul of Thebes; the Vita Malchi monachi captivi (ca. 391), probably based on an earlier work, although it purports to be derived from the oral communications of the aged ascetic Malchus originally made to him in the desert of Chalcis; the Vita Hilarionis, of the same date, containing more trustworthy historical matter than the other two, and based partly on the biography of Epiphanius and partly on oral tradition. The so-called Martyrologium Hieronymianum is spurious; it was apparently composed by a western monk toward the end of the sixth or beginning of the seventh century, with reference to an expression of Jerome's in the opening chapter of the Vita Malchi, where he speaks of intending to write a history of the saints and martyrs from the apostolic times. But the most important of Jerome's historical works is the book De viris illustribus, written at Bethlehem in 392, the title and arrangement of which are borrowed from Suetonius. It contains short biographical and literary notes on 135 Christian authors, from Saint Peter down to Jerome himself. For the first seventy-eight authors Eusebius (Historia ecclesiastica) is the main source; in the second section, beginning with Arnobius and Lactantius, he includes a good deal of independent information, especially as to western writers. Letters Jerome's letters or epistles, both by the great variety of their subjects and by their qualities of style, form the most interesting portion of his literary remains. Whether he is discussing problems of scholarship, or reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends, scourging the vices and corruptions of the time, exhorting to the ascetic life and renunciation of the world, or breaking a lance with his theological opponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics. The letters most frequently reprinted or referred to are of a hortatory nature, such as Ep. 14, Ad Heliodorum de laude vitae solitariae; Ep. 22, Ad Eustochium de custodia virginitatis; Ep. 52, Ad Nepotianum de vita clericorum et monachorum, a sort of epitome of pastoral theology from the ascetic standpoint; Ep. 53, Ad Paulinum de studio scripturarum; Ep. 57, to the same, De institutione monachi; Ep. 70, Ad Magnum de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis; and Ep. 107, Ad Laetam de institutione filiae. Theological writings Practically all of Jerome's productions in the field of dogma have a more or less vehemently polemical character, and are directed against assailants of the orthodox doctrines. Even the translation of the treatise of Didymus the Blind on the Holy Spirit into Latin (begun in Rome 384, completed at Bethlehem) shows an apologetic tendency against the Arians and Pneumatomachoi. The same is true of his version of Origen's De principiis (ca. 399), intended to supersede the inaccurate translation by Rufinus. The more strictly polemical writings cover every period of his life. During the sojourns at Antioch and Constantinople he was mainly occupied with the Arian controversy, and especially with the schisms centering around Meletius of Antioch and Lucifer Calaritanus. Two letters to Pope Damasus (15 and 16) complain of the conduct of both parties at Antioch, the Meletians and Paulinians, who had tried to draw him into their controversy over the application of the terms ousia and hypostasis to the Trinity. At the same time or a little later (379) he composed his Liber Contra Luciferianos, in which he cleverly uses the dialogue form to combat the tenets of that faction, particularly their rejection of baptism by heretics. In Rome (ca. 383) he wrote a passionate counterblast against the teaching of Helvidius, in defense of the doctrine of The perpetual virginity of Mary and of the superiority of the single over the married state. An opponent of a somewhat similar nature was Jovinianus, with whom he came into conflict in 392 (Adversus Jovinianum, Against Jovinianus) and the defense of this work addressed to his friend Pammachius, numbered 48 in the letters). Once more he defended the ordinary Catholic practices of piety and his own ascetic ethics in 406 against the Spanish presbyter Vigilantius, who opposed the cultus of martyrs and relics, the vow of poverty, and clerical celibacy. Meanwhile the controversy with John II of Jerusalem and Rufinus concerning the orthodoxy of Origen occurred. To this period belong some of his most passionate and most comprehensive polemical works: the Contra Joannem Hierosolymitanum (398 or 399); the two closely-connected Apologiae contra Rufinum (402); and the "last word" written a few months later, the Liber tertius seu ultima responsio adversus scripta Rufini. The last of his polemical works is the skilfully-composed Dialogus contra Pelagianos (415). Jerome's reception by later Christianity Jerome is the second most voluminous writer (after St. Augustine) in ancient Latin Christianity. In the Roman Catholic Church, he is recognized as the patron saint of translators, librarians and encyclopedists. He acquired a knowledge of Hebrew by studying with a Jew who converted to Christianity, and took the unusual position (for that time) that the Hebrew, and not the Septuagint, was the inspired text of the Old Testament. The traditional view is that he used this knowledge to translate what became known as the Vulgate, and his translation was slowly but eventually accepted in the Catholic Church. Stefan Rebenich, Jerome (New York: Routlage, 2002), pp. 52-59 The later resurgence of Hebrew studies within Christianity owes much to him. On the other hand, recent scholarship argues that Jerome knew barely a word of Hebrew, and that his "translation" was in fact based on the Greek of Origen's Hexapla. Jerome sometimes seemed arrogant, and occasionally despised or belittled his literary rivals, especially Ambrose. But Jerome himself came under attack, especially from Rufinus, for falsely claiming to have read many authors whose works he had in fact never laid eyes upon. One notorious example was when he claimed to have read the works of Pythagoras. When Rufinus pointed out that Pythagoras had not in fact written anything, Jerome replied that he was speaking "de dogmatibus eorum, non de libris , quae potui in Bruto discere" ("not about his books, but his teachings, which I learnt about in [the philosopher] Brutus"). The writings of Brutus, however, had been lost for centuries. He showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation. It was this strict asceticism that made Martin Luther judge him so severely. In fact, Protestant readers are not generally inclined to accept his writings as authoritative. The tendency to recognize a superior comes out in his correspondence with Augustine (cf. Jerome's letters numbered 56, 67, 102-105, 110-112, 115-116; and 28, 39, 40, 67-68, 71-75, 81-82 in Augustine's). Despite the criticisms already mentioned, Jerome has retained a rank among the western Fathers. This would be his due, if for nothing else, on account of the great influence exercised by his Latin version of the Bible upon the subsequent ecclesiastical and theological development. Quotes I praise wedlock, I praise marriage, but it is because they give me virgins. [...] to command virginity would have been to abrogate wedlock. It would have been a hard enactment to compel opposition to nature and to extort from men the angelic life; and not only so, it would have been to condemn what is a divine ordinance. (Jerome's Letter 22, to Eustochium, section 20 on-line) Be ever engaged, so that whenever the devil calls he may find you occupied. (Letter 125, to the priest Innocent) Ignorance of the Scriptures is ignorance of Christ. (Jerome's Prologue to the “Commentary on Isaiah”: PL 24,17) See also Church Fathers Bible translations Order of St. Jerome Genesius of Arles Notes External links "St. Jerome" by Louis Saltet, in The Catholic Encyclopedia (1910) Jewish Encyclopedia: Jerome St. Jerome - Catholic Online The Story of St. Jerome and the Lion St Jerome (Hieronymus) of Stridonium Orthodox synaxarion Latin Texts Chronological list of Jerome's Works with modern editions and translations cited Opera Omnia (Complete Works) from Migne edition (Patrologia Latina, 1844-1855) with analytical indexes, almost complete online edition Google Books' Facsimiles Migne volume 23 part 1 (1883 edition) Migne volume 23 part 2 (1883 edition) Migne volume 24 (1845 edition) Migne volume 25 part 1 (1884 edition) Migne volume 25 part 2 (1884 edition) Migne volume 28 (1890 edition?) Migne volume 30 (1865 edition) English Translations English translations of Biblical Prefaces, Commentary on Daniel, Chronicle, and Letter 120 (tertullian.org) Jerome's Letter to Pope Damasus: Preface to the Gospels English translation of Jerome's De Viris Illustribus The Perpetual Virginity of Blessed Mary Lives of Famous Men (CCEL) Apology Against Rufinus (CCEL) Letters, The Life of Paulus the First Hermit, The Life of S. Hilarion, The Life of Malchus, the Captive Monk, The Dialogue Against the Luciferians, The Perpetual Virginity of Blessed Mary, Against Jovinianus, Against Vigilantius, To Pammachius against John of Jerusalem, Against the Pelagians, Prefaces (CCEL) Bibliography J.N.D. Kelly, "Jerome: His Life, Writings, and Controversies" (Peabody, MA 1998) S. Rebenich, "Jerome" (London and New York, 2002) References "Biblia Sacra Vulgata," Stuttgart, 1994. ISBN 3-438-05303-9 This article uses material from Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion. birth/death dates from | Jerome |@lemmatized saint:16 jerome:86 c:2 september:3 formerly:1 heirom:1 roman:13 catholic:10 priest:2 encyclopedia:5 apologist:1 best:2 know:6 translate:6 vulgate:4 recognize:5 church:13 canonized:1 doctor:2 version:5 bible:10 still:2 important:5 text:5 catholicism:1 also:8 eastern:1 orthodox:4 st:17 stridonium:2 bless:3 though:4 context:1 sense:1 less:3 west:2 presume:1 illyrian:2 art:2 often:5 represent:1 one:6 four:4 latin:12 along:1 augustine:5 hippo:1 ambrose:2 pope:7 gregory:2 prominent:2 member:1 clergy:4 portray:1 anachronistically:1 library:5 lion:6 garb:1 cardinal:2 even:5 depict:2 half:2 clad:1 anchorite:1 cross:1 skull:1 furniture:1 cell:2 red:1 hat:1 indication:1 rank:2 rule:1 introduce:1 somewhere:1 picture:2 due:2 medieval:1 story:2 remove:2 thorn:2 paw:2 episode:1 vita:7 divi:1 hieronymi:1 migne:9 pat:1 lat:1 xxii:1 helen:1 waddell:1 beast:1 ny:1 henry:5 holt:1 line:2 retell:1 owl:1 symbol:1 wisdom:1 scholarship:4 collection:3 gallery:1 religious:1 new:10 mexico:1 state:2 university:1 explanation:1 access:1 august:2 write:12 material:3 trumpet:1 final:1 judgment:1 part:7 iconography:1 commemorate:1 memorial:1 life:19 study:11 domenico:1 ghirlandaio:1 bear:2 stridon:1 border:1 pannonia:1 dalmatia:1 italy:1 michael:2 walsh:2 ed:2 butler:2 harpercollins:2 publisher:2 york:6 pp:4 close:1 aquileia:2 possibly:3 parent:1 baptize:1 go:7 rome:15 friend:9 bonosus:3 may:5 identifies:1 live:2 hermit:4 island:1 adriatic:1 pursue:2 rhetorical:1 philosophical:1 grammarian:1 aelius:1 donatus:1 learn:3 greek:6 language:2 student:1 sin:1 casually:1 afterwards:1 suffer:1 bout:1 repentance:1 appease:1 conscience:2 would:8 visit:2 sunday:1 sepulchre:1 martyr:3 apostle:1 catacomb:1 robert:1 payne:1 father:8 western:4 viking:1 press:1 several:3 year:8 travel:1 gaul:3 settle:1 trier:1 seem:6 first:6 take:7 theological:4 copy:1 tyrannius:1 rufinus:8 hilary:1 poitier:1 commentary:20 psalm:1 treatise:3 de:18 synodis:1 next:3 come:4 stay:3 least:1 month:3 make:8 many:3 christian:11 accompany:2 set:2 journey:1 thrace:1 asia:1 minor:2 northern:1 syria:1 antioch:12 long:2 two:8 companion:1 die:5 seriously:1 ill:1 illness:1 winter:2 vision:1 lead:4 lay:3 aside:2 secular:2 devote:2 thing:2 god:3 abstain:1 considerable:1 time:11 classic:1 plunge:1 deeply:1 impulse:2 apollinaris:1 laodicea:1 teach:2 yet:3 suspect:1 heresy:1 reading:1 countryside:1 giovanni:1 bellini:1 seize:1 desire:1 ascetic:8 penance:1 desert:2 chalcis:2 southwest:1 syrian:1 thebaid:1 number:6 inhabit:1 period:7 find:3 writing:11 attempt:2 hebrew:13 guidance:1 converted:1 jew:2 correspondence:2 jewish:5 become:3 interested:1 gospel:5 accord:3 later:6 true:2 matthew:2 return:2 ordain:1 bishop:3 paulinus:2 apparently:2 unwillingly:1 condition:1 continue:2 soon:2 afterward:1 constantinople:4 scripture:6 nazianzen:1 spend:3 three:5 attach:1 damasus:6 invite:1 originally:3 synod:1 hold:2 end:5 schism:2 indispensable:1 place:4 council:1 peter:2 paul:3 rubens:1 among:7 duty:1 undertake:1 revision:1 base:7 testament:9 update:1 psalter:1 use:6 septuagint:7 realize:2 point:3 much:3 achievement:1 see:10 translation:19 section:3 surround:2 circle:1 well:2 born:1 educate:1 woman:6 include:9 noble:2 patrician:1 family:1 widow:2 marcella:1 paula:7 daughter:1 blaesilla:5 eustochium:5 result:2 inclination:1 monastic:3 unsparing:1 criticism:3 bring:1 grow:1 hostility:1 amongst:2 supporter:1 death:4 patron:2 december:1 force:3 leave:2 position:2 inquiry:1 allegation:1 improper:1 relation:1 additionally:1 condemnation:1 zest:1 adopt:1 aescetic:1 practice:2 exacerbate:1 physical:1 weakness:1 start:2 follow:3 instruction:1 populace:1 outrage:1 cause:1 premature:1 lively:1 young:1 insistance:1 mourn:1 complaint:1 grief:1 excessive:1 heartless:1 polarise:1 opinion:2 joyce:1 salisbury:1 ancient:2 world:5 brother:2 paulinianus:1 little:5 resolve:1 day:2 holy:3 land:1 act:2 spiritual:1 adviser:1 pilgrim:1 join:1 jerusalem:5 bethlehem:9 galilee:1 egypt:1 home:1 great:5 hero:1 catechetical:1 school:2 alexandria:3 listen:1 blind:3 catechist:1 didymus:2 expound:1 prophet:2 hosea:1 tell:1 reminiscence:1 anthony:1 thirty:3 nitria:1 admire:1 discipline:1 community:1 numerous:2 inhabitant:1 city:1 lord:3 detect:1 conceal:1 serpent:1 e:2 influence:3 origen:8 late:4 summer:1 back:2 palestine:2 remainder:1 near:4 men:3 priestly:1 guide:1 teacher:1 painting:1 niccolò:1 antonio:1 colantonio:1 show:3 removal:1 amply:1 provide:1 mean:1 livelihood:1 increase:1 book:15 incessant:1 activity:2 literary:5 production:2 last:3 career:1 belong:6 work:21 old:6 original:3 scriptural:1 catalogue:1 author:4 dialogue:4 pelagians:3 perfection:1 opponent:3 polemic:1 distinguish:1 origenism:1 john:5 ii:2 early:3 pelagianism:1 body:1 excited:1 partisan:1 break:2 building:1 fire:1 attack:2 inmate:1 kill:1 deacon:1 seek:1 safety:1 neighboring:1 fortress:1 date:3 give:5 chronicon:3 prosper:2 aquitaine:1 remains:2 bury:1 say:2 transfer:1 basilica:1 santa:1 maria:1 maggiore:1 claim:3 relic:2 cathedral:2 nepi:1 boast:1 possession:1 head:1 another:2 tradition:4 escorial:1 michelangelo:1 merisi:1 da:1 caravaggio:1 co:1 valletta:1 malta:1 scholar:1 statement:2 imply:1 fluency:1 project:1 move:1 strengthen:1 grip:1 wealthy:1 aristocrat:1 fund:1 monastery:1 complete:5 begin:3 correct:1 exist:1 commonly:1 refer:2 vetus:1 latina:2 turn:2 previously:1 portion:2 prior:1 decision:1 instead:3 advice:1 consider:2 inspire:1 modern:2 however:3 cast:1 doubt:1 actual:2 quality:2 knowledge:3 hexapla:2 main:2 source:2 iuxta:1 hebraeos:1 pierre:1 nautin:1 article:2 hieronymus:2 theologische:1 realenzyklopädie:1 vol:4 walter:1 gruyter:1 berlin:1 p:9 fifteen:1 produce:2 explain:1 choice:1 patristic:1 align:1 closely:2 indulge:1 allegorical:1 mystical:1 subtlety:1 manner:1 philo:2 alexandrian:1 unlike:1 contemporary:1 emphasize:1 difference:1 apocrypha:1 hebraica:1 veritas:1 protocanonical:1 evidence:1 introduction:4 solomonic:1 tobit:1 judith:1 notable:1 samuel:1 preface:5 serve:1 helmeted:1 defensive:1 assure:1 outside:1 must:1 apocryphal:1 http:1 www:1 researcher:1 com:1 html:1 fall:1 group:1 recasting:2 predecessor:1 fourteen:1 homily:3 jeremiah:2 ezekiel:2 ca:12 song:1 solomon:1 nine:2 luke:2 isaiah:3 mention:2 contribution:1 topography:1 situ:1 et:2 nominibus:1 locorum:1 hebraeorum:1 addition:1 regrettable:1 omission:1 onomasticon:1 eusebius:4 liber:4 interpretationis:1 nominum:1 hebraicorum:1 suppose:2 expand:1 settlement:1 following:1 five:1 series:8 short:2 seraph:1 voce:1 osanna:1 tribus:1 quaestionibus:1 veteris:1 legis:1 usually:1 letter:18 quaestiones:1 hebraicae:1 genesim:1 commentarius:1 ecclesiasten:1 tractatus:1 septem:1 psalmos:1 lose:2 explanationes:1 michaeam:1 sophoniam:1 nahum:1 habacuc:1 aggaeum:1 compose:7 rather:3 desultory:1 fashion:2 remain:1 seven:4 daniel:12 unfinished:1 philemon:1 galatian:1 ephesian:1 titus:1 hastily:1 dictate:1 fortnight:1 mark:1 select:9 passage:1 revelation:3 prologue:2 treat:1 cursory:1 excerpt:1 north:1 african:1 tichonius:1 preserve:1 sort:2 argument:1 beginning:2 extended:1 spanish:2 presbyter:2 beatus:1 liébana:1 already:3 treatment:1 arbitrary:1 victorinus:1 whose:2 chiliastic:2 view:4 substitute:2 conclusion:1 spiritualizing:1 exposition:1 supply:1 certain:1 change:1 hippolytus:1 irenaeus:1 greatly:1 interpretation:3 prophecy:1 farrar:1 note:5 distinction:1 theodotion:1 substitution:1 apnf:1 warn:2 false:1 meaning:1 synagogue:1 antichrist:8 luciferians:2 nicene:8 post:4 second:8 philip:5 schaff:5 wace:4 christ:3 believe:2 mystery:2 iniquity:2 thessalonian:1 action:1 every:2 chatter:1 power:1 restrain:2 empire:3 fell:1 letteth:1 way:1 yes:1 jesus:1 shall:2 consume:1 spirit:2 mouth:1 woe:1 unto:1 cry:1 child:1 suck:1 savage:1 tribe:1 countless:1 overrun:1 run:1 whole:1 country:1 alp:1 pyrenees:1 rhine:1 ocean:1 waste:1 horde:1 quadi:1 vandal:1 sarmatians:1 alans:1 gepids:1 herules:1 saxon:1 burgundians:1 allemanni:1 alas:1 commonweal:1 pannonians:1 ageruchia:1 expressly:1 offset:1 porphyry:3 eremantle:1 npaf:1 relate:1 entirely:1 antiochus:4 iv:1 epiphanes:2 unknown:1 individual:1 living:1 century:3 bc:1 identify:3 fourth:1 kingdom:3 chapter:5 eight:3 complex:1 describe:1 understand:1 type:1 future:2 onwards:1 applies:1 primarily:1 partially:1 fulfil:1 advocate:1 horn:5 therefore:1 concur:1 traditional:2 commentator:2 destroy:2 ten:3 king:4 partition:2 insignificant:1 eleventh:1 arise:1 overcome:1 slay:1 bow:1 neck:1 victor:2 let:1 u:1 either:1 devil:2 demon:1 human:1 race:1 satan:1 wholly:1 residence:1 bodily:1 form:3 rebuild:1 temple:2 reign:1 think:1 sit:1 inasmuch:1 like:1 prophetic:1 symbolize:1 neo:1 babylonian:1 medes:1 persian:2 macedon:1 commentaria:3 danelem:1 chap:4 verse:4 stone:1 cut:1 without:1 hand:2 namely:1 savior:1 danieluem:1 refute:1 application:2 expect:1 appear:1 commentario:2 danielem:3 cyrus:1 persia:2 high:1 medo:1 ram:1 goat:1 greece:1 smite:1 alexander:2 succeed:1 general:1 historical:3 department:1 history:2 chronicle:2 temporum:1 chronological:2 table:1 supplement:1 cover:2 despite:2 error:1 valuable:1 chronicler:1 cassiodorus:1 tunnuna:1 annals:1 hagiological:1 nature:4 pauli:2 monachi:3 sojourn:2 legendary:1 derive:2 egyptian:1 vitae:2 patrum:1 primo:1 eremitae:1 biography:2 thebe:1 malchi:2 captivi:1 probably:1 although:1 purport:1 oral:2 communication:1 age:2 malchus:2 hilarionis:1 contain:2 trustworthy:1 matter:1 partly:2 epiphanius:1 call:2 martyrologium:1 hieronymianum:1 spurious:1 monk:2 toward:1 sixth:1 seventh:1 reference:2 expression:1 opening:1 speak:2 intend:2 apostolic:1 viris:2 illustribus:2 title:1 arrangement:1 borrow:1 suetonius:1 biographical:1 seventy:1 historia:1 ecclesiastica:1 arnobius:1 lactantius:1 good:1 deal:1 independent:1 information:1 especially:4 writer:2 epistle:1 variety:1 subject:1 style:1 interesting:1 whether:1 discuss:1 problem:1 reason:1 case:1 comfort:1 afflict:1 pleasant:1 scourge:1 vice:1 corruption:1 exhort:1 renunciation:1 lance:1 vivid:1 mind:1 peculiar:1 characteristic:1 frequently:1 reprint:1 hortatory:1 ep:7 ad:6 heliodorum:1 laude:1 solitariae:1 custodia:1 virginitatis:1 nepotianum:1 clericorum:1 monachorum:1 epitome:1 pastoral:1 theology:1 standpoint:1 paulinum:1 studio:1 scripturarum:1 institutione:2 magnum:1 scriptoribus:1 ecclesiasticis:1 laetam:1 filiae:1 practically:1 field:1 dogma:1 vehemently:1 polemical:4 character:1 direct:1 assailant:1 doctrine:2 apologetic:1 tendency:2 arians:1 pneumatomachoi:1 principiis:1 supersede:1 inaccurate:1 strictly:1 mainly:1 occupy:2 arian:1 controversy:4 center:1 around:1 meletius:1 lucifer:1 calaritanus:1 complain:1 conduct:1 party:1 meletians:1 paulinians:1 try:1 draw:1 term:1 ousia:1 hypostasis:1 trinity:1 contra:4 luciferianos:1 cleverly:1 combat:1 tenet:1 faction:1 particularly:1 rejection:1 baptism:1 heretic:1 passionate:2 counterblast:1 teaching:2 helvidius:1 defense:2 perpetual:3 virginity:4 mary:3 superiority:1 single:1 married:1 somewhat:1 similar:1 jovinianus:3 conflict:1 adversus:2 jovinianum:1 address:1 pammachius:2 defend:1 ordinary:1 piety:1 ethic:1 vigilantius:2 oppose:1 cultus:1 vow:1 poverty:1 clerical:1 celibacy:1 meanwhile:1 concern:1 orthodoxy:1 occur:1 comprehensive:1 joannem:1 hierosolymitanum:1 connect:1 apologiae:1 rufinum:1 word:2 tertius:1 seu:1 ultima:1 responsio:1 scripta:1 rufini:1 skilfully:1 dialogus:1 pelagianos:1 reception:1 christianity:4 voluminous:1 translator:1 librarian:1 encyclopedist:1 acquire:1 convert:1 unusual:1 inspired:1 slowly:1 eventually:1 accept:2 stefan:1 rebenich:2 routlage:1 resurgence:1 within:1 owes:1 recent:1 argue:1 barely:1 fact:4 sometimes:1 arrogant:1 occasionally:1 despise:1 belittle:1 rival:1 falsely:1 read:2 never:1 eye:1 upon:2 notorious:1 example:1 pythagoras:2 anything:1 reply:1 dogmatibus:1 eorum:1 non:1 libris:1 quae:1 potui:1 bruto:1 discere:1 philosopher:1 brutus:2 zeal:1 interest:1 ideal:1 abstract:1 speculation:1 strict:1 asceticism:1 martin:1 luther:1 judge:1 severely:1 protestant:1 reader:1 generally:1 incline:1 authoritative:1 superior:1 cf:1 retain:1 nothing:1 else:1 account:1 exercise:1 subsequent:1 ecclesiastical:1 development:1 quote:1 praise:2 wedlock:2 marriage:1 virgins:1 command:1 abrogate:1 hard:1 enactment:1 compel:1 opposition:1 extort:1 angelic:1 condemn:1 divine:1 ordinance:1 ever:1 engage:1 whenever:1 innocent:1 ignorance:2 pl:1 order:1 genesius:1 arles:1 external:1 link:1 louis:1 saltet:1 online:2 synaxarion:1 texts:1 list:1 edition:10 cite:1 opera:1 omnia:1 patrologia:1 analytical:1 index:1 almost:1 google:1 facsimile:1 volume:7 english:3 biblical:1 tertullian:1 org:1 famous:1 ccel:3 apology:1 paulus:1 hilarion:1 captive:1 blessed:1 bibliography:1 j:1 n:1 kelly:1 peabody:1 london:1 biblia:1 sacrum:1 vulgata:1 stuttgart:1 isbn:1 herzog:1 religion:1 birth:1 |@bigram eastern_orthodox:1 augustine_hippo:1 pope_gregory:1 harpercollins_publisher:2 hilary_poitier:1 seriously_ill:1 apollinaris_laodicea:1 giovanni_bellini:1 gospel_matthew:1 pope_damasus:5 paul_rubens:1 latin_vulgate:1 jerusalem_bethlehem:1 prophet_hosea:1 origen_alexandria:2 basilica_santa:1 santa_maria:1 maria_maggiore:1 valletta_malta:1 hebrew_bible:2 de_gruyter:1 gruyter_berlin:1 http_www:1 gospel_luke:1 hippolytus_rome:1 philip_schaff:4 henry_wace:4 jesus_christ:1 antiochus_iv:1 iv_epiphanes:1 antiochus_epiphanes:1 neo_babylonian:1 medes_persian:1 chap_verse:4 eusebius_historia:1 historia_ecclesiastica:1 de_institutione:2 holy_spirit:1 arian_controversy:1 perpetual_virginity:3 virginity_mary:1 vow_poverty:1 clerical_celibacy:1 patron_saint:1 martin_luther:1 external_link:1 opera_omnia:1 patrologia_latina:1 migne_volume:7 schaff_herzog:1 herzog_encyclopedia:1 |
3,042 | Morphology_(linguistics) | Morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of words (words as units in the lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology). While words are generally accepted as being (with clitics) the smallest units of syntax, it is clear that in most (if not all) languages, words can be related to other words by rules. For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog, dogs, and dog catcher are closely related. English speakers recognize these relations from their tacit knowledge of the rules of word formation in English. They infer intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats; similarly, dog is to dog catcher as dish is to dishwasher. The rules understood by the speaker reflect specific patterns (or regularities) in the way words are formed from smaller units and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages, and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages. History The history of morphological analysis dates back to the ancient Indian linguist , who formulated the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology in the text by using a Constituency Grammar. The Greco-Roman grammatical tradition also engaged in morphological analysis. Studies in Arabic morphology, conducted by and , date back to at least 1200 CE. Arabic Morphology and Phonology The term morphology was coined by August Schleicher in 1859. Für die Lehre von der Wortform wähle ich das Wort "Morphologie" ("for the science of word formation, I choose the term 'morphology'", Mémoires Acad. Impériale 7/1/7, 35) Fundamental concepts Lexemes and word forms The distinction between these two senses of "word" is arguably the most important one in morphology. The first sense of "word", the one in which dog and dogs are "the same word", is called a lexeme. The second sense is called word form. We thus say that dog and dogs are different forms of the same lexeme. Dog and dog catcher, on the other hand, are different lexemes, as they refer to two different kinds of entities. The form of a word that is chosen conventionally to represent the canonical form of a word is called a lemma, or citation form. Prosodic word vs. morphological word Here are examples from other languages of the failure of a single phonological word to coincide with a single morphological word form. In Latin, one way to express the concept of 'NOUN-PHRASE1 and NOUN-PHRASE2' (as in "apples and oranges") is to suffix '-que' to the second noun phrase: "apples oranges-and", as it were. An extreme level of this theoretical quandary posed by some phonological words is provided by the Kwak'wala language. Formerly known as Kwakiutl, Kwak'wala belongs to the Northern branch of the Wakashan language family. "Kwakiutl" is still used to refer to the tribe itself, along with other terms. In Kwak'wala, as in a great many other languages, meaning relations between nouns, including possession and "semantic case", are formulated by affixes instead of by independent "words". The three word English phrase, "with his club", where 'with' identifies its dependent noun phrase as an instrument and 'his' denotes a possession relation, would consist of two words or even just one word in many languages. But affixation for semantic relations in Kwak'wala differs dramatically (from the viewpoint of those whose language is not Kwak'wala) from such affixation in other languages for this reason: the affixes phonologically attach not to the lexeme they pertain to semantically, but to the preceding lexeme. Consider the following example (in Kwakw'ala, sentences begin with what corresponds to an English verb): Example taken from Foley 1998, using a modified transcription. This phenomenon of Kwak'wala was reported by Jacobsen as cited in van Valin and La Polla 1997. kwixʔid-i-da bəgwanəmai-χ-a q'asa-s-isi t'alwagwayu Morpheme by morpheme translation: kwixʔid-i-da = clubbed-PIVOT-DETERMINER bəgwanəma-χ-a = man-ACCUSATIVE-DETERMINER q'asa-s-is = otter-INSTRUMENTAL-3.PERSON.SINGULAR-POSSESSIVE t'alwagwayu = club. "the man clubbed the otter with his club" (Notation notes: accusative case marks an entity that something is done to. determiners are words such as "the", "this", "that". the concept of "pivot" is a theoretical construct that is not relevant to this discussion.) That is, to the speaker of Kwak'wala, the sentence does not contain the "words" 'him-the-otter' or 'with-his-club' Instead, the markers -i-da (PIVOT-'the'), referring to man, attaches not to bəgwanəma ('man'), but instead to the "verb"; the markers -χ-a (ACCUSATIVE-'the'), referring to otter, attach to bəgwanəma instead of to q'asa ('otter'), etc. To summarize differently: a speaker of Kwak'wala does not perceive the sentence to consist of these phonological words: kwixʔid i-da-bəgwanəma χ-a-q'asa s-isi-t'alwagwayu "clubbed PIVOT-the-mani hit-the-otter with-hisi-club A central publication on this topic is the recent volume edited by Dixon and Aikhenvald (2007), examining the mismatch between prosodic-phonological and grammatical definitions of "word" in various Amazonian, Australian Aboriginal, Caucasian, Eskimo, Indo-European, Native North American, West African, and sign languages. Apparently, a wide variety of languages make use of the hybrid linguistic unit clitic, possessing the grammatical features of independent words but the prosodic-phonological lack of freedom of bound morphemes. The intermediate status of clitics poses a considerable challenge to linguistic theory. Inflection vs. word formation Given the notion of a lexeme, it is possible to distinguish two kinds of morphological rules. Some morphological rules relate to different forms of the same lexeme; while other rules relate to different lexemes. Rules of the first kind are called inflectional rules, while those of the second kind are called word formation. The English plural, as illustrated by dog and dogs, is an inflectional rule; compounds like dog catcher or dishwasher provide an example of a word formation rule. Informally, word formation rules form "new words" (that is, new lexemes), while inflection rules yield variant forms of the "same" word (lexeme). There is a further distinction between two kinds of word formation: derivation and compounding. Compounding is a process of word formation that involves combining complete word forms into a single compound form; dog catcher is therefore a compound, because both dog and catcher are complete word forms in their own right before the compounding process has been applied, and are subsequently treated as one form. Derivation involves affixing bound (non-independent) forms to existing lexemes, whereby the addition of the affix derives a new lexeme. One example of derivation is clear in this case: the word independent is derived from the word dependent by prefixing it with the derivational prefix in-, while dependent itself is derived from the verb depend. The distinction between inflection and word formation is not at all clear cut. There are many examples where linguists fail to agree whether a given rule is inflection or word formation. The next section will attempt to clarify this distinction. Well, as suggested above that word formation is a process, where you combine two complete words, but in inflection, you combine suffix with some verb to change its form and to match with its subject in sentnce. for example: in present indefinite, we use 'go' with subject I/we/you/they and plural nouns, whereas for third peson singula number (he/she/it and singular noun), we use 'goes'. So this '-es' is an inflectional marker and is used to match with its subject. Another difference may be said that in word formation, the resulted word may be differ from its source word's gammatical category were as in the process of inflection, the word never changes its grammatical category. Paradigms and morphosyntax A linguistic paradigm is the complete set of related word forms associated with a given lexeme. The familiar examples of paradigms are the conjugations of verbs, and the declensions of nouns. Accordingly, the word forms of a lexeme may be arranged conveniently into tables, by classifying them according to shared inflectional categories such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender or case. For example, the personal pronouns in English can be organized into tables, using the categories of person (1st., 2nd., 3rd.), number (singular vs. plural), gender (masculine, feminine, neuter), and case (subjective, objective, and possessive). See English personal pronouns for the details. The inflectional categories used to group word forms into paradigms cannot be chosen arbitrarily; they must be categories that are relevant to stating the syntactic rules of the language. For example, person and number are categories that can be used to define paradigms in English, because English has grammatical agreement rules that require the verb in a sentence to appear in an inflectional form that matches the person and number of the subject. In other words, the syntactic rules of English care about the difference between dog and dogs, because the choice between these two forms determines which form of the verb is to be used. In contrast, however, no syntactic rule of English cares about the difference between dog and dog catcher, or dependent and independent. The first two are just nouns, and the second two just adjectives, and they generally behave like any other noun or adjective behaves. An important difference between inflection and word formation is that inflected word forms of lexemes are organized into paradigms, which are defined by the requirements of syntactic rules, whereas the rules of word formation are not restricted by any corresponding requirements of syntax. Inflection is therefore said to be relevant to syntax, and word formation is not. The part of morphology that covers the relationship between syntax and morphology is called morphosyntax, and it concerns itself with inflection and paradigms, but not with word formation or compounding. Allomorphy In the exposition above, morphological rules are described as analogies between word forms: dog is to dogs as cat is to cats, and as dish is to dishes. In this case, the analogy applies both to the form of the words and to their meaning: in each pair, the first word means "one of X", while the second "two or more of X", and the difference is always the plural form -s affixed to the second word, signaling the key distinction between singular and plural entities. One of the largest sources of complexity in morphology is that this one-to-one correspondence between meaning and form scarcely applies to every case in the language. In English, we have word form pairs like ox/oxen, goose/geese, and sheep/sheep, where the difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a way that departs from the regular pattern, or is not signaled at all. Even cases considered "regular", with the final -s, are not so simple; the -s in dogs is not pronounced the same way as the -s in cats, and in a plural like dishes, an "extra" vowel appears before the -s. These cases, where the same distinction is effected by alternative forms of a "word", are called allomorphy. Phonological rules constrain which sounds can appear next to each other in a language, and morphological rules, when applied blindly, would often violate phonological rules, by resulting in sound sequences that are prohibited in the language in question. For example, to form the plural of dish by simply appending an -s to the end of the word would result in the form *, which is not permitted by the phonotactics of English. In order to "rescue" the word, a vowel sound is inserted between the root and the plural marker, and results. Similar rules apply to the pronunciation of the -s in dogs and cats: it depends on the quality (voiced vs. unvoiced) of the final preceding phoneme. Lexical morphology Lexical morphology is the branch of morphology that deals with the lexicon, which, morphologically conceived, is the collection of lexemes in a language. As such, it concerns itself primarily with word formation: derivation and compounding. Models There are three principal approaches to morphology, which each try to capture the distinctions above in different ways. These are, Morpheme-based morphology, which makes use of an Item-and-Arrangement approach. Lexeme-based morphology, which normally makes use of an Item-and-Process approach. Word-based morphology, which normally makes use of a Word-and-Paradigm approach. Note that while the associations indicated between the concepts in each item in that list is very strong, it is not absolute. Morpheme-based morphology In morpheme-based morphology, word forms are analyzed as arrangements of morphemes. A morpheme is defined as the minimal meaningful unit of a language. In a word like independently, we say that the morphemes are in-, depend, -ent, and ly; depend is the root and the other morphemes are, in this case, derivational affixes. The existence of words like appendix and pending in English does not mean that the English word depend is analyzed into a derivational prefix de- and a root pend. While all those were indeed once related to each other by morphological rules, this was so only in Latin, not in English. English borrowed the words from French and Latin, but not the morphological rules that allowed Latin speakers to combine de- and the verb pendere 'to hang' into the derivative dependere. In a word like dogs, we say that dog is the root, and that -s is an inflectional morpheme. In its simplest (and most naïve) form, this way of analyzing word forms treats words as if they were made of morphemes put after each other like beads on a string, is called Item-and-Arrangement. More modern and sophisticated approaches seek to maintain the idea of the morpheme while accommodating non-concatenative, analogical, and other processes that have proven problematic for Item-and-Arrangement theories and similar approaches. Morpheme-based morphology presumes three basic axioms: Baudoin’s SINGLE MORPHEME HYPOTHESIS: Roots and affixes have the same status in the theory, they are MORPHEMES. Bloomfield’s SIGN BASE MORPHEME HYPOTHESIS: As morphemes, they are dualistic signs, since they have both (phonological) form and meaning. Bloomfield’s LEXICAL MORPHEME HYPOTHESIS: The morphemes, affixes and roots alike, are stored in the lexicon. Morpheme-based morphology comes in two flavours, one Bloomfieldian and one Hockettian. For Bloomfield, the morpheme was the minimal form with meaning, but it was not meaning itself. For Hockett, morphemes are meaning elements, not form elements. For him, there is a morpheme plural, with the allomorphs -s, -en, -ren etc. Within much morpheme-based morphological theory, these two views are mixed in unsystematic ways, so that a writer may talk about "the morpheme plural" and "the morpheme -s" in the same sentence, although these are different things. Lexeme-based morphology Lexeme-based morphology is (usually) an Item-and-Process approach. Instead of analyzing a word form as a set of morphemes arranged in sequence, a word form is said to be the result of applying rules that alter a word form or stem in order to produce a new one. An inflectional rule takes a stem, changes it as is required by the rule, and outputs a word form; a derivational rule takes a stem, changes it as per its own requirements, and outputs a derived stem; a compounding rule takes word forms, and similarly outputs a compound stem. Word-based morphology Word-based morphology is (usually) a Word-and-paradigm approach. This theory takes paradigms as a central notion. Instead of stating rules to combine morphemes into word forms, or to generate word forms from stems, word-based morphology states generalizations that hold between the forms of inflectional paradigms. The major point behind this approach is that many such generalizations are hard to state with either of the other approaches. The examples are usually drawn from fusional languages, where a given "piece" of a word, which a morpheme-based theory would call an inflectional morpheme, corresponds to a combination of grammatical categories, for example, "third person plural." Morpheme-based theories usually have no problems with this situation, since one just says that a given morpheme has two categories. Item-and-Process theories, on the other hand, often break down in cases like these, because they all too often assume that there will be two separate rules here, one for third person, and the other for plural, but the distinction between them turns out to be artificial. Word-and-Paradigm approaches treat these as whole words that are related to each other by analogical rules. Words can be categorized based on the pattern they fit into. This applies both to existing words and to new ones. Application of a pattern different from the one that has been used historically can give rise to a new word, such as older replacing elder (where older follows the normal pattern of adjectival superlatives) and cows replacing kine (where cows fits the regular pattern of plural formation). Morphological Typology In the 19th century, philologists devised a now classic classification of languages according to their morphology. According to this typology, some languages are isolating, and have little to no morphology; others are agglutinative, and their words tend to have lots of easily separable morphemes; while others yet are inflectional or fusional, because their inflectional morphemes are "fused" together. This leads to one bound morpheme conveying multiple pieces of information. The classic example of an isolating language is Chinese; the classic example of an agglutinative language is Turkish; both Latin and Greek are classic examples of fusional languages. Considering the variability of the world's languages, it becomes clear that this classification is not at all clear cut, and many languages do not neatly fit any one of these types, and some fit in more than one way. A continuum of complex morphology of language may be adapted when considering languages. The three models of morphology stem from attempts to analyze languages that more or less match different categories in this typology. The Item-and-Arrangement approach fits very naturally with agglutinative languages; while the Item-and-Process and Word-and-Paradigm approaches usually address fusional languages. The reader should also note that the classical typology mostly applies to inflectional morphology. There is very little fusion going on with word formation. Languages may be classified as synthetic or analytic in their word formation, depending on the preferred way of expressing notions that are not inflectional: either by using word formation (synthetic), or by using syntactic phrases (analytic). See also Affixation Bound morpheme Bracketing paradox Dependent-marking language Descriptive linguistics Descriptive marker Distributed morphology Double-marking language Head marking language Inflected language Lexical markup framework Medical terminology Morphological typology Morphology (folkloristics) Nonconcatenative morphology Noun case Reduplication Righthand head rule Root morpheme Syntactic hierarchy Uninflected word Unpaired word Zero-marking language References Further reading (Abbreviations: CUP = Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; UP = University Press) Anderson, Stephen R. (1992). A-Morphous Morphology. Cambridge: CUP. Aronoff, Mark. (1993). "Morphology by Itself". Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Beard, Robert. (1995). Lexeme-Morpheme Base Morphology. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2471-5. Bauer, Laurie. (2003). Introducing linguistic morphology (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 0-87840-343-4. Bauer, Laurie. (2004). A glossary of morphology. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown UP. Bubenik, Vit. (1999). An introduction to the study of morphology. LINCON coursebooks in linguistics, 07. Muenchen: LINCOM Europa. ISBN 3-89586-570-2. Dixon, R. M. W. and Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (Eds). (2007). Word: A cross-linguistic typology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Foley, William A. (1998). "Symmetrical Voice Systems and Precategoriality in Philippine Languages". Workshop: Voice and Grammatical Functions in Austronesian. University of Sydney. Haspelmath, Martin. (2002). Understanding morphology. London: Arnold (co-published by Oxford University Press). ISBN 0-340-76025-7 (hb); ISBN 0340760265 (pbk). Katamba, Francis. (1993). Morphology. Modern linguistics series. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-10101-5 (hb). ISBN 0-312-10356-5 (pbk). Matthews, Peter. (1991). Morphology (2nd ed.). CUP. ISBN 0-521-41043-6 (hb). ISBN 0-521-42256-6 (pbk). Mel'čuk, Igor A. (1993-2000). Cours de morphologie générale, vol. 1-5. Montreal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal. Mel'čuk, Igor A. (2006). Aspects of the theory of morphology. Berlin: Mouton. Scalise, Sergio. (1983). Generative Morphology, Dordrecht, Foris. Singh, Rajendra and Stanley Starosta (eds). (2003). Explorations in Seamless Morphology. SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-7619-9594-3 (hb). Spencer, Andrew. (1991). Morphological theory: an introduction to word structure in generative grammar. No. 2 in Blackwell textbooks in linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-16143-0 (hb); ISBN 0-631-16144-9 (pb) Spencer, Andrew and Zwicky, Arnold M. (Eds.) (1998). The handbook of morphology. Blackwell handbooks in linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-18544-5. Stump, Gregory T. (2001). Inflectional morphology: a theory of paradigm structure. No. 93 in Cambridge studies in linguistics. CUP. ISBN 0-521-78047-0 (hb). van Valin, Robert D., and LaPolla, Randy. (1997). Syntax : Structure, Meaning And Function. CUP Zuckermann, Ghil'ad. (2009). Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns, Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2: 40-67. | Morphology_(linguistics) |@lemmatized morphology:49 identification:1 analysis:3 description:1 structure:4 word:105 unit:6 lexicon:3 subject:5 matter:1 lexicology:1 generally:2 accept:1 clitics:2 small:3 syntax:5 clear:5 language:39 relate:6 rule:37 example:17 english:18 speaker:7 recognize:2 dog:28 catcher:7 closely:1 relation:4 tacit:1 knowledge:2 formation:22 infer:1 intuitively:1 cat:6 similarly:2 dish:5 dishwasher:2 understand:2 reflect:1 specific:1 pattern:8 regularity:1 way:10 form:47 interact:1 speech:1 branch:3 linguistics:7 study:4 within:2 across:1 attempt:3 formulate:3 model:3 history:2 morphological:14 date:2 back:2 ancient:1 indian:1 linguist:2 sanskrit:1 text:1 use:17 constituency:1 grammar:2 greco:1 roman:1 grammatical:7 tradition:1 also:3 engage:1 arabic:2 conduct:1 least:1 ce:1 phonology:1 term:3 coin:1 august:1 schleicher:1 für:1 die:1 lehre:1 von:1 der:1 wortform:1 wähle:1 ich:1 da:5 wort:1 morphologie:2 science:1 choose:3 mémoires:1 acad:1 impériale:1 fundamental:1 concept:4 lexeme:21 distinction:8 two:14 sens:1 arguably:1 important:2 one:20 first:4 sense:2 call:9 second:6 thus:1 say:7 different:9 hand:2 refer:4 kind:5 entity:3 conventionally:1 represent:1 canonical:1 lemma:1 citation:1 prosodic:3 v:4 failure:1 single:4 phonological:8 coincide:1 latin:5 express:2 noun:10 apple:2 orange:1 suffix:2 que:1 phrase:4 oranges:1 extreme:1 level:1 theoretical:2 quandary:1 pose:2 provide:2 kwak:8 wala:8 formerly:1 know:1 kwakiutl:2 belongs:1 northern:1 wakashan:1 family:1 still:1 tribe:1 along:1 great:1 many:5 mean:6 include:1 possession:2 semantic:2 case:12 affix:8 instead:6 independent:5 three:4 club:8 identifies:1 dependent:5 instrument:1 denote:1 would:4 consist:2 even:2 affixation:3 differs:1 dramatically:1 viewpoint:1 whose:1 reason:1 phonologically:1 attach:3 pertain:1 semantically:1 precede:1 consider:4 following:1 kwakw:1 ala:1 sentence:5 begin:1 correspond:2 verb:8 take:5 foley:2 modified:1 transcription:1 phenomenon:1 report:1 jacobsen:1 cite:1 van:2 valin:2 la:1 polla:1 kwixʔid:3 bəgwanəmai:1 χ:4 q:4 asa:4 isi:2 alwagwayu:3 morpheme:39 translation:1 pivot:4 determiner:3 bəgwanəma:4 man:4 accusative:3 otter:6 instrumental:1 person:6 singular:5 possessive:2 notation:1 note:3 mark:3 something:1 construct:1 relevant:3 discussion:1 contain:1 marker:5 etc:2 summarize:1 differently:1 perceive:1 mani:1 hit:1 hisi:1 central:2 publication:2 topic:1 recent:1 volume:1 edit:1 dixon:2 aikhenvald:2 examine:1 mismatch:1 definition:1 various:1 amazonian:1 australian:1 aboriginal:1 caucasian:1 eskimo:1 indo:1 european:1 native:1 north:1 american:1 west:1 african:1 sign:3 apparently:1 wide:1 variety:1 make:5 hybrid:1 linguistic:5 clitic:1 possess:1 feature:1 lack:1 freedom:1 bound:4 intermediate:1 status:2 considerable:1 challenge:1 theory:11 inflection:9 give:6 notion:3 possible:1 distinguish:1 inflectional:15 plural:14 illustrate:1 compound:4 like:9 informally:1 new:8 yield:1 variant:1 derivation:4 compounding:6 process:9 involve:2 combine:5 complete:4 therefore:2 right:1 apply:7 subsequently:1 treat:3 non:2 exist:2 whereby:1 addition:1 derive:3 prefix:3 derivational:4 depend:6 cut:2 fail:1 agree:1 whether:1 next:2 section:1 clarify:1 well:1 suggest:1 change:4 match:4 sentnce:1 present:1 indefinite:1 go:3 whereas:2 third:3 peson:1 singula:1 number:5 e:1 another:1 difference:6 may:6 resulted:1 differ:1 source:2 gammatical:1 category:10 never:1 paradigm:13 morphosyntax:2 set:2 related:1 associate:1 familiar:1 conjugation:1 declension:1 accordingly:1 arrange:2 conveniently:1 table:2 classify:2 accord:3 share:1 tense:1 aspect:2 mood:1 gender:2 personal:2 pronoun:2 organize:2 masculine:1 feminine:1 neuter:1 subjective:1 objective:1 see:2 detail:1 group:1 cannot:1 arbitrarily:1 must:1 state:5 syntactic:6 define:3 agreement:1 require:2 appear:3 care:2 choice:1 determines:1 contrast:1 however:1 nouns:1 adjective:2 behave:1 behaves:1 inflected:1 requirement:3 restrict:1 corresponding:1 part:1 cover:1 relationship:1 concern:2 allomorphy:2 exposition:1 describe:1 analogy:2 meaning:4 pair:2 x:2 always:1 signal:3 key:1 large:1 complexity:1 correspondence:1 scarcely:1 applies:1 every:1 ox:2 goose:2 sheep:2 depart:1 regular:3 final:2 simple:1 pronounce:1 extra:1 vowel:2 effect:1 alternative:1 constrain:1 sound:3 blindly:1 often:3 violate:1 result:4 sequence:2 prohibit:1 question:1 simply:1 append:1 end:1 permit:1 phonotactics:1 order:2 rescue:1 insert:1 root:7 similar:2 pronunciation:1 quality:1 voiced:1 unvoiced:1 preceding:1 phoneme:1 lexical:4 deal:1 morphologically:1 conceive:1 collection:1 primarily:1 principal:1 approach:13 try:1 capture:1 base:18 item:9 arrangement:5 normally:2 association:1 indicate:1 list:1 strong:1 absolute:1 analyze:5 minimal:2 meaningful:1 independently:1 ent:1 ly:1 existence:1 appendix:1 pending:1 de:5 pend:1 indeed:1 borrow:1 french:1 allow:1 pendere:1 hang:1 derivative:1 dependere:1 simplest:1 naïve:1 put:1 bead:1 string:1 modern:2 sophisticated:1 seek:1 maintain:1 idea:1 accommodate:1 concatenative:1 analogical:2 prove:1 problematic:1 presumes:1 basic:1 axiom:1 baudoin:1 hypothesis:3 bloomfield:3 dualistic:1 since:2 alike:1 store:1 come:1 flavour:1 bloomfieldian:1 hockettian:1 hockett:1 element:2 allomorph:1 en:1 ren:1 much:1 view:1 mixed:1 unsystematic:1 writer:1 talk:1 although:1 thing:1 usually:5 alter:1 stem:7 produce:1 output:3 per:1 derived:1 paradigms:1 generate:1 generalization:2 hold:1 major:1 point:1 behind:1 hard:1 either:2 draw:1 fusional:4 piece:2 combination:1 problem:1 situation:1 break:1 assume:1 separate:1 turn:1 artificial:1 whole:1 categorize:1 fit:5 application:1 historically:1 rise:1 old:2 replace:2 elder:1 follow:1 normal:1 adjectival:1 superlative:1 cow:2 kine:1 typology:6 century:1 philologist:1 devise:1 classic:4 classification:2 isolate:1 little:2 others:2 agglutinative:3 tend:1 lot:1 easily:1 separable:1 yet:1 fused:1 together:1 lead:1 convey:1 multiple:2 information:1 isolating:1 chinese:1 turkish:1 greek:1 variability:1 world:1 become:1 neatly:1 type:1 continuum:1 complex:1 adapt:1 less:1 naturally:1 address:1 reader:1 classical:1 mostly:1 fusion:1 synthetic:2 analytic:2 preferred:1 bracket:1 paradox:1 marking:3 descriptive:2 distribute:1 double:1 head:2 inflect:1 markup:1 framework:1 medical:1 terminology:1 folkloristics:1 nonconcatenative:1 reduplication:1 righthand:1 hierarchy:1 uninflected:1 unpaired:1 zero:1 reference:1 reading:1 abbreviation:1 cup:5 cambridge:7 university:7 press:9 anderson:1 stephen:1 r:2 morphous:1 aronoff:1 mit:1 beard:1 robert:2 albany:1 n:1 york:2 isbn:14 bauer:2 laurie:2 introduce:1 ed:2 washington:2 c:2 georgetown:2 glossary:1 bubenik:1 vit:1 introduction:2 lincon:1 coursebooks:1 muenchen:1 lincom:1 europa:1 w:1 alexandra:1 eds:3 cross:1 william:1 symmetrical:1 voice:2 system:1 precategoriality:1 philippine:1 workshop:1 function:2 austronesian:1 sydney:1 haspelmath:1 martin:2 london:1 arnold:2 co:1 publish:1 oxford:3 hb:6 pbk:3 katamba:1 francis:1 series:1 st:1 matthew:1 peter:1 mel:2 čuk:2 igor:2 cours:1 générale:1 vol:1 montreal:1 l:1 université:1 montréal:1 berlin:1 mouton:1 scalise:1 sergio:1 generative:2 dordrecht:1 foris:1 singh:1 rajendra:1 stanley:1 starosta:1 exploration:1 seamless:1 sage:1 spencer:2 andrew:2 blackwell:4 textbook:1 pb:1 zwicky:1 handbook:1 handbooks:1 stump:1 gregory:1 lapolla:1 randy:1 zuckermann:1 ghil:1 ad:1 hybridity:1 versus:1 revivability:1 causation:1 journal:1 contact:1 varia:1 |@bigram closely_relate:1 tacit_knowledge:1 greco_roman:1 august_schleicher:1 kwak_wala:8 australian_aboriginal:1 indo_european:1 bound_morpheme:3 conjugation_verb:1 declension_noun:1 inflectional_category:2 gender_masculine:1 masculine_feminine:1 feminine_neuter:1 noun_adjective:1 singular_plural:2 inflectional_morpheme:3 descriptive_linguistics:1 linguistic_typology:1 isbn_pbk:3 berlin_mouton:1 generative_grammar:1 oxford_blackwell:2 eds_handbook:1 zuckermann_ghil:1 ghil_ad:1 hybridity_versus:1 versus_revivability:1 revivability_multiple:1 contact_varia:1 |
3,043 | Food_additive | Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavour or improve its taste and appearance. Some additives have been used for centuries; for example, preserving food by pickling (with vinegar), salting, as with bacon, preserving sweets or using sulfur dioxide as in some wines. With the advent of processed foods in the second half of the 20th century, many more additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin. Numbering To regulate these additives, and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number. Initially these were the "E numbers" used in Europe for all approved additives. This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission to internationally identify all additives , regardless of whether they are approved for use. E numbers are all prefixed by "E", but countries outside Europe use only the number, whether the additive is approved in Europe or not. For example, acetic acid is written as E260 on products sold in Europe, but is simply known as additive 260 in some countries. Additive 103, alkanet, is not approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number, although it is approved for use in Australia and New Zealand. Since 1987 Australia has had an approved system of labelling for additives in packaged foods. Each food additive has to be named or numbered. The numbers are the same as in Europe, but without the prefix 'E'. The United States Food and Drug Administration listed these items as "Generally recognized as safe" or GRAS and these are listed under both their Chemical Abstract Services number and FDA regulation listed under the US Code of Federal Regulations See list of food additives for a complete list of all the names. See E number for the numbers. Acids Food acids are added to make flavors "sharper", and also act as preservatives and antioxidants. Common food acids include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid. Acidity regulators Acidity regulators are used to change or otherwise control the acidity and alkalinity of foods. Anticaking agents Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking. Antifoaming agents Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. Antioxidants Antioxidants such as vitamin C act as preservatives by inhibiting the effects of oxygen on food, and can be beneficial to health. Bulking agents Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its nutritional value. Food coloring Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation, or to make food look more attractive. Color retention agents In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color. Emulsifiers Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized milk. Flavors Flavors are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created artificially. Flavor enhancers Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. They may be extracted from natural sources (through distillation, solvent extraction, maceration, among other methods) or created artificially. Flour treatment agents Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its color or its use in baking. Humectants Humectants prevent foods from drying out. Tracer gas Tracer gas allow for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life. Preservatives Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms. Stabilizers Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in for example) give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions. Sweeteners Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth decay and diarrhea. Thickeners Thickeners are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties. Safety With the increasing use of processed foods since the 19th century, there has been a great increase in the use of food additives of varying levels of safety. This has led to legislation in many countries regulating their use. For example, boric acid was widely used as a food preservative from the 1870s to the 1920s , but was banned after World War I due to its toxicity, as demonstrated in animal and human studies. During World War II the urgent need for cheap, available food preservatives led to it being used again, but it was finally banned in the 1950s. Such cases led to a general mistrust of food additives, and an application of the precautionary principle led to the conclusion that only additives that are known to be safe should be used in foods. In the USA, this led to the adoption of the Delaney clause, an amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, stating that no carcinogenic substances may be used as food additives. However, after the banning of cyclamates in the USA and Britain in 1969, saccharin, the only remaining legal artificial sweetener at the time, was found to cause cancer in rats. Widespread public outcry in the USA, partly communicated to Congress by postage-paid postcards supplied in the packaging of sweetened soft drinks, led to the retention of saccharin despite its violation of the Delaney clause. In 2007, Food Standards Australia New Zealand published an official shoppers' guidance with which the concerns of food additives and their labeling are mediated . Cases like these highlight the controversy associated with the risks and benefits of food additives. Some artificial food additives have been linked with cancer, digestive problems, and neurological conditions such as ADD, or diseases like heart disease or obesity. Even "natural" additives may be harmful, whether because of overuse (for example table salt) or because of natural toxicity. An example is safrole, which was used to flavour root beer until it was shown to be carcinogenic. Due to the application of the Delaney clause, it may not be added to foods, even though it occurs naturally in sassafras and sweet basil. Standardization of its derived products ISO has published a series of standards regarding the topic and these standards are covered by ICS 67.220 . See also Color retention agent Delaney clause Dietary supplement Feed additive Food fortification Food labeling regulations Food processing Food supplements Organic food additive Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives List of food additives List of food additives, Codex Alimentarius Organic fertilizer Sugar substitute References U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (1993). Everything Added to Food in the United States. Boca Raton, FL: C.K. Smoley (c/o CRC Press, Inc.). The Food Labelling Regulations (1984) Advanced Modular Science, Nelson, Food and Health, by John Adds, Erica Larkcom and Ruth Miller External links Food Trade's Juicy Secrets by John Triggs in the Daily Express July 17 2007 Everything Added to Food in the United States (EAFUS) i.e. Castor oil, etc. Database of food additives and regulations governing their use EU legislation on food additives CSPI's guide to food additives, (PDF) Food Standards Australia and New Zealand page on food additives Database of food additives for mobile phones (freeware) | Food_additive |@lemmatized food:59 additive:31 substance:3 add:12 preserve:4 flavour:2 improve:2 taste:2 appearance:1 use:20 century:3 example:6 pickle:1 vinegar:2 salting:1 bacon:1 sweet:2 sulfur:1 dioxide:1 wine:1 advent:1 process:3 second:1 half:1 many:2 introduce:1 natural:5 artificial:3 origin:1 number:11 regulate:2 inform:1 consumer:1 assign:1 unique:1 initially:1 e:7 europe:6 approved:2 numbering:1 scheme:1 adopt:1 extend:1 codex:2 alimentarius:2 commission:1 internationally:1 identify:1 regardless:1 whether:3 approve:4 prefix:2 country:3 outside:1 acetic:1 acid:10 write:1 product:2 sell:1 simply:1 know:2 alkanet:1 although:1 australia:4 new:3 zealand:3 since:2 system:1 label:3 package:2 name:2 without:3 united:3 state:4 drug:3 administration:2 list:7 item:1 generally:1 recognize:1 safe:2 gras:1 chemical:1 abstract:1 service:1 fda:1 regulation:5 u:2 code:1 federal:2 see:3 complete:1 make:2 flavor:7 sharp:1 also:2 act:3 preservative:5 antioxidant:3 common:1 include:1 citric:1 tartaric:1 malic:1 fumaric:1 lactic:1 acidity:3 regulator:2 change:1 otherwise:1 control:1 alkalinity:1 anticaking:2 agent:12 keep:2 powder:2 milk:2 cake:1 stick:1 antifoaming:2 reduce:1 prevent:4 foaming:1 vitamin:1 c:3 inhibit:2 effect:2 oxygen:1 beneficial:2 health:2 bulk:3 starch:1 additives:2 increase:4 affect:1 nutritional:1 value:1 coloring:3 replace:1 color:6 lose:1 preparation:1 look:1 attractive:1 retention:4 contrast:1 exist:2 emulsifier:3 allow:2 water:1 oil:2 remain:1 mixed:1 together:1 emulsion:2 mayonnaise:1 ice:1 cream:1 homogenize:1 give:2 particular:1 smell:1 may:5 derive:1 ingredient:1 create:2 artificially:2 enhancer:2 enhance:1 extract:1 source:1 distillation:1 solvent:1 extraction:1 maceration:1 among:1 method:1 flour:3 treatment:2 bake:1 humectant:2 dry:1 tracer:2 gas:2 integrity:1 test:1 expose:1 atmosphere:1 thus:1 guarantee:1 shelf:1 life:1 preservatives:1 spoilage:1 due:3 fungi:1 bacteria:1 microorganism:1 stabilizer:2 thickener:3 gel:1 like:3 agar:1 pectin:1 firm:1 texture:1 true:1 help:1 stabilize:1 sweetener:4 sugar:2 energy:1 calorie:1 low:1 diabetes:1 mellitus:1 tooth:1 decay:1 diarrhea:1 mixture:1 viscosity:1 substantially:1 modify:1 property:1 safety:2 great:1 vary:1 level:1 lead:6 legislation:2 boric:1 widely:1 ban:2 world:2 war:2 toxicity:2 demonstrate:1 animal:1 human:1 study:1 ii:1 urgent:1 need:1 cheap:1 available:1 finally:1 case:2 general:1 mistrust:1 application:2 precautionary:1 principle:1 conclusion:1 usa:3 adoption:1 delaney:4 clause:4 amendment:1 cosmetic:1 carcinogenic:2 however:1 banning:1 cyclamates:1 britain:1 saccharin:2 remaining:1 legal:1 time:1 find:1 cause:1 cancer:2 rat:1 widespread:1 public:1 outcry:1 partly:1 communicate:1 congress:1 postage:1 pay:1 postcard:1 supply:1 packaging:1 sweetened:1 soft:1 drink:1 despite:1 violation:1 standard:4 publish:2 official:1 shopper:1 guidance:1 concern:1 labeling:1 mediate:1 highlight:1 controversy:1 associate:1 risk:1 benefit:1 link:2 digestive:1 problem:1 neurological:1 condition:1 disease:2 heart:1 obesity:1 even:2 harmful:1 overuse:1 table:1 salt:1 safrole:1 root:1 beer:1 show:1 though:1 occur:1 naturally:1 sassafras:1 basil:1 standardization:1 derived:1 iso:1 series:1 regard:1 topic:1 cover:1 ic:1 dietary:1 supplement:2 feed:1 fortification:1 organic:2 joint:1 fao:1 expert:1 committee:1 fertilizer:1 substitute:1 reference:1 everything:2 boca:1 raton:1 fl:1 k:1 smoley:1 crc:1 press:1 inc:1 advance:1 modular:1 science:1 nelson:1 john:2 erica:1 larkcom:1 ruth:1 miller:1 external:1 trade:1 juicy:1 secret:1 triggs:1 daily:1 express:1 july:1 eafus:1 castor:1 etc:1 database:2 govern:1 eu:1 cspi:1 guide:1 pdf:1 page:1 mobile:1 phone:1 freeware:1 |@bigram sulfur_dioxide:1 codex_alimentarius:2 acetic_acid:1 citric_acid:1 acid_tartaric:1 tartaric_acid:1 malic_acid:1 acid_lactic:1 lactic_acid:1 antioxidant_vitamin:1 ice_cream:1 homogenize_milk:1 taste_smell:1 flavor_enhancer:2 solvent_extraction:1 stabilize_emulsion:1 diabetes_mellitus:1 tooth_decay:1 boric_acid:1 food_preservative:2 precautionary_principle:1 artificial_sweetener:1 public_outcry:1 soft_drink:1 dietary_supplement:1 boca_raton:1 crc_press:1 external_link:1 castor_oil:1 mobile_phone:1 |
3,044 | Intel_8086 | The 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor chip designed by Intel and introduced on the market in 1978, which gave rise to the x86 architecture. Intel 8088, released in 1979, was essentially the same chip, but with an external 8-bit data bus (allowing the use of cheaper and fewer supporting logic chips It also permitted cheap 8080-family chips to be used (such as the 8254 CTC, 8255 PIO, and 8259 PIC which were used in the IBM PC design). In addition, it made PCB layout simpler and boards cheaper, as well as demanding fewer (1 or 4-bit wide) DRAM chips. ), and is notable as the processor used in the original IBM PC. History Background In 1972, Intel launched the 8008, the first 8-bit microprocessor using enhancement load pMOS logic (demanding 14V, achieving TTL-compatibility by having VCC at +5V and VDD at -9V) . It implemented an instruction set designed by Datapoint corporation with programmable CRT terminals in mind, that also proved to be fairly general purpose. The device needed several additional ICs to produce a functional computer, in part due to its small 18-pin "memory-package", which ruled out the use of a separate address bus (Intel was primarily a DRAM manufacturer at the time). Two years later, in 1974, Intel launched the 8080 using non-saturated enhancement load nMOS logic (demanding a higher gate voltage for the load transistor-gates) , employing the new 40-pin DIL packages originally developed for calculator ICs to enable a separate address bus. It had an extended instruction set that was source- (not binary-) compatible with the 8008 and also included some 16-bit instructions to make programming easier. The 8080 device, often described as the first truly useful microprocessor, was nonetheless soon replaced by the 8085 which could cope with a single 5V power supply instead of the three different operating voltages of earlier chips. made possible with depletion load nMOS logic (the 8085 was later made using HMOS processing, just like the 8086) Other well known 8-bit microprocessors that emerged during these years were Motorola 6800 (1974), Microchip PIC16X (1975), MOS Technology 6502 (1975), Zilog Z80 (1976), and Motorola 6809 (1977), as well as others. The first x86 design The 8086 was originally intended as a temporary substitute for the ambitious iAPX 432 project in an attempt to draw attention from the less-delayed 16 and 32-bit processors of other manufacturers (such as Motorola, Zilog, and National Semiconductor) and at the same time to top the successful Z80 (designed by former Intel employees). Both the architecture and the physical chip were therefore developed quickly (in a little more than two years Two years from idea to product was considered fast for a complex design as almost no CAD-tools were used; four engineers and 12 layout people were simultaneously working on the chip. ), using the same basic microarchitecture elements and physical implementation techniques as employed by the older 8085, and for which it also functioned as its continuation. Marketed as source compatible, it was designed so that assembly language for the 8085, 8080, or 8008 could be automatically converted into equivalent (sub-optimal) 8086 source code, with little or no hand-editing. This was possible because the programming model and instruction set was (loosely) based on the 8080. However, the 8086 design was expanded to support full 16-bit processing, instead of the fairly basic 16-bit capabilities of the 8080/8085. New kinds of instructions were added as well; self-repeating operations and instructions to better support nested ALGOL-family languages such as Pascal, among others. The 8086 was sequenced 8086 used less microcode than many competitors designs, such as the MC68000 and others using a mix of random logic and microcode and was implemented using depletion load nMOS circuitry with approximately 20,000 active transistors (29,000 counting all ROM and PLA sites). It was soon moved to a new refined nMOS manufacturing process called HMOS (for High performance MOS) that Intel originally developed for manufacturing of fast static RAM products Fast static RAMs in MOS technology (as fast as bipolar RAMs) was an important product for Intel during this period. . This was followed by HMOS-II, HMOS-III versions, and, eventually, a fully static version designed in CMOS and manufactured in CHMOS. CHMOS is intels name for CMOS circuits manufactured using processing steps very similar to HMOS. The original chip measured 33 mm² and minimum feature size was 3.2 μm. The architecture was defined by Stephen P. Morse and Bruce Ravenel. Jim McKevitt and John Bayliss were the lead engineers of the development team and William Pohlman the manager. While less known than the 8088 chip, the legacy of the 8086 is enduring; references to it can still be found on most modern computers in the form of the Vendor ID entry for all Intel devices, which is 8086H (hexadecimal). It also lent its last two digits to Intel's later extended versions of the design, such as the 286 and the 386, all of which eventually became known as the x86 family. Details Buses and operation All internal registers as well as internal and external data buses were 16 bits wide, firmly establishing the "16-bit microprocessor" identity of the 8086. A 20-bit external address bus gave an 1 MB (segmented) physical address space (220 = 1,048,576). The data bus was multiplexed with the address bus in order to fit a standard 40-pin dual in-line package. 16-bit I/O addresses meant 64 KB of separate I/O space (216 = 65,536). The maximum linear address space were limited to 64 KB, simply because internal registers were only 16 bits wide. Programming over 64 KB boundaries involved adjusting segment registers (see below) and were therefore fairly awkward (and remained so until the 80386). Some of the control pins, which carry essential signals for all external operations, had more than one function depending upon whether the device was operated in "min" or "max" mode. The former were intended for small single processor systems whilst the latter were for medium or large systems, using more than one processor. Registers and instructions The 8086 had eight (more or less general) 16-bit registers including the stack pointer, but excluding the instruction pointer, flag register and segment registers. Four of them (AX,BX,CX,DX) could also be accessed as (twice as many) 8-bit registers (AH,AL,BH,BL, etc), the other four (BP,SI,DI,SP) were 16-bit only. Due to a compact encoding inspired by 8085 and other 8-bit processors, most instructions were one-address or two-address operations which means that the result were stored in one of the operands. At most one of the operands could be in memory, but this memory operand could also be the destination, while the other operand, the source, could be either register or immediate. A single memory location could also often be used as both source and destination which, among other factors, further contributed to a code density comparable to (often better than) most eight bit machines. Although the degree of generality of most registers were much greater than in the 8080 or 8085, it was still fairly low compared to the typical contemporary minicomputer, and registers were also sometimes used implicitly by instructions. While perfectly sensible for the assembly programmer, this complicated register allocation for compilers compared to more regular 16- and 32-bit processors (such as the PDP-11, VAX, 68000, etc); on the other hand, compared to contemporary 8-bit microprocessors (such as the 8085, or 6502), it was significantly easier to generate code for the 8086 design. As mentioned above 8086 also featured 64 KB of 8-bit (or alternatively 32 K-word or 16-bit) I/O space. A 64 KB (one segment) stack growing towards lower addresses is supported by hardware; 2-byte words are pushed to the stack and the stack top (bottom) is pointed out by SS:SP. There are 256 interrupts, which can be invoked by both hardware and software. The interrupts can cascade, using the stack to store the return address. The processor had some new instructions (not present in the 8085) to better support stack based high level programming languages such as Pascal and PL/M; some of the more useful ones were push mem-op, and ret size, supporting the "pascal calling convention". (Several others, such as push immed and enter, would be added in the subsequent 80186, 80286, and 80386 designs.) Flags 8086 has a 16 bit flag register. Out of these, 9 are active, and indicate the current state of the processor. These are — Carry flag, Parity flag, Auxiliary flag, Zero flag, Sign flag, Trap flag, Interrupt enable flag, Direction flag and Overflow flag. Segmentation There were also four sixteen-bit segment registers (CS, DS, SS, ES, standing for "code segment", "data segment", "stack segment" and "extra segment") that allowed the CPU to access one megabyte of memory in an unusual way. Rather than concatenating the segment register with the address register, as in most processors whose address space exceeded their register size, the 8086 shifted the segment register left 4 bits and added it to the offset address (physical address = 16·segment + offset), producing a 20-bit effective address from the 32-bit segment:offset pair. As a result, each physical address could be referred to by 212 = 4096 different segment:offset pairs. This scheme had the advantage that a small program (less than 64 kilobytes) could be loaded starting at a fixed offset (such as 0) in its own segment, avoiding the need for relocation, with at most 15 bytes of alignment waste. The 16-byte separation between segment bases was known as a "paragraph". Compilers for the 8086 commonly supported two types of pointer, "near" and "far". Near pointers were 16-bit addresses implicitly associated with the program's code or data segment (and so made sense only in programs small enough to fit in one segment). Far pointers were 32-bit segment:offset pairs. C compilers also supported "huge" pointers, which were like far pointers except that pointer arithmetic on a huge pointer treated it as a flat 20-bit pointer, while pointer arithmetic on a far pointer wrapped around within its initial 64-kilobyte segment. To avoid the need to specify "near" and "far" on every pointer and every function which took or returned a pointer, compilers also supported "memory models" which specified default pointer sizes. The "small", "compact", "medium", and "large" models covered every combination of near and far pointers for code and data. The "tiny" model was like "small" except that code and data shared one segment. The "huge" model was like "large" except that all pointers were huge instead of far by default. Precompiled libraries often came in several versions compiled for different memory models. In principle the address space of the x86 series could have been extended in later processors by increasing the shift value, as long as applications obtained their segments from the operating system and did not make assumptions about the equivalence of different segment:offset pairs. In practice the use of "huge" pointers and similar mechanisms was widespread, and the shift value was never changed. According to Morse et al., the designers of the 8086 considered using a shift of eight bits instead of four, which would have given the processor a 16-megabyte address space. The designers actually contemplated using an 8-bit shift (instead of 4-bit), in order to create a 16 MB physical address space. However, as this would have forced segments to begin on 256 byte boundaries, and 1 MB was considered very large for a microprocessor around 1976, the idea was dismissed. Also, there were not enough pins available on a low-cost 40-pin package. — Intel 8008 to 8086 by Stephen P. Morse et al. . Subsequent expansion The 80286's protected mode extended the processor's address space to 224 bytes (16 megabytes), but not by increasing the shift value. Instead, the 16-bit segment registers supply an index into a table of 24-bit base addresses, to which the offset is added. To support old software the 80286 also had a "real mode" in which address calculation mimicked the 8086. There was, however, one small difference: on the 8086 the address was truncated to 20 bits, while on the 80286 it was not. Thus real-mode pointers could refer to addresses between 100000 and 10FFEF (hexadecimal). This roughly 64-kilobyte region of memory was known as the High Memory Area, and later versions of MS-DOS could use it to increase available low memory. The 80386 increased both the base address and the offset to 32 bits and introduced two more general-purpose segment registers, FS and GS. The 80386 also introduced paging. The segment system can be used to enforce separation of unprivileged processes in a 32-bit operating system, but most operating systems using paging for this purpose instead, and set all segment registers to point to a segment with an offset of 0 and a length of 232, giving the application full access to its virtual address space through any segment register. The x86-64 architecture drops most support for segmentation. The segment registers still exist, but the base addresses for CS, SS, DS, and ES are forced to 0, and the limit to 264. In x86 versions of Microsoft Windows, the FS segment does not cover the entire address space. Instead it points to a small data structure, different for each thread, which contains information about exception handling, thread-local variables, and other per-thread state. The x86-64 architecture supports this technique by allowing a nonzero base address for FS & GS. Porting older software Small programs could ignore the segmentation and just use plain 16-bit addressing. This allowed 8-bit software to be quite easily ported to the 8086. The authors of MS-DOS took advantage of this by providing an Application Programming Interface very similar to CP/M as well as including the simple .com executable file format, identical to CP/M. This was important when the 8086 and MS-DOS was new, because it allowed many existing CP/M (and other) applications to be quickly made available, greatly easing the acceptance of new platform. Performance Although partly shadowed by other design choices in this particular chip, the multiplexed bus limited performance slightly; transfers of 16-bit or 8-bit quantities were done in a four-clock memory access cycle. Faster on 16-bit, although slower on 8-bit quantities, compared to typical contemporary "8-bit" CPUs. As instructions varied from 1 to 6 bytes, fetch and execution were made concurrent (as it remains in today's x86 processors): The bus interface unit fed the instruction stream to the execution unit through a 6 byte prefetch queue (a form of loosely coupled pipelining), speeding up operations on registers and immediates, while memory operations unfortunately became slower (4 years later, this performance problem was fixed with the 80186 and 80286). However, the full (instead of partial) 16-bit architecture with a full width ALU meant that 16-bit arithmetic instructions could now be performed with a single ALU cycle (instead of two, via carry), speeding up such instructions considerably. Combined with orthogonalizations of operations versus operand-types and addressing modes, as well as other enhancements, this made the performance gain over the 8080 or 8085 fairly significant, despite cases where the older chips may be faster (see below). Execution times for typical instructions (in clock cycles): Timings are best case, depending on prefetch status, instruction alignment, and other factors. MOV reg,reg: 2, reg,im: 4, reg,mem: 8+EA, mem,reg: 9+EA, mem,im: 10+EA cycles ALU reg,reg: 3, reg,im: 4, reg,mem: 9+EA, mem,reg: 16+EA, mem,im: 17+EA cycles JMP reg: 11, JMP label: 15, Jcc label: 16 (cc = condition code) MUL reg: 70..118 cycles IDIV reg: 101..165 cycles EA: time to compute effective address, ranging from 5 to 12 cycles. As can be seen from these tables, operations on registers and immediates were fast (between 2 and 4 cycles), while memory-operand instructions and jumps were quite slow; jumps took more cycles than on the simple 8080 and 8085, and the 8088 (used in the IBM PC) was additionally hampered by its narrower bus. The reasons why most memory related instructions were slow were threefold: Loosely coupled fetch and execution units are efficient for instruction prefetch, but not for jumps and random data access (without special measures). No dedicated address calculation adder was afforded; the microcode routines had to use the main ALU for this (although there was a dedicated segment + offset adder). The address and data buses were multiplexed, forcing a slightly longer (33~50%) bus cycle than in typical contemporary 8-bit processors. It should be noted, however, that memory access performance was drastically enhanced with Intel's next generation chips. The 80186 and 80286 both had dedicated address calculation hardware, saving many cycles, and 80286 also had separate (non-multiplexed) address and data buses. Floating point The 8086/8088 could be connected to a mathematical coprocessor to add floating point capability. The Intel 8087 was the standard math coprocessor, operating on 80-bit numbers, but manufacturers like Weitek soon offered higher performance alternatives. Chip versions The clock frequency was originally limited to 5 MHz (IBM PC used 4.77 MHz, 3/4 the standard NTSC color burst frequency), but the last versions in HMOS were specified for 10 MHz. HMOS-III and CMOS versions were manufactured for a long time (at least a while into the 1990s) for embedded systems, although its successor, the 80186/80188, has been more popular for embedded use. Derivatives and clones Soviet clone KP1810BM86. OKI M80C86A QFP-56Compatible and, in many cases, enhanced versions were manufactured by Fujitsu, Harris/Intersil, OKI, Siemens AG, Texas Instruments, NEC, and AMD. For example, the NEC V20 and NEC V30 pair were hardware compatible with the 8088 and 8086, respectively, but incorporated the instruction set of the 80186 along with some (but not all) of the 80186 speed enhancements, providing an drop-in capability to upgrade both instruction set and processing speed without manufacturers having to modify their designs. Such relatively simple and low power 8086-compatible processors in CMOS are still used in embedded systems. The electronics industry of the Soviet Union was able to replicate the 8086 through both industrial espionage and reverse engineering. The resulting chip, K1810BM86, was pin-compatible with the original Intel 8086 and had the same instruction set. This IC was the core of Soviet-made PC-compatible ES1840 and ES1841 desktops. However, in hardware these computers had significant differences from their authentic prototypes (respectively PC and PC/XT): the K1810BM86 was a copy from Intel 8086, not Intel 8088, and the data/address bus circuitry was designed independently of original Intel products. Microcomputers using the 8086 One of the most influential microcomputers of all, the IBM PC, used the Intel 8088, a version of the 8086 with an eight-bit data bus (as mentioned above). The first commercial microcomputer built on the basis of the 8086 was the Mycron 2000. The IBM Displaywriter word processing machine and the Wang Professional Computer, manufactured by Wang Laboratories, also used the 8086. Also, this chip could be found in the AT&T 6300 PC (built by Olivetti). The first Compaq Deskpro used an 8086 running at 7.14 MHz, but was capable of running add-in cards designed for the 4.77 MHz IBM PC XT. The FLT86 is a well established training system for the 8086 CPU still being manufactured by Flite Electronics International Limited in Southampton, England The IBM PS/2 models 25 and 30 were built with an 8MHz 8086 The Tandy 1000 SL-series machines used 8086 CPUs. Notes and references See also IBM Personal Computer XT x86 architecture External links Intel datasheets List of 8086 CPUs and their clones at CPUworld.com Training system for the 8086 CPU 8086 Pinouts | Intel_8086 |@lemmatized bit:51 microprocessor:7 chip:16 design:17 intel:19 introduce:3 market:2 give:4 rise:1 architecture:7 release:1 essentially:1 external:5 data:13 bus:16 allow:5 use:35 cheap:3 support:12 logic:5 also:20 permit:1 family:3 ctc:1 pio:1 pic:1 ibm:9 pc:10 addition:1 make:10 pcb:1 layout:2 simpler:1 board:1 well:8 demand:3 wide:3 dram:2 notable:1 processor:15 original:4 history:1 background:1 launch:2 first:5 enhancement:4 load:6 pmos:1 achieve:1 ttl:1 compatibility:1 vcc:1 vdd:1 implement:2 instruction:23 set:7 datapoint:1 corporation:1 programmable:1 crt:1 terminal:1 mind:1 prove:1 fairly:5 general:3 purpose:3 device:4 need:3 several:3 additional:1 ic:3 produce:2 functional:1 computer:5 part:1 due:2 small:9 pin:7 memory:15 package:4 rule:1 separate:4 address:39 primarily:1 manufacturer:4 time:5 two:8 year:5 later:4 non:2 saturate:1 nmos:4 high:5 gate:2 voltage:2 transistor:2 employ:2 new:6 dil:1 originally:4 develop:2 calculator:1 enable:2 extended:2 source:5 binary:1 compatible:6 include:3 program:7 easy:2 often:4 describe:1 truly:1 useful:2 nonetheless:1 soon:3 replace:1 could:16 cope:1 single:4 power:2 supply:2 instead:10 three:1 different:5 operate:5 early:1 possible:2 depletion:2 hmos:2 processing:3 like:5 know:5 emerge:1 motorola:3 microchip:1 mo:3 technology:2 zilog:2 others:4 intend:2 temporary:1 substitute:1 ambitious:1 iapx:1 project:1 attempt:1 draw:1 attention:1 less:5 delayed:1 national:1 semiconductor:1 top:2 successful:1 former:2 employee:1 physical:6 therefore:2 developed:1 quickly:2 little:2 idea:2 product:4 consider:3 fast:6 complex:1 almost:1 cad:1 tool:1 four:6 engineer:2 people:1 simultaneously:1 work:1 basic:2 microarchitecture:1 element:1 implementation:1 technique:2 old:4 function:3 continuation:1 assembly:2 language:3 automatically:1 convert:1 equivalent:1 sub:1 optimal:1 code:8 hand:2 editing:1 programming:2 model:7 loosely:3 base:7 however:6 expand:1 full:4 capability:3 kind:1 add:6 self:1 repeat:1 operation:8 good:3 nest:1 algol:1 pascal:3 among:2 sequence:1 microcode:3 many:5 competitor:1 mix:1 random:2 circuitry:2 approximately:1 active:2 count:1 rom:1 pla:1 site:1 move:1 refine:1 manufacturing:2 process:4 call:2 hmo:5 performance:7 static:3 ram:3 bipolar:1 important:2 period:1 follow:1 ii:1 iii:2 version:10 eventually:2 fully:1 cmos:4 manufacture:6 chmos:2 intels:1 name:1 circuit:1 step:1 similar:3 measure:2 minimum:1 feature:2 size:4 μm:1 define:1 stephen:2 p:3 morse:3 bruce:1 ravenel:1 jim:1 mckevitt:1 john:1 bayliss:1 lead:1 development:1 team:1 william:1 pohlman:1 manager:1 legacy:1 endure:1 reference:2 still:5 find:2 modern:1 form:2 vendor:1 id:1 entry:1 hexadecimal:2 lend:1 last:2 digit:1 become:2 detail:1 internal:3 register:25 firmly:1 establish:2 identity:1 mb:3 segment:33 space:11 multiplexed:4 order:2 fit:2 standard:3 dual:1 line:1 mean:3 kb:5 maximum:1 linear:1 limit:5 simply:1 boundary:2 involve:1 adjust:1 see:4 awkward:1 remain:2 control:1 carry:3 essential:1 signal:1 one:12 depend:2 upon:1 whether:1 min:1 max:1 mode:5 system:10 whilst:1 latter:1 medium:2 large:4 eight:4 stack:7 pointer:19 exclude:1 flag:12 ax:1 bx:1 cx:1 dx:1 access:6 twice:1 ah:1 al:3 bh:1 bl:1 etc:2 bp:1 si:1 di:1 sp:2 compact:2 encoding:1 inspire:1 result:3 store:2 operand:6 destination:2 either:1 immediate:1 location:1 factor:2 far:8 contribute:1 density:1 comparable:1 machine:3 although:5 degree:1 generality:1 much:1 great:1 low:5 compare:4 typical:4 contemporary:4 minicomputer:1 sometimes:1 implicitly:2 perfectly:1 sensible:1 programmer:1 complicate:1 allocation:1 compiler:4 regular:1 pdp:1 vax:1 significantly:1 generate:1 mention:2 alternatively:1 k:1 word:3 grow:1 towards:1 hardware:5 byte:7 push:3 bottom:1 point:5 interrupt:3 invoke:1 software:4 cascade:1 return:2 present:1 level:1 pl:1 mem:7 op:1 ret:1 convention:1 immed:1 enter:1 would:3 subsequent:2 indicate:1 current:1 state:2 parity:1 auxiliary:1 zero:1 sign:1 trap:1 direction:1 overflow:1 segmentation:3 sixteen:1 c:3 e:2 stand:1 extra:1 cpu:6 megabyte:3 unusual:1 way:1 rather:1 concatenate:1 whose:1 exceed:1 shift:6 leave:1 offset:11 effective:2 pair:5 refer:2 scheme:1 advantage:2 kilobyte:3 start:1 fixed:1 avoid:2 relocation:1 alignment:2 waste:1 separation:2 paragraph:1 commonly:1 type:2 near:4 associate:1 sense:1 enough:2 huge:5 except:3 arithmetic:3 treat:1 flat:1 wrap:1 around:2 within:1 initial:1 specify:3 every:3 take:3 default:2 cover:2 combination:1 tiny:1 share:1 precompiled:1 library:1 come:1 compile:1 principle:1 series:2 extend:2 late:2 increase:4 value:3 long:3 application:4 obtain:1 operating:1 assumption:1 equivalence:1 practice:1 mechanism:1 widespread:1 never:1 change:1 accord:1 et:2 designer:2 actually:1 contemplate:1 create:1 force:3 begin:1 dismiss:1 available:3 cost:1 expansion:1 protect:1 index:1 table:2 real:2 calculation:3 mimic:1 difference:2 truncate:1 thus:1 roughly:1 region:1 area:1 f:3 g:2 page:2 enforce:1 unprivileged:1 length:1 virtual:1 drop:2 exist:2 microsoft:1 window:1 entire:1 structure:1 thread:3 contain:1 information:1 exception:1 handling:1 local:1 variable:1 per:1 nonzero:1 port:2 ignore:1 plain:1 quite:2 easily:1 author:1 provide:2 interface:2 cp:3 simple:3 com:2 executable:1 file:1 format:1 identical:1 ms:1 greatly:1 ease:1 acceptance:1 platform:1 partly:1 shadow:1 choice:1 particular:1 slightly:2 transfer:1 quantity:2 clock:3 cycle:12 faster:1 slow:4 vary:1 fetch:2 execution:4 concurrent:1 today:1 unit:3 feed:1 stream:1 prefetch:3 queue:1 couple:2 pipelining:1 speed:4 immediates:2 unfortunately:1 problem:1 fix:1 partial:1 width:1 alu:4 perform:1 via:1 considerably:1 combine:1 orthogonalizations:1 versus:1 gain:1 significant:2 despite:1 case:3 may:1 timing:1 best:1 status:1 mov:1 reg:13 im:4 ea:7 jmp:2 label:2 jcc:1 cc:1 condition:1 mul:1 idiv:1 compute:1 range:1 jump:3 additionally:1 hamper:1 narrow:1 reason:1 related:1 threefold:1 efficient:1 without:2 special:1 dedicated:2 adder:2 afford:1 routine:1 main:1 note:2 drastically:1 enhance:1 next:1 generation:1 dedicate:1 save:1 float:2 connect:1 mathematical:1 coprocessor:2 math:1 number:1 weitek:1 offer:1 alternative:1 versions:1 frequency:2 mhz:5 ntsc:1 color:1 burst:1 least:1 embed:2 successor:1 popular:1 derivative:1 clone:3 soviet:3 oki:2 qfp:1 enhanced:1 fujitsu:1 harris:1 intersil:1 siemens:1 ag:1 texas:1 instrument:1 nec:3 amd:1 example:1 respectively:2 incorporate:1 along:1 upgrade:1 modify:1 relatively:1 embedded:1 electronics:2 industry:1 union:1 able:1 replicate:1 industrial:1 espionage:1 reverse:1 engineering:1 core:1 desktop:1 authentic:1 prototype:1 xt:3 copy:1 independently:1 microcomputer:3 influential:1 commercial:1 build:3 basis:1 mycron:1 displaywriter:1 wang:2 professional:1 laboratory:1 olivetti:1 compaq:1 deskpro:1 running:1 capable:1 run:1 card:1 training:2 flite:1 international:1 southampton:1 england:1 tandy:1 sl:1 personal:1 link:1 datasheets:1 list:1 cpuworld:1 pinouts:1 |@bigram ibm_pc:6 dram_chip:1 load_nmos:3 mo_technology:2 stack_pointer:1 pointer_arithmetic:2 et_al:2 microsoft_window:1 reg_reg:4 math_coprocessor:1 siemens_ag:1 soviet_union:1 pc_compatible:1 pc_xt:2 intel_intel:1 compaq_deskpro:1 external_link:1 |
3,045 | Craig_Venter | J. Craig Venter (born John Craig Venter October 14, 1946, Salt Lake City, Utah) is an American biologist and businessman. Venter founded The Institute for Genomic Research and has been credited with being instrumental in mapping the human genome. Craig Venter meets with BABS Students University of New South Wales (18 March 2005) His for-profit efforts used public domain data generated by the Human Genome Project , but could be used to generate high quality data on their own. He was listed on Time Magazine's 2007 and 2008 Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world. Early life Venter is an ex-surfer and a Vietnam war veteran. According to Time Magazine, it was not always evident that he would become a transformative figure, particularly when he was a boy; according to his biography, A Life Decoded, he was said to be never a terribly engaged student, having C's and D's in his eighth grade report cards. Time, February 4, 2008. Venter attended Mills High School from Millbrae, CA He enlisted in the United States Navy and served a tour of duty during the Vietnam War. While in Vietnam, he attempted to commit suicide by swimming out to sea, but changed his mind more than a mile out. Venter graduated from Mills High School and began his college career at a community college, College of San Mateo in California. He received his B.S. degree in biochemistry in 1972, and his Ph.D. degree in physiology and pharmacology in 1975 — both from the University of California, San Diego. In San Diego, he married former Ph.D. candidate, Barbara Rae. Rae-Venter Law Group The god of small things - Science - Specials - smh.com.au After working as a professor at the State University of New York at Buffalo, he joined the National Institutes of Health in 1984. In Buffalo, he divorced Dr. Rae-Venter and married his student, Claire M. Fraser, and remained married to her until 2005. Discovery While at NIH, Venter learned of a technique for rapidly identifying all of the mRNAs present in a cell, and began to use it to identify human brain genes. The short cDNA sequence fragments discovered by this method are called expressed sequence tags, or ESTs, a name coined by Anthony Kerlavage at The Institute for Genomic Research. Venter controversially filed patents on several of these gene fragments. The NIH later withdrew the patent applications after public outcry, and later court cases declared that ESTs were not directly patentable. In re Fisher, 421 F.3d 1365 (2005). Human Genome Project He is the former president and founder of Celera Genomics, which ran a parallel version of the Human Genome Project of its own for commercial purposes, using shotgun sequencing technology in 1999. The method had been proposed for human genome sequencing , but most geneticists felt it would not be accurate enough for a genome as complicated as the human . The aim of the Celera project was to create a database of genomic data that users could subscribe to for a fee. This proved very unpopular in the genetics community and spurred several groups to redouble their efforts to produce the full sequence and release it as open access. DNA from five individuals was used by Celera to generate the sequence of the human genome; one of the five people used in this project was Venter. Celera and the Human Genome Project published rival announcements of success in 2001 . There was some evidence that shotgun sequencing had in fact proved less accurate than the clone-by-clone method chosen by the Human Genome Project . After his inability to collect royalties for the Human Genome, Venter was fired by Celera in early 2002. Antonio Regalo, "Maverick biologist at work on next goal: creating life", Seattle Times, July 24, 2005. Venter resisted efforts by the company board to change the strategic direction of the company. Despite their differing motivations, Venter and rival scientist Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000, along with US President Bill Clinton. Jamie Shreeve, "The Blueprint of Life," U.S. News and World Report, 10/31/05, URL accessed 30 January 2007. Venter and Collins thus shared an award for "Biography of the Year" from A&E Network. "Montgomery County, Maryland, Press Releases," December 19, 2000, URL accessed 30 January 2007. Current work Venter created The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) in 1992. He is currently the president of the J. Craig Venter Institute, created and funded by TIGR's board (which Venter chairs). In June 2005, he co-founded Synthetic Genomics, a firm dedicated to using modified microorganisms to produce clean fuels and biochemicals. He used his sloop, Sorcerer II, in the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition to help assess genetic diversity in marine microbial communities. Media coverage Venter has been the subject of articles in several magazines, notably Wired, Shreeve, James. "Craig Venter's Epic Voyage to Redefine the Origin of the Species," Wired, August 2004. Accessed June 7, 2007. The Economist, "The Journey of the Sorcerer", The Economist, December 4, 2004. Australian science magazine Cosmos, First individual person's genome decoded - Cosmos Magazine. September 4, 2007. Geneticists on verge of creating artificial life - Cosmos Magazine. October 8, 2007. and Atlantic Monthly. Douthat, Ross. "The God of Small Things," Atlantic Monthly, Jan/Feb 2007. Additionally, he was featured on The Colbert Report on both February 27, 2007, and October 30, 2007. Venter appeared in the "Evolution" episode of the documentary television series Understanding. On May 16, 2004 Venter gave the commencement speech at Boston University. Warren, Jessica. , The Daily Free Press, April 28, 2004. Accessed August 2, 2008. On May 10, 2007, Venter was awarded an honorary doctorate from Arizona State University. Aufrett, Sarah. "ASU Celebrates Spring Graduates", ASU Insight, May 11, 2007. Accessed June 7, 2007. He was on the 2007 Time 100 most influential people in the world list made by Time magazine. On September 4, 2007, a team led by Venter published the first complete (six-billion-letter) genome of an individual human — Venter's own DNA sequence. On BBC News on October 22, 2007, when asked about his religious view he replied that he thought that a true scientist could not believe in supernatural explanations. On December 4, 2007, Venter gave the Dimbleby lecture for the BBC in London. He outlined his current work and future developments in genetics. In February 2008, he gave a speech about his current work at the TED conference. The video can be seen online and downloaded. TED | Talks | Craig Venter: On the verge of creating synthetic life (video) Dr. Venter was featured in Time Magazine's "The Top 10 Everything of 2008" article. Number three in 2008's Top 10 Scientific Discoveries was a piece outlining his work stitching together the 582,000 base pairs necessary to invent the genetic information for a whole new bacterium. Dr. Venter took part in the inaugural San Diego Science Festival and spoke at its press conference on February 26, 2009. On April 6, 2009, Venter gave a speech at Arizona State University as part of the Origins Symposium. Individual human genome sequenced On September 4, 2007, a team led by Sam Levy, consisting of Granger Sutton,Pauline C. Ng, Lars Feuk, Aaron L. Halpern, Brian P. Walenz, Nelson Axelrod, Jiaqi Huang, Ewen F. Kirkness, Gennady Denisov, Yuan Lin, Jeffrey R. MacDonald, Andy Wing Chun Pang, Mary Shago, Timothy B. Stockwell, Alexia Tsiamouri, Vineet Bafna, Vikas Bansal, Saul A. Kravitz, Dana A. Busam, Karen Y. Beeson, Tina C. McIntosh, Karin A. Remington, Josep F. Abril4, John Gill, Jon Borman, Yu-Hui Rogers, Marvin E. Frazier, Stephen W. Scherer, and Robert L. Strausberg, published the first complete (six-billion-letter) genome of an individual human — Venter's own DNA sequence. Some of the sequences in Venter's genome are associated with wet earwax, Omim - Ear Wax, Wet/Dry increased risk of antisocial behavior, Alzheimer's and cardiovascular diseases. This publication was especially interesting since it contained a diploid instead of a haploid genome and shows promise for personalized medicine via genotyping. The Human Reference (HuRef) Genome Browser is a Web application (http://huref.jcvi.org) for the navigation and analysis of Venter's recently published genome. The HuRef database consists of approximately 32 million DNA reads sequenced using Sanger methods, assembled into 4,528 scaffolds and 4.1 million DNA variations identified by genome analysis. These variants include Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs), block substitutions, short and large indels, structural variants like insertion, deletions, inversions and copy number changes. The browser enables scientists to navigate the HuRef genome assembly and sequence variations, and to compare it with the NCBI human build 36 assembly in the context of the NCBI and Ensembl annotations. The browser provides a comparative view between NCBI and HuRef consensus sequences, the sequence multi-alignment of the HuRef assembly, Ensembl and dbSNP annotations, HuRef variants, and the underlying variant evidence and functional analysis. The interface also represents the haplotype blocks from which diploid genome sequence can be inferred and the relation of variants to gene annotations. The display of variants and gene annotations are linked to external public resources including dbSNP, Ensembl , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) and Gene Ontology (GO). Users can search the HuRef genome using HUGO gene names, Ensembl and dbSNP identifiers, HuRef contig or scaffold locations, or NCBI chromosome locations. Users can then easily and quickly browse any genomic region via the simple and intuitive pan and zoom controls; furthermore relevant data in specific loci can be exported for further analysis. Mycoplasma laboratorium Venter is seeking to patent the first life-form created by humanity, possibly to be named Mycoplasma laboratorium. Biologist Venter aims to create life from scratch There is speculation that this line of research could lead to producing bacteria that have been engineered to perform specific reactions, e.g. produce fuels, make medicines, combat global warming, etc. Man-made microbe 'to create endless biofuel' - Telegraph New Scientist Interview In a 2007 interview with New Scientist when asked "Assuming you can make synthetic bacteria, what will you do with them?", Venter replied Furthermore it suggests that one of the main purposes for creating synthetic bacteria would be to reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. Further reading Duncan, D E Masterminds, ISBN 978-0-00-716184-3 (2006) Ridley, M Genome, ISBN 0-06-089408-3 Shreeve, J The Genome War, ISBN 0-375-40629-8 Spufford, F Backroom Boys, ISBN 0-571-21497-5 Sulston, J & Ferry, G The Common Thread, ISBN 0-309-08409-1 Venter, J C A Life Decoded. My Genome: My Life, ISBN 978-0-670-06358-1 See also Full Genome Sequencing Predictive Medicine References External links J. Craig Venter Institute Sorcerer II Expedition Synthetic Genomics The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) Cracking the code to life Media External links Craig Venter interview - Wired Science, December 2007 (video) Radio interview on Philosophy Talk Video of interview/discussion with Craig Venter by Carl Zimmer on Bloggingheads.tv Craig Venter: A voyage of DNA, genes and the sea - TED (Technology Entertainment Design) conference (video) Webcast of Venter talk 'Genomics: From humans to the environment' at The James Martin 21st Century School The Richard Dimbleby Lecture 2007 - Dr. J. Craig Venter - A DNA Driven World TedTalks: Craig Venter: On the verge of creating synthetic life, February 2008 | Craig_Venter |@lemmatized j:7 craig:12 venter:45 born:1 john:2 october:4 salt:1 lake:1 city:1 utah:1 american:1 biologist:3 businessman:1 found:2 institute:8 genomic:6 research:5 credit:1 instrumental:1 map:1 human:18 genome:27 meet:1 babs:1 student:3 university:6 new:5 south:1 wale:1 march:1 profit:1 effort:3 use:10 public:3 domain:1 data:4 generate:3 project:7 could:4 high:3 quality:1 list:3 time:8 magazine:8 influential:2 people:3 world:4 early:2 life:12 ex:1 surfer:1 vietnam:3 war:3 veteran:1 accord:2 always:1 evident:1 would:3 become:1 transformative:1 figure:1 particularly:1 boy:2 biography:2 decode:3 say:1 never:1 terribly:1 engage:1 c:4 eighth:1 grade:1 report:3 card:1 february:5 attend:1 mill:2 school:3 millbrae:1 ca:1 enlist:1 united:1 state:4 navy:1 serve:1 tour:1 duty:1 attempt:1 commit:1 suicide:1 swim:1 sea:2 change:3 mind:1 mile:1 graduate:2 begin:2 college:3 career:1 community:3 san:4 mateo:1 california:2 receive:1 b:2 degree:2 biochemistry:1 ph:2 physiology:1 pharmacology:1 diego:3 marry:2 former:2 candidate:1 barbara:1 rae:3 law:1 group:2 god:2 small:2 thing:2 science:4 special:1 smh:1 com:1 au:1 work:6 professor:1 york:1 buffalo:2 join:1 national:2 health:2 divorce:1 dr:4 claire:1 fraser:1 remain:1 married:1 discovery:2 nih:2 learn:1 technique:1 rapidly:1 identify:3 mrnas:1 present:1 cell:1 brain:1 gene:7 short:2 cdna:1 sequence:16 fragment:2 discover:1 method:4 call:1 expressed:1 tag:1 est:2 name:3 coin:1 anthony:1 kerlavage:1 controversially:1 file:1 patent:3 several:3 later:2 withdraw:1 application:2 outcry:1 court:1 case:1 declare:1 directly:1 patentable:1 fisher:1 f:4 president:3 founder:1 celera:5 genomics:4 run:1 parallel:1 version:1 commercial:1 purpose:2 shotgun:2 technology:2 propose:1 sequencing:1 geneticist:2 felt:1 accurate:2 enough:1 complicate:1 aim:2 create:11 database:2 user:3 subscribe:1 fee:1 prove:2 unpopular:1 genetics:2 spur:1 redouble:1 produce:4 full:2 release:2 open:1 access:6 dna:7 five:2 individual:5 one:2 publish:4 rival:2 announcement:2 success:1 evidence:2 fact:1 less:1 clone:2 choose:1 inability:1 collect:1 royalty:1 fire:1 antonio:1 regalo:1 maverick:1 next:1 goal:1 seattle:1 july:1 resist:1 company:2 board:2 strategic:1 direction:1 despite:1 differing:1 motivation:1 scientist:5 francis:1 collins:2 jointly:1 make:5 mapping:1 along:1 u:2 bill:1 clinton:1 jamie:1 shreeve:3 blueprint:1 news:2 url:2 january:2 thus:1 share:1 award:2 year:1 e:4 network:1 montgomery:1 county:1 maryland:1 press:3 december:4 current:3 tigr:3 currently:1 fund:1 chair:1 june:3 co:1 synthetic:6 firm:1 dedicate:1 modify:1 microorganism:1 clean:1 fuel:3 biochemicals:1 sloop:1 sorcerer:3 ii:2 global:2 ocean:1 sample:1 expedition:2 help:1 assess:1 genetic:2 diversity:1 marine:1 microbial:1 medium:2 coverage:1 subject:1 article:2 notably:1 wire:3 james:2 epic:1 voyage:2 redefine:1 origin:2 specie:1 august:2 economist:2 journey:1 australian:1 cosmos:3 first:4 person:1 september:3 verge:3 artificial:1 atlantic:2 monthly:2 douthat:1 ross:1 jan:1 feb:1 additionally:1 feature:2 colbert:1 appear:1 evolution:1 episode:1 documentary:1 television:1 series:1 understand:1 may:3 give:4 commencement:1 speech:3 boston:1 warren:1 jessica:1 daily:1 free:1 april:2 honorary:1 doctorate:1 arizona:2 aufrett:1 sarah:1 asu:2 celebrates:1 spring:1 insight:1 team:2 lead:3 complete:2 six:2 billion:2 letter:2 bbc:2 ask:2 religious:1 view:2 reply:2 think:1 true:1 believe:1 supernatural:1 explanation:1 dimbleby:2 lecture:2 london:1 outline:2 future:1 development:1 ted:3 conference:3 video:5 see:2 online:2 download:1 talk:3 top:2 everything:1 number:2 three:1 scientific:1 piece:1 stitch:1 together:1 base:1 pair:1 necessary:1 invent:1 information:1 whole:1 bacterium:1 take:1 part:2 inaugural:1 festival:1 speak:1 symposium:1 sam:1 levy:1 consist:2 granger:1 sutton:1 pauline:1 ng:1 lars:1 feuk:1 aaron:1 l:2 halpern:1 brian:1 p:1 walenz:1 nelson:1 axelrod:1 jiaqi:1 huang:1 ewen:1 kirkness:1 gennady:1 denisov:1 yuan:1 lin:1 jeffrey:1 r:1 macdonald:1 andy:1 wing:1 chun:1 pang:1 mary:1 shago:1 timothy:1 stockwell:1 alexia:1 tsiamouri:1 vineet:1 bafna:1 vikas:1 bansal:1 saul:1 kravitz:1 dana:1 busam:1 karen:1 beeson:1 tina:1 mcintosh:1 karin:1 remington:1 josep:1 gill:1 jon:1 borman:1 yu:1 hui:1 rogers:1 marvin:1 frazier:1 stephen:1 w:1 scherer:1 robert:1 strausberg:1 associate:1 wet:2 earwax:1 omim:2 ear:1 wax:1 dry:1 increase:1 risk:1 antisocial:1 behavior:1 alzheimer:1 cardiovascular:1 disease:1 publication:1 especially:1 interesting:1 since:1 contain:1 diploid:2 instead:1 haploid:1 show:1 promise:1 personalized:1 medicine:3 via:2 genotyping:1 reference:2 huref:9 browser:3 web:1 http:1 jcvi:1 org:1 navigation:1 analysis:4 recently:1 approximately:1 million:2 read:1 sanger:1 assemble:1 scaffold:2 variation:2 variant:6 include:2 single:1 nucleotide:1 polymorphism:1 snps:1 block:2 substitution:1 large:1 indels:1 structural:1 like:1 insertion:1 deletion:1 inversion:1 copy:1 enable:1 navigate:1 assembly:3 compare:1 ncbi:4 build:1 context:1 ensembl:4 annotation:4 provide:1 comparative:1 consensus:1 multi:1 alignment:1 dbsnp:3 underlying:1 functional:1 interface:1 also:2 represent:1 haplotype:1 infer:1 relation:1 display:1 link:3 external:3 resource:1 mendelian:1 inheritance:1 man:2 ontology:1 go:1 search:1 hugo:1 identifier:1 contig:1 location:2 chromosome:1 easily:1 quickly:1 browse:1 region:1 simple:1 intuitive:1 pan:1 zoom:1 control:1 furthermore:2 relevant:1 specific:2 locus:1 export:1 mycoplasma:2 laboratorium:2 seek:1 form:1 humanity:1 possibly:1 scratch:1 speculation:1 line:1 bacteria:3 engineer:1 perform:1 reaction:1 g:2 combat:1 warming:1 etc:1 microbe:1 endless:1 biofuel:1 telegraph:1 interview:5 assume:1 suggest:1 main:1 reduce:1 dependence:1 fossil:1 reading:1 duncan:1 mastermind:1 isbn:6 ridley:1 spufford:1 backroom:1 sulston:1 ferry:1 common:1 thread:1 predictive:1 crack:1 code:1 radio:1 philosophy:1 discussion:1 carl:1 zimmer:1 bloggingheads:1 tv:1 entertainment:1 design:1 webcast:1 environment:1 martin:1 century:1 richard:1 drive:1 tedtalks:1 |@bigram craig_venter:12 commit_suicide:1 san_mateo:1 san_diego:3 smh_com:1 public_outcry:1 redouble_effort:1 bill_clinton:1 url_access:2 jan_feb:1 honorary_doctorate:1 bbc_news:1 wing_chun:1 cardiovascular_disease:1 nucleotide_polymorphism:1 insertion_deletion:1 mendelian_inheritance:1 global_warming:1 fossil_fuel:1 external_link:2 |
3,046 | MUD | In online gaming, a MUD (Multi-User Dungeon), pronounced /mʌd/, is a multi-user real-time virtual world described entirely in text. It combines elements of role-playing games, hack and slash, interactive fiction, and online chat. Players can read descriptions of rooms, objects, other players, non-player characters, and actions performed in the virtual world. Players interact with each other and the world by typing commands that resemble a natural language. Traditional MUDs implement a fantasy world populated by fictional races and monsters, with players being able to choose from a number of classes in order to gain specific skills or powers. The object of this sort of game is to slay monsters, explore a fantasy world, complete quests, go on adventures, create a story by roleplaying, and advance the created character. Many MUDs were fashioned around the dice rolling rules of the Dungeons & Dragons series of games. Such fantasy settings for MUDs are common, while many others are set in a science fiction–based universe or themed on popular books, movies, animations, history, and so on. Not all MUDs are games; some, more typically those referred to as MOOs, are used in distance education or for virtual conferences. MUDs have attracted the interest of academic scholars from many fields, including communications, sociology, law, and synthetic economies. Most MUDs are run as hobbies and are free to players; some may accept donations or allow players to purchase virtual items, while others charge a monthly subscription fee. MUDs can be accessed via standard telnet clients, or specialized MUD clients which are designed to improve the user experience. Numerous games are listed at various web portals, like The Mud Connector. It has been argued that modern games like World of Warcraft, and social virtual worlds such as Second Life can have their origins traced back to the early MUDs. Originally graphical virtual worlds were called graphical MUDs, most notably Everquest, but by 2000 the term MMORPG (massively multiplayer online role-playing game) had become the standard. The MMORPG RuneScape started out as a text-based MUD before graphics were added. Many MUDs are still active and a number of influential MMORPG designers, such as Raph Koster, Brad McQuaid, Mark Jacobs, Brian Green, and J. Todd Coleman, began as MUD developers and/or players. History Will Crowther's Adventure You haven't lived until you've died in MUD. -- The MUD1 Slogan Adventure, created in 1975 by Will Crowther on a DEC PDP-10 computer, was the first widely used adventure game. The game was significantly expanded in 1976 by Don Woods. Adventure contained many D&D features and references, including a computer controlled dungeon master. Inspired by Adventure, a group of students at MIT wrote a game called Zork in the summer of 1977 for the PDP-10 minicomputer which became quite popular on the ARPANET. Zork was ported under the name Dungeon to FORTRAN by a programmer working at DEC in 1978. In 1978 Roy Trubshaw, a student at Essex University in the UK, started working on a multi-user adventure game in the MACRO-10 assembly language for a DEC PDP-10. He named the game MUD (Multi-User Dungeon), in tribute to the Dungeon variant of Zork, which Trubshaw had greatly enjoyed playing. Trubshaw converted MUD to BCPL (the predecessor of C), before handing over development to Richard Bartle, a fellow student at Essex University, in 1980. MUD, better known as Essex MUD and MUD1 in later years, ran on the Essex University network until late 1987. The game revolved around gaining points till one achieved the wizard rank, giving the player immortality and certain powers over mortals. The game became more widely accessible when a guest account was set up that allowed users on JANET (a British academic computer network) to connect between the hours of 2 am and 8 am and at weekends. MUD1 was reportedly closed down when Richard Bartle licenced MUD1 to CompuServe, and was getting pressure from them to close Essex MUD. This left MIST, a derivative of MUD1 with similar gameplay, as the only remaining MUD running on the Essex University network, becoming one of the first of its kind to attain broad popularity. MIST ran until the machine that hosted it, a PDP-10, was superseded in early 1991. During the Christmas of 1985, Neil Newell, an avid MUD1 player, started programming his own MUD called SHADES because MUD1 was closed down during the holidays. Starting out as a hobby, SHADES became accessible in the UK as a commercial MUD via British Telecom's Prestel and Micronet networks. A scandal on SHADES led to the closure of Micronet, as described in Indra Sinha's net-memoir, The Cybergypsies. In 1985 Pip Cordrey gathered some people on a BBS he ran to create a MUD1 clone that would run on a home computer. The tolkienesque MUD went live in 1986 and was named MirrorWorld. 1985 also saw the creation of Gods by Ben Laurie, a MUD1 clone that included online creation in its endgame. Gods became a commercial MUD in 1988. In 1985 CompuNet started a project named Multi-User Galaxy Game as a Science Fiction alternative to MUD1 which ran on their system at the time. When one of the two programmers left CompuNet, the remaining programmer, Alan Lenton, decided to rewrite the game from scratch and named it Federation II (there never was a Federation I). The MUD was officially launched in 1989. In 1978, around the same time Roy Trubshaw wrote MUD, Alan E. Klietz wrote a game called Milieu using Multi-Pascal on a CDC Cyber 6600 series mainframe which was operated by the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium. Klietz ported Milieu to an IBM XT in 1983, naming the new port Scepter of Goth. Scepter supported 10 to 16 simultaneous users, typically connecting in by modem. It was one of the first commercial MUDs; franchises were sold to a number of locations. Scepter was first owned and run by GamBit (of Minneapolis, Minnesota), founded by Bob Alberti. GamBit's assets were later sold to InterPlay (of Fairfax, Virginia). InterPlay eventually went bankrupt. In 1984, Mark Peterson wrote The Realm of Angmar, beginning as a clone of Scepter of Goth. In 1994, Peterson rewrote The Realm of Angmar, adapting it to MS-DOS (the basis for many dial-in BBS systems), and renamed it Swords of Chaos. For a few years this was a very popular form of MUD, hosted on a number of BBS systems, until widespread Internet access eliminated most BBSes. In 1984, Mark Jacobs created and deployed a commercial gaming site, Gamers World. The site featured two games coded and designed by Jacobs, a MUD called Aradath (which was later renamed, upgraded and ported to GEnie as Dragon's Gate) and a 4X science-fiction game called Galaxy, which was also ported to GEnie. At its peak, the site had about 100 monthly subscribers to both Aradath and Galaxy. GEnie was shut down in the late 1980s, although Dragon's Gate was later brought to America Online before it was finally released on its own. Dragon's Gate was closed on February 10, 2007. In the summer of 1980 University of Virginia classmates John Taylor and Dr. Kelton Flinn wrote Dungeons of Kesmai, a six player game inspired by Dungeons & Dragons which used Roguelike ASCII graphics. They founded the Kesmai company in 1982 and in 1985 an enhanced version of Dungeons of Kesmai, Island of Kesmai, was launched on CompuServe. Later, its 2-D graphical descendant Legends of Kesmai was launched on AOL in 1996. The games were retired commercially in 2000. The popularity of MUDs of the Essex University tradition escalated in the USA during the late 1980s when affordable personal computers with 300 to 2400 bit/s modems enabled role-players to log into multi-line Bulletin Board Systems and online service providers such as CompuServe. During this time it was sometimes said that MUD stands for "Multi Undergraduate Destroyer" due to their popularity among college students and the amount of time devoted to them. Spread The first popular MUD codebase was AberMUD, written in 1987 by Alan Cox, named after the University of Wales, Aberystwyth. Alan Cox had played the original University of Essex MUD, and the gameplay was heavily influenced by it. AberMUD was initially written in B for a Honeywell L66 mainframe under GCOS3/TSS. In late 1988 it was ported to C, which enabled it to spread rapidly to many Unix platforms upon its release in 1989. AberMUD's popularity resulted in several inspired works, the most notable of which were TinyMUD, LPMUD, and DikuMUD. TinyMUD Monster was a multi-user adventure game created by Richard Skrenta for the VAX and written in VMS Pascal. It was publicly released in November 1988. Monster was disk-based and modifications to the game were immediate. Monster pioneered the approach of allowing players to build the game world, setting new puzzles or creating dungeons for other players to explore. Monster, which comprised about 60.000 lines of code, had a lot of features which appeared to be designed to allow Colossal Cave Adventure to work in it. Though there never were many network-accessible Monster servers, it inspired James Aspnes to create a stripped down version of Monster which he called TinyMUD. TinyMUD, written in C and released in late 1989, spawned a number of descendants, including TinyMUCK and TinyMUSH. TinyMUCK versions 2 contained a full programming language named MUF (Multi-User Forth), while MUSH greatly expanded the command interface. Some use the term MU* to refer to TinyMUD, MUCK, MUSH, MUSE, MUX, and their kin. UberMUD, UnterMUD, and MOO were inspired by TinyMUD but are not direct descendants. LPMud In 1989 LPMud was developed by Lars Pensjö (hence the LP in LPMud). Pensjö had been an avid player of TinyMUD and AberMUD and wanted to create a world with the flexibility of TinyMUD and the power of AberMUD. In order to accomplish this he wrote what is nowadays known as a virtual machine which he called the LPMud driver as well as the C-like LPC programming language used to create the game world. Pensjö's interest in LPMud eventually waned and development was carried on by others. During the early 1990s, LPMud was one of the most popular MUD codebases. DikuMUD In 1991, the release of DikuMUD, which was inspired by AberMUD, led to a virtual explosion of hack and slash MUDs based upon its code. DikuMUD inspired several derivative codebases too, including CircleMUD, Merc, SillyMUD, ROM, SMAUG, and GodWars. Simutronics In 1987 David Whatley, who in previous years had played Sceptre of Goth and Island of Kesmai, founded Simutronics with Tom and Susan Zelinski. In the same year they demonstrate a prototype of GemStone to GEnie. After a short-lived instance of GemStone II, GemStone III was officially launched in February 1990. GemStone III became available on AOL in September 1995, followed by the release of DragonRealms in February 1996. By the end of 1997 GemStone III and DragonRealms had become the first and second most played games on AOL. Graphical MUDs A graphical MUD is a MUD that uses computer graphics to represent parts of the virtual world and its visitors. A prominent early graphical MUD was Habitat, written by Randy Farmer and Chip Morningstar for Lucasfilm in 1985. Graphical MUDs require players to download a special client and the game's artwork. They range from simply enhancing the user interface to simulating 3D worlds with visual spatial relationships and customized avatar appearances. After the increase in computing power and Internet connectivity during the late nineties, graphical MUDs became better known as MMORPGs, Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games. Gameplay While there have been many variations in gameplay and features in MUDs, some distinct sub-groups have formed that can be used to help categorize different game mechanics and game genres. Hack and Slash MUDs Due to the room based nature of traditional MUDs ranged combat is difficult to implement, as a result most MUDs equip characters with close-ranged weapons and usually takes place in a medieval fantasy setting. MUDs that restrict player killing and primarily focus on combat and questing are labeled Hack and Slash MUDs. Player versus player MUDs Most MUDs restrict player versus player combat, often abbreviated as PK (Player Killing). This is accomplished through hard coded restrictions and various forms of social intervention. MUDs without these restrictions are known as PK MUDs. Roleplaying MUDs Roleplaying MUDs, generally abbreviated as RP MUDs, encourage or enforce that players act out the role of their playing characters at all times. Some RP MUDs provide an immersive gaming environment, while others only provide a virtual world with no game elements. MUDs that are heavily roleplay-enforced and have a cohesive game world are also known as RPI (Roleplay Intensive) MUDs. Talkers A less-known MUD variant is the talker, typically based on ew-too or NUTS, with plenty of derived codebases. The early talkers were essentially MUDs with most of the complex game machinery stripped away, leaving just the communication commands. Talkers create very little network traffic, making them ideal for setting up quietly at work. People who are long time users of ew-too talkers are called spods. Psychology and playing style Dr. Sherry Turkle, Ph.D. of Sociology of Science at MIT, developed a theory in her book "Life on the Screen" that the constant use (and in many cases, overuse) of MUDs allows users to develop different personalities in their environments. She uses examples, which date back to the text-based MUDs of the mid-1990s, showing college students who simultaneously live different lives through characters in separate MUDs, up to three at a time, all while doing schoolwork. The students claimed that it was a way to "shut off" their own lives for a while and become part of another reality. Turkle claims that this could present a psychological problem of identity for today's youths. A Story About A Tree, a short essay written by Raph Koster regarding the death of a LegendMUD player named Karyn, raising the subject of inter-human relationships in virtual worlds. Observations of MUD-play show styles of play that can be roughly categorized. Achievers focus on the difficulties of the game, difficult quests, fearsome monsters, and hard to obtain equipment; others explore every nook and cranny of the game, and try out all the guilds and races; some devote most of their energy to interacting with other players; then there are the killers who focus on interacting negatively with other players, if permitted, killing their characters or otherwise thwarting their play. Few players play only one way, or play one way all the time; most exhibit a diverse style. "Hearts, Clubs, Diamonds, Spades: Players Who Suit MUDs" article by Richard Bartle in The Journal of Virtual Environments, Volume 1, Number 1 (July 1997) According to Richard Bartle, a longtime coder and observer of MUD-play, responding to a question posed by Keith Stuart, an interviewer for The Guardian, "People go there as part of a hero's journey - a means of self-discovery" See also MUD trees Online text-based role-playing game Cyberformance References External links MUD history, analysis Some history and reviews from Richard Bartle's "Interactive Multi-User Computer Games" report The MUDline: A timeline of MUD history up to 1995. A Classification of MUDs by Martin Keegan, Grandmaster Data Services Ltd, Cambridge, UK Online World Timeline - Raph Koster's timeline of significant events for the development of virtual worlds. Living Internet A comprehensive history of the internet, including MUDs. Bartle MUD Personality Analyzer Long-running test to classify MUD/MMORPG personality, based on Bartle's research. Cultural Formations in Text-Based Virtual Realities - A thesis on cultural and social interaction on muds. Journal of Virtual Environments: Formerly the Journal of Mud Research. A currently inactive peer-reviewed academic journal. From MUDs To Virtual Worlds, 1995 MUD source code repositories Erwin S. Andreasen: Home of the 16k MUD competition, and other resources. ftpgame.org: Hierarchal archive of MUD source code MudBytes.net: MUD code repository and discussion. MUD resources Mud Connector: Extensive mud portal with hundreds of mud listings Top Mud Sites: MUD listings, reviews, discussion forum and rankings by category. MUDseek: Google custom search engine indexing MUD and MUD-related web sites. FindMUD: MUD listings and codebase downloads. MUD Stats: MUD statistics. RPMUD Network: Site devoted to Role-Play MUDs. | MUD |@lemmatized online:9 gaming:3 mud:89 multi:11 user:14 dungeon:10 pronounce:1 mʌd:1 real:1 time:9 virtual:16 world:20 describe:2 entirely:1 text:5 combine:1 element:2 role:7 playing:7 game:37 hack:4 slash:4 interactive:2 fiction:4 chat:1 player:28 read:1 description:1 room:2 object:2 non:1 character:6 action:1 perform:1 interact:3 type:1 command:3 resemble:1 natural:1 language:4 traditional:2 muds:4 implement:2 fantasy:4 populate:1 fictional:1 race:2 monster:9 able:1 choose:1 number:6 class:1 order:2 gain:2 specific:1 skill:1 power:4 sort:1 slay:1 explore:3 complete:1 quest:3 go:4 adventure:9 create:10 story:2 roleplay:5 advance:1 created:1 many:10 fashion:1 around:3 dice:1 roll:1 rule:1 dragon:5 series:2 setting:1 common:1 others:5 set:5 science:4 base:10 universe:1 theme:1 popular:5 book:2 movie:1 animation:1 history:6 typically:3 refer:2 moo:2 use:10 distance:1 education:1 conference:1 attract:1 interest:2 academic:3 scholar:1 field:1 include:6 communication:2 sociology:2 law:1 synthetic:1 economy:1 run:8 hobby:2 free:1 may:1 accept:1 donation:1 allow:5 purchase:1 item:1 charge:1 monthly:2 subscription:1 fee:1 access:2 via:2 standard:2 telnet:1 client:3 specialize:1 design:3 improve:1 experience:1 numerous:1 list:1 various:2 web:2 portal:2 like:3 connector:2 argue:1 modern:1 warcraft:1 social:3 second:2 life:4 origin:1 trace:1 back:2 early:5 originally:1 graphical:8 call:9 notably:1 everquest:1 term:2 mmorpg:4 massively:2 multiplayer:2 become:10 runescape:1 start:5 graphic:3 add:1 still:1 active:1 influential:1 designer:1 raph:3 koster:3 brad:1 mcquaid:1 mark:3 jacob:3 brian:1 green:1 j:1 todd:1 coleman:1 begin:2 developer:1 crowther:2 live:5 die:1 slogan:1 dec:3 pdp:4 computer:7 first:6 widely:2 significantly:1 expand:2 wood:1 contain:2 feature:4 reference:2 control:1 master:1 inspire:6 group:2 student:6 mit:2 write:12 zork:3 summer:2 minicomputer:1 quite:1 arpanet:1 port:5 name:9 fortran:1 programmer:3 work:5 roy:2 trubshaw:4 essex:8 university:8 uk:3 macro:1 assembly:1 tribute:1 variant:2 greatly:2 enjoy:1 convert:1 bcpl:1 predecessor:1 c:4 hand:1 development:3 richard:6 bartle:7 fellow:1 good:1 know:6 late:7 year:4 network:7 revolve:1 point:1 till:1 one:7 achieve:1 wizard:1 rank:1 give:1 immortality:1 certain:1 mortal:1 accessible:3 guest:1 account:1 janet:1 british:2 connect:2 hour:1 weekend:1 reportedly:1 close:5 licence:1 compuserve:3 get:1 pressure:1 left:1 mist:2 derivative:2 similar:1 gameplay:4 remain:2 kind:1 attain:1 broad:1 popularity:4 machine:2 host:2 supersede:1 christmas:1 neil:1 newell:1 avid:2 program:1 shade:3 holiday:1 commercial:4 telecom:1 prestel:1 micronet:2 scandal:1 lead:2 closure:1 indra:1 sinha:1 net:2 memoir:1 cybergypsies:1 pip:1 cordrey:1 gather:1 people:3 bb:1 clone:3 would:1 home:2 tolkienesque:1 mirrorworld:1 also:4 saw:1 creation:2 god:2 ben:1 laurie:1 endgame:1 compunet:2 project:1 galaxy:3 alternative:1 ran:1 system:4 two:2 leave:2 alan:4 lenton:1 decide:1 rewrite:2 scratch:1 federation:2 ii:2 never:2 officially:2 launch:4 e:1 klietz:2 milieu:2 pascal:2 cdc:1 cyber:1 mainframe:2 operate:1 minnesota:2 educational:1 compute:2 consortium:1 ported:1 ibm:1 xt:1 new:2 scepter:4 goth:3 support:1 simultaneous:1 modem:2 franchise:1 sell:2 location:1 gambit:2 minneapolis:1 found:3 bob:1 alberti:1 asset:1 later:4 interplay:2 fairfax:1 virginia:2 eventually:2 bankrupt:1 peterson:2 realm:2 angmar:2 adapt:1 ms:1 basis:1 dial:1 bbs:3 rename:2 sword:1 chaos:1 form:3 widespread:1 internet:4 eliminate:1 deploy:1 site:6 gamers:1 cod:2 aradath:2 upgraded:1 genie:4 gate:3 peak:1 subscriber:1 shut:2 although:1 bring:1 america:1 finally:1 release:6 february:3 classmate:1 john:1 taylor:1 dr:2 kelton:1 flinn:1 kesmai:6 six:1 roguelike:1 ascii:1 company:1 enhanced:1 version:3 island:2 descendant:3 legend:1 aol:3 retire:1 commercially:1 tradition:1 escalate:1 usa:1 affordable:1 personal:1 bit:1 enable:2 log:1 line:2 bulletin:1 board:1 service:2 provider:1 sometimes:1 say:1 stand:1 undergraduate:1 destroyer:1 due:2 among:1 college:2 amount:1 devote:3 spread:2 codebase:2 abermud:6 cox:2 wale:1 aberystwyth:1 play:9 original:1 heavily:2 influence:1 initially:1 b:1 honeywell:1 tss:1 rapidly:1 unix:1 platform:1 upon:2 result:2 several:2 inspired:1 notable:1 tinymud:8 lpmud:7 dikumud:4 skrenta:1 vax:1 vms:1 publicly:1 november:1 disk:1 modification:1 immediate:1 pioneer:1 approach:1 build:1 puzzle:1 comprise:1 code:5 lot:1 appear:1 colossal:1 cave:1 though:1 server:1 james:1 aspnes:1 stripped:1 spawn:1 tinymuck:2 tinymush:1 full:1 programming:2 muf:1 forth:1 mush:2 interface:2 mu:1 muck:1 muse:1 mux:1 kin:1 ubermud:1 untermud:1 direct:1 develop:3 lars:1 pensjö:3 hence:1 lp:1 want:1 flexibility:1 accomplish:2 nowadays:1 driver:1 well:2 lpc:1 wan:1 carry:1 codebases:3 explosion:1 circlemud:1 merc:1 sillymud:1 rom:1 smaug:1 godwars:1 simutronics:2 david:1 whatley:1 previous:1 sceptre:1 tom:1 susan:1 zelinski:1 demonstrate:1 prototype:1 gemstone:5 short:2 instance:1 iii:3 available:1 september:1 follow:1 dragonrealms:2 end:1 played:1 represent:1 part:3 visitor:1 prominent:1 habitat:1 randy:1 farmer:1 chip:1 morningstar:1 lucasfilm:1 require:1 download:1 special:1 artwork:1 range:3 simply:1 enhance:1 simulate:1 visual:1 spatial:1 relationship:2 customized:1 avatar:1 appearance:1 increase:1 connectivity:1 ninety:1 mmorpgs:1 variation:1 distinct:1 sub:1 help:1 categorize:2 different:3 mechanic:1 genre:1 nature:1 combat:3 difficult:2 equip:1 weapon:1 usually:1 take:1 place:1 medieval:1 restrict:2 killing:1 primarily:1 focus:3 label:1 versus:2 often:1 abbreviate:2 pk:2 kill:2 hard:2 restriction:2 intervention:1 without:1 generally:1 rp:2 encourage:1 enforce:2 act:1 provide:2 immersive:1 environment:4 cohesive:1 rpi:1 intensive:1 talker:5 less:1 ew:2 nut:1 plenty:1 derived:1 essentially:1 complex:1 machinery:1 strip:1 away:1 little:1 traffic:1 make:1 ideal:1 quietly:1 long:2 spods:1 psychology:1 style:3 sherry:1 turkle:2 ph:1 theory:1 screen:1 constant:1 case:1 overuse:1 personality:3 example:1 date:1 mid:1 show:2 simultaneously:1 separate:1 three:1 schoolwork:1 claim:2 way:3 another:1 reality:2 could:1 present:1 psychological:1 problem:1 identity:1 today:1 youth:1 tree:2 essay:1 regard:1 death:1 legendmud:1 karyn:1 raise:1 subject:1 inter:1 human:1 observation:1 roughly:1 achiever:1 difficulty:1 fearsome:1 obtain:1 equipment:1 every:1 nook:1 cranny:1 try:1 guild:1 energy:1 killer:1 negatively:1 permit:1 otherwise:1 thwart:1 exhibit:1 diverse:1 heart:1 club:1 diamond:1 spade:1 suit:1 article:1 journal:4 volume:1 july:1 accord:1 longtime:1 coder:1 observer:1 respond:1 question:1 pose:1 keith:1 stuart:1 interviewer:1 guardian:1 hero:1 journey:1 mean:1 self:1 discovery:1 see:1 cyberformance:1 external:1 link:1 analysis:1 review:3 report:1 mudline:1 timeline:3 classification:1 martin:1 keegan:1 grandmaster:1 data:1 ltd:1 cambridge:1 significant:1 event:1 comprehensive:1 analyzer:1 test:1 classify:1 research:2 cultural:2 formation:1 thesis:1 interaction:1 formerly:1 currently:1 inactive:1 peer:1 source:2 repository:2 erwin:1 andreasen:1 competition:1 resource:2 ftpgame:1 org:1 hierarchal:1 archive:1 mudbytes:1 discussion:2 extensive:1 hundred:1 listing:3 top:1 forum:1 ranking:1 category:1 mudseek:1 google:1 custom:1 search:1 engine:1 index:1 related:1 findmud:1 downloads:1 stats:1 statistic:1 rpmud:1 |@bigram hack_slash:4 dice_roll:1 dungeon_dragon:2 science_fiction:3 subscription_fee:1 graphical_mud:6 massively_multiplayer:2 multiplayer_online:2 dec_pdp:2 richard_bartle:5 revolve_around:1 minneapolis_minnesota:1 bulletin_board:1 user_interface:1 internet_connectivity:1 external_link:1 peer_review:1 |
3,047 | Logical_disjunction | In logic and mathematics, or, also known as logical disjunction or inclusive disjunction is a logical operator that results in true whenever one or more of its operands are true. E.g. in this context, "A or B" is true if A is true, or if B is true, or if both A and B are true. In grammar, or is a coordinating conjunction. In ordinary language "or" sometimes has the meaning of exclusive disjunction. Notation Or is usually expressed with an infix operator. In mathematics and logic, it is usually ∨; in electronics +; and in programming languages, | or or. Some programming languages have a related control structure, the short-circuit or, written ||, or else, etc. Definition Logical disjunction is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of false if and only if both of its operands are false. More generally a disjunction is a logical formula that can have one or more literals separated only by ORs. A single literal is often considered to be a degenerate disjunction. Truth table The truth table of p OR q is: + p q ∨ T T T T F T F T T F F F Venn diagram The Venn diagram of "p or q" (red is true) Properties The following properties apply to disjunction: associativity: commutativity: distributivity: idempotency: monotonicity: truth-preserving: The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'true' produces a truth value of 'true' as a result of disjunction. falsehood-preserving: The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'false' produces a truth value of 'false' as a result of disjunction. Symbol The mathematical symbol for logical disjunction varies in the literature. In addition to the word "or", the symbol "", deriving from the Latin word vel for "or", is commonly used for disjunction. For example: "A B " is read as "A or B ". Such a disjunction is false if both A and B are false. In all other cases it is true. All of the following are disjunctions: The corresponding operation in set theory is the set-theoretic union. Applications in computer science Operators corresponding to logical disjunction exist in most programming languages. Bitwise operation Disjunction is often used for bitwise operations. Examples: 0 or 0 = 0 0 or 1 = 1 1 or 0 = 1 1 or 1 = 1 1010 or 1100 = 1110 The or operator can be used to set bits in a bitfield to 1, by or-ing the field with a constant field with the relevant bits set to 1. Logical operation Many languages distinguish between bitwise and logical disjunction by providing two distinct operators; in languages following C, bitwise disjunction is performed with the single pipe (|) and logical disjunction with the double pipe (||) operators. Logical disjunction is usually short-circuited; that is, if the first (left) operand evaluates to true then the second (right) operand is not evaluated. The logical disjunction operator thus usually constitutes a sequence point. Although in most languages the type of a logical disjunction expression is boolean and thus can only have the value true or false, in some (such as Python and JavaScript) the logical disjunction operator returns one of its operands; the first operand if it evaluates to a true value, and the second operand otherwise. Union The union used in set theory is defined in terms of a logical disjunction: x ∈ A ∪ B if and only if (x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B). Because of this, logical disjunction satisfies many of the same identities as set-theoretic union, such as associativity, commutativity, distributivity, and de Morgan's laws. Notes Boole, closely following analogy with ordinary mathematics, premised, as a necessary condition to the definition of "x + y", that x and y were mutually exclusive. Jevons, and practically all mathematical logicians after him, advocated, on various grounds, the definition of "logical addition" in a form which does not necessitate mutual exclusiveness. See also Exclusive disjunction Affirming a disjunct Bitwise OR Boolean algebra (logic) Boolean algebra topics Boolean domain Boolean function Boolean-valued function Disjunctive syllogism Disjunction elimination Disjunction introduction First-order logic Logical graph Logical value Operation Operator OR gate Propositional calculus External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Eric W. Weisstein. "Disjunction." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource | Logical_disjunction |@lemmatized logic:4 mathematics:3 also:2 know:1 logical:19 disjunction:28 inclusive:1 operator:9 result:3 true:13 whenever:1 one:3 operand:7 e:1 g:1 context:1 b:8 grammar:1 coordinate:1 conjunction:1 ordinary:2 language:7 sometimes:1 meaning:1 exclusive:3 notation:1 usually:4 express:1 infix:1 electronics:1 program:1 programming:2 related:1 control:1 structure:1 short:2 circuit:2 write:1 else:1 etc:1 definition:3 operation:6 two:3 value:11 typically:1 proposition:1 produce:3 false:7 generally:1 formula:1 literal:2 separate:1 single:2 often:2 consider:1 degenerate:1 truth:7 table:2 p:3 q:3 f:5 venn:2 diagram:2 red:1 property:2 follow:4 apply:1 associativity:2 commutativity:2 distributivity:2 idempotency:1 monotonicity:1 preserving:2 interpretation:2 variable:2 assign:2 falsehood:1 symbol:3 mathematical:2 varies:1 literature:1 addition:2 word:2 derive:1 latin:1 vel:1 commonly:1 use:4 example:2 read:1 case:1 corresponding:1 set:6 theory:2 theoretic:2 union:4 application:1 computer:1 science:1 correspond:1 exist:1 bitwise:5 bit:2 bitfield:1 ing:1 field:2 constant:1 relevant:1 many:2 distinguish:1 provide:1 distinct:1 c:1 perform:1 pipe:2 double:1 first:3 leave:1 evaluate:3 second:2 right:1 thus:2 constitute:1 sequence:1 point:1 although:1 type:1 expression:1 boolean:6 python:1 javascript:1 return:1 otherwise:1 define:1 term:1 x:5 satisfies:1 identity:1 de:1 morgan:1 law:1 note:1 boole:1 closely:1 analogy:1 premise:1 necessary:1 condition:1 mutually:1 jevons:1 practically:1 logician:1 advocate:1 various:1 ground:1 form:1 necessitate:1 mutual:1 exclusiveness:1 see:1 affirm:1 disjunct:1 algebra:2 topic:1 domain:1 function:2 disjunctive:1 syllogism:1 elimination:1 introduction:1 order:1 graph:1 gate:1 propositional:1 calculus:1 external:1 link:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 philosophy:1 entry:1 eric:1 w:1 weisstein:1 mathworld:1 wolfram:1 web:1 resource:1 |@bigram logical_disjunction:12 exclusive_disjunction:2 venn_diagram:2 bitwise_operation:2 mutually_exclusive:1 boolean_algebra:2 disjunctive_syllogism:1 propositional_calculus:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 w_weisstein:1 mathworld_wolfram:1 |
3,048 | Formal_language | A formal language is a set of words, i.e. finite strings of letters, or symbols. The inventory from which these letters are taken is called the alphabet over which the language is defined. A formal language is often defined by means of a formal grammar. Formal languages are a purely syntactical notion, so there is not necessarily any meaning associated with them. To distinguish the words that belong to a language from arbitrary words over its alphabet, the former are sometimes called well-formed words (or, in their application in logic, well-formed formulas). Formal languages are studied in the fields of logic, computer science and linguistics. Their most important practical application is for the precise definition of syntactically correct programs for a programming language. The branch of mathematics and computer science that is concerned only with the purely syntactical aspects of such languages, i.e. their internal structural patterns, is known as formal language theory. Although it is not formally part of the language, the words of a formal language often have a semantic dimension as well. In practice this is always tied very closely to the structure of the language, and a formal grammar (a set of formation rules that recursively describes the language) can help to deal with the meaning of (well-formed) words. Well-known examples for this are "Tarski's definition of truth" in terms of a T-schema for first-order logic, and compiler generators like lex and yacc. Words over an alphabet An alphabet, in the context of formal languages can be any set, although it often makes sense to use an alphabet in the usual sense of the word, or more generally a character set such as ASCII. Alphabets can also be infinite; e.g. first-order logic is often expressed using an alphabet which, besides symbols such as ∧, ¬, ∀ and parentheses, contains infinitely many elements x0, x1, x2, … that play the role of variables. The elements of an alphabet are called its letters. A word over an alphabet can be any finite sequence, or string, of letters. The set of all words over an alphabet Σ is usually denoted by Σ* (using the Kleene star). For any alphabet there is only one word of length 0, the empty word, which is often denoted by e, ε or λ. By concatenation one can combine two words to form a new word, whose length is the sum of the lengths of the original words. The result of concatenating a word with the empty word is the original word. In some applications, especially in logic, the alphabet is also known as the vocabulary and words are known as formulas or sentences; this breaks the letter/word metaphor and replaces it by a word/sentence metaphor. Definition A formal language L over an alphabet Σ is just a subset of Σ*, that is, a set of words over that alphabet. In computer science and mathematics, which do not deal with natural languages, the adjective "formal" is usually omitted as redundant. While formal language theory usually concerns itself with formal languages that are described by some syntactical rules, the actual definition of the concept "formal language" is only as above: a (possibly infinite) set of finite-length strings, no more nor less. In practice, there are many languages that can be described by rules, such as regular languages or context-free languages. The notion of a formal grammar may be closer to the intuitive concept of a "language," one described by syntactic rules. By an abuse of the definition, a particular formal language is often thought of as being equipped with a formal grammar that describes it. Examples The following rules describe a formal language L over the alphabet Σ = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, +, =}: Every nonempty string that does not contain + or = and does not start with 0 is in L. The string 0 is in L. A string containing = is in L if and only if there is exactly one =, and it separates two valid strings in L. A string containing + but not = is in L if and only if every + in the string separates two valid strings in L. No string is in L other than those implied by the previous rules. Under these rules, the string "23+4=555" is in L, but the string "=234=+" is not. This formal language expresses natural numbers, well-formed addition statements, and well-formed addition equalities, but it expresses only what they look like (their syntax), not what they mean (semantics). For instance, nowhere in these rules is there any indication that 0 means the number zero, or that + means addition. For finite languages one can simply enumerate all well-formed words. For example, we can describe a language L as just L = {"a", "b", "ab", "cba"}. However, even over a finite (non-empty) alphabet such as Σ = {a, b} there are infinitely many words: "a", "abb", "ababba", "aaababbbbaab", …. Therefore formal languages are typically infinite, and describing an infinite formal language is not as simple as writing L = {"a", "b", "ab", "cba"}. Here are some examples of formal languages: L = Σ*, the set of all words over Σ; L = {a}* = {an}, where n ranges over the natural numbers and an means "a" repeated n times (this is the set of words consisting only of the symbol "a"); the set of syntactically correct programs in a given programming language (the syntax of which is usually defined by a context-free grammar; the set of inputs upon which a certain Turing machine halts; or the set of maximal strings of alphanumeric ASCII characters on this line, (i.e., the set {"the", "set", "of", "maximal", "strings", "alphanumeric", "ASCII", "characters", "on", "this", "line", "i", "e"}). Language-specification formalisms Formal language theory rarely concerns itself with particular languages (except as examples), but is mainly concerned with the study of various types of formalisms to describe languages. For instance, a language can be given as those strings generated by some formal grammar (see Chomsky hierarchy); those strings described or matched by a particular regular expression; those strings accepted by some automaton, such as a Turing machine or finite state automaton; those strings for which some decision procedure (an algorithm that asks a sequence of related YES/NO questions) produces the answer YES. Typical questions asked about such formalisms include: What is their expressive power? (Can formalism X describe every language that formalism Y can describe? Can it describe other languages?) What is their recognizability? (How difficult is it to decide whether a given word belongs to a language described by formalism X?) What is their comparability? (How difficult is it to decide whether two languages, one described in formalism X and one in formalism Y, or in X again, are actually the same language?). Surprisingly often, the answer to these decision problems is "it cannot be done at all", or "it is extremely expensive" (with a precise characterization of how expensive exactly). Therefore, formal language theory is a major application area of computability theory and complexity theory. Operations on languages Certain operations on languages are common. This includes the standard set operations, such as union, intersection, and complement. Another class of operation is the element-wise application of string operations. Examples: suppose L1 and L2 are languages over some common alphabet. The concatenation L1L2 consists of all strings of the form vw where v is a string from L1 and w is a string from L2. The intersection L1 ∩ L2 of L1 and L2 consists of all strings which are contained in both languages The complement ¬L of a language with respect to a given alphabet consists of all strings over the alphabet that are not in the language. The Kleene star: the language consisting of all words that are concatenations of 0 or more words in the original language; Reversal: Let e be the empty word, then eR = e, and for each non-empty word w = x1…xn over some alphabet, let wR = xn…x1, then for a formal language L, LR = {wR | w ∈ L}. String homomorphism. Such string operations are used to investigate closure properties of classes of languages. A class of languages is closed under a particular operation when the operation, applied to languages in the class, always produces a language in the same class again. For instance, the context-free languages are known to be closed under union, concatenation, and intersection with regular languages, but not closed under intersection or complement. {| class="wikitable" |+ align="top"|Closure properties of language families ( Op where both and are in the language family given by the column). After Hopcroft and Ullman. |- |Operation | ||regular ||DCFL ||CFL ||CSL ||recursive ||r.e. |- |Union | | | | | | | |- |Intersection | | | | | | | |- |Complement | | | | | | | |- |Concatenation | | | | | | | |- |Kleene star | | | | | | | |- |Homomorphism | | | | | | | |- |Substitution | | | | | | | |- |Inverse Homomorphism | | | | | | | |- |Reverse | | | | | | | |} References A. G. Hamilton, Logic for Mathematicians, Cambridge University Press, 1978, ISBN 0 521 21838 1. Seymour Ginsburg, Algebraic and automata theoretic properties of formal languages, North-Holland, 1975, ISBN 0 7204 2506 9. Michael A. Harrison, Introduction to Formal Language Theory, Addison-Wesley, 1978. John E. Hopcroft and Jeffrey D. Ullman, Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages and Computation, Addison-Wesley Publishing, Reading Massachusetts, 1979. ISBN 0-201-029880-X. Grzegorz Rozenberg, Arto Salomaa, Handbook of Formal Languages: Volume I-III, Springer, 1997, ISBN 3 540 61486 9. Patrick Suppes, Introduction to Logic, D. Van Nostrand, 1957, ISBN 0 442 08072 7. See also Alphabet (computer science) Formal grammar Grammar framework Formal method Formal science Formal system Mathematical notation Programming language External links University of Maryland, Formal Language Definitions James Power, "Notes on Formal Language Theory and Parsing", 29 November 2002. Drafts of some chapters in the "Handbook of Formal Language Theory", Vol. 1-3, G. Rozenberg and A. Salomaa (eds.), Springer Verlag, (1997):t Alexandru Mateescu and Arto Salomaa, "Preface" in Vol.1, pp. v-viii, and "Formal Languages: An Introduction and a Synopsis", Chapter 1 in Vol. 1, pp.1-39 Sheng Yu, "Regular Languages", Chapter 2 in Vol. 1 Jean-Michel Autebert, Jean Berstel, Luc Boasson, "Context-Free Languages and Push-Down Automata", Chapter 3 in Vol. 1 Christian Choffrut and Juhani Karhumäki, "Combinatorics of Words", Chapter 6 in Vol. 1 Tero Harju and Juhani Karhumäki, "Morphisms", Chapter 7 in Vol. 1, pp. 439 - 510 Jean-Eric Pin, "Syntactic semigroups", Chapter 10 in Vol. 1, pp. 679-746 M. Crochemore and C. Hancart, "Automata for matching patterns", Chapter 9 in Vol. 2 Dora Giammarresi, Antonio Restivo, "Two-dimensional Languages", Chapter 4 in Vol. 3, pp. 215 - 267 | Formal_language |@lemmatized formal:37 language:70 set:15 word:32 e:10 finite:6 string:27 letter:5 symbol:3 inventory:1 take:1 call:3 alphabet:21 define:3 often:7 mean:5 grammar:8 purely:2 syntactical:3 notion:2 necessarily:1 meaning:2 associate:1 distinguish:1 belong:2 arbitrary:1 former:1 sometimes:1 well:8 form:8 application:5 logic:7 formulas:1 study:2 field:1 computer:4 science:5 linguistics:1 important:1 practical:1 precise:2 definition:6 syntactically:2 correct:2 program:3 programming:2 branch:1 mathematics:2 concern:4 aspect:1 internal:1 structural:1 pattern:2 know:5 theory:10 although:2 formally:1 part:1 semantic:1 dimension:1 practice:2 always:2 tie:1 closely:1 structure:1 formation:1 rule:8 recursively:1 describe:14 help:1 deal:2 example:5 tarski:1 truth:1 term:1 schema:1 first:2 order:2 compiler:1 generator:1 like:2 lex:1 yacc:1 context:5 make:1 sense:2 use:4 usual:1 generally:1 character:3 ascii:3 also:3 infinite:4 g:3 express:3 besides:1 parenthesis:1 contains:1 infinitely:2 many:3 element:3 play:1 role:1 variable:1 sequence:2 σ:8 usually:4 denote:2 kleene:3 star:3 one:7 length:4 empty:5 ε:1 λ:1 concatenation:5 combine:1 two:5 new:1 whose:1 sum:1 original:3 result:1 concatenate:1 especially:1 vocabulary:1 formula:1 sentence:2 break:1 metaphor:2 replaces:1 l:18 subset:1 natural:3 adjective:1 omit:1 redundant:1 actual:1 concept:2 possibly:1 less:1 regular:5 free:4 may:1 close:4 intuitive:1 syntactic:2 abuse:1 particular:4 think:1 equip:1 examples:1 following:1 every:3 nonempty:1 contain:4 start:1 exactly:2 separate:2 valid:2 imply:1 previous:1 number:3 addition:3 statement:1 equality:1 look:1 syntax:2 semantics:1 instance:3 nowhere:1 indication:1 zero:1 simply:1 enumerate:1 b:3 ab:2 cba:2 however:1 even:1 non:2 abb:1 ababba:1 aaababbbbaab:1 therefore:2 typically:1 simple:1 write:1 n:2 range:1 repeat:1 time:1 consist:3 give:5 input:1 upon:1 certain:2 turing:2 machine:2 halt:1 maximal:2 alphanumeric:2 line:2 specification:1 formalism:8 rarely:1 except:1 mainly:1 various:1 type:1 generate:1 see:2 chomsky:1 hierarchy:1 match:2 expression:1 accept:1 automaton:3 state:1 decision:2 procedure:1 algorithm:1 ask:2 related:1 yes:2 question:2 produce:2 answer:2 typical:1 include:2 expressive:1 power:2 x:5 recognizability:1 difficult:2 decide:2 whether:2 comparability:1 described:1 actually:1 surprisingly:1 problem:1 cannot:1 extremely:1 expensive:2 characterization:1 major:1 area:1 computability:1 complexity:1 operation:9 common:2 standard:1 union:3 intersection:5 complement:4 another:1 class:6 wise:1 suppose:1 languages:2 vw:1 v:2 w:3 consists:1 respect:1 consisting:1 reversal:1 let:2 er:1 xn:2 wr:2 lr:1 homomorphism:3 investigate:1 closure:2 property:3 apply:1 wikitable:1 align:1 top:1 family:2 op:1 column:1 hopcroft:2 ullman:2 dcfl:1 cfl:1 csl:1 recursive:1 r:1 substitution:1 inverse:1 reverse:1 reference:1 hamilton:1 mathematician:1 cambridge:1 university:2 press:1 isbn:5 seymour:1 ginsburg:1 algebraic:1 automata:3 theoretic:1 north:1 holland:1 michael:1 harrison:1 introduction:4 addison:2 wesley:2 john:1 jeffrey:1 computation:1 publishing:1 read:1 massachusetts:1 grzegorz:1 rozenberg:2 arto:2 salomaa:3 handbook:2 volume:1 iii:1 springer:2 patrick:1 suppes:1 van:1 nostrand:1 framework:1 method:1 system:1 mathematical:1 notation:1 external:1 link:1 maryland:1 jam:1 note:1 parse:1 november:1 draft:1 chapter:9 vol:10 eds:1 verlag:1 alexandru:1 mateescu:1 preface:1 pp:5 viii:1 synopsis:1 sheng:1 yu:1 jean:3 michel:1 autebert:1 berstel:1 luc:1 boasson:1 push:1 christian:1 choffrut:1 juhani:2 karhumäki:2 combinatorics:1 tero:1 harju:1 morphisms:1 eric:1 pin:1 semigroups:1 crochemore:1 c:1 hancart:1 dora:1 giammarresi:1 antonio:1 restivo:1 dimensional:1 |@bigram syntactically_correct:2 turing_machine:2 chomsky_hierarchy:1 class_wikitable:1 wikitable_align:1 addison_wesley:2 van_nostrand:1 external_link:1 springer_verlag:1 jean_michel:1 |
3,049 | Algol | Algol (β Per / Beta Persei), known colloquially as the Demon Star, is a bright star in the constellation Perseus. It is one of the best known eclipsing binaries, the first such star to be discovered, and also one of the first (non-nova) variable stars to be discovered. Algol is actually a three-star system (Beta Persei A, B, and C) in which the large and bright primary Beta Persei A is regularly eclipsed by the dimmer Beta Persei B. Thus, Algol's magnitude is usually near-constant at 2.1, but regularly dips to 3.4 every 2 days, 20 hours and 49 minutes during the roughly 10-hour long partial eclipses. There is also a secondary eclipse when the brighter star occults the fainter secondary. This secondary eclipse can only be detected photoelectrically. Beta Persei, American Association of Variable Star Observers. http://www.aavso.org/vstar/vsots/0199.shtml Observation history The variability of Algol was first recorded in 1667 by Geminiano Montanari, but it is probable that this property was noticed long before this time. The first person to propose a mechanism for the variability of this star was the British amateur astronomer John Goodricke. In May 1783 he presented his findings to the Royal Society, suggesting that the periodic variability was caused by a dark body passing in front of the star (or else that the star itself has a darker region that is periodically turned toward the Earth.) For his report he was awarded the Copley Medal. In 1881, the Harvard astronomer Edward Pickering presented evidence that Algol was actually an eclipsing binary. This was confirmed a few years later, in 1889, when the Potsdam astronomer Hermann Carl Vogel found periodic doppler shifts in the spectrum of Algol, inferring variations in the radial velocity of this binary system. Thus Algol became one of the first known spectroscopic binaries. System Algol A and Algol B are an eclipsing binary, because their orbital plane coincidentally contains the Earth's line of sight. To be more precise, however, Algol is a triple-star system: the eclipsing binary pair is separated by only 0.062 AU, while the third star in the sytstem (Algol C) is at an average distance of 2.69 AU from the pair and the mutual orbital period is 681 days (1.86 years). The total mass of the system is about 5.8 solar masses, and the mass ratios of A, B and C are about 4.5 : 1 : 2. + Orbital Elements of the Algol SystemComponentsSemimajor axisEllipticityPeriodInclinationA—B 0.00218″ 0.00 2.87 days 97.69°(AB)—C 0.09461″ 0.225 680.05 days 83.98° Studies of Algol led to the Algol paradox in the theory of stellar evolution: although components of a binary star form at the same time, and massive stars evolve much faster than the less massive ones, it was observed that the more massive component Algol A is still in the main sequence, while the less massive Algol B is a subgiant star at a later evolutionary stage. The paradox can be solved by mass transfer: when the more massive star became a subgiant, it filled its Roche lobe, and most of the mass was transferred to the other star, which is still in the main sequence. In some binaries similar to Algol, a gas flow can be seen. This system also exhibits variable activity in the form of x-ray and radio flares. The former is thought to be caused by the magnetic fields of the AB components interacting with the mass transfer. The radio emissions may be created by magnetic cycles similar to sunspots, but, as the magnetic fields around these stars are up to ten times stronger than that of the Sun, these radio flares are more powerful and longer lasting. Algol is 92.8 light years from Earth; however, about 7.3 million years ago it passed within 9.8 light years and its apparent magnitude was approximately −2.5, considerably brighter than Sirius is today. Because the total mass of the system is 5.8 solar masses, and despite the fairly large distance at closest approach, this may have been enough to perturb the solar system's Oort cloud slightly and to increase the number of comets entering the inner solar system. However, the actual increase in net cratering rate is believed to have been quite small. Etymology and cultural significance The name Algol derives from Arabic رأس الغول ra's al-ghūl : head (ra's) of the ogre (al-ghūl) (see "the ghoul") which was given from its position in the constellation Perseus, representing the head of Gorgon Medusa. The English names of Demon Star and Blinking Demon are direct translations. In Hebrew folklore it was known as Rōsh ha Sāṭān 'Satan's Head', via Edmund Chilmead, who called it 'Divels head' or Rosch hassatan. A Latin term from the 16th century was Caput Larvae 'Spectre's Head'. It was also linked with Lilith.. Hipparchus and Pliny made this a separate, though connected, constellation. It is known as 大陵五 (the Fifth Star of the Mausoleum) in Chinese astronomy, and also bore the grim name Tseih She (叠尸 - die2 shi1 in Modern Pinyin), meaning 'Piled up corpses'. Astrology Astrologically, Algol is considered the most unfortunate star in the sky. In the Middle Ages it was one of the 15 Behenian stars, associated with the diamond and hellebore, and marked with the kabbalistic sign: Modern fiction One of the earliest films about alien invasion was a 1920 German silent film titled Algol. Renowned at the time for its sets, it featured Emil Jannings as Mephisto, an alien from Algol. All prints of the film were believed to have been lost, but an intact copy has been recovered. Algol is also depicted as the main antagonist in the 2008 fighting videogame Soul Calibur IV. Algol is also the name of the solar system featured in the original Phantasy Star series of role-playing video games on the Sega Master System and Sega Genesis/Mega Drive. Progressive Viking/folk metal band Vintersorg's 2000 album, Cosmic Genesis, features a song titled "Algol". The name of the hardest boss in World of Warcraft's raid dungeon, Ulduar, is Algalon, whose name is based on Algol. This is likely due to his connections to outer space and to his presumed evilness. References External links Czech space metal band "Realm of Algol" | Algol |@lemmatized algol:27 β:1 per:1 beta:5 persei:5 know:4 colloquially:1 demon:3 star:23 bright:3 constellation:3 perseus:2 one:6 best:1 known:1 eclipse:7 binary:8 first:5 discover:2 also:7 non:1 nova:1 variable:3 actually:2 three:1 system:11 b:6 c:4 large:2 primary:1 regularly:2 dimmer:1 thus:2 magnitude:2 usually:1 near:1 constant:1 dip:1 every:1 day:4 hour:2 minute:1 roughly:1 long:2 partial:1 secondary:3 brighter:1 occult:1 fainter:1 detect:1 photoelectrically:1 american:1 association:1 observer:1 http:1 www:1 aavso:1 org:1 vstar:1 vsots:1 shtml:1 observation:1 history:1 variability:3 record:1 geminiano:1 montanari:1 probable:1 property:1 notice:1 time:4 person:1 propose:1 mechanism:1 british:1 amateur:1 astronomer:3 john:1 goodricke:1 may:3 present:2 finding:1 royal:1 society:1 suggest:1 periodic:2 cause:2 dark:1 body:1 pass:2 front:1 else:1 darker:1 region:1 periodically:1 turn:1 toward:1 earth:3 report:1 award:1 copley:1 medal:1 harvard:1 edward:1 pickering:1 evidence:1 eclipsing:1 confirm:1 year:5 later:1 potsdam:1 hermann:1 carl:1 vogel:1 find:1 doppler:1 shift:1 spectrum:1 infer:1 variation:1 radial:1 velocity:1 become:2 spectroscopic:1 orbital:3 plane:1 coincidentally:1 contain:1 line:1 sight:1 precise:1 however:3 triple:1 pair:2 separate:2 au:2 third:1 sytstem:1 average:1 distance:2 mutual:1 period:1 total:2 mass:8 solar:5 ratio:1 element:1 systemcomponentssemimajor:1 axisellipticityperiodinclinationa:1 ab:2 study:1 lead:1 paradox:2 theory:1 stellar:1 evolution:1 although:1 component:3 form:2 massive:5 evolve:1 much:1 fast:1 less:2 observe:1 still:2 main:3 sequence:2 subgiant:2 late:1 evolutionary:1 stage:1 solve:1 transfer:3 fill:1 roche:1 lobe:1 similar:2 gas:1 flow:1 see:2 exhibit:1 activity:1 x:1 ray:1 radio:3 flare:2 former:1 think:1 magnetic:3 field:2 interact:1 emission:1 create:1 cycle:1 sunspots:1 around:1 ten:1 strong:1 sun:1 powerful:1 longer:1 last:1 light:2 million:1 ago:1 within:1 apparent:1 approximately:1 considerably:1 sirius:1 today:1 despite:1 fairly:1 close:1 approach:1 enough:1 perturb:1 oort:1 cloud:1 slightly:1 increase:2 number:1 comet:1 enter:1 inner:1 actual:1 net:1 cratering:1 rate:1 believe:2 quite:1 small:1 etymology:1 cultural:1 significance:1 name:6 derives:1 arabic:1 رأس:1 الغول:1 ra:2 al:2 ghūl:2 head:5 ogre:1 ghoul:1 give:1 position:1 represent:1 gorgon:1 medusa:1 english:1 blinking:1 direct:1 translation:1 hebrew:1 folklore:1 rōsh:1 ha:1 sāṭān:1 satan:1 via:1 edmund:1 chilmead:1 call:1 divels:1 rosch:1 hassatan:1 latin:1 term:1 century:1 caput:1 larva:1 spectre:1 link:2 lilith:1 hipparchus:1 pliny:1 make:1 though:1 connect:1 大陵五:1 fifth:1 mausoleum:1 chinese:1 astronomy:1 bore:1 grim:1 tseih:1 叠尸:1 modern:2 pinyin:1 meaning:1 pile:1 corps:1 astrology:1 astrologically:1 consider:1 unfortunate:1 sky:1 middle:1 age:1 behenian:1 associate:1 diamond:1 hellebore:1 mark:1 kabbalistic:1 sign:1 fiction:1 early:1 film:3 alien:2 invasion:1 german:1 silent:1 title:2 renowned:1 set:1 feature:3 emil:1 jannings:1 mephisto:1 print:1 lose:1 intact:1 copy:1 recover:1 depict:1 antagonist:1 fighting:1 videogame:1 soul:1 calibur:1 iv:1 original:1 phantasy:1 series:1 role:1 play:1 video:1 game:1 sega:2 master:1 genesis:2 mega:1 drive:1 progressive:1 viking:1 folk:1 metal:2 band:2 vintersorg:1 album:1 cosmic:1 song:1 hard:1 bos:1 world:1 warcraft:1 raid:1 dungeon:1 ulduar:1 algalon:1 whose:1 base:1 likely:1 due:1 connection:1 outer:1 space:2 presumed:1 evilness:1 reference:1 external:1 czech:1 realm:1 |@bigram beta_persei:5 http_www:1 amateur_astronomer:1 copley_medal:1 doppler_shift:1 radial_velocity:1 algol_algol:1 magnetic_field:2 apparent_magnitude:1 oort_cloud:1 phantasy_star:1 sega_genesis:1 external_link:1 |
3,050 | Delphinus | Delphinus ( Delfínus, genitive Delfini ), is a constellation in the northern sky, close to the celestial equator. Its name is Latin for dolphin. It is one of the smaller constellation, ranked 69th in size out of 88. Delphinus was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 1st century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains among the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union. Delphinus's brightest stars form a distinctive asterism that can easily be recognized. It is bordered (clockwise from north) by Vulpecula the fox, Sagitta the arrow, Aquila the eagle, Aquarius the water-carrier, Equuleus the foal and Pegasus the flying horse. Notable features Stars The two brightest stars of this constellation, Sualocin (Alpha Delphini) and Rotanev (Beta Delphini), are not, as one might expect, names dating from Antiquity, but instead date from a star catalogue of 1814 that was published at the Palermo Observatory in Italy. When read backwards they form the name Nicolaus Venator which is the Latinized version of the name of the assistant director of that observatory at that time, Niccolò Cacciatore (both Cacciatore and Venator mean hunter). α Del (Sualocin): B9 IV, 3.77m (multiple star association, with 7 components, of which only the A & G components are the primary, the others only optical) β Del (Rotanev): F5 IV, 4m - 4.9 m (5-star association, of which A & B components are primary, the rest optical) γ Del: one of the finest double stars in the sky. γ1 Del: F7 V, 5.14m γ² Del: K1 IV, 4.27m δ Del: A7 IIIp, 4.43m The above mentioned stars form an asterism called Job's Coffin. ε Del (Deneb Dulfim, or the tail of the Dolphin) is a star of spectral class B6 III with a magnitude of 4 R Delphini|R Del: Mira-type variable star with a period of 285.5 days; magnitude range between 7.6 and 13.8 ρ Aquilae moved across the border into Delphinus in 1992 Deep sky objects NGC 6891: Planetary nebula; 10.5m NGC 6934: This globular cluster is of magnitude 9.75 NGC 7006: at a distance of about 185,000 light-years this globular cluster is extremely remote; 11.5m Mythology Delphinus is associated with two stories from Greek mythology. According to the first one, the Greek god Poseidon wanted to marry Amphitrite, a nereid. She, however, wanting to protect her virginity, fled to the Atlas mountains. Her suitor then sent out several searchers, among them a certain Delphinus. Delphinus accidentally stumbled upon her and was able to persuade Amphitrite to accept Poseidon's wooing. Out of gratitude the god placed the image of a dolphin among the stars. The second story tells of the Greek poet Arion of Lesbos (7th century BC), a court musician at the palace of Periander, ruler of Corinth. Arion had amassed a fortune during his travels to Sicily and Italy. On his way home from Tarentum his wealth caused the crew of his ship to conspire against him. Threatened with death, Arion asked to be granted a last wish which the crew granted: he wanted to sing a dirge. This he did, and while doing so, flung himself into the sea. There, he was rescued by a dolphin which had been charmed by Arion's music. The dolphin carried Arion to the coast of Greece and left. Herodotus, Histories I.23-24;also Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae XVI.19; Plutarch, Conv. sept. sap. 160-62; Shakespeare, Twelfth Night (Act I, Sc 2, line 16) Notes References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Delphinus Star Tales – Delphinus | Delphinus |@lemmatized delphinus:9 delfínus:1 genitive:1 delfini:1 constellation:6 northern:1 sky:3 close:1 celestial:1 equator:1 name:4 latin:1 dolphin:5 one:5 small:1 rank:1 size:1 list:1 century:2 astronomer:1 ptolemy:1 remain:1 among:3 modern:1 recognize:2 international:1 astronomical:1 union:1 bright:2 star:13 form:3 distinctive:1 asterism:2 easily:1 border:2 clockwise:1 north:1 vulpecula:1 fox:1 sagitta:1 arrow:1 aquila:1 eagle:1 aquarius:1 water:1 carrier:1 equuleus:1 foal:1 pegasus:1 fly:1 horse:1 notable:1 feature:1 two:2 sualocin:2 alpha:1 delphini:3 rotanev:2 beta:1 might:1 expect:1 date:2 antiquity:1 instead:1 catalogue:1 publish:1 palermo:1 observatory:2 italy:2 read:1 backwards:1 nicolaus:1 venator:2 latinized:1 version:1 assistant:1 director:1 time:1 niccolò:1 cacciatore:2 mean:1 hunter:1 α:1 del:8 iv:3 multiple:1 association:2 component:3 g:1 primary:2 others:1 optical:2 β:1 b:1 rest:1 γ:1 fine:1 double:1 v:1 δ:1 iiip:1 mention:1 call:1 job:1 coffin:1 ε:1 deneb:1 dulfim:1 tail:1 spectral:1 class:1 iii:1 magnitude:3 r:2 mira:1 type:1 variable:1 period:1 day:1 range:1 ρ:1 aquilae:1 move:1 across:1 deep:2 object:1 ngc:3 planetary:1 nebula:1 globular:2 cluster:2 distance:1 light:1 year:1 extremely:1 remote:1 mythology:2 associate:1 story:2 greek:3 accord:1 first:1 god:2 poseidon:2 want:3 marry:1 amphitrite:2 nereid:1 however:1 protect:1 virginity:1 flee:1 atlas:1 mountain:1 suitor:1 send:1 several:1 searcher:1 certain:1 accidentally:1 stumble:1 upon:1 able:1 persuade:1 accept:1 wooing:1 gratitude:1 place:1 image:1 second:1 tell:1 poet:1 arion:5 lesbos:1 bc:1 court:1 musician:1 palace:1 periander:1 ruler:1 corinth:1 amass:1 fortune:1 travel:1 sicily:1 way:1 home:1 tarentum:1 wealth:1 cause:1 crew:2 ship:1 conspire:1 threaten:1 death:1 ask:1 grant:2 last:1 wish:1 sing:1 dirge:1 flung:1 sea:1 rescue:1 charm:1 music:1 carried:1 coast:1 greece:1 left:1 herodotus:1 history:1 also:1 aulus:1 gellius:1 noctes:1 atticae:1 xvi:1 plutarch:1 conv:1 sept:1 sap:1 shakespeare:1 twelfth:1 night:1 act:1 sc:1 line:1 note:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 guide:2 collins:1 london:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:1 tale:1 |@bigram celestial_equator:1 astronomer_ptolemy:1 planetary_nebula:1 nebula_ngc:1 globular_cluster:2 aulus_gellius:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
3,051 | Geography_of_Comoros | Map of all islands Map of Comoros and Southern Africa Map of Anjouan Map of Moheli The Comoros archipelago consists of four main islands aligned along a northwest-southeast axis at the north end of the Mozambique Channel, between Mozambique and the island of Madagascar. Still widely known by their French names, the islands officially have been called by their Swahili names by the Comorian government. They are Njazidja (Grande Comore), Mwali (Mohéli), Nzwani (Anjouan), and Mahoré (Mayotte). The islands' distance from each other--Njazidja is some 200 kilometers from Mahoré, forty kilometers from Mwali, and eighty kilometers from Nzwani--along with a lack of good harbor facilities, make transportation and communication difficult. The islands have a total land area of 2,236 square kilometers (including Mahoré), and claim territorial waters of 320 square kilometers. Le Karthala (2316 m) on Grande Comore is an active volcano. From April 17 to 19, 2005, the volcano began spewing ash and gas, forcing as many as 10,000 people to flee. Geographic coordinates: Njazidja Njazidja is the largest island, sixty-seven kilometers long and twenty-seven kilometers wide, with a total area of 1,146 square kilometers. The most recently formed of the four islands in the archipelago, it is also of volcanic origin. Two volcanoes form the island's most prominent topographic features: La Grille in the north, with an elevation of 1,000 meters, is extinct and largely eroded; Kartala in the south, rising to a height of 2,361 meters, last erupted in 1977. A plateau averaging 600 to 700 meters high connects the two mountains. Because Njazidja is geologically a relatively new island, its soil is thin and rocky and cannot hold water. As a result, water from the island's heavy rainfall must be stored in catchment tanks. There are no coral reefs along the coast, and the island lacks a good harbor for ships. One of the largest remnants of Comoros' once-extensive rain forests is on the slopes of Kartala. The national capital has been at Moroni since 1962. Nzwani Nzwani, triangular shaped and forty kilometers from apex to base, has an area of 424 square kilometers. Three mountain chains--Sima, Nioumakele, and Jimilime--emanate from a central peak, Mtingui (1,575 meters), giving the island its distinctive shape. Older than Njazidja, Nzwani has deeper soil cover, but overcultivation has caused serious erosion. A coral reef lies close to shore; the island's capital of Mutsamudu is also its main port. Mwali Mwali is thirty kilometers long and twelve kilometers wide, with an area of 290 square kilometers. It is the smallest of the four islands and has a central mountain chain reaching 860 meters at its highest. Like Njazidja, it retains stands of rain forest. Mwali's capital is Fomboni. Mahoré Mahoré, geologically the oldest of the four islands, is thirty-nine kilometers long and twenty-two kilometers wide, totaling 375 square kilometers, and its highest points are between 500 and 600 meters above sea level. Because of greater weathering of the volcanic rock, the soil is relatively rich in some areas. A well-developed coral reef that encircles much of the island ensures protection for ships and a habitat for fish. Dzaoudzi, capital of Comoros until 1962 and now Mahoré's administrative center, is situated on a rocky outcropping off the east shore of the main island. Dzaoudzi is linked by a causeway to le Pamanzi, which at ten kilometers in area is the largest of several islets adjacent to Mahoré. Islets are also scattered in the coastal waters of Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mwali. Flora and Fauna Comorian waters are the habitat of the coelacanth, a rare fish with limblike fins and a cartilaginous skeleton, the fossil remains of which date as far back as 400 million years and which was once thought to have become extinct about 70 million years ago. A live specimen was caught in 1938 off southern Africa; other coelacanths have since been found in the vicinity of the Comoro Islands. Several mammals are unique to the islands themselves. The Macao, a lemur found only on Mahoré, is protected by French law and by local tradition. Another, Livingstone's fruit bat, although plentiful when discovered by explorer David Livingstone in 1863, has been reduced to a population of about 120, entirely on Nzwani. The world's largest bat, the jet-black Livingstone fruit bat has a wingspan of nearly two meters. A British preservation group sent an expedition to Comoros in 1992 to bring some of the bats to Britain to establish a breeding population. 22 species of bird are unique to the archipelago and 17 of these are restricted to the Union of the Comoros. These include the Karthala Scops-owl, Anjouan Scops-owl and Humblot's Flycatcher. Partly in response to international pressures, Comorians in the 1990s have become more concerned about the environment. Steps are being taken not only to preserve the rare fauna, but also to counteract degradation of the environment, especially on densely populated Nzwani. Specifically, to minimize the cutting down of trees for fuel, kerosene is being subsidized, and efforts are being made to replace the loss of the forest cover caused by ylang-ylang distillation for perfume. The Community Development Support Fund, sponsored by the International Development Association (IDA, a World Bank affiliate) and the Comorian government, is working to improve water supply on the islands as well. Climate The climate is marine tropical, with two seasons: hot and humid from November to April, the result of the northeastern monsoon, and a cooler, drier season the rest of the year. Average monthly temperatures range from 23°C to 28°C along the coasts. Although the average annual precipitation is 2,000 millimeters, water is a scarce commodity in many parts of Comoros. Mwali and Mahoré possess streams and other natural sources of water, but Njazidja and Nzwani, whose mountainous landscapes retain water poorly, are almost devoid of naturally occurring running water. Cyclones, occurring during the hot and wet season, can cause extensive damage, especially in coastal areas. On the average, at least twice each decade houses, farms, and harbor facilities are devastated by these great storms. Area and boundaries Area: total: 2,170 km² land: 2,170 km² water: 0 km² Area - comparative: slightly more than 12 times the size of Washington, DC Land boundaries: 0 km Coastline: 340 km Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nmi territorial sea: 12 nmi Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Le Kartala 2,360 m Resources and land use Natural resources: NEGL Land use: arable land: 35% permanent crops: 10% permanent pastures: 7% forests and woodland: 18% other: 30% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: NA km² Environmental concerns Natural hazards: cyclones possible during rainy season (December to April); Le Kartala on Grande Comore is an active volcano Environment - current issues: soil degradation and erosion results from crop cultivation on slopes without proper terracing; deforestation Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements References Ian Sinclair & Olivier Langrand (1998) Birds of the Indian Ocean Islands, Struik, Cape Town. | Geography_of_Comoros |@lemmatized map:4 island:21 comoros:7 southern:2 africa:2 anjouan:3 moheli:1 archipelago:3 consists:1 four:4 main:3 align:1 along:4 northwest:1 southeast:1 axis:1 north:2 end:1 mozambique:2 channel:1 madagascar:1 still:1 widely:1 know:1 french:2 name:2 officially:1 call:1 swahili:1 comorian:3 government:2 njazidja:9 grande:3 comore:3 mwali:7 mohéli:1 nzwani:9 mahoré:9 mayotte:1 distance:1 kilometer:17 forty:2 eighty:1 lack:2 good:2 harbor:3 facility:2 make:2 transportation:1 communication:1 difficult:1 total:4 land:7 area:10 square:6 include:2 claim:2 territorial:2 water:11 le:4 karthala:2 active:2 volcano:4 april:3 begin:1 spew:1 ash:1 gas:1 force:1 many:2 people:1 flee:1 geographic:1 coordinate:1 large:4 sixty:1 seven:2 long:3 twenty:2 wide:3 recently:1 form:2 also:4 volcanic:2 origin:1 two:5 prominent:1 topographic:1 feature:1 la:1 grille:1 elevation:2 meter:7 extinct:2 largely:1 erode:1 kartala:4 south:1 rise:1 height:1 last:1 erupt:1 plateau:1 average:4 high:4 connects:1 mountain:3 geologically:2 relatively:2 new:1 soil:4 thin:1 rocky:2 cannot:1 hold:1 result:3 heavy:1 rainfall:1 must:1 store:1 catchment:1 tank:1 coral:3 reef:3 coast:2 ship:2 one:1 remnant:1 extensive:2 rain:2 forest:4 slope:2 national:1 capital:4 moroni:1 since:2 triangular:1 shape:2 apex:1 base:1 three:1 chain:2 sima:1 nioumakele:1 jimilime:1 emanate:1 central:2 peak:1 mtingui:1 give:1 distinctive:1 old:2 deep:1 cover:2 overcultivation:1 cause:3 serious:1 erosion:2 lie:1 close:1 shore:2 mutsamudu:1 port:1 thirty:2 twelve:1 small:1 reach:1 like:1 retain:2 stand:1 fomboni:1 nine:1 point:3 sea:3 level:1 great:2 weathering:1 rock:1 rich:1 well:2 develop:1 encircle:1 much:1 ensure:1 protection:2 habitat:2 fish:2 dzaoudzi:2 administrative:1 center:1 situate:1 outcropping:1 east:1 link:1 causeway:1 pamanzi:1 ten:1 several:2 islet:2 adjacent:1 scatter:1 coastal:2 flora:1 fauna:2 coelacanth:2 rare:2 limblike:1 fin:1 cartilaginous:1 skeleton:1 fossil:1 remains:1 date:1 far:1 back:1 million:2 year:3 think:1 become:2 ago:1 live:1 specimen:1 catch:1 find:2 vicinity:1 comoro:1 islands:1 mammal:1 unique:2 macao:1 lemur:1 protect:1 law:2 local:1 tradition:1 another:1 livingstone:3 fruit:2 bat:4 although:2 plentiful:1 discover:1 explorer:1 david:1 reduce:1 population:2 entirely:1 world:2 jet:1 black:1 wingspan:1 nearly:1 british:1 preservation:1 group:1 send:1 expedition:1 bring:1 britain:1 establish:1 breeding:1 specie:2 bird:2 restrict:1 union:1 scops:2 owl:2 humblot:1 flycatcher:1 partly:1 response:1 international:3 pressure:1 comorians:1 concerned:1 environment:4 step:1 take:1 preserve:1 counteract:1 degradation:2 especially:2 densely:1 populate:1 specifically:1 minimize:1 cut:1 tree:1 fuel:1 kerosene:1 subsidize:1 effort:1 replace:1 loss:1 ylang:2 distillation:1 perfume:1 community:1 development:2 support:1 fund:1 sponsor:1 association:1 ida:1 bank:1 affiliate:1 work:1 improve:1 supply:1 climate:3 marine:1 tropical:1 season:4 hot:2 humid:1 november:1 northeastern:1 monsoon:1 cooler:1 dry:1 rest:1 monthly:1 temperature:1 range:1 c:2 annual:1 precipitation:1 millimeter:1 scarce:1 commodity:1 part:1 posse:1 stream:1 natural:3 source:1 whose:1 mountainous:1 landscape:1 poorly:1 almost:1 devoid:1 naturally:1 occur:2 run:1 cyclone:2 wet:1 damage:1 least:1 twice:1 decade:1 house:1 farm:1 devastate:1 storm:1 boundary:2 comparative:1 slightly:1 time:1 size:1 washington:1 dc:1 km:2 coastline:1 maritime:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:1 nmi:2 extreme:1 low:1 indian:2 ocean:2 resource:2 use:2 negl:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:2 pasture:1 woodland:1 est:1 irrigated:1 na:1 environmental:1 concern:1 hazard:1 possible:1 rainy:1 december:1 current:1 issue:1 cultivation:1 without:1 proper:1 terracing:1 deforestation:1 agreement:2 party:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 desertification:1 endanger:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 ozone:1 layer:1 wetland:1 sign:1 ratified:1 none:1 select:1 reference:1 ian:1 sinclair:1 olivier:1 langrand:1 struik:1 cape:1 town:1 |@bigram comoros_archipelago:1 grande_comore:3 square_kilometer:6 active_volcano:2 geographic_coordinate:1 elevation_meter:1 coral_reef:3 rain_forest:2 njazidja_nzwani:3 flora_fauna:1 densely_populate:1 ylang_ylang:1 hot_humid:1 annual_precipitation:1 washington_dc:1 coastline_km:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 pasture_forest:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 rainy_season:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 protection_wetland:1 sign_ratified:1 ratified_none:1 ian_sinclair:1 |
3,052 | Final_Solution | The Final Solution () was Nazi Germany's plan and execution of its systematic genocide against European Jewry during World War II, resulting in the final, most deadly phase of the Holocaust (Shoah). Heinrich Himmler was the chief architect of the plan, and the German Nazi leader Adolf Hitler termed it: "the final solution of the Jewish question" ("die Endlösung der Judenfrage"). Furet, François. Unanswered Questions: Nazi Germany and the Genocide of the Jews. Schocken Books (1989), p. 182; ISBN 0805240519 Mass killings of about one million Jews occurred before the plans of the Final Solution were fully implemented in 1942, but it was only with the decision to eradicate the entire Jewish population that the extermination camps were built and industrialized mass slaughter of Jews began in earnest. This decision to systematically kill the Jews of Europe was made by the time of, or at the Wannsee conference, which took place in Berlin, in the Wannsee Villa on January 20, 1942. The conference was chaired by Reinhard Heydrich. He was acting under the authority given to him by Reichsmarshall Goring in a letter dated July 31, 1941. Goring instructed Heydrich to settle "...the solution of the Jewish problem..." During the conference, there was a discussion held by the group of German Nazi officials how best to handle the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question". A surviving copy of the minutes of this meeting was found by the Allies in 1947, too late to serve as evidence during the first Nuremberg Trials. By the summer of 1942, Operation Reinhard began the systematic extermination of the Jews, although hundreds of thousands already had been killed by death squads and in mass pogroms. In Heinrich Himmler's speech at the Posen Conference of October 6, 1943, Himmler, for the first time, clearly elucidated to all assembled leaders of the Reich to what the "Final Solution" referred. Historiographic debate about the decision Prior to the beginning of World War II, during a speech given on January 30, 1939 (the six year anniversary of his accession to power), Hitler foretold the coming Holocaust of European Jewry when he said:"Today I will once more be a prophet: If the international Jewish financiers in and outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will not be the Bolshevization of the earth, and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe!" Christian Gerlach has argued for a different timeframe, suggesting the decision was made by Hitler on December 12, 1941, when he addressed a meeting of the Nazi Party (the Reichsleiter) and of regional party leaders (the Gauleiter). In his diary entry of December 13, 1941, the day after Hitler’s private speech, Joseph Goebbels wrote:"Regarding the Jewish Question, the Führer is determined to clear the table. He warned the Jews that if they were to cause another world war, it would lead to their own destruction. Those were not empty words. Now the world war has come. The destruction of the Jews must be its necessary consequence. We cannot be sentimental about it. It is not for us to feel sympathy for the Jews. We should have sympathy rather with our own German people. If the German people have to sacrifice 160,000 victims in yet another campaign in the east, then those responsible for this bloody conflict will have to pay for it with their lives." Echoing his above statements along with the January 30, 1939 speech by Hitler, in an article written in 1943 entitled "The War and the Jews" Goebbels wrote: "None of the Führer's prophetic words has come so inevitably true as his prediction that if Jewry succeeded in provoking a second world war, the result would be not the destruction of the Aryan race, but rather the wiping out of the Jewish race. This process is of vast importance, and will have unforeseeable consequences that will require time. But it can no longer be halted. It must only be guided in the right direction." http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/goeb37.htm After this decision, plans were made to put the Final Solution into effect. For example, on December 16, at a meeting of the officials of the General Government, Hans Frank referred to Hitler's speech as he described the coming annihilation of the Jews: "As for the Jews, well, I can tell you quite frankly that one way or another we have to put an end to them. The Führer once put it this way: if the combined forces of Judaism should again succeed in unleashing a world war, that would mean the end of the Jews in Europe. ...I urge you: Stand together with me ... on this idea at least: Save your sympathy for the German people alone. Don't waste it on anyone else in the world, ... I would therefore be guided by the basic expectation that they are going to disappear. They have to be gotten rid of. At present I am involved in discussions aimed at having them moved away to the east. In January there is going to be an important meeting in Berlin to discuss this question. I am going to send State Secretary Dr. Buhler to this meeting. It is scheduled to take place in the offices of the RSHA in the presence of Obergruppenführer Heydrich. Whatever its outcome, a great Jewish emigration will commence. But what is going to happen to these Jews? Do you imagine there will be settlement villages for them in the Ostland? In Berlin we were told: Why are you making all this trouble for us? There is nothing we can do with them here in the Ostland or in the Reich Commissariat. Liquidate them yourselves! ... Here are 3.5 million Jews that we can't shoot, we can't poison. But there are some things we can do, and one way or another these measures will successfully lead to a liquidation. They are related to the measures under discussion with the Reich.... Where and how this will all take place will be a matter for offices that we will have to establish and operate here. I will report to you on their operation at the appropriate time." Prelude: Holocaust in Lithuania Several scholars have noted that the Final Solution and the Holocaust began in Lithuania after the German invasion. Dina Porat wrote: "The Final Solution - the systematic overall physical extermination of Jewish communities one after the other - begun in Lithuania. Dina Porat, “The Holocaust in Lithuania: Some Unique Aspects”, in David Cesarani, The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0415152321, Google Print, p. 159 Konrad Kweit wrote: "Lithuanian Jews were among the first victims of the Holocaust [...] The Germans carried out the mass executions [...] signaling the beginning of the "Final Solution." Konrad Kwiet, Rehearsing for Murder: The Beginning of the Final Solution in Lithuania in June 1941, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 3-26, 1998, and Konrad Kwiet, "The Onset of the Holocaust: The Massacres of Jews in Lithuania in June 1941." Annual lecture delivered as J. B. and Maurice Shapiro Senior Scholar-in-Residence at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum on December 4,1995. Published under the same title but expanded in Power, Conscience and Opposition: Essays in German History in Honour of John A Moses, ed. Andrew Bonnell et al. (New York: Peter Lang, 1996), pp. 107-21 Holocaust in General Gouvernment (GG) Galicia Others like Dr. Samuel Drix (Witness to Anihilation), Jochaim Schoenfeld (Holocaust Memoirs), and several survivors of the Janowska Camp who were interviewed in the film, "Janovska: The Janovska Camp at Lvov," among other witnesses have argued equally as convincingly that the Final Solution began in Lwow (Lemberg) during that same week. Statements and memoirs of these survivors highlight the point that when Ukrainian civilians and ad hoc or auxiliary militas crossed the line that previously the Germans would not breach - the murdering of inocent women and children rather than only male Jews - the "Final Solution" was in fact begun. It is asserted by witnesses that this happened both prior to and during the pogroms associated with the "Prison Massacre." The question of whether there was some coordination between the Lithuanian and Ukrainian militas remains (collaborating for a joint assault in Kovno, Wilno, and Lwów). And still the issue of when the actual first concerted effort at anhilation of all Jews in the last weeks of June, 1941 during Operation Barbarossa is still almost too close to call, despite the assertion of Dina Porat that the Lithuanian Jews rather than the Galician Jews had the dubious distinction of being the first victims of the Final Solution. Heydrich's letter The relevant text is a handwritten cover letter, by Reinhard Heydrich to Martin Luther of the Foreign Office, dated February 26, 1942, forwarding the minutes of the Wannsee Conference. In the opening sentence Heydrich uses explicitly the expression, "the final solution to the Jewish question". The following is a translation of the letter from German to English: Dear Fellow Party Member [Parteigenosse] Luther! Enclosed I am sending you the minutes of the proceedings that took place on January 20,1942. Since the basic position regarding the practical execution of the final solution of the Jewish question has fortunately been established by now, and since there is a full agreement on the part of all agencies involved. I would like to ask you at the request of the Reich Marshal to make one of your specialist officials available for the necessary discussion of details in connection with the completion of the draft that shows the organizational, technical and material prerequisites bearing on the actual starting point of the projected solutions. I want to schedule the first discussion along these lines for 10:30 a.m. on March 6, 1942 at 116 Kurfürstenstrasse, Berlin. I therefore ask you that for this purpose your specialist official contact my functionary in charge there, SS-Obersturmbannführer Eichmann. References Further reading Browning, Christopher R. The Origins of the Final Solution, William Heinemann, London, 2004. Gerald Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1984. Christian Gerlach. The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of German Jews, and Hitler's decision in principle to exterminate all European Jews, The Journal of Modern History. Chicago: December 1998.Vol.70, Iss. 4; pg. 759, 54 pgs. Schultheis, Herbert / Wahler, Isaac E.: Bilder und Akten der Gestapo Wuerzburg ueber die Judendeportationen 1941 – 1943. Bad Neustadt a. d. Saale 1988. ISBN 978-3-9800482-7-9 (German-English Edition) Longerich, Peter. The Unwritten Order — Hitler's Role in The Final Solution, Tempus Publishing Limited, Stroud, 2003. Baumslag, Naomi. Murderous Medicine — Nazi Doctors, Human Experimentation, and Typhus, Praeger Publishers, (an imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.), 2005. ISBN 0-275-98312-9 Website of the House of the Wannsee Conference (Protocols) External links 1941–1944: The "Final Solution" The Final Solution Elimination of the Jewish National Home in Palestine: The Einsatzkommando of the Panzer army Africa, 1942 by Klaus-Michael Mallmann and Martin Cüppers | Final_Solution |@lemmatized final:22 solution:23 nazi:6 germany:2 plan:4 execution:3 systematic:3 genocide:3 european:3 jewry:4 world:8 war:8 ii:2 result:3 deadly:1 phase:1 holocaust:11 shoah:1 heinrich:2 himmler:3 chief:1 architect:1 german:12 leader:3 adolf:1 hitler:9 term:1 jewish:13 question:8 die:2 endlösung:1 der:2 judenfrage:1 furet:1 françois:1 unanswered:1 jew:22 schocken:1 book:1 p:2 isbn:4 mass:4 killing:1 one:5 million:2 occur:1 fully:1 implement:1 decision:6 eradicate:1 entire:1 population:1 extermination:3 camp:3 build:1 industrialize:1 slaughter:1 begin:6 earnest:1 systematically:1 kill:2 europe:4 make:5 time:4 wannsee:5 conference:7 take:4 place:4 berlin:4 villa:1 january:5 chair:1 reinhard:3 heydrich:6 act:1 authority:1 give:2 reichsmarshall:1 goring:1 letter:4 date:2 july:1 gore:1 instructed:1 settle:1 problem:1 discussion:5 hold:1 group:2 official:4 best:1 handle:1 survive:1 copy:1 minute:3 meeting:5 find:1 ally:1 late:1 serve:1 evidence:1 first:6 nuremberg:1 trial:1 summer:1 operation:3 although:1 hundred:1 thousand:1 already:1 death:1 squad:1 pogrom:2 speech:5 posen:1 october:1 clearly:1 elucidate:1 assembled:1 reich:4 refer:2 historiographic:1 debate:1 prior:2 beginning:3 six:1 year:1 anniversary:1 accession:1 power:2 foretell:1 come:4 say:1 today:1 prophet:1 international:1 financier:1 outside:1 succeed:3 plunge:1 nation:1 bolshevization:1 earth:1 thus:1 victory:1 annihilation:2 race:3 christian:2 gerlach:2 argue:2 different:1 timeframe:1 suggest:1 december:5 address:1 party:3 reichsleiter:1 regional:1 gauleiter:1 diary:1 entry:1 day:1 private:1 joseph:1 goebbels:2 write:5 regard:2 führer:3 determine:1 clear:1 table:1 warn:1 cause:1 another:4 would:6 lead:2 destruction:3 empty:1 word:2 must:2 necessary:2 consequence:2 cannot:1 sentimental:1 u:2 feel:1 sympathy:3 rather:4 people:3 sacrifice:1 victim:3 yet:1 campaign:1 east:2 responsible:1 bloody:1 conflict:1 pay:1 life:1 echo:1 statement:2 along:2 article:1 entitle:1 none:1 prophetic:1 inevitably:1 true:1 prediction:1 provoke:1 second:1 aryan:1 wipe:1 process:1 vast:1 importance:1 unforeseeable:1 require:1 longer:1 halt:1 guide:2 right:1 direction:1 http:1 www:1 calvin:1 edu:1 academic:1 ca:1 gpa:1 htm:1 put:3 effect:1 example:1 general:2 government:1 han:1 frank:1 describe:1 well:1 tell:2 quite:1 frankly:1 way:3 end:2 combined:1 force:1 judaism:1 unleash:1 mean:1 urge:1 stand:1 together:1 idea:1 least:1 save:1 alone:1 waste:1 anyone:1 else:1 therefore:2 basic:2 expectation:1 go:4 disappear:1 get:1 rid:1 present:1 involve:2 aim:1 move:1 away:1 important:1 discuss:1 send:2 state:2 secretary:1 dr:2 buhler:1 schedule:2 office:3 rsha:1 presence:1 obergruppenführer:1 whatever:1 outcome:1 great:1 emigration:1 commence:1 happen:2 imagine:1 settlement:1 village:1 ostland:2 trouble:1 nothing:1 commissariat:1 liquidate:1 shoot:1 poison:1 thing:1 measure:2 successfully:1 liquidation:1 relate:1 matter:1 establish:2 operate:1 report:1 appropriate:1 prelude:1 lithuania:6 several:2 scholar:2 note:1 invasion:1 dina:3 porat:3 overall:1 physical:1 community:1 unique:1 aspect:1 david:1 cesarani:1 origin:2 implementation:1 routledge:1 google:1 print:1 konrad:3 kweit:1 lithuanian:3 among:2 carry:1 signal:1 kwiet:2 rehearse:1 murder:1 june:3 study:1 volume:1 number:1 pp:2 onset:1 massacre:2 annual:1 lecture:1 deliver:1 j:1 b:1 maurice:1 shapiro:1 senior:1 residence:1 united:1 memorial:1 museum:1 publish:1 title:1 expand:1 conscience:1 opposition:1 essay:1 history:2 honour:1 john:1 moses:1 ed:1 andrew:1 bonnell:1 et:1 al:1 new:1 york:1 peter:2 lang:1 gouvernment:1 gg:1 galicia:1 others:1 like:2 samuel:1 drix:1 witness:3 anihilation:1 jochaim:1 schoenfeld:1 memoir:2 survivor:2 janowska:1 interview:1 film:1 janovska:2 lvov:1 equally:1 convincingly:1 lwow:1 lemberg:1 week:2 highlight:1 point:2 ukrainian:2 civilian:1 ad:1 hoc:1 auxiliary:1 militas:2 cross:1 line:2 previously:1 breach:1 murdering:1 inocent:1 woman:1 child:1 male:1 fact:1 assert:1 associate:1 prison:1 whether:1 coordination:1 remain:1 collaborate:1 joint:1 assault:1 kovno:1 wilno:1 lwów:1 still:2 issue:1 actual:2 concerted:1 effort:1 anhilation:1 last:1 barbarossa:1 almost:1 close:1 call:1 despite:1 assertion:1 galician:1 dubious:1 distinction:1 relevant:1 text:1 handwritten:1 cover:1 martin:2 luther:2 foreign:1 february:1 forward:1 opening:1 sentence:1 use:1 explicitly:1 expression:1 following:1 translation:1 english:2 dear:1 fellow:1 member:1 parteigenosse:1 enclose:1 proceeding:1 since:2 position:1 practical:1 fortunately:1 full:1 agreement:1 part:1 agency:1 ask:2 request:1 marshal:1 specialist:2 available:1 detail:1 connection:1 completion:1 draft:1 show:1 organizational:1 technical:1 material:1 prerequisite:1 bear:1 start:1 projected:1 want:1 march:1 kurfürstenstrasse:1 purpose:1 contact:1 functionary:1 charge:1 obersturmbannführer:1 eichmann:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 browning:1 christopher:1 r:1 william:1 heinemann:1 london:1 gerald:1 fleming:1 university:1 california:1 press:1 berkeley:1 fate:1 principle:1 exterminate:1 journal:1 modern:1 chicago:1 vol:1 pg:1 pgs:1 schultheis:1 herbert:1 wahler:1 isaac:1 e:1 bilder:1 und:1 akten:1 gestapo:1 wuerzburg:1 ueber:1 judendeportationen:1 bad:1 neustadt:1 saale:1 edition:1 longerich:1 unwritten:1 order:1 role:1 tempus:1 publishing:2 limit:1 stroud:1 baumslag:1 naomi:1 murderous:1 medicine:1 doctor:1 human:1 experimentation:1 typhus:1 praeger:1 publisher:1 imprint:1 greenwood:1 inc:1 website:1 house:1 protocol:1 external:1 link:1 elimination:1 national:1 home:1 palestine:1 einsatzkommando:1 panzer:1 army:1 africa:1 klaus:1 michael:1 mallmann:1 cüppers:1 |@bigram heinrich_himmler:2 adolf_hitler:1 unanswered_question:1 schocken_book:1 extermination_camp:1 wannsee_conference:4 reinhard_heydrich:2 nuremberg_trial:1 hundred_thousand:1 joseph_goebbels:1 http_www:1 anyone_else:1 et_al:1 ad_hoc:1 concerted_effort:1 operation_barbarossa:1 martin_luther:1 tempus_publishing:1 praeger_publisher:1 greenwood_publishing:1 external_link:1 |
3,053 | Public_international_law | The United Nations is responsible for much of the current framework of international law Public international law concerns the structure and conduct of sovereign states and intergovernmental organizations. To a lesser degree, international law also may affect multinational corporations and individuals, an impact increasingly evolving beyond domestic legal interpretation and enforcement. Public international law has increased in use and importance vastly over the twentieth century, due all to the increase in global trade, , environmental deterioration on a worldwide scale, awareness of human rights violations, rapid and vast increases in international transportation and a boom in global communications. The field of study combines two main branches: the law of nations (jus gentium) and international agreements and conventions (jus inter gentes), which have different theoretical foundations and should not be confused. Public international law should not be confused with "private international law", which is concerned with the resolution of conflict of laws. In its most general sense, international law "consists of rules and principles of general application dealing with the conduct of states and of intergovernmental organizations and with their relations inter se, as well as with some of their relations with persons, whether natural or juridical." Columbia Law School, McKeever, 2003 — Definition of International Law Scope Public international law establishes the framework and the criteria for identifying states as the principal actors in the international legal system. As the existence of a state presupposes control and jurisdiction over territory, international law deals with the acquisition of territory, state immunity and the legal responsibility of states in their conduct with each other. International law is similarly concerned with the treatment of individuals within state boundaries. There is thus a comprehensive regime dealing with group rights, the treatment of aliens, the rights of refugees, international crimes, nationality problems, and human rights generally. It further includes the important functions of the maintenance of international peace and security, arms control, the pacific settlement of disputes and the regulation of the use of force in international relations. Even when the law is not able to stop the outbreak of war, it has developed principles to govern the conduct of hostilities and the treatment of prisoners. International law is also used to govern issues relating to the global environment, the global commons such as international waters and outer space, global communications, and world trade. Whilst municipal law is hierarchical or vertical in its structure (meaning that a legislature enacts binding legislation), international law is horizontal in nature. This means that all states are sovereign and theoretically equal. As a result of the notion of sovereignty, the value and authority of international law is dependent upon the voluntary participation of states in its formulation, observance, and enforcement. Although there may be exceptions, it is thought by many international academics that most states enter into legal commitments with other states out of enlightened self-interest rather than adherence to a body of law that is higher than their own. As D. W. Greig notes, "international law cannot exist in isolation from the political factors operating in the sphere of international relations". Greig, D. W., International Law, 2nd edn (Butterworths: London, 1976) Breaches of international law raise difficult questions for lawyers. Since international law has no established compulsory judicial system for the settlement of disputes or a coercive penal system, it is not as straightforward as managing breaches within a domestic legal system. However, there are means by which breaches are brought to the attention of the international community and some means for resolution. For example, there are judicial or quasi-judicial tribunals in international law in certain areas such as trade and human rights. The formation of the United Nations, for example, created a means for the world community to enforce international law upon members that violate its charter through the Security Council. Traditionally, sovereign states and the Holy See were the sole subjects of international law. With the proliferation of international organizations over the last century, they have in some cases been recognized as relevant parties as well. Recent interpretations of international human rights law, international humanitarian law, and international trade law (e.g., North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Chapter 11 actions) have been inclusive of corporations, and even of certain individuals. History The public international law originates in the Peace of Westphalia in Münster (1648) The earliest known treatises on international law was the Introduction to the Law of Nations written at the end of the 8th century by Muhammad al-Shaybani (d. 804), a jurist of the Hanafi school of Islamic law and jurisprudence, and other Islamic jurists soon followed with a number of treatises written on international law (Siyar in Arabic). These early Islamic legal treatises covered the application of Islamic ethics, Islamic economic jurisprudence and Islamic military jurisprudence to international law, and were concerned with a number of international law topics, including the law of treaties; the treatment of diplomats, hostages, refugees and prisoners of war; the right of asylum; conduct on the battlefield; protection of women, children and non-combatant civilians; contracts across the lines of battle; the use of poisonous weapons; and devastation of enemy territory. The first European treatises on international law was later written by Francisco de Vitoria in the 16th century; Hugo Grotius, in the early 17th century, developed the subject further. He and other European legal scholars may have been influenced by early Islamic international law. Beginning with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries saw the growth of the concept of the sovereign "nation-state", which consisted of a nation controlled by a centralized system of government. The concept of nationalism became increasingly important as people began to see themselves as citizens of a particular nation with a distinct national identity. Until the mid-19th century, relations between nation-states were dictated by treaty, agreements to behave in a certain way towards another state, unenforceable except by force, and not binding except as matters of honor and faithfulness. But treaties alone became increasingly toothless and wars became increasingly destructive, most markedly towards civilians, and civilized peoples decried their horrors, leading to calls for regulation of the acts of states, especially in times of war. Perhaps the first instrument of modern public international law was the Lieber Code, passed in 1863 by the Congress of the United States, to govern the conduct of US forces during the United States Civil War and considered to be the first written recitation of the rules and articles of war, adhered to by all civilized nations, the precursor of public international law. Part of the Code follows: "Military necessity, as understood by modern civilized nations, consists in the necessity of those measures which are indispensable for securing the ends of the war, and which are lawful according to the modern law and usages of war. Military necessity admits of all direct destruction of life or limb of armed enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is incidentally unavoidable in the armed contests of the war; it allows of the capturing of every armed enemy, and every enemy of importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the captor; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy; of the appropriation of whatever an enemy's country affords necessary for the subsistence and safety of the Army, and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith either positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the war, or supposed by the modern law of war to exist. (...But...) Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another and to God. Military necessity does not admit of cruelty—that is, the infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering or for revenge, nor of maiming or wounding except in fight, nor of torture to extort confessions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way, nor of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of deception, but disclaims acts of perfidy; and, in general, military necessity does not include any act of hostility which makes the return to peace unnecessarily difficult." This first statement of the previously uncodified rules and articles of war led to the first prosecution for war crimes—in the case of United States prisoners of war held in cruel and depraved conditions at Andersonville, Georgia, in which the Confederate commandant of that camp was tried and hanged, the only Confederate soldier to be punished by death in the aftermath of the entire Civil War. In the years that followed, other states subscribed to limitations of their conduct, and numerous other treaties and bodies were created to regulate the conduct of states towards one another in terms of these treaties, including, but not limited to, the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 1899; the Hague and Geneva Conventions, the first of which was passed in 1907; the International Court of Justice in 1921; the Genocide Convention; and the International Criminal Court, in the late 1990s. Because international law is a relatively new area of law its development and propriety in applicable areas are often subject to dispute. Conflicts between public international law and national sovereignty The conflict between international law and national sovereignty is subject to vigorous debate and dispute in academia, diplomacy, and politics. Certainly, there is a growing trend toward judging a state's domestic actions in the light of international law and standards. Numerous people now view the nation-state as the primary unit of international affairs, and believe that only states may choose to voluntarily enter into commitments under international law, and that they have the right to follow their own counsel when it comes to interpretation of their commitments. Certain scholars and political leaders feel that these modern developments endanger nation states by taking power away from state governments and ceding it to international bodies such as the U.N. and the World Bank, argue that international law has evolved to a point where it exists separately from the mere consent of states, and discern a legislative and judicial process to international law that parallels such processes within domestic law. This especially occurs when states violate or deviate from the expected standards of conduct adhered to by all civilized nations. A number of states support very narrow interpretations of international law, including the People's Republic of China, the military junta currently holding power in Burma, and the Russian Federation. These states maintain that sovereignty—and thus what some view as the basis of sovereignty, the ultima ratio regum, or last argument of kings (force and coercion, by military or other means)—is the only true international law; thus seeing states as having free rein over their own affairs and their affairs in the larger world. Other states oppose this view. One group of opponents of this point of view, including many European nations, maintain that all civilized nations have certain norms of conduct expected of them, including the prohibition of genocide, slavery and the slave trade, wars of aggression, torture, and piracy, and that violation of these universal norms represents a crime, not only against the individual victims, but against humanity as a whole. States and individuals who subscribe to this view opine that, in the case of the individual responsible for violation of international law, he "is become, like the pirate and the slave trader before him, hostis humani generis, an enemy of all mankind" Janis, M. and Noyes, J. International Law": Cases and Commentary (3rd ed.), Prosecutor v. Furundžija, Page 148 (2006) , and thus subject to prosecution in a fair trial before any fundamentally just tribunal, through the exercise of universal jurisdiction. Another group believes that states only commit to international law with express consent, whether through treaty or customary law, and have the right to make their own interpretations of its meaning; and that international courts only function with the consent of states. Though the European democracies tend to support broad, universalistic interpretations of international law, many other democracies have differing views on international law. Several democracies, including Israel, India, the United States, take a flexible, eclectic approach, recognizing aspects of public international law as universal, regarding other aspects as arising from treaty or custom, and viewing certain aspects as not being subjects of public international law at all. Democracies in the developing world, due to their past colonial histories, often insist on non-interference in their internal affairs, particularly regarding human rights standards or their peculiar institutions, but often strongly support international law at the bilateral and multilateral levels, such as in the United Nations, and especially regarding the use of force, disarmament obligations, and the terms of the UN Charter. Although considerable differences exist amongst democracies as to their policies and practices regarding international law, most dictatorships have very low regard for any kind of international law, either in principle, or in practice, except when it comes to the international laws that protect their own thrones and sovereignties; indeed, most grave breaches of public international law are committed by dictatorships. Sources Public international law has four primary sources: international treaties, custom, general principles of law and judicial decisions and teachings. (cf. Art. 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice International treaty law comprises obligations states expressly and voluntarily accept between themselves in treaties. Customary international law is derived from the consistent practice of States accompanied by opinio juris, i.e. the conviction of States that the consistent practice is required by a legal obligation. Judgments of international tribunals as well as scholarly works have traditionally been looked to as persuasive sources for custom in addition to direct evidence of state behavior (and they are also explicitly mentioned as such in Art. 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law). Attempts to codify customary international law picked up momentum after the Second World War with the formation of the International Law Commission (ILC), under the aegis of the United Nations. Codified customary law is made the binding interpretation of the underlying custom by agreement through treaty. For states not party to such treaties, the work of the ILC may still be accepted as custom applying to those states. General principles of law are those commonly recognized by the major legal systems of the world. Certain norms of international law achieve the binding force of peremptory norms (jus cogens) as to include all states with no permissible derogations. Interpretation Where there are disputes about the exact meaning and application of national laws, it is the responsibility of the courts to decide what the law means. In international law interpretation is within the domain of the protagonists, but may also be conferred on judicial bodies such as the International Court of Justice, by the terms of the treaties or by consent of the parties. It is generally the responsibility of states to interpret the law for themselves, but the processes of diplomacy and availability of supra-national judicial organs operate routinely to provide assistance to that end. Insofar as treaties are concerned, the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties writes on the topic of interpretation that: "A treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose." (article 31(1)) This is actually a compromise between three different theories of interpretation: The textual approach, a restrictive interpretation, which bases itself on the "ordinary meaning" of the text; that approach assigns considerable weight to the actual text. The subjective approach, which takes into consideration i. the idea behind the treaty, ii. treaties "in their context", and iii. what the writers intended when they wrote the text. A third approach, which bases itself on interpretation "in the light of its object and purpose", i.e. the interpretation that best suits the goal of the treaty, also called "effective interpretation". These are general rules of interpretation; specific rules might exist in specific areas of international law. Enforcement Since international law exists in a legal environment without an overarching "sovereign" (i.e., an external power able and willing to compel compliance with international norms), "enforcement" of international law is very different than in the domestic context. In many cases, enforcement takes on Coasian characteristics, where the norm is self-enforcing. In other cases, defection from the norm can pose a real risk, particularly if the international environment is changing. When this happens, and if enough states (or enough powerful states) continually ignore a particular aspect of international law, the norm may actually change according to concepts of customary international law. For example, prior to World War I, unrestricted submarine warfare was considered a violation of international law and ostensibly the casus belli for the United States' declaration of war against Germany. By World War II, however, the practice was so widespread that during the Nuremberg trials, the charges against German Admiral Karl Dönitz for ordering unrestricted submarine warfare were dropped, notwithstanding that the activity constituted a clear violation of the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936. Enforcement by states Apart from a state's natural inclination to uphold certain norms, the force of international law comes from the pressure that states put upon one another to behave consistently and to honor their obligations. As with any system of law, many violations of international law obligations are overlooked. If addressed, it is almost always purely through diplomacy and the consequences upon an offending state's reputation. Though violations may be common in fact, states try to avoid the appearance of having disregarded international obligations. States may also unilaterally adopt sanctions against one another such as the severance of economic or diplomatic ties, or through reciprocal action. In some cases, domestic courts may render judgment against a foreign state (the realm of private international law) for an injury, though this is a complicated area of law where international law intersects with domestic law. It is implicit in the Westphalian system of nation-states, and explicitly recognized under Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, that all states have the inherent right to individual and collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against them. Article 51 of the UN Charter guarantees the right of states to defend themselves until (and unless) the Security Council takes measures to keep the peace. Enforcement by international bodies Violations of the UN Charter by members of the United Nations may be raised by the aggrieved state in the General Assembly for debate. The General Assembly cannot make binding resolutions, only 'recommendations', but through its adoption of the "Uniting for Peace" resolution (A/RES/377 A), of 3 November 1950, the Assembly declared that it has the power to authorize the use of force, under the terms of the UN Charter, in cases of breaches of the peace or acts of aggression, provided that the Security Council, owing to the negative vote of a permanent member, fails to act to address the situation. The Assembly also declared, by its adoption of resolution 377 A, that it could call for other collective measures—such as economic and diplomatic sanctions—in situations constituting the milder "threat to the Peace". The Uniting for Peace resolution was initiated by the United States in 1950, shortly after the outbreak of the Korean War, as a means of circumventing possible future Soviet vetoes in the Security Council. The legal significance of the resolution is unclear, given that the General Assembly cannot issue binding resolutions. However, it was never argued by the "Joint Seven-Powers" that put forward the draft resolution, United States, United Kingdom, France, Canada, Turkey, Philippines and Uruguay during the corresponding discussions, that it in any way afforded the Assembly new powers. Instead, they argued that the resolution simply declared what the Assembly's powers already were, according to the UN Charter, in the case of a dead-locked Security Council. The Soviet Union was the only permanent member of the Security Council to vote against the Charter interpretations that were made law by the Assembly's adoption of resolution 377 A. Alleged violations of the Charter can also be raised by states in the Security Council. The Security Council could subsequently pass resolutions under Chapter VI of the UN Charter to recommend the "Pacific Resolution of Disputes." Such resolutions are not binding under international law, though they usually are expressive of the Council's convictions. In rare cases, the Security Council can adopt resolutions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, related to "threats to Peace, Breaches of the Peace and Acts of Aggression," which are legally binding under international law, and can be followed up with economic sanctions, military action, and similar uses of force through the auspices of the United Nations. It has been argued that resolutions passed outside of Chapter VII can also be binding; the legal basis for that is the Council's broad powers under Article 24(2), which states that "in discharging these duties (exercise of primary responsibility in international peace and security), it shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations". The mandatory nature of such resolutions was upheld by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in its advisory opinion on Namibia. The binding nature of such resolutions can be deduced from an interpretation of their language and intent. States can also, upon mutual consent, submit disputes for arbitration by the International Court of Justice, located in The Hague, Netherlands. The judgments given by the Court in these cases are binding, although it possesses no means to enforce its rulings. The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at the request of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations to make such a request. Some of the advisory cases brought before the court have been controversial with respect to the court's competence and jurisdiction. Often enormously complicated matters, ICJ cases (of which there have been less than 150 since the court was created from the Permanent Court of International Justice in 1945) can stretch on for years and generally involve thousands of pages of pleadings, evidence, and the world's leading specialist public international lawyers. As of 2005, there are twelve cases pending at the ICJ. Decisions made through other means of arbitration may be binding or non-binding depending on the nature of the arbitration agreement, whereas decisions resulting from contentious cases argued before the ICJ are always binding on the involved states. Though states (or increasingly, international organizations) are usually the only ones with standing to address a violation of international law, some treaties, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights have an optional protocol that allows individuals who have had their rights violated by member states to petition the international Human Rights Committee. International legal theory Natural law The intellectual seeds of modern international law germinated in the 16th and 17th centuries, when the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in international affairs gradually weakened. Many early international legal theorists were concerned with axiomatic truths thought to be reposed in natural law. Among the early natural law writers, Francisco de Vitoria, Dominican professor of theology at the University of Salamanca, examined the question of just war and Spanish authority in the Americas. He did so while Spain was at the height of its power, after the violent Spanish conquest of Peru in 1536. Eclectic school Central in the development of modern international law was Hugo Grotius a Dutch theologian, humanist and jurist. In his principal work De jure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres ("Three Books on the Law of War and Peace"; 1625), Grotius claimed that nations as well as persons ought to be governed by universal principle based on morality and divine justice. Much of Grotius's content drew from the Bible and from classical history (just war theory of Augustine of Hippo). Drawing also from domestic contract law, he also noted that relations between polities were governed by jus gentium, the law of peoples, which had been established by the consent of the community of nations. (See pacta sunt servanda). The fundamental facets of the Grotian or eclectic school, especially the doctrines of legal equality, territorial sovereignty, and independence of states, became definitive to international law in Europe. These principals were recognised in the Peace of Westphalia and became the foundation for the treaties of Osnabrück and Münster. Another eclectic thinker, German philosopher Christian von Wolff, contended that the foundation for international community should come as a world superstate (civitas maxima), having authority over the component member states. This view was rejected by the Swiss diplomat Emmerich de Vattel, who favoured a rationale of equality of states as articulated by 18th century natural law. Vattel suggested in his major work Le droit des gens that the law of nations was composed of custom and law on the one hand, and natural law on the other. Legal positivism The early positive school emphasized the importance of custom and treaties as sources of international law. Among the early positivists was Alberico Gentilis, a professor of civil law at Oxford who used historical examples to posit that positive law (jus voluntarium) was determined by general consent. Another professor at Oxford, Richard Zouche, published the first manual of international law in 1650. In the 18th century legal positivism became popular and found its way into international legal philosophy. The principal figure among 18th century positivists was Cornelius van Bynkershoek, a celebrated Dutch jurist who asserted that the bases of international law were customs and treaties commonly consented to by various states. A second positivist, John Jacob Moser was a prolific German scholar who emphasized the importance of state practice in international law. A contemporary German scholar, Georg Friedrich von Martens, published the first systematic manual on positive international law, Precis du droit des gens moderne de l'Europe. The growth of nationalism and Hegelian philosophy in the 19th century pushed natural law farther from the legal realm. Commercial law became nationalized into private international law, distinct from public international law. Positivism narrowed the range of international practice that might qualify as law, favouring rationality to morality and ethics. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 marked formal recognition of the political and international legal system based on the conditions of Europe. Branches of public international law Consular law Diplomatic law International aviation law International criminal law International environmental law International human rights law International humanitarian law International space law International trade law Law of state responsibility The law pertaining to use of force United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea See also Chapeau Diplomatic recognition Environmental agreements Global administrative law Hans Kelsen International community International Court of Justice International Criminal Court International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia International Labour Organization Laws of war List of international public law topics List of treaties Nationality Non-Intervention Sources of international law Sovereign state Territorial integrity Terrorism Third World Approaches to International Law UNIDROIT United Nations University for Peace World government Notes References Brownlie, Ian (2003) Principles of Public International Law, Oxford University Press, 6th Ed., ISBN 0199260710 Lawson, Edward, and Mary Lou Bertucci, Encyclopedia of human rights , 2nd ed., Taylor & Francis, 1996 Osmanczyk, Edmund, The encyclopedia of the United Nations and international relations , Taylor & Francis, 1990 Shaw, Malcom N., International Law, 5th ed., Cambridge University Press, 2003 External links A Brief Primer on International Law With cases and commentary. Nathaniel Burney, 2007. American Society of International Law - 100 Ways International Law Shapes Our Lives American Society of International Law - Resource Guide (Introduction) International Law, Democratic Accountability and Moral Diversity International Law Details International Law Observer - Blog dedicated to reports and commentary on International Law Official United Nations website Official UN website on International Law Official website of the International Court of Justice Opinio Juris - Blog on International Law and International Relations United Nations Treaty Collection World Law Direct | Public_international_law |@lemmatized united:22 nation:31 responsible:3 much:2 current:1 framework:2 international:156 law:156 public:18 concern:6 structure:2 conduct:10 sovereign:6 state:73 intergovernmental:2 organization:5 less:2 degree:1 also:13 may:14 affect:1 multinational:1 corporation:2 individual:8 impact:1 increasingly:5 evolve:2 beyond:1 domestic:8 legal:21 interpretation:18 enforcement:7 increase:3 use:9 importance:4 vastly:1 twentieth:1 century:12 due:2 global:6 trade:7 environmental:3 deterioration:1 worldwide:1 scale:1 awareness:1 human:8 right:17 violation:10 rapid:1 vast:1 transportation:1 boom:1 communication:3 field:1 study:1 combine:1 two:1 main:1 branch:2 jus:5 gentium:2 agreement:7 convention:5 inter:2 gens:2 different:3 theoretical:1 foundation:3 confuse:2 private:3 resolution:18 conflict:3 general:10 sense:1 consist:3 rule:6 principle:8 application:3 deal:3 relation:8 se:1 well:4 person:3 whether:2 natural:8 juridical:1 columbia:1 school:5 mckeever:1 definition:1 scope:1 establish:3 criterion:1 identify:1 principal:4 actor:1 system:9 existence:1 presupposes:1 control:3 jurisdiction:3 territory:3 acquisition:1 immunity:1 responsibility:5 similarly:1 treatment:4 within:4 boundary:1 thus:4 comprehensive:1 regime:1 group:3 alien:1 refugee:2 crime:3 nationality:2 problem:1 generally:3 far:2 include:9 important:2 function:2 maintenance:1 peace:15 security:11 arm:4 pacific:2 settlement:2 dispute:7 regulation:2 force:10 even:2 able:2 stop:1 outbreak:2 war:26 develop:2 govern:5 hostility:2 prisoner:3 issue:2 relate:2 environment:3 common:2 water:1 space:2 world:14 whilst:1 municipal:1 hierarchical:1 vertical:1 mean:12 legislature:1 enact:1 bind:12 legislation:1 horizontal:1 nature:4 theoretically:1 equal:1 result:2 notion:1 sovereignty:7 value:1 authority:3 dependent:1 upon:5 voluntary:1 participation:1 formulation:1 observance:1 although:3 exception:1 think:2 many:6 academic:1 enter:3 commitment:3 enlightened:1 self:3 interest:1 rather:1 adherence:1 body:6 high:1 w:2 greig:2 note:3 cannot:3 exist:6 isolation:1 political:4 factor:1 operate:2 sphere:1 edn:1 butterworths:1 london:2 breach:6 raise:3 difficult:2 question:3 lawyer:2 since:3 compulsory:1 judicial:7 coercive:1 penal:1 straightforward:1 manage:1 however:3 bring:2 attention:1 community:5 example:4 quasi:1 tribunal:5 certain:8 area:5 formation:2 create:3 enforce:2 member:6 violate:3 charter:12 council:11 traditionally:2 holy:1 see:5 sole:1 subject:6 proliferation:1 last:2 case:16 recognize:4 relevant:1 party:3 recent:1 humanitarian:2 e:4 g:1 north:1 american:3 free:2 nafta:1 chapter:4 action:4 inclusive:1 history:3 originate:1 westphalia:3 münster:2 early:8 known:1 treatise:4 introduction:2 write:5 end:3 muhammad:1 al:1 shaybani:1 jurist:4 hanafi:1 islamic:7 jurisprudence:3 soon:1 follow:5 number:3 siyar:1 arabic:1 cover:1 ethic:2 economic:4 military:8 topic:3 treaty:26 diplomat:2 hostage:1 asylum:1 battlefield:1 protection:1 woman:1 child:1 non:4 combatant:1 civilian:2 contract:2 across:1 line:1 battle:1 poisonous:1 weapon:1 devastation:2 enemy:7 first:8 european:4 later:1 francisco:2 de:6 vitoria:2 hugo:2 grotius:4 scholar:4 influence:2 begin:2 saw:1 growth:2 concept:3 centralized:1 government:4 nationalism:2 become:8 people:5 citizen:1 particular:2 distinct:2 national:5 identity:1 mid:1 dictate:1 behave:2 way:6 towards:3 another:9 unenforceable:1 except:4 matter:2 honor:2 faithfulness:1 treaties:1 alone:1 toothless:1 destructive:1 markedly:1 civilize:3 decry:1 horror:1 lead:3 call:3 act:7 especially:4 time:1 perhaps:1 instrument:1 modern:7 lieber:1 code:2 pass:4 congress:2 u:2 civil:4 consider:2 recitation:1 article:6 adhere:2 civilized:2 precursor:1 part:1 necessity:5 understood:1 measure:3 indispensable:1 secure:1 lawful:1 accord:3 usage:1 admits:1 direct:3 destruction:3 life:3 limb:1 armed:2 whose:1 incidentally:1 unavoidable:1 contest:1 allow:3 capturing:1 every:2 hostile:1 peculiar:2 danger:1 captor:1 property:1 obstruction:1 channel:1 traffic:1 travel:1 withholding:1 sustenance:1 appropriation:1 whatever:2 country:1 affords:1 necessary:1 subsistence:1 safety:1 army:1 deception:2 involve:2 breaking:1 good:2 faith:2 either:2 positively:1 pledge:1 regard:6 suppose:1 men:1 take:6 one:8 cease:1 account:1 moral:2 god:1 admit:3 cruelty:1 infliction:1 suffer:1 sake:1 suffering:1 revenge:1 maiming:1 wound:1 fight:1 torture:2 extort:1 confession:1 poison:1 wanton:1 district:1 disclaim:1 perfidy:1 make:7 return:1 unnecessarily:1 statement:1 previously:1 uncodified:1 prosecution:2 hold:2 cruel:1 deprave:1 condition:2 andersonville:1 georgia:1 confederate:2 commandant:1 camp:1 try:2 hang:1 soldier:1 punish:1 death:1 aftermath:1 entire:1 year:2 subscribe:2 limitation:1 numerous:2 regulate:1 term:5 limited:1 permanent:4 court:20 arbitration:4 hague:2 geneva:1 justice:10 genocide:2 criminal:5 late:1 relatively:1 new:2 development:3 propriety:1 applicable:1 often:4 vigorous:1 debate:2 academia:1 diplomacy:3 politics:1 certainly:1 grow:1 trend:1 toward:1 judge:1 light:3 standard:3 view:8 primary:3 unit:1 affair:5 believe:2 choose:1 voluntarily:2 counsel:1 come:4 leader:1 feel:1 endanger:1 power:9 away:1 cede:1 n:2 bank:1 argue:5 point:2 separately:1 mere:1 consent:8 discern:1 legislative:1 process:3 parallel:1 occur:2 deviate:1 expected:1 support:3 narrow:2 republic:1 china:1 junta:1 currently:1 burma:1 russian:1 federation:1 maintain:2 basis:2 ultima:1 ratio:1 regum:1 argument:1 king:1 coercion:1 true:1 rein:1 large:1 oppose:1 opponent:1 norm:9 expect:1 prohibition:1 slavery:1 slave:2 aggression:3 piracy:1 universal:4 represent:1 victim:1 humanity:1 whole:1 opine:1 like:1 pirate:1 trader:1 hostis:1 humani:1 generis:1 mankind:1 janis:1 noyes:1 j:1 commentary:3 ed:4 prosecutor:1 v:1 furundžija:1 page:2 fair:1 trial:2 fundamentally:1 exercise:2 commit:2 express:1 customary:5 meaning:4 though:5 democracy:5 tend:1 broad:2 universalistic:1 differ:1 several:1 israel:1 india:1 flexible:1 eclectic:4 approach:6 aspect:4 arise:1 custom:8 developing:1 past:1 colonial:1 insist:1 interference:1 internal:1 particularly:2 institution:1 strongly:1 bilateral:1 multilateral:1 level:1 disarmament:1 obligation:6 un:8 considerable:2 difference:1 amongst:1 policy:1 practice:7 dictatorship:2 low:1 kind:1 protect:1 throne:1 indeed:1 grave:1 source:5 four:1 decision:3 teaching:1 cf:1 art:2 statute:2 comprise:1 expressly:1 accept:2 derive:1 consistent:2 accompany:1 opinio:2 juris:2 conviction:2 require:1 judgment:3 scholarly:1 work:4 look:1 persuasive:1 addition:1 evidence:2 behavior:1 explicitly:2 mention:1 subsidiary:1 determination:1 attempt:1 codify:2 pick:1 momentum:1 second:3 commission:1 ilc:2 aegis:1 underlie:1 still:1 apply:1 commonly:2 major:2 achieve:1 peremptory:1 cogens:1 permissible:1 derogation:1 exact:1 decide:1 domain:1 protagonist:1 confer:1 interpret:2 availability:1 supra:1 organ:1 routinely:1 provide:2 assistance:1 insofar:1 vienna:2 writes:1 shall:2 accordance:3 ordinary:2 give:4 context:3 object:2 purpose:3 actually:2 compromise:1 three:2 theory:3 textual:1 restrictive:1 base:5 text:3 assign:1 weight:1 actual:1 subjective:1 consideration:1 idea:1 behind:1 ii:2 iii:1 writer:2 intend:1 third:2 best:1 suit:1 goal:1 effective:1 specific:2 might:2 without:1 overarch:1 external:2 willing:1 compel:1 compliance:1 coasian:1 characteristic:1 enforcing:1 defection:1 pose:1 real:1 risk:1 change:2 happen:1 enough:2 powerful:1 continually:1 ignore:1 prior:1 unrestricted:2 submarine:2 warfare:2 ostensibly:1 casus:1 belli:2 declaration:1 germany:1 widespread:1 nuremberg:1 charge:1 german:4 admiral:1 karl:1 dönitz:1 order:1 drop:1 notwithstanding:1 activity:1 constitute:2 clear:1 naval:1 apart:1 inclination:1 uphold:2 pressure:1 put:2 consistently:1 overlook:1 address:3 almost:1 always:2 purely:1 consequence:1 offend:1 reputation:1 fact:1 avoid:1 appearance:1 disregard:1 unilaterally:1 adopt:2 sanction:3 severance:1 diplomatic:4 tie:1 reciprocal:1 render:1 foreign:1 realm:2 injury:1 complicated:1 intersects:1 implicit:1 westphalian:1 inherent:1 collective:2 defense:1 attack:1 guarantee:1 defend:1 unless:1 keep:1 aggrieved:1 assembly:8 binding:2 recommendation:1 adoption:3 uniting:2 res:1 november:1 declare:3 authorize:2 owe:1 negative:1 vote:2 fail:1 situation:2 could:2 milder:1 threat:2 initiate:1 shortly:1 korean:1 circumvent:1 possible:1 future:1 soviet:2 veto:1 significance:1 unclear:1 never:1 joint:1 seven:1 forward:1 draft:1 kingdom:1 france:1 canada:1 turkey:1 philippine:1 uruguay:1 corresponding:1 discussion:1 afford:1 instead:1 simply:1 already:1 dead:1 locked:1 union:1 alleged:1 subsequently:1 vi:1 recommend:1 usually:2 expressive:1 rare:1 vii:2 legally:1 similar:1 us:1 auspex:1 outside:1 discharge:1 duty:1 mandatory:1 icj:4 advisory:3 opinion:2 namibia:1 deduce:1 language:1 intent:1 mutual:1 submit:1 locate:1 netherlands:1 possess:1 ruling:1 request:2 controversial:1 respect:1 competence:1 enormously:1 complicate:1 stretch:1 thousand:1 pleading:1 specialist:1 twelve:1 pending:1 depend:1 whereas:1 contentious:1 involved:1 stand:1 covenant:1 optional:1 protocol:1 petition:1 committee:1 intellectual:1 seed:1 germinate:1 roman:1 catholic:1 church:1 gradually:1 weaken:1 theorist:1 axiomatic:1 truth:1 repose:1 among:3 dominican:1 professor:3 theology:1 university:4 salamanca:1 examine:1 spanish:2 america:1 spain:1 height:1 violent:1 conquest:1 peru:1 central:1 dutch:2 theologian:1 humanist:1 jure:1 ac:1 pacis:1 libri:1 tres:1 book:1 claim:1 ought:1 morality:2 divine:1 content:1 draw:2 bible:1 classical:1 augustine:1 hippo:1 polity:1 pacta:1 sunt:1 servanda:1 fundamental:1 facet:1 grotian:1 doctrine:1 equality:2 territorial:2 independence:1 definitive:1 europe:3 recognise:1 osnabrück:1 thinker:1 philosopher:1 christian:1 von:2 wolff:1 contend:1 superstate:1 civitas:1 maximum:1 component:1 reject:1 swiss:1 emmerich:1 vattel:2 favour:2 rationale:1 articulate:1 suggest:1 le:1 droit:2 des:1 gen:1 compose:1 hand:1 positivism:3 positive:3 emphasize:2 positivist:3 alberico:1 gentilis:1 oxford:3 historical:1 posit:1 voluntarium:1 determine:1 richard:1 zouche:1 publish:2 manual:2 popular:1 find:1 philosophy:2 figure:1 cornelius:1 van:1 bynkershoek:1 celebrated:1 assert:1 various:1 john:1 jacob:1 moser:1 prolific:1 contemporary:1 georg:1 friedrich:1 marten:1 systematic:1 precis:1 du:1 moderne:1 l:1 hegelian:1 push:1 farther:1 commercial:1 nationalized:1 range:1 qualify:1 rationality:1 mark:1 formal:1 recognition:2 consular:1 aviation:1 pertain:1 sea:1 chapeau:1 administrative:1 hans:1 kelsen:1 rwanda:1 former:1 yugoslavia:1 labour:1 list:2 intervention:1 integrity:1 terrorism:1 unidroit:1 reference:1 brownlie:1 ian:1 press:2 isbn:1 lawson:1 edward:1 mary:1 lou:1 bertucci:1 encyclopedia:2 taylor:2 francis:2 osmanczyk:1 edmund:1 shaw:1 malcom:1 cambridge:1 link:1 brief:1 primer:1 nathaniel:1 burney:1 society:2 shape:1 resource:1 guide:1 democratic:1 accountability:1 diversity:1 detail:1 observer:1 blog:2 dedicate:1 report:1 official:3 website:3 collection:1 |@bigram multinational_corporation:1 twentieth_century:1 quasi_judicial:1 agreement_nafta:1 peace_westphalia:3 hanafi_school:1 hugo_grotius:2 geneva_convention:1 slave_trader:1 humani_generis:1 bilateral_multilateral:1 unrestricted_submarine:2 submarine_warfare:2 casus_belli:1 nuremberg_trial:1 karl_dönitz:1 soviet_union:1 legally_bind:1 justice_icj:1 advisory_opinion:2 mutual_consent:1 hague_netherlands:1 de_jure:1 libri_tres:1 augustine_hippo:1 georg_friedrich:1 criminal_tribunal:2 tribunal_rwanda:1 territorial_integrity:1 taylor_francis:2 external_link:1 |
3,054 | Barge | A gravel-laden barge pulled by a tugboat on the River Thames in London A barge is a flat-bottomed boat, built mainly for river and canal transport of heavy goods. Most barges are not self-propelled and need to be towed by tugboats or pushed by towboats. Canal barges, towed by draft animals on an adjacent towpath, contended with the railway in the early industrial revolution, but were outcompeted in the carriage of high-value items due to the higher speed, falling costs, and route flexibility of rail. Modern use A towboat pushing a barge on the Chicago River Barges are used today for low-value bulk items, as the cost of hauling goods by barge is very low. Barges are also used for very heavy or bulky items; a typical barge measures 195 feet by 35 feet (59.4 m by 10.6 m), and can carry up to 1,500 tons of cargo. As an example, on June 26, 2006, a 565-ton catalytic cracking unit reactor was shipped by barge from the Tulsa Port of Catoosa in Oklahoma to a refinery in Pascagoula, Mississippi. Extremely large objects are normally shipped in sections and assembled onsite, but shipping an assembled unit reduced costs and avoided reliance on construction labor at the delivery site (which in this case was still recovering from Hurricane Katrina). Of the reactor's 700 mile journey, only about 40 miles were traveled overland, from the final port to the refinery. Self-propelled barges may be used as such when traveling downstream or upstream in placid waters; they are operated as an unpowered barge, with the assistance of a tugboat, when traveling upstream in faster waters. Canal barges are usually made for the particular canal in which they will operate. Types of barges Barracks barge Car float Dutch barge Dry bulk cargo barge Hopper barge Jackup barge Lighter and Dumb steel lighter Liquid cargo barge Log barge Oil barge and Dumb steel oil barge Pleasure barge Power barge Royal barge (e.g. Thailand's royal barges) Row barge Sand barge Severn trow Thames sailing barge Tom Pudding Vehicular barge On the Great British canal system, the term 'barge' is used to describe a boat wider than a narrowboat, and the people who move barges are often known as lightermen. In the United States, deckhands perform the labor and are supervised by a leadman or the mate. The captain and pilot steer the towboat, which pushes one or more barges held together with rigging, collectively called 'the tow'. The crew live aboard the towboat as it travels along the inland river system or the intracoastal waterways. These towboats travel between ports and are also called line-haul boats. Poles are used on barges to fend off the barge as it nears other vessels or a wharf. These are often called 'pike poles'. On shallow canals in the United Kingdom, long punt poles are used to manoeuvre or propel the barge. Etymology A barge carrying recycling material on Deûle channel in Lambersart, France Barge is attested from 1300, from Old French barge, from Vulgar Latin barga. The word originally could refer to any small boat; the modern meaning arose around 1480. Bark "small ship" is attested from 1420, from Old French barque, from Vulgar Latin barca (400 AD). The more precise meaning "three-masted ship" arose in the 17th century, and often takes the French spelling for disambiguation. Both are probably derived from the Latin barica, from Greek baris "Egyptian boat", from Coptic bari "small boat", hieroglyphic Egyptian D58-G29-M17-M17-D21-P1 and similar ba-y-r for "basket-shaped boat". By extension, the term "embark" literally means to board the kind of boat called a "barque". The long poles used to maneuver or propel a barge have given rise to the saying "I wouldn't touch that [subject/thing] with a barge pole." This is a variation on the phrase "I wouldn't touch that with a [insert length] pole." It appears that the association with barge poles came after the phrase was in use. Modern usage uses a 'ten-foot' pole, but the earliest instances in print involve a forty-foot pole, which is improbably long for operating a barge. Image gallery See also The American Waterways Operators Mobro 4000 Hughes Mining Barge Canal boat Ross Barlow Barges in TUGS Burlak External links The American Waterways Operators www.barges.org DBA The Barge Association 1911 Britannica article Barge Lehigh Valley 79 at the Waterfront Museum, Brooklyn, NY, USA Britain's Official guide to canals, rivers and lakes | Barge |@lemmatized gravel:1 laden:1 barge:49 pull:1 tugboat:3 river:5 thames:2 london:1 flat:1 bottom:1 boat:9 build:1 mainly:1 canal:8 transport:1 heavy:2 good:2 self:2 propel:4 need:1 tow:3 push:3 towboat:5 draft:1 animal:1 adjacent:1 towpath:1 contend:1 railway:1 early:2 industrial:1 revolution:1 outcompeted:1 carriage:1 high:2 value:2 item:3 due:1 speed:1 fall:1 cost:3 route:1 flexibility:1 rail:1 modern:3 use:10 chicago:1 today:1 low:2 bulk:2 haul:2 also:3 bulky:1 typical:1 measure:1 foot:4 carry:2 ton:2 cargo:3 example:1 june:1 catalytic:1 crack:1 unit:2 reactor:2 ship:5 tulsa:1 port:3 catoosa:1 oklahoma:1 refinery:2 pascagoula:1 mississippi:1 extremely:1 large:1 object:1 normally:1 section:1 assemble:1 onsite:1 assembled:1 reduce:1 avoid:1 reliance:1 construction:1 labor:2 delivery:1 site:1 case:1 still:1 recover:1 hurricane:1 katrina:1 mile:2 journey:1 travel:5 overland:1 final:1 may:1 downstream:1 upstream:2 placid:1 water:2 operate:3 unpowered:1 assistance:1 fast:1 usually:1 make:1 particular:1 type:1 barrack:1 car:1 float:1 dutch:1 dry:1 hopper:1 jackup:1 lighter:2 dumb:2 steel:2 liquid:1 log:1 oil:2 pleasure:1 power:1 royal:2 e:1 g:1 thailand:1 row:1 sand:1 severn:1 trow:1 sail:1 tom:1 pudding:1 vehicular:1 great:1 british:1 system:2 term:2 describe:1 wider:1 narrowboat:1 people:1 move:1 often:3 know:1 lighterman:1 united:2 state:1 deckhands:1 perform:1 supervise:1 leadman:1 mate:1 captain:1 pilot:1 steer:1 one:1 hold:1 together:1 rigging:1 collectively:1 call:4 crew:1 live:1 aboard:1 along:1 inland:1 intracoastal:1 waterway:3 line:1 pole:9 fend:1 near:1 vessel:1 wharf:1 pike:1 shallow:1 kingdom:1 long:3 punt:1 manoeuvre:1 etymology:1 recycle:1 material:1 deûle:1 channel:1 lambersart:1 france:1 attest:2 old:2 french:3 vulgar:2 latin:3 barga:1 word:1 originally:1 could:1 refer:1 small:3 meaning:2 arose:2 around:1 bark:1 barque:2 barca:1 ad:1 precise:1 three:1 masted:1 century:1 take:1 spelling:1 disambiguation:1 probably:1 derive:1 barica:1 greek:1 bari:2 egyptian:2 coptic:1 hieroglyphic:1 similar:1 ba:1 r:1 basket:1 shape:1 extension:1 embark:1 literally:1 mean:1 board:1 kind:1 maneuver:1 give:1 rise:1 say:1 touch:2 subject:1 thing:1 variation:1 phrase:2 insert:1 length:1 appear:1 association:2 come:1 usage:1 ten:1 instance:1 print:1 involve:1 forty:1 improbably:1 image:1 gallery:1 see:1 american:2 operator:2 mobro:1 hughes:1 mine:1 ross:1 barlow:1 tug:1 burlak:1 external:1 link:1 www:1 org:1 dba:1 britannica:1 article:1 lehigh:1 valley:1 waterfront:1 museum:1 brooklyn:1 ny:1 usa:1 britain:1 official:1 guide:1 lake:1 |@bigram self_propel:2 hurricane_katrina:1 downstream_upstream:1 vulgar_latin:2 barge_canal:1 external_link:1 lehigh_valley:1 brooklyn_ny:1 |
3,055 | County_Dublin | County Dublin (), or more correctly today the Dublin Region Statutory Instrument: Local Government Act, 1991 (Regional Authorities) (Establishment) Order, 1993 (Réigiúin Átha Cliath), is the area that contains the city of Dublin, the capital of Ireland as well as the largest city on the island of Ireland; and the modern counties of Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin. The Dublin Regional Authority is the regional authority for the region. Dublin was one of the oldest of the Counties of Ireland to be formally structured. Introduction Dublin is located on the east coast of Ireland in the province of Leinster. The area held county status until its dissolution as such in 1994, where Section 9 Part 1(a) of the Local Government (Dublin) Act, 1993 stated that as of 1 January 1994 "the county shall cease to exist". Act of the Oireachtas: Local Government (Dublin) Act, 1993 (Section 9 Part 1(a)) At that time, and in response to a European Council report highlighting Ireland as the most centralised country in the European Union, it was decided that a single County Dublin was unmanageable and undemocratic from a local government perspective. The county was formally abolished and replaced with Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown, Fingal, and South Dublin the seats of which exist at the towns of Dún Laoghaire, Swords and Tallaght respectively. The Government was fully aware of the magnitude of the legislation that was being passed, most poignantly noted by Avril Doyle in Dáil Éireann on 3 November 1993, where she declared "The Bill before us today effectively abolishes County Dublin. I am not sure whether Dubliners realise that that is what we are about today, but in effect that is the case". Dáil Éireann: Parliamentary Debates (3 November, 1993) Current status At present, many organisations, state agencies and sporting teams continue to operate on a "County Dublin" basis. Subsequently, much confusion exists around the legitimacy of the new counties - though they do have administrative county status, the only protected recognition of a county within the Republic of Ireland. County Dublin is now defined in legislation solely as the "Dublin Region" under the Local Government Act, 1991 (Regional Authorities) (Establishment) Order, 1993, and this is the terminology officially used by the four Dublin administrative councils in press releases concerning the former county area. Separate use of the term Greater Dublin Area, which consists of all of the Dublin Region and the counties of Kildare, Meath and Wicklow has created additional confusion. The census of 2002 Central Statistics Office: Census 2002 (Volume 1- Population Classified by Area) NB Needs to be revised for these figures http://www.cso.ie/census/documents/vol1_entire.pdf recorded the total population of the Dublin Region at 1,122,821, accounting for 28% of the national figure. The latest Ordnance Survey Ireland "Discovery Series" (Third Edition 2005) 1:50,000 map of the Dublin Region, Sheet 50, shows the boundaries of the city and three surrounding counties of the region. Extremities of the Dublin Region, in the north and south of the region, appear in other sheets of the series, 43 and 56 respectively. Local government Map of the Dublin Region Dublin City Council has existed for centuries, previously as Dublin Corporation, as a county borough, whilst Dublin County Council in 1994 was abolished and replaced by three new county councils. Thus in summary the local authority divisions within the Dublin Region are: NameMapAreaPop: 2006km²sq mi City of Dublin 1 (12.6%) 505,739 (42.6%) County of Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown 2 (13.9%) 193,688 (16.3%) County of Fingal 3 (49.1%) 239,813 (20.2%) County of South Dublin 4 (24.4%) 246,919 (20.8%) Mayor of Dublin In May 2009, John Gormley, the Minister for the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, announced plans to have a directly-elected "Mayor of Dublin" from 2010, whose powers would be similar to those of the Mayor of London, and whose authority would extend to all four local authority areas within the historic county of Dublin. The Mayor would chair the Dublin Transport Authority. The existing Lord Mayor of Dublin is the chair of the City Council, a position which rotates annually. Towns and suburbs Adamstown, Artane, Ashington, Ashtown Balbriggan, Baldoyle, Balgriffin, Ballinteer, Ballsbridge, Ballybrack, Ballycullen, Ballyfermot, Ballymun, Balrothery, Bayside, Beaumont, Belfield, Blackrock, Blanchardstown, Bluebell , Booterstown, Brittas Cabinteely, Cabra, Carpenterstown, Carrickmines, Castleknock, Chapelizod, Cherrywood, Churchtown, Citywest, Clondalkin, Clonshaugh, Clonsilla, Clonskeagh, Clontarf, Coolmine, Coolock, Crumlin Dalkey, Darndale, Dartry, Deansgrange, Dollymount, Dolphin's Barn, Donabate, Donaghmede, Donnybrook, Donnycarney, Drimnagh, Drumcondra, Dún Laoghaire, Dundrum East Wall, Edmondstown Fairview, Finglas, Firhouse, Foxrock Galloping Green, Garristown, Glasnevin, Glasthule, Glencullen, Glenageary, Goatstown, Grangegorman Harolds Cross, Hartstown, Howth, Huntstown Inchicore, Irishtown, Islandbridge Jobstown Kill O' The Grange, Kilbarrack, Killester, Killiney, Kilmacud, Kilmainham, Kilmore, Kilnamanagh, Kilsallaghan, Kilternan, Kimmage, Kinsealy, Knocklyon Leopardstown, Loughlinstown, Lucan, Lusk Malahide, Marino, Merrion, Milltown, Monkstown, Mount Merrion, Mulhuddart Newcastle, Naul Oldbawn, Ongar Palmerstown, Perrystown, Phibsborough, Portmarnock, Portobello Raheny, Ranelagh, Rathcoole, Rathfarnham, Rathgar, Rathmichael, Rathmines, Rialto, Ringsend, Rush Saggart, Sallynoggin, Sandycove, Sandyford, Sandymount, Santry, Shankill, Skerries, Smithfield, Stepaside, Stillorgan, Stoneybatter, Strawberry Beds, Sutton, Swords Tallaght, Templeogue, Terenure, The Coombe, Tyrrelstown Walkinstown, Whitechurch, Whitehall, Windy Arbour See also List of abbeys and priories in the Republic of Ireland (County Dublin) List of subdivisions of County Dublin References External links Dublin Regional Authority Architecture of County Dublin Civil parishes of County Dublin, from Ireland.com | County_Dublin |@lemmatized county:27 dublin:38 correctly:1 today:3 region:11 statutory:1 instrument:1 local:9 government:8 act:5 regional:5 authority:9 establishment:2 order:2 réigiúin:1 átha:1 cliath:1 area:6 contain:1 city:6 capital:1 ireland:9 well:1 large:1 island:1 modern:1 dun:3 laoghaire:5 rathdown:3 fingal:3 south:4 one:1 old:1 formally:2 structure:1 introduction:1 locate:1 east:2 coast:1 province:1 leinster:1 hold:1 status:3 dissolution:1 section:2 part:2 state:2 january:1 shall:1 cease:1 exist:5 oireachtas:1 time:1 response:1 european:2 council:6 report:1 highlight:1 centralised:1 country:1 union:1 decide:1 single:1 unmanageable:1 undemocratic:1 perspective:1 abolish:3 replace:2 seat:1 town:2 dún:2 sword:2 tallaght:2 respectively:2 fully:1 aware:1 magnitude:1 legislation:2 pass:1 poignantly:1 note:1 avril:1 doyle:1 dáil:2 éireann:2 november:2 declare:1 bill:1 u:1 effectively:1 sure:1 whether:1 dubliner:1 realise:1 effect:1 case:1 parliamentary:1 debate:1 current:1 present:1 many:1 organisation:1 agency:1 sport:1 team:1 continue:1 operate:1 basis:1 subsequently:1 much:1 confusion:2 around:1 legitimacy:1 new:2 though:1 administrative:2 protected:1 recognition:1 within:3 republic:2 define:1 solely:1 terminology:1 officially:1 use:2 four:2 press:1 release:1 concern:1 former:1 separate:1 term:1 great:1 consist:1 kildare:1 meath:1 wicklow:1 create:1 additional:1 census:3 central:1 statistic:1 office:1 volume:1 population:2 classify:1 nb:1 need:1 revise:1 figure:2 http:1 www:1 cso:1 ie:1 document:1 pdf:1 record:1 total:1 account:1 national:1 late:1 ordnance:1 survey:1 discovery:1 series:2 third:1 edition:1 map:2 sheet:2 show:1 boundary:1 three:2 surround:1 extremity:1 north:1 appear:1 century:1 previously:1 corporation:1 borough:1 whilst:1 thus:1 summary:1 division:1 namemapareapop:1 mi:1 mayor:5 may:1 john:1 gormley:1 minister:1 environment:1 heritage:1 announce:1 plan:1 directly:1 elect:1 whose:2 power:1 would:3 similar:1 london:1 extend:1 historic:1 chair:2 transport:1 lord:1 position:1 rotate:1 annually:1 suburb:1 adamstown:1 artane:1 ashington:1 ashtown:1 balbriggan:1 baldoyle:1 balgriffin:1 ballinteer:1 ballsbridge:1 ballybrack:1 ballycullen:1 ballyfermot:1 ballymun:1 balrothery:1 bayside:1 beaumont:1 belfield:1 blackrock:1 blanchardstown:1 bluebell:1 booterstown:1 brittas:1 cabinteely:1 cabra:1 carpenterstown:1 carrickmines:1 castleknock:1 chapelizod:1 cherrywood:1 churchtown:1 citywest:1 clondalkin:1 clonshaugh:1 clonsilla:1 clonskeagh:1 clontarf:1 coolmine:1 coolock:1 crumlin:1 dalkey:1 darndale:1 dartry:1 deansgrange:1 dollymount:1 dolphin:1 barn:1 donabate:1 donaghmede:1 donnybrook:1 donnycarney:1 drimnagh:1 drumcondra:1 dundrum:1 wall:1 edmondstown:1 fairview:1 finglas:1 firhouse:1 foxrock:1 gallop:1 green:1 garristown:1 glasnevin:1 glasthule:1 glencullen:1 glenageary:1 goatstown:1 grangegorman:1 harolds:1 cross:1 hartstown:1 howth:1 huntstown:1 inchicore:1 irishtown:1 islandbridge:1 jobstown:1 kill:1 grange:1 kilbarrack:1 killester:1 killiney:1 kilmacud:1 kilmainham:1 kilmore:1 kilnamanagh:1 kilsallaghan:1 kilternan:1 kimmage:1 kinsealy:1 knocklyon:1 leopardstown:1 loughlinstown:1 lucan:1 lusk:1 malahide:1 marino:1 merrion:2 milltown:1 monkstown:1 mount:1 mulhuddart:1 newcastle:1 naul:1 oldbawn:1 ongar:1 palmerstown:1 perrystown:1 phibsborough:1 portmarnock:1 portobello:1 raheny:1 ranelagh:1 rathcoole:1 rathfarnham:1 rathgar:1 rathmichael:1 rathmines:1 rialto:1 ringsend:1 rush:1 saggart:1 sallynoggin:1 sandycove:1 sandyford:1 sandymount:1 santry:1 shankill:1 skerries:1 smithfield:1 stepaside:1 stillorgan:1 stoneybatter:1 strawberry:1 bed:1 sutton:1 templeogue:1 terenure:1 coombe:1 tyrrelstown:1 walkinstown:1 whitechurch:1 whitehall:1 windy:1 arbour:1 see:1 also:1 list:2 abbey:1 priory:1 subdivision:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 architecture:1 civil:1 parish:1 com:1 |@bigram dun_laoghaire:3 laoghaire_rathdown:3 dún_laoghaire:2 dáil_éireann:2 county_kildare:1 http_www:1 ordnance_survey:1 john_gormley:1 external_link:1 |
3,056 | Gylfaginning | Gylfi is tricked Gylfaginning, or the Tricking of Gylfi (c. 20,000 words), is the first part of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda after Prologue. The Gylfaginning deals with the creation and destruction of the world of the Norse gods, and many other aspects of Norse mythology. The second part of the Prose Edda is called the Skáldskaparmál and the third Háttatal. Summary The Gylfaginning tells the story of Gylfi, a king of "the land that men now call Sweden", who after being tricked by one of the goddesses of the Æsir, wonders if all Æsir use magic and tricks for their will to be done. This is why he journeys to Asgard, but on the way he is tricked by the gods and arrives in some other place, where he finds a great palace. Inside the palace he encounters a man who asks Gylfi's name and so king Gylfi introduces himself as Gangleri. Gangleri then is taken to the king of the palace and comes upon three men; High, Just-As-High, and Third. Gangleri is then challenged to show his wisdom by asking questions, as is the custom in many Norse sagas. Each question made to High, Just-As-High, and Third is about an aspect of the Norse mythology or its gods, and also about the creation and destruction of the world (Ragnarök). In the end all the palace and its people just vanish and Gylfi is left standing on empty ground. It is then implied that as Gylfi returns to his nation, he retells the tales he was told. It can be argued that Snorri used this narrative device as a means of being able to safely document a vanishing and largely oral tradition within a Christian context. External links Gylfaginning in Old Norse at heimskringla.no Text of all original manuscripts The text with modern Icelandic spelling English translation CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Norse Mythology: Prose Edda - Gylfaginning (English) CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Norse Mythology: Prose Edda - Gylfaginning (Old Norse) | Gylfaginning |@lemmatized gylfi:7 trick:4 gylfaginning:6 tricking:1 c:1 word:1 first:1 part:2 snorri:2 sturluson:1 prose:4 edda:4 prologue:1 deal:1 creation:2 destruction:2 world:2 norse:8 god:3 many:2 aspect:2 mythology:4 second:1 call:2 skáldskaparmál:1 third:3 háttatal:1 summary:1 tell:2 story:1 king:3 land:1 men:2 sweden:1 one:1 goddess:1 æsir:2 wonder:1 use:2 magic:1 journey:1 asgard:1 way:1 arrives:1 place:1 find:1 great:1 palace:4 inside:1 encounter:1 man:1 ask:2 name:1 introduces:1 gangleri:3 take:1 come:1 upon:1 three:1 high:4 challenge:1 show:1 wisdom:1 question:2 custom:1 saga:1 make:1 also:1 ragnarök:1 end:1 people:1 vanish:1 leave:1 stand:1 empty:1 ground:1 imply:1 return:1 nation:1 retell:1 tale:1 argue:1 narrative:1 device:1 mean:1 able:1 safely:1 document:1 vanishing:1 largely:1 oral:1 tradition:1 within:1 christian:1 context:1 external:1 link:1 old:2 heimskringla:1 text:2 original:1 manuscript:1 modern:1 icelandic:1 spell:1 english:2 translation:1 cybersamurai:2 encyclopedia:2 |@bigram snorri_sturluson:1 sturluson_prose:1 prose_edda:4 norse_mythology:4 external_link:1 edda_gylfaginning:2 |
3,057 | Midway_Atoll | Midway Atoll is located at Orthographic projection centered over Midway. Midway Atoll (or Midway Island or Midway Islands, ; Hawaiian: Pihemanu Kauihelani http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/pages/documents/document-136-1.pdf ) is a 2.4 mi² (6.2 km²) atoll located in the North Pacific Ocean (near the northwestern end of the Hawaiian archipelago), about one-third of the way between Honolulu and Tokyo. Midway Atoll is an unorganized, unincorporated territory of the United States. It is less than east of the International Date Line, about west of San Francisco and east of Tokyo. It consists of a ring-shaped barrier reef and several sand islets. The two significant pieces of land, Sand Island and Eastern Island, provide habitat for hundreds of thousands of seabirds. The island sizes are shown here: Island acres hectares Sand Island1,200486 Eastern Island334135 Spit Island62 Sand Islet Midway Atoll1,540623 Lagoon14,8006,000 According to other sources, Sand Island measures in area and the lagoon within the fringing rim of coral reef . The atoll, which has a small population (40 in 2004, but no indigenous inhabitants), is designated an insular area under the authority of the U.S. Department of the Interior. It is a National Wildlife Refuge administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). The visitor program reopened in January 2008 and there are facilities at the present time for receiving visitors. Currently the best way to travel to the Atoll is through a non-profit marine conservation organization based in San Francisco, Oceanic Society. They offer week long naturalist led tours focused on the ecology of Midway and the military history. The economy is derived solely from governmental sources and tourist fees. All food and manufactured goods must be imported. Midway, as its name suggests, lies nearly halfway between North America and Asia, and halfway around the world from Greenwich, England. For statistical purposes, Midway is grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. Midway is best known as the location of the Battle of Midway, fought in World War II on June 4, 1942. Nearby, the United States Navy defeated a Japanese attack against the Midway Islands, marking a turning point in the war in the Pacific Theater. Geography and geology NASA image of Midway Atoll. Midway Atoll is part of a chain of volcanic islands, atolls, and seamounts extending from Hawai'i up to the tip of the Aleutian Islands and known as the Hawaii-Emperor chain. Midway was formed roughly 28 million years ago when the seabed underneath it was over the same hotspot from which the Island of Hawai'i is now being formed. In fact, Midway was once a shield volcano perhaps as large as the island of Lana'i. As the volcano piled up lava flows building the island, its weight depressed the crust and the island slowly subsided over a period of millions of years, a process known as isostatic adjustment. As the island subsided, a coral reef around the former volcanic island was able to maintain itself near sea level by growing upwards. That reef is now over 516 ft (160 m) thick (Ladd, Tracey, & Gross, 1967; in the lagoon, , comprised mostly post-Miocene limestones with a layer of upper Miocene (Tertiary g) sediments and lower Miocene (Tertiary e) limestones at the bottom overlying the basalts. What remains today is a shallow water atoll about 6 mi (10 km) across. The atoll has some 20 mi (32 km) of roads, 4.8 mi (7.8 km) of pipelines, one port on Sand Island (World Port Index Nr. 56328, MIDWAY ISLAND), and one active runway (rwy 06/24, around long). As of 2004, Henderson Field airfield at Midway Atoll has been designated as an emergency diversion airport for aircraft flying under ETOPS rules. The FWS closed all airport operations on November 22, 2004. Public access to the island was restored beginning March 2008. Eastern Island Airstrip is a disused airfield in use by US forces during the Battle of Midway, June 4-7, 1942. Uniquely among the Hawaiian islands, Midway observes UTC-11, eleven hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. History Nineteenth century Laysan Albatross at Midway Atoll. The atoll was discovered July 5, 1859 by Captain N.C. Middlebrooks, though he was most commonly known as Captain Brooks, of the sealing ship Gambia. The islands were named the "Middlebrook Islands" or the "Brook Islands". Brooks claimed Midway for the United States under the Guano Islands Act of 1856, which authorized Americans to temporarily occupy uninhabited islands to obtain guano. On 28 August 1867, Captain William Reynolds of the formally took possession of the atoll for the United States; the name changed to "Midway" some time after this. The atoll became the first offshore islands annexed by the U.S. government, as the Unincorporated Territory of Midway Island, and administered by the United States Navy. Midway was the only island in the entire Hawaiian archipelago that was not later part of the State of Hawaii. The first attempt at "settlement" was in 1871, when the Pacific Mail Steamship Company started a project of blasting and dredging a ship channel through the reef to the lagoon using money put up by the United States Congress. The purpose was to establish a mid-ocean coaling station avoiding the high taxes imposed at ports controlled by the Hawaiians. The project was shortly a complete failure, and the evacuated the last of the channel project's work force in October 1871. It then ran aground at Kure Atoll, stranding everyone on the ship. (All aboard were rescued with the exception of four who drowned in an attempt by five crewmembers to sail to Hawaii in an open boat to seek help. The party reached Kauai, but the boat was overturned just offshore and only William Halford survived and was able to bring help to the stranded). Early twentieth century Midway Atoll in November 1941. In 1903, workers for the Commercial Pacific Cable Company took up residence on the island as part of the effort to lay a trans-Pacific telegraph cable. These workers introduced many non-native species to the island, including the canary, cycad, Norfolk Island pine, she-oak, coconut, and various deciduous trees, along with ants, cockroaches, termites, centipedes, and countless others. Later that year, President Theodore Roosevelt placed the atoll under the control of the United States Navy, which on 20 January 1903 opened a radio station in response to complaints from cable company workers about Japanese squatters and poachers. Between 1904 to 1908 Roosevelt stationed 21 Marines on the island to end wanton destruction of bird life and keep Midway safe as a U.S. possession, protecting the cable station. In 1935, operations began for the China Clippers, flying boats operated by Pan American Airlines. The Clipper island-hopped from San Francisco to China, providing the fastest and most luxurious route to the Orient and bringing tourists to Midway until 1941. Only the extremely wealthy could afford a Clipper trip, which in the 1930s cost more than three times the annual salary of an average American. With Midway on the route between Honolulu and Wake Island, the seaplanes landed in the atoll and pulled up to a float offshore. Tourists transferred to a small powerboat that ferried them to a pier, then rode in "woody" wagons to the Pan Am Hotel or the "Gooneyville Lodge", named after the ubiquitous "Gooney birds" (albatrosses). World War II Burning oil tanks on Sand Island during the Battle of Midway. The location of Midway in the Pacific became important to the military. Midway was a convenient refueling stop on transpacific flights, and was also an important stop for Navy ships. Beginning in 1940, as tensions with the Japanese were rising, Midway was deemed second only to Pearl Harbor in importance to protecting the U.S. west coast. Airstrips, gun emplacements and a seaplane base quickly materialized on the tiny atoll. The channel was widened, and Naval Air Station Midway was completed. Architect Albert Kahn designed the Officer's quarters, the mall and several other hangars and buildings. Midway was also an important submarine base. Midway's importance to the U.S. was brought into focus on December 7, 1941 with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Six months later, on June 4, 1942, a naval battle near Midway resulted in the U.S. Navy exacting a devastating defeat of the Japanese Navy. This Battle of Midway was, by most accounts, the beginning of the end of the Japanese Navy's control of the Pacific Ocean. Korean and Vietnam Wars From August 1, 1941 to 1945, it was occupied by U.S. military forces. In 1950, the Navy decommissioned Naval Air Station Midway, only to re-commission it again to support the Korean War. Thousands of troops on ships and planes stopped at Midway for refueling and emergency repairs. From 1968 to September 10, 1993, Midway Island was a Navy Air Facility. During the Cold War, the U.S. established an underwater listening post at Midway to track Soviet submarines. The facility remained secret until its demolition at the end of the Cold War. "Willy Victor" radar planes flew night and day as an extension of the DEW Line (Distant Early Warning Line), and antenna fields covered the islands. With about 3,500 people living on Sand Island, Midway also supported the U.S. troops during the Vietnam War. In June 1969, President Richard Nixon held a secret meeting with South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu at the Officer-in-Charge house or "Midway House". Civilian rule Unofficial flag. Video of Spinner Dolphins taken at Midway Atoll Albatross birds at Midway Atoll. White (or Fairy) Tern. In 1978, the Navy downgraded Midway from a Naval Air Station to a Naval Air Facility and large numbers of personnel and dependents began leaving the island. With the conflict in Vietnam over, and with the introduction of reconnaissance satellites and nuclear submarines, Midway's significance to US-national security was diminished. The World War II facilities at Sand and Eastern Islands were listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 28, 1987. Midway was designated an overlay National Wildlife Refuge on April 22, 1988 while still under the primary jurisdiction of the Navy. As part of the Base Realignment and Closure process, the Navy facility on Midway has been operationally closed since September 10, 1993, although the Navy assumed responsibility for cleaning up environmental contamination at Naval Air Facility Midway Island. Beginning August 7, 1996, the general public could visit the atoll through study ecotours. This program ended in 2002, (Page 1). but another visitor program was approved beginning March 2008. On October 31, 1996, President Bill Clinton signed Executive Order 13022, which transferred the jurisdiction and control of the atoll to the U.S. Department of the Interior. The Fish and Wildlife Service assumed management of the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. The last contingent of Navy personnel left Midway on June 30, 1997 after an ambitious environmental cleanup program was completed. On June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush designated the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands as a national monument. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument encompasses 105,564 nmi² (), and includes 3,910 nmi² () of coral reef habitat. Questions and Answers About the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument The Monument also includes the Hawaiian Island Reservation established by Theodore Roosevelt in 1909, the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, and the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. In 2007, the Monument's name was changed to Papahānaumokuākea (pronounced PA-pa-ha-NOW-mo-KOO-ah-KAY-uh) Marine National Monument. The National Monument is managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), in close coordination with the State of Hawaii. Wildlife Red-Tailed Tropic bird. Birds native to other Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, such as the Laysan Rail and Laysan Finch, were released at Midway. Midway Atoll is now home to seventy-three percent of the worlds Laysan Albatross population, and thirty-five percent of the global black-footed albatross. http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2005/Jan/17/ln/ln23p.html Frigate birds. Ironwood trees from Australia were planted to act as windbreaks. Seventy-five percent of the 200 species of plants on Midway were introduced. The FWS has recently re-introduced the endangered Laysan duck (Midway is part of its assumed pre-historic range) to the Atoll, while at the same time extending efforts to exterminate some weed species. Environmental issues Classic Gooney Bird pose. The islands of Midway Atoll have been extensively altered as a result of human habitation. Starting in 1869 with a project to blast the reefs and create a port on Sand Island, the ecology of Midway has been changing. Marine debris Midway Atoll, in common with all the Hawaiian Islands, receives substantial amounts of debris from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Consisting of ninety percent plastic, this debris accumulates on the beaches of Midway. This garbage represents a hazard to the bird population of the island. Of the 2 million Laysan Albatrosses which inhabit Midway, nearly all are found to have plastic in their digestive system. Approximately one-third of the chicks die from ingestion of this plastic. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/talking_point/7318837.stm Lead poisoning Lead paint on the buildings still poses an environmental hazard to the albatross population of the island. The cost of stripping the paint is estimated to be $5 million. Transport The usual method of reaching Sand Island, Midway Atoll's only populated island, is via Henderson Field Airport. See also The Wrecker is an 1892 novel by Robert Louis Stevenson set on Midway. Notes References Ladd, H.S., J.I. Tracey Jr., and M.G. Gross. 1967. Drilling at Midway Atoll. Science, 156(3778): 1088–1095 (May 26, 1967). External links AirNav - Henderson Field Airport : Airport facilities and navigational aids. Diary from the middle of nowhere BBC's environment correspondent David Shukman reports on the threat of plastic rubbish drifting in the North Pacific Gyre to Midway. Accessed 2008-03-26. Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge (this article incorporated some content from this public domain site) NOAA Midway Island Hawaiian Monk Seal Captive Care & Release Project The Battle of Midway: Turning the Tide in the Pacific, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary Past residents of Midway Discussion of Midway related topics by former residents and those interested in Midway. U.S. Unincorporated Possessions. Accessed 2008-03-26. Where the Gooney Birds Are | Midway_Atoll |@lemmatized midway:74 atoll:34 locate:2 orthographic:1 projection:1 center:1 island:55 hawaiian:13 pihemanu:1 kauihelani:1 http:3 whc:1 unesco:1 org:1 uploads:1 page:2 document:2 pdf:1 north:3 pacific:10 ocean:3 near:3 northwestern:5 end:5 archipelago:2 one:5 third:2 way:2 honolulu:2 tokyo:2 unorganized:1 unincorporated:3 territory:2 united:8 state:10 less:1 east:2 international:1 date:1 line:3 west:2 san:3 francisco:3 consist:2 ring:1 shape:1 barrier:1 reef:7 several:2 sand:12 islet:2 two:1 significant:1 piece:1 land:2 eastern:4 provide:2 habitat:2 hundred:1 thousand:2 seabird:1 size:1 show:1 acres:1 hectare:1 spit:1 accord:1 source:2 measure:1 area:2 lagoon:3 within:1 fringe:1 rim:1 coral:3 small:2 population:4 indigenous:1 inhabitant:1 designate:4 insular:1 authority:1 u:15 department:2 interior:2 national:16 wildlife:10 refuge:6 administer:2 fish:3 service:5 fws:3 visitor:3 program:4 reopen:1 january:2 facility:8 present:1 time:5 receive:2 currently:1 best:2 travel:2 non:2 profit:1 marine:6 conservation:1 organization:1 base:4 oceanic:2 society:1 offer:1 week:1 long:2 naturalist:1 lead:3 tour:1 focus:2 ecology:2 military:3 history:2 economy:1 derive:1 solely:1 governmental:1 tourist:3 fee:1 food:1 manufacture:1 good:1 must:1 import:1 name:5 suggest:1 lie:1 nearly:2 halfway:2 america:1 asia:1 around:3 world:6 greenwich:1 england:1 statistical:1 purpose:2 group:1 minor:1 outlying:1 know:4 location:2 battle:6 fight:1 war:9 ii:3 june:6 nearby:1 navy:14 defeat:2 japanese:6 attack:2 mark:1 turn:2 point:1 theater:1 geography:1 geology:1 nasa:1 image:1 part:5 chain:2 volcanic:2 seamount:1 extend:2 hawai:2 tip:1 aleutian:1 hawaii:4 emperor:1 form:2 roughly:1 million:4 year:3 ago:1 seabed:1 underneath:1 hotspot:1 fact:1 shield:1 volcano:2 perhaps:1 large:2 lana:1 pile:1 lava:1 flow:1 build:1 weight:1 depress:1 crust:1 slowly:1 subside:2 period:1 process:2 isostatic:1 adjustment:1 former:2 able:2 maintain:1 sea:1 level:1 grow:1 upwards:1 ft:1 thick:1 ladd:2 tracey:2 gross:2 comprise:1 mostly:1 post:2 miocene:3 limestone:1 layer:1 upper:1 tertiary:2 g:2 sediment:1 low:1 e:1 limestones:1 bottom:1 overlie:1 basalt:1 remain:2 today:1 shallow:1 water:1 mi:3 km:3 across:1 road:1 pipeline:1 port:4 index:1 nr:1 active:1 runway:1 rwy:1 henderson:3 field:4 airfield:2 emergency:2 diversion:1 airport:5 aircraft:1 fly:3 etops:1 rule:2 close:3 operation:2 november:2 public:3 access:1 restore:1 begin:6 march:2 airstrip:2 disused:1 use:2 force:3 uniquely:1 among:1 observes:1 utc:1 eleven:1 hour:1 behind:1 coordinated:1 universal:1 nineteenth:1 century:2 laysan:6 albatross:6 discover:2 july:1 captain:3 n:1 c:1 middlebrooks:1 though:1 commonly:1 brook:3 seal:2 ship:5 gambia:1 middlebrook:1 islands:2 claim:1 guano:2 act:2 authorize:1 american:3 temporarily:1 occupy:2 uninhabited:1 obtain:1 august:3 william:2 reynolds:1 formally:1 take:3 possession:3 change:3 become:2 first:2 offshore:3 annex:1 government:1 entire:1 late:1 attempt:2 settlement:1 mail:1 steamship:1 company:3 start:2 project:5 blasting:1 dredge:1 channel:3 money:1 put:1 congress:1 establish:3 mid:1 coal:1 station:7 avoid:1 high:1 tax:1 impose:1 control:4 shortly:1 complete:3 failure:1 evacuate:1 last:2 work:1 october:2 run:1 aground:1 kure:1 strand:2 everyone:1 aboard:1 rescue:1 exception:1 four:1 drown:1 five:3 crewmembers:1 sail:1 open:2 boat:3 seek:1 help:2 party:1 reach:2 kauai:1 overturn:1 halford:1 survive:1 bring:3 early:2 twentieth:1 worker:3 commercial:1 cable:4 residence:1 effort:2 lay:1 trans:1 telegraph:1 introduce:3 many:1 native:2 specie:3 include:3 canary:1 cycad:1 norfolk:1 pine:1 oak:1 coconut:1 various:1 deciduous:1 tree:2 along:1 ant:1 cockroach:1 termite:1 centipede:1 countless:1 others:1 later:2 president:5 theodore:2 roosevelt:3 place:3 radio:1 response:1 complaint:1 squatter:1 poacher:1 wanton:1 destruction:1 bird:9 life:1 keep:1 safe:1 protect:2 china:2 clipper:3 operate:1 pan:2 airline:1 hopped:1 fast:1 luxurious:1 route:2 orient:1 extremely:1 wealthy:1 could:2 afford:1 trip:1 cost:2 three:2 annual:1 salary:1 average:1 wake:1 seaplane:2 pull:1 float:1 transfer:2 powerboat:1 ferry:1 pier:1 rode:1 woody:1 wagon:1 hotel:1 gooneyville:1 lodge:1 ubiquitous:1 gooney:3 albatrosses:1 burn:1 oil:1 tank:1 important:3 convenient:1 refuel:2 stop:3 transpacific:1 flight:1 also:5 tension:1 rise:1 deem:1 second:1 pearl:2 harbor:2 importance:2 coast:1 gun:1 emplacement:1 quickly:1 materialize:1 tiny:1 widen:1 naval:6 air:6 architect:1 albert:1 kahn:1 design:1 officer:2 quarter:1 mall:1 hangar:1 building:2 submarine:3 december:1 six:1 month:1 result:2 exact:1 devastating:1 account:1 beginning:1 korean:2 vietnam:3 decommission:1 commission:1 support:2 troop:2 plane:2 repair:1 september:2 cold:2 underwater:1 listening:1 track:1 soviet:1 secret:2 demolition:1 willy:1 victor:1 radar:1 night:1 day:1 extension:1 dew:1 distant:1 warning:1 antenna:1 cover:1 people:1 live:1 richard:1 nixon:1 hold:1 meeting:1 south:1 vietnamese:1 nguyen:1 van:1 thieu:1 charge:1 house:2 civilian:1 unofficial:1 flag:1 video:1 spinner:1 dolphin:1 white:1 fairy:1 tern:1 downgrade:1 number:1 personnel:2 dependent:1 leave:2 conflict:1 introduction:1 reconnaissance:1 satellite:1 nuclear:1 significance:1 security:1 diminish:1 list:1 register:1 historic:3 may:2 overlay:1 april:1 still:2 primary:1 jurisdiction:2 realignment:1 closure:1 operationally:1 since:1 although:1 assume:3 responsibility:1 clean:1 environmental:4 contamination:1 general:1 visit:1 study:1 ecotours:1 another:1 approve:1 bill:1 clinton:1 sign:1 executive:1 order:1 management:1 contingent:1 ambitious:1 cleanup:1 george:1 w:1 bush:1 monument:7 encompass:1 question:1 answer:1 reservation:1 papahānaumokuākea:1 pronounced:1 pa:2 ha:1 mo:1 koo:1 ah:1 kay:1 uh:1 manage:1 atmospheric:1 administration:1 noaa:2 coordination:1 red:1 tail:1 tropic:1 rail:1 finch:1 release:2 home:1 seventy:2 percent:4 thirty:1 global:1 black:1 foot:1 honoluluadvertiser:1 com:1 article:2 jan:1 ln:1 html:1 frigate:1 ironwood:1 australia:1 plant:2 windbreak:1 recently:1 endanger:1 duck:1 pre:1 range:1 exterminate:1 weed:1 issue:1 classic:1 pose:2 extensively:1 alter:1 human:1 habitation:1 blast:1 create:1 debris:3 common:1 substantial:1 amount:1 great:1 garbage:2 patch:1 ninety:1 plastic:4 accumulate:1 beach:1 represent:1 hazard:2 inhabit:1 find:1 digestive:1 system:1 approximately:1 chick:1 die:1 ingestion:1 news:1 bbc:2 co:1 uk:1 hi:1 stm:1 poison:1 paint:2 strip:1 estimate:1 transport:1 usual:1 method:1 populated:1 via:1 see:1 wrecker:1 novel:1 robert:1 louis:1 stevenson:1 set:1 note:1 reference:1 h:1 j:1 jr:1 drill:1 science:1 external:1 link:1 airnav:1 navigational:1 aid:1 diary:1 middle:1 nowhere:1 environment:1 correspondent:1 david:1 shukman:1 report:1 threat:1 rubbish:1 drifting:1 gyre:1 accessed:2 incorporate:1 content:1 domain:1 site:1 monk:1 captive:1 care:1 tide:1 park:2 teach:1 twhp:1 lesson:1 plan:1 aviation:1 dune:1 sonic:1 boom:1 share:1 heritage:1 itinerary:1 past:1 resident:2 discussion:1 relate:1 topic:1 interested:1 |@bigram midway_atoll:18 orthographic_projection:1 pacific_ocean:2 unincorporated_territory:2 san_francisco:3 hundred_thousand:1 coral_reef:3 reef_atoll:1 wildlife_refuge:6 fish_wildlife:3 minor_outlying:1 aleutian_island:1 lava_flow:1 nineteenth_century:1 guano_islands:1 run_aground:1 twentieth_century:1 norfolk_island:1 pine_oak:1 deciduous_tree:1 theodore_roosevelt:2 ferry_pier:1 pearl_harbor:2 gun_emplacement:1 richard_nixon:1 spinner_dolphin:1 bill_clinton:1 w_bush:1 oceanic_atmospheric:1 uk_hi:1 hi_stm:1 louis_stevenson:1 external_link:1 place_twhp:1 twhp_lesson:1 sand_dune:1 sonic_boom:1 travel_itinerary:1 |
3,058 | Louis_St._Laurent | Louis Stephen St-Laurent, PC, CC, QC (Saint-Laurent or St-Laurent in French, baptized Louis-Étienne St-Laurent) , (February 1, 1882 July 25, 1973) was the 12th Prime Minister of Canada from November 15, 1948, to June 21, 1957. Early life and career Louis St-Laurent () was born in Compton, Quebec, a village in the Eastern Townships to Jean-Baptiste-Moïse Saint-Laurent, a French-Canadian, and Mary Anne Broderick, an Irish-Canadian. He grew up fluently bilingual. His had a noticeable Irish brogue, while his gestures (such as a hunch of the shoulders) were French. Mr. Prime Minister 1867-1964, by Bruce Hutchison, Toronto 1964, Longmans Canada publishers. He received degrees from St. Charles Seminary (B.A. 1902) and Université Laval (LL.L. 1905). He was offered, but declined, a Rhodes Scholarship upon this graduation from Laval in 1905. In 1908 he married Jeanne Renault (1886 - 1966) with whom he had two sons and three daughters. St-Laurent worked as a lawyer from 1905 to 1941, also becoming a professor of law at Université Laval in 1914. St-Laurent practised corporate and constitutional law in Québec and became one of the country's most respected counsels. He served as President of the Canadian Bar Association from 1930 to 1932. St-Laurent's father, a Compton shopkeeper, was a staunch supporter of the Liberal Party of Canada and was particularly enamoured with Sir Wilfrid Laurier. When Laurier led the Liberals to victory in the 1896 election, 14-year-old Louis relayed the election returns from the telephone in his father's store. However, while an ardent Liberal, Louis remained aloof from active politics for much of his life, focusing instead on his legal career and family. He became one of Quebec's leading lawyers and was so highly regarded that he was offered a position in the Cabinet of the Conservative Prime Minister Arthur Meighen in 1926 and was offered a seat as a justice in the Supreme Court of Canada. It was not until he was nearly 60 that St-Laurent finally agreed to enter politics when Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King appealed to his sense of duty in late 1941. Member of Mackenzie King Cabinet Minister of Justice Following the death of his Quebec lieutenant, Ernest Lapointe, in November 1941, King was well aware of the need for the government to have a strong, well respected member of cabinet to serve as a new deputy for Quebec to help deal with the volatile conscription issue. King had been in his political infancy when he witnessed the effect that conscription had on the nation during World War I. He had seen Prime Minister Robert Borden polarize the country and marginalize Quebec for standing against conscription, with the effect of seriously jeopardizing national unity - a situation he was determined to avoid. No Quebec or francophone members of Mackenzie's cabinet or government were willing to step into the role, but many recommended St-Laurent, a longtime Liberal supporter, as an ideal candidate. On these recommendations, Mackenzie King recruited St-Laurent to his wartime cabinet as Minister of Justice and appreciating the gravity of the appointment and the situation St-Laurent agreed to go to Ottawa, but only on the understanding that his foray into politics was temporary and that he would return to Quebec at the conclusion of the war. King appointed St-Laurent as Minister of Justice and Attorney General, Lapointe's old post, on December 9. King felt safe in making this appointment because St-Laurent was slated to run in Lapointe's old riding, Quebec East, in a February 1942 by-election. Both parties had agreed not to contest by-elections for the war's duration, but it is very likely that St-Laurent would have won in any case; at the time Quebec East was one of the safest Liberal ridings in Canada. St-Laurent supported King's decision to introduce conscription in 1944, despite the lack of support from other French Canadians (see Conscription Crisis of 1944). His support prevented more than a handful of Quebec Liberal Members of Parliament (MPs) from leaving the party, and was therefore crucial to keeping the government and the party united. Minister of External Affairs King came to regard St-Laurent as his most trusted minister and natural successor. He persuaded St-Laurent that it was his duty to remain in government following the war in order to help with the construction of a post war international order and promoted him to the position of Secretary of State for External Affairs in 1945, a portfolio King had previously always kept for himself. In this role, St-Laurent represented Canada at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference and San Francisco Conference that led to the founding of the United Nations (UN). At the conferences, St-Laurent, compelled by his belief that the UN would be ineffective in times of war and armed conflict without some military means to impose its will, advocated the adoption of a UN military force. This force he proposed would be used in situations that called for both tact and might to preserve peace or prevent combat. In 1956, this idea was actualized by St-Laurent and his Secretary of State for External Affairs Lester B. Pearson in the development of UN Peacekeepers that helped to put an end to the Suez Crisis. Prime Minister of Canada In 1948, King retired, and quietly persuaded his senior ministers to support St-Laurent's selection as the new Liberal leader at the Liberal leadership convention of August 1948. St-Laurent won, and was sworn in as Prime Minister of Canada on November 15. The Canadian economy was one of the strongest in the world in the period immediately following the end of the war. The prosperity lasted for more than a decade, significantly expanding the Canadian national infrastructure. Mr. Prime Minister 1867-1964, by Bruce Hutchison, Toronto 1964, Longmans Canada. In the 1949 federal election that followed his ascension to the Liberal leadership many wondered, including Liberal party insiders, if St-Laurent would appeal to the post-war populace of Canada. On the campaign trail, St-Laurent's image was developed into somewhat of a 'character' and what is considered to be the first 'media image' to be used in Canadian politics. St-Laurent chatted with children, gave speeches in his shirt sleeves, and had a 'common touch' that turned out to be appealing to voters. At one event during the 1949 election campaign, he disembarked his train and instead of approaching the assembled crowd of adults and reporters, gravitated to, and began chatting with, a group of children on the platform. A reporter submitted an article entitled "'Uncle Louis' can't lose!" which earned him the nickname "Uncle Louis" in the media (Papa Louis in Quebec). With this common touch and broad appeal, he subsequently led the party to victory in the election against the Progressive Conservative Party led by George Drew. The Liberals won 190 seats--the most in Canadian history at the time, and still a record for the party. His reputation as prime minister was impressive. He demanded hard work of all of his MPs and Ministers, and worked hard himself. He was reputed to be as knowledgeable on some ministerial portfolios as the ministers responsible themselves. To that end, Jack Pickersgill (a minister in St-Laurent's cabinet) said as prime minister St-Laurent had: "as fine an intelligence as was ever applied to the problems of government in Canada. He left it a richer, a more generous and more united country than it had been before he became prime minister." St-Laurent led the Liberals to another powerful majority in the 1953 federal election. He lost several seats, but still dominated the Canadian House of Commons. Foreign policy St-Laurent and his cabinet oversaw Canada's expanding international role in the postwar world. His stated desire was for Canada to occupy a social, military and economic 'Middle power' role in the post World War II world. Militarily, St-Laurent was a leading proponent of the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, serving as an architect and signatory of the treaty document. Involvement in such an organization marked a departure from King who had been reticent about joining a military alliance. Under his leadership, Canada supported the United Nations (U.N.) in the Korean War and committed the third largest overall contribution of troops, ships and aircraft to the U.N. forces to the conflict. Troops to Korea were selected on a voluntary basis. In 1956, under his direction, St-Laurent's Secretary of State for External Affairs Lester B. Pearson, helped solve the Suez Crisis in 1956 between Great Britain, France, Israel and Egypt, bringing forward St-Laurent's 1946 views on a U.N. military force in the form of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) or Peacekeeping. It is widely believed that the activities directed by St-Laurent and Pearson could well have avoided a nuclear war. These actions were recognized when Pearson won the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize. St-Laurent was an early supporter of British Prime Minister Clement Attlee's proposal to transform the British Commonwealth from a club of white dominions into a multi-racial partnership. The leaders of the other "white dominions" were less than enthusiastic. It was St-Laurent who drafted the London Declaration, recognizing King George VI as Head of the Commonwealth as a means of allowing India to remain in the international association once it became a republic. Domestic policy St-Laurent's government was modestly progressive and fiscally conservative, taking taxation surpluses no longer needed by the wartime military and paying back in full Canada's debts accrued during the First World War, the Great Depression and World War II. With remaining revenues, St-Laurent oversaw the expansion of Canada's social programs, including establishment of the Canada Council to support the arts, and the gradual expansion of social welfare programs such as family allowances, old age pensions, government funding of university and post-secondary education and an early form of Medicare termed Hospital Insurance at the time, that lay the groundwork for Tommy Douglas' healthcare system in Saskatchewan and Pearson's nationwide universal healthcare in the late 1960s. In addition, he modernized and established new social and industrial policies for the country during his time in the prime minister's office. In 1949, the former lawyer of many Supreme Court cases, St-Laurent ended the practice of appealing Canadian legal cases to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council of Great Britain, making the Supreme Court of Canada the highest avenue of legal appeal available to Canadians. In that same year, St-Laurent negotiated the British North America (No. 2) Act, 1949 with Britain which 'partially patriated' the Canadian Constitution, most significantly giving the Canadian parliament the authority to amend portions of the constitution. Also in 1949, following two referendums within the province St-Laurent and Premier Joey Smallwood negotiated the entry of Newfoundland into Confederation. In 1952, he appointed Vincent Massey as the first Canadian-born Governor-General. Each of the aforementioned actions were and are seen as significant in furthering the cause of Canadian autonomy from Britain and developing a national identity on the international stage. In 1956, using the Constitutional taxation authority of the federal level of government, St-Laurent's government introduced the policy of "Equalization payments" which redistributes taxation revenues between provinces to assist the poorer provinces in delivering government programs and services, a move that has been considered a strong one in solidifying the Canadian federation, particularly with his home province of Quebec. The government also engaged in massive public works and infrastructure projects such as building the Trans-Canada Highway (1949), the St. Lawrence Seaway (1954) and the Trans-Canada Pipeline. It was this last project that was to sow the seeds that led to the downfall of the St-Laurent government. St-Laurent was initially very well-received by the Canadian public, but by 1957, "Uncle Louis" and his government began to appear tired, old and out of touch. The government was also perceived to have grown too close to business interests. The 1956 Pipeline Debate led to the widespread impression that the Liberals had grown arrogant in power when the government invoked closure on numerous occasions in order to curtail debate and ensure that its Pipeline Bill passed by a specific deadline. St. Laurent was criticized for a lack of restraint exercised on his minister C. D. Howe, who was widely perceived as extremely arrogant. Western Canadians felt particularly alienated by the government, believing that the Liberals were kowtowing to interests in Ontario and Quebec and the United States. (The opposition accused the government of accepting overly costly contracts that could never be completed on schedule - in the end the pipeline was completed early and under budget). The pipeline conflict turned out to be meaningless, insofar as the construction work was concerned, since pipe could not be obtained in 1956 from a striking American factory, and no work could have been done that year. Mr. Prime Minister 1867-1964, by Bruce Hutchison. But the ensuing uproar in Parliament had a lasting impression on the electorate, and was a decisive factor in the Liberal government's defeat at the hands of the Progressive Conservative Party led by John Diefenbaker in the 1957 election. Because the Liberals were still mostly classically liberal, Diefenbaker promised to outspend the incumbent Liberals, who campaigned on plans to stay the course of fiscal conservatism they had followed through St-Laurent's term in the 1940s and 1950s. St-Laurent was the first Prime Minister to live in the present official residence of the Prime Minister of Canada: 24 Sussex Drive, from 1951 to the end of his term in office. Defeat in the 1957 election The defeat in the 1957 was marked by controversy within the Liberal party and the Parliament. The Liberals had actually won more popular support (actual votes cast) than the Progressive Conservatives (40.75% Liberals to 38.81% PC), but the Conservatives took the greatest number of seats with 112 PC candidates elected to serve out of the House of Commons 265 seats (42% of the House). The Liberals took 104 seats (39.2%). Some ministers wanted St-Laurent to stay on and offer to form a minority government, following the logic that the popular vote had supported them and even though their Parliamentary minority was smaller than the Conservatives, the Liberals' more recent governmental experience would make them a more effective minority. Another option circulated within the party saw the balance of power to be held by either the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) and their 25 seats or Social Credit Party of Canada with their 15. St-Laurent was encouraged by others to reach out to the CCF and at least four of six independent/small party MPs to form a coalition majority government, which would have held 134 of the 265 or 50.1% of the seats in Parliament. St-Laurent, however, decided that the nation had passed a verdict against his government and his party and he resigned as Prime Minister rather than be seen as clinging to office. Supreme Court appointments St-Laurent chose the following jurists to be appointed as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada by the Governor General: John Robert Cartwright (December 22, 1949 – March 23, 1970) Joseph Honoré Gérald Fauteux (December 22, 1949 – December 23, 1973) Douglas Charles Abbott (July 1, 1954 – December 23, 1973) Patrick Kerwin (as Chief Justice, July 1, 1954 – February 2, 1963; appointed a Puisne Justice under Prime Minister Richard Bennett, July 20, 1935) Henry Grattan Nolan (March 1, 1956 – July 8, 1957) Retirement 201 Grande-Allee, residence of St-Laurent in Quebec City for sixty years, now a national historical site After a short period as Leader of the Opposition and now more than 75 years old, St- Laurent's motivation to be involved in politics was gone. He announced his intention to retire from politics. St-Laurent was succeeded as Liberal Party leader by his former Secretary of State for External Affairs and representative at the United Nations, Lester B. Pearson, at the party's leadership convention in 1958. After his political retirement, he returned to practising law and living quietly and privately with his family. During his retirement, he was called into the public spotlight one final time in 1967 for the inception of the award, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada, the highest civilian honour for which Canadians are eligible. Louis Stephen St-Laurent died from natural causes on July 25, 1973, in Quebec City, Quebec, aged 91, and was laid to rest at St. Thomas Aquinas Cemetery in his hometown of Compton, Quebec. He is survived by granddaughter Louise Mignault and grandson Louis St-Laurent II. St. Laurent was ranked #4 on a survey of the first 20 Premiers (through Jean Chretien) of Canada done by Canadian historians, and used by J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer in their book Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders. References Bibliography J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer, Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders (Toronto: HarperCollinsPublisherLtd, A Phyllis Bruce Book, 1999), pp. 114–126. ISBN 0-00-200027-X. External links Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Synopsis of federal political experience from the Library of Parliament Order of Canada Citation CBC Digital Archives – Uncle Louis and Canada's Golden Age Louis St. Laurent's Grave | Louis_St._Laurent |@lemmatized louis:13 stephen:2 st:60 laurent:59 pc:3 cc:1 qc:1 saint:2 french:4 baptize:1 étienne:1 february:3 july:6 prime:20 minister:31 canada:29 november:3 june:1 early:4 life:2 career:2 bear:2 compton:3 quebec:17 village:1 eastern:1 township:1 jean:2 baptiste:1 moïse:1 canadian:21 mary:1 anne:1 broderick:1 irish:2 grow:3 fluently:1 bilingual:1 noticeable:1 brogue:1 gesture:1 hunch:1 shoulder:1 mr:3 bruce:4 hutchison:3 toronto:3 longmans:2 publisher:1 receive:2 degree:1 charles:2 seminary:1 b:4 université:2 laval:3 l:3 offer:4 decline:1 rhodes:1 scholarship:1 upon:1 graduation:1 marry:1 jeanne:1 renault:1 two:2 son:1 three:1 daughter:1 work:6 lawyer:3 also:4 become:5 professor:1 law:3 practised:1 corporate:1 constitutional:2 québec:1 one:7 country:4 respected:2 counsel:1 serve:4 president:1 bar:1 association:2 father:2 shopkeeper:1 staunch:1 supporter:3 liberal:25 party:16 particularly:3 enamour:1 sir:1 wilfrid:1 laurier:2 lead:9 victory:2 election:10 year:5 old:6 relay:1 return:3 telephone:1 store:1 however:2 ardent:1 remain:4 aloof:1 active:1 politics:6 much:1 focus:1 instead:2 legal:3 family:3 highly:1 regarded:1 position:2 cabinet:7 conservative:7 arthur:1 meighen:1 seat:8 justice:7 supreme:5 court:5 nearly:1 finally:1 agree:3 enter:1 william:1 lyon:1 mackenzie:4 king:13 appeal:6 sense:1 duty:2 late:2 member:4 follow:7 death:1 lieutenant:1 ernest:1 lapointe:3 well:4 aware:1 need:2 government:21 strong:3 new:3 deputy:1 help:4 deal:1 volatile:1 conscription:5 issue:1 political:3 infancy:1 witness:1 effect:2 nation:6 world:7 war:13 see:4 robert:2 borden:1 polarize:1 marginalize:1 stand:1 seriously:1 jeopardize:1 national:4 unity:1 situation:3 determine:1 avoid:2 francophone:1 willing:1 step:1 role:4 many:3 recommend:1 longtime:1 ideal:1 candidate:2 recommendation:1 recruit:1 wartime:2 appreciate:1 gravity:1 appointment:3 go:2 ottawa:1 understanding:1 foray:1 temporary:1 would:7 conclusion:1 appoint:4 attorney:1 general:3 post:5 december:5 felt:2 safe:2 make:4 slat:1 run:1 riding:2 east:2 contest:1 duration:1 likely:1 win:5 case:3 time:6 support:8 decision:1 introduce:2 despite:1 lack:2 crisis:3 prevent:2 handful:1 parliament:6 mp:3 leave:2 therefore:1 crucial:1 keep:2 unite:1 external:6 affair:5 come:1 regard:1 trusted:1 natural:2 successor:1 persuade:2 order:5 construction:2 international:4 promote:1 secretary:4 state:5 portfolio:2 previously:1 always:1 represent:1 dumbarton:1 oaks:1 conference:3 san:1 francisco:1 founding:1 united:6 un:4 compel:1 belief:1 ineffective:1 arm:1 conflict:3 without:1 military:6 mean:2 impose:1 advocate:1 adoption:1 force:5 propose:1 use:4 call:2 tact:1 might:1 preserve:1 peace:2 combat:1 idea:1 actualize:1 lester:3 pearson:6 development:1 peacekeeper:1 put:1 end:6 suez:2 retire:2 quietly:2 senior:1 selection:1 leader:6 leadership:4 convention:2 august:1 swear:1 economy:1 period:2 immediately:1 prosperity:1 last:2 decade:1 significantly:2 expand:2 infrastructure:2 federal:4 ascension:1 wonder:1 include:2 insider:1 populace:1 campaign:3 trail:1 image:2 develop:2 somewhat:1 character:1 consider:2 first:5 medium:2 chat:2 child:2 give:2 speech:1 shirt:1 sleeve:1 common:4 touch:3 turn:2 voter:1 event:1 disembark:1 train:1 approach:1 assembled:1 crowd:1 adult:1 reporter:2 gravitate:1 begin:2 group:1 platform:1 submit:1 article:1 entitle:1 uncle:4 lose:2 earn:1 nickname:1 papa:1 broad:1 subsequently:1 progressive:4 george:2 drew:1 history:1 still:3 record:1 reputation:1 impressive:1 demand:1 hard:2 repute:1 knowledgeable:1 ministerial:1 responsible:1 jack:1 pickersgill:1 say:1 fine:1 intelligence:1 ever:1 apply:1 problem:1 richer:1 generous:1 another:2 powerful:1 majority:2 several:1 dominate:1 house:3 foreign:1 policy:4 oversaw:2 postwar:1 stated:1 desire:1 occupy:1 social:5 economic:1 middle:1 power:3 ii:3 militarily:1 leading:1 proponent:1 establishment:2 north:2 atlantic:1 treaty:2 organization:2 nato:1 architect:1 signatory:1 document:1 involvement:1 mark:2 departure:1 reticent:1 join:1 alliance:1 u:3 n:3 korean:1 commit:1 third:1 large:1 overall:1 contribution:1 troop:2 ship:1 aircraft:1 korea:1 select:1 voluntary:1 basis:1 direction:1 solve:1 great:4 britain:4 france:1 israel:1 egypt:1 bring:1 forward:1 view:1 form:4 emergency:1 unef:1 peacekeeping:1 widely:2 believe:2 activity:1 direct:1 could:4 nuclear:1 action:2 recognize:2 nobel:1 prize:1 british:3 clement:1 attlee:1 proposal:1 transform:1 commonwealth:3 club:1 white:2 dominion:2 multi:1 racial:1 partnership:1 less:1 enthusiastic:1 draft:1 london:1 declaration:1 vi:1 head:1 allow:1 india:1 republic:1 domestic:1 modestly:1 fiscally:1 take:3 taxation:3 surpluses:1 longer:1 pay:1 back:1 full:1 debt:1 accrue:1 depression:1 revenue:2 expansion:2 program:3 council:2 art:1 gradual:1 welfare:1 allowance:1 age:3 pension:1 funding:1 university:1 secondary:1 education:1 medicare:1 term:3 hospital:1 insurance:1 lay:2 groundwork:1 tommy:1 douglas:2 healthcare:2 system:1 saskatchewan:1 nationwide:1 universal:1 addition:1 modernize:1 establish:1 industrial:1 office:3 former:2 practice:1 judicial:1 committee:1 privy:1 high:2 avenue:1 available:1 negotiate:2 america:1 act:1 partially:1 patriated:1 constitution:2 authority:2 amend:1 portion:1 referendum:1 within:3 province:4 premier:2 joey:1 smallwood:1 entry:1 newfoundland:1 confederation:1 vincent:1 massey:1 governor:2 aforementioned:1 significant:1 cause:2 autonomy:1 identity:1 stage:1 level:1 equalization:1 payment:1 redistribute:1 assist:1 poorer:1 deliver:1 service:1 move:1 solidify:1 federation:2 home:1 engage:1 massive:1 public:3 project:2 build:1 trans:2 highway:1 lawrence:1 seaway:1 pipeline:5 sow:1 seed:1 downfall:1 initially:1 appear:1 tire:1 perceive:2 close:1 business:1 interest:2 debate:2 widespread:1 impression:2 arrogant:2 invoke:1 closure:1 numerous:1 occasion:1 curtail:1 ensure:1 bill:1 pass:2 specific:1 deadline:1 criticize:1 restraint:1 exercise:1 c:1 howe:1 extremely:1 western:1 alienate:1 kowtow:1 ontario:1 opposition:2 accuse:1 accept:1 overly:1 costly:1 contract:1 never:1 complete:2 schedule:1 budget:1 meaningless:1 insofar:1 concern:1 since:1 pipe:1 obtain:1 striking:1 american:1 factory:1 ensue:1 uproar:1 lasting:1 electorate:1 decisive:1 factor:1 defeat:3 hand:1 john:2 diefenbaker:2 mostly:1 classically:1 promise:1 outspend:1 incumbent:1 plan:1 stay:2 course:1 fiscal:1 conservatism:1 live:2 present:1 official:1 residence:2 sussex:1 drive:1 controversy:1 actually:1 popular:2 actual:1 vote:2 cast:1 number:1 elect:1 want:1 minority:3 logic:1 even:1 though:1 parliamentary:1 small:2 recent:1 governmental:1 experience:2 effective:1 option:1 circulate:1 saw:1 balance:1 hold:2 either:1 co:1 operative:1 ccf:2 credit:1 encourage:1 others:1 reach:1 least:1 four:1 six:1 independent:1 coalition:1 decide:1 verdict:1 resign:1 rather:1 cling:1 choose:1 following:1 jurist:1 cartwright:1 march:2 joseph:1 honoré:1 gérald:1 fauteux:1 abbott:1 patrick:1 kerwin:1 chief:1 puisne:1 richard:1 bennett:1 henry:1 grattan:1 nolan:1 retirement:3 grande:1 allee:1 city:2 sixty:1 historical:1 site:1 short:1 motivation:1 involve:1 announce:1 intention:1 succeed:1 representative:1 practise:1 privately:1 spotlight:1 final:1 inception:1 award:1 companion:1 civilian:1 honour:1 eligible:1 die:1 rest:1 thomas:1 aquinas:1 cemetery:1 hometown:1 survive:1 granddaughter:1 louise:1 mignault:1 grandson:1 rank:3 survey:1 chretien:1 historian:1 j:2 granatstein:2 norman:2 hillmer:2 book:2 reference:1 bibliography:1 harpercollinspublisherltd:1 phyllis:1 pp:1 isbn:1 x:1 link:1 biography:2 dictionary:1 online:1 synopsis:1 library:1 citation:1 cbc:1 digital:1 archive:1 golden:1 grave:1 |@bigram st_laurent:57 prime_minister:20 jean_baptiste:1 rhodes_scholarship:1 staunch_supporter:1 wilfrid_laurier:1 highly_regarded:1 supreme_court:5 lyon_mackenzie:1 san_francisco:1 suez_crisis:2 clement_attlee:1 lay_groundwork:1 committee_privy:1 privy_council:1 lawrence_seaway:1 sow_seed:1 ontario_quebec:1 lasting_impression:1 fiscal_conservatism:1 co_operative:1 thomas_aquinas:1 l_granatstein:2 granatstein_norman:2 norman_hillmer:2 external_link:1 cbc_digital:1 |
3,059 | Linear_map | In mathematics, a linear map (also called a linear transformation, linear function or linear operator) is a function between two vector spaces that preserves the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication. The expression "linear operator" is in especially common use, for linear maps from a vector space to itself (endomorphisms). In advanced mathematics, the definition of linear function coincides with the definition of linear map. In the language of abstract algebra, a linear map is a homomorphism of vector spaces, or a morphism in the category of vector spaces over a given field. Definition and first consequences Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field K. A function f : V → W is said to be a linear map if for any two vectors x and y in V and any scalar a in K, the following two conditions are satisfied: additivityhomogeneity of degree 1 This is equivalent to requiring that for any vectors x1, ..., xm and scalars a1, ..., am, the equality holds. It immediately follows from the definition that f(0) = 0. Occasionally, V and W can be considered to be vector spaces over different fields. It is then necessary to specify which of these ground fields is being used in the definition of "linear". If V and W are considered as spaces over the field K as above, we talk about K-linear maps. For example, the conjugation of complex numbers is an R-linear map C → C, but it is not C-linear. A linear map from V to K (with K viewed as a vector space over itself) is called a linear functional. Examples The identity map and zero map are linear. For real numbers, the map is not linear. For real numbers, the map is not linear. If A is a real m × n matrix, then A defines a linear map from Rn to Rm by sending the column vector x ∈ Rn to the column vector Ax ∈ Rm. Conversely, any linear map between finite-dimensional vector spaces can be represented in this manner; see the following section. The integral yields a linear map from the space of all real-valued integrable functions on some interval to R Differentiation is a linear map from the space of all differentiable functions to the space of all functions. If V and W are finite-dimensional vector spaces over a field F, then functions that send linear maps f : V → W to dimF(W)-by-dimF(V) matrices in the way described in the sequel are themselves linear maps. Matrices If V and W are finite-dimensional, and one has chosen bases in those spaces, then every linear map from V to W can be represented as a matrix; this is useful because it allows concrete calculations. Conversely, matrices yield examples of linear maps: if A is a real m-by-n matrix, then the rule f(x) = Ax describes a linear map Rn → Rm (see Euclidean space). Let be a basis for V. Then every vector v in V is uniquely determined by the coefficients in If f : V → W is a linear map, which implies that the function f is entirely determined by the values of Now let be a basis for W. Then we can represent the values of each as Thus, the function f is entirely determined by the values of If we put these values into an m-by-n matrix M, then we can conveniently use it to compute the value of f for any vector in V. For if we place the values of in an n-by-1 matrix C, we have MC = the m-by-1 matrix whose i.th element is the coordinate of f(v) which belongs to the base . A single linear map may be represented by many matrices. This is because the values of the elements of the matrix depend on the bases that are chosen. Examples of linear transformation matrices Some special cases of linear transformations of two-dimensional space R2 are illuminating: rotation by 90 degrees clockwise: rotation by θ degrees counterclockwise: reflection against the x axis: scaling by 2 in all directions: vertical shear mapping: squeezing: projection onto the y axis: Forming new linear maps from given ones The composition of linear maps is linear: if f : V → W and g : W → Z are linear, then so is g o f : V → Z. The inverse of a linear map, when defined, is again a linear map. If f1 : V → W and f2 : V → W are linear, then so is their sum f1 + f2 (which is defined by (f1 + f2)(x) = f1(x) + f2(x)). If f : V → W is linear and a is an element of the ground field K, then the map af, defined by (af)(x) = a (f(x)), is also linear. Thus the set L(V,W) of linear maps from V to W itself forms a vector space over K, sometimes denoted Hom(V,W). Furthermore, in the case that V=W, this vector space (denoted End(V)) is an associative algebra under composition of maps, since the composition of two linear maps is again a linear map, and the composition of maps is always associative. This case is discussed in more detail below. Given again the finite-dimensional case, if bases have been chosen, then the composition of linear maps corresponds to the matrix multiplication, the addition of linear maps corresponds to the matrix addition, and the multiplication of linear maps with scalars corresponds to the multiplication of matrices with scalars. Endomorphisms and automorphisms A linear transformation f : V → V is an endomorphism of V; the set of all such endomorphisms End(V) together with addition, composition and scalar multiplication as defined above forms an associative algebra with identity element over the field K (and in particular a ring). The multiplicative identity element of this algebra is the identity map id : V → V. An endomorphism of V that is also an isomorphism is called an automorphism of V. The composition of two automorphisms is again an automorphism, and the set of all automorphisms of V forms a group, the automorphism group of V which is denoted by Aut(V) or GL(V). Since the automorphisms are precisely those endomorphisms which possess inverses under composition, Aut(V) is the group of units in the ring End(V). If V has finite dimension n, then End(V) is isomorphic to the associative algebra of all n by n matrices with entries in K. The automorphism group of V is isomorphic to the general linear group GL(n, K) of all n by n invertible matrices with entries in K. Kernel, image and the rank-nullity theorem If f : V → W is linear, we define the kernel and the image or range of f by ker(f) is a subspace of V and im(f) is a subspace of W. The following dimension formula, known as the rank-nullity theorem, is often useful: The number dim(im(f)) is also called the rank of f and written as rank(f), or sometimes, ρ(f); the number dim(ker(f)) is called the nullity of f and written as null(f) or ν(f). If V and W are finite dimensional, bases have been chosen and f is represented by the matrix A, then the rank and nullity of f are equal to the rank and nullity of the matrix A, respectively. Cokernel A subtler invariant of a linear transform is the cokernel, which is defined as This is the dual notion to the kernel: just as the kernel is a subspace of the domain, the cokernel is a quotient space of the target. Formally, one has the exact sequence These can be interpreted thus: given a linear equation to solve, the kernel is the space of solutions to the homogeneous equation and its dimension is the number of degrees of freedom in a solution, if it exists; the cokernel is the space of constraints that must be satisfied if the equation is to have a solution, and its dimension is the number of constraints that must be satisfied for the equation to have a solution. The dimension of the cokernel plus the dimension of the image (the rank) add up to the dimension of the target space, as the dimension of the quotient space is simply the dimension of the space minus the dimension of the image. As a simple example, consider the map given by Then for an equation to have a solution, we must have (one constraint), and in that case the solution space is or equivalently stated, (one degree of freedom). The kernel may be expressed as the subspace the value of x is the freedom in a solution – while the cokernel may be expressed via the map given a vector the value of a is the obstruction to there being a solution. Index In terms of the kernel and cokernel, one may then define the index of a linear operator, as: namely the degrees of freedom minus the number of constraints. For a transform between finite dimensional vector spaces, this is just the difference by rank-nullity. This gives an indication of how many solutions or how many constraints one has: if mapping from a larger space to a smaller one, the map may be onto, and thus will have degrees of freedom even without constraints. Conversely, if mapping from a smaller space to a larger one, the map cannot be onto, and thus one will have constraints even without degrees of freedom. The index comes of its own in infinite dimensions: it is how homology is defined, which is a central theory in algebra and algebraic topology; the index of an operator is precisely the Euler characteristic of the 2-term complex In operator theory, the index of Fredholm operators is an object of study, with a major result being the Atiyah–Singer index theorem. Algebraic classifications of linear transformations No classification of linear maps could hope to be exhaustive. The following incomplete list enumerates some important classifications that do not require any additional structure on the vector space. Let V and W denote vector spaces over a field, F. Let T:V → W be a linear map. T is said to be injective or a monomorphism if any of the following equivalent conditions are true: T is one-to-one as a map of sets. kerT = 0V T is monic or left-cancellable, which is to say, for any vector space U and any pair of linear maps R:U → V and S:U → V, the equation TR=TS implies R=S. T is left-invertible, which is to say there exists a linear map S:W → V such that ST is the identity map on V. T is said to be surjective or an epimorphism if any of the following equivalent conditions are true: T is onto as a map of sets. coker T = 0 T is epic or right-cancellable, which is to say, for any vector space U and any pair of linear maps R:W → U and S:W → U, the equation RT=ST implies R=S. T is right-invertible, which is to say there exists a linear map S:W → V such that TS is the identity map on V. T is said to be an isomorphism if it is both left- and right-invertible. This is equivalent to T being both one-to-one and onto (a bijection of sets) or also to T being both epic and monic, and so being a bimorphism. If T: V → V is an endomorphism, then: If, for some positive integer n, the n-th iterate of T, Tn, is identically zero, then T is said to be nilpotent. If T T = T, then T is said to be idempotent If T = k I, where k is some scalar, then T is said to be a scaling transformation or scalar multiplication map; see scalar matrix. Continuity A linear operator between topological vector spaces, for example normed spaces, may also be continuous and therefore be a continuous linear operator. On a normed space, a linear operator is continuous if and only if it is bounded, for example, when the domain is finite-dimensional. If the domain is infinite-dimensional, then there may be discontinuous linear operators. An example of an unbounded, hence not continuous, linear transformation is differentiation on the space of smooth functions equipped with the supremum norm (a function with small values can have a derivative with large values, while the derivative of 0 is 0). Applications A specific application of linear maps is for geometric transformations, such as those performed in computer graphics, where the translation, rotation and scaling of 2D or 3D objects is performed by the use of a transformation matrix. Another application of these transformations is in compiler optimizations of nested-loop code, and in parallelizing compiler techniques. See also Affine transformation Linear equation Antilinear map Transformation matrix Continuous linear operator wikibooks:Algebra/Linear transformations Neural network Computer graphics References | Linear_map |@lemmatized mathematics:2 linear:69 map:54 also:7 call:5 transformation:13 function:12 operator:11 two:6 vector:25 space:36 preserve:1 operation:1 addition:4 scalar:9 multiplication:6 expression:1 especially:1 common:1 use:4 endomorphisms:4 advanced:1 definition:5 coincides:1 language:1 abstract:1 algebra:7 homomorphism:1 morphism:1 category:1 give:7 field:9 first:1 consequence:1 let:5 v:57 w:29 k:14 f:30 say:11 x:10 follow:2 condition:3 satisfy:3 additivityhomogeneity:1 degree:8 equivalent:4 require:2 xm:1 equality:1 hold:1 immediately:1 occasionally:1 consider:3 different:1 necessary:1 specify:1 ground:2 talk:1 example:7 conjugation:1 complex:2 number:8 r:6 c:4 view:1 functional:1 examples:1 identity:6 zero:2 real:5 n:12 matrix:22 defines:1 rn:3 rm:3 send:2 column:2 ax:2 conversely:3 finite:8 dimensional:9 represent:5 manner:1 see:4 following:5 section:1 integral:1 yield:2 value:12 integrable:1 interval:1 differentiation:2 differentiable:1 dimf:2 way:1 describe:2 sequel:1 one:14 choose:4 base:5 every:2 useful:2 allow:1 concrete:1 calculation:1 rule:1 euclidean:1 basis:2 uniquely:1 determine:3 coefficient:1 imply:1 entirely:2 thus:5 put:1 conveniently:1 compute:1 place:1 mc:1 whose:1 th:2 element:5 coordinate:1 belong:1 single:1 may:7 many:3 depend:1 special:1 case:5 illuminate:1 rotation:3 clockwise:1 θ:1 counterclockwise:1 reflection:1 axis:2 scaling:3 direction:1 vertical:1 shear:1 mapping:3 squeezing:1 projection:1 onto:5 forming:1 new:1 composition:8 g:2 z:2 inverse:2 define:8 sum:1 af:2 set:6 l:1 form:3 sometimes:2 denote:3 hom:1 furthermore:1 denoted:1 end:4 associative:4 since:2 always:1 discuss:1 detail:1 corresponds:3 automorphisms:4 endomorphism:3 together:1 particular:1 ring:2 multiplicative:1 id:1 isomorphism:2 automorphism:4 group:5 aut:2 gl:2 precisely:2 possess:1 unit:1 dimension:11 isomorphic:2 entry:2 general:1 invertible:4 kernel:7 image:4 rank:8 nullity:6 theorem:3 range:1 ker:2 subspace:4 im:2 formula:1 know:1 often:1 dim:2 write:2 ρ:1 null:1 ν:1 equal:1 respectively:1 cokernel:7 subtler:1 invariant:1 transform:2 dual:1 notion:1 domain:3 quotient:2 target:2 formally:1 exact:1 sequence:1 interpret:1 equation:8 solve:1 solution:9 homogeneous:1 freedom:6 exist:3 constraint:7 must:3 plus:1 add:1 simply:1 minus:2 simple:1 equivalently:1 state:1 express:2 via:1 obstruction:1 index:6 term:2 namely:1 difference:1 indication:1 large:3 small:3 even:2 without:2 cannot:1 come:1 infinite:2 homology:1 central:1 theory:2 algebraic:2 topology:1 euler:1 characteristic:1 fredholm:1 object:2 study:1 major:1 result:1 atiyah:1 singer:1 classification:3 could:1 hope:1 exhaustive:1 incomplete:1 list:1 enumerate:1 important:1 additional:1 structure:1 injective:1 monomorphism:1 true:2 kert:1 monic:2 leave:2 cancellable:2 u:6 pair:2 tr:1 implies:2 st:2 surjective:1 epimorphism:1 coker:1 epic:2 right:3 rt:1 left:1 bijection:1 bimorphism:1 positive:1 integer:1 iterate:1 tn:1 identically:1 nilpotent:1 idempotent:1 continuity:1 topological:1 normed:2 continuous:5 therefore:1 bound:1 discontinuous:1 unbounded:1 hence:1 smooth:1 equip:1 supremum:1 norm:1 derivative:2 application:3 specific:1 geometric:1 perform:2 computer:2 graphic:2 translation:1 another:1 compiler:2 optimization:1 nested:1 loop:1 code:1 parallelize:1 technique:1 affine:1 antilinear:1 wikibooks:1 neural:1 network:1 reference:1 |@bigram scalar_multiplication:3 abstract_algebra:1 finite_dimensional:7 integrable_function:1 uniquely_determine:1 clockwise_rotation:1 associative_algebra:3 multiplicative_identity:1 automorphisms_automorphism:1 invertible_matrix:1 rank_nullity:5 algebraic_topology:1 atiyah_singer:1 identically_zero:1 infinite_dimensional:1 supremum_norm:1 compiler_optimization:1 neural_network:1 |
3,060 | Amalric_II_of_Jerusalem | Amalric II of Jerusalem or Amalric I of Cyprus, born Amalric of Lusignan (1145 – April 1, 1205), King of Jerusalem 1197–1205, was an older brother of Guy of Lusignan. The Lusignan family was noted for its many Crusaders. Amalric and Guy were sons of Hugh VIII of Lusignan, who had himself campaigned in the Holy Land in the 1160s. After being expelled from Poitou by their overlord, Richard the Lion-hearted, for the murder of Patrick of Salisbury, 1st Earl of Salisbury, Amalric arrived in Palestine c. 1174, Guy possibly later. Amalric married Eschiva, daughter of Baldwin of Ibelin. He then took service with Agnes of Courtenay, wife of Reginald of Sidon and mother of Baldwin IV of Jerusalem. The pro-Ibelin Chronicle of Ernoul later claimed that he was her lover, but it is likely that she and Baldwin IV were attempting to separate him from the political influence of his wife's family. He was appointed Constable of Jerusalem soon after April 22, 1179. Guy married the king's widowed older sister, Sibylla of Jerusalem in 1180, and so gained a claim to the kingdom of Jerusalem. Amalric was among those captured with his brother after the disastrous Battle of Hattin in 1187. In 1194, on the death of Guy, he became King of Cyprus as Amalric I. By his first wife, Eschiva of Ibelin, he was the father of Hugh I of Cyprus and was crowned in Nicosia on September 22, 1197. After Eschiva's death in October, 1197 he married Isabella, the daughter of Amalric I of Jerusalem by his second marriage, and became King of Jerusalem in right of his wife and crowned at Acre in January, 1198. In 1198 he was able to procure a five years' truce with the Muslims, owing to the struggle between Saladin's brothers and his sons for the inheritance of his territories. The truce was disturbed by raids on both sides, but in 1204 it was renewed for six years. Amalric died of dysentery (allegedly brought on by "a surfeit of white mullet") or even poisoned at Saint Jean d' Acre in 1205, just after his son Amalric and just before his wife, and was buried at Saint Sophia, Nicosia. The kingdom of Cyprus passed to Hugh, his son by Eschiva, while the kingdom of Jerusalem passed to Maria, the daughter of Isabella by her previous marriage with Conrad of Montferrat. Wives and Children His first wife, married before October 29, 1174, was Éschive d'Ibelin (c. 1160 – Cyprus in Winter, 1196/1197), daughter of Baldwin of Ibelin and first wife Richilde de Bethsan or Bessan. They had six children: Bourgogne de Lusignan (1176-1180 or c. 1178 – c. 1210), married as his third wife Raymond VI of Toulouse 1193, repudiated and divorced 1194 or 1196 without issue, married Gauthier I de Montfaucon aka Walter of Montbéliard (killed in action at the Battle of Satalia, June 20, 1212) 1197 or bef. 1205, by whom she had issue. Guy de Lusignan, died young 1197-1205 Jean de Lusignan, died young 1197-1205 Hugues I de Lusignan (c. 1194-1218) Héloise/Helvis de Lusignan (c. 1190 – 1216-1219, 1216/1219 or c. 1217), married firstly c. 1205 Eudes de Dampierre sur Salon, Lord of Chargey-le-Grey, div. 1210, married secondly before 1210 or in September, 1210 Raymond-Roupen of Antioch Alix de Lusignan, died young 1197-1205 His second wife was Queen Isabella of Jerusalem, married January, 1198 in Acre. They had three children: Sybille de Lusignan (October/November, 1198-c. 1230 or 1252), married King Leo II of Armenia Mélissende de Lusignan (c. 1200 – aft. 1249), married January 1, 1218 Bohemund IV of Antioch Amalric or Amaury de Lusignan (1201 – February 2, 1205, Acre) References | Amalric_II_of_Jerusalem |@lemmatized amalric:12 ii:2 jerusalem:10 cyprus:5 bear:1 lusignan:13 april:2 king:5 old:2 brother:3 guy:6 family:2 note:1 many:1 crusader:1 son:4 hugh:3 viii:1 campaign:1 holy:1 land:1 expel:1 poitou:1 overlord:1 richard:1 lion:1 hearted:1 murder:1 patrick:1 salisbury:2 earl:1 arrive:1 palestine:1 c:10 possibly:1 later:2 married:1 eschiva:4 daughter:4 baldwin:4 ibelin:5 take:1 service:1 agnes:1 courtenay:1 wife:10 reginald:1 sidon:1 mother:1 iv:3 pro:1 chronicle:1 ernoul:1 claim:2 lover:1 likely:1 attempt:1 separate:1 political:1 influence:1 appoint:1 constable:1 soon:1 marry:10 widow:1 sister:1 sibylla:1 gain:1 kingdom:3 among:1 capture:1 disastrous:1 battle:2 hattin:1 death:2 become:2 first:3 father:1 crown:2 nicosia:2 september:2 october:3 isabella:3 second:2 marriage:2 right:1 acre:4 january:3 able:1 procure:1 five:1 year:2 truce:2 muslim:1 owe:1 struggle:1 saladin:1 inheritance:1 territory:1 disturb:1 raid:1 side:1 renew:1 six:2 die:4 dysentery:1 allegedly:1 bring:1 surfeit:1 white:1 mullet:1 even:1 poison:1 saint:2 jean:2 bury:1 sophia:1 pass:2 maria:1 previous:1 conrad:1 montferrat:1 child:3 éschive:1 winter:1 richilde:1 de:12 bethsan:1 bessan:1 bourgogne:1 third:1 raymond:2 vi:1 toulouse:1 repudiate:1 divorce:1 without:1 issue:2 gauthier:1 montfaucon:1 aka:1 walter:1 montbéliard:1 kill:1 action:1 satalia:1 june:1 bef:1 young:3 hugues:1 héloise:1 helvis:1 firstly:1 eudes:1 dampierre:1 sur:1 salon:1 lord:1 chargey:1 le:1 grey:1 div:1 secondly:1 roupen:1 antioch:2 alix:1 queen:1 three:1 sybille:1 november:1 leo:1 armenia:1 mélissende:1 aft:1 bohemund:1 amaury:1 february:1 reference:1 |@bigram guy_lusignan:1 earl_salisbury:1 battle_hattin:1 de_montfaucon:1 marry_firstly:1 marry_secondly:1 queen_isabella:1 |
3,061 | Alexander_Severus | Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (October 1, 208–March 18, 235 AD), commonly called Alexander Severus, was the last Roman emperor (11 March 222–235) of the Severan dynasty and of the Roman historical period later known as the Principate. Alexander Severus succeeded his cousin, Elagabalus upon the latter's assassination in 222 AD, and was ultimately assassinated himself, marking the epoch event for the Crisis of the Third Century—nearly fifty years of disorder, Roman civil wars, economic chaos, regional rebellions, and external threats that brought the Empire to near-collapse. Alexander Severus was the heir apparent to his cousin, the despised eighteen-year-old Emperor who had been murdered along with his mother by his own guards—and as a mark of contempt, had their remains cast into the Tiber river. He and his cousin were both grandsons of the influential and powerful Julia Maesa, who had arranged for Elagabalus' acclamation as Emperor by the famed Third Gallic Legion. A rumor of Alexander's death circulated, triggering the assassination of Elagabalus. As the last Principate Emperor, Alexander's peacetime reign was prosperous. In military conflict against the rising Sassanid Empire, there are mixed accounts, though the Sassanid threat was checked. However, when campaigning against Germanic tribes of Germania, Alexander Severus apparently alienated his legions by trying diplomacy and bribery, and they assassinated him. Life Alexander was born with the name Marcus Julius Gessius Bassianus Alexianus. Alexander's father, Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus was a Syrian Promagistrate. His mother Julia Avita Mamaea was the second daughter of Julia Maesa and Syrian noble Julius Avitus and maternal aunt of Emperor Elagabalus. He had an elder sister called Theoclia and little is known about her. Alexander's maternal great-aunt was empress Julia Domna (also Maesa's younger sister) and his great-uncle in marriage was emperor Lucius Septimius Severus. Emperors Caracalla and Publius Septimius Geta, were his mother's maternal cousins. In 221, Alexander's grandmother, Maesa, persuaded the emperor to adopt his cousin as successor and make him Caesar and Bassianus changed his name to Alexander. In the following year, on March 11, Elagabalus was murdered, and Alexander was proclaimed emperor by the Praetorians and accepted by the Senate. When Alexander became emperor, he was young, amiable, well-meaning, and entirely under the dominion of his mother. Julia Mamaea was a woman of many virtues, and she surrounded the young emperor with wise counsellors. She watched over the development of her son's character and improved the tone of the administration. On the other hand, she was inordinately jealous. She also alienated the army by extreme parsimony, and neither she nor her son were strong enough to impose military discipline. Mutinies became frequent in all parts of the empire; to one of them the life of the jurist and praetorian praefect Ulpian was sacrificed; another compelled the retirement of Cassius Dio from his command. On the whole, however, the reign of Alexander was prosperous until the rise, in the east, of the Sassanids. Of the war that followed there are various accounts. (Mommsen leans to that which is least favourable to the Romans). According to Alexander's own dispatch to the senate, he gained great victories. At all events, though the Sassanids were checked for the time, the conduct of the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline. The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph in 233. The following year he was called to face German invaders in Gaul, who had breached the Rhine frontier in several places, destroying forts and over-running the countryside. Alexander mustered his forces, bringing legions from the eastern provinces, and crossed the Rhine into Germany on a pontoon bridge. Initially he attempted to buy the German tribes off, so as to gain time. Whether this was a wise policy or not, it caused the Roman legionaries to look down on their emperor as one who was prepared to commit unsoldierly conduct. Herodian says "in their opinion Alexander showed no honourable intention to pursue the war and preferred a life of ease, when he should have marched out to punish the Germans for their previous insolence". These circumstances drove the army to look for a new leader. They chose Gaius Iulius Verus Maximinus, a Thracian soldier who had worked his way up through the ranks. Following the nomination of Maximinus as emperor, Alexander was slain (on either March 18 or March 19 235), together with his mother, in a mutiny of the Legio XXII Primigenia. These assassinations secured the throne for Maximinus. The death of Alexander is considered as the end of the Principate system established by Augustus. Although the Principate continued in theory until the reign of Diocletian, Alexander Severus' death signalled the beginning of the chaotic period known as the Crisis of the Third Century which weakened the empire considerably. Legacy Alexander Severus coin, celebrating Artemis and the Flavian colony of Deultum. Alexander was the last of the Syrian emperors. Under the influence of his mother, he did much to improve the morals and condition of the people. His advisers were men like the famous jurist Ulpian, the historian Cassius Dio and a select board of sixteen senators; a municipal council of fourteen assisted the urban praefect in administering the affairs of the fourteen districts of Rome. The luxury and extravagance that had formerly been so prevalent at the court were put down; the standard of the coinage was raised; taxes were lightened; literature, art and science were encouraged; the lot of the soldiers was improved; and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted for lending money at a moderate rate of interest. In religious matters Alexander preserved an open mind. It is said that he was desirous of erecting a temple to the founder of Christianity, but was dissuaded by the pagan priests. Marriage Alexander married Sallustia Orbiana Augusta in 225, but divorced and exiled her in 227, after her father Seius Sallustius was executed for attempted murder of his emperor. See also Severan dynasty family tree External links Life of Alexander Severus (Historia Augusta at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation) Severus Alexander a site devoted to this emperor Severus Alexander on NumisWiki Coins of Severus Alexander References Lampridius, Alexander Severus Dio Cassius lxxviii.30, lxxix.17, lxxx.1 Herodian vi.1-18 Porrath, Der Kaiser Alex. Sev. (1876) Pauly–Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, ii.2526 foll. (Groebe) RV Nind Hopkins, Cambridge Historical Essays, No. xiv. (1907) | Alexander_Severus |@lemmatized marcus:3 aurelius:1 severus:13 alexander:30 october:1 march:6 ad:2 commonly:1 call:3 last:3 roman:6 emperor:17 severan:2 dynasty:2 historical:2 period:2 later:1 know:3 principate:4 succeed:1 cousin:5 elagabalus:5 upon:1 latter:1 assassination:3 ultimately:1 assassinate:2 mark:2 epoch:1 event:2 crisis:2 third:3 century:2 nearly:1 fifty:1 year:4 disorder:1 civil:1 war:3 economic:1 chaos:1 regional:1 rebellion:1 external:2 threat:2 bring:2 empire:4 near:1 collapse:1 heir:1 apparent:1 despise:1 eighteen:1 old:1 murder:3 along:1 mother:6 guard:1 contempt:1 remains:1 cast:1 tiber:1 river:1 grandson:1 influential:1 powerful:1 julia:5 maesa:4 arrange:1 acclamation:1 famed:1 gallic:1 legion:3 rumor:1 death:3 circulate:1 trigger:1 peacetime:1 reign:3 prosperous:2 military:2 conflict:1 rise:2 sassanid:2 mixed:1 account:2 though:2 check:2 however:2 campaign:1 germanic:1 tribe:2 germania:1 apparently:1 alienate:2 try:1 diplomacy:1 bribery:1 life:4 bear:1 name:2 julius:3 gessius:2 bassianus:2 alexianus:1 father:2 marcianus:1 syrian:3 promagistrate:1 avita:1 mamaea:2 second:1 daughter:1 noble:1 avitus:1 maternal:3 aunt:2 elder:1 sister:2 theoclia:1 little:1 great:3 empress:1 domna:1 also:3 young:3 uncle:1 marriage:2 lucius:1 septimius:2 caracalla:1 publius:1 geta:1 grandmother:1 persuade:1 adopt:1 successor:1 make:1 caesar:1 change:1 following:2 proclaim:1 praetorian:2 accept:1 senate:2 become:2 amiable:1 well:1 meaning:1 entirely:1 dominion:1 woman:1 many:1 virtue:1 surround:1 wise:2 counsellor:1 watch:1 development:1 son:2 character:1 improve:3 tone:1 administration:1 hand:1 inordinately:1 jealous:1 army:3 extreme:1 parsimony:1 neither:1 strong:1 enough:1 impose:1 discipline:2 mutiny:2 frequent:1 part:1 one:2 jurist:2 praefect:2 ulpian:2 sacrifice:1 another:1 compel:1 retirement:1 cassius:3 dio:3 command:1 whole:1 east:1 sassanids:2 follow:2 various:1 mommsen:1 lean:1 least:1 favourable:1 accord:1 dispatch:1 gain:2 victory:1 time:2 conduct:2 show:2 extraordinary:1 lack:1 return:1 rome:2 celebrate:2 triumph:1 face:1 german:3 invader:1 gaul:1 breach:1 rhine:2 frontier:1 several:1 place:1 destroy:1 fort:1 run:1 countryside:1 muster:1 force:1 eastern:1 province:1 cross:1 germany:1 pontoon:1 bridge:1 initially:1 attempt:1 buy:1 whether:1 policy:1 cause:1 legionaries:1 look:2 prepare:1 commit:1 unsoldierly:1 herodian:2 say:2 opinion:1 honourable:1 intention:1 pursue:1 prefer:1 ease:1 punish:1 previous:1 insolence:1 circumstance:1 drive:1 new:1 leader:1 choose:1 gaius:1 iulius:1 verus:1 maximinus:3 thracian:1 soldier:2 work:1 way:1 rank:1 nomination:1 slay:1 either:1 together:1 legio:1 xxii:1 primigenia:1 secure:1 throne:1 consider:1 end:1 system:1 establish:1 augustus:1 although:1 continue:1 theory:1 diocletian:1 signal:1 beginning:1 chaotic:1 weaken:1 considerably:1 legacy:1 coin:2 artemis:1 flavian:1 colony:1 deultum:1 influence:1 much:1 moral:1 condition:1 people:2 adviser:1 men:1 like:1 famous:1 historian:1 select:1 board:1 sixteen:1 senator:1 municipal:1 council:1 fourteen:2 assist:1 urban:1 administer:1 affair:1 district:1 luxury:1 extravagance:1 formerly:1 prevalent:1 court:1 put:1 standard:1 coinage:1 raise:1 tax:1 lighten:1 literature:1 art:1 science:1 encourage:1 lot:1 convenience:1 loan:1 office:1 institute:1 lend:1 money:1 moderate:1 rate:1 interest:1 religious:1 matter:1 preserve:1 open:1 mind:1 desirous:1 erect:1 temple:1 founder:1 christianity:1 dissuade:1 pagan:1 priest:1 marry:1 sallustia:1 orbiana:1 augusta:2 divorce:1 exile:1 seius:1 sallustius:1 execute:1 attempted:1 see:1 family:1 tree:1 link:1 historia:1 lacuscurtius:1 latin:1 text:1 english:1 translation:1 site:1 devote:1 numiswiki:1 reference:1 lampridius:1 lxxviii:1 lxxix:1 lxxx:1 vi:1 porrath:1 der:1 kaiser:1 alex:1 sev:1 pauly:1 wissowa:1 realencyclopadie:1 ii:1 foll:1 groebe:1 rv:1 nind:1 hopkins:1 cambridge:1 essay:1 xiv:1 |@bigram marcus_aurelius:1 alexander_severus:8 severan_dynasty:2 heir_apparent:1 julia_maesa:2 sassanid_empire:1 germanic_tribe:1 maternal_aunt:1 septimius_severus:1 cassius_dio:2 pontoon_bridge:1 attempted_murder:1 external_link:1 historia_augusta:1 dio_cassius:1 pauly_wissowa:1 |
3,062 | Ara_(constellation) | Ara (, genitive Arae Random House Dictionary ) is a southern constellation situated between Scorpius and Triangulum Australe. Its name is Latin for altar. Ara was one of Ptolemy's original 48 Greek constellations, and it is now one of the 88 constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union. Notable features Stars See also: List of stars in Ara Ara's brightest star, β Arae, has an apparent magnitude of 2.9. γ Arae is a double star just south of β. μ Arae is believed to have at least four planets orbiting it, one of which may be rocky in nature. The constellation's stars have no names in Western culture, but the Chinese call α Arae Choo (club or staff), and ε Arae Tso Kang, meaning 'left guard'. Deep sky objects The northwest corner of Ara is crossed by the Milky Way and contains several open clusters and diffuse nebulae. The brightest of the globular clusters, NGC 6397, is 8,200 light-years from our solar system and may be the closest cluster of that kind. Mythology In illustrations, Ara is usually depicted upside down, but sometimes upright with the smoke drifting into the Milky Way. In ancient Greek mythology, Ara was identified as the altar of Lycaon. Lycaon sacrificed a child (according to one legend, it was Arcas) to Zeus on the altar on mount Lycaeus, and immediately after the sacrifice was turned into a wolf, which may have also formed the basis for the myth of the constellation Lupus. In other Greek tales, Ara was identified with the altar of the god of wine, Dionysus, or with that of the centaur Chiron; its original Latin name was Ara Centauri. References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Ara NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Ara Ara Star Tales – Ara | Ara_(constellation) |@lemmatized ara:13 genitive:1 arae:6 random:1 house:1 dictionary:1 southern:1 constellation:7 situate:1 scorpius:1 triangulum:1 australe:1 name:3 latin:2 altar:4 one:4 ptolemy:1 original:2 greek:3 define:1 international:1 astronomical:1 union:1 notable:1 feature:1 star:7 see:1 also:2 list:1 bright:2 β:2 apparent:1 magnitude:1 γ:1 double:1 south:1 μ:1 believe:1 least:1 four:1 planet:2 orbit:1 may:3 rocky:1 nature:1 western:1 culture:1 chinese:1 call:1 α:1 choo:1 club:1 staff:1 ε:1 tso:1 kang:1 mean:1 leave:1 guard:1 deep:2 sky:1 object:1 northwest:1 corner:1 cross:1 milky:2 way:2 contain:1 several:1 open:1 cluster:3 diffuse:1 nebula:1 globular:1 ngc:1 light:1 year:1 solar:1 system:1 close:1 kind:1 mythology:2 illustration:1 usually:1 depict:1 upside:1 sometimes:1 upright:1 smoke:1 drift:1 ancient:1 identify:2 lycaon:2 sacrifice:2 child:1 accord:1 legend:1 arcas:1 zeus:1 mount:1 lycaeus:1 immediately:1 turn:1 wolf:1 form:1 basis:1 myth:1 lupus:1 tale:2 god:1 wine:1 dionysus:1 centaur:1 chiron:1 centauri:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 guide:2 collins:1 london:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:1 nightskyinfo:1 com:1 |@bigram apparent_magnitude:1 milky_way:2 diffuse_nebula:1 globular_cluster:1 cluster_ngc:1 centaur_chiron:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
3,063 | Fine_Gael | Fine Gael – The United Ireland Party, shortened to Fine Gael (, meaning Family of the Irish or Tribe of the Irish, Often anglicised to ; approximate English translation: Family or Tribe of the Irish. ) is the second largest political party in Ireland in terms of parliamentary seat numbers, and the largest in terms of support according to all recent opinion polls. Angus Reid Global Monitor Retrieved on 10 May 2009. An opinion poll in The Irish Times of 14 May 2009 put Fine Gael at 38% and Fianna Fáil at 21%, a 17% difference, the largest difference in the history of the two parties. Prior to late 2008 Fine Gael had only been higher than Fianna Fáil in one poll (April 1983) and then by a single point. It has a membership of 30,000, Fine Gael. Join Fine Gael. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. and is the largest opposition party in the Oireachtas, the Irish parliament. Fine Gael was founded in 1933 following the merger of its parent party Cumann na nGaedhael, the Centre Party and the Army Comrades Association, popularly known as the "Blueshirts", a fascist organisation operating in 1930's Ireland. Gerard O'Connell History of Fine Gael. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. Its origins lie in the struggle for Irish independence and the pro-Treaty side in the Irish Civil War, identifying in particular Michael Collins as the founder of the movement. The Irish Times. Legacy of the Easter Rising. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. Modern Fine Gael describes itself as the party of the "progressive centre" Party Leader , with core values focussed on fiscal rectitude, free enterprise and reward, individual rights and responsibilities. Fine Gael. The party largely conforms to the idea of Christian democracy. See Our Values. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. They are strongly pro-EU integration and opposed to violent Irish republicanism. Fine Gael is Ireland's only party in the European People's Party (EPP); its MEPs sit in the EPP-ED group. The party's youth wing, Young Fine Gael, was formed in 1977 and has approximately four thousand members. RTÉ News. Election 2007 - Youth parties. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. The current party leader is Enda Kenny. He was elected by a secret ballot of the parliamentary party on 5 June 2002. RTÉ News (5 June 2002). Enda Kenny elected Fine Gael leader. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. History Beginnings General Richard Mulcahy as chief of staff of the National Army Following the rise in support for Éamon de Valera's anti-Treaty Fianna Fáil party in the mid-1920s, a new strategy was felt necessary to bolster the pro-Treaty factions which found themselves in opposition. Following from the Army Comrades Association's defence of Cumann na nGaedhael from republican intimidation and attacks, Fine Gael was formed through a merger of the ACA (otherwise known as the Blueshirts), Cumann na nGaedhael and the Centre Party on 3 September 1933. Gerard O'Connell. Eoin O'Duffy. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. Interparty Governments Fine Gael candidates were elected to only thirty-one seats in the 1948 general election, however Fianna Fáil's failure to achieve an overall majority led to the creation of the first Inter-Party Government, made up of an alliance of anti-Fianna Fáil parties, which served between 1948 and 1951. Fine Gael's leader at the time, Richard Mulcahy, was considered too controversial among members of Clann na Poblachta to be Taoiseach due to his role as Chief-of-Staff to the Irish Army in the execution of republicans during the Irish Civil War. University College Dublin Archives. Richard Mulcahy. Retrieved on 2 November 2007. Instead, John A. Costello, a compromise candidate, served as head of the government. Costello also headed the second Inter-Party Government which served between 1954 and 1957. Liam Cosgrave, Minister for External Affairs in the coalition negotiated Ireland's entry into the United Nations in 1955. Dermot Ahern (18 November 2005). The Fiftieth Anniversary of Ireland’s Membership of the United Nations—Looking Forward. Royal Irish Academy. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. In 1957, de Valera and Fianna Fáil were returned to power and Fine Gael returned to opposition. During its period in opposition, the party's Just Society policy statement came into being. These policies came from an emerging social-democratic wing of the party. David Begg (28 February 2004). The Just Society. Irish Congress of Trade Unions. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. In 1966, Fine Gael candidate Tom O'Higgins came within one percent of defeating incumbent Éamon de Valera in the presidential election. As events in Northern Ireland spiralled out of control in the late 1960s, new party leader Liam Cosgrave sought to focus the party's view on its role as protector of the state's institutions, and to neutralise feuding between the party leadership and the centre-left branch of the party. National Coalition (1970s) Fine Gael was returned to government in a National Coalition with the Labour Party in 1973. The coalition was beset by problems from the start, including the oil crisis and escalating violence in Northern Ireland. Peter Barberis, John McHugh, Mike Tyldsley. Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations, p.739. Published by Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0826458149. The resignation of President Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh in 1976 after a confrontation with Minister for Defence Paddy Donegan was also a blow to the credibility of the coalition. In 1977, Fianna Fáil under Jack Lynch won an unprecedented twenty-seat majority in the Dáil, and returned to government. Cosgrave resigned the leadership and was replaced by Garret FitzGerald. FitzGerald became Fine Gael's third Taoiseach, again in a short-lived coalition with Labour between 1981 and February 1982. FitzGerald revived Fine Gael's fortunes to the point where they were five seats behind Fianna Fáil following the November 1982 general election. The party returned to government with Labour. FitzGerald negotiated the Anglo-Irish Agreement with British prime minister Margaret Thatcher in 1985. However, the government struggled to control high unemployment and emigration, and was heavily defeated by Fianna Fáil under Charles Haughey in 1987. Dukes and the Tallaght Strategy John BrutonFitzGerald was replaced as leader by Alan Dukes, who spearheaded the Tallaght Strategy, under which Fine Gael would not oppose economic measures put forward by the minority Fianna Fáil government in the national interest. The Economist (22 June 2006). Charles Haughey: obituary. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. The strategy was an electoral disappointment, and the party gained four seats in the 1989 general election. Dukes resigned the leadership after Fine Gael's Austin Currie finished a distant third behind Mary Robinson and Brian Lenihan in the 1990 presidential election. Bernard A. Cook (New York, London, 2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Published by Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0815340575. He was replaced by John Bruton. As Fianna Fáil had abandoned its core policy of not going into coalition following the 1989 election, Fine Gael found itself in opposition to a Fianna Fáil-Labour government following the general election in 1992. Rainbow Government The government collapsed in 1994, allowing Bruton to become Taoiseach in a Fine Gael-Labour-Democratic Left Rainbow Coalition. The three government parties ran on a united platform in the 1997 election, and Fine Gael gained nine seats. Labour lost heavily however, and Fianna Fáil led by Bertie Ahern came to power in a coalition with the Progressive Democrats. RTÉ Libraries and Archives. 1997 general election. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. Bruton was replaced as leader in 2001 by Michael Noonan, who led the party into its worst-ever general election in 2002; the party lost twenty-three seats, including those of deputy-leader Jim Mitchell and former leader Alan Dukes. RTÉ Libraries and Archives. 2002 general election. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. Noonan resigned as leader as the results of the election were being tallied, and was replaced in a subsequent leadership election by Enda Kenny. Mullingar Accord and 2007 General Election Following the unveiling of the Mullingar Accord, an election pact agreed after the local and European elections in 2004, Fine Gael and the Labour Party increasingly co-operated in the build-up to the 2007 general election, agreeing a vote-transfer pact and plan to go into government together provided the parties had the required number of seats. RTÉ News (6 September 2004). Opposition leaders unveil 'Mullingar Accord'. Retrieved on 1 November 2007. The pact was overwhelmingly endorsed by Labour members at the party's conference in Tralee in May 2005. RTÉ News (28 May 2005). Rabbitte addresses Labour conference. Retrieved on 1 November 2007. Fine Gael director of elections Frank Flannery claimed that the agreement, coupled with the party's strong performance in pre-election opinion polls, could lead to a gain of twenty-eight seats in the election. RTÉ News (14 September 2006). Fine Gael repeats seat gain claim. Retrieved on 1 November 2007. The party gained a total of twenty seats in the election on 24 May 2007, giving the "Alliance for Change" a total of seventy-one seats (seventy six including the Green Party as a potential partner), putting the coalition six seats behind Fianna Fáil. On the first day of the new Dáil, on 14 June 2007, Enda Kenny was nominated for Taoiseach by Fine Gael deputy-leader Richard Bruton and then-Labour leader Pat Rabbitte. He was defeated by incumbent Bertie Ahern and a coalition of Fianna Fáil, the Green Party, the Progressive Democrats and a group of Independents by eighty-nine votes to seventy-six. RTÉ News (14 June 2007). Ahern names new Cabinet. Retrieved on 1 November 2007. Ideology and policies Michael Collins, founding father of the pro-Treaty movement, that would become Fine Gael. Law and Order party Although Ireland's political spectrum is divided along Civil War lines, rather than the traditional European left-right spectrum, Fine Gael is described generally as a Christian-democratic party, with a focus on law and order, enterprise and reward, and fiscal rectitude. As the descendent of the pro-Treaty factions in the Irish Civil War, Fine Gael has a strong affinity with Michael Collins and his legacy. He remains a symbol for the party, and the anniversary of his death is commemorated each year in August. The Hogan Stand (21 September 2005). Michael Collins' view of life in Achill Gaeltacht. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. Economically liberal Fine Gael has, since its inception, been a party of fiscal rectitude, advocating pro-enterprise policies. Newly elected politicians for the party in the Dail have strongly advocated liberal economic policies. Lucinda Creighton and Leo Varadkar in particular have been seen as strong advocates of a more neo-liberal approach to Ireland's economics woes and Ireland's unemployment problems. http://www.lucindacreighton.ie/?cat=9 Varadkar in particular has been a strong proponent of small, indigenous business, advocating that smaller firms should benefit from the government's recapitalisation program http://www.leovaradkar.ie/?p=256 Its finance spokesman, Richard Bruton's proposals have been seen as approaching problems from a pro-enterprise point of view. Its fairer budget website suggests that its solutions are "tough but fair". http://www.fairerbudget.com/alternative.html Other solutions conform generally to conservative government's policies throughout Europe, focusing on cutting numbers in the public sector, while maintaining investment in infrastructure. Fine Gael's proposals have been criticised mostly by smaller political groupings in Ireland, and by some of the trade unions, who have raised the idea that the party's solutions are more conscious of business interests than the interests of the worker. The SIPTU trade union has stated its opposition to Enda Kenny's assertion that the national wage agreement should be suspended. Kenny's comments have support however and the party attributes its significant rise in polls in 2008 to this. Union critises FG on wage agreements position while FG gains 35% in polls- In spite of this perceived opposition to Fine Gael from the left of the Irish political spectrum, the party has never entered into government except with the backing of the Labour Party. Under Kenny the party has also strongly opposed the perceived "rip-off" society that has developed in Ireland, advocating reform of stealth taxes and stamp duty. Fine Gael. 2007 General Election Manifesto. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. Social policies Former Fine Gael logo until April, 2009.Fine Gael has been traditionally conservative in social matters for most of the twentieth century. This was due to the conservative Christian ethos of Irish society during this time. Possibly because of the Celtic tiger, a decline in Sunday church attendance and the rise of international media and social influences, significant opinion polls suggest that support has grown in Ireland for liberalisation. Fine Gael has adapted to these new social influences and while in government in 1996, it legalised divorce in Ireland after a referendum held on the 24th November in 1995. http://electionsireland.org/results/referendum/refresult.cfm?ref=1995R The party has not really taken an explicit position on abortion, however former party leader Michael Noonan established the party's line in 2001 when he instituted a party whip in the Dáil against a vote on a proposed abortion referendum. He found some opposition from within his own party, from Cork South West TD, PJ Sheehan, and then Dublin South-East TD, Frances Fitzgerald showing that opposition to it was not homogeneous within Fine Gael. [Dublin South-East TD, Frances Fitzgerald] The end result saw the party unite after internal debate against the idea of introducing abortion into Ireland. http://www.rte.ie/news/2002/0123/abortion.html Under Enda Kenny, the party has pledged its support for the issue of civil unions in Ireland. Though not going as far as to support same sex marriage, the party ran advertisements in GCN (Gay Community News) advertising its commitments to same-sex couples. Support in the republic for same-sex marriage is estimated at roughly 63%, with 37% against Irish Times Civil Partnership Poll . Polls show that numbers supporting same-sex civil unions are much higher, at 84%. The party supports ending the status of the Irish language as a compulsory subject for the Leaving Certificate in Irish schools. This policy has been criticised by many Irish language activist groups, including Conradh na Gaeilge. Health The Irish health system, being administered centrally by the Health Service Executive, is seen to be poor by comparison to other countries in Europe, ranking outside expected levels at 15th. Criticism of Irish Health Service including rankings - Fine Gael has become the first party in Ireland to break with the system of private health insurance, public medical cards and what it calls the two tiers of the health system and has launched a campaign to see the system reformed. Speaking in favour of the campaign, Fine Gael health spokesman Dr. James Reilly TD stated "Over the last 10 years the health service has become a shambles. We regularly have over 350 people on trolleys in A&E, waiting lists that go on for months, outpatient waiting lists that go on for years and cancelled operations across the country..." Dr. James O' Rehilly comments on health service - Fine Gael launched its Fair Care campaign and website in April, 2009, which states that the health service would be reformed away from a costly ineffective endeavor, into a publicly regulated system where universal health insurance would replace the existing provisions. Fine Gael launch Fair Care Website and campaign - This strategy was criticised by Fianna Fáil Minister for Children, Barry Andrews. The spokesperson for family law and children, Alan Shatter TD, robustly defended its proposals as the only means of reducing public expenditure, and providing a service in Ireland more akin to the German, Dutch and Canadian health systems. International identity The party is a member of the Centrist Democrat International and the European Peoples Party, while it sits with the EPP-ED group in the European Parliament, where it sits with centrist, conservative and Christian democratic parties. Young Fine Gael is a member of the Youth of the European People's Party (YEPP). Pro-European Fine Gael is among the most pro-European integration parties in the Republic of Ireland, having supported the European Constitution National Forum on Europe (26 October 2006). Enda Kenny calls for Unified EU Approach to Immigration. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. , the Lisbon Treaty, and advocating participation in European common defence. National Forum on Europe (3 April 2003). Should we back a pledge to defend others if they come under attack?. Retrieved on 31 October 2007 . Under Enda Kenny, the party has questioned Irish neutrality, with Kenny claiming that "the truth is, Ireland is not neutral. We are merely unaligned." Defined largely by European Affiliations The party is not identified particularly with belonging to any particular ideological platform. Some have inferred from its relationship to European counterparts via the EPP that it belongs on the centre-right Fine Gael - MSN Encarta http://books.google.it/books?id=qps14mSlghcC&pg=PA218&lpg=PA218&dq=fine+gael+social-democratic&source=web&ots=2i4HL3BFX8&sig=8FtrQ61vfx3mghWuJ2EJoJUtKC4&hl=it What Fine Gael needs to do is find its bottom - National News, Frontpage - Independent.ie . Currently, the party conforms generally with European political parties that identify themselves as being Christian-democratic Fine Gael’s European Strategy « EAST WEST EUROPE | Ireland and the Wider Europe, 2008 . Most members in the party are happy with the description of the "the progressive or compassionate centre". Leadership Mayo TD Enda Kenny was elected leader of Fine Gael in a secret ballot of the parliamentary party on 5 June 2002. Kenny defeated Richard Bruton, Phil Hogan and Gay Mitchell in the leadership election, which was triggered by the resignation of Michael Noonan following the 2002 general election. The current deputy-leader of the party is Dublin North Central TD and party Finance spokesperson Richard Bruton. He was preceded as deputy leader by Jim Mitchell. List of party leaders Leader Period ConstituencyEoin O'Duffy 1933–34 None O'Duffy did not hold a seat in the Oireachtas while he was party leader. W. T. Cosgrave 1934–44 Carlow-KilkennyRichard Mulcahy 1944–59 While Mulcahy was a member of the Seanad in 1944, Tom O'Higgins acted as parliamentary party leader. Between 1948 and 1959, John A. Costello served as parliamentary leader. TipperaryJames Dillon 1959–65 MonaghanLiam Cosgrave 1965–77 Dún LaoghaireGarret FitzGerald 1977–87 Dublin South EastAlan Dukes 1987–90 Kildare SouthJohn Bruton 1990–2001 MeathMichael Noonan 2001–02 Limerick EastEnda Kenny 2002–present Mayo Electoral performance In the 2007 general election, Fine Gael gained twenty seats bringing them to a total of fifty-one. The party ran candidates in all forty-three constituencies, and had candidates elected in every constituency except Dublin Central, Dublin Mid West, Dublin North West and Kildare South. In local elections held on 11 June 2004, Fine Gael won 293 seats, an increase of sixteen on 1999, bringing the party within nine seats of Fianna Fáil nationally. ElectionsIreland.org. Local Elections 2004. Retrieved on 31 October 2007. In European elections held on the same day, the party won five seats, becoming the most represented Irish party in the European Parliament. Fine Gael won fourteen seats in Seanad Éireann following elections in 2007, a loss of one from the previous election in 2002. A Fine Gael candidate has never been elected to the office of President of Ireland. The most recent Fine Gael presidential candidate, Mary Banotti, finished second in the 1997 election. In 2004, Fine Gael supported the re-election of President Mary McAleese. General election results YearDáilNo. of seats% of vote1937 9th 48 34.81938 10th 45 33.31943 11th 32 23.11944 12th 30 21.81948 13th 31 19.81951 14th 40 25.71954 15th 50 32.01957 16th 40 26.61961 17th 47 32.01965 18th 47 33.91969 19th 50 33.31973 20th 54 35.11977 21st 43 30.61981 22nd 65 39.21982 (Feb) 23rd 63 37.31982 (Nov) 24th 70 39.21987 25th 50 27.11989 26th 55 29.31992 27th 45 24.51997 28th 54 27.92002 29th 31 22.52007 30th 51 27.3 Front bench PortfolioSpokespersonSinceLeader of the OppositionNorthern IrelandEnda Kenny2002 Deputy Leader of the OppositionFinanceRichard Bruton2002 Justice and Law ReformCharles Flanagan2007 Foreign AffairsBilly Timmins2007 Enterprise, Trade and EmploymentLeo Varadkar2007 HealthJames Reilly2007Environment, Heritage and Local GovernmentPhil Hogan2007Arts, Sport and TourismOlivia Mitchell2007Social, Family Affairs and EqualityOlwyn Enright2007TransportFergus O'Dowd2007Community, Rural and Gaeltacht AffairsMichael Ring2007Agriculture and FoodMichael Creed2007Education and ScienceBrian Hayes2007DefenceJimmy Deenihan2007Immigration and IntegrationDenis Naughten2007ChildrenAlan Shatter2007Communications and Natural ResourcesSimon Coveney2007Chief WhipPaul Kehoe2007 Young Fine Gael Young Fine Gael (YFG) is the youth movement of Fine Gael. It was founded in 1976 by the then leader Garret Fitzgerald. It caters for young people under 30 with an interest in Fine Gael and politics, in cities, towns, parishes and third level colleges throughout Ireland. YFG has the second largest membership of Irish youth political parties, with 4,000 members. YFG is lead by its national executive consisting of eleven members elected on a regional basis, and on a national panel. See also List of political parties in the Republic of Ireland Notes and references Bibliography Nealon's Guide to the 29th Dáil and Seanad (Gill and Macmillan, 2002) (ISBN 0-7171-3288-9) Stephen Collins, "The Cosgrave Legacy" (Blackwater, 1996) (ISBN 0-86121-658-X) Garret FitzGerald, "Garret FitzGerald: An Autobiography" (Gill and Macmillan, 1991) (ISBN 0-7171-1600-X) Jack Jones, In Your Opinion: Political and Social Trends in Ireland through the Eyes of the Electorate (Townhouse, 2001) (ISBN 1-86059-149-3) Maurice Manning, James Dillon: A Biography (Wolfhound, 1999/2000) (ISBN 0-86327-823-X) Stephen O'Byrnes, Hiding Behind a Face: Fine Gael under FitzGerald (Gill and Macmillan: 1986) (ISBN 0-7171-1448-1) Raymond Smith, Garret: The Enigma (Aherlow, 1985) (no ISBN) External links Official website Young Fine Gael | Fine_Gael |@lemmatized fine:64 gael:64 united:4 ireland:26 party:81 shorten:1 mean:2 family:4 irish:27 tribe:2 often:1 anglicise:1 approximate:1 english:1 translation:1 second:4 large:5 political:9 term:2 parliamentary:5 seat:20 number:4 support:11 accord:4 recent:2 opinion:5 poll:9 angus:1 reid:1 global:1 monitor:1 retrieve:23 may:5 time:5 put:3 fianna:17 fáil:17 difference:2 history:3 two:2 prior:1 late:2 high:3 one:6 april:4 single:1 point:3 membership:3 join:1 october:18 opposition:10 oireachtas:2 parliament:3 found:3 follow:9 merger:2 parent:1 cumann:3 na:5 ngaedhael:3 centre:6 army:4 comrades:2 association:2 popularly:1 know:2 blueshirts:2 fascist:1 organisation:1 operating:1 gerard:2 connell:2 origin:1 lie:1 struggle:2 independence:1 pro:9 treaty:6 side:1 civil:7 war:4 identify:3 particular:4 michael:7 collins:5 founder:1 movement:3 legacy:3 easter:1 rise:4 modern:1 describe:2 progressive:4 leader:24 core:2 value:2 focus:4 fiscal:3 rectitude:3 free:1 enterprise:5 reward:2 individual:1 right:3 responsibility:1 largely:2 conform:2 idea:3 christian:5 democracy:1 see:6 strongly:3 eu:2 integration:2 oppose:3 violent:1 republicanism:1 european:16 people:5 epp:4 meps:1 sit:3 ed:2 group:5 youth:5 wing:2 young:6 form:2 approximately:1 four:2 thousand:1 member:9 rté:8 news:9 election:34 current:2 enda:9 kenny:14 elect:8 secret:2 ballot:2 june:7 beginning:1 general:14 richard:7 mulcahy:5 chief:2 staff:2 national:10 éamon:2 de:3 valera:3 anti:2 mid:2 new:6 strategy:6 felt:1 necessary:1 bolster:1 faction:2 find:4 defence:3 republican:2 intimidation:1 attack:2 aca:1 otherwise:1 september:4 eoin:1 duffy:3 interparty:1 government:18 candidate:7 thirty:1 however:5 failure:1 achieve:1 overall:1 majority:2 lead:5 creation:1 first:3 inter:2 make:1 alliance:2 serve:4 consider:1 controversial:1 among:2 clann:1 poblachta:1 taoiseach:4 due:2 role:2 execution:1 university:1 college:2 dublin:8 archive:3 november:8 instead:1 john:5 costello:3 compromise:1 head:2 also:4 liam:2 cosgrave:6 minister:4 external:2 affair:2 coalition:11 negotiate:2 entry:1 nation:2 dermot:1 ahern:4 fiftieth:1 anniversary:2 look:1 forward:2 royal:1 academy:1 return:5 power:2 period:2 society:4 policy:9 statement:1 come:5 emerge:1 social:7 democratic:6 david:1 begg:1 february:2 congress:1 trade:4 union:6 tom:2 higgins:2 within:4 percent:1 defeat:3 incumbent:2 presidential:3 event:1 northern:2 spiral:1 control:2 seek:1 view:3 protector:1 state:4 institution:1 neutralise:1 feuding:1 leadership:6 leave:4 branch:1 labour:11 beset:1 problem:3 start:1 include:5 oil:1 crisis:1 escalate:1 violence:1 peter:1 barberis:1 mchugh:1 mike:1 tyldsley:1 encyclopedia:2 british:2 organization:1 p:2 publish:2 continuum:1 international:4 publishing:1 isbn:9 resignation:2 president:3 cearbhall:1 ó:1 dálaigh:1 confrontation:1 paddy:1 donegan:1 blow:1 credibility:1 jack:2 lynch:1 win:4 unprecedented:1 twenty:5 dáil:4 resign:3 replace:6 garret:5 fitzgerald:11 become:6 third:3 short:1 lived:1 revive:1 fortune:1 five:2 behind:4 anglo:1 agreement:4 prime:1 margaret:1 thatcher:1 unemployment:2 emigration:1 heavily:2 charles:2 haughey:2 duke:4 tallaght:2 brutonfitzgerald:1 alan:3 spearhead:1 would:4 economic:2 measure:1 minority:1 interest:4 economist:1 obituary:1 electoral:2 disappointment:1 gain:7 austin:1 currie:1 finish:2 distant:1 mary:3 robinson:1 brian:1 lenihan:1 bernard:1 cook:1 york:1 london:1 europe:7 since:2 taylor:1 francis:1 bruton:8 abandon:1 go:5 rainbow:2 collapse:1 allow:1 three:3 run:3 platform:2 nine:3 lose:2 bertie:2 democrat:3 library:2 noonan:5 bad:1 ever:1 deputy:5 jim:2 mitchell:3 former:3 result:4 tally:1 subsequent:1 mullingar:3 unveiling:1 pact:3 agree:2 local:4 increasingly:1 co:1 operate:1 build:1 vote:3 transfer:1 plan:1 together:1 provide:2 required:1 unveil:1 overwhelmingly:1 endorse:1 conference:2 tralee:1 rabbitte:2 address:1 director:1 frank:1 flannery:1 claim:3 couple:2 strong:4 performance:2 pre:1 could:1 eight:1 repeat:1 total:3 give:1 change:1 seventy:3 six:3 green:2 potential:1 partner:1 day:2 nominate:1 pat:1 independent:2 eighty:1 names:1 cabinet:1 ideology:1 father:1 law:4 order:2 although:1 spectrum:3 divide:1 along:1 line:2 rather:1 traditional:1 generally:3 descendent:1 affinity:1 remain:1 symbol:1 death:1 commemorate:1 year:3 august:1 hogan:2 stand:1 life:1 achill:1 gaeltacht:2 economically:1 liberal:3 inception:1 advocate:6 newly:1 politician:1 dail:1 lucinda:1 creighton:1 leo:1 varadkar:2 neo:1 approach:3 economics:1 woe:1 http:6 www:4 lucindacreighton:1 ie:4 cat:1 proponent:1 small:3 indigenous:1 business:2 firm:1 benefit:1 recapitalisation:1 program:1 leovaradkar:1 finance:2 spokesman:2 proposal:3 fairer:1 budget:1 website:4 suggest:2 solution:3 tough:1 fair:3 fairerbudget:1 com:1 alternative:1 html:2 conservative:4 throughout:2 cut:1 public:3 sector:1 maintain:1 investment:1 infrastructure:1 criticise:3 mostly:1 grouping:1 raise:1 conscious:1 worker:1 siptu:1 assertion:1 wage:2 suspend:1 comment:2 attribute:1 significant:2 critises:1 fg:2 position:2 spite:1 perceived:2 left:1 never:2 enter:1 except:2 backing:1 rip:1 develop:1 reform:3 stealth:1 tax:1 stamp:1 duty:1 manifesto:1 logo:1 traditionally:1 matter:1 twentieth:1 century:1 ethos:1 possibly:1 celtic:1 tiger:1 decline:1 sunday:1 church:1 attendance:1 medium:1 influence:2 grow:1 liberalisation:1 adapt:1 legalise:1 divorce:1 referendum:3 held:1 electionsireland:2 org:2 refresult:1 cfm:1 ref:1 really:1 take:1 explicit:1 abortion:4 establish:1 institute:1 whip:1 propose:1 cork:1 south:5 west:4 td:7 pj:1 sheehan:1 east:3 france:2 show:2 homogeneous:1 end:2 saw:1 unite:1 internal:1 debate:1 introduce:1 rte:1 pledge:2 issue:1 though:1 far:1 sex:4 marriage:2 advertisement:1 gcn:1 gay:2 community:1 advertising:1 commitment:1 republic:3 estimate:1 roughly:1 partnership:1 much:1 status:1 language:2 compulsory:1 subject:1 certificate:1 school:1 many:1 activist:1 conradh:1 gaeilge:1 health:12 system:6 administer:1 centrally:1 service:6 executive:2 poor:1 comparison:1 country:2 rank:1 outside:1 expect:1 level:2 criticism:1 ranking:1 break:1 private:1 insurance:2 medical:1 card:1 call:2 tier:1 launch:3 campaign:4 speaking:1 favour:1 dr:2 james:3 reilly:1 last:1 shamble:1 regularly:1 trolley:1 e:1 wait:2 list:4 month:1 outpatient:1 cancel:1 operation:1 across:1 rehilly:1 care:2 away:1 costly:1 ineffective:1 endeavor:1 publicly:1 regulate:1 universal:1 exist:1 provision:1 child:2 barry:1 andrew:1 spokesperson:2 shatter:1 robustly:1 defend:2 reduce:1 expenditure:1 akin:1 german:1 dutch:1 canadian:1 identity:1 centrist:2 yepp:1 constitution:1 forum:2 unified:1 immigration:1 lisbon:1 participation:1 common:1 back:1 others:1 question:1 neutrality:1 truth:1 neutral:1 merely:1 unaligned:1 define:1 affiliation:1 particularly:1 belong:2 ideological:1 infer:1 relationship:1 counterpart:1 via:1 msn:1 encarta:1 book:2 google:1 id:1 pg:1 lpg:1 dq:1 source:1 web:1 ots:1 sig:1 hl:1 need:1 bottom:1 frontpage:1 currently:1 conforms:1 wide:1 happy:1 description:1 compassionate:1 mayo:2 defeated:1 phil:1 trigger:1 north:2 central:2 precede:1 constituencyeoin:1 none:1 hold:3 w:1 carlow:1 kilkennyrichard:1 seanad:3 act:1 tipperaryjames:1 dillon:2 monaghanliam:1 dún:1 laoghairegarret:1 eastalan:1 dukes:1 kildare:2 southjohn:1 meathmichael:1 limerick:1 eastenda:1 present:1 bring:2 fifty:1 forty:1 constituency:2 every:1 increase:1 sixteen:1 nationally:1 represented:1 fourteen:1 éireann:1 loss:1 previous:1 office:1 banotti:1 mcaleese:1 yeardáilno:1 feb:1 nov:1 front:1 bench:1 portfoliospokespersonsinceleader:1 oppositionnorthern:1 irelandenda:1 oppositionfinancerichard:1 justice:1 reformcharles:1 foreign:1 affairsbilly:1 employmentleo:1 healthjames:1 heritage:1 governmentphil:1 sport:1 tourismolivia:1 equalityolwyn:1 rural:1 affairsmichael:1 foodmichael:1 sciencebrian:1 integrationdenis:1 natural:1 resourcessimon:1 whippaul:1 yfg:3 cater:1 politics:1 city:1 town:1 parish:1 consisting:1 eleven:1 regional:1 basis:1 panel:1 note:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 nealon:1 guide:1 gill:3 macmillan:3 stephen:2 blackwater:1 x:3 autobiography:1 jones:1 trend:1 eye:1 electorate:1 townhouse:1 maurice:1 manning:1 biography:1 wolfhound:1 byrnes:1 hide:1 face:1 raymond:1 smith:1 enigma:1 aherlow:1 link:1 official:1 |@bigram fine_gael:64 opinion_poll:4 fianna_fáil:17 cumann_na:3 na_ngaedhael:3 epp_ed:2 rté_news:6 enda_kenny:9 richard_mulcahy:3 chief_staff:2 éamon_de:2 de_valera:3 eoin_duffy:1 fiftieth_anniversary:1 presidential_election:2 coalition_fianna:2 garret_fitzgerald:4 short_lived:1 prime_minister:1 margaret_thatcher:1 austin_currie:1 brian_lenihan:1 taylor_francis:1 bertie_ahern:2 http_www:4 twentieth_century:1 electionsireland_org:2 na_gaeilge:1 msn_encarta:1 id_pg:1 pg_lpg:1 lpg_dq:1 web_ots:1 ots_sig:1 sig_hl:1 w_cosgrave:1 seanad_éireann:1 presidential_candidate:1 mary_mcaleese:1 gill_macmillan:3 external_link:1 |
3,064 | Leet | Leet or eleet (), also known as "leetspeak", is an alphabet used primarily on the Internet for the English language. It uses various combinations of ASCII characters to replace Latinate letters. The term is derived from the word "elite", and the usage it describes is a specialized form of symbolic writing. Leet may also be considered a substitution cipher, though many dialects or linguistic varieties exist in different online communities. The term leet is also used as an adjective to describe formidable prowess or accomplishment, especially in the fields of online gaming or in its original usage, computer hacking. History Leet originated within bulletin board systems in the 1980s, Mitchell. An Explanation of l33t Speak. where having "elite" status on a BBS allowed a user access to file folders, games, and special chat rooms. One theory is that it was developed to defeat text filters created by BBS or Internet Relay Chat system operators for message boards to discourage the discussion of forbidden topics, like cracking and hacking. However, creative misspellings and ASCII-art-derived words were also a way to attempt to indicate one was knowledgeable about the culture of computer users. Once the reserve of hackers, crackers, and script kiddies, leet has since entered the mainstream. It is now also used to mock newbies, or newcomers, on web sites, or in gaming communities. Rome. Some consider emoticons and ASCII art, like smiley faces, to be leet, while others maintain that leet consists of only symbolic word encryption. More obscure forms of leet, involving the use of symbol combinations and almost no letters or numbers, continue to be used for its original purpose of encrypted communication. It is also sometimes used as a script language. Orthography One of the hallmarks of leet is its unique approach to orthography, using substitutions of other characters, letters or otherwise, to represent a letter or letters in a word. Sterling, 70. Blashki & Nichol, 80. For more casual use of leet, the primary strategy is to use homoglyphs, symbols that closely resemble (to varying degrees) the letters for which they stand. The symbol chosen is flexible—anything that the reader can make sense of is valid. However, this practice is not extensively used in regular Leet; more often it is seen in situations where the argot (i.e., "secret language") characteristics of the system are required, either to exclude newbies or outsiders in general. Another use for Leet orthographic substitutions is the creation of paraphrased passwords. By using this method, one can create a relatively secure password which would still be easily remembered. Limitations imposed by websites on password length (usually no more than 36) and the characters permitted (usually alphanumeric and underscore) requires less extensive forms of Leet when used in this application. Some examples of leet include: B1FF and n00b, a term for the stereotypical newbie; the l33t programming language; and the webcomic Megatokyo, which contains characters who speak Leet. AB *CD *EFG *HI *JKL *MNO *PQR *ST *UVWXYZ * 4 /\ @ /-\ ^ aye ∂ ci λ Z </code> 6 13 I3 |3 ß P> |: !3 (3 /3 )3 ]3 ¢ < ( { © |) |o ∂ ]) [) I> |> ? T) 0 ð cl 3 & € £ ë [- |=- <code> ]= ph}|=(=I=</code> 6 & (_+ 9 C- gee (γ, (_- cj /-/ [-] ]-[ )-( (-) :-: |~| |-| ]~[ }{ ? }-{ # 1 ! | eye 3y3 ¡ ][ : ] <code> _| _/ ] ¿ </ (/ ʝ </code> |X |< |{ ɮ 1 £ 1_ | |_ lJ ¬ |v| em ]V[ (T) [V] nn //\\//\\ |\/| /\/\ (u) (V) (\/) /|\ ^^ /|/| //. .\\ /^^\ /V\ []\/[] |^^| |\| ^/ //\\// /\/ [\] <\> {\} []\ // [] /V ₪ []\[] ]\[ ~ 0 () oh [] p ¤ Ω |* |o |º |^(o) |> |" ? 9 []D |̊ |7 q þ ¶ ℗ (_,) ()_ 0_ <| 9 O, 2 12 |? /2 I2 |^ |~ lz ® |2 [z |` l2 Я |2 ʁ </code> 5 $ z § ehs es 7 + -|- 1 '][' † M |_| Y3W L| µ \/ √ \\// \/\/ vv '// \\' \^/ (n) \V/ \X/ \|/ \_|_/ \\//\\// \_:_/ (/\) ]I[ LL1 UU Ш ɰ <code> % >< Ж }{ ecks × * )( ex j `/ `( -/ Ψ φ λ Ч ¥ 2 ~/_ % >_ ʒ 7_Please note this table is to be used as a guide and not a full translation tool. Leet is ever-changing and not all replacements will, or can, be included. Morphology Text rendered in leet is often characterized by distinctive, recurring forms. The -xor suffix The meaning of this suffix is parallel with the English -er and -r suffixes (seen in hacker and lesser), in that it derives agent nouns from a verb stem. It is realized in two different forms: -xor and -zor, and , respectively. For example, the first may be seen in the word hax(x)or () and the second in pwnzor (). Additionally, this nominalization may also be inflected with all of the suffixes of regular English verbs. The -age suffix Derivation of a noun from a verb stem is possible by attaching -age to the base form of any verb. Attested derivations are pwnage and speakage. However, Leet provides exceptions; the word leetage is acceptable, referring to actively being leet. Blashki & Nichol, 79. These nouns are often used with a form of "to be" rather than "to have," e.g., "he is pwnage" rather than "he has pwnage". Either is a more emphatic way of expressing the simpler "he pwns," but the former implies that the person is embodying the trait rather than merely possessing it. The -ness suffix Derivation of a noun from an adjective stem is done by attaching -ness to any adjective. This is entirely the same as the English form, except it is used much more often in Leet. Nouns such as lulzness and leetness are derivations using this suffix. Words ending in -ed When forming a past participle ending in -ed, the Leet user may replace the -e with an apostrophe, as was common in poetry of previous centuries, (e.g. "pwned" becomes "pwn'd"). Note that the conventions of Leet allow for some misplaced punctuation, since it is assumed that the user is typing very quickly; therefore the apostrophe may shift its position without changing the word's meaning. The word ending may also be substituted by -t (e.g. pwned becomes pwnt). LeBlanc, 33. Use of the -& suffix Words ending in -and, -anned, -ant, or a similar sound can sometimes be spelled with an ampersand (&) to express the ending sound (e.g. "This is the s&box," "I'm sorry, you've been b&", "&hill/&farm"). This is most commonly used with the word banned. An alternate form of "B&" is "B7", as the ampersand is typed with the "7" key in the standard US keyboard layout. It is often seen in the phrase "IBB7" (in before banned). Use of the "-zorz" suffix Verbs that are generated on the internet (such as pwn) can be inflected by putting "zorz" on the end (generating the word pwnzorz in this example). The -zorz suffix can also be used to strengthen the meaning of the word (pwn means to defeat or to make a fool of; pwnzorz means to really beat or to make a fool of in a large way) Grammar Leet can be pronounced as a single syllable, , rhyming with eat, by way of aphesis of the initial vowel of "elite". It may also be pronounced as two syllables, . Like other hacker slang, Leet enjoys a looser grammar than standard English. The loose grammar, just like loose spelling, encodes some level of emphasis, ironic or otherwise. A reader must rely more on intuitive parsing of Leet to determine the meaning of a sentence rather than the actual sentence structure. In particular, speakers of Leet are fond of verbing nouns, turning verbs into nouns (and back again) as forms of emphasis, e.g. "Austin rocks" is weaker than "Austin roxxorz" (note spelling), which is weaker than "Au5t1N is t3h r0xx0rz" (note grammar), which is weaker than something like "0MFG D00D /\Ü571N 15 T3H l_l83Я 1337 Я0XX0ЯZ". In essence, all of these mean "Austin rocks," not necessarily the other options. Added words and misspellings add to the speaker's enjoyment. Leet, like other hacker slang, employs analogy in construction of new words. For example, if haxored is the past tense of the verb "to hack" (hack → haxor → haxored), then winzored would be easily understood to be the past tense conjugation of "to win," even if the reader had not seen that particular word before. Leet has its own colloquialisms, many of which originated as jokes based on common typing errors, habits of new computer users, or knowledge of Internet culture and history. Blashki & Nichol, 81. Leet is not solely based upon one language or character set. Greek, Russian, Chinese, and other languages have Leet forms, and Leet in one language may use characters from another where they are available. As such, while it may be referred to as a "cipher", a "dialect", or a "language", Leet does not fit squarely into any of these categories. The term leet itself is often written 31337, or 1337, and many other variations. After the meaning of these became widely familiar, 10100111001 came to be used in its place, because it is the binary form of 1337, making it more of a puzzle to interpret. This appears as an in-joke for technical illustrations(a)(b). This Google search finds examples of the two number forms used together on the Web with the name Leet. An increasingly common characteristic of Leet is changing its grammatical usage to be deliberately incorrect. The widespread popularity of deliberate misspelling is similar to the cult following of the "All your base are belong to us" phrase. Indeed, the online and computer communities have been international from their inception, so spellings and phrases typical of non-native speakers are quite common. Vocabulary Many words originally derived from Leet slang have now become part of the modern Internet slang, such as "pwned". The original driving force of new vocabulary in Leet were common misspellings and typing errors such as "teh" (generally considered lolspeak), and intentional misspellings, Blashki & Nichol, 83. especially the "z" at the end of words ("skillz"). Another prominent example of a surviving Leet expression is w00t, an exclamation of joy. New words (or corruptions thereof) may arise from a need to make one's username unique. As any given Internet service reaches more people, the number of names available to a given user is drastically reduced. While many users may wish to have the username "CatLover," for example, in many cases it is only possible for one user to have the moniker. As such, degradations of the name may evolve, such as "C@L0vr." As the Leet cipher is highly dynamic, there is a wider possibility for multiple users to share the "same" name, through combinations of spelling and transliterations. Additionally, leet—the word itself—can be found in the screennames and gamertags of many Internet and video games. Use of the term in such a manner announces a high level of skill, though such an announcement may be seen as baseless hubris. Computer Hope Dictionary. Terminology and common misspellings Warez (nominally ) is a plural shortening of "software", typically referring to pirated software. Phreaking refers to the hacking of telephone systems and other non-Internet equipment. Teh originated as a typographical error of "the", and is sometimes spelled t3h. LeBlanc, 34-35. j00 takes the place of "you", originating from the affricate sound that occurs in place of the palatal approximant, , when you follows a word ending in an alveolar plosive consonant, such as or . Also, from German, is über, which represents a quality of superiority; it usually appears as a prefix attached to adjectives, and is frequently written without the umlaut over the u. Van de Velde & Meuleman. Haxor and suxxor, or suxorz Haxor, and derivations thereof, is Leet for "hacker", LeBlanc, 30; 32. and it is one of the most commonplace examples of the use of the -xor suffix. Suxxor (pronounced suck-zor) is a derogatory term which originated in warez culture and is currently used in multi-user environments such as multiplayer video games and instant messaging; it, like haxor, is one of the early Leet words to use the -xor suffix. Suxxor is a modified version of "sucks" (the phrase “to suck”), and the meaning is the same as the English slang. Its negative definition essentially makes it the opposite of roxxor, and both can be used as a verb or a noun. Kekeke Koreans express the sound of derisive laughter by "keke". Other forms of laughter include "heehee", "hoho", "huhu", "haha", etc. In the written Korean language, hangul, it is written 캐캐, and in Internet discussions or chatting simply ㅋ repeated several times is often used. Since early versions of WarCraft did not support hangul, Korean players would use a romanized spelling—hence, kekeke was born. It is often used in-game as an expression of exaltation or as a form of mockery. Commonly, it is associated with the Starcraft tactic of a Zerg rush, named after the unit for whom the tactic was created. The phrase "Zerg Rush Kekeke!" is sometimes used outside of the game to indicate any form of overwhelming or swarming force. Kekeke is also used as an evil laugh and is used by players using devious tactics and/or playing evil characters. Kekeke is commonly associated with laughs of devious characters in manga, anime, and video games, and has made its way through various translations. The phrase also occurs on the MMORPG World of Warcraft. There are two major factions in the game which 'speak' different languages. All chat text entered by a member of one faction will appear jumbled to a member of the other, and vice versa. As a result, members of the Alliance faction would see "kek" when a member of the Horde faction had typed "lol", while conversely a member of the Horde faction would see "bur" when a member of the Alliance faction had typed "lol". The cipher works a little differently for longer words though, and "hahaha" becomes "kekeke". Such terms have become widely understood amongst World of Warcraft players. This is also a good example of what is known as an easter egg in the game World of Warcraft. The game writers at Blizzard used hundreds of famous phrases and names in populating the game world, and KEK (Orcish for LOL) was intentional. N00b Within Leet, the term n00b, and derivations thereof, is used extensively. The word means and derives from newbie (as in new and inexperienced or uninformed), and is used as a means of segregating the "elite" members of a group from outsiders and tag them as generally unskilled. Owned and pwned Owned and pwn3d both refer to the domination of a player in a video game or argument (rather than just a win), or the successful hacking of a website or computer. LeBlanc, 32-33. As in a common characteristic of Leet, the terms have also been adapted into noun and adjective forms, ownage and pwnage, which can refer to the situation of pwning or to the superiority of its subject (e.g., "He is a very good player. He is pwnage."). Some people pronounce pwn as p'own or poon. Since the letter p on a QWERTY keyboard is adjacent to the letter o, it likely derives from a typographical error of owned. New derivations have surfaced in the form of "pwnt" and "ownt", and these words are usually accompanied by the word "noob." Pr0n Pr0n is Leet slang for pornography. This is a deliberately inaccurate spelling/pronunciation for porn, The Acronym Finder. where a zero is often used to replace the letter O. It is sometimes used in legitimate communications (such as email discussion groups, Usenet, chat rooms, and internet web pages) to circumvent language and content filters, which may reject messages as offensive or spam. The word also helps prevent search engines from associating commercial sites with pornography—which might result in unwelcome traffic. Pr0n is also sometimes spelled backwards (n0rp) to further obscure the meaning to potentially uninformed readers. This can be observed by searching for "n0rp" on a search engine. It can also refer to ASCII art depicting pornographic images, or to photos of the internals of consumer and industrial hardware. Prawn, a spoof of the misspelling, has started to come into use, as well; in Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, a pornographer films his movies on 'Prawn Island'. Conversely, in the RPG Kingdom of Loathing, prawn, referring to a kind of crustacean, is spelled pr0n, leading to the creation of food items such as “pr0n chow mein”. See also Internet culture Internet slang ASCII art Emoticon Typographical error Verlan IDN homograph attack Elite / Elitism Notes References External links 1337 to English Translator and Validation Tool Regular Leet 31337 Converter .Net based leet translator with codecs. L337 Speak Converter Bi-directional Leet Speak Translator. Google in Hacker Language AKA 600673.com Extreme 13370|2 Another 1337 5934} translator (a single Unix command) L33t-5p34K G3n3r@t0r v3r510N 0.6, Leet-speak translation Guide to learning 1337Speak Leet Translator Thë £âmë®ízë® ioyu.com English-to-l33t Translator Search Engine Utilising Leet Title 1337 0x & 074e4 DWORDs (gr8 4 ipv6) Leet Word of the Day Gadget for iGoogle, Yahoo, and RSS | Leet |@lemmatized leet:52 eleet:1 also:19 know:2 leetspeak:1 alphabet:1 use:42 primarily:1 internet:12 english:8 language:12 various:2 combination:3 ascii:5 character:8 replace:3 latinate:1 letter:9 term:9 derive:6 word:28 elite:5 usage:3 describe:2 specialized:1 form:19 symbolic:2 writing:1 may:14 consider:3 substitution:3 cipher:4 though:3 many:7 dialect:2 linguistic:1 variety:1 exist:1 different:3 online:3 community:3 adjective:5 formidable:1 prowess:1 accomplishment:1 especially:2 field:1 gaming:1 original:3 computer:6 hacking:3 history:2 originate:5 within:2 bulletin:1 board:2 system:4 mitchell:1 explanation:1 speak:6 status:1 bb:2 allow:2 user:10 access:1 file:1 folder:1 game:12 special:1 chat:5 room:2 one:11 theory:1 develop:1 defeat:2 text:3 filter:2 create:3 relay:1 operator:1 message:2 discourage:1 discussion:3 forbidden:1 topic:1 like:7 crack:1 hack:3 however:3 creative:1 misspelling:7 art:4 way:5 attempt:1 indicate:2 knowledgeable:1 culture:4 reserve:1 hacker:6 cracker:1 script:2 kiddy:1 since:4 enter:2 mainstream:1 mock:1 newbie:4 newcomer:1 web:3 site:2 rome:1 emoticon:2 smiley:1 face:1 others:1 maintain:1 consists:1 encryption:1 obscure:2 involve:1 symbol:2 almost:1 number:3 continue:1 purpose:1 encrypted:1 communication:2 sometimes:6 orthography:2 hallmark:1 unique:2 approach:1 otherwise:2 represent:2 sterling:1 blashki:4 nichol:4 casual:1 primary:1 strategy:1 homoglyphs:1 symbols:1 closely:1 resemble:1 vary:1 degree:1 stand:1 chosen:1 flexible:1 anything:1 reader:4 make:7 sense:1 valid:1 practice:1 extensively:2 regular:3 often:9 see:9 situation:2 argot:1 e:8 secret:1 characteristic:3 require:2 either:2 exclude:1 outsider:2 general:1 another:4 orthographic:1 creation:2 paraphrased:1 password:3 method:1 relatively:1 secure:1 would:5 still:1 easily:2 remember:1 limitation:1 impose:1 website:2 length:1 usually:4 permit:1 alphanumeric:1 underscore:1 less:2 extensive:1 application:1 example:9 include:3 stereotypical:1 programming:1 webcomic:1 megatokyo:1 contain:1 ab:1 cd:1 efg:1 hi:1 jkl:1 mno:1 pqr:1 st:1 uvwxyz:1 aye:1 ci:1 λ:2 z:4 code:7 ß:1 p:4 ð:1 cl:1 ë:1 ph:1 c:2 gee:1 γ:1 cj:1 eye:1 ʝ:1 x:3 ɮ:1 lj:1 v:7 em:1 nn:1 u:4 oh:1 ω:1 º:1 q:1 þ:1 lz:1 я:1 ʁ:1 ehs:1 es:1 l:1 µ:1 vv:1 n:1 uu:1 ш:1 ɰ:1 ж:1 eck:1 ex:1 j:1 ψ:1 φ:1 ч:1 ʒ:1 note:5 table:1 guide:2 full:1 translation:3 tool:2 ever:1 changing:1 replacement:1 morphology:1 render:1 characterize:1 distinctive:1 recur:1 xor:4 suffix:12 meaning:7 parallel:1 er:1 r:2 agent:1 noun:9 verb:8 stem:3 realize:1 two:4 zor:2 respectively:1 first:1 hax:1 second:1 pwnzor:1 additionally:2 nominalization:1 inflect:2 age:2 derivation:7 possible:2 attach:3 base:5 attest:1 pwnage:5 speakage:1 provide:1 exception:1 leetage:1 acceptable:1 refer:7 actively:1 rather:5 g:6 emphatic:1 express:3 simpler:1 pwns:1 former:1 implies:1 person:1 embody:1 trait:1 merely:1 possess:1 ness:2 entirely:1 except:1 much:1 lulzness:1 leetness:1 end:8 ed:2 past:3 participle:1 apostrophe:2 common:7 poetry:1 previous:1 century:1 pwned:4 becomes:2 pwn:4 convention:1 misplaced:1 punctuation:1 assume:1 type:5 quickly:1 therefore:1 shift:1 position:1 without:2 change:2 substitute:1 pwnt:2 leblanc:4 anned:1 ant:1 similar:2 sound:4 spell:5 ampersand:2 box:1 sorry:1 b:3 hill:1 farm:1 commonly:3 ban:2 alternate:1 key:1 standard:2 keyboard:2 layout:1 phrase:7 zorz:3 generate:2 put:1 pwnzorz:2 strengthen:1 mean:5 fool:2 really:1 beat:1 large:1 grammar:4 pronounce:3 single:2 syllable:2 rhyme:1 eat:1 aphesis:1 initial:1 vowel:1 slang:7 enjoy:1 loose:3 spelling:3 encode:1 level:2 emphasis:2 ironic:1 must:1 rely:1 intuitive:1 parsing:1 determine:1 sentence:2 actual:1 structure:1 particular:2 speaker:3 fond:1 verbing:1 turn:1 back:1 austin:3 rock:2 weak:3 roxxorz:1 something:1 essence:1 necessarily:1 option:1 add:2 enjoyment:1 employ:1 analogy:1 construction:1 new:6 haxored:2 tense:2 haxor:4 winzored:1 understood:2 conjugation:1 win:2 even:1 colloquialism:1 joke:2 typing:1 error:5 habit:1 knowledge:1 solely:1 upon:1 set:1 greek:1 russian:1 chinese:1 available:2 fit:1 squarely:1 category:1 write:4 variation:1 become:4 widely:2 familiar:1 come:2 place:3 binary:1 puzzle:1 interpret:1 appear:3 technical:1 illustration:1 google:2 search:5 find:2 together:1 name:6 increasingly:1 grammatical:1 deliberately:2 incorrect:1 widespread:1 popularity:1 deliberate:1 cult:1 following:1 belong:1 indeed:1 international:1 inception:1 typical:1 non:2 native:1 quite:1 vocabulary:2 originally:1 part:1 modern:1 driving:1 force:2 teh:2 generally:2 lolspeak:1 intentional:2 skillz:1 prominent:1 survive:1 expression:2 exclamation:1 joy:1 corruption:1 thereof:3 arise:1 need:1 username:2 give:2 service:1 reach:1 people:2 drastically:1 reduce:1 wish:1 catlover:1 case:1 moniker:1 degradation:1 evolve:1 highly:1 dynamic:1 wider:1 possibility:1 multiple:1 share:1 transliteration:1 screennames:1 gamertags:1 video:4 manner:1 announce:1 high:1 skill:1 announcement:1 baseless:1 hubris:1 hope:1 dictionary:1 terminology:1 warez:2 nominally:1 plural:1 shortening:1 software:2 typically:1 pirate:1 phreaking:1 refers:1 telephone:1 equipment:1 typographical:3 spelled:2 take:1 affricate:1 occur:2 palatal:1 approximant:1 follow:1 alveolar:1 plosive:1 consonant:1 german:1 über:1 quality:1 superiority:2 prefix:1 frequently:1 umlaut:1 van:1 de:1 velde:1 meuleman:1 suxxor:3 suxorz:1 commonplace:1 pronounced:1 suck:3 derogatory:1 currently:1 multi:1 environment:1 multiplayer:1 instant:1 messaging:1 early:2 modified:1 version:2 negative:1 definition:1 essentially:1 opposite:1 roxxor:1 kekeke:6 koreans:1 derisive:1 laughter:2 keke:1 heehee:1 hoho:1 huhu:1 haha:1 etc:1 korean:2 hangul:2 캐캐:1 simply:1 ㅋ:1 repeat:1 several:1 time:1 warcraft:4 support:1 player:5 romanized:1 hence:1 bear:1 exaltation:1 mockery:1 associate:3 starcraft:1 tactic:3 zerg:2 rush:2 unit:1 used:1 outside:1 overwhelm:1 swarm:1 evil:2 laugh:2 devious:2 play:1 manga:1 anime:1 mmorpg:1 world:4 major:1 faction:6 member:7 jumble:1 vice:2 versa:1 result:2 alliance:2 kek:2 horde:2 lol:3 conversely:2 bur:1 work:1 little:1 differently:1 long:1 hahaha:1 amongst:1 good:2 easter:1 egg:1 writer:1 blizzard:1 hundred:1 famous:1 populate:1 orcish:1 inexperienced:1 uninformed:2 segregate:1 group:2 tag:1 unskilled:1 domination:1 argument:1 successful:1 adapt:1 ownage:1 pwning:1 subject:1 poon:1 qwerty:1 adjacent:1 likely:1 surface:1 ownt:1 accompany:1 noob:1 pornography:2 inaccurate:1 pronunciation:1 porn:1 acronym:1 finder:1 zero:1 legitimate:1 email:1 usenet:1 page:1 circumvent:1 content:1 reject:1 offensive:1 spam:1 help:1 prevent:1 engine:3 commercial:1 might:1 unwelcome:1 traffic:1 backwards:1 potentially:1 observe:1 depict:1 pornographic:1 image:1 photo:1 internals:1 consumer:1 industrial:1 hardware:1 prawn:3 spoof:1 start:1 well:1 grand:1 theft:1 auto:1 city:1 pornographer:1 film:1 movie:1 island:1 rpg:1 kingdom:1 loathing:1 kind:1 crustacean:1 lead:1 food:1 item:1 chow:1 mein:1 verlan:1 idn:1 homograph:1 attack:1 elitism:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 translator:6 validation:1 converter:2 net:1 codecs:1 bi:1 directional:1 aka:1 com:2 extreme:1 unix:1 command:1 learn:1 thë:1 âmë:1 ízë:1 ioyu:1 utilise:1 title:1 dwords:1 day:1 gadget:1 igoogle:1 yahoo:1 |@bigram substitution_cipher:1 bulletin_board:1 file_folder:1 chat_room:2 relay_chat:1 smiley_face:1 closely_resemble:1 noun_adjective:2 past_participle:1 keyboard_layout:1 past_tense:2 hack_hack:1 typographical_error:3 sometimes_spelled:2 palatal_approximant:1 alveolar_plosive:1 de_velde:1 instant_messaging:1 manga_anime:1 vice_versa:1 easter_egg:1 qwerty_keyboard:1 grand_theft:1 theft_auto:1 chow_mein:1 external_link:1 bi_directional:1 |
3,065 | Edda | This page refers to the Eddur, poems and tales of Norse Mythology. For Edda, the ancestress of serfs in the Rígsthula, see Ríg. For the Hungarian rock group, see Edda művek. The term Edda (Old Norse Edda, plural Eddur) applies to the Old Norse Poetic Edda and Prose Edda, both of which were written down in Iceland during the 13th century. They are our main sources of medieval Norse mythology and skaldic tradition in Iceland. Some of the older poems included may predate the date of their recording by several centuries, establishing continuity with the Viking Age. Etymology There are several theories concerning the origins of the word edda. One theory holds that it is identical to the word that seems to mean "great-grandmother". (See Ríg.) Another theory holds that edda derives from Old Norse óðr, "poetry." A third is that it means "the book of Oddi", Oddi being the place where students (including [[Snorri Sturluson The most plausible idea is that the word was coined as a diminutive of Latin "edo" (I compose [poetry]) in imitation of Old Icelandic "kredda" (superstition), which is derived from Latin "credo" (creed, literally 'I believe'). The very word Edda may well be a later corruption in Proto-Germanic as a cognate of the ancient Sanskrit word Veda (literally 'knowledge'). The Poetic Edda The Poetic Edda, also known as Sæmundar Edda or the Elder Edda, is a collection of Old Norse poems from the Icelandic medieval manuscript Codex Regius ('The King's Manuscript'). Along with Snorri's Edda the Poetic Edda is the most important source on Norse mythology and Germanic heroic legends. The first part of the Codex Regius preserves poems that narrate the creation and destruction of the Old Norse mythological world as well as individual myths about gods such as Odin, Thor and Heimdall. The poems in the second part narrate legends about heroes and heroines such as Sigurd the Dragonslayer, Brynhildr and Gunnar. The Codex Regius was written down in the 13th century but nothing is known of its whereabouts until 1643 when it came into the possession of Brynjólfur Sveinsson, then Bishop of Skálholt. At that time versions of Snorri's Edda were well known in Iceland but scholars speculated that there once was another Edda - an Elder Edda - which contained the pagan poems Snorri quotes in his book. When the Codex Regius was discovered it seemed that this speculation had proven correct. Brynjólfur attributed the manuscript to Sæmundr the Learned, a larger-than-life 12th century Icelandic priest. While this attribution is rejected by modern scholars the name Sæmundar Edda is still sometimes encountered. Bishop Brynjólfur sent the Codex Regius as a present to King Frederick III of Denmark, hence the name. For centuries it was stored in the Royal Library in Copenhagen but in 1971 it was returned to Iceland. The Prose Edda The Younger Edda, known also as the Prose Edda or Snorri's Edda is an Icelandic manual of poetics which also contains many mythological stories. Its purpose was to enable Icelandic poets and readers to understand the subtleties of alliterative verse, and to grasp the mythological allusions behind the many kennings that were used in skaldic poetry. It was written by the Icelandic scholar and historian Snorri Sturluson around 1220. It survives in seven main manuscripts, written down from about 1300 to about 1600. The Prose Edda consists of a Prologue and three separate books: the Gylfaginning, concerning the gods' creation and destruction, the Skáldskaparmál, a dialogue between Ægir, the god of the sea and Bragi, the god of poetry, and the Háttatal, a demonstration of verse forms used in Norse mythology. See also Völuspá Poetic Edda Prose Edda External links The Poetic Edda, translation: Henry Adams Bellows, 1936 The Prose Edda, translation: Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur, 1916 The Elder Eddas and Younger Eddas, 1906 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & PDF format) Translation of the Elder Eddas: Benjamin Thorpe Translation of the Younger Eddas: I. A. Blackwell Poetic Edda (in Old Norse) & Poetic Edda, translation: Henry Adams Bellows, 1936 Snorra Edda (Prose Edda in Old Norse) & Prose Edda, translation: Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur, 1916 | Edda |@lemmatized page:1 refer:1 eddur:2 poem:5 tale:1 norse:11 mythology:4 edda:37 ancestress:1 serf:1 rígsthula:1 see:4 ríg:2 hungarian:1 rock:1 group:1 művek:1 term:1 old:9 plural:1 apply:1 poetic:8 prose:8 write:4 iceland:4 century:5 main:2 source:2 medieval:2 skaldic:2 tradition:1 include:2 may:2 predate:1 date:1 recording:1 several:2 establish:1 continuity:1 viking:1 age:1 etymology:1 theory:3 concern:2 origin:1 word:5 one:1 hold:2 identical:1 seem:2 mean:2 great:1 grandmother:1 another:2 derives:1 óðr:1 poetry:4 third:1 book:3 oddi:2 place:1 student:1 snorri:6 sturluson:2 plausible:1 idea:1 coin:1 diminutive:1 latin:2 edo:1 compose:1 imitation:1 icelandic:6 kredda:1 superstition:1 derive:1 credo:1 creed:1 literally:2 believe:1 well:3 late:1 corruption:1 proto:1 germanic:2 cognate:1 ancient:1 sanskrit:1 veda:1 knowledge:1 also:4 know:4 sæmundar:2 elder:4 collection:1 manuscript:4 codex:5 regius:5 king:2 along:1 important:1 heroic:1 legend:1 first:1 part:2 preserve:1 poems:1 narrate:2 creation:2 destruction:2 mythological:3 world:1 individual:1 myth:1 god:4 odin:1 thor:1 heimdall:1 second:1 legends:1 hero:1 heroine:1 sigurd:1 dragonslayer:1 brynhildr:1 gunnar:1 nothing:1 whereabouts:1 come:1 possession:1 brynjólfur:3 sveinsson:1 bishop:2 skálholt:1 time:1 version:1 scholar:3 speculate:1 contain:2 pagan:1 quote:1 discover:1 speculation:1 prove:1 correct:1 attribute:1 sæmundr:1 learn:1 large:1 life:1 priest:1 attribution:1 reject:1 modern:1 name:2 still:1 sometimes:1 encounter:1 send:1 present:1 frederick:1 iii:1 denmark:1 hence:1 store:1 royal:1 library:2 copenhagen:1 return:1 young:3 manual:1 poetics:1 many:2 story:1 purpose:1 enable:1 poet:1 reader:1 understand:1 subtlety:1 alliterative:1 verse:2 grasp:1 allusion:1 behind:1 kenning:1 use:2 historian:1 around:1 survive:1 seven:1 consist:1 prologue:1 three:1 separate:1 gylfaginning:1 skáldskaparmál:1 dialogue:1 ægir:1 sea:1 bragi:1 háttatal:1 demonstration:1 form:1 völuspá:1 external:1 link:1 translation:6 henry:2 adam:2 bellow:2 arthur:2 gilchrist:2 brodeur:2 searchable:1 facsimile:1 university:1 georgia:1 djvu:1 pdf:1 format:1 benjamin:1 thorpe:1 blackwell:1 snorra:1 |@bigram norse_mythology:4 poetic_edda:8 edda_prose:3 prose_edda:8 snorri_sturluson:2 proto_germanic:1 edda_poetic:2 elder_edda:4 codex_regius:5 odin_thor:1 hero_heroine:1 edda_snorri:1 alliterative_verse:1 skaldic_poetry:1 external_link:1 adam_bellow:2 arthur_gilchrist:2 searchable_facsimile:1 library_djvu:1 benjamin_thorpe:1 |
3,066 | Empiricism | In philosophy, empiricism is a theory of knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from experience. Empiricism is one of several competing views about how we know "things," part of the branch of philosophy called epistemology, or "the Theory of Knowledge". Empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, while discounting the notion of innate ideas (except in so far as these might be inferred from empirical reasoning, as in the case of genetic predisposition). In the philosophy of science, empiricism emphasizes those aspects of scientific knowledge that are closely related to evidence, especially as discovered in experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world, rather than resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation. Hence, science is considered to be methodologically empirical in nature. The term "empiricism" has a dual etymology. It comes from the Greek word εμπειρισμός, the Latin translation of which is experientia, from which we derive the word experience. It also derives from a more specific classical Greek and Roman usage of empiric, referring to a physician whose skill derives from practical experience as opposed to instruction in theory. Sini, Carlo (2004), "Empirismo", in Gianni Vattimo et al. (eds.), Enciclopedia Garzanti della Filosofia. Philosophical usage John Locke, founder of British empiricism The term "empirical" was originally used to refer to certain ancient Greek practitioners of medicine who rejected adherence to the dogmatic doctrines of the day, preferring instead to rely on the observation of phenomena as perceived in experience. Sini, Carlo. "Empirismo" in Enciclopedia Garzanti della Filosofia (ed.) Gianni Vattimo et al. 2004 The notion of tabula rasa ("clean slate" or "blank tablet") dates back to Aristotle, and was developed into an elaborate theory by Avicenna and demonstrated as a thought experiment by Ibn Tufail. The doctrine of empiricism was later explicitly formulated by John Locke in the 17th century. He argued that the mind is a tabula rasa (Locke used the words "white paper") on which experiences leave their marks. Such empiricism denies that humans have innate ideas or that anything is knowable without reference to experience. According to the empiricist view, for any knowledge to be properly inferred or deduced, it is to be gained ultimately from one's sense-based experience. Markie, P. (2004), "Rationalism vs. Empiricism" in Edward D. Zalta (ed.), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Eprint. As a historical matter, philosophical empiricism is commonly contrasted with the philosophical school of thought known as "rationalism" which, in very broad terms, asserts that much knowledge is attributable to reason independently of the senses. However, this contrast is today considered to be an extreme oversimplification of the issues involved, because the main continental rationalists (Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz) were also advocates of the empirical "scientific method" of their day. Furthermore, Locke, for his part, held that some knowledge (e.g. knowledge of God's existence) could be arrived at through intuition and reasoning alone. Some important philosophers commonly associated with empiricism include Aristotle, Alhazen, Avicenna, Ibn Tufail, Robert Grosseteste, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, George Berkeley, David Hume, John Stuart Mill, Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari. Scientific usage A central concept in science and the scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical, or empirically based, that is, dependent on evidence that is observable by the senses. It is differentiated from the philosophic usage of empiricism by the use of the adjective "empirical" or the adverb "empirically". Empirical is used in conjunction with both the natural and social sciences, and refers to the use of working hypotheses that are testable using observation or experiment. In this sense of the word, scientific statements are subject to and derived from our experiences or observations. In a second sense "empirical" in science and statistics may be synonymous with "experimental". In this sense, an empirical result is an experimental observation. The term semi-empirical is sometimes used to describe theoretical methods which make use of basic axioms, established scientific laws, and previous experimental results in order to engage in reasoned model building and theoretical inquiry. History Early empiricism The theory of tabula rasa was developed by Avicenna and demonstrated as a thought experiment by his Avicennian successor Ibn Tufail. Aristotle writes of the unscribed tablet, or tabula rasa, in his treatise Περι Ψυχης (De Anima or On the Soul). What the mind thinks must be in it in the same sense as letters are on a tablet (grammateion) which bears no actual writing (grammenon); this is just what happens in the case of the mind. (Aristotle, On the Soul, 3.4.430a1). Besides some arguments by the Stoics and Peripatetics, the Aristotelian notion of the mind as a blank slate went much unnoticed for more than 1000 years. In the 11th century, the theory of tabula rasa was developed more clearly by the Persian philosopher and physician, Ibn Sina (known as "Avicenna" in the Western world). He argued that the "human intellect at birth is rather like a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know" and that knowledge is attained through "empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" which is developed through a "syllogistic method of reasoning; observations lead to propositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts." He further argued that the intellect itself "possesses levels of development from the material intellect (al-‘aql al-hayulani), that potentiality that can acquire knowledge to the active intellect (al-‘aql al-fa‘il), the state of the human intellect in conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge." Sajjad H. Rizvi (2006), Avicenna/Ibn Sina (CA. 980-1037), Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy In the 12th century, the Andalusian-Arabian philosopher and novelist Ibn Tufail (known as "Abubacer" or "Ebn Tophail" in the West) demonstrated the theory of tabula rasa as a thought experiment through his Arabic philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a desert island, through experience alone. The Latin translation of his philosophical novel, entitled Philosophus Autodidactus, published by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671, had an influence on John Locke's formulation of tabula rasa in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-62, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598 In the 13th century, St. Thomas Aquinas brought the Aristotelian and Avicennian notions to the forefront of Christian thought. These notions sharply contrasted with the previously held Platonic notions of the human mind as an entity that pre-existed somewhere in the heavens, before being sent down to join a body here on Earth (see Plato's Phaedo and Apology, as well as others). St. Bonaventure (also 13th century) was one of Aquinas' fiercest intellectual opponents, offering some of the strongest arguments towards the Platonic idea of the mind. In the early 17th century, the Polish alchemist and philosopher Michał Sędziwój, who died four years after John Locke was born, asserted in one of his treatises that "experience is the sole teacher of truth". http://portalwiedzy.onet.pl/4868,12799,1483961,1,czasopisma.html | Praktyk i mistyk, Andrzej Datko, Wiedza i życie 2008-04-28 (in Polish) British empiricism Earlier concepts of the existence of "innate ideas" were the subject of debate between the Continental rationalists and the British empiricists in the 17th century through the late 18th century. John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume were the primary exponents of empiricism. Responding to the continental "rationalism" most prominently defended by René Descartes (a type of philosophical approach which should not be confused with rationalism generally), John Locke (1632-1704), writing in the late 17th century, in his An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), proposed a very influential view wherein the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori, i.e., based upon experience. Locke is famously attributed with holding the proposition that the human mind is a tabula rasa, a "blank tablet," in Locke's words "white paper," on which the experiences derived from sense impressions as a person's life proceeds are written. There are two sources of our ideas: sensation and reflection. In both cases, a distinction is made between simple and complex ideas. The former are unanalysable, and are broken down into primary and secondary qualities. Complex ideas are those which combine simple ones and are divided into substances, modes and relations. According to Locke, our knowledge of things is a perception of ideas that are in accordance or discordance with each other, which is very different from the quest for certainty of Descartes. Bishop George Berkeley A generation later, the Irish Anglican bishop, George Berkeley (1685-1753), determined that Locke's view immediately opened a door that would lead to eventual atheism. In response to Locke, he put forth in his Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710) a different, very extreme form of empiricism in which things only exist either as a result of their being perceived, or by virtue of the fact that they are an entity doing the perceiving. (For Berkeley, God fills in for humans by doing the perceiving whenever humans are not around to do it). In his text Alciphron, Berkeley maintained that any order humans may see in nature is the language or handwriting of God. Thornton, Stephen (1987) "Berkeley's Theory of Reality" in The Journal of the Limerick Philosophical Society Berkeley's approach to empiricism would later come to be called subjective idealism. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "George Berkeley", vol. 1, p. 297. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Empiricism", vol. 2, p. 503. The Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) added to the empiricist viewpoint an extreme skepticism that he brought to bear against the accumulated arguments and counterarguments of Descartes, Locke and Berkeley, among others. Hume argued in keeping with the empiricist view that all knowledge derives from sense experience. In particular, he divided all of human knowledge into two categories: relations of ideas and matters of fact (see also Kant's analytic-synthetic distinction). Mathematical and logical propositions (e.g. "that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides") are examples of the first, while propositions involving some contingent observation of the world (e.g. "the sun rises in the East") are examples of the second. All of people's "ideas", in turn, are derived from their "impressions". For Hume, an "impression" corresponds roughly with what we call a sensation. To remember or to imagine such impressions is to have an "idea". Ideas are therefore the faint copies of sensations. David Hume's empiricism led to numerous philosophical schools Via his skeptical arguments he maintained that all knowledge, even the most basic beliefs about the natural world, cannot be conclusively established by reason. Rather, he maintained, our beliefs are more a result of accumulated habits, developed in response to accumulated sense experiences. Among his many arguments Hume also added another important slant to the debate about scientific method — that of the problem of induction. Hume argued that it requires inductive reasoning to arrive at the premises for the principle of inductive reasoning, and therefore the justification for inductive reasoning is a circular argument. Among Hume's conclusions regarding the problem of induction is that there is no certainty that the future will resemble the past. Thus, as a simple instance posed by Hume, we cannot know with certainty by inductive reasoning that the sun will continue to rise in the East, but instead come to expect it to do so because it has repeatedly done so in the past. Hume, D. "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding", in Enquiries Concerning the Human Understanding and Concerning the Principles of Morals, 2nd edition, L.A. Selby-Bigge (ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1902. (Orig. 1748). Hume concluded that such things as belief in an external world and belief in the existence of the self were not rationally justifiable. According to Hume these beliefs were to be accepted nonetheless because of their profound basis in instinct and custom. Hume's lasting legacy, however, was the doubt that his skeptical arguments cast on the legitimacy of inductive reasoning, allowing many skeptics who followed to cast similar doubt. Phenomenalism Most of Hume's followers have disagreed with his conclusion that belief in an external world is rationally unjustifiable, contending that Hume's own principles implicitly contained the rational justification for such a belief, that is, beyond being content to let the issue rest on human instinct, custom and habit. Morick, H. (1980), Challenges to Empiricism, Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis, IN. According to an extreme empiricist theory known as Phenomenalism, anticipated by the arguments of both Hume and George Berkeley, a physical object is a kind of construction out of our experiences. Marconi, D (2004), "Fenomenismo"', in Gianni Vattimo and Gaetano Chiurazzi (eds.), L'Enciclopedia Garzanti di Filosofia, 3rd edition, Garzanti, Milan, Italy. Phenomenalism is the view that physical objects, properties, events (whatever is physical) are reducible to mental objects, properties, events. Ultimately, only mental objects, properties, events, exist — hence the closely related term subjective idealism. By the phenomenalistic line of thinking, to have a visual experience of a real physical thing is to have an experience which belongs to a certain kind of group of experiences. This type of set of experiences possesses a constancy and coherence that is lacking in the set of experiences of which hallucinations, for example, are a part. As John Stuart Mill put it in the mid-19th century, matter is the "permanent possibility of sensation". Mill, J.S., "An Examination of Sir William Rowan Hamilton's Philosophy", in A.J. Ayer and Ramond Winch (eds.), British Empirical Philosophers, Simon and Schuster, New York, NY, 1968. Mill's empiricism went a significant step beyond Hume in still another respect: in maintaining that induction is necessary for all meaningful knowledge including mathematics. As summarized by D.W. Hamlin: Mill's empiricism thus held that knowledge of any kind is not from direct experience but an inductive inference from direct experience. Wilson, Fred (2005), "John Stuart Mill", in Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The problems other philosophers have had with Mill's position center around the following issues: Firstly, Mill's formulation encounters difficulty when it describes what direct experience is by differentiating only between actual and possible sensations. This misses some key discussion concerning conditions under which such "groups of permanent possibilities of sensation" might exist in the first place. Berkeley put God in that gap; the phenomenalists, including Mill, essentially left the question unanswered. In the end, lacking an acknowledgement of an aspect of "reality" that goes beyond mere "possibilities of sensation", such a position leads to a version of subjective idealism. Questions of how floor beams continue to support a floor while unobserved, how trees continue to grow while unobserved and untouched by human hands, etc, remain unanswered, and perhaps unanswerable in these terms. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Phenomenalism", vol. 6, p. 131. Secondly, Mill's formulation leaves open the unsettling possibility that the "gap-filling entities are purely possibilities and not actualities at all". Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Phenomenalism", vol. 6, p. 131. Thirdly, Mill's position, by calling mathematics merely another species of inductive inference, misapprehends mathematics. It fails to fully consider the structure and method of mathematical science, the products of which are arrived at through an internally consistent deductive set of procedures which do not, either today or at the time Mill wrote, fall under the agreed meaning of induction. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Empiricism", vol. 2, p. 503. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Phenomenalism", vol. 6, p. 131. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Axiomatic Method", vol. 5, p.188-189, 191ff. The phenomenalist phase of post-Humean empiricism ended by the 1940s, for by that time it had become obvious that statements about physical things could not be translated into statements about actual and possible sense data. Bolender, John (1998), "Factual Phenomenalism: A Supervenience Theory"', SORITES, no. 9, pp. 16–31. If a physical object statement is to be translatable into a sense-data statement, the former must be at least deducible from the latter. But it came to be realized that there is no finite set of statements about actual and possible sense-data from which we can deduce even a single physical-object statement. Remember that the translating or paraphrasing statement must be couched in terms of normal observers in normal conditions of observation. There is, however, no finite set of statements that are couched in purely sensory terms and which can express the satisfaction of the condition of the presence of a normal observer. According to phenomenalism, to say that a normal observer is present is to make the hypothetical statement that were a doctor to inspect the observer, the observer would appear to the doctor to be normal. But, of course, the doctor himself must be a normal observer. If we are to specify this doctor's normality in sensory terms, we must make reference to a second doctor who, when inspecting the sense organs of the first doctor, would himself have to have the sense data a normal observer has when inspecting the sense organs of a subject who is a normal observer. And if we are to specify in sensory terms that the second doctor is a normal observer, we must refer to a third doctor, and so on (also see the third man). Berlin, Isaiah (2004), The Refutation of Phenomenalism, Isaiah Berlin Virtual Library. Chisolm, R. (1948), "The Problem of Empiricism", Journal of Philosophy 45, 512–517. Logical empiricism Logical empiricism (aka logical positivism or neopositivism) was an early 20th century attempt to synthesize the essential ideas of British empiricism (e.g. a strong emphasis on sensory experience as the basis for knowledge) with certain insights from mathematical logic that had been developed by Gottlob Frege and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Some of the key figures in this movement were Otto Neurath, Moritz Schlick and the rest of the Vienna Circle, along with A.J. Ayer, Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach. The neopositivists subscribed to a notion of philosophy as the conceptual clarification of the methods, insights and discoveries of the sciences. They saw in the logical symbolism elaborated by Frege (d. 1925) and Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) a powerful instrument which could be used to rationally reconstruct all scientific discourse into an ideal, logically perfect, language which would be free of the ambiguities and deformations of natural language. This gave rise to what they saw as metaphysical pseudoproblems and other conceptual confusions. By combining Frege's thesis that all mathematical truths are logical with the early Wittgenstein's idea that all logical truths are mere linguistic tautologies, they arrived at a twofold classification of all propositions: the analytic (a priori) and the synthetic (a posteriori). Achinstein, Peter, and Barker, Stephen F. (1969), The Legacy of Logical Positivism: Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. On this basis, they formulated a strong principle of demarcation between sentences which have sense and those which do not: the so-called verification principle. Any sentence which is not purely logical or for which there is no method of verification was to be considered devoid of meaning. As a result, most metaphysical, ethical, aesthetic and other traditional philosophical problems came to be considered pseudoproblems. Barone, Francesco (1986), Il neopositivismo logico, Laterza, Roma Bari. The extreme empiricism of the neopositivists was expressed, at least before the 1930s, in the idea that any genuinely synthetic assertion must be reducible to an ultimate assertion (or set of ultimate assertions) which expresses direct observations or perceptions. In later years, Carnap and Neurath abandoned this sort of phenomenalism in favor of a rational reconstruction of knowledge into the language of an objective spatio-temporal physics. That is, instead of translating sentences about physical objects into sense-data, such sentences were to be translated into so-called protocol sentences, for example, "X at location Y and at time T observes such and such." Rescher, Nicholas (1985), The Heritage of Logical Positivism, University Press of America, Lanham, MD. The central theses of logical positivism (verificationism, the analytic-synthetic distinction, reductionism, etc.) came under sharp attack after World War 2 by thinkers such as Nelson Goodman, W.V. Quine, Hilary Putnam, Karl Popper, and Richard Rorty. By the late 1960s, it had become evident to most philosophers that the movement had pretty much run its course, though its influence is still significant among contemporary analytic philosophers such as Michael Dummett and other anti-realists. Integration of empiricism and rationalism In the late 19th century and early 20th century several forms of pragmatic philosophy arose. The ideas of pragmatism, in its various forms, developed mainly from discussions that took place while Charles Sanders Peirce and William James were both at Harvard in the 1870s. James popularized the term "pragmatism", giving Peirce full credit for its patrimony, but Peirce later demurred from the tangents that the movement was taking, and redubbed what he regarded as the original idea with the name of "pragmaticism". Along with its pragmatic theory of truth, this perspective integrates the basic insights of empirical (experience-based) and rational (concept-based) thinking. Charles Sanders Peirce Charles Peirce (1839–1914) was highly influential in laying the groundwork for today's empirical scientific method. Although Peirce severely criticized many elements of Descartes' peculiar brand of rationalism, he did not reject rationalism outright. Indeed, he concurred with the main ideas of rationalism, most importantly the idea that rational concepts can be meaningful and the idea that rational concepts necessarily go beyond the data given by empirical observation. In later years he even emphasized the concept-driven side of the then ongoing debate between strict empiricism and strict rationalism, in part to counterbalance the excesses to which some of his cohorts had taken pragmatism under the "data-driven" strict-empiricist view. Among Peirce's major contributions was to place inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning in a complementary rather than competitive mode, the latter of which had been the primary trend among the educated since David Hume wrote a century before. To this, Peirce added the concept of abductive reasoning. The combined three forms of reasoning serve as a primary conceptual foundation for the empirically based scientific method today. Peirce's approach "presupposes that (1) the objects of knowledge are real things, (2) the characters (properties) of real things do not depend on our perceptions of them, and (3) everyone who has sufficient experience of real things will agree on the truth about them. According to Peirce's doctrine of fallibilism, the conclusions of science are always tentative. The rationality of the scientific method does not depend on the certainty of its conclusions, but on its self-corrective character: by continued application of the method science can detect and correct its own mistakes, and thus eventually lead to the discovery of truth". Ward, Teddy (n.d.), "Empiricism", Eprint. In his Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism" (1903), Peirce enumerated what he called the "three cotary propositions of pragmatism" (L: cos, cotis whetstone), saying that they "put the edge on the maxim of pragmatism". First among these he listed the peripatetic-thomist observation mentioned above, but he further observed that this link between sensory perception and intellectual conception is a two-way street. That is, it can be taken to say that whatever we find in the intellect is also incipiently in the senses. Hence, if theories are theory-laden then so are the senses, and perception itself can be seen as a species of abductive inference, its difference being that it is beyond control and hence beyond critique — in a word, incorrigible. This in no way conflicts with the fallibility and revisability of scientific concepts, since it is only the immediate percept in its unique individuality or "thisness" — what the Scholastics called its haecceity — that stands beyond control and correction. Scientific concepts, on the other hand, are general in nature, and transient sensations do in another sense find correction within them. This notion of perception as abduction has received periodic revivals in artificial intelligence and cognitive science research, most recently for instance with the work of Irvin Rock on indirect perception. Rock, Irvin (1983), The Logic of Perception, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Rock, Irvin, (1997) Indirect Perception, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. William James Around the beginning of the 20th century, William James (1842-1910) coined the term "radical empiricism" to describe an offshoot of his form of pragmatism, which he argued could be dealt with separately from his pragmatism - though in fact the two concepts are intertwined in James's published lectures. James maintained that the empirically observed "directly apprehended universe, requires no extraneous trans-empirical connective support", James, William (1911), The Meaning of Truth. by which he meant to rule out the perception that there can be any value added by seeking supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. James's "radical empricism" is thus not radical in the context of the term "empiricism", but is instead fairly consistent with the modern use of the term "empirical". (His method of argument in arriving at this view, however, still readily encounters debate within philosophy even today.) John Dewey (1859-1952) modified James' pragmatism to form a theory known as instrumentalism. The role of sense experience in Dewey's theory is crucial, in that he saw experience as unified totality of things through which everything else is interrelated. Dewey's basic thought, in accordance with empiricism was that reality is determined by past experience. Therefore, humans adapt their past experiences of things to perform experiments upon and test the pragmatic values of such experience. The value of such experience is measured by scientific instruments, and the results of such measurements generate ideas which serve as instruments for future experimentation. Dewey, John (1906), Studies in Logical Theory. Thus, ideas in Dewey's system retain their empiricist flavour in that they are only known a posteriori. See also Empirical formula Empirical knowledge Empirical method Empirical relationship Empirical research Empirical validation History of scientific method Inquiry Instrumentalism Logical positivism Naturalism Objectivity Phenomenalism Pragmatic maxim Psychological nativism Quasi-empirical method Rationalism Scientific method Two Dogmas of Empiricism Footnotes References Achinstein, Peter, and Barker, Stephen F. (1969), The Legacy of Logical Positivism: Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. Aristotle, "On the Soul" (De Anima), W. S. Hett (trans.), pp. 1–203 in Aristotle, Volume 8, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1936. Aristotle, Posterior Analytics. Barone, Francesco (1986), Il neopositivismo logico, Laterza, Roma Bari. Berlin, Isaiah (2004), The Refutation of Phenomenalism, Isaiah Berlin Virtual Library. Bolender, John (1998), "Factual Phenomenalism: A Supervenience Theory"', SORITES, no. 9, pp. 16–31. Chisolm, R. (1948), "The Problem of Empiricism", Journal of Philosophy 45, 512–517. Dewey, John (1906), Studies in Logical Theory. Encyclopedia Britannica, "Empiricism", vol. 4, p. 480. Hume, D., A Treatise of Human Nature, L.A. Selby-Bigge (ed.), Oxford University Press, London, UK, 1975. Hume, D. "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding", in Enquiries Concerning the Human Understanding and Concerning the Principles of Morals, 2nd edition, L.A. Selby-Bigge (ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1902. James, William (1911), The Meaning of Truth. Keeton, Morris T. (1962), "Empiricism", pp. 89–90 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ. Leftow, Brian (ed., 2006), Aquinas: Summa Theologiae, Questions on God, pp. vii et seq. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Development of Aristotle's Thought", vol. 1, p. 153ff. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "George Berkeley", vol. 1, p. 297. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Empiricism", vol. 2, p. 503. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Mathematics, Foundations of", vol. 5, p, 188–189. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Axiomatic Method", vol. 5, p. 192ff. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Epistemological Discussion", subsections on "A Priori Knowledge" and "Axioms". Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Phenomenalism", vol. 6, p. 131. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1969), "Thomas Aquinas", subsection on "Theory of Knowledge", vol. 8, pp. 106–107. Marconi, D (2004), "Fenomenismo"', in Gianni Vattimo and Gaetano Chiurazzi (eds.), L'Enciclopedia Garzanti di Filosofia, 3rd edition, Garzanti, Milan, Italy. Markie, P. (2004), "Rationalism vs. Empiricism" in Edward D. Zalta (ed.), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Eprint. Maxwell, Nicholas (1998), The Comprehensibility of the Universe: A New Conception of Science, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Mill, J.S., "An Examination of Sir William Rowan Hamilton's Philosophy", in A.J. Ayer and Ramond Winch (eds.), British Empirical Philosophers, Simon and Schuster, New York, NY, 1968. Morick, H. (1980), Challenges to Empiricism, Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis, IN. Peirce, C.S., "Lectures on Pragmatism", Cambridge, MA, March 26 – May 17, 1903. Reprinted in part, Collected Papers, CP 5.14–212. Published in full with editor's introduction and commentary, Patricia Ann Turisi (ed.), Pragmatism as a Principle and Method of Right Thinking: The 1903 Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism", State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, 1997. Reprinted, pp. 133–241, Peirce Edition Project (eds.), The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 2 (1893–1913), Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1998. Rescher, Nicholas (1985), The Heritage of Logical Positivism, University Press of America, Lanham, MD. Rock, Irvin (1983), The Logic of Perception, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Rock, Irvin, (1997) Indirect Perception, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Runes, D.D. (ed., 1962), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ. Sini, Carlo (2004), "Empirismo", in Gianni Vattimo et al. (eds.), Enciclopedia Garzanti della Filosofia. Solomon, Robert C., and Higgins, Kathleen M. (1996), A Short History of Philosophy, pp. 68-74. Sorabji, R. (1972), Aristotle on Memory. Thornton, Stephen (1987), Berkeley's Theory of Reality, Eprint Ward, Teddy (n.d.), "Empiricism", Eprint. Wilson, Fred (2005), "John Stuart Mill", in Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Eprint. External links Empiricism Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Rationalism vs. Empiricism Theory of Knowledge: An Introduction to Empiricism BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Empiricism (requires RealAudio) | Empiricism |@lemmatized philosophy:36 empiricism:47 theory:22 knowledge:26 assert:3 arises:1 experience:33 one:6 several:2 compete:1 view:8 know:9 thing:11 part:6 branch:1 call:8 epistemology:1 emphasize:3 role:2 evidence:4 especially:2 sensory:6 perception:13 formation:1 idea:23 discount:1 notion:8 innate:3 except:1 far:3 might:2 infer:2 empirical:25 reasoning:9 case:3 genetic:1 predisposition:1 science:13 aspect:2 scientific:17 closely:2 relate:1 discover:1 experiment:6 fundamental:1 method:21 hypothesis:2 must:9 test:2 observation:11 natural:6 world:8 rather:4 rest:3 solely:1 priori:3 intuition:2 revelation:1 hence:4 consider:5 methodologically:1 nature:4 term:14 dual:1 etymology:1 come:7 greek:3 word:6 εμπειρισμός:1 latin:2 translation:2 experientia:1 derive:6 also:8 specific:1 classical:2 roman:1 usage:4 empiric:1 refer:3 physician:2 whose:1 skill:1 practical:1 oppose:1 instruction:1 sini:3 carlo:3 empirismo:3 gianni:5 vattimo:5 et:4 al:7 eds:7 enciclopedia:5 garzanti:7 della:3 filosofia:5 philosophical:10 john:18 locke:15 founder:1 british:6 originally:1 use:10 certain:3 ancient:1 practitioner:1 medicine:1 reject:2 adherence:1 dogmatic:1 doctrine:3 day:2 prefer:1 instead:4 rely:1 phenomenon:2 perceive:3 ed:12 tabula:10 rasa:10 clean:1 slate:2 blank:3 tablet:4 date:1 back:1 aristotle:9 develop:7 elaborate:2 avicenna:5 demonstrate:3 thought:6 ibn:7 tufail:4 later:4 explicitly:1 formulate:2 century:16 argue:6 mind:8 white:2 paper:3 leave:3 mark:1 denies:1 human:21 anything:1 knowable:1 without:1 reference:3 accord:6 empiricist:7 properly:1 deduce:2 gain:1 ultimately:2 sense:18 base:6 markie:2 p:16 rationalism:12 v:4 edward:5 zalta:4 stanford:5 encyclopedia:22 eprint:6 historical:1 matter:3 commonly:2 contrast:3 school:2 broad:1 much:3 attributable:1 reason:6 independently:1 sens:4 however:4 today:5 extreme:5 oversimplification:1 issue:3 involve:2 main:2 continental:3 rationalist:2 descartes:5 spinoza:1 leibniz:1 advocate:1 furthermore:1 hold:4 e:5 g:5 god:5 existence:3 could:4 arrive:5 alone:2 important:2 philosopher:11 associate:1 include:3 alhazen:1 robert:2 grosseteste:1 francis:1 bacon:1 thomas:3 hobbes:1 george:7 berkeley:14 david:5 hume:21 stuart:4 mill:14 gilles:1 deleuze:1 felix:1 guattari:1 central:2 concept:12 empirically:4 dependent:1 observable:1 differentiate:2 philosophic:1 adjective:1 adverb:1 conjunction:2 social:1 refers:1 work:2 testable:1 statement:11 subject:3 second:4 statistic:1 may:3 synonymous:1 experimental:3 result:6 semi:1 sometimes:1 describe:3 theoretical:2 make:4 basic:4 axiom:2 establish:2 law:1 previous:1 order:2 engage:1 reasoned:1 model:1 building:1 inquiry:2 history:3 early:5 avicennian:2 successor:1 writes:1 unscribed:1 treatise:4 περι:1 ψυχης:1 de:2 anima:2 soul:3 think:2 letter:1 grammateion:1 bear:3 actual:4 writing:2 grammenon:1 happen:1 besides:1 argument:9 stoic:1 peripatetic:2 aristotelian:2 go:4 unnoticed:1 year:4 clearly:1 persian:1 sina:2 western:1 intellect:6 birth:1 like:1 pure:1 potentiality:2 actualize:1 education:1 attain:1 familiarity:1 object:9 abstract:2 universal:1 syllogistic:1 lead:6 propositional:1 compound:1 posse:1 level:1 development:3 material:1 aql:2 hayulani:1 acquire:1 active:1 fa:1 il:3 state:2 perfect:2 source:2 sajjad:1 h:3 rizvi:1 ca:1 internet:1 andalusian:1 arabian:1 novelist:1 abubacer:1 ebn:1 tophail:1 west:1 arabic:1 novel:2 hayy:1 yaqdhan:1 depict:1 feral:1 child:1 adult:1 complete:1 isolation:1 society:2 desert:1 island:1 entitle:1 philosophus:1 autodidactus:1 publish:3 pococke:1 young:1 influence:2 formulation:3 essay:2 concern:10 understanding:4 russell:2 arabick:1 interest:1 seventeenth:1 england:1 pp:9 brill:1 publisher:1 isbn:1 st:2 aquinas:4 bring:2 forefront:1 christian:1 sharply:1 previously:1 platonic:2 entity:3 pre:1 exist:4 somewhere:1 heaven:1 send:1 join:1 body:1 earth:1 see:6 plato:1 phaedo:1 apology:1 well:1 others:2 bonaventure:1 fierce:1 intellectual:2 opponent:1 offer:1 strong:3 towards:1 polish:2 alchemist:1 michał:1 sędziwój:1 die:1 four:1 sole:1 teacher:1 truth:8 http:1 portalwiedzy:1 onet:1 pl:1 czasopisma:1 html:1 praktyk:1 mistyk:1 andrzej:1 datko:1 wiedza:1 życie:1 earlier:1 debate:4 late:6 primary:4 exponent:1 respond:1 prominently:1 defend:1 rené:1 type:2 approach:3 confuse:1 generally:1 write:4 propose:1 influential:2 wherein:1 posteriori:3 upon:2 famously:1 attribute:1 proposition:5 impression:4 person:1 life:1 proceeds:1 two:6 sensation:8 reflection:1 distinction:3 simple:3 complex:2 former:2 unanalysable:1 break:1 secondary:1 quality:1 combine:2 divide:2 substance:1 mode:2 relation:2 accordance:2 discordance:1 different:2 quest:1 certainty:4 bishop:2 generation:1 irish:1 anglican:1 determine:2 immediately:1 open:2 door:1 would:5 eventual:1 atheism:1 response:2 put:4 forth:1 principle:8 form:6 either:2 virtue:1 fact:3 perceiving:1 fill:1 whenever:1 around:3 text:1 alciphron:1 maintain:5 language:4 handwriting:1 thornton:2 stephen:4 reality:4 journal:3 limerick:1 subjective:3 idealism:3 macmillan:15 vol:15 scottish:1 add:4 viewpoint:1 skepticism:1 accumulated:2 counterargument:1 among:7 keep:1 derives:1 particular:1 category:1 kant:1 analytic:4 synthetic:4 mathematical:4 logical:16 square:2 hypotenuse:1 equal:1 sum:1 side:2 example:4 first:4 contingent:1 sun:2 rise:3 east:2 people:1 turn:1 correspond:1 roughly:1 remember:2 imagine:1 therefore:3 faint:1 copy:1 numerous:1 via:1 skeptical:2 even:4 belief:7 cannot:2 conclusively:1 habit:2 accumulate:1 many:3 another:4 slant:1 problem:6 induction:4 require:3 inductive:8 premise:1 justification:2 circular:1 conclusion:4 regard:2 future:2 resemble:1 past:4 thus:5 instance:2 pose:1 continue:3 expect:1 repeatedly:1 enquiry:4 understand:2 moral:2 edition:5 l:6 selby:3 bigge:3 oxford:7 university:10 press:14 uk:4 orig:1 conclude:1 external:3 self:2 rationally:3 justifiable:1 accept:1 nonetheless:1 profound:1 basis:3 instinct:2 custom:2 last:1 legacy:3 doubt:2 cast:2 legitimacy:1 allow:1 skeptic:1 follow:1 similar:1 phenomenalism:14 follower:1 disagree:1 unjustifiable:1 contend:1 implicitly:1 contain:1 rational:5 beyond:7 content:1 let:1 morick:2 challenge:2 hackett:2 publishing:2 indianapolis:2 anticipate:1 physical:8 kind:3 construction:1 marconi:2 fenomenismo:2 gaetano:2 chiurazzi:2 di:2 milan:2 italy:2 property:4 event:3 whatever:2 reducible:2 mental:2 related:1 phenomenalistic:1 line:1 thinking:3 visual:1 real:4 belong:1 group:2 set:6 possess:1 constancy:1 coherence:1 lack:2 hallucination:1 mid:1 permanent:2 possibility:5 j:5 examination:2 sir:2 william:8 rowan:2 hamilton:2 ayer:3 ramond:2 winch:2 simon:2 schuster:2 new:4 york:3 ny:3 significant:2 step:1 still:3 respect:1 necessary:1 meaningful:2 mathematics:4 summarize:1 w:3 hamlin:1 direct:4 inference:3 wilson:2 fred:2 n:4 position:3 center:1 following:1 firstly:1 encounter:2 difficulty:1 possible:3 miss:1 key:2 discussion:3 condition:3 place:3 gap:2 phenomenalists:1 essentially:1 question:3 unanswered:2 end:2 acknowledgement:1 mere:2 version:1 floor:2 beam:1 support:2 unobserved:2 tree:1 grow:1 untouched:1 hand:2 etc:2 remain:1 perhaps:1 unanswerable:1 secondly:1 unsettling:1 filling:1 purely:3 actuality:1 thirdly:1 merely:1 specie:2 misapprehend:1 fail:1 fully:1 structure:1 product:1 internally:1 consistent:2 deductive:2 procedure:1 time:4 fall:1 agreed:1 meaning:3 axiomatic:2 phenomenalist:1 phase:1 post:1 humean:1 become:2 obvious:1 translate:3 data:7 bolender:2 factual:2 supervenience:2 sorites:2 translatable:1 least:2 deducible:1 latter:2 realize:1 finite:2 single:1 translating:1 paraphrase:1 couch:2 normal:9 observer:9 express:3 satisfaction:1 presence:1 say:3 present:1 hypothetical:1 doctor:8 inspect:3 appear:1 course:2 specify:2 normality:1 organ:2 third:2 man:1 berlin:4 isaiah:4 refutation:2 virtual:2 library:3 chisolm:2 r:3 aka:1 positivism:7 neopositivism:1 attempt:1 synthesize:1 essential:2 emphasis:1 insight:3 logic:3 gottlob:1 frege:3 ludwig:1 wittgenstein:2 figure:1 movement:3 otto:1 neurath:2 moritz:1 schlick:1 vienna:1 circle:1 along:2 rudolf:1 carnap:2 han:1 reichenbach:1 neopositivists:2 subscribe:1 conceptual:3 clarification:1 discovery:2 saw:3 symbolism:1 bertrand:1 powerful:1 instrument:3 reconstruct:1 discourse:1 ideal:1 logically:1 free:1 ambiguity:1 deformation:1 give:3 metaphysical:2 pseudoproblems:2 confusion:1 thesis:2 linguistic:1 tautology:1 twofold:1 classification:1 achinstein:2 peter:2 barker:2 f:2 study:4 hopkins:2 baltimore:2 md:4 demarcation:1 sentence:5 verification:2 devoid:1 mean:2 ethical:1 aesthetic:1 traditional:1 barone:2 francesco:2 neopositivismo:2 logico:2 laterza:2 rom:2 bari:2 genuinely:1 assertion:3 ultimate:2 abandon:1 sort:1 favor:1 reconstruction:1 objective:1 spatio:1 temporal:1 physic:1 protocol:1 x:1 location:1 observes:1 rescher:2 nicholas:3 heritage:2 america:2 lanham:2 verificationism:1 reductionism:1 sharp:1 attack:1 war:1 thinker:1 nelson:1 goodman:1 quine:1 hilary:1 putnam:1 karl:1 popper:1 richard:1 rorty:1 evident:1 pretty:1 run:1 though:2 contemporary:1 michael:1 dummett:1 anti:1 realist:1 integration:1 pragmatic:4 arose:1 pragmatism:12 various:1 mainly:1 take:4 charles:3 sander:2 peirce:14 james:10 harvard:3 popularize:1 full:2 credit:1 patrimony:1 demur:1 tangent:1 redubbed:1 original:1 name:1 pragmaticism:1 perspective:1 integrate:1 highly:1 lay:1 groundwork:1 although:1 severely:1 criticize:1 element:1 peculiar:1 brand:1 outright:1 indeed:1 concur:1 importantly:1 necessarily:1 driven:2 ongoing:1 strict:3 counterbalance:1 excess:1 cohort:1 major:1 contribution:1 complementary:1 competitive:1 trend:1 educate:1 since:2 abductive:2 combined:1 three:2 serve:2 foundation:2 presuppose:1 character:2 depend:2 everyone:1 sufficient:1 agree:1 fallibilism:1 always:1 tentative:1 rationality:1 corrective:1 continued:1 application:1 detect:1 correct:1 mistake:1 eventually:1 ward:2 teddy:2 lecture:4 enumerate:1 cotary:1 co:1 cotis:1 whetstone:1 edge:1 maxim:2 list:1 thomist:1 mention:1 observe:1 link:2 conception:2 way:2 street:1 find:2 incipiently:1 laden:1 difference:1 control:2 critique:1 incorrigible:1 conflict:1 fallibility:1 revisability:1 immediate:1 percept:1 unique:1 individuality:1 thisness:1 scholastic:1 haecceity:1 stand:1 correction:2 general:1 transient:1 within:2 abduction:1 receive:1 periodic:1 revival:1 artificial:1 intelligence:1 cognitive:1 research:2 recently:1 irvin:5 rock:5 indirect:3 mit:4 cambridge:5 beginning:1 coin:1 radical:3 offshoot:1 deal:1 separately:1 intertwine:1 observed:1 directly:1 apprehend:1 universe:2 extraneous:1 trans:2 connective:1 rule:1 value:3 seek:1 supernatural:1 explanation:1 empricism:1 context:1 fairly:1 modern:1 readily:1 dewey:6 modify:1 instrumentalism:2 crucial:1 unified:1 totality:1 everything:1 else:1 interrelate:1 adapt:1 perform:1 measure:1 measurement:1 generate:1 experimentation:1 system:1 retain:1 flavour:1 formula:1 relationship:1 validation:1 naturalism:1 objectivity:1 psychological:1 nativism:1 quasi:1 dogma:1 footnote:1 hett:1 volume:2 loeb:1 heinemann:1 london:2 posterior:1 analytics:1 britannica:1 keeton:1 morris:1 dagobert:1 rune:2 dictionary:2 littlefield:2 adam:2 company:2 totowa:2 nj:2 leftow:1 brian:1 summa:1 theologiae:1 vii:1 seq:1 epistemological:1 subsection:2 maxwell:1 comprehensibility:1 c:2 march:1 reprint:2 collect:1 cp:1 editor:1 introduction:2 commentary:1 patricia:1 ann:1 turisi:1 right:1 albany:1 project:1 select:1 indiana:1 bloomington:1 solomon:1 higgins:1 kathleen:1 short:1 sorabji:1 memory:1 entry:1 bbc:1 radio:1 programme:1 realaudio:1 |@bigram sensory_perception:2 genetic_predisposition:1 closely_relate:1 gianni_vattimo:5 et_al:3 enciclopedia_garzanti:5 tabula_rasa:10 clean_slate:1 ibn_tufail:4 zalta_ed:4 stanford_encyclopedia:5 spinoza_leibniz:1 avicenna_ibn:2 francis_bacon:1 thomas_hobbes:1 david_hume:5 stuart_mill:4 gilles_deleuze:1 felix_guattari:1 blank_slate:1 ibn_sina:2 hayy_ibn:1 ibn_yaqdhan:1 philosophus_autodidactus:1 thomas_aquinas:2 st_bonaventure:1 rené_descartes:1 subjective_idealism:3 analytic_synthetic:2 square_hypotenuse:1 inductive_reasoning:5 enquiry_concern:4 hackett_publishing:2 closely_related:1 william_rowan:2 rowan_hamilton:2 simon_schuster:2 inductive_inference:2 n_zalta:2 logical_empiricism:2 logical_positivism:7 gottlob_frege:1 ludwig_wittgenstein:1 otto_neurath:1 moritz_schlick:1 rudolf_carnap:1 han_reichenbach:1 bertrand_russell:1 baltimore_md:2 rescher_nicholas:2 lanham_md:2 v_quine:1 hilary_putnam:1 karl_popper:1 richard_rorty:1 sander_peirce:2 lay_groundwork:1 deductive_reasoning:1 lecture_pragmatism:3 artificial_intelligence:1 everything_else:1 pragmatic_maxim:1 loeb_classical:1 posterior_analytics:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 littlefield_adam:2 totowa_nj:2 aquinas_summa:1 summa_theologiae:1 et_seq:1 albany_ny:1 external_link:1 |
3,067 | Oriental_Orthodoxy | Oriental Orthodoxy is the communion of Eastern Christian Churches that recognize only three ecumenical councils — the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of Constantinople and the Council of Ephesus. They rejected the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon (451). Hence, these Oriental Orthodox Churches are also called Old Oriental Churches or Non-Chalcedonian Churches. These churches are generally not in communion with Eastern Orthodox Churches with whom they are in dialogue for a return to unity. Syrian Orthodox Resources -- Middle Eastern Oriental Orthodox Common Declaration The Syriac Orthodox Church is however in communion with the Antiochian Orthodox Church. Despite the potentially confusing nomenclature (Oriental meaning eastern), Oriental Orthodox churches are distinct from those that are collectively referred to as the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Oriental Orthodox communion comprises six groups: Syriac Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India) and Armenian Apostolic churches. Oriental Orthodox Churches These six churches, while being in communion with each other are completely independent hierarchically. An Introduction to the Oriental Orthodox Churches The Oriental Orthodox Church and the rest of the Church split over differences in Christological terminology. The First Council of Nicaea (325) declared that Jesus Christ is God, "consubstantial" with the Father; and the Council of Ephesus (431) that Jesus, though divine as well as human, is only one being. Twenty years after Ephesus, the Council of Chalcedon declared that Jesus is in two complete natures, one human and one divine. Those who opposed Chalcedon likened its doctrine to the Nestorian heresy, condemned at Ephesus, that Christ was two distinct beings, one divine and one human. In 2001, the certain theologians of the Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox traditions concluded that they had always believed in the same Christology, but differed over how this was to be formulated. This conclusion became the basis for healing the schism between them, and the two groups jointly issued a "Middle Eastern Oriental Orthodox Common Declaration." History The schism between Oriental Orthodoxy and the rest of the Church occurred in the 5th century. The separation resulted in part from the refusal of Pope Dioscorus, the Patriarch of Alexandria, to accept the Christological dogmas promulgated by the Council of Chalcedon, which held that Jesus is in two natures: one divine and one human. Pope Dioscorus would accept only "of or from two natures" but not "in two natures." To the hierarchs who would lead the Oriental Orthodox, this was tantamount to accepting Nestorianism, which expressed itself in a terminology incompatible with their understanding of Christology. Founded in the Alexandrine School of Theology it advocated a formula stressing the unity of the Incarnation over all other considerations. The Oriental Orthodox churches were therefore often called Monophysite, although they reject this label, as it is associated with Eutychian Monophysitism; they prefer the term "non-Chalcedonian" or "Miaphysite" churches. Oriental Orthodox Churches reject what they consider to be the heretical Monophysite teachings of Apollinaris of Laodicea and Eutyches, the Dyophysite definition of the Council of Chalcedon, and the Antiochene Christology of Theodore of Mopsuestia, Nestorius of Constantinople, Theodoret of Cyrus, and Ibas of Edessa. Christology, although important, was not the only reason for the Alexandrian Church's refusal to accept the declarations of the Council of Chalcedon; political, ecclesiastical and imperial issues were hotly debated during that period. In the years following Chalcedon the patriarchs of Constantinople remained in communion with the non-Chalcedonian patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, while Rome remained out of communion with the latter and in unstable communion with Constantinople. It was not until 518 that the new Byzantine Emperor, Justin I (who accepted Chalcedon), demanded that the Church in the Roman Empire accept the Council's decisions. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Hormisdas Justin ordered the replacement of all non-Chalcedonian bishops, including the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria. The extent of the influence of the Bishop of Rome in this demand has been a matter of debate. By the 20th century the Chalcedonian schism was not seen with the same importance, and from several meetings between the authorities of the Holy See and the Oriental Orthodoxy, reconciling declarations emerged in the common statement of the Syriac Patriarch (Mar Ignatius Zakka I Iwas) and the Pope (John Paul II) in 1984. Coptic icon of St. Anthony the Great and Paul of Thebes According to the canons of the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the four bishops of Rome, Alexandria, Ephesus (later transferred to Constantinople) and Antioch were all given status as Patriarchs; in other words, the ancient apostolic centres of Christianity, by the First Council of Nicaea (predating the schism) — each of the four patriarchs was responsible for those bishops and churches within his own area of the Universal Church, (with the exception of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, who was independent of the rest). Thus, the Bishop of Rome has always been held by the others to be fully sovereign within his own area, as well as "First-Among-Equals", due to the traditional belief that the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul were martyred in Rome. The technical reason for the schism was that the bishops of Rome and Constantinople excommunicated the non-Chalcedonian bishops in 451 for refusing to accept the "in two natures" teaching, thus declaring them to be out of communion. Recent declarations indicate that the Holy See now regards itself as being in a state of partial communion with the other patriarchates. The Nature of Christ (Extract) by the Patriarch of Alexandria The Lord Jesus Christ is God Himself, the Incarnate Logos, who took to Himself a perfect manhood. His Divine nature is one with his human nature yet without mingling, confusion or alteration; a complete Hypostatic Union. Words are inadequate to describe this union. It was said, that without controversy,"Great is the mystery of godliness: God was manifested in the flesh, (1 Tim. 3:16). As this union is permanent, never divided nor separated, we say in the liturgy that His Godhead never departed from His manhood for a single moment nor even for a twinkle of an eye.The Divine nature (God the Word) was united with the human nature which He took of the Virgin Mary by the action of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit purified and sanctified the Virgin's womb so that the Child to whom she gave birth would inherit nothing of the original sin; the flesh formed of her blood was united with the Only-Begotten Son. This unity took place from the first moment of the Holy Pregnancy in the Virgin's womb.As a result of the unity of both natures-the Divine and the human-inside the Virgin's womb, one nature was formed out of both: "The One Nature of God the Incarnate Logos" as St. Cyril called it.The Holy Church did not find an expression more reliable, deep and precise than that which was used by St. Cyril the Great, and which St. Athanasius the Apostolic used before him. Both of them were true leaders in the theological field worldwide. After the schism which took place in the year 451 AD, when the Coptic Orthodox Church rejected the motions of the Council of Chalcedon and its theological struggles, we were called "Monophysites" that is, those who believe in the "One Nature".Sharing our belief are the Syrians, the Armenians, the Ethiopians and the Indians; who were also called "Non Chalcedonian" Orthodox Churches.Consequently the Chalcedonian Churches Consequently,are known as "Diophysites" - believers in two separate natures of Christ. The term "Monophysites" used for the believers in the One Nature has been intentionally or unintentionally misinterpreted throughout certain periods of history. Consequently, the Coptic and the Syrian Churches in particular were cruelly persecuted because of their belief, especially during the period which started from the Council of Chalcedon held in 451 AD and continued to the conquest of the Arabs in Egypt and Syria (about 641 AD). This misinterpretation continued along history as though we believed in one nature of Christ and denied the other nature. We wonder which of the two natures the Church of Alexandria denies? Is it the Divine nature? Certainly not, for our Church was the most fervent defender against the Arian heresy in the Council of Nicea, held in the year 325 AD, as well as before and after that.Or is it The Lord's human nature that the Church of Alexandria denies? St. Athanasius of Alexandria resolved this entirely in the oldest and greatest book on this subject The Incarnation of the Word,The expression "One Nature" does not indicate the Divine nature alone nor the human nature alone, but it indicates the unity of both natures into One Nature which is "The Nature of the Incarnate Logos".The same applies when we speak about our human nature which comprises two united natures: the soul and the body. Thus,man's nature is not the soul alone nor the body alone, but their union in one nature called human nature.St. Cyril the Great taught us not to talk about two natures after their unity.So we can say that the Divine nature united hypostatically with the human nature within the Virgin's womb, but after this unity we do not ever speak again about two natures of Christ. In fact, the expression "two natures" implies in itself division or separation, and although those who believe in "the two natures" admit unity, the tone of separation was obvious in the Council of Chalcedon - a matter which prompted us to reject the Council and caused the exile of St. Dioscorus of Alexandria Here we'd like to raise an important question regarding the One Nature and the Two Natures:Do we not all admit that the nature which we call Human Natures contained before the unity two Natures: the soul and the body? yet, those who claim that there are two natures in Christ: a divine and a human, do not mention the two natures of manhood i.e. the soul and the body but consider them one.If we go into details we would find ourselves before three natures in Christ!!! the Divinity, the soul and the body, and each of them has its distinct entity and essence... Of course, this is unacceptable on both sides.When we accept the union of the soul and the body in one nature in Christ, and when we use the expression theologically, it becomes easier for us to use the expression “One Nature of Christ" or "One Nature of God, the Incarnate Logos".Just as we say that the human nature is one nature consisting of two elements or natures, we can also say about the Incarnate Logos, that He is one entity of two elements or natures.If the Divine nature is claimed to differ from the human nature,how then do they unite? The reply is that the nature of the soul is fundamentally different from the nature of the body, yet it is united with it in one nature, which is the human nature.Although man is formed of these two natures, we never say that He is two, but one person. All man's acts are attributed to this one nature and not to the soul alone or to the body alone. Thus when we want to say that a certain individual ate, or became hungry, or slept, or felt pain, we do not say that it is his body which ate, or became hungry,or got tired or slept or felt pain. All man's acts are attributed to him as a whole and not only to his body.Similarly, all the acts of Christ were attributed to Him as a whole and not to His Divine nature alone (independently)or to His human nature alone.This was explained by Leo in the Council of Chalcedon and we shall give further explanation to this point later on, God willing.The union of the soul and body is an intrinsic real union, a Hypostatic one. So is the union of the Divine nature of Christ with the human nature in the Virgin's womb. It is a Hypostatic union, self-essential and real and not a mere connection, then separation as Nestorus claimed.Though the example of the union of the soul and body in the human nature is inclusive, still it is incomplete as it does not explain how the soul departs the body by death nor how they reunite again in the resurrection.But as for the unity of the Divine and human natures of Christ, it is an inseparable union as the Divine nature never departed the human nature for one single moment nor for a twinkle of an eye. Geographical distribution Ethiopian priest Oriental Orthodoxy is a dominant religion in Armenia (94%), the ethnically Armenian Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (95%), and in Ethiopia (51%, the total Christian population being 62%), especially in two regions in Ethiopia: Amhara (82%) and Tigray (96%), as well as the chartered city of Addis Ababa (82%), and is also important in Oromia Region (41%). It is also one of two dominant religions in Eritrea (50%). It is a minority in Egypt (15%), Sudan (3-5% out of the 15% of total Christians), Syria (2-3% out of the 10% of total Christians), Lebanon (10% of the 40% of Christians in Lebanon) and Kerala, India (8% out of all the 2.3% of total Christians in India). In terms of total number of members, the Ethiopian Church is the largest of all Oriental Orthodox Churches, and is second among all Orthodox Churches among Eastern and Oriental Churches (exceeded in number only by the Russian Orthodox Church). Oriental Orthodox Communion The Oriental Orthodox Communion is a group of churches within Oriental Orthodoxy which are all in full communion with each other. The communion includes: The Oriental Orthodox Communion The Armenian Apostolic Church of All Armenians The Armenian Apostolic Church of Cilicia The Armenian Apostolic Church of Constantinople The Armenian Apostolic Church of Jerusalem The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria The British Orthodox Church in the United Kingdom The French Coptic Orthodox Church in France The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church The Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch (also known as the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch) The Malankara Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church The Indian (Malankara) Orthodox Syrian Church Brahmavar (Goan) Orthodox Church Syriac Orthodox Church of Germany Other Oriental Orthodox Churches in history Two ancient Oriental Orthodox autocephelous Churches are not existing at present as it was before. They are Orthodox Church of the East in Persia Orthodox Church of Caucasian Albania in Azerbijan While the Orthodox Church of Caucasian Albania was merged to Armenian Orthodox Church fully (except some in Hereti which joined the Georgian Orthodox Church), the Indian diocese of Orthodox Church of the East was raised to a separate autocephelous church in 1912 AD. The remaining dioceses of Orthodox Church of the East was taken over by the mother Syriac Orthodox Church in 1860 AD. Dispute within Oriental Orthodox Church There is also a disupte regarding an autonomous branch known as Malankara Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church. Both the Indian (Malankara) Orthodox Syrian Church and Syriac Orthodox Church claims the right over the same. Occasional confusions |Kadamattom Church Indo-Perisan Architecture of an Indian (Malankara) Orthodox Church. It is a mix of Hindu Temples and Churches in ancient Persian Empire The Assyrian Church of the East is sometimes incorrectly considered as Oriental Orthodox. Being largely centered in what was then the Persian Empire, it was separated administratively from the Church of the Roman Empire around 400, and then broke communion with the latter in reaction to the Council of Ephesus (431). Additionally, it accepts a Nestorian dyophysite Christology that is categorically rejected by the Oriental Orthodox Communion, and venerates as saints people anathematized as heretics by the latter. There are many overlapping ecclesiastical jurisdictions in India, mostly with a Syriac liturgical heritage centered in the state of Kerala. Two of these, the autonomous Malankara Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church, which comes under the Syriac orthodox church, and the autocephalous Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, are Oriental Orthodox; the others include two Eastern Catholic Churches, and various independent churches, one of which, the Mar Thoma Syrian Church is in communion with the Anglican Communion & Malabar Independent Syrian Church. See also List of Orthodox Churches Eastern Orthodoxy Western Rite Orthodoxy Saint Thomas Christians Antiochian Catholic Church in America References Bibliography Betts, Robert B., Christians in the Arab East, Lycabbetus Press (Athens, 1978) Charles, R. H. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text, 1916. Reprinted 2007. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9. External links Orthodox Unity Common declaration of Pope John Paul II and HH Mar Ignatius Zakka I Iwas Joint declarations between the Syriac Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches Agreed Statements between representatives of the Oriental and Eastern Orthodox Churches Armenian Church Coptic Orthodox Church in America Syriac Orthodox Resources Indian Orthodox Church Oriental Orthodox Church Indian Orthodox Church Ethiopian Orthodox Church Directory Indian Syrian Christian Resources Indian Orthodox Resource site Orthodox churches and monasteries. Foto album Indian Orthodox Church Oriental Orthodoxy - St. Mary's Malankara Orthodox Cathedral of Philadelphia | Oriental_Orthodoxy |@lemmatized oriental:34 orthodoxy:8 communion:19 eastern:11 christian:9 church:94 recognize:1 three:2 ecumenical:1 council:20 first:6 nicaea:3 constantinople:7 ephesus:6 reject:6 dogmatic:1 definition:2 chalcedon:12 hence:1 orthodox:78 also:8 call:7 old:2 non:6 chalcedonian:8 generally:1 dialogue:1 return:1 unity:11 syrian:11 resource:4 middle:2 common:4 declaration:7 syriac:14 however:1 antiochian:2 despite:1 potentially:1 confusing:1 nomenclature:1 meaning:1 distinct:3 collectively:1 refer:1 comprise:2 six:2 group:3 coptic:7 ethiopian:6 eritrean:2 malankara:9 india:4 armenian:9 apostolic:7 completely:1 independent:4 hierarchically:1 introduction:1 rest:3 split:1 difference:1 christological:2 terminology:2 declare:3 jesus:5 christ:14 god:7 consubstantial:1 father:1 though:3 divine:16 well:4 human:22 one:30 twenty:1 year:4 two:27 complete:2 nature:69 oppose:1 liken:1 doctrine:1 nestorian:2 heresy:2 condemn:1 certain:3 theologian:1 tradition:1 conclude:1 always:2 believe:4 christology:5 differ:2 formulate:1 conclusion:1 become:4 basis:1 heal:1 schism:6 jointly:1 issue:2 history:4 occur:1 century:2 separation:4 result:2 part:1 refusal:2 pope:5 dioscorus:3 patriarch:9 alexandria:10 accept:9 dogma:1 promulgate:1 hold:4 would:4 hierarch:1 lead:1 tantamount:1 nestorianism:1 express:1 incompatible:1 understanding:1 found:1 alexandrine:1 school:1 theology:1 advocate:1 formula:1 stress:1 incarnation:2 consideration:1 therefore:1 often:1 monophysite:3 although:4 label:1 associate:1 eutychian:1 monophysitism:1 prefer:1 term:3 miaphysite:1 consider:3 heretical:1 teaching:1 apollinaris:1 laodicea:1 eutyches:1 dyophysite:2 antiochene:1 theodore:1 mopsuestia:1 nestorius:1 theodoret:1 cyrus:1 ibas:1 edessa:1 important:3 reason:2 alexandrian:1 political:1 ecclesiastical:2 imperial:1 hotly:1 debate:2 period:3 follow:1 remain:3 antioch:5 jerusalem:3 rome:6 latter:3 unstable:1 new:1 byzantine:1 emperor:1 justin:2 demand:2 roman:3 empire:4 decision:1 catholic:4 encyclopedia:1 st:9 hormisdas:1 order:1 replacement:1 bishop:8 include:3 extent:1 influence:1 matter:2 see:4 importance:1 several:1 meeting:1 authority:1 holy:6 reconcile:1 emerge:1 statement:2 mar:3 ignatius:2 zakka:2 iwas:2 john:3 paul:4 ii:2 icon:1 anthony:1 great:5 thebe:1 accord:1 canon:1 four:2 later:2 transfer:1 give:3 status:1 word:4 ancient:3 centre:1 christianity:1 predate:1 responsible:1 within:5 area:2 universal:1 exception:1 thus:4 others:2 fully:2 sovereign:1 among:3 equal:1 due:1 traditional:1 belief:3 apostle:1 saint:4 peter:1 martyr:1 technical:1 excommunicate:1 refuse:1 teach:1 recent:1 indicate:3 regard:3 state:2 partial:1 patriarchate:1 extract:1 lord:2 incarnate:5 logo:3 take:5 perfect:1 manhood:3 yet:3 without:2 mingle:1 confusion:2 alteration:1 hypostatic:3 union:11 inadequate:1 describe:1 say:8 controversy:1 mystery:1 godliness:1 manifest:1 flesh:2 tim:1 permanent:1 never:4 divide:1 separate:4 liturgy:1 godhead:1 depart:3 single:2 moment:3 even:1 twinkle:2 eye:2 unite:4 virgin:6 mary:2 action:1 spirit:2 purify:1 sanctify:1 womb:5 child:1 birth:1 inherit:1 nothing:1 original:1 sin:1 formed:1 blood:1 begotten:1 son:1 place:2 pregnancy:1 inside:1 form:2 logos:2 cyril:3 find:2 expression:5 reliable:1 deep:1 precise:1 use:5 athanasius:2 true:1 leader:1 theological:2 field:1 worldwide:1 ad:6 motion:1 struggle:1 share:1 indian:10 consequently:3 know:3 diophysites:1 believer:2 monophysites:1 intentionally:1 unintentionally:1 misinterpret:1 throughout:1 particular:1 cruelly:1 persecute:1 especially:2 start:1 continue:2 conquest:1 arab:2 egypt:2 syria:2 misinterpretation:1 along:1 deny:1 wonder:1 denies:2 certainly:1 fervent:1 defender:1 arian:1 nicea:1 resolve:1 entirely:1 book:1 subject:1 alone:8 applies:1 speak:2 united:3 soul:11 body:13 man:4 taught:1 u:3 talk:1 hypostatically:1 ever:1 fact:1 implies:1 division:1 admit:2 tone:1 obvious:1 prompt:1 cause:1 exile:1 like:1 raise:2 question:1 contain:1 claim:4 mention:1 e:1 go:1 detail:1 divinity:1 entity:2 essence:1 course:1 unacceptable:1 side:1 theologically:1 easy:1 consist:1 element:2 reply:1 fundamentally:1 different:1 person:1 act:3 attribute:3 want:1 individual:1 ate:2 hungry:2 sleep:2 felt:2 pain:2 get:1 tire:1 whole:2 similarly:1 independently:1 explain:2 leo:1 shall:1 explanation:1 point:1 willing:1 intrinsic:1 real:2 self:1 essential:1 mere:1 connection:1 nestorus:1 example:1 inclusive:1 still:1 incomplete:1 death:1 reunite:1 resurrection:1 inseparable:1 geographical:1 distribution:1 priest:1 dominant:2 religion:2 armenia:1 ethnically:1 nagorno:1 karabakh:1 republic:1 ethiopia:2 total:5 population:1 region:2 amhara:1 tigray:1 chartered:1 city:1 addis:1 ababa:1 oromia:1 eritrea:1 minority:1 sudan:1 lebanon:2 kerala:2 number:2 member:1 large:1 second:1 exceed:1 russian:1 full:1 armenians:1 cilicia:1 british:1 kingdom:1 french:1 france:1 tewahedo:2 jacobite:3 brahmavar:1 goan:1 germany:1 autocephelous:2 exist:1 present:1 east:5 persia:1 caucasian:2 albania:2 azerbijan:1 merge:1 except:1 hereti:1 join:1 georgian:1 diocese:2 mother:1 dispute:1 disupte:1 autonomous:2 branch:1 right:1 occasional:1 kadamattom:1 indo:1 perisan:1 architecture:1 mix:1 hindu:1 temple:1 persian:2 assyrian:1 sometimes:1 incorrectly:1 largely:1 center:2 administratively:1 around:1 break:1 reaction:1 additionally:1 categorically:1 venerates:1 people:1 anathematize:1 heretic:1 many:1 overlap:1 jurisdiction:1 mostly:1 liturgical:1 heritage:1 come:1 autocephalous:1 various:1 thoma:1 anglican:1 malabar:1 list:1 western:1 rite:1 thomas:1 america:2 reference:1 bibliography:1 betts:1 robert:1 b:1 lycabbetus:1 press:1 athens:1 charles:1 r:1 h:1 chronicle:1 nikiu:1 translate:1 zotenberg:1 ethiopic:1 text:1 reprint:1 evolution:1 publishing:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 hh:1 joint:1 agree:1 representative:1 directory:1 site:1 monastery:1 foto:1 album:1 cathedral:1 philadelphia:1 |@bigram oriental_orthodoxy:6 ecumenical_council:1 council_nicaea:3 council_chalcedon:9 oriental_orthodox:24 eastern_orthodox:4 syriac_orthodox:12 antiochian_orthodox:1 coptic_orthodox:5 malankara_orthodox:6 armenian_apostolic:5 jesus_christ:2 patriarch_alexandria:3 apollinaris_laodicea:1 theodore_mopsuestia:1 hotly_debate:1 patriarch_constantinople:1 patriarch_antioch:1 coptic_icon:1 hypostatic_union:2 virgin_mary:1 holy_spirit:2 virgin_womb:5 athanasius_apostolic:1 arian_heresy:1 council_nicea:1 athanasius_alexandria:1 nagorno_karabakh:1 addis_ababa:1 anglican_communion:1 eastern_orthodoxy:1 external_link:1 |
3,068 | Indian_Institute_of_Technology_Kanpur | The Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (known as IIT Kanpur or IITK) is one of the Indian Institutes of Technology, set up in the then-industrial city of Kanpur in 1960. IIT Kanpur has grown into one of the top technological institutes in India , primarily focused on research in engineering and science, and the teaching of undergraduates. History IIT Kanpur was established by an Act of Parliament in 1959. The institute was started in December 1959 in a room in the Canteen Building of the Harcourt Butler Technological Institute at Agricultural Gardens in Kanpur. In 1963, the Institute moved to its present location, on the historic Grand Trunk Road near the village of Kalyanpur in Kanpur district. During the first ten years of its existence, IIT Kanpur benefited from the Kanpur Indo-American Programme, where a consortium of 9 US universities namely M.I.T, University of California, Berkeley, California Institute of Technology, Princeton University, Carnegie Institute of Technology, University of Michigan, Ohio State University, Case Institute Of Technology and Purdue University helped set up the research laboratories and academic programmes. The first Director of the Institute was Dr. P. K. Kelkar (after whom the Central Library was renamed in 2002). Under the guidance of economist John Kenneth Galbraith, IIT Kanpur was the first institute in India to offer Computer Science education. The earliest computer courses were started at IIT Kanpur in August 1963 on an IBM 1620 system, a novelty then even in many North American and European universities. In 1971, the institute initiated an independent academic program, leading to M.Tech. and Ph.D. degrees. Academics Undergraduate Undergraduate courses in the engineering are traditionally 4 year Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech).5 year Dual Programme leading to the degree of B. Tech- M. Tech are also offered in most of the departments along with the five year MSc programmes. Postgraduate Postgraduate courses in the engineering are 2 year Master of Technology (M.Tech) and PhD. The institute also offers MBA (2 years), M.Sc. (2 years) and M. Des programme. Admissions to M. Tech is made once a year through Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering. Department Engineering 1.Aerospace Engineering 2.Biological Sciences and Bio Engineering 3.Chemical Engineering 4.Civil Engineering 5.Computer Science and Engineering 6.Electrical Engineering 7.Industrial & Management Engineering 8.Materials & Metallurgical Engineering 9.Mechanical Engineering Humanities Humanities & Social Sciences Management Industrial & Management Engineering Science 1. Chemistry 2. Mathematics & Statistics 3. Physics Laboratories and other facilities The campus is spread over an area of . The Institute has a number of facilities, including the National Wind Tunnel Facility. Other large research centres include the Advanced Centre for Material Science, a Bio-technology centre, the Advanced Centre for Electronic Systems, and the Samtel Centre for Display Technology, Centre for Mechatronics, Centre for Laser Technology, Prabhu Goel Research Centre for Computer and Internet Security, Facility for Ecological and Analytical Testing. In addition, the various departments have their own smaller libraries. Apart from this, IIT Kanpur also has its own airfield, for flight testing and gliding activities. The Western Labs The Computer-Centre (referred to by the campus residents as "C-C") has about 100-150 Linux terminals and more than 100 Windows-NT terminals supported by the PARAM 10000 supercomputer, and is continuously available to the students for academic work and recreation. In addition, it hosts about 50 SUN workstations that are considered powerful workhorses for heavy computational tasks. It is a major intellectual, social and cultural hub in the campus. The IITs (and especially IIT Kanpur) and BITS Pilani are among the first large academic institutions in India to be extensively networked , with an institute-wide LAN and Ethernet access to every student room in the residence halls. A team of students, working under the guidance of faculty members of the institute and scientists of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) are set to launch India's first nano satellite 'Jugnu'. . Dated:16 February 2009 Students PK Kelkar Library, IIT Kanpur, designed by Achyut Kanvinde The undergraduate students at IIT Kanpur are selected through the Joint Entrance Examination of the IITs. The Post Graduate students are selected through various entrance exams. Master in Business Administration (MBA) - Joint Management Entrance Examination (JMET); Master of Science (M. Sc.) - Joint Admission Test (JAM); Master of Technology (M. Tech.) - Graduate Aptitude Test of Engineering (GATE). Presently, the institute has around 4,000 students, with an equal distribution of graduate and undergraduate students. Students at IIT Kanpur reside in the hostels, or 'halls of residence', there are eight hostels (Hall 1-5, 7-9) for boys and two for girls, called GH-1 and GH-2. The annual cultural festival is called Antaragni. The annual science and technology festival, Techkriti, is held at the end of February each year. The annual sports festival, Udghosh/IIT Kanpur Sportsmeet, is held around the end of September each year and Umang, the annual Film Festival, is held in early January. All four are amongst the most popular college events in North India. The students also bring out a monthly campus newspaper, "Vox Populi", the college magazine "Meander" and the first of its kind science and technology magazine of the campus "NERD". The Students Gymkhana, a democratically elected body, is the centre of all inter-hostel and intercollege activities that the students of IITK engage in. The Student Gymkhana has the following councils: The Presidential Council, The Games Council, The Cultural Council, The Science and Technology Council, The Films and Media Council. The President heads the student body, followed by general secretaries for the subdivisions. A number of secretaries head the various smaller departments. The Students' Senate is a decision making body which is presided over by the Convener. It has elected members who hold one year terms in office. Typically, one student for every hundred is elected into the senate. Students' Research related Activity Recently there has been a surge in the project/research related activities among the students of IIT Kanpur. Research in IIT Kanpur is mediated by the Office of the Dean of Research and Development. Under the aegis of the Office the students are now regularly publishing the NERD Magazine (Notes on Engineering Research and Development) which publishes scientific and technical content created by students quarterly. Articles may be original work done by students in the form of hobby projects, term projects, internships, theses et cetera. Articles of general interest which are informative but do not reflect original work are also accepted. Along with the magazine a student research platform called PoWER (Promotion of work Experience and Research) has also been initiated under the Office of Dean of Research and Development. Under it several independent student groups are working on various projects like the Lunar Rover for ISRO, Alternate Energy Solutions under the Group for Environment and Energy Engineering, programing solution in Indian languages, research in sports sciences et cetera. A budget of Rs 1 to 2 crore has been envisaged to support student projects that demonstrate technology. SIDBI Innovation & Incubation Centre IIT Kanpur has set up the SIDBI Innovation and Incubation Centre in collaboration with Small Industries development Bank of India (SIDBI) to foster innovation, research, and entrepreneurial activities in technology-based areas. SIIC provides a platform to business Start-ups to develop their ideas into commercially viable products. Notable Alumni Dr Chandra Kintala, Director, Yahoo! Labs, Bengaluru, India; Director(Retd.), Bell Labs, USA Ashoke Sen (String theorist) N.R. Narayana Murthy (founded the software corporation Infosys) Manindra Agrawal, Nitin Saxena, and Neeraj Kayal (proved with their AKS primality test that primality testing has a polynomial time algorithm, a major result in theoretical computer science) Avanidhar Subrahmanyam: Notable professor at UCLA, expert in the field of behavioral finance, great-grandson of Patanjali Sastri, Goldyne and Irwin Hearsh Chair of Money and Banking Pradeep Sindhu (Founder - Juniper Networks) Ashok Jhunjhunwala (Padma Shri and Professor, Dept of Electrical Engineering, IIT Madras) Jainendra K. Jain (condensed matter theorist) Satyendra Dubey (Whistle-blower whose murder shocked the nation) Ayyalusamy Ramamoorthy, scientist in the area of NMR and biological membranes. Duvvuri Subbarao, 22nd Governor of Reserve Bank of India Shiraz Minwalla, (String Theorist) Mriganka Sur, (Neuro Scientist), Sherman Fairchild Professor of Neuroscience, Head, Dept of Brain and Cognitive Science MIT, Fellow of Royal Society Awards and Recognitions Chandra Kintala(Director, Yahoo Labs, Bengaluru) received Smithsonian medal sponsored by Computer World in 1998 C.N.R. Rao (Ex-Chairman, BOG, IIT Kanpur) received the Dan David Prize, given by the Dan David Foundation, Tel Aviv University. C.N.R. Rao was conferred the title Chevalier de la Legion d'Honneur (Knight of the Legion of Honour) by France, the highest civilian award given by the French Government. Godel Prize to Rajeev Motwani (2001) and Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal and Nitin Saxena (2006). References External links Official Website NERD Magazine Group for Environment and Energy Engineering | Indian_Institute_of_Technology_Kanpur |@lemmatized indian:4 institute:17 technology:16 kanpur:21 know:1 iit:17 iitk:2 one:4 set:4 industrial:3 city:1 grow:1 top:1 technological:2 india:8 primarily:1 focus:1 research:15 engineering:20 science:14 teaching:1 undergraduate:5 history:1 establish:1 act:1 parliament:1 start:3 december:1 room:2 canteen:1 building:1 harcourt:1 butler:1 agricultural:1 garden:1 move:1 present:1 location:1 historic:1 grand:1 trunk:1 road:1 near:1 village:1 kalyanpur:1 district:1 first:6 ten:1 year:11 existence:1 benefit:1 indo:1 american:2 programme:5 consortium:1 u:1 university:8 namely:1 california:2 berkeley:1 princeton:1 carnegie:1 michigan:1 ohio:1 state:1 case:1 purdue:1 help:1 laboratory:2 academic:5 director:4 dr:2 p:1 k:2 kelkar:2 central:1 library:3 rename:1 guidance:2 economist:1 john:1 kenneth:1 galbraith:1 offer:3 computer:7 education:1 early:2 course:3 august:1 ibm:1 system:2 novelty:1 even:1 many:1 north:2 european:1 initiate:2 independent:2 program:2 lead:2 tech:7 ph:1 degree:2 traditionally:1 bachelor:1 b:2 dual:1 also:6 department:4 along:2 five:1 msc:1 postgraduate:2 master:4 phd:1 mba:2 sc:2 de:2 admission:2 make:1 graduate:4 aptitude:2 test:4 aerospace:1 biological:2 bio:2 chemical:1 civil:1 electrical:2 management:4 material:2 metallurgical:1 mechanical:1 humanity:1 humanities:1 social:2 chemistry:1 mathematics:1 statistic:1 physic:1 facility:4 campus:5 spread:1 area:3 number:2 include:2 national:1 wind:1 tunnel:1 large:2 centre:12 advanced:2 electronic:1 samtel:1 display:1 mechatronics:1 laser:1 prabhu:1 goel:1 internet:1 security:1 ecological:1 analytical:1 testing:3 addition:2 various:4 small:3 apart:1 airfield:1 flight:1 gliding:1 activity:5 western:1 labs:1 refer:1 resident:1 c:4 linux:1 terminal:2 window:1 nt:1 support:2 param:1 supercomputer:1 continuously:1 available:1 student:24 work:6 recreation:1 host:1 sun:1 workstation:1 consider:1 powerful:1 workhorse:1 heavy:1 computational:1 task:1 major:2 intellectual:1 cultural:3 hub:1 iits:2 especially:1 bit:1 pilani:1 among:2 institution:1 extensively:1 networked:1 wide:1 lan:1 ethernet:1 access:1 every:2 residence:2 hall:3 team:1 faculty:1 member:2 scientist:3 space:1 organisation:1 isro:2 launch:1 nano:1 satellite:1 jugnu:1 date:1 february:2 pk:1 design:1 achyut:1 kanvinde:1 select:2 joint:3 entrance:3 examination:2 post:1 exam:1 business:2 administration:1 jmet:1 jam:1 gate:1 presently:1 around:2 equal:1 distribution:1 reside:1 hostel:3 eight:1 boy:1 two:1 girl:1 call:3 gh:2 annual:4 festival:4 antaragni:1 techkriti:1 hold:4 end:2 sport:2 udghosh:1 sportsmeet:1 september:1 umang:1 film:2 january:1 four:1 amongst:1 popular:1 college:2 event:1 bring:1 monthly:1 newspaper:1 vox:1 populi:1 magazine:5 meander:1 kind:1 nerd:3 gymkhana:2 democratically:1 elect:3 body:3 inter:1 intercollege:1 engage:1 following:1 council:6 presidential:1 game:1 medium:1 president:1 head:3 follow:1 general:2 secretary:2 subdivision:1 senate:2 decision:1 making:1 preside:1 convener:1 term:2 office:4 typically:1 hundred:1 relate:1 recently:1 surge:1 project:5 related:1 mediate:1 dean:2 development:4 aegis:1 regularly:1 publish:2 note:1 scientific:1 technical:1 content:1 create:1 quarterly:1 article:2 may:1 original:2 form:1 hobby:1 internship:1 thesis:1 et:2 cetera:2 interest:1 informative:1 reflect:1 accept:1 platform:2 power:1 promotion:1 experience:1 several:1 group:3 like:1 lunar:1 rover:1 alternate:1 energy:3 solution:2 environment:2 language:1 budget:1 r:4 crore:1 envisage:1 demonstrate:1 sidbi:3 innovation:3 incubation:2 collaboration:1 industry:1 bank:2 foster:1 entrepreneurial:1 base:1 siic:1 provide:1 ups:1 develop:1 idea:1 commercially:1 viable:1 product:1 notable:2 alumnus:1 chandra:2 kintala:2 yahoo:2 lab:3 bengaluru:2 retd:1 bell:1 usa:1 ashoke:1 sen:1 string:2 theorist:3 n:3 narayana:1 murthy:1 found:1 software:1 corporation:1 infosys:1 manindra:2 agrawal:2 nitin:2 saxena:2 neeraj:2 kayal:2 prove:1 ak:1 primality:2 polynomial:1 time:1 algorithm:1 result:1 theoretical:1 avanidhar:1 subrahmanyam:1 professor:3 ucla:1 expert:1 field:1 behavioral:1 finance:1 great:1 grandson:1 patanjali:1 sastri:1 goldyne:1 irwin:1 hearsh:1 chair:1 money:1 banking:1 pradeep:1 sindhu:1 founder:1 juniper:1 network:1 ashok:1 jhunjhunwala:1 padma:1 shri:1 dept:2 madras:1 jainendra:1 jain:1 condensed:1 matter:1 satyendra:1 dubey:1 whistle:1 blower:1 whose:1 murder:1 shock:1 nation:1 ayyalusamy:1 ramamoorthy:1 nmr:1 membrane:1 duvvuri:1 subbarao:1 governor:1 reserve:1 shiraz:1 minwalla:1 mriganka:1 sur:1 neuro:1 sherman:1 fairchild:1 neuroscience:1 brain:1 cognitive:1 mit:1 fellow:1 royal:1 society:1 award:2 recognition:1 receive:2 smithsonian:1 medal:1 sponsor:1 world:1 rao:2 ex:1 chairman:1 bog:1 dan:2 david:2 prize:2 give:2 foundation:1 tel:1 aviv:1 confer:1 title:1 chevalier:1 la:1 legion:2 honneur:1 knight:1 honour:1 france:1 high:1 civilian:1 french:1 government:1 godel:1 rajeev:1 motwani:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram iit_kanpur:16 kenneth_galbraith:1 metallurgical_engineering:1 window_nt:1 entrance_exam:1 democratically_elect:1 decision_making:1 et_cetera:2 r_crore:1 commercially_viable:1 dr_chandra:1 bell_lab:1 manindra_agrawal:2 primality_test:1 condensed_matter:1 tel_aviv:1 external_link:1 |
3,069 | Lincoln,_New_Hampshire | Lincoln is a town in Grafton County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 1,271 at the 2000 census. Lincoln, the second-largest town by area in New Hampshire, includes the village of North Lincoln and the former village site of Stillwater. The town is home to the New Hampshire Highland Games and to a portion of Franconia Notch State Park. Large portions of the town are covered by the White Mountain National Forest. The Appalachian Trail crosses in the northeast. Lincoln is the location of the Loon Mountain ski resort and associated recreation-centered development. History In 1764, Colonial Governor Benning Wentworth granted to a group of approximately 70 land investors from Connecticut. "Lincoln" was named after Henry Fiennes Pelham-Clinton, 2nd Duke of Newcastle, 9th Earl of Lincoln — a cousin of the Wentworth governors. He held the position of Comptroller of Customs for the port of London under George II and George III, which was important to trade between America and England. The town was settled about 1782. The 1790 census indicates that it had 22 inhabitants. Rocky soil yielded poor farming, but the area's abundant timber, combined with water power to run sawmills on the Pemigewasset River and its East Branch, helped Lincoln develop into a center for logging. By 1853, the Merrimack River Lumber Company was operating. The railroad transported freight, and increasingly brought tourists to the beautiful mountain region. In 1892, James E. Henry bought approximately of virgin timber and established a logging enterprise at what is today the center of Lincoln. In 1902, he built a pulp and paper mill. He erected the "Lincoln House" hotel in 1903, although a 1907 fire would nearly raze the community. Until he died in 1912, Henry controlled his company town, installing relatives in positions of civic authority. Lincoln c. 1915 In 1917, Henry's heirs sold the business to the Parker Young Company, which in turn sold it to the Marcalus Manufacturing Company in 1946. Franconia Paper took over in 1950, producing 150 tons of paper a day until bankruptcy in 1971, at which time new river classification standards discouraged further paper-making in Lincoln. Tourism is today the principal business. Nearby Loon Mountain ski area has long drawn winter tourism, and in recent years has attempted to convert itself into a four-season attraction. "The Flume" is one of the most visited attractions in the state. Discovered in 1808, it is a natural gorge extending at the base of Mount Liberty. Walls of Conway granite rise to a height of 70 to 90 feet (21 to 27 m) and are only 12 to 20 feet (2.5 to 6.0 m) apart. Geography A hiking trail in the area.According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of . of it is land and of it is water, comprising 0.17% of the town. It is the second-largest town in area in New Hampshire (after Pittsburg). Lincoln is drained by the Pemigewasset River and its East Branch. Lincoln lies almost fully within the Merrimack River watershed, with the western edge of town in the Connecticut River watershed. Kancamagus Pass, elevation , is on the Kancamagus Highway at the eastern boundary. The highest point in Lincoln is either the summit of Mount Carrigain, at above sea level, plus or minus , or the summit of Mount Bond at . Demographics The Flume in 1905 As of the census of 2000, there were 1,271 people, 583 households, and 324 families residing in the town. The population density was 9.7 people per square mile (3.8/km²). There were 2,339 housing units at an average density of 17.9/sq mi (6.9/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 97.40% White, 0.39% Native American, 0.87% Asian, 0.16% from other races, and 1.18% from two or more races. 0.71% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 583 households out of which 22.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.4% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.4% were non-families. 35.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.83. In the town the population was spread out with 19.8% under the age of 18, 7.1% from 18 to 24, 27.9% from 25 to 44, 27.9% from 45 to 64, and 17.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 99.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.7 males. The median income for a household in the town was $28,523, and the median income for a family was $44,063. Males had a median income of $25,263 versus $22,784 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,999. About 3.4% of families and 8.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.3% of those under age 18 and 5.5% of those age 65 or over. Sites of interest Clark's Trading Post Hobo Railroad Indian Head Resort Papermill Theatre, North Country Center for the Arts New Hampshire Highland Games Upper Pemigewasset Historical Society Museum Whale's Tale Water Park References External links Lincoln, NH Official Website The Flume Gorge & Visitor Center History of Lincoln, New Hampshire Lincoln Public Library New Hampshire Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau Profile | Lincoln,_New_Hampshire |@lemmatized lincoln:17 town:15 grafton:1 county:1 new:8 hampshire:7 united:2 state:4 population:5 census:4 second:2 large:3 area:6 include:2 village:2 north:2 former:1 site:2 stillwater:1 home:1 highland:2 game:2 portion:2 franconia:2 notch:1 park:2 cover:1 white:2 mountain:4 national:1 forest:1 appalachian:1 trail:2 cross:1 northeast:1 location:1 loon:2 ski:2 resort:2 associate:1 recreation:1 center:5 development:1 history:2 colonial:1 governor:2 benning:1 wentworth:2 grant:1 group:1 approximately:2 land:2 investor:1 connecticut:2 name:1 henry:4 fiennes:1 pelham:1 clinton:1 duke:1 newcastle:1 earl:1 cousin:1 hold:1 position:2 comptroller:1 custom:1 port:1 london:1 george:2 ii:1 iii:1 important:1 trade:1 america:1 england:1 settle:1 indicate:1 inhabitant:1 rocky:1 soil:1 yield:1 poor:1 farming:1 abundant:1 timber:2 combine:1 water:3 power:1 run:1 sawmill:1 pemigewasset:3 river:6 east:2 branch:2 help:1 develop:1 log:1 merrimack:2 lumber:1 company:4 operate:1 railroad:2 transport:1 freight:1 increasingly:1 brought:1 tourist:1 beautiful:1 region:1 jam:1 e:1 buy:1 virgin:1 establish:1 logging:1 enterprise:1 today:2 build:1 pulp:1 paper:4 mill:1 erect:1 house:1 hotel:1 although:1 fire:1 would:1 nearly:1 raze:1 community:1 die:1 control:1 instal:1 relative:1 civic:1 authority:1 c:1 heir:1 sell:2 business:2 parker:1 young:1 turn:1 marcalus:1 manufacture:1 take:1 produce:1 ton:1 day:1 bankruptcy:1 time:1 classification:1 standard:1 discourage:1 making:1 tourism:2 principal:1 nearby:1 long:1 draw:1 winter:1 recent:1 year:4 attempt:1 convert:1 four:1 season:1 attraction:2 flume:3 one:1 visited:1 discover:1 natural:1 gorge:2 extend:1 base:1 mount:3 liberty:1 wall:1 conway:1 granite:1 rise:1 height:1 foot:2 apart:1 geography:1 hiking:1 accord:1 bureau:2 total:1 comprise:1 pittsburg:1 drain:1 lie:1 almost:1 fully:1 within:1 watershed:2 western:1 edge:1 kancamagus:2 pas:1 elevation:1 highway:1 eastern:1 boundary:1 high:1 point:1 either:1 summit:2 carrigain:1 sea:1 level:1 plus:1 minus:1 bond:1 demographic:1 people:2 household:5 family:5 reside:1 density:2 per:2 square:1 mile:1 housing:1 unit:1 average:3 sq:1 mi:1 racial:1 makeup:1 native:1 american:1 asian:1 race:3 two:1 hispanic:1 latino:1 child:1 age:8 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:2 together:1 female:4 householder:1 husband:1 present:1 non:1 make:1 individual:1 someone:1 alone:1 old:2 size:2 spread:1 median:4 every:2 male:3 income:4 versus:1 capita:1 poverty:1 line:1 interest:1 clark:1 trading:1 post:1 hobo:1 indian:1 head:1 papermill:1 theatre:1 country:1 art:1 upper:1 historical:1 society:1 museum:1 whale:1 tale:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 nh:1 official:1 website:1 visitor:1 public:1 library:1 economic:1 labor:1 market:1 information:1 profile:1 |@bigram appalachian_trail:1 ski_resort:1 pulp_paper:1 hiking_trail:1 census_bureau:1 plus_minus:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 hispanic_latino:1 latino_race:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:2 median_income:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 external_link:1 |
3,070 | Advertising | A Coca-Cola advert from the 1890s Advertising is a form of communication that typically attempts to persuade potential customers to purchase or to consume more of a particular brand of product or service. “While now central to the contemporary global economy and the reproduction of global production networks, it is only quite recently that advertising has been more than a marginal influence on patterns of sales and production. The formation of modern advertising was intimately bound up with the emergence of new forms of monopoly capitalism around the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century as one element in corporate strategies to create, organize and where possible control markets, especially for mass produced consumer goods. Mass production necessitated mass consumption, and this in turn required a certain homogenization of consumer tastes for final products. At its limit, this involved seeking to create ‘world cultural convergence’, to homogenize consumer tastes and engineer a ‘convergence of lifestyle, culture and behaviors among consumer segments across the world’.” Many advertisements are designed to generate increased consumption of those products and services through the creation and reinvention of the "brand image" . For these purposes, advertisements sometimes embed their persuasive message with factual information. Every major medium is used to deliver these messages, including television, radio, cinema, magazines, newspapers, video games, the Internet, carrier bags and billboards. Advertising is often placed by an advertising agency on behalf of a company or other organization. Organizations that frequently spend large sums of money on advertising that sells what is not, strictly speaking, a product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations, and military recruiters. Non-profit organizations are not typical advertising clients, and may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as public service announcements. Money spent on advertising has increased dramatically in recent years. In 2007, spending on advertising has been estimated at over $150 billion in the United States and $385 billion worldwide, and the latter to exceed $450 billion by 2010. While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social costs. Unsolicited Commercial Email and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on internet service providers. Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation. History Edo period advertising flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BCE. Bhatia (2000). Advertising in Rural India: Language, Marketing Communication, and Consumerism, 62+68 As the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable to read, signs that today would say cobbler, miller, tailor or blacksmith would use an image associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers or town criers to announce their whereabouts for the convenience of the customers. As education became an apparent need and reading, as well printing developed, advertising expanded to include handbills. In the 17th century advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged Europe. However, false advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content. As the economy expanded during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order advertising. In June 1836, French newspaper La Presse is the first to include paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney Palmer established a predecessor to advertising agencies in Boston. Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N. W. Ayer & Son was the first full-service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content. N.W. Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia. At the turn of the century, there were few career choices for women in business; however, advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing done in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a couple with the message "The skin you love to touch". Advertising Slogans, Woodbury Soap Company, "The skin you love to touch", J. Walter Thompson Co., 1911 In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed, many non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations, and included: schools, clubs and civic groups. McChesney, Robert, Educators and the Battle for Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928-35, Rich Media, Poor Democracy, ISBN 0-252-02448-6 (1999) When the practice of sponsoring programs was popularised, each individual radio program was usually sponsored by a single business in exchange for a brief mention of the business' name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio station owners soon realised they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights in small time allocations to multiple businesses throughout their radio station's broadcasts, rather than selling the sponsorship rights to single businesses per show. A print advertisement for the 1913 issue of the Encyclopædia Britannica This practice was carried over to television in the late 1940s and early 1950s. A fierce battle was fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio spectrum should be considered a part of the commons – to be used only non-commercially and for the public good. The United Kingdom pursued a public funding model for the BBC, originally a private company, the British Broadcasting Company, but incorporated as a public body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada, advocates like Graham Spry were likewise able to persuade the federal government to adopt a public funding model, creating the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. However, in the United States, the capitalist model prevailed with the passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which created the Federal Communications Commission. To placate the socialists, the U.S. Congress did require commercial broadcasters to operate in the "public interest, convenience, and necessity". Public broadcasting now exists in the United States due to the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service and National Public Radio. In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern trend of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show - up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show. The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame. The 1960s saw advertising transform into a modern approach in which creativity was allowed to shine, producing unexpected messages that made advertisements more tempting to consumers' eyes. The Volkswagen ad campaign—featuring such headlines as "Think Small" and "Lemon" (which were used to describe the appearance of the car)—ushered in the era of modern advertising by promoting a "position" or "unique selling proposition" designed to associate each brand with a specific idea in the reader or viewer's mind. This period of American advertising is called the Creative Revolution and its archetype was William Bernbach who helped create the revolutionary Volkswagen ads among others. Some of the most creative and long-standing American advertising dates to this period. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada. Marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contributed to the "dot-com" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, a number of websites including the search engine Google, started a change in online advertising by emphasizing contextually relevant, unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather than inundate, users. This has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising. The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media. For example, in the U.S. in 1925, the main advertising media were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media. Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower—about 2.4 percent. A recent advertising innovation is "guerrilla marketing", which involve unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message. This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and various innovations utilizing social network services such as MySpace. Mobile billboard advertising The RedEye newspaper advertised to its target market at North Avenue Beach with a sailboat billboard on Lake Michigan. Mobile billboards are truck- or blimp-mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients, or they can be specially-equipped cargo trucks. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: Target advertising One-day, and long-term campaigns Conventions Sporting events Store openings and similar promotional events Big advertisements from smaller companies Others Public service advertising The same advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS, political ideology, energy conservation, religious recruitment, and deforestation. Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest - it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes." - Attributed to Howard Gossage by David Ogilvy. Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives. In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers. Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of several governments. Types of advertising Media Paying people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with this Human directional pictured above A bus with an advertisement for GAP in Singapore. Buses and other vehicles are popular mediums for advertisers. A DBAG Class 101 with UNICEF ads at Ingolstadt main railway station Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers, stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising. One way to measure advertising effectiveness is known as Ad Tracking. This advertising research methodology measures shifts in target market perceptions about the brand and product or service. These shifts in perception are plotted against the consumers’ levels of exposure to the company’s advertisements and promotions. The purpose of Ad Tracking is generally to provide a measure of the combined effect of the media weight or spending level, the effectiveness of the media buy or targeting, and the quality of the advertising executions or creative. Ad Tracking Article Covert advertising Covert advertising is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them "classics," because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard. Television commercials The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format, as is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during popular TV events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on television. The average cost of a single thirty-second TV spot during this game has reached $3 million (as of 2009). The majority of television commercials feature a song or jingle that listeners soon relate to the product. Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular television programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience. More controversially, virtual billboards may be inserted into the background http://www.canwestmediaworks.com/television/nontraditional/opportunities/virtual_advertising/ where none exist in real-life. Virtual product placement is also possible. Advertising's Twilight Zone: That Signpost Up Ahead May Be a Virtual Product - New York Times Infomercials There are two types of infomercials, described as long form and short form. Long form infomercials have a time length of 30 minutes. Short form infomercials are 30 seconds to 2 minutes long. Infomercials are also known as direct response television (DRTV) commercials or direct response marketing. The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the consumer sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe, display, and often demonstrate products and their features, and commonly have testimonials from consumers and industry professionals. Some well known companies in the infomercial business are Script to Screen, Hawthorne Direct, International Shopping Network and Guthy-Renker. Celebrities This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favourite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. Media and advertising approaches Increasingly, other media are overtaking television because of a shift towards consumer's usage of the Internet as well as devices such as TiVo. Advertising on the World Wide Web is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives. E-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known as "spam". Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the International Space Station. Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see propaganda). Unpaid advertising (also called publicity advertising), can provide good exposure at minimal cost. Personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "Xerox" = "photocopier", "Kleenex" = tissue, "Vaseline" = petroleum jelly, "Hoover" = vacuum cleaner,nintendo(older people)=video games, and "Band-Aid" = adhesive bandage) — these can be seen as the pinnacle of any advertising campaign. However, some companies oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a genericized trademark - turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost. As the mobile phone became a new mass media in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content appeared on mobile phones in Finland, it was only a matter of time until mobile advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000. By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2.2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile ads. More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular feature driving mobile ads is the 2D Barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes. A new form of advertising that is growing rapidly is social network advertising. It is online advertising with a focus on social networking sites. This is a relatively immature market, but it has shown a lot of promise as advertisers are able to take advantage of the demographic information the user has provided to the social networking site. Friendertising is a more precise advertising term in which people are able to direct advertisements toward others directly using social network service. From time to time, The CW Television Network airs short programming breaks called "Content Wraps," to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and recently Toyota. Recently, there appeared a new promotion concept, "ARvertising"; its supported on Augmented Reality technology. Criticism of advertising Hyper-commercialism and the commercial tidal wave Criticism of advertising is closely linked with criticism of media and often interchangeable. They can refer to its audio-visual aspects (e. g. cluttering of public spaces and airwaves), environmental aspects (e. g. pollution, oversize packaging, increasing consumption), political aspects (e. g. media dependency, free speech, censorship), financial aspects (costs), ethical/moral/social aspects (e. g. sub-conscious influencing, invasion of privacy, increasing consumption and waste, target groups, certain products, honesty) and, of course, a mix thereof. Some aspects can be subdivided further and some can cover more than one category. As advertising has become increasingly prevalent in modern Western societies, it is also increasingly being criticized. A person can hardly move in the public sphere or use a medium without being subject to advertising. Advertising occupies public space and more and more invades the private sphere of people, many of which consider it a nuisance. “It is becoming harder to escape from advertising and the media. … Public space is increasingly turning into a gigantic billboard for products of all kind. The aesthetical and political consequences cannot yet be foreseen.” Franck, Georg: Ökonomie der Aufmerksamkeit. Ein Entwurf. 1. Edition, Carl Hanser, March 1998, ISBN 3-446-19348-0, ISBN 978-3-446-19348-2 Hanno Rauterberg in the German newspaper ‘Die Zeit’ calls advertising a new kind of dictatorship that cannot be escaped. Ad creep: There are ads in schools, airport lounges, doctors offices, movie theaters, hospitals, gas stations, elevators, convenience stores, on the Internet, on fruit, on ATMs, on garbage cans and countless other places. There are ads on beach sand and restroom walls.” “One of the ironies of advertising in our times is that as commercialism increases, it makes it that much more difficult for any particular advertiser to succeed, hence pushing the advertiser to even greater efforts.” McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 266, ISBN 978-158367161-0 Within a decade advertising in radios climbed to nearly 18 or 19 minutes per hour; on prime-time television the standard until 1982 was no more than 9.5 minutes of advertising per hour, today it’s between 14 and 17 minutes. With the introduction of the shorter 15-second-spot the total amount of ads increased even more dramatically. Ads are not only placed in breaks but e. g. also into baseball telecasts during the game itself. They flood the internet, a market growing in leaps and bounds. Other growing markets are ‘’product placements’’ in entertainment programming and in movies where it has become standard practice and ‘’virtual advertising’’ where products get placed retroactively into rerun shows. Product billboards are virtually inserted into Major League Baseball broadcasts and in the same manner, virtual street banners or logos are projected on an entry canopy or sidewalks, for example during the arrival of celebrities at the 2001 Grammy Awards. Advertising precedes the showing of films at cinemas including lavish ‘film shorts’ produced by companies such as Microsoft or DaimlerChrysler. “The largest advertising agencies have begun working aggressively to co-produce programming in conjunction with the largest media firms” McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 272, ISBN 978-158367161-0 creating Infomercials resembling entertainment programming. Opponents equate the growing amount of advertising with a “tidal wave” and restrictions with “damming” the flood. Kalle Lasn, one of the most outspoken critics of advertising on the international stage, considers advertising “the most prevalent and toxic of the mental pollutants. From the moment your radio alarm sounds in the morning to the wee hours of late-night TV microjolts of commercial pollution flood into your brain at the rate of around 3,000 marketing messages per day. Every day an estimated twelve billion display ads, 3 million radio commercials and more than 200,000 television commercials are dumped into North America’s collective unconscious”. Lasn, Kalle in: Culture Jam: The Uncooling of America, William Morrow & Company; 1st edition (November 1999),ISBN 0688156568, ISBN 978-0688156565 In the course of his life the average American watches three years of advertising on television. Kilbourne, Jean: Can't Buy My Love: How Advertising Changes the Way We Think and Feel, Touchstone, 2000, ISBN 978-0684866000 More recent developments are video games incorporating products into their content, special commercial patient channels in hospitals and public figures sporting temporary tattoos. A method unrecognisable as advertising is so-called ‘’guerrilla marketing’’ which is spreading ‘buzz’ about a new product in target audiences. Cash-strapped U.S. cities do not shrink back from offering police cars for advertising. McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), ISBN 978-158367161-0 A trend, especially in Germany, is companies buying the names of sports stadiums. The Hamburg soccer Volkspark stadium first became the AOL Arena and then the HSH Nordbank Arena. The Stuttgart Neckarstadion became the Mercedes-Benz Arena, the Dortmund Westfalenstadion now is the Signal Iduna Park. The former SkyDome in Toronto was renamed Rogers Centre. Other recent developments are, for example, that whole subway stations in Berlin are redesigned into product halls and exclusively leased to a company. Düsseldorf even has ‘multi-sensorial’ adventure transit stops equipped with loudspeakers and systems that spread the smell of a detergent. Swatch used beamers to project messages on the Berlin TV-tower and Victory column, which was fined because it was done without a permit. The illegality was part of the scheme and added promotion. It’s standard business management knowledge that advertising is a pillar, if not “the” pillar of the growth-orientated free capitalist economy. “Advertising is part of the bone marrow of corporate capitalism.” McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 265, ISBN 978-158367161-0 “Contemporary capitalism could not function and global production networks could not exist as they do without advertising.” For communication scientist and media economist Manfred Knoche at the University of Salzburg, Austria, advertising isn’t just simply a ‘necessary evil’ but a ‘necessary elixir of life’ for the media business, the economy and capitalism as a whole. Advertising and mass media economic interests create ideology. Knoche describes advertising for products and brands as ‘the producer’s weapons in the competition for customers’ and trade advertising, e. g. by the automotive industry, as a means to collectively represent their interests against other groups, such as the train companies. In his view editorial articles and programmes in the media, promoting consumption in general, provide a ‘cost free’ service to producers and sponsoring for a ‘much used means of payment’ in advertising. Knoche, Manfred (2005): Werbung - ein notwendiges "Lebenselixier" für den Kapitalismus: Zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie der Werbung, in: Seufert, Wolfgang/Müller-Lietzkow, Jörg (Hrsg.): Theorie und Praxis der Werbung in den Massenmedien. Baden-Baden: Nomos, p. 239-255. Christopher Lasch argues that advertising leads to an overall increase in consumption in society; "Advertising serves not so much to advertise products as to promote consumption as a way of life." Lasch, Christopher. The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations, Norton, New York, ISBN 978-0393307382 Advertising and constitutional rights Advertising is equated with constitutionally guaranteed freedom of opinion and speech. http://www.csupomona.edu/~jkirkpatrick/Papers/EthicsAdvtTaxation.pdf Therefore criticizing advertising or any attempt to restrict or ban advertising is almost always considered to be an attack on fundamental rights (First Amendment in the USA) and meets the combined and concentrated resistance of the business and especially the advertising community. “Currently or in the near future, any number of cases are and will be working their way through the court system that would seek to prohibit any government regulation of ... commercial speech (e. g. advertising or food labelling) on the grounds that such regulation would violate citizens’ and corporations’ First Amendment rights to free speech or free press.” McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), pp. 132, 249, ISBN 978-158367161-0 An example for this debate is advertising for tobacco or alcohol but also advertising by mail or fliers (clogged mail boxes), advertising on the phone, in the internet and advertising for children. Various legal restrictions concerning spamming, advertising on mobile phones, addressing children, tobacco, alcohol have been introduced by the US, the EU and various other countries. Not only the business community resists restrictions of advertising. Advertising as a means of free expression has firmly established itself in western society. Surveys e. g. reveal that advertising is generally seen as a welcome information and seldom as a nuisance. At worst it is seen as a necessary evil to be endured and most often its entertaining value is pointed out. Hardly any by-law restricting advertising fails to appease possible critics by pointing out the positive effects and the necessity of advertising in its foreword. McChesney argues, that the government deserves constant vigilance when it comes to such regulations, but that it is certainly not “the only antidemocratic force in our society. ...corporations and the wealthy enjoy a power every bit as immense as that enjoyed by the lords and royalty of feudal times” and “markets are not value-free or neutral; they not only tend to work to the advantage of those with the most money, but they also by their very nature emphasize profit over all else….Hence, today the debate is over whether advertising or food labelling, or campaign contributions are speech...if the rights to be protected by the First Amendment can only be effectively employed by a fraction of the citizenry, and their exercise of these rights gives them undue political power and undermines the ability of the balance of the citizenry to exercise the same rights and/or constitutional rights, then it is not necessarily legitimately protected by the First Amendment.” In addition, “those with the capacity to engage in free press are in a position to determine who can speak to the great mass of citizens and who cannot”. McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 252, 249, 254, 256, ISBN 978-158367161-0 Critics in turn argue, that advertising invades privacy which is a constitutional right. For, on the one hand, advertising physically invades privacy, on the other, it increasingly uses relevant, information-based communication with private data assembled without the knowledge or consent of consumers or target groups. For Georg Franck at Vienna University of Technology advertising is part of what he calls “mental capitalism” Franck, Georg: Ökonomie der Aufmerksamkeit. Ein Entwurf. (Economy of Attention), 1. Edition. Carl Hanser, March 1998, ISBN 3-446-19348-0, ISBN 978-3-446-19348-2. Lecture held at Philosophicum Lech (Austria) 2002, published in Konrad Paul Liessmann (Hrg.), Die Kanäle der Macht. Herrschaft und Freiheit im Medienzeitalter, Philosophicum Lech Vol. 6, Vienna: Zsolnay, 2003, p. 36-60; preprint in Merkur No. 645, January 2003, S. 1-15 , taking up a term (mental) which has been used by groups concerned with the mental environment, such as Adbusters. Franck blends the “Economy of Attention” with Christopher Lasch’s culture of narcissm into the mental capitalism: Lasch, Christopher: Das Zeitalter des Narzissmus. (The Culture of Narcissism), 1. Edition. Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1995. In his essay „Advertising at the Edge of the Apocalypse“, Sut Jhally writes: “20. century advertising is the most powerful and sustained system of propaganda in human history and its cumulative cultural effects, unless quickly checked, will be responsible for destroying the world as we know it. The price of attention and hidden costs Advertising has developed into a billion-dollar business on which many depend. In 2006 391 billion US dollars were spent worldwide for advertising. In Germany, for example, the advertising industry contributes 1.5% of the gross national income; the figures for other developed countries are similar. Thus, advertising and growth are directly and causally linked. As far as a growth based economy can be blamed for the harmful human lifestyle (affluent society) advertising has to be considered in this aspect concerning its negative impact, because its main purpose is to raise consumption. “The industry is accused of being one of the engines powering a convoluted economic mass production system which promotes consumption.” Attention and attentiveness have become a new commodity for which a market developed. “The amount of attention that is absorbed by the media and redistributed in the competition for quotas and reach is not identical with the amount of attention, that is available in society. The total amount circulating in society is made up of the attention exchanged among the people themselves and the attention given to media information. Only the latter is homogenised by quantitative measuring and only the latter takes on the character of an anonymous currency.” According to Franck, any surface of presentation that can guarantee a certain degree of attentiveness works as magnet for attention, e. g. media which are actually meant for information and entertainment, culture and the arts, public space etc. It is this attraction which is sold to the advertising business. The German Advertising Association stated that in 2007 30.78 billion Euros were spent on advertising in Germany, 26% in newspapers, 21% on television, 15% by mail and 15% in magazines. In 2002 there were 360.000 people employed in the advertising business. The internet revenues for advertising doubled to almost 1 billion Euros from 2006 to 2007, giving it the highest growth rates. Spiegel-Online reported that in the USA in 2008 for the first time more money was spent for advertising on internet (105.3 billion US dollars) than on television (98.5 billion US dollars). The largest amount in 2008 was still spent in the print media (147 billion US dollars). For that same year, Welt-Online reported that the US pharmaceutical industry spent almost double the amount on advertising (57.7 billion dollars) than it did on research (31.5 billion dollars). But Marc-André Gagnon und Joel Lexchin of York University, Toronto, estimate that the actual expenses for advertising are higher yet, because not all entries are recorded by the research institutions. Not included are indirect advertising campaigns such as sales, rebates and price reductions. Few consumers are aware of the fact that they are the ones paying for every cent spent for public relations, advertisements, rebates, packaging etc. since they ordinarily get included in the price calculation. Influencing and conditioning Advertising for McDonald's on the Via di Propaganda, Rome, Italy The most important element of advertising is not information but suggestion more or less making use of associations, emotions (appeal to emotion) and drives dormant in the sub-conscience of people, such as sex drive, herd instinct, of desires, such as happiness, health, fitness, appearance, self-esteem, reputation, belonging, social status, identity, adventure, distraction, reward, of fears (appeal to fear), such as illness, weaknesses, loneliness, need, uncertainty, security or of prejudices, learned opinions and comforts. “All human needs, relationships, and fears – the deepest recesses of the human psyche – become mere means for the expansion of the commodity universe under the force of modern marketing. With the rise to prominence of modern marketing, commercialism – the translation of human relations into commodity relations – although a phenomenon intrinsic to capitalism, has expanded exponentially.” McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p.265, ISBN 978-1583671610 ’Cause-related marketing’ in which advertisers link their product to some worthy social cause has boomed over the past decade. Advertising exploits the model role of celebrities or popular figures and makes deliberate use of humour as well as of associations with colour, tunes, certain names and terms. Altogether, these are factors of how one perceives himself and one’s self-worth. In his description of ‘mental capitalism’ Franck says, “the promise of consumption making someone irresistible is the ideal way of objects and symbols into a person’s subjective experience. Evidently, in a society in which revenue of attention moves to the fore, consumption is drawn by one’s self-esteem. As a result, consumption becomes ‘work’ on a person’s attraction. From the subjective point of view, this ‘work’ opens fields of unexpected dimensions for advertising. Advertising takes on the role of a life councillor in matters of attraction. (…) The cult around one’s own attraction is what Christopher Lasch described as ‘Culture of Narcissism’.” For advertising critics another serious problem is that “the long standing notion of separation between advertising and editorial/creative sides of media is rapidly crumbling” and advertising is increasingly hard to tell apart from news, information or entertainment. The boundaries between advertising and programming are becoming blurred. According to the media firms all this commercial involvement has no influence over actual media content, but, as McChesney puts it, “this claim fails to pass even the most basic giggle test, it is so preposterous.” McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 270, 272, ISBN 978-158367161-0 Advertising draws “heavily on psychological theories about how to create subjects, enabling advertising and marketing to take on a ‘more clearly psychological tinge’ (Miller and Rose, 1997, cited in Thrift, 1999, p. 67). Increasingly, the emphasis in advertising has switched from providing ‘factual’ information to the symbolic connotations of commodities, since the crucial cultural premise of advertising is that the material object being sold is never in itself enough. Even those commodities providing for the most mundane necessities of daily life must be imbued with symbolic qualities and culturally endowed meanings via the ‘magic system (Williams, 1980) of advertising. In this way and by altering the context in which advertisements appear, things ‘can be made to mean "just about anything"’ (McFall, 2002, p. 162) and the ‘same’ things can be endowed with different intended meanings for different individuals and groups of people, thereby offering mass produced visions of individualism.” Before advertising is done, market research institutions need to know and describe the target group in order to exactly plan and implement the advertising campaign and to achieve the best possible results. A whole array of sciences directly deal with advertising and marketing or is used to improve its effects. Focus groups, psychologists and cultural anthropologists are ‘’’de rigueur’’’ in marketing research”. McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p.277, ISBN 978-1583671610 Vast amounts of data on persons and their shopping habits are collected, accumulated, aggregated and analysed with the aid of credit cards, bonus cards, raffles and, last but not least, internet surveying. With increasing accuracy this supplies a picture of behaviour, wishes and weaknesses of certain sections of a population with which advertisement can be employed more selectively and effectively. The efficiency of advertising is improved through advertising research. Universities, of course supported by business and in co-operation with other disciplines (s. above), mainly Psychiatry, Anthropology, Neurology and behavioural sciences, are constantly in search for ever more refined, sophisticated, subtle and crafty methods to make advertising more effective. “Neuromarketing is a controversial new field of marketing which uses medical technologies such as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) -- not to heal, but to sell products. Advertising and marketing firms have long used the insights and research methods of psychology in order to sell products, of course. But today these practices are reaching epidemic levels, and with a complicity on the part of the psychological profession that exceeds that of the past. The result is an enormous advertising and marketing onslaught that comprises, arguably, the largest single psychological project ever undertaken. Yet, this great undertaking remains largely ignored by the American Psychological Association.” Robert McChesney calls it "the greatest concerted attempt at psychological manipulation in all of human history." McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 277, ISBN 978-1583671610 Dependency of the media and corporate censorship Almost all mass media are advertising media and many of them are exclusively advertising media and, with the exception of public service broadcasting are privately owned. Their income is predominantly generated through advertising; in the case of newspapers and magazines from 50 to 80%. Public service broadcasting in some countries can also heavily depend on advertising as a source of income (up to 40%). Siegert, Gabriele, Brecheis Dieter in: Werbung in der Medien- und Informationsgesellschaft, Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2005, ISBN 3531138936 In the view of critics no media that spreads advertisements can be independent and the higher the proportion of advertising, the higher the dependency. This dependency has “distinct implications for the nature of media content…. In the business press, the media are often referred to in exactly the way they present themselves in their candid moments: as a branch of the advertising industry.” McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 256, ISBN 978-158367161-0 In addition, the private media are increasingly subject to mergers and concentration with property situations often becoming entangled and opaque. This development, which Henry A. Giroux calls an “ongoing threat to democratic culture”, Giroux, Henry A., McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada, in the foreword for: The Spectacle of Accumulation by Sut Jhally, http://www.sutjhally.com/biography by itself should suffice to sound all alarms in a democracy. Five or six advertising agencies dominate this 400 billion U.S. dollar global industry. “Journalists have long faced pressure to shape stories to suit advertisers and owners …. the vast majority of TV station executives found their news departments ‘cooperative’ in shaping the news to assist in ‘non-traditional revenue development.” McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 43, ISBN 978-158367161-0 Negative and undesired reporting can be prevented or influenced when advertisers threaten to cancel orders or simply when there is a danger of such a cancellation. Media dependency and such a threat becomes very real when there is only one dominant or very few large advertisers. The influence of advertisers is not only in regard to news or information on their own products or services but expands to articles or shows not directly linked to them. In order to secure their advertising revenues the media has to create the best possible ‘advertising environment’. Another problem considered censorship by critics is the refusal of media to accept advertisements that are not in their interest. A striking example of this is the refusal of TV stations to broadcast ads by Adbusters. Groups try to place advertisements and are refused by networks. It is principally the viewing rates which decide upon the programme in the private radio and television business. “Their business is to absorb as much attention as possible. The viewing rate measures the attention the media trades for the information offered. The service of this attraction is sold to the advertising business” and the viewing rates determine the price that can be demanded for advertising. “Advertising companies determining the contents of shows has been part of daily life in the USA since 1933. Procter & Gamble (P&G) …. offered a radio station a history-making trade (today know as “bartering”): the company would produce an own show for “free” and save the radio station the high expenses for producing contents. Therefore the company would want its commercials spread and, of course, its products placed in the show. Thus, the series ‘Ma Perkins’ was created, which P&G skilfully used to promote Oxydol, the leading detergent brand in those years and the Soap opera was born …” While critics basically worry about the subtle influence of the economy on the media, there are also examples of blunt exertion of influence. The US company Chrysler, before it merged with Daimler Benz had its agency, PentaCom, send out a letter to numerous magazines, demanding them to send, an overview of all the topics before the next issue is published to “avoid potential conflict”. Chrysler most of all wanted to know, if there would be articles with “sexual, political or social” content or which could be seen as “provocative or offensive”. PentaCom executive David Martin said: “Our reasoning is, that anyone looking at a 22.000 $ product would want it surrounded by positive things. There is nothing positive about an article on child pornography.” In another example, the „USA Network held top-level ‚off-the-record’ meetings with advertisers in 2000 to let them tell the network what type of programming content they wanted in order for USA to get their advertising.” McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 271, ISBN 978-158367161-0 Television shows are created to accommodate the needs for advertising, e. g. splitting them up in suitable sections. Their dramaturgy is typically designed to end in suspense or leave an unanswered question in order to keep the viewer attached. The movie system, at one time outside the direct influence of the broader marketing system, is now fully integrated into it through the strategies of licensing, tie-ins and product placements. The prime function of many Hollywood films today is to aid in the selling of the immense collection of commodities. Jhally, Sut. Advertising at the edge of the apocalypse: http://www.sutjhally.com/articles/advertisingattheed/ The press called the 2002 Bond film ‘Die Another Day’ featuring 24 major promotional partners an ‘ad-venture’ and noted that James Bond “now has been ‘licensed to sell’” As it has become standard practise to place products in motion pictures, it “has self-evident implications for what types of films will attract product placements and what types of films will therefore be more likely to get made”. McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), pp. 269,270, ISBN 978-158367161-0 Advertising and information are increasingly hard to distinguish from each other. “The borders between advertising and media …. become more and more blurred…. What August Fischer, chairman of the board of Axel Springer publishing company considers to be a ‘proven partnership between the media and advertising business’ critics regard as nothing but the infiltration of journalistic duties and freedoms”. According to RTL-executive Helmut Thoma “private stations shall not and cannot serve any mission but only the goal of the company which is the ‘acceptance by the advertising business and the viewer’. The setting of priorities in this order actually says everything about the ‘design of the programmes’ by private television.” Patrick Le Lay, former managing director of TF1, a private French television channel with a market share of 25 to 35%, said: There are many ways to talk about television. But from the business point of view, let’s be realistic: basically, the job of TF1 is, e. g. to help Coca Cola sell its product. (…) For an advertising message to be perceived the brain of the viewer must be at our disposal. The job of our programmes is to make it available, that is to say, to distract it, to relax it and get it ready between two messages. It is disposable human brain time that we sell to Coca Cola.” Because of these dependencies a widespread and fundamental public debate about advertising and its influence on information and freedom of speech is difficult to obtain, at least through the usual media channels; otherwise these would saw off the branch they are sitting on. “The notion that the commercial basis of media, journalism, and communication could have troubling implications for democracy is excluded from the range of legitimate debate” just as “capitalism is off-limits as a topic of legitimate debate in U.S. political culture”. McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), pp. 235, 237, ISBN 978-158367161-0 An early critic of the structural basis of U.S. journalism was Upton Sinclair with his novel The Brass Check in which he stresses the influence of owners, advertisers, public relations, and economic interests on the media. In his book “Our Master's Voice – Advertising” the social ecologist James Rorty (1890–1973) wrote: "The gargoyle’s mouth is a loudspeaker, powered by the vested interest of a two-billion dollar industry, and back of that the vested interests of business as a whole, of industry, of finance. It is never silent, it drowns out all other voices, and it suffers no rebuke, for it is not the voice of America? That is its claim and to some extent it is a just claim...” Rorty, James: “Our Master's Voice: Advertising” Ayer Co Pub, 1976, ISBN 0405080441, ISBN 9780405080449 It has taught us how to live, what to be afraid of, what to be proud of, how to be beautiful, how to be loved, how to be envied, how to be successful.. Is it any wonder that the American population tends increasingly to speak, think, feel in terms of this jabberwocky? That the stimuli of art, science, religion are progressively expelled to the periphery of American life to become marginal values, cultivated by marginal people on marginal time?" Rorty, James: (1934) “Our Master’s Voice – Advertising”, Mcmaster Press (June 30, 2008), ISBN 1409769739, ISBN 978-1409769736 The commercialisation of culture and sports Performances, exhibitions, shows, concerts, conventions and most other events can hardly take place without sponsoring. The increasing lack arts and culture they buy the service of attraction. Artists are graded and paid according to their art’s value for commercial purposes. Corporations promote renown artists, therefore getting exclusive rights in global advertising campaigns. Broadway shows, like ‘La Bohème’ featured commercial props in its set. McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 276, ISBN 978-158367161-0 Advertising itself is extensively considered to be a contribution to culture. Advertising is integrated into fashion. On many pieces of clothing the company logo is the only design or is an important part of it. There is only little room left outside the consumption economy, in which culture and art can develop independently and where alternative values can be expressed. A last important sphere, the universities, is under strong pressure to open up for business and its interests. Jhally, Sut in: Stay Free Nr. 16, 1999 inflatable billboard in front of a sports stadium Competitive sports have become unthinkable without sponsoring and there is a mutual dependency. High income with advertising is only possible with a comparable number of spectators or viewers. On the other hand, the poor performance of a team or a sportsman results in less advertising revenues. Jürgen Hüther and Hans-Jörg Stiehler talk about a ‘Sports/Media Complex which is a complicated mix of media, agencies, managers, sports promoters, advertising etc. with partially common and partially diverging interests but in any case with common commercial interests. The media presumably is at centre stage because it can supply the other parties involved with a rare commodity, namely (potential) public attention. In sports “the media are able to generate enormous sales in both circulation and advertising.” McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 213, ISBN 978-158367161-0 “Sports sponsorship is acknowledged by the tobacco industry to be valuable advertising. A Tobacco Industry journal in 1994 described the Formula One car as ‘The most powerful advertising space in the world’. …. In a cohort study carried out in 22 secondary schools in England in 1994 and 1995 boys whose favourite television sport was motor racing had a 12.8% risk of becoming regular smokers compared to 7.0% of boys who did not follow motor racing.” Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health, Prepared 20 March 1998 in: http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/doh/tobacco/part-4.htm Not the sale of tickets but transmission rights, sponsoring and merchandising in the meantime make up the largest part of sports association’s and sports club’s revenues with the IOC (International Olympic Committee) taking the lead. The influence of the media brought many changes in sports including the admittance of new ‘trend sports’ into the Olympic Games, the alteration of competition distances, changes of rules, animation of spectators, changes of sports facilities, the cult of sports heroes who quickly establish themselves in the advertising and entertaining business because of their media value Hüther, Jürgen and Stiehler, Hans-Jörg in: Merz, Zeitschrift für Medien und Erziehung, Vol. 2006/6: merzWissenschaft - Sport und Medien, http://www.jff.de/merz/list.php?katid=3&heft_id=80 and last but not least, the naming and renaming of sport stadiums after big companies. “In sports adjustment into the logic of the media can contribute to the erosion of values such as equal chances or fairness, to excessive demands on athletes through public pressure and multiple exploitation or to deceit (doping, manipulation of results …). It is in the very interest of the media and sports to counter this danger because media sports can only work as long as sport exists. Occupation and commercialisation of public space Every visually perceptible place has potential for advertising. Especially urban areas with their structures but also landscapes in sight of through fares are more and more turning into media for advertisements. Signs, posters, billboards, flags have become decisive factors in the urban appearance and their numbers are still on the increase. “Outdoor advertising has become unavoidable. Traditional billboards and transit shelters have cleared the way for more pervasive methods such as wrapped vehicles, sides of buildings, electronic signs, kiosks, taxis, posters, sides of buses, and more. Digital technologies are used on buildings to sport ‘urban wall displays’. In urban areas commercial content is placed in our sight and into our consciousness every moment we are in public space. The German Newspaper ‘Zeit’ called it a new kind of ‘dictatorship that one cannot escape’. Over time, this domination of the surroundings has become the “natural” state. Through long-term commercial saturation, it has become implicitly understood by the public that advertising has the right to own, occupy and control every inch of available space. The steady normalization of invasive advertising dulls the public’s perception of their surroundings, re-enforcing a general attitude of powerlessness toward creativity and change, thus a cycle develops enabling advertisers to slowly and consistently increase the saturation of advertising with little or no public outcry.” The massive optical orientation toward advertising changes the function of public spaces which are utilised by brands. Urban landmarks are turned into trademarks. The highest pressure is exerted on renown and highly frequented public spaces which are also important for the identity of a city (e. g. Piccadilly Circus, Times Square, Alexanderplatz). Urban spaces are public commodities and in this capacity they are subject to “aesthetical environment protection”, mainly through building regulations, heritage protection and landscape protection. “It is in this capacity that these spaces are now being privatised. They are peppered with billboards and signs, they are remodelled into media for advertising.” Socio-cultural aspects, sexism, discrimination and stereotyping “Advertising has an “agenda setting function” which is the ability, with huge sums of money, to put consumption as the only item on the agenda. In the battle for a share of the public conscience this amounts to non-treatment (ignorance) of whatever is not commercial and whatever is not advertised for. Advertsing should be reflection of society norms and give clear picture of taget market. Spheres without commerce and advertising serving the muses and relaxation remain without respect. With increasing force advertising makes itself comfortable in the private sphere so that the voice of commerce becomes the dominant way of expression in society.” Eicke, Ulrich in: Die Werbelawine. Angriff auf unser Bewußtsein. München, 1991 Advertising critics see advertising as the leading light in our culture. Sut Jhally and James Twitchell go beyond considering advertising as kind of religion and that advertising even replaces religion as a key institution. Stay Free Nr. 16, On Advertising, Summer 1999 "Corporate advertising (or is it commercial media?) is the largest single psychological project ever undertaken by the human race. Yet for all of that, its impact on us remains unknown and largely ignored. When I think of the media’s influence over years, over decades, I think of those brainwashing experiments conducted by Dr. Ewen Cameron in a Montreal psychiatric hospital in the 1950s (see MKULTRA). The idea of the CIA-sponsored "depatterning" experiments was to outfit conscious, unconscious or semiconscious subjects with headphones, and flood their brains with thousands of repetitive "driving" messages that would alter their behaviour over time….Advertising aims to do the same thing." Lasn, Kalle in: Culture Jam: The Uncooling of America, William Morrow & Company; 1st edition (November 1999),ISBN 0688156568, ISBN 978-0688156565 Advertising is especially aimed at young people and children and it increasingly reduces young people to consumers. Giroux, Henry A., McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada, in the foreword for: The Spectacle of Accumulation by Sut Jhally, http://www.sutjhally.com/biography For Sut Jhally it is not “surprising that something this central and with so much being expended on it should become an important presence in social life. Indeed, commercial interests intent on maximizing the consumption of the immense collection of commodities have colonized more and more of the spaces of our culture. For instance, almost the entire media system (television and print) has been developed as a delivery system for marketers its prime function is to produce audiences for sale to advertisers. Both the advertisements it carries, as well as the editorial matter that acts as a support for it, celebrate the consumer society. The movie system, at one time outside the direct influence of the broader marketing system, is now fully integrated into it through the strategies of licensing, tie-ins and product placements. The prime function of many Hollywood films today is to aid in the selling of the immense collection of commodities. As public funds are drained from the non-commercial cultural sector, art galleries, museums and symphonies bid for corporate sponsorship.” In the same way effected is the education system and advertising is increasingly penetrating schools and universities. Cities, such as New York, accept sponsors for public playgrounds. “Even the pope has been commercialized … The pope’s 4-day visit to Mexico in …1999 was sponsored by Frito-Lay and PepsiCo. Mularz, Stephen: The Negative Effects of Advertising, http://www.mularzart.com/writings/THE%20NEGATIVE%20EFFECTS%20OF%20ADVERTISING.pdf The industry is accused of being one of the engines powering a convoluted economic mass production system which promotes consumption. As far as social effects are concerned it does not matter whether advertising fuels consumption but which values, patterns of behaviour and assignments of meaning it propagates. Advertising is accused of hijacking the language and means of pop culture, of protest movements and even of subversive criticism and does not shy away from scandalizing and breaking taboos (e. g. Benneton). This in turn incites counter action, what Kalle Lasn in 2001 called ‘’Jamming the Jam of the Jammers’’. Anything goes. “It is a central social-scientific question what people can be made to do by suitable design of conditions and of great practical importance. For example, from a great number of experimental psychological experiments it can be assumed, that people can be made to do anything they are capable of, when the according social condition can be created.” Richter, Hans Jürgen. Einführung in das Image-Marketing. Feldtheoretische Forschung. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer (Urban TB, 1977). Hieraus: Aufgabe der Werbung S. 12 Advertising often uses stereotype gender specific roles of men and women reinforcing existing clichés and it has been criticized as “inadvertently or even intentionally promoting sexism, racism, and ageism… At very least, advertising often reinforces stereotypes by drawing on recognizable "types" in order to tell stories in a single image or 30 second time frame.” Activities are depicted as typical male or female (stereotyping). In addition people are reduced to their sexuality or equated with commodities and gender specific qualities are exaggerated. Sexualised female bodies, but increasingly also males, serve as eye-catchers. In advertising it is usually a woman being depicted as servants of men and children that react to the demands and complaints of their loved ones with a bad conscience and the promise for immediate improvement (wash, food) a sexual or emotional play toy for the self-affirmation of men a technically totally clueless being that can only manage a childproof operation female expert, but stereotype from the fields of fashion, cosmetics, food or at the most, medicine doing ground-work for others, e. g. serving coffee while a journalist interviews a politician A great part of advertising is the promotion of products dealing with the appearance of people, mainly for women (in the past almost only for women). Thus, the media put girls and women under high pressure to compare themselves with a propagated ideal beauty. Consequences of this are eating disorders, self mutilations, beauty operations etc. The EU parliament passed a resolution in 2008 that advertising may not be discriminating and degrading. This shows that politics is increasingly concerned about the negative aspects of advertising. Children and adolescents as target groups The children’s market, where resistance to advertising is weakest, is the “pioneer for ad creep”. McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 269, ISBN 978-158367161-0 “Kids are among the most sophisticated observers of ads. They can sing the jingles and identify the logos, and they often have strong feelings about products. What they generally don't understand, however, are the issues that underlie how advertising works. Mass media are used not only to sell goods but also ideas: how we should behave, what rules are important, who we should respect and what we should value.” Youth is increasingly reduced to the role of a consumer. Not only the makers of toys, sweets, ice cream, breakfast food and sport articles prefer to aim their promotion at children and adolescents. Advertising for other products preferably uses media with which they can also reach the next generation of consumers. Eicke Ulrich u. Wolfram in: Medienkinder : Vom richtigen Umgang mit der Vielfalt, Knesebeck München, 1994, ISBN 3-926901-67-5 “Key advertising messages exploit the emerging independence of young people”. Cigarettes, for example, “are used as a fashion accessory and appeal to young women. Other influences on young people include the linking of sporting heroes and smoking through sports sponsorship, the use of cigarettes by popular characters in television programmes and cigarette promotions. Research suggests that young people are aware of the most heavily advertised cigarette brands.” “Product placements show up everywhere, and children aren't exempt. Far from it. The animated film, Foodfight, had ‘thousands of products and character icons from the familiar (items) in a grocery store.’ Children's books also feature branded items and characters, and millions of them have snack foods as lead characters.“ McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press (May 1, 2008), ISBN 978-1583671610 Business is interested in children and adolescents because of their buying power and because of their influence on the shopping habits of their parents. As they are easier to influence they are especially targeted by the advertising business. “The marketing industry is facing increased pressure over claimed links between exposure to food advertising and a range of social problems, especially growing obesity levels.” In 2001, children’s programming accounted for over 20% of all U.S. television watching. The global market for children’s licensed products was some 132 billion U.S. dollars in 2002. Advertisers target children because, e. g. in Canada, they “represent three distinct markets: Primary Purchasers ($2.9 billion annually) Future Consumers (Brand-loyal adults) Purchase Influencers ($20 billion annually) Kids will carry forward brand expectations, whether positive, negative or indifferent Kids are already accustomed to being catered to as consumers. The long term prize: Loyalty of the kid translates into a brand loyal adult customer” YTV's 2007 Tween Report in: http://ontariondp.com/ban-advertising-aimed-children-under-13 The average Canadian child sees 350,000 TV commercials before graduating from high school, spends nearly as much time watching TV as attending classes. In 1980 the Canadian province of Québec banned advertising for children under age 13. Consumer Protection Act, R.S.Q., c. P-40.1, ss. 248-9 (see also: ss. 87-91 of the Consumer Protection Regulations, R.R.Q., 1981, c. P-40.1; and Application Guide for Sections 248 and 249 of the Québec Consumer Protection Act (Advertising Intended for Children Under 13 Years of Age). “In upholding the consititutional validity of the Quebec Consumer Protection Act restrictions on advertising to children under age 13 (in the case of a challenge by a toy company) the Court held: ‘...advertising directed at young children is per se manipulative. Such advertising aims to promote products by convincing those who will always believe.’” Redirection Norway (ads directed at children under age 12), and Sweden (television ads aimed at children under age 12) also have legislated broad bans on advertising to children, during child programmes any kind of advertising is forbidden in Sweden, Denmark, Austria and Flemish Belgium. In Greece there is no advertising for kids products from 7 to 22 h. An attempt to restrict advertising directed at children in the USA failed with reference to the First Amendment. In Spain bans are also considered undemocratic. Corinna Hawkes, Marketing Food to Children: The Global Regulatory Environment, (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2004) at http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241591579.pdf Opposition and campaigns against advertising Billboard in Lund, Sweden, saying "One Night Stand?" (2005) According to critics, the total commercialization of all fields of society, the privatization of public space, the acceleration of consumption and waste of resources including the negative influence on lifestyles and on the environment has not been noticed to the necessary extent. The “hyper-commercialization of the culture is recognized and roundly detested by the citizenry, although the topic scarcely receives a whiff of attention in the media or political culture”. McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 279, ISBN 978-1583671610 “The greatest damage done by advertising is precisely that it incessantly demonstrates the prostitution of men and women who lend their intellects, their voices, their artistic skills to purposes in which they themselves do not believe, and …. that it helps to shatter and ultimately destroy our most precious non-material possessions: the confidence in the existence of meaningful purposes of human activity and respect for the integrity of man.” Baran, Paul and Sweezy, Paul (1964) “Monopoly Capital” in: McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 52, ISBN 978-1583671610 “The struggle against advertising is therefore essential if we are to overcome the pervasive alienation from all genuine human needs that currently plays such a corrosive role in our society. But in resisting this type of hyper-commercialism we should not be under any illusions. Advertising may seem at times to be an almost trivial of omnipresent aspect of our economic system. Yet, as economist A. C. Pigou pointed out, it could only be ‘removed altogether’ if ‘conditions of monopolistic competition’ inherent to corporate capitalism were removed. To resist it is to resist the inner logic of capitalism itself, of which it is the pure expression.” McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), p. 281, ISBN 978-1583671610 “Visual pollution, much of it in the form of advertising, is an issue in all the world's large cities. But what is pollution to some is a vibrant part of a city's fabric to others. New York City without Times Square's huge digital billboards or Tokyo without the Ginza's commercial panorama is unthinkable. Piccadilly Circus would be just a London roundabout without its signage. Still, other cities, like Moscow, have reached their limit and have begun to crack down on over-the-top outdoor advertising.” “Many communities have chosen to regulate billboards to protect and enhance their scenic character. The following is by no means a complete list of such communities, but it does give a good idea of the geographic diversity of cities, counties and states that prohibit new construction of billboards. Scenic America estimates the nationwide total of cities and communities prohibiting the construction of new billboards to be at least 1500. A number of States in the USA prohibit all billboards: Vermont - Removed all billboards in 1970s Hawaii - Removed all billboards in 1920s Maine - Removed all billboards in 1970s and early 80s Alaska - State referendum passed in 1998 prohibits billboards Almost two years ago the city of São Paulo, Brazil, ordered the downsizing or removal of all billboards and most other forms of commercial advertising in the city.” Technical appliances, such as Spam filters, TV-Zappers, Ad-Blockers for TV’s and stickers on mail boxes: “No Advertising” and an increasing number of court cases indicate a growing interest of people to restrict or rid themselves of unwelcome advertising. Consumer protection associations, environment protection groups, globalization opponents, consumption critics, sociologists, media critics, scientists and many others deal with the negative aspects of advertising. “Antipub” in France, “subvertising”, culture jamming and adbusting have become established terms in the anti-advertising community. On the international level globalization critics such as Naomi Klein and Noam Chomsky are also renown media and advertising critics. These groups criticize the complete occupation of public spaces, surfaces, the airwaves, the media, schools etc. and the constant exposure of almost all senses to advertising messages, the invasion of privacy, and that only few consumers are aware that they themselves are bearing the costs for this to the very last penny. Some of these groups, such as the ‘The Billboard Liberation Front Creative Group’ in San Francisco or Adbusters in Vancouver, Canada, have manifestos. Grassroots organizations campaign against advertising or certain aspects of it in various forms and strategies and quite often have different roots. Adbusters, for example contests and challenges the intended meanings of advertising by subverting them and creating unintended meanings instead. Other groups, like ‘Illegal Signs Canada’ try to stem the flood of billboards by detecting and reporting ones that have been put up without permit. ::: illegalsigns.ca Examples for various groups and organizations in different countries are ‘L'association Résistance à l'Agression Publicitaire’ in France, where also media critic Jean Baudrillard is a renown author. The ‘Anti Advertising Agency’ works with parody and humour to raise awareness about advertising. and ‘Commercial Alert’ campaigns for the protection of children, family values, community, environmental integrity and democracy. Media literacy organisations aim at training people, especially children in the workings of the media and advertising in their programmes. In the U. S., for example, the ‘Media Education Foundation’ produces and distributes documentary films and other educational resources. ‘MediaWatch’, a Canadian non-profit women's organization works to educate consumers about how they can register their concerns with advertisers and regulators. http://www.mediawatch.ca The Canadian ‘Media Awareness Network/Réseau éducation médias’ offers one of the world’s most comprehensive collections of media education and Internet literacy resources. Its member organizations represent the public, non-profit but also private sectors. Although it stresses its independence it accepts financial support from Bell Canada, CTVGlobeMedia, CanWest, TELUS and S-VOX. Media Awareness Network | Réseau éducation médias To counter the increasing criticism of advertising aiming at children media literacy organizations are also initiated and funded by corporations and the advertising business themselves. In the U. S. the ‘The Advertising Educational Foundation’ was created in 1983 supported by ad agencies, advertisers and media companies. It is the “advertising industry's provider and distributor of educational content to enrich the understanding of advertising and its role in culture, society and the economy” sponsored for example by American Airlines, Anheuser-Busch, Campbell Soup, Coca-Cola, Colgate-Palmolive, Walt Disney, Ford, General Foods, General Mills, Gillette, Heinz, Johnson & Johnson, Kellogg, Kraft, Nestle, Philip Morris, Quaker Oats, Nabisco, Schering, Sterling, Unilever, Warner Lambert, advertising agencies like Saatchi & Saatchi Compton and media companies like American Broadcasting Companies, CBS, Capital Cities Communications, Cox Enterprises, Forbes, Hearst, Meredith, The New York Times, RCA/NBC, Reader’s Digest, Time, Washington Post, just to mention a few. Canadian businesses established ‘Concerned Children's Advertisers’ in 1990 “to instill confidence in all relevant publics by actively demonstrating our commitment, concern, responsibility and respect for children”. Members are CanWest, Corus, CTV, General Mills, Hasbro, Hershey’s, Kellogg’s, Loblaw, Kraft, Mattel, MacDonald’s, Nestle, Pepsi, Walt Disney, Weston as well as almost 50 private broadcast partners and others. Concerned Children's Advertisers was example for similar organizations in other countries like ‘Media smart’ in the United Kingdom with offspring in Germany, France, the Netherlands and Sweden. New Zealand has a similar business-funded programme called ‘Willie Munchright’. “While such interventions are claimed to be designed to encourage children to be critical of commercial messages in general, critics of the marketing industry suggest that the motivation is simply to be seen to address a problem created by the industry itself, that is, the negative social impacts to which marketing activity has contributed…. By contributing media literacy education resources, the marketing industry is positioning itself as being part of the solution to these problems, thereby seeking to avoid wide restrictions or outright bans on marketing communication, particularly for food products deemed to have little nutritional value directed at children…. The need to be seen to be taking positive action primarily to avert potential restrictions on advertising is openly acknowledged by some sectors of the industry itself…. Furthermore, Hobbs (1998) suggests that such programs are also in the interest of media organizations that support the interventions to reduce criticism of the potential negative effects of the media themselves.” Taxation as revenue and control Public interest groups suggest that “access to the mental space targeted by advertisers should be taxed, in that at the present moment that space is being freely taken advantage of by advertisers with no compensation paid to the members of the public who are thus being intruded upon. This kind of tax would be a Pigovian tax in that it would act to reduce what is now increasingly seen as a public nuisance. Efforts to that end are gathering more momentum, with Arkansas and Maine considering bills to implement such a taxation. Florida enacted such a tax in 1987 but was forced to repeal it after six months, as a result of a concerted effort by national commercial interests, which withdrew planned conventions, causing major losses to the tourism industry, and cancelled advertising, causing a loss of 12 million dollars to the broadcast industry alone”. In the U. S., for example, advertising is tax deductible and suggestions for possible limits to the advertising tax deduction are met with fierce opposition from the business sector, not to mention suggestions for a special taxation. In other countries, taxation at least is taxed in the same manner services are taxed and in some advertising is subject to special taxation although on a very low level. In many cases the taxation refers especially to media with advertising (e. g. Austria, Italy, Greece, Netherlands, Turkey, Estonia). Tax on advertising in European countries: http://dip21.bundestag.de/dip21/btd/13/082/1308226.asc Belgium: Advertising or billboard tax (taxe d'affichage or aanplakkingstaks) on public posters depending on size and kind of paper as well as on neon signs France: Tax on television commercials (taxe sur la publicité télévisée) based on the cost of the advertising unit Italy: Municipal tax on acoustic and visual kinds of advertisements within the municipality (imposta communale sulla publicità) and municipal tax on signs, posters and other kinds of advertisements (diritti sulle pubbliche offisioni), the tariffs of which are under the jurisdiction of the municipalities Netherlands: Advertising tax (reclamebelastingen) with varying tariffs on certain advertising measures (excluding ads in newspapers and magazines) which can be levied by municipalities depending on the kind of advertising (billboards, neon signs etc.) Austria: Municipal announcement levies on advertising through writing, pictures or lights in public areas or publicly accessible areas with varying tariffs depending on the fee, the surface or the duration of the advertising measure as well as advertising tariffs on paid ads in printed media of usually 10% of the fee. Sweden: Advertising tax (reklamskatt) on ads and other kinds of advertising (billboards, film, television, advertising at fairs and exhibitions, flyers) in the range of 4% for ads in newspapers and 11% in all other cases. In the case of flyers the tariffs are based on the production costs, else on the fee Spain: Municipalities can tax advertising measures in their territory with a rather unimportant taxes and fees of various kinds. In his book “When Corporations Rule the World” U.S. author and globalization critic David Korten even advocates a 50% tax on advertising to counter attack by what he calls "an active propaganda machinery controlled by the world's largest corporations” which “constantly reassures us that consumerism is the path to happiness, governmental restraint of market excess is the cause our distress, and economic globalization is both a historical inevitability and a boon to the human species." Korten, David. (1995) When Corporations Rule the World. 2. Edition 2001: Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, California, ISBN 1-887208-04-6 Regulation In the US many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public realm. As long ago as the 1960s in the US there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside. Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban with London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays. There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples are: the ban on television tobacco advertising imposed in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under 12 imposed by the Swedish government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within the country, it has been weakened by the European Court of Justice, which had found that Sweden was obliged to accept foreign programming, including those from neighboring countries or via satellite. In Europe and elsewhere, there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising to children should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by the Kaiser Family Foundation in February 2004 which suggested that food advertising, such as that for fast foods, targeting children was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States. In many countries - namely New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and many European countries - the advertising industry operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK. In the UK most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the UK Town and County Planning system. Currently the display of an advertisement without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offence. All of the major outdoor billboard companies in the UK have convictions of this nature. Naturally, many advertisers view governmental regulation or even self-regulation as intrusion of their freedom of speech or a necessary evil. Therefore, they employ a wide-variety of linguistic devices to bypass regulatory laws (e.g. printing English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with the Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English in French advertising). Bhatia and Ritchie 2006:542 The advertisement of controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms is subject to government regulation in many countries. For instance, the tobacco industry is required by law in most countries to display warnings cautioning consumers about the health hazards of their products. Linguistic variation is often used by advertisers as a creative device to reduce the impact of such requirements. Future Global advertising Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company’s speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel. Global marketing Management, 2004, pg 13-18 Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad that contributes to its success is how economies of scale are maximised. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad. Young, p.131 Trends With the dawn of the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash, banner, Popunder, advergaming, and email advertisements (the last often being a form of spam) are now commonplace. The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow users to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will receive additional profits from the sales of these sets. To counter this effect, many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of The Long Tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible. However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out more about a particular business or practice at any time, right from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view. "Interactive - VOD" "Comcast Spotlight website". Retrieved October 5, 2006. In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note that “big global clients don't need big global agencies any more”. This trend is reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world". In freelance advertising, companies hold public competitions to create ads for their product, the best one of which is chosen for widespread distribution with a prize given to the winner(s). During the 2007 Super Bowl, PepsiCo held such a contest for the creation of a 30-second television ad for the Doritos brand of chips, offering a cash prize to the winner. Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs. This type of advertising, however, is still in its infancy. It may ultimately decrease the importance of advertising agencies by creating a niche for independent freelancers. Advertising research Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns-- pre-testing is done before an ad airs to gauge how well it will perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to determine the in-market impact of the ad or campaign on the consumer. Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types. See also Advertising Adstock Advertising to children American Advertising Federation Hall of Fame Branded content Classified advertising Communication design Conquesting Coolhunting Copy testing Copywriting Graphic design Integrated Marketing Communications Senior media creative Local advertising Market overhang Mobile Marketing Performance-based advertising Pseudo-event Public relations Reality marketing SEO Copywriting Sex in advertising Shock advertising Shockvertising Tobacco advertising Video commerce Video news release Viral marketing Visual communication Web analytics World Federation of Advertisers References Bibliography Anthony,A,Abdo AU (2007) professor, history and geography Bhatia, Tej K. 2000. Advertising in Rural India: Language, Marketing Communication, and Consumerism. Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. Tokyo Press: Japan. ISBN 4-87297-782-3 Arthur Richards, Kent USA (2008) Teacher, Pirate, renaissance man Clark, Eric, "The Want Makers", Viking, 1988. ISBN 0340320281 Cook, Guy (2001 2nd edition) "The Discourse of Advertising", London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-23455-7 Graydon, Shari (2003) "Made You Look - How Advertising Works and Why You Should Know", Toronto: Annick Press, ISBN 1-55037-814-7 Johnson, J. Douglas, "Advertising Today", Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1978. ISBN 0-574-19355-3 Klein, Naomi (2000) No Logo . Harper-Collins, ISBN 0-00-653040-0 Kleppner, Otto, "Advertising Procedure", Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1966. Kotabe, Masaki and Kristiaan Helsen, Global Marketing Management, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sopns, Inc, publishers, Copyright 2004, ISBN 0-471-23062-6 Laermer, Richard; Simmons, Mark, Punk Marketing, New York : Harper Collins, 2007. ISBN 978-0-06-115110-1 (Review of the book by Marilyn Scrizzi, in Journal of Consumer Marketing 24(7), 2007) Lears, Jackson, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America, Basic Books, 1995, ISBN 0465090753 Leon, Jose Luis (1996) "Los effectos de la publicidad". Barcelona: Ariel, ISBN 84-344-1266-7 Leon, Jose Luis (2001) "Mitoanálisis de la publicidad". Barcelona. Ariel, ISBN 84-344-1285-3 McFall, Liz (2004) Advertising: a cultural economy. London, Sage Mulvihill, Donald F., "Marketing Research for the Small Company", Journal of Marketing, Vol. 16, No. 2, Oct., 1951, pp. 179–183. Packard, Vance, The Hidden Persuaders, New York, D. McKay Co., 1957. Petley, Julian (2002) "Advertising". North Mankato, Minnesota: Smart Apple Media., ISBN 1-58340-255-1 Young, Charles E., The Advertising Handbook, Ideas in Flight, Seattle, WA April 2005, ISBN 0-9765574-0-1 Wernick, Andrew (1991) "Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (Theory, Culture & Society S.)", London: Sage Publications Ltd, ISBN 0-8039-8390-5 Advertising critcs Baines, Paul. (2001) "A Pie in the Face" in Alternatives Journal, Spring 2001 v27 i2 p14. Retrieved: InfoTrac Web: Expanded Academic ASAP plus. (24/07/2002). Blisset, Luther: Handbuch der Kommunikationsguerilla. Assoziation a, August 2001, ISBN 978-3-922611-64-6. Boiler, David in: Silent Theft. The Private Plunder of Our Common Wealth, Routledge, New York, February 2003, ISBN 9780415944823, ISBN 0415944821 Chomsky, Noam. Manufacturing Consent De Certeau, Michel. (1984) The Practice of Everyday Life. Berkley, London: University of California Press. Franck, Georg: Mentaler Kapitalismus. Eine politische Ökonomie des Geistes. 1. Edition. Carl Hanser, August 2005, ISBN 978-3-446-20687-8 Franck, Georg: Ökonomie der Aufmerksamkeit. Ein Entwurf. 1. Edition. Carl Hanser, März 1998, ISBN 978-3-446-19348-2. Fraser, Nancy. (2000) "Rethinking the Public Sphere: A contribution to the critique of actually existing democracy" in S. During (ed), The Cultural Studies Reader. London and New York: Routledge. Goldman, Debra. (1999) "Consumer Republic" in Adweek.Com , Nov22, 1999 v36 i47 p13. Retrieved: www.adweek.com (8/08/2002). Habermas, Jürgen. (c1989) The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: an Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Harkin, James. (1996) "The Logos Fight Back" in New Statesman, June 18, 20001 v130 i4542 p25. Retrieved: InfoTrac Web: Expanded Academic ASAP plus. (8/08/2002). Hoepfner, Friedrich Georg (1976). Verbraucherverhalten. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer (Urban TB). Hoffmann, Hans-Joachim (). Werbepsychologie. Berlin DeGruyter (Sammlung Göschen 5009). Hodge, R. and Kress, G. (1988) Social Semiotics. Cambridge: Polity Press. Holt, D. (2002) "Why Brands Cause Trouble? A dialectical theory of Consumer Culture and Branding" in Journal of Consumer Research, June 2002 v29 i1 p70(21). Retrieved: InfoTrac Web: Expanded Academic ASAP plus. (29/07/2002). Horkheimer, Max and Adorno, Theodor W. (1973) Dialectic of Enlightenment. London: Allen Lane. Irle, Martin & Bussmann, Wolfs (1983, Hrsg.). Marktpsychologie. Handbuch der Psychologie, Vol. 12., 2. Halbbände. 1. Halbband: Marktpsychologie als Sozialwissenschaft. 2. Halbband: Methoden und Anwendungen in der Marktpsychologie. Göttingen: Hogrefe Jhully, Sut. (2006) The Spectacle of Accumulation. Essays in Media. Culture & Politics, Peter Lang Publishing (June 24, 2006), ISBN 0820479047, ISBN 978-0820479040 Jhully, Sut (1990) The Codes of Advertising: Fetishism and the political Economy of Meaning, Routledge; 1 edition (December 12, 1990), ISBN 041590353X, ISBN 978-0415903530 Jhully, Sut, Leiss, William, Kline, Stephen, Botterill, Jacqueline (2005): Social Communication in Advertising: Consumption in the Mediated Marketplace, Routledge; 3 edition (September 28, 2005), ISBN 0415966760, ISBN 978-0415966764 Kaiser, Andreas (1980, Hrsg.). Werbung. Theorie und Praxis werblicher Beeinflussung. München: Vahlen. Kilbourne, Jean: Can't Buy My Love: How Advertising Changes the Way We Think and Feel, Free Press; 1 edition (November 2, 2000), ISBN 0684866005 Klein, Naomi. (2000) No Logo: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies. New York: Picador. Korten, David. (1995) When Corporations Rule the World. 2. Edition 2001: Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, California, ISBN 1-887208-04-6 Lasch, Christopher: Zeitalter des Narzissmus. 1. Edition. Hoffmann und Campe, Hamburg 1995. Lasch, Christopher. The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations, Norton, New York, ISBN 978-0393307382 Lasn, Kalle. (2000) Culture Jam: how to reverse America's suicidal consumer binge - and why we must, Harper Paperbacks (November 7, 2000), ISBN 0688178057 ISBN 978-0688178055 Lasn, Kalle. (1999) Culture Jam: The Uncooling of America, William Morrow & Company; 1st edition (November 1999), ISBN 0688156568, ISBN 978-0688156565 Lees, Loretta, (1998) "Urban Renaissance and the Street" in Nicholas R. Fyfe (ed) Images of the Street: Planning, Identity and Control in Public Space. London; New York: Routledge. Leiss, William: (1990) Social Communication in Advertising, Routledge; 2 edition (July 27, 1990), ISBN 0415903548, ISBN 978-0415903547 Lemke, Jay L. (1995) Textual Politics: Discourse and Social Dynamics. London: Taylor & Francis. Livingston, Sonia and Lunt, Peter. (1994) Talk on Television: Audience Participation and Public Debate. London & New York: Routledge. Louw, Eric. (2001) The Media and Cultural Production. London: Sage Publications. McChesney, Robert W., Stolzfus, Duane C. S. and Nerone, John C, (2007) Freedom from Advertising: E. W. Scripps's Chicago Experiment (History of Communication), Univ of Illinois Pr (30 March 2007) McChesney, Robert W. “The Political Economy of Media: Enduring Issues, Emerging Dilemmas”. Monthly Review Press, New York, (May 1, 2008), ISBN 978-1583671610 Mularz, Stephen. The negative effects of advertising. http://www.mularzart.com/writings/THE%20NEGATIVE%20EFFECTS%20OF%20ADVERTISING.pdf Prothers, Lisa (1998) "Culture Jamming: An Interview with Pedro Carvajal" in Bad Subjects: Political Education for Everyday Life. Retrieved: http://www.eserver.org/bs/37/prothers.htm (1/08/2002). Quart, Alissa: Branded. Wie wir gekauft und verkauft werden. Riemann, März 2003, ISBN 978-3-570-50029-3. Richter, Hans-Jürgen (1977). Einführung in das Image-Marketing. Feldtheoretische Forschung. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer (Urban TB). Rorty, James: “Our Master's Voice: Advertising” Ayer Co Pub, 1976, ISBN 10: 0405080441 / 0-405-08044-1, ISBN 9780405080449 Schmölders, Günter (1978). Verhaltensforschung im Wirtschaftsleben. Reinbek: Rowohlt. Schmidt, S. J. & Spieß, B. (1994). Die Geburt der schönen Builder (1994) Schmidt, S. J. & Spieß, B. (1995). Werbung, Medien und Kultur, Westdeutscher Verlag,1995,Opladen Sinclair, Upton (1919): The Brass Check Stuart, Ewen. Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture, Basic Books, ISBN 9780465021550, ISBN 0465021557 Williamson, Judith (1994): Decoding Advertisements (Ideas in Progress), Marion Boyars Publishers Ltd (March 1, 1994),ISBN 0714526150, ISBN 978-0714526157 External links Advertising Educational Foundation, archived advertising exhibits and classroom resources Ad*Access -- Duke University Libraries Digital Collections Over 7,000 U.S. and Canadian advertisements, dated 1911-1955, covering five product categories - Beauty and Hygiene, Radio, Television, Transportation, and World War II propaganda. Emergence of Advertising in America -- Duke University Libraries Digital Collections - Includes 9,000 advertising items and publications dating from 1850 to 1920, illustrating the rise of consumer culture and the birth of a professionalized advertising industry in the United States. On-Line exhibits at William F. Eisner Museum of Advertising and Design | Advertising |@lemmatized coca:5 cola:5 advert:3 advertising:339 form:19 communication:17 typically:3 attempt:6 persuade:2 potential:6 customer:5 purchase:4 consume:1 particular:4 brand:27 product:60 service:26 central:3 contemporary:2 global:17 economy:37 reproduction:1 production:8 network:15 quite:2 recently:3 marginal:4 influence:17 pattern:2 sale:8 formation:1 modern:8 intimately:1 bind:1 emergence:2 new:53 monopoly:2 capitalism:11 around:5 end:4 beginning:2 century:6 one:31 element:4 corporate:7 strategy:4 create:19 organize:2 possible:9 control:9 market:26 especially:9 mass:15 produce:10 consumer:36 good:6 necessitate:1 consumption:20 turn:10 require:4 certain:8 homogenization:1 taste:2 final:1 limit:5 involved:1 seek:5 world:17 cultural:10 convergence:2 homogenize:1 engineer:1 lifestyle:3 culture:32 behavior:1 among:6 segment:1 across:2 many:26 advertisement:36 design:10 generate:3 increased:2 creation:2 reinvention:1 image:6 purpose:7 sometimes:1 embed:3 persuasive:1 message:24 factual:2 information:13 every:7 major:8 medium:114 use:42 deliver:4 include:22 television:40 radio:21 cinema:2 magazine:7 newspaper:14 video:10 game:7 internet:15 carrier:1 bag:2 billboard:37 often:15 place:12 agency:19 behalf:2 company:35 organization:14 frequently:1 spend:11 large:13 sum:2 money:7 sell:20 strictly:1 speak:4 political:34 party:2 interest:21 group:20 religious:2 military:1 recruiter:1 non:14 profit:6 typical:2 client:3 may:31 rely:1 free:15 mode:1 persuasion:1 public:62 announcement:3 increase:19 dramatically:2 recent:7 year:7 estimate:4 billion:20 united:13 state:16 worldwide:3 latter:3 exceed:2 see:18 necessary:6 economic:7 growth:7 without:14 social:24 cost:9 unsolicited:2 commercial:46 email:2 spam:4 become:33 prevalent:5 nuisance:4 user:6 well:11 financial:3 burden:1 provider:3 increasingly:20 invading:1 space:22 school:7 critic:19 argue:4 child:39 exploitation:2 history:7 edo:1 period:3 advertise:34 flyer:4 traditional:4 medicine:3 call:16 kinseitan:1 egyptian:1 papyrus:2 make:19 wall:6 poster:7 campaign:15 display:11 find:6 ruin:1 pompeii:1 ancient:4 arabia:1 lose:2 common:8 greece:3 rome:2 rock:2 painting:4 another:8 manifestation:1 present:3 day:7 part:14 asia:2 africa:3 south:2 america:11 tradition:1 trace:1 back:7 indian:1 art:7 date:3 bce:1 bhatia:3 rural:2 india:2 language:4 marketing:39 consumerism:3 town:4 city:15 middle:1 age:8 begin:4 grow:10 general:10 populace:1 unable:1 read:1 sign:10 today:9 would:13 say:7 cobbler:1 miller:2 tailor:1 blacksmith:1 associate:4 trade:4 boot:1 suit:3 hat:1 clock:1 diamond:1 horse:1 shoe:2 candle:1 even:12 flour:1 fruit:2 vegetable:1 square:3 cart:3 wagon:1 proprietor:1 street:5 caller:1 crier:2 announce:1 whereabouts:1 convenience:3 education:6 apparent:1 need:9 reading:1 print:9 develop:7 expand:7 handbill:1 start:2 appear:4 weekly:1 england:2 early:8 mainly:4 promote:12 book:7 affordable:1 advance:1 printing:1 press:35 disease:1 ravage:1 europe:2 however:10 false:1 quack:1 problem:6 usher:3 regulation:12 content:20 alongside:1 success:3 format:2 eventually:2 lead:9 mail:7 order:11 june:5 french:5 la:5 presse:1 first:15 paid:1 page:1 allow:3 lower:1 price:7 extend:2 readership:1 profitability:1 formula:2 soon:3 copy:3 title:1 volney:1 palmer:1 establish:6 predecessor:1 boston:1 time:30 france:5 charles:2 louis:1 havas:2 news:6 brokerage:1 broker:1 n:3 w:28 ayer:4 son:1 full:1 assume:2 responsibility:2 open:5 locate:1 philadelphia:1 career:1 choice:1 woman:12 business:34 since:5 responsible:2 household:1 advertiser:33 recognize:2 value:13 insight:3 creative:9 process:2 fact:3 american:12 sexual:3 soap:3 although:6 tame:1 standard:9 feature:10 couple:1 skin:2 love:6 touch:2 slogan:1 woodbury:1 j:5 walter:1 thompson:1 co:7 station:15 equipment:1 manufacturer:1 retailer:1 offer:9 program:9 pass:4 follow:3 set:8 club:2 civic:1 mcchesney:28 robert:26 educator:1 battle:3 u:27 broadcasting:7 rich:1 poor:2 democracy:5 isbn:82 practice:7 sponsor:16 popularise:1 individual:2 usually:3 single:8 exchange:2 brief:1 mention:4 name:4 sponsored:1 show:22 owner:3 realise:1 could:6 earn:1 sponsorship:5 right:14 small:7 allocation:1 multiple:3 throughout:2 broadcast:11 rather:4 per:6 issue:29 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 carry:5 late:4 fierce:2 fight:2 commercialise:1 people:23 spectrum:1 consider:10 commercially:1 kingdom:2 pursue:1 funding:2 model:5 bbc:1 originally:1 private:12 british:1 incorporate:2 body:2 royal:1 charter:1 canada:9 advocate:2 like:10 graham:1 spry:1 likewise:1 able:4 federal:2 government:6 adopt:1 canadian:8 corporation:10 capitalist:2 prevail:1 passage:1 act:7 commission:1 placate:1 socialist:1 congress:1 broadcaster:1 operate:3 necessity:3 exist:6 due:1 national:4 dumont:2 trend:8 previously:1 trouble:2 compensate:1 block:1 several:3 industry:26 still:5 steel:1 hour:4 instance:3 exercise:3 great:9 actually:5 write:3 much:11 less:3 notable:1 exception:2 hallmark:1 hall:4 fame:3 saw:3 transform:1 approach:4 creativity:2 shine:1 unexpected:2 tempting:1 eye:2 volkswagen:2 ad:48 featuring:1 headline:1 think:6 lemon:1 describe:7 appearance:4 car:7 era:1 position:3 unique:1 proposition:1 specific:9 idea:9 reader:3 viewer:9 mind:2 revolution:2 archetype:1 william:7 bernbach:1 help:4 revolutionary:1 others:10 long:13 stand:2 introduction:2 cable:2 particularly:3 mtv:2 pioneer:3 concept:2 music:1 type:11 tune:2 afterthought:1 satellite:2 specialty:1 channel:5 emerge:25 entirely:1 devote:1 qvc:1 home:2 shopping:5 shoptv:1 frontier:1 contribute:6 dot:1 com:10 boom:2 entire:3 solely:3 revenue:7 everything:3 coupon:2 access:4 number:8 website:4 search:2 engine:3 google:1 change:11 online:4 emphasize:2 contextually:1 relevant:5 unobtrusive:1 intend:3 inundate:1 plethora:1 similar:6 effort:5 interactive:4 share:6 spending:3 relative:1 gdp:3 little:4 example:21 main:6 streetcar:1 outdoor:6 percent:3 nonetheless:1 slightly:1 low:2 innovation:2 guerrilla:2 involve:3 unusual:1 staged:1 encounter:1 giveaway:1 cover:3 respond:1 reflect:3 via:4 placement:10 vote:1 text:1 various:9 utilize:1 myspace:1 mobile:14 redeye:1 target:15 north:3 avenue:1 beach:2 sailboat:1 lake:1 michigan:1 truck:2 blimp:1 mount:2 digital:6 screen:4 dedicate:1 vehicle:4 build:1 along:1 route:1 preselected:1 specially:1 equip:2 cargo:1 light:3 backlit:1 employ:7 spotlight:3 static:1 continuously:1 periodically:1 rotate:1 situation:2 metropolitan:1 area:5 term:10 convention:3 sport:27 event:7 store:4 opening:2 promotional:3 big:4 technique:2 inform:1 educate:2 motivate:2 hiv:1 aid:5 ideology:3 energy:1 conservation:1 recruitment:1 deforestation:1 guise:1 powerful:4 educational:5 tool:2 capable:2 reach:9 audience:8 justifies:1 existence:2 attribute:1 howard:1 gossage:1 david:6 ogilvy:1 cause:8 different:7 aspect:13 sophisticated:3 generally:5 enterprise:2 initiative:1 granting:1 license:3 fcc:1 contingent:1 upon:4 amount:10 meet:3 requirement:2 air:4 bulk:2 night:3 morning:2 percentage:1 watch:7 leave:3 prime:5 slot:1 available:4 high:11 pay:8 height:1 war:2 ii:3 direction:1 hold:7 old:2 human:13 directional:1 picture:6 bus:5 gap:1 singapore:1 popular:4 dbag:1 class:2 unicef:1 ingolstadt:1 railway:1 furniture:1 component:1 rack:1 card:3 web:11 banner:5 telephone:2 popups:1 skywriting:1 stop:3 bench:1 side:6 attach:2 airplane:1 logojets:1 flight:2 seatback:1 tray:1 table:1 overhead:1 storage:1 bin:1 taxicab:1 door:1 roof:1 passenger:1 musical:1 stage:5 subway:2 platform:1 train:2 elastic:1 band:2 disposable:2 diaper:1 sticker:2 apple:2 supermarket:2 shop:1 handle:1 grabertising:1 section:4 stream:1 audio:2 ticket:2 receipt:1 identify:3 way:13 measure:9 effectiveness:5 know:12 tracking:4 research:19 methodology:2 shift:3 perception:3 plot:1 level:7 exposure:4 promotion:6 provide:8 combined:2 effect:11 weight:1 buy:6 quality:3 execution:4 track:1 article:8 covert:2 entertainment:5 film:15 character:9 item:5 definite:1 movie:6 minority:1 report:7 tom:1 cruise:1 john:3 anderton:1 phone:7 nokia:1 logo:9 clearly:3 top:3 corner:1 engrave:1 bulgari:1 robot:2 play:3 smith:1 converse:1 classic:1 far:5 future:5 spaceballs:1 also:30 showcase:1 futuristic:1 audi:1 mercedes:2 benz:3 logos:1 front:3 cadillac:2 choose:4 matrix:1 reload:1 result:7 contain:1 scene:1 similarly:1 omega:1 ford:2 vaio:1 bmw:1 aston:1 martin:3 james:8 bond:3 notably:1 casino:1 royale:1 blade:1 runner:1 obvious:1 whole:5 tv:14 effective:3 charge:1 airtime:1 annual:1 super:2 bowl:2 football:1 prominent:1 average:3 thirty:1 second:5 spot:2 million:4 majority:2 song:1 jingle:2 listener:1 relate:1 virtual:6 insert:4 regular:2 programming:7 computer:1 graphic:2 otherwise:2 blank:1 backdrop:1 replace:2 local:4 remote:1 controversially:1 background:1 http:14 www:12 canwestmediaworks:1 nontraditional:1 opportunity:2 none:1 real:2 life:13 twilight:1 zone:1 signpost:1 ahead:1 york:36 infomercial:9 two:4 short:4 length:1 minute:5 direct:10 response:2 drtv:1 objective:2 impulse:1 presentation:2 immediately:1 advertised:2 toll:1 demonstrate:3 commonly:1 testimonial:1 professional:1 script:1 hawthorne:1 international:6 guthy:1 renker:1 celebrity:6 focus:3 power:7 popularity:2 gain:2 recognition:1 favourite:2 wear:1 clothes:1 designer:1 overtake:1 towards:1 usage:2 device:3 tivo:2 wide:3 phenomenon:3 base:7 dependent:1 relevance:1 surround:2 traffic:1 receives:1 e:21 propose:1 placing:1 booster:1 rocket:1 controversy:1 subliminal:1 pervasiveness:1 propaganda:5 unpaid:1 publicity:1 minimal:1 personal:1 recommendation:1 bring:4 friend:2 spread:5 buzz:2 achieve:2 feat:1 equate:5 noun:2 xerox:1 photocopier:1 kleenex:1 tissue:1 vaseline:1 petroleum:1 jelly:1 hoover:1 vacuum:1 cleaner:1 nintendo:1 adhesive:1 bandage:1 pinnacle:1 oppose:1 label:1 object:3 risk:2 genericized:1 trademark:3 generic:1 mean:11 legal:3 protection:11 downloadable:1 finland:2 matter:4 launch:1 admob:1 advanced:1 multimedia:1 advergames:1 engagement:1 drive:4 barcode:1 typing:1 address:3 camera:1 immediate:2 japanese:1 already:2 active:2 barcodes:1 rapidly:2 networking:3 site:3 relatively:1 immature:1 lot:1 promise:3 take:9 advantage:3 demographic:1 friendertising:1 precise:1 toward:3 directly:4 cw:2 break:4 wrap:2 herbal:1 essence:1 crest:1 guitar:1 hero:3 covergirl:1 toyota:1 arvertising:1 support:6 augmented:1 reality:2 technology:4 criticism:6 hyper:3 commercialism:4 tidal:2 wave:2 closely:1 link:6 interchangeable:1 refer:3 visual:5 g:20 cluttering:1 airwave:2 environmental:2 pollution:4 oversize:1 packaging:1 dependency:7 speech:7 censorship:3 ethical:1 moral:1 sub:2 conscious:2 influencing:2 invasion:2 privacy:4 waste:2 honesty:1 course:5 mix:2 thereof:1 subdivide:1 category:3 western:2 society:16 criticize:4 person:4 hardly:3 move:2 sphere:7 subject:8 occupy:2 invades:3 hard:3 escape:3 gigantic:1 kind:12 aesthetical:2 consequence:2 cannot:5 yet:6 foreseen:1 franck:8 georg:6 ökonomie:5 der:14 aufmerksamkeit:3 ein:4 entwurf:3 edition:17 carl:4 hanser:4 march:5 hanno:1 rauterberg:1 german:3 die:5 zeit:2 dictatorship:2 creep:2 airport:1 lounge:1 doctor:1 office:1 theater:1 hospital:3 gas:1 elevator:1 atm:1 garbage:1 countless:1 sand:1 restroom:1 irony:1 difficult:2 succeed:1 hence:2 push:1 endure:24 dilemma:23 monthly:23 review:24 p:26 within:3 decade:3 climb:1 nearly:2 shorter:1 total:5 baseball:2 telecast:1 flood:5 leap:1 bound:1 get:6 retroactively:1 rerun:1 virtually:1 league:1 manner:2 project:4 entry:2 canopy:1 sidewalk:1 arrival:1 grammy:1 award:1 precede:1 showing:1 cinemas:1 lavish:1 microsoft:1 daimlerchrysler:1 work:15 aggressively:1 conjunction:1 firm:3 resemble:1 opponent:2 restriction:6 dam:1 kalle:6 lasn:6 outspoken:1 considers:2 toxic:1 mental:7 pollutant:1 moment:6 alarm:2 sound:2 wee:1 microjolts:1 brain:4 rate:5 twelve:1 dump:1 collective:1 unconscious:2 jam:6 uncooling:3 morrow:3 november:5 three:3 kilbourne:2 jean:3 feel:3 touchstone:1 development:6 special:3 patient:1 figure:3 temporary:1 tattoo:1 method:5 unrecognisable:1 cash:2 strap:1 shrink:1 police:1 germany:4 stadium:4 hamburg:3 soccer:1 volkspark:1 aol:1 arena:3 hsh:1 nordbank:1 stuttgart:4 neckarstadion:1 dortmund:1 westfalenstadion:1 signal:1 iduna:1 park:1 former:2 skydome:1 toronto:3 rename:1 rogers:1 centre:2 berlin:3 redesign:1 exclusively:2 lease:1 düsseldorf:1 multi:2 sensorial:1 adventure:2 transit:2 loudspeaker:2 system:17 smell:1 detergent:2 swatch:1 beamers:1 tower:1 victory:1 column:1 fin:1 permit:2 illegality:1 scheme:1 add:1 management:3 knowledge:2 pillar:2 orientate:1 bone:1 marrow:1 function:6 scientist:2 economist:2 manfred:2 knoche:3 university:12 salzburg:1 austria:5 simply:3 evil:3 elixir:1 producer:2 weapon:1 competition:6 automotive:1 collectively:1 represent:3 view:9 editorial:3 programme:8 payment:1 werbung:7 notwendiges:1 lebenselixier:1 für:3 den:2 kapitalismus:2 zur:1 kritik:1 politischen:1 seufert:1 wolfgang:1 müller:1 lietzkow:1 jörg:3 hrsg:3 theorie:2 und:12 praxis:2 massenmedien:1 baden:2 nomos:1 christopher:7 lasch:7 overall:1 serf:1 narcissism:4 diminish:2 expectation:3 norton:2 constitutional:3 constitutionally:1 guarantee:2 freedom:5 opinion:2 csupomona:1 edu:1 jkirkpatrick:1 paper:2 ethicsadvttaxation:1 pdf:4 therefore:6 restrict:4 ban:10 almost:10 always:2 attack:2 fundamental:2 amendment:5 usa:8 concentrated:1 resistance:2 community:9 currently:3 near:1 case:8 court:4 prohibit:4 food:12 labelling:2 ground:2 violate:1 citizen:2 pp:4 debate:8 tobacco:9 alcohol:2 flier:1 clogged:1 box:3 concern:7 spamming:1 introduce:2 eu:2 country:16 resist:4 expression:4 firmly:1 survey:1 reveal:1 welcome:1 seldom:1 bad:3 entertain:2 point:5 law:4 fails:1 appease:1 positive:5 foreword:3 argues:1 deserve:1 constant:2 vigilance:1 come:2 certainly:1 antidemocratic:1 force:4 wealthy:1 enjoy:2 bit:1 immense:4 lord:1 royalty:1 feudal:1 neutral:1 tend:2 nature:3 else:2 whether:4 contribution:3 protect:4 effectively:2 fraction:1 citizenry:3 give:6 undue:1 undermine:1 ability:5 balance:2 necessarily:1 legitimately:1 addition:3 capacity:3 engage:1 determine:5 hand:2 physically:1 data:2 assemble:1 consent:3 vienna:2 attention:15 lecture:1 philosophicum:2 lech:2 publish:3 konrad:1 paul:4 liessmann:1 hrg:1 kanäle:1 macht:1 herrschaft:1 freiheit:1 im:2 medienzeitalter:1 vol:4 zsolnay:1 preprint:1 merkur:1 january:1 environment:6 adbusters:4 blend:1 narcissm:1 das:3 zeitalter:2 de:8 narzissmus:2 hoffmann:3 campe:2 essay:2 edge:2 apocalypse:2 sut:10 jhally:7 writes:1 sustained:1 cumulative:1 unless:1 quickly:2 check:3 destroy:2 hidden:2 dollar:11 depend:5 gross:1 income:4 developed:2 thus:5 causally:1 blame:1 harmful:1 affluent:1 negative:10 impact:5 raise:2 accuse:3 convoluted:2 attentiveness:2 commodity:11 absorb:2 redistribute:1 quota:1 identical:1 circulate:1 homogenise:1 quantitative:1 measuring:1 anonymous:1 currency:1 accord:6 surface:3 degree:1 magnet:1 etc:6 attraction:6 association:7 euro:2 double:2 spiegel:1 welt:1 pharmaceutical:1 marc:1 andré:1 gagnon:1 joel:1 lexchin:1 actual:2 expense:2 record:5 institution:3 indirect:1 rebate:2 reduction:1 aware:3 cent:1 relation:5 package:1 ordinarily:1 calculation:1 conditioning:1 mcdonald:1 di:1 italy:3 important:7 suggestion:3 emotion:3 appeal:3 dormant:1 conscience:3 sex:2 herd:1 instinct:1 desire:1 happiness:2 health:4 fitness:1 self:9 esteem:2 reputation:1 belonging:1 status:1 identity:3 distraction:1 reward:1 fear:3 illness:1 weakness:2 loneliness:1 uncertainty:1 security:1 prejudice:1 learn:1 comfort:1 relationship:1 deep:1 recess:1 psyche:1 mere:1 expansion:1 universe:1 rise:4 prominence:1 translation:2 intrinsic:1 exponentially:1 related:1 worthy:1 past:4 exploit:2 role:6 deliberate:1 humour:2 colour:1 altogether:2 factor:3 perceive:2 worth:1 description:1 someone:1 irresistible:1 ideal:2 symbol:1 subjective:2 experience:1 evidently:1 fore:1 draw:3 becomes:1 field:4 dimension:1 councillor:1 cult:2 serious:1 standing:1 notion:2 separation:1 crumble:1 tell:3 apart:1 boundary:1 blur:1 involvement:1 put:4 claim:4 fail:2 basic:3 giggle:1 test:4 preposterous:1 heavily:3 psychological:8 theory:4 enable:3 tinge:1 cite:1 thrift:1 emphasis:1 switch:1 symbolic:3 connotation:1 crucial:1 premise:1 material:2 never:2 enough:2 mundane:1 daily:2 must:4 imbue:1 culturally:1 endow:2 meaning:5 magic:1 williams:1 alter:2 context:1 thing:4 anything:3 mcfall:2 thereby:2 vision:1 individualism:1 exactly:2 plan:1 implement:2 best:3 array:1 science:4 deal:4 improve:3 psychologist:1 anthropologist:1 rigueur:1 vast:2 habit:2 collect:1 accumulate:1 aggregate:1 analyse:1 credit:1 bonus:1 raffle:1 last:5 least:6 surveying:1 accuracy:1 supply:2 behaviour:3 wish:3 population:2 selectively:1 efficiency:2 operation:3 discipline:1 psychiatry:1 anthropology:1 neurology:1 behavioural:1 constantly:2 ever:3 refined:1 subtle:2 crafty:1 neuromarketing:1 controversial:2 medical:1 functional:1 magnetic:1 resonance:1 imaging:1 fmri:1 heal:1 psychology:1 epidemic:2 complicity:1 profession:1 enormous:2 onslaught:1 comprise:1 arguably:1 undertaken:1 undertaking:1 remain:4 largely:2 ignore:2 concerted:2 manipulation:2 privately:1 predominantly:1 source:1 siegert:1 gabriele:1 brecheis:1 dieter:1 medien:4 informationsgesellschaft:1 verlag:2 sozialwissenschaften:1 independent:3 proportion:1 distinct:2 implication:3 candid:1 branch:2 merger:1 concentration:1 property:1 entangle:1 opaque:1 henry:3 giroux:3 ongoing:1 threat:2 democratic:1 mcmaster:3 hamilton:2 spectacle:3 accumulation:3 sutjhally:3 biography:2 suffice:1 five:3 six:2 dominate:1 journalist:2 face:3 pressure:6 shape:2 story:2 executive:3 department:1 cooperative:1 assist:1 undesired:1 reporting:1 prevent:1 threaten:1 cancel:2 danger:2 cancellation:1 dominant:2 regard:3 secure:1 revenues:1 refusal:2 accept:4 striking:1 try:2 refuse:1 principally:1 viewing:2 decide:1 demand:5 procter:1 gamble:1 bartering:1 save:1 want:6 series:1 perkins:1 skilfully:1 oxydol:1 opera:1 bear:3 basically:2 worry:1 blunt:1 exertion:1 chrysler:2 merge:1 daimler:1 pentacom:2 send:2 letter:1 numerous:2 overview:1 topic:3 next:2 avoid:2 conflict:1 provocative:1 offensive:1 reasoning:1 anyone:3 look:2 nothing:2 pornography:1 meeting:1 let:2 accommodate:1 split:1 suitable:2 dramaturgy:1 suspense:1 unanswered:1 question:2 keep:1 outside:3 broad:3 fully:2 integrate:4 licensing:2 tie:2 hollywood:2 selling:2 collection:6 advertisingattheed:1 partner:2 venture:1 note:2 practise:1 motion:1 evident:1 attract:1 likely:1 distinguish:1 border:1 blurred:1 august:3 fischer:1 chairman:1 board:1 axel:1 springer:1 proven:1 partnership:1 infiltration:1 journalistic:1 duty:1 rtl:1 helmut:1 thoma:1 shall:1 serve:4 mission:1 goal:1 acceptance:1 setting:1 priority:1 patrick:1 le:1 lay:2 manage:2 director:1 talk:3 realistic:1 job:2 disposal:1 distract:1 relax:1 ready:1 widespread:2 obtain:1 usual:1 sit:1 basis:2 journalism:2 troubling:1 exclude:2 range:3 legitimate:2 structural:2 upton:2 sinclair:2 novel:1 brass:2 stress:2 master:4 voice:9 ecologist:1 rorty:4 gargoyle:1 mouth:1 vested:2 finance:1 silent:2 drown:1 suffer:1 rebuke:1 extent:2 pub:2 teach:1 live:1 afraid:1 proud:1 beautiful:1 envy:1 successful:1 wonder:1 jabberwocky:1 stimulus:1 religion:3 progressively:1 expel:1 periphery:1 cultivate:1 commercialisation:2 performance:3 exhibition:2 concert:1 lack:1 artist:2 grade:1 renown:4 exclusive:1 broadway:1 bohème:1 prop:1 extensively:1 fashion:3 piece:1 clothe:1 room:1 independently:1 alternative:2 express:1 strong:2 stay:2 nr:2 inflatable:1 competitive:1 unthinkable:2 mutual:1 comparable:1 spectator:2 team:1 sportsman:1 jürgen:5 hüther:2 hans:5 stiehler:2 complex:1 complicated:1 manager:1 promoter:1 partially:2 diverging:1 presumably:1 rare:1 namely:2 circulation:1 acknowledge:2 valuable:1 journal:5 cohort:1 study:4 secondary:1 boy:2 whose:1 motor:2 racing:1 smoker:1 compare:2 race:2 scientific:2 committee:2 prepare:1 archive:2 official:1 document:2 uk:5 doh:1 htm:2 transmission:1 merchandise:1 meantime:1 ioc:1 olympic:2 admittance:1 alteration:1 distance:1 rule:5 animation:1 facility:1 entertaining:1 merz:2 zeitschrift:1 erziehung:1 merzwissenschaft:1 jff:1 list:2 php:1 katid:1 naming:1 renaming:1 adjustment:1 logic:2 erosion:1 equal:1 chance:1 fairness:1 excessive:1 athlete:1 deceit:1 dope:1 counter:5 exists:1 occupation:2 visually:1 perceptible:1 urban:10 structure:1 landscape:2 sight:2 fare:1 flag:1 decisive:1 unavoidable:1 shelter:1 clear:2 pervasive:2 wrapped:1 building:4 electronic:1 kiosk:1 taxi:2 consciousness:2 domination:1 surroundings:2 natural:1 saturation:2 implicitly:1 understood:1 inch:1 steady:1 normalization:1 invasive:1 dull:1 enforce:1 attitude:1 powerlessness:1 cycle:1 slowly:1 consistently:1 outcry:1 massive:1 optical:1 orientation:1 utilise:1 landmark:1 exert:1 highly:1 frequent:1 piccadilly:2 circus:2 alexanderplatz:1 heritage:1 privatise:1 pepper:1 remodelled:1 socio:1 sexism:2 discrimination:1 stereotype:5 agenda:2 huge:2 treatment:1 ignorance:1 whatever:2 advertsing:1 reflection:1 norm:1 taget:1 commerce:3 mus:1 relaxation:1 respect:4 comfortable:1 eicke:2 ulrich:2 werbelawine:1 angriff:1 auf:1 unser:1 bewußtsein:1 münchen:3 twitchell:1 go:3 beyond:1 replaces:1 key:3 summer:1 undertake:1 unknown:1 brainwash:1 experiment:4 conduct:1 dr:1 ewen:2 cameron:1 montreal:1 psychiatric:1 mkultra:1 cia:1 depatterning:1 outfit:1 semiconscious:1 headphone:1 thousand:2 repetitive:1 aim:10 young:9 reduce:6 surprising:1 something:1 expend:1 presence:1 indeed:1 intent:2 maximize:1 colonize:1 delivery:1 marketer:1 celebrate:1 fund:4 drain:1 sector:4 gallery:1 museum:2 symphony:1 bid:1 penetrating:1 playground:1 pope:2 commercialize:1 visit:1 mexico:1 frito:1 pepsico:2 mularz:2 stephen:3 mularzart:2 writing:3 fuel:1 assignment:1 propagate:1 hijack:1 pop:1 protest:1 movement:1 subversive:1 shy:1 away:1 scandalize:1 taboo:1 benneton:1 incites:1 action:2 jammer:1 condition:3 practical:1 importance:3 experimental:1 richter:2 einführung:2 feldtheoretische:2 forschung:2 kohlhammer:3 tb:3 hieraus:1 aufgabe:1 gender:2 men:4 reinforce:2 clichés:1 inadvertently:1 intentionally:1 racism:1 ageism:1 recognizable:1 frame:1 activity:3 depict:2 male:2 female:3 sexuality:1 exaggerate:1 sexualise:1 catcher:1 servant:1 react:1 complaint:1 improvement:1 wash:1 emotional:1 toy:3 affirmation:1 technically:1 totally:1 clueless:1 childproof:1 expert:1 cosmetic:1 coffee:1 interview:2 politician:1 girl:1 propagated:1 beauty:3 eat:1 disorder:1 mutilation:1 parliament:1 resolution:1 discriminate:1 degrade:1 politics:3 adolescent:3 weak:1 kid:5 observer:2 sing:1 feeling:1 understand:1 underlie:1 behave:1 youth:1 maker:2 sweet:1 ice:1 cream:1 breakfast:1 prefer:1 preferably:1 generation:1 wolfram:1 medienkinder:1 vom:1 richtigen:1 umgang:1 mit:2 vielfalt:1 knesebeck:1 independence:2 cigarette:5 accessory:1 linking:1 smoke:1 suggest:5 everywhere:1 exempt:1 animated:1 foodfight:1 icon:1 familiar:1 grocery:1 snack:1 interested:1 buying:1 parent:1 easy:2 claimed:1 obesity:2 account:1 watching:1 primary:2 purchaser:1 annually:2 loyal:2 adult:2 influencers:1 forward:2 indifferent:1 accustom:1 cater:1 prize:3 loyalty:1 translate:1 ytv:1 tween:1 ontariondp:1 graduate:1 attending:1 province:1 québec:2 r:5 q:2 c:5 application:1 guide:1 uphold:3 consititutional:1 validity:1 quebec:1 challenge:2 se:1 manipulative:1 convince:1 believe:3 redirection:1 norway:1 sweden:6 legislate:1 forbid:1 denmark:1 flemish:1 belgium:2 h:1 reference:2 spain:2 undemocratic:1 corinna:1 hawkes:1 regulatory:3 geneva:1 whqlibdoc:1 int:1 publication:4 opposition:2 lund:1 commercialization:2 privatization:1 acceleration:1 resource:5 notice:1 roundly:1 detest:1 scarcely:1 receive:2 whiff:1 damage:1 precisely:1 incessantly:1 prostitution:1 lend:1 intellect:1 artistic:1 skill:1 shatter:1 ultimately:2 precious:1 possession:1 confidence:2 meaningful:1 integrity:2 man:2 baran:1 sweezy:1 capital:2 struggle:1 essential:1 overcome:1 alienation:1 genuine:1 corrosive:1 illusion:1 seem:1 trivial:1 omnipresent:1 pigou:1 removed:1 monopolistic:1 inherent:1 remove:4 inner:1 pure:1 vibrant:1 fabric:1 tokyo:3 ginza:1 panorama:1 london:12 roundabout:1 signage:1 moscow:1 crack:1 regulate:4 enhance:1 scenic:2 following:1 complete:2 geographic:1 diversity:1 county:2 construction:2 nationwide:1 vermont:1 hawaii:1 maine:2 alaska:1 referendum:1 prohibits:1 ago:2 são:2 paulo:2 brazil:1 downsizing:1 removal:1 technical:1 appliance:1 filter:1 zapper:1 blocker:1 indicate:1 rid:1 unwelcome:1 globalization:4 sociologist:1 antipub:1 subvertising:1 jamming:2 adbusting:1 anti:2 naomi:3 klein:3 noam:2 chomsky:2 sens:1 penny:1 liberation:1 san:3 francisco:3 vancouver:1 manifestos:1 grassroots:1 root:2 contest:2 intended:1 subvert:1 unintended:1 instead:1 illegal:1 stem:1 detect:1 illegalsigns:1 ca:2 examples:1 l:3 résistance:1 à:1 agression:1 publicitaire:1 baudrillard:1 author:2 parody:1 awareness:3 alert:1 family:2 literacy:4 organisation:1 training:1 working:1 foundation:4 distribute:2 documentary:1 mediawatch:2 register:1 regulator:1 réseau:2 éducation:2 médias:2 comprehensive:1 member:3 bell:1 ctvglobemedia:1 canwest:2 telus:1 vox:1 initiate:1 distributor:1 enrich:1 understanding:1 airline:1 anheuser:1 busch:1 campbell:1 soup:1 colgate:1 palmolive:1 walt:2 disney:2 mill:2 gillette:1 heinz:1 johnson:3 kellogg:2 kraft:2 nestle:2 philip:1 morris:1 quaker:1 oat:1 nabisco:1 schering:1 sterling:1 unilever:1 warner:1 lambert:1 saatchi:2 compton:1 cbs:1 cox:1 forbes:1 hearst:1 meredith:1 rca:1 nbc:1 digest:1 washington:1 post:4 concerned:2 instill:1 actively:1 commitment:1 corus:1 ctv:1 hasbro:1 hershey:1 loblaw:1 mattel:1 macdonald:1 pepsi:1 weston:1 smart:3 offspring:1 netherlands:3 zealand:2 willie:1 munchright:1 intervention:2 encourage:1 critical:1 motivation:1 solution:1 outright:2 deem:1 nutritional:1 primarily:1 avert:1 openly:1 furthermore:1 hobbs:1 taxation:6 tax:17 freely:1 compensation:1 intrude:1 pigovian:1 gather:1 momentum:1 arkansas:1 bill:1 florida:1 enact:1 repeal:1 month:1 withdraw:1 planned:1 loss:2 tourism:1 alone:1 deductible:1 deduction:1 taxed:1 refers:1 turkey:1 estonia:1 european:3 bundestag:1 btd:1 asc:1 taxe:2 affichage:1 aanplakkingstaks:1 size:1 neon:2 sur:1 publicité:1 télévisée:1 unit:1 municipal:3 acoustic:1 municipality:4 imposta:1 communale:1 sulla:1 publicità:1 diritti:1 sulle:1 pubbliche:1 offisioni:1 tariff:5 jurisdiction:1 reclamebelastingen:1 vary:2 levy:2 publicly:1 accessible:1 fee:4 duration:1 printed:1 reklamskatt:1 fair:1 territory:1 unimportant:1 korten:3 machinery:1 reassure:1 path:1 governmental:2 restraint:1 excess:1 distress:1 historical:1 inevitability:1 boon:1 specie:1 berrett:2 koehler:2 california:3 blight:1 realm:2 countryside:1 legislation:1 unlawful:1 impose:2 swedish:1 though:1 continue:2 originate:1 weaken:1 justice:1 oblige:1 foreign:2 neighbor:1 elsewhere:1 vigorous:1 exacerbate:1 release:2 kaiser:2 february:2 fast:2 childhood:1 agree:1 code:4 ensure:1 decent:1 honest:1 truthful:1 authority:2 planning:3 criminal:1 offense:1 liable:1 fine:2 offence:1 conviction:1 naturally:1 intrusion:1 variety:1 linguistic:2 bypass:1 english:2 word:1 bold:1 toubon:1 ritchie:1 condom:1 warning:1 caution:1 hazard:1 variation:1 domestic:1 export:2 four:1 potentially:1 compete:2 scale:2 maximise:2 speed:1 implementation:1 evolutionary:1 fundamentally:1 import:2 travel:1 pg:1 region:2 flow:2 branding:1 verbal:1 dawn:1 popup:1 flash:1 popunder:1 advergaming:1 commonplace:1 recorder:1 later:2 additionally:1 season:1 pre:3 additional:1 opt:1 survivor:1 widely:1 willing:1 hear:1 significant:1 niche:4 tail:1 efficient:1 blanket:1 profile:1 blog:1 define:1 comcast:2 menu:1 proactive:1 advertisements:1 vod:1 retrieve:6 october:1 diversification:1 australia:1 freelance:1 distribution:1 winner:2 doritos:1 chip:1 chevrolet:1 tahoe:1 line:2 suv:1 infancy:1 decrease:1 freelancer:1 specialized:1 entail:1 testing:4 gauge:1 perform:1 continuous:1 communicus:1 adstock:1 federation:2 classify:1 conquesting:1 coolhunting:1 copywriting:2 senior:1 overhang:1 pseudo:1 seo:1 shock:1 shockvertising:1 viral:1 analytics:1 bibliography:1 anthony:1 abdo:1 au:1 professor:1 geography:1 tej:1 k:1 institute:1 japan:1 arthur:1 richards:1 kent:1 teacher:1 pirate:1 renaissance:2 clark:1 eric:2 viking:1 cook:1 guy:1 discourse:2 routledge:8 graydon:1 shari:1 annick:1 douglas:1 chicago:2 harper:3 collins:2 kleppner:1 otto:1 procedure:1 englewood:1 cliff:1 prentice:1 kotabe:1 masaki:1 kristiaan:1 helsen:1 wiley:1 sopns:1 inc:1 publisher:2 copyright:1 laermer:1 richard:1 simmons:1 mark:1 punk:1 marilyn:1 scrizzi:1 lear:1 jackson:1 fable:1 abundance:1 leon:2 jose:2 luis:2 los:1 effectos:1 publicidad:2 barcelona:2 ariel:2 mitoanálisis:1 liz:1 sage:3 mulvihill:1 donald:1 f:2 oct:1 packard:1 vance:1 persuader:1 mckay:1 petley:1 julian:1 mankato:1 minnesota:1 handbook:1 seattle:1 wa:1 april:1 wernick:1 andrew:1 ltd:2 critcs:1 baines:1 pie:1 spring:1 infotrac:3 academic:3 asap:3 plus:3 blisset:1 luther:1 handbuch:2 kommunikationsguerilla:1 assoziation:1 boiler:1 theft:1 plunder:1 wealth:1 manufacture:1 certeau:1 michel:1 everyday:2 berkley:1 mentaler:1 eine:1 politische:1 des:1 geistes:1 märz:2 fraser:1 nancy:1 rethink:1 critique:1 ed:2 goldman:1 debra:1 republic:1 adweek:2 habermas:1 transformation:1 inquiry:1 bourgeois:1 cambridge:2 harkin:1 statesman:1 hoepfner:1 friedrich:1 verbraucherverhalten:1 joachim:1 werbepsychologie:1 degruyter:1 sammlung:1 göschen:1 hodge:1 kress:1 semiotics:1 polity:1 holt:1 dialectical:1 horkheimer:1 max:1 adorno:1 theodor:1 dialectic:1 enlightenment:1 allen:1 lane:1 irle:1 bussmann:1 wolf:1 marktpsychologie:3 psychologie:1 halbbände:1 halbband:2 al:1 sozialwissenschaft:1 methoden:1 anwendungen:1 göttingen:1 hogrefe:1 jhully:3 peter:2 lang:1 publishing:1 fetishism:1 december:1 lei:2 kline:1 botterill:1 jacqueline:1 mediated:1 marketplace:1 september:1 andreas:1 werblicher:1 beeinflussung:1 vahlen:1 taking:1 bully:1 picador:1 reverse:1 suicidal:1 binge:1 paperback:1 lee:1 loretta:1 nicholas:1 fyfe:1 july:1 lemke:1 jay:1 textual:1 dynamic:1 taylor:1 francis:1 livingston:1 sonia:1 lunt:1 participation:1 louw:1 stolzfus:1 duane:1 nerone:1 scripps:1 univ:1 illinois:1 pr:1 prothers:2 lisa:1 pedro:1 carvajal:1 eserver:1 org:1 b:3 quart:1 alissa:1 wie:1 wir:1 gekauft:1 verkauft:1 werden:1 riemann:1 schmölders:1 günter:1 verhaltensforschung:1 wirtschaftsleben:1 reinbek:1 rowohlt:1 schmidt:2 spieß:2 geburt:1 schönen:1 builder:1 kultur:1 westdeutscher:1 opladen:1 stuart:1 captain:1 williamson:1 judith:1 decode:1 progress:1 marion:1 boyars:1 external:1 exhibit:2 classroom:1 duke:2 library:2 dated:1 hygiene:1 transportation:1 illustrate:1 birth:1 professionalized:1 eisner:1 |@bigram coca_cola:5 fruit_vegetable:1 town_crier:2 mcchesney_robert:25 encyclopædia_britannica:1 broadcasting_corporation:1 hall_fame:2 hiv_aid:1 tom_cruise:1 mercedes_benz:2 matrix_reload:1 aston_martin:1 casino_royale:1 blade_runner:1 super_bowl:2 http_www:11 twilight_zone:1 booster_rocket:1 subliminal_advertising:1 vacuum_cleaner:1 adhesive_bandage:1 mobile_phone:4 carl_hanser:4 die_zeit:1 convenience_store:1 emerge_dilemma:23 dilemma_monthly:23 league_baseball:1 grammy_award:1 outspoken_critic:1 collective_unconscious:1 william_morrow:3 cash_strap:1 bone_marrow:1 salzburg_austria:1 theorie_und:2 baden_baden:1 constitutionally_guarantee:1 und_freiheit:1 sut_jhally:5 billion_dollar:4 self_esteem:2 de_rigueur:1 magnetic_resonance:1 resonance_imaging:1 imaging_fmri:1 medien_und:3 vast_majority:1 procter_gamble:1 soap_opera:1 daimler_benz:1 unanswered_question:1 motion_picture:1 axel_springer:1 vested_interest:2 la_bohème:1 zeitschrift_für:1 public_outcry:1 piccadilly_circus:2 psychiatric_hospital:1 conscious_unconscious:1 corporate_sponsorship:1 shy_away:1 hans_jürgen:2 stuttgart_kohlhammer:3 male_female:1 child_adolescent:3 ice_cream:1 grocery_store:1 per_se:1 monopolistic_competition:1 são_paulo:2 paulo_brazil:1 naomi_klein:1 noam_chomsky:1 san_francisco:3 jean_baudrillard:1 anheuser_busch:1 campbell_soup:1 walt_disney:2 reader_digest:1 concerted_effort:1 berrett_koehler:2 viral_marketing:1 harper_collins:2 englewood_cliff:1 prentice_hall:1 jose_luis:2 seattle_wa:1 academic_asap:3 handbuch_der:2 chomsky_noam:1 hans_joachim:1 adorno_theodor:1 dialectic_enlightenment:1 der_psychologie:1 taylor_francis:1 westdeutscher_verlag:1 marion_boyars:1 external_link:1 |
3,071 | Hull_(watercraft) | A hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull comes the superstructure and deckhouse. The line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline. The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type. In a typical modern steel ship, the structure consists of major transverse and longitudinal members called watertight (and also sometimes non-tight) bulkheads, intermediate members such as girders, stringers and webs, and minor members called ordinary transverse frames, frames, or longitudinals, depending on the structural arrangement. In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames (often referred to as ribs) and bulkheads, which are further tied together by longitudinal stringers or ceiling. Often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, or be of a monocoque arrangement. In many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material. "Hull Form" General features The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design. Shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. The shape is chosen to strike a balance between cost, hydrostatic considerations (load carrying and stability) and hydrodynamics (speed, powering, and dynamic motion behavior). Hull shapes Hulls come in many varieties and can have composite shape, (e.g., a fine entry forward and inverted bell shape aft), but are grouped primarily as follows: Moulded, round bilged or soft-chined. Examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge and s-bottom hull. defined as smooth curves Chined and Hard-chined. Examples are the flat-bottom (chined), v-bottom and multi-bottom hull (hard chined). have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length Categorisation After this they can be categorized as: Displacement the hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy. They travel through the water at a limited rate which is defined by the waterline length. They are often heavier than planing types, though not always. Semi-displacement, or semi-planing the hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift, however, most of the vessel's weight is still supported through buoyancy Planing the planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the wetted surface and therefore also the drag. They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and sometimes round-bilged. The most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at higher speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. (see: Planing (sailing), Hull speed). Most used hull forms At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull. [Zeilen:Van beginner tot gevorderde by Karel Heijnen] The inverted bell shape of the hull, with smaller payload the waterline cross-section is less, hence the resistance is less and the speed is higher. With higher payload the outward bend provides smoother performance in waves. As such, the inverted bell shape is a popular form used with planing hulls. Hull forms Smooth curve hulls Smooth curve hulls are hulls which use, just like the curved hulls, a sword or an attached keel. Semi round bilge hulls are somewhat less round. The advantage of the semi-round is that it is a nice middle between the S-bottom and chined hull. Typical examples of a semi-round bilge hull can be found in the Centaur and Laser cruising dinghies. S-bottom hull (A), compared to a hard (B) and soft (C) chine hull S-bottom hulls are hulls shaped like an s. In the s-bottom, the hull runs smooth to the keel. As there are no sharp corners in the fuselage. Boats with this hull have a fixed keel, or a kielmidzwaard. This is a short keel which still sticks a sword. Examples of cruising dinghies that use this s-shape are the yngling and Randmeer. Chined and hard-chined hulls A chined hull consists of straight plates, which are set at an angle to each other. The chined hull is the most simple hull shape because it worked only with straight planks. These boards are often bent lengthwise. Most home-made constructed boats are chined hull boats. Benefits of this type of boating activity is the low production cost and the (usually) fairly flat bottom, making the boat faster at planing. Chined hulls can also make use of a sword or attached keel. Chined hulls can be divised up into 3 shapes: V-bottom chined hulls flat-bott chined hulls and multi-chined hulls. Appendages A protrusion below the waterline forward is called a bulbous bow and is fitted on some hulls to reduce the wave making resistance drag and thus increase fuel efficiency. Bulbs fitted at the stern are less common but accomplish a similar task. (see also: Naval architecture) A keel may be fitted on a hull to increase the transverse stability, directional stability or to create lift. Control devices such as a rudder, trim tabs or stabilizing fins may be fitted. Terms Bow is the frontmost part of the hull Stern is the rear-most part of the hull Port is the left side of the boat when facing the Bow Starboard is the right side of the boat when facing the Bow Waterline is an imaginary line circumscribing the hull that matches the surface of the water when the hull is not moving. Midships is the midpoint of the LWL (see below). It is half-way from the forwardmost point on the waterline to the rear-most point on the waterline. Baseline an imaginary reference line used to measure vertical distances from. It is usually located at the bottom of the hull. Metrics "LWL & LOA" Hull forms are defined as follows: Block Measures that define the principal dimensions. They are: Length overall (LOA) is the extreme length from one end to the other. Length at the waterline (LWL) is the length from the forwardmost point of the waterline measured in profile to the stern-most point of the waterline. Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP or LPP) is the length of the summer load waterline from the stern post to the point where it crosses the stem. (see also p/p) Beam or breadth (B) is the width of the hull. (ex: BWL is the maximum beam at the waterline) Depth or moulded depth (D) is the vertical distance measured from the top of the keel to the underside of the upper deck at side. , Annex 1, Regulations for determining gross and net tonnages of ships, Reg. 2(2)(a). In ships with rounded gunwales, the upper measurement point is take to the point at which the planes of the deck and side plating intersect. Id., Reg. 2(2)(b). Ships with stepped decks are measured to a line parallel with the upper part. Id., Reg. 2(2)(c). Draft (d) or (T) is the vertical distance from the bottom of the hull to the waterline. Freeboard (FB) is the difference between Depth and draft. "Beam, draft & Depth" Form Derivatives that are calculated from the shape and the Block Measures. They are: Volume (V or ∇) is the volume of water displaced by the hull. Displacement (Δ) is the weight of water equivalent to the immersed volume of the hull. Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy (LCB) is the longitudinal distance from a point of reference (often Midships) to the centre of the displaced volume of water when the hull is not moving. Note that the Longitudinal Centre of Gravity or centre of the weight of the vessel must align with the LCB when the hull is in equilibrium. Vertical Centre of Buoyancy (VCB) is the vertical distance from a point of reference (often the Baseline) to the centre of the displaced volume of water when the hull is not moving. Longitudinal Centre of Floatation (LCF) is the longitudinal distance from a point of reference (often Midships) to the centre of the area of waterplane when the hull is not moving. This can be visualized as being the area defined by the water's surface and the hull. Coefficients help compare hull forms as well: 1) Block Coefficient (Cb) is the volume (V) divided by the LWL x BWL x T. If you draw a box around the submerged part of the ship, it is the ratio of the box volume occupied by the ship. It gives a sense of how much of the block defined by the Lwl, Bwl & draft (T) is filled by the hull. Full forms such as oil tankers will have a high Cb where fine shapes such as sailboats will have a low Cb. 2) Midship Coefficient (Cm or Cx) is the cross-sectional area (Ax) of the slice at Midships (or at the largest section for Cx) divided by Bwl x draft. It displays the ratio of the largest underwater section of the hull to a rectangle of the same overall width and depth as the underwater section of the hull. This defines the fullness of the underbody. A low Cm indicates a cut-away mid-section and a high Cm indicates a boxy section shape. Sailboats have a cut-away mid-section with low Cx whereas cargo vessels have a boxy section with high Cx to help increase the Cb. 3) Prismatic Coefficient (Cp) is the volume (V) divided by Lwl x Ax. It displays the ratio of the underwater volume of the hull to a rectangular block of the same overall length as the underbody and with cross-sectional area equal to the largest underwater section of the hull. This is used to evaluate the distribution of the volume of the underbody. A low Cp indicates a full mid-section and fine ends, a high Cp indicates a boat with fuller ends. Planing hulls and other highspeed hulls tend towards a higher Cp. Efficient displacement hulls travelling at a low Froude number will tend to have a low Cp. 4) Waterplane Coefficient (Cw) is the waterplane area divided by Lwl x Bwl. The waterplane coefficient expresses the fullness of the waterplane, or the ratio of the waterplane area to a rectangle of the same length and width. A low Cw figure indicates fine ends and a high Cw figure indicates fuller ends. High Cw improves stability as well as handling behavior in rough conditions. Note: History Rafts have a hull of sorts, however, hulls of the earliest design are thought to have each consisted of a hollowed out tree bole: in effect the first canoes. Hull form then proceeded to the Coracle shape and on to more sophisticated forms as the science of Naval architecture advanced. Notes References See also Boat Double hull Draft Froude number Hull speed Monohull Multihull Naval architecture Ship Shipbuilding Submarine Submarine hull External links http://www.ariesmar.com/knowledge_bank/double-hull-conversion.php Double hull conversion and its importance Description of hydrostatics and coefficients | Hull_(watercraft) |@lemmatized hull:80 watertight:2 body:1 ship:8 boat:10 come:2 superstructure:1 deckhouse:1 line:4 meet:1 water:8 surface:5 call:5 waterline:13 structure:3 vary:1 depend:2 vessel:5 type:3 typical:3 modern:1 steel:2 consist:3 major:1 transverse:4 longitudinal:8 member:4 also:6 sometimes:4 non:1 tight:1 bulkhead:2 intermediate:1 girder:1 stringer:2 web:1 minor:1 ordinary:1 frame:3 longitudinals:1 structural:1 arrangement:2 wooden:3 sailboat:4 construct:1 planking:1 support:3 often:7 refer:1 rib:1 far:1 tie:1 together:1 ceiling:1 always:2 centerline:1 keel:8 fiberglass:1 composite:3 may:3 resemble:1 extent:1 monocoque:1 many:2 case:3 build:1 sandwich:1 thin:1 fiber:1 reinforce:1 skin:1 lightweight:1 reasonably:1 rigid:1 core:1 foam:1 balsa:1 wood:1 impregnate:1 paper:1 honeycomb:1 material:1 form:14 general:1 feature:1 shape:16 entirely:1 dependent:1 upon:1 need:1 design:2 range:1 nearly:1 perfect:1 box:3 scow:1 barge:1 needle:1 sharp:2 revolution:1 race:1 multihull:2 choose:1 strike:1 balance:1 cost:2 hydrostatic:1 consideration:1 load:2 carrying:1 stability:4 hydrodynamics:1 speed:7 powering:1 dynamic:4 motion:1 behavior:2 variety:1 e:1 g:1 fine:4 entry:1 forward:2 invert:3 bell:3 aft:1 group:1 primarily:1 follow:2 mould:2 round:9 bilge:7 soft:2 chin:14 example:4 semi:6 bottom:14 define:7 smooth:5 curve:3 hard:4 flat:4 v:6 multi:2 least:2 one:3 pronounce:1 knuckle:1 throughout:1 length:10 categorisation:1 categorize:1 displacement:4 exclusively:1 predominantly:1 buoyancy:4 travel:2 limited:1 rate:1 heavy:1 plan:8 though:1 capable:1 develop:2 moderate:1 amount:1 lift:3 however:2 weight:3 still:3 configure:1 positive:1 pressure:1 draft:7 decrease:1 increase:4 reduce:2 wetted:1 therefore:1 drag:2 common:2 chine:2 make:5 efficient:3 planing:2 throw:1 spray:1 high:10 although:1 require:1 energy:1 achieve:1 see:5 sail:1 used:2 present:1 widely:1 zeilen:1 van:1 beginner:1 tot:1 gevorderde:1 karel:1 heijnen:1 small:1 payload:2 cross:4 section:10 less:4 hence:1 resistance:2 outward:1 bend:1 provide:1 performance:1 wave:2 popular:1 use:6 like:2 curved:1 sword:3 attached:1 somewhat:1 advantage:1 nice:1 middle:1 find:1 centaur:1 laser:1 cruising:1 dinghy:2 compare:2 b:3 c:2 run:1 corner:1 fuselage:1 fix:1 kielmidzwaard:1 short:1 stick:1 cruise:1 yngling:1 randmeer:1 chined:2 straight:2 plate:1 set:1 angle:1 simple:1 work:1 plank:1 board:1 bent:1 lengthwise:1 home:1 constructed:1 benefit:1 activity:1 low:8 production:1 usually:2 fairly:1 faster:1 attach:1 divised:1 bott:1 appendages:1 protrusion:1 bulbous:1 bow:4 fit:4 thus:1 fuel:1 efficiency:1 bulb:1 stern:4 accomplish:1 similar:1 task:1 naval:3 architecture:3 directional:1 create:1 control:1 device:1 rudder:1 trim:1 tab:1 stabilize:1 fin:1 term:1 frontmost:1 part:4 rear:2 port:1 left:1 side:4 face:2 starboard:1 right:1 imaginary:2 circumscribe:1 match:1 move:4 midships:4 midpoint:1 lwl:7 half:1 way:1 forwardmost:2 point:10 baseline:2 reference:5 measure:6 vertical:5 distance:6 locate:1 metric:1 loa:2 block:5 principal:1 dimension:1 overall:3 extreme:1 end:5 profile:1 perpendicular:1 lbp:1 lpp:1 summer:1 post:1 stem:1 p:2 beam:3 breadth:1 width:3 ex:1 bwl:5 maximum:1 depth:5 top:1 underside:1 upper:3 deck:3 annex:1 regulation:1 determine:1 gross:1 net:1 tonnage:1 reg:3 rounded:1 gunwale:1 measurement:1 take:1 plane:1 plating:1 intersect:1 id:2 stepped:1 parallel:1 freeboard:1 fb:1 difference:1 derivative:1 calculate:1 volume:10 displace:1 δ:1 equivalent:1 immersed:1 centre:8 lcb:2 displaced:2 note:3 gravity:1 must:1 align:1 equilibrium:1 vcb:1 floatation:1 lcf:1 area:6 waterplane:6 visualize:1 coefficient:7 help:2 well:2 cb:4 divide:4 x:5 draw:1 around:1 submerged:1 ratio:4 occupy:1 give:1 sense:1 much:1 fill:1 full:3 oil:1 tanker:1 midship:1 cm:3 cx:4 sectional:2 ax:2 slice:1 large:3 display:2 underwater:4 rectangle:2 fullness:2 underbody:3 indicate:6 cut:2 away:2 mid:3 boxy:2 whereas:1 cargo:1 prismatic:1 cp:5 rectangular:1 equal:1 evaluate:1 distribution:1 fuller:1 highspeed:1 tend:2 towards:1 froude:2 number:2 cw:4 express:1 figure:2 improve:1 handle:1 rough:1 condition:1 history:1 raft:1 sort:1 early:1 think:1 hollow:1 tree:1 bole:1 effect:1 first:1 canoe:1 proceed:1 coracle:1 sophisticated:1 science:1 advance:1 double:3 monohull:1 shipbuilding:1 submarine:2 external:1 link:1 http:1 www:1 ariesmar:1 com:1 conversion:2 php:1 importance:1 description:1 hydrostatics:1 |@bigram multihull_sailboat:1 round_bilge:7 chin_hull:8 directional_stability:1 cross_sectional:2 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
3,072 | Agricultural_engineering | Agricultural engineering is the engineering discipline that applies engineering science and technology to agricultural production and processing. Agricultural engineering combines the disciplines of animal biology, plant biology, and mechanical, civil and chemical engineering principles with a knowledge of agricultural principles. Hills, David. (2004). "Agricultural engineering." in The Engineering Handbook (2nd ed). CRC Press. ISBN 0849315867. pp. 190-1 - 190-9. Subfields Some of the specialties of agricultural engineers include: "Agricultural engineering." (2002). in The McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. 9th ed. McGraw Hill: New York. ISBN 0079136656. p.212-213. the design of agricultural machinery, equipment, and agricultural structures crop production, including seeding, tillage, irrigation and the conservation of soil and water animal production, including the care and processing of poultry and fish and dairy management the processing of food and other agricultural and biorenewable products, and food engineering. History The first curriculum in Agricultural Engineering was established at Iowa State University by J. B. Davidson in 1905. The American Society of Agricultural Engineers, now known as the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, was founded in 1907. ASABE website. Accessed May 15, 2009. Agricultural engineers Agricultural Engineers may perform tasks as planning, supervising and managing the building of dairy effluent schemes, irrigation, drainage, flood and water control systems, perform environmental impact assessments, agricultural product processing and interpret research results and implement relevant practices. A large percentage of agricultural engineers work in academia or for government agencies such as the United States Department of Agriculture or state agricultural extension services. Many are employed by manufacturers of agricultural machinery, equipment and agricultural product processing. Agricultural engineers work in production, sales, management, research and development, or applied science. See also Mechanized agriculture Industrial agriculture List of agricultural machinery References Further reading Brown, R.H. (ed). (1988). CRC handbook of engineering in agriculture. Boca Raton, FL.: CRC Press. ISBN 0849338603. Field, H. L., Solie, J. B., & Roth, L. O. (2007). Introduction to agricultural engineering technology: a problem solving approach. New York: Springer. ISBN 0387369139. Stewart, R. E. (1997). Seven decades that changed America. St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE. ISBN 09161501718. DeForest, S. S. (2007). The vision that cut drugery from farming forever. St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE. ISBN 1892769611. External links American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers Official Site International Academic Programs in Agricultural, Food,or Biological Engineering International Commission of Agricultural Engineering Official Site | Agricultural_engineering |@lemmatized agricultural:26 engineering:14 discipline:2 apply:2 science:3 technology:3 production:4 processing:5 combine:1 animal:2 biology:2 plant:1 mechanical:1 civil:1 chemical:1 principle:2 knowledge:1 hill:3 david:1 handbook:2 ed:3 crc:3 press:2 isbn:6 pp:1 subfields:1 specialty:1 engineer:8 include:3 mcgraw:2 encyclopedia:1 new:2 york:2 p:1 design:1 machinery:3 equipment:2 structure:1 crop:1 seeding:1 tillage:1 irrigation:2 conservation:1 soil:1 water:2 care:1 poultry:1 fish:1 dairy:2 management:2 food:3 biorenewable:1 product:3 history:1 first:1 curriculum:1 establish:1 iowa:1 state:3 university:1 j:2 b:2 davidson:1 american:3 society:3 know:1 biological:3 found:1 asabe:1 website:1 access:1 may:2 perform:2 task:1 planning:1 supervise:1 manage:1 building:1 effluent:1 scheme:1 drainage:1 flood:1 control:1 system:1 environmental:1 impact:1 assessment:1 interpret:1 research:2 result:1 implement:1 relevant:1 practice:1 large:1 percentage:1 work:2 academia:1 government:1 agency:1 united:1 department:1 agriculture:4 extension:1 service:1 many:1 employ:1 manufacturer:1 sale:1 development:1 see:1 also:1 mechanized:1 industrial:1 list:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 brown:1 r:2 h:2 boca:1 raton:1 fl:1 field:1 l:2 solie:1 roth:1 introduction:1 problem:1 solve:1 approach:1 springer:1 stewart:1 e:1 seven:1 decade:1 change:1 america:1 st:2 joseph:2 mich:2 asae:2 deforest:1 vision:1 cut:1 drugery:1 farm:1 forever:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 site:2 international:2 academic:1 program:1 commission:1 |@bigram crc_press:2 mcgraw_hill:2 crc_handbook:1 boca_raton:1 external_link:1 |
3,073 | Prometheus | In Greek mythology, Prometheus (, "forethought") The derivation of Prometheus' name from the Greek pro (before) + manthano (learn) is actually a folk etymology. In truth, the name comes from the PIE word that produces the Vedic pra math, which means, "to steal." This verb produces pramathyu-s, "thief", whence "Prometheus." The Vedic yee myth of fire's theft by Mataricvan is an analog to the account found in Greek myth. To these etymological cognates, we may add pramantha, the tool used to create fire. Thus Fortson 2004, 27; Williamson 2004, 214-15. is a Titan, the son of a Iapetus and Themis, and brother to Atlas, Epimetheus and Menoetius. He was a champion of human-kind known for his wily intelligence, who stole fire from Zeus and gave it to mortals. There is scholarly thought that man already had fire, and it was taken away by Zeus. Prometheus then, in stealing it it for man. cf. M.L. West commentaries on Hesiod, W.J. Verdenius commentaries on Hesiod, and R. Lamberton's Hesiod, pp.95-100. Zeus then punished him for his crime by having him bound to a rock while a great eagle ate his liver every day only to have it grow back to be eaten again the next day. His myth has been treated by a number of ancient sources, in which Prometheus is credited with – or blamed for – playing a pivotal role in the early history of humankind. ' Hesiod Prometheus having his liver eaten out by an eagle. Painting by Jacob Jordaens, c. 1640, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, Cologne, Germany. The Prometheus myth first appeared in the Greek epic poet Hesiod's (ca. 700 BCE) Theogony (lines 507-616). He was a son of the Titan, Iapetus by Themis or Clymene, one of the Oceanids. He was brother to Menoetius, Atlas, and Epimetheus. In the Theogony, Hesiod introduces Prometheus as a lowly challenger to Zeus' omniscience and omnipotence. At Sicyon, a sacrificial meal marking the "settling of accounts" between mortals and immortals, Prometheus played a trick against Zeus (545-557). He placed two sacrificial offerings before the Olympian: a selection of bull meat hidden inside an ox's stomach (nourishment hidden inside a displeasing exterior), and the bull's bones wrapped completely in "glistening fat" (something inedible hidden inside a pleasing exterior). Zeus chose the latter, setting a precedent for future sacrifices; henceforth, humans would keep the meat for themselves and burn the bones wrapped in fat as an offering to the gods. This angered Zeus, who hid fire from humans in retribution. Prometheus at once went to Athena with a plea for admittance to Olympus, and this she granted. On his arrival, he lit a torch at the fiery chariot of the Sun from which he broke at once a fragment of glowing charcoal, which he thrust into the pithy hollow of a giant fennel-stalk. Then, extinguishing his torch, he stole away, and gave fire to mankind. This further enraged Zeus, who sent Epimetheus, brother of Prometheus, Pandora, the first woman, Hesiod, Theogony 590-93. fashioned by Hephaestus out of clay and brought to life by the four winds, with all the goddesses of Olympus assembled to adorn her. "From her is the race of women and female kind," Hesiod writes; "of her is the deadly race and tribe of women who live amongst mortal men to their great trouble, no helpmeets in hateful poverty, but only in wealth." Prometheus, in eternal punishment, is chained to a rock in the Caucasus, where his liver is eaten out daily by an eagle THE AETOS KAUKASIOS (or Caucasian Eagle) in the Prometheus Myth , only to be regenerated by night, which, by legend, is due to his immortality. The liver is one of the rare human organs to regenerate itself spontaneously in the case of lesion. The ancient Greeks seem to have been aware of this, since the Greek word for the liver -- hêpar -- apparently derives from the verb hêpaomai, which means: mend, repair. Hence, hêpar roughly translates as, "repairable." Years later, periods of which vary from thirty years, to four hundred thousand years, to 3 million years, | 30 Years | 30,000 Years the Greek hero Heracles (Hercules) would shoot the vulture and free Prometheus from his chains. Hesiod, Theogony Hesiod revisits the story of Prometheus in the Works and Days (lines 42-105). Here, the poet expands upon Zeus' reaction to the theft of fire. Not only does Zeus withhold fire from men, but "the means of life," as well (42). Had Prometheus not provoked Zeus' wrath (44-47), "you would easily do work enough in a day to supply you for a full year even without working; soon would you put away your rudder over the smoke, and the fields worked by ox and sturdy mule would run to waste." Hesiod also expands upon the Theogony's story of the first woman, now explicitly called Pandora ("all gifts"). After Prometheus' theft of fire, Zeus sent Pandora to Prometheus' brother Epimetheus. Pandora carried a jar with her, supposedly the gods' wedding gift, from which were released (91-92) "evils, harsh pain and troublesome diseases which give men death" Hesiod, WORKS AND DAYS Translation By H. G. Evelyn-White . Pandora hastily shut the lid as soon as she realized what had happened, too late to contain all the evil plights that escaped, but capturing the one true gift in it: hope. Angelo Casanova Casanova, La famiglia di Pandora: analisi filologica dei miti di Pandora e Prometeo nella tradizione esiodea (Florence) 1979. finds in Prometheus a reflection of an ancient, pre-Hesiodic trickster-figure, who served to account for the mixture of good and bad in human life, and whose fashioning of men from clay was an Eastern motif familiar in Enuma Elish; as an opponent of Zeus he was an analogue of the Titans, and like them was punished. As an advocate for humanity he gains semi-divine status at Athens, where the episode in Theogony in which he is liberated Hesiod, Theogony, 526-33. is interpreted by Casanova as a post-Hesiodic interpolation. In this Casanova is joined by some editors of Theogony. Aeschylus Perhaps the most famous treatment of the myth can be found in the Greek tragedy Prometheus Bound – traditionally attributed to the 5th-century BC Greek tragedian Aeschylus. At the center of the drama are the results of Prometheus' theft of fire and his current punishment by Zeus; the playwright's dependence on the Hesiodic source material is clear, though Prometheus Bound also includes a number of changes to the received tradition. Some of these changes are rather minor. For instance, rather than being the son of Iapetus and Clymene Prometheus becomes the son of Gaea. In addition, the chorus makes a passing reference (561) to Prometheus' wife Hesione, whereas a fragment from Hesiod's Catalogue of Women calls her by the name of Pronoea. (Theoi Project: Pronoia). Before his theft of fire, Prometheus played a decisive role in the Titanomachy, securing victory for Zeus and the other Olympians. Zeus's torture of Prometheus thus becomes a particularly harsh betrayal. The scope and character of Prometheus' transgressions against Zeus are also widened. In addition to giving humankind fire, Prometheus claims to have taught them the arts of civilization, such as writing, mathematics, agriculture, medicine, and science. The Titan's greatest benefaction for humankind seems to have been saving them from complete destruction. In an apparent twist on the myth of the so-called Five Ages of Man found in Hesiod's Works and Days (wherein Cronus and, later, Zeus created and destroyed five successive races of mortal men), Prometheus asserts that Zeus had wanted to obliterate the human race, but that he somehow stopped him. Moreover, Aeschylus anachronistically and artificially injects , another victim of Zeus' violence and ancestor of Heracles, into Prometheus' story. Finally, just as Aeschylus gave Prometheus a key role in bringing Zeus to power, he also attributed to him secret knowledge that could lead to Zeus' downfall: Prometheus had been told by his mother Gaia of a potential marriage that would produce a son who would overthrow Zeus. Fragmentary evidence indicates that Heracles, as in Hesiod, frees the Titan in the trilogy's second play, Prometheus Unbound. It is apparently not until Prometheus reveals this secret of Zeus' potential downfall that the two reconcile in the final play, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer.Prometheus Bound also includes two mythic innovations of omission. The first is the absence of Pandora's story in connection with Prometheus' own. Instead, Aeschylus includes this one oblique allusion to Pandora and her jar that contained Hope (252): "[Prometheus] caused blind hopes to live in the hearts of men." Second, Aeschylus makes no mention of the sacrifice-trick played against Zeus in the Theogony. Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound These innovations reflect the play's thematic reversal of the Hesiodic myth. In Hesiod, the story of Prometheus (and, by extension, of Pandora) serves to reinforce the theodicy of Zeus: he is a wise and just ruler of the universe, while Prometheus is to blame for humanity's unenviable existence. In Prometheus Bound, this dynamic is transposed: Prometheus becomes the benefactor of humanity, while every character in the drama (except for Hermes, a virtual stand-in for Zeus) decries the Olympian as a cruel, vicious tyrant. Other authors Some two dozen other Greek and Roman authors would retell and further embellish the Prometheus myth into the 4th century AD. The most significant detail added to the myth found in, e.g., Sappho, Plato, Aesop and Ovid — was the central role of Prometheus in the creation of the human race. According to these sources, Prometheus fashioned humans out of clay. In his dialogue Protagoras, Plato asserts that the gods created humans and all the other animals, but it was left to Prometheus and his brother Epimetheus to give defining attributes to each. As no physical traits were left when the pair came to humans, Prometheus decided to give them fire and other civilizing arts. PROMETHEUS Although perhaps made explicit in the Prometheia, later authors such as Hyginus, Apollodorus, and Quintus of Smyrna would confirm that Prometheus warned Zeus not to marry the sea nymph Thetis. She is consequently married off to the mortal Peleus, and bears him a son greater than the father — Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. Apollodorus moreover clarifies for us a cryptic statement (1026-29) made by Hermes in Prometheus Bound, identifying the centaur Chiron as the one who would take on Prometheus' suffering and die in his place. Reflecting a myth attested in Greek vase paintings from the Classical period, Apollodorus places the Titan (armed with an axe) at the birth of Athena, thus explaining how the goddess sprang forth from the forehead of Zeus. Other minor details attached to the myth include: the origin of the eagle that ate the Titan's liver (found in Apollodorus and Hyginus); myths surrounding the life of Prometheus' son, Deucalion (found in Ovid and Apollonius of Rhodes); and Prometheus' marginal role in the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (found in Apollonius of Rhodes and Valerius Flaccus). Anecdotally, the Roman fabulist Phaedrus attributes to Aesop a simple etiology for homosexuality, in Prometheus' getting drunk while creating the first humans and misapplying the genitalia. Dionysos Comparative myths The two most prominent aspects of the Prometheus myth – the creation of man from clay and the theft of fire – have found their expression in numerous cultures throughout history and around the world: The creation of man from clay In the Babylonian creation epic Enuma Elish, the goddess Ninhursag created humans from clay. In Africa, the Yoruba culture holds that the god Obatala likewise created the human race. In Egyptian mythology, the ram-headed god Khnum made people from clay in the waters of the Nile. In Chinese myth, the goddess Nuwa created the first humans from mud and clay. According to Genesis 2:7 "And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul." According to Qur'an, Allah created man from clay. Mayan myth holds that Tepeu and Kukulkán (Quetzalcoatl) made the first humans from clay, but they were unsatisfactory. The Navajo attributed the creation of humans to Spider Grandmother. The Māori people believe that Tāne Mahuta, God of the forest, created the first woman out of clay and breathed life into her. The theft of fire In Georgian mythology Amirani challenged the chief god and for that was chained on Caucasian mountains where birds would eat his organs. According to the Rig Veda (3:9.5), the hero Mātariśvan recovered fire, which had been hidden from mankind. In Cherokee myth, after Possum and Buzzard had failed to steal fire, Grandmother Spider used her web to sneak into the land of light. She stole fire, hiding it in a clay pot. Erdoes/Ortiz 1984. Among various Native American tribes of the Pacific Northwest, fire was stolen and given to humans by Coyote, Beaver or Dog. Judson 1912. According to the Creek Indians, Rabbit stole fire from the Weasels. Swanton 1929. In Algonquin myth, Rabbit stole fire from an old man and his two daughters. Alexander 1916. In Ojibwa myth, Nanabozho the hare stole fire and gave it to humans. In Polynesian myth, Māui stole fire from the Mudhens. Westervelt 1910, Ch. 5. In the Book of Enoch, the fallen angels and Azazel teach early mankind to use tools and fire. Prometheus in other arts The mythic Prometheus is the lyrical I of the poem "Prometheus" by Johann Wolfgang Goethe, in which the character addresses God (as Zeus) in misotheist accusation and defiance. The Norwegian Symphonic Black Metal band Emperor released, in 2001, an album entitled "Prometheus: The Discipline of Fire & Demise". Beethoven wrote a ballet called "The Creatures of Prometheus." "Prometheus Unbound" is a four-act play by Percy Bysshe Shelley first published in 1820.Prometheus: Poem of Fire, Opus 60 (1910) by Alexander Scriabin. Prometheus, Symphonic Poem No. 5 (S.99) by Franz Liszt.Prometheus, opera using Aeschylus's original Greek by Carl Orff, 1968.Prometheus On His Crag, a 1973 poetry collection by Ted Hughes. Prometheus' torment by the eagle and his rescue by Heracles were popular subjects in vase paintings of the 6th-4th c. BC. He also sometimes appears in depictions of Athena's birth from Zeus' forehead. There was a relief sculpture of Prometheus with Pandora on the base of Athena's cult statue in the Athenian Parthenon of the 5th century BC.Franz Kafka wrote a short piece on Prometheus (translated by Willa and Edwin Muir): There are four legends concerning PrometheusAccording to the first he was clamped to a rock in the Caucasus for betraying the secrets of the gods to men, and the gods sent eagles to feed on his liver, which was perpetually renewed. According to the second Prometheus, goaded by the pain of the tearing beaks, pressed himself deeper and deeper into the rock until he became one with it.According to the third his treachery was forgotten in the course of thousands of years, forgotten by the gods, the eagles, forgotten by himself. According to the fourth everyone grew weary of the meaningless affair. The gods grew weary, the eagles grew weary, the wound closed wearily. There remains the inexplicable mass of rock. The legend tried to explain the inexplicable. As it came out of a substratum of truth it had in turn to end in the inexplicable Glatzer, Nahum N., ed. "Franz Kafka: The Complete Stories" Schocken Book, Inc.: New York, 1971. Cults of Prometheus Prometheus had a small shrine in the Kerameikos, or potter's quarter, of Athens, not far from the Academy. The Academy had its own altar dedicated to Prometheus. According to the 2nd-century AD Greek traveler Pausanias, this site was central to a torch race dedicated to Prometheus. Pausanias also wrote that the Greek cities of Argos and Opous both claimed to be Prometheus' final resting place, each erecting a tomb in his honor. Finally, Pausanias attested that in the Greek city of Panopeus there was a cult statue claimed by some to depict Prometheus, for having created the Prometheus and liver regeneration The mythological story that Prometheus was chained to a rock in the Caucasus mountain and his liver was eaten every day by an eagle only to "regenerate" in the night has been used by scientists studying liver regeneration as an indication that ancient Greeks knew that liver can regenerate if surgically removed or injured Michalopoulos and DeFrances, in Science 276(5309):60-66, 1997. . Because of the association of Prometheus with liver regeneration, his name has also been associated with biomedical companies involved in regenerative medicine. Michalopoulos, George K., and DeFrances, Marie C., "Liver regeneration:, Science, 4 April 1997: Vol. 276. no. 5309, pp. 60 - 66: "The ancient Greeks recognized liver regeneration in the myth of Prometheus. Having stolen the secret of fire from the gods of Olympus, Prometheus was condemned to having a portion of his liver eaten daily by an eagle. His liver regenerated overnight, t Promethean myth in modern culture Sculpture of Prometheus in front of the GE Building at the Rockefeller Center (New York City, New York, United States). In Disney's The Jungle Book, King Louie is an orangutan who kidnaps Mowgli to gain the secret of "man's red fire". Industrial band Prometheus Burning, an act from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is named as a clear reference to Greek mythology. The Prometheus Society is a High IQ society six hundred times more selective than Mensa. Its magazine is called 'Gift of Fire' and its website notes that fire has from antiquity been associated with mental gifts. On the American metal band Trivium's new album, Shogun, a song entitled " Of Prometheus and the Crucifix" describes the events of Prometheus giving fire to mankind. The cloned horse Prometea, and Prometheus, a moon of Saturn, are named after this Titan, as is the asteroid 1809 Prometheus. The story of Prometheus has inspired many authors through the ages, and the Romantics saw Prometheus as a prototype of the natural daemon or genius. The name of the sixty-first element, promethium, is derived from Prometheus. Mary Shelley's 1818 novel Frankenstein is subtitled "The Modern Prometheus". This is a reference to the novel's themes of the over-reaching of modern man into dangerous areas of knowledge. In Herman Melville's Moby-Dick, Prometheus is used in a metaphor describing Captain Ahab's intense obsession with Moby-Dick: "God help thee, old man, thy thoughts have created a creature in thee; and he whose intense thinking thus makes him a Prometheus; a vulture feeds upon that heart for ever; that vulture the very creature he creates." Percy Bysshe Shelley's Prometheus Unbound rewrites the lost play of Aeschylus so that Prometheus does not submit to Zeus (Shelley's Jupiter), but supplants him instead in a triumph of the human heart and intellect over tyrannical religion. Lord Byron's poem "Prometheus" also portrays the titan as unrepentant. For the Romantics, Prometheus was the rebel who resisted all forms of institutional tyranny epitomized by Zeus — church, monarch, and patriarch. They drew comparisons between Prometheus and the spirit of the French Revolution, Christ, Milton's Satan, and the divinely inspired poet or artist. Prometheus is the main protagonist in 1973 novel A Prométheusz-rejtély (An enigma of Prometheus) by Hungarian writer Lajos Mesterházi which plot intertwines Classical Greece of Aeschylus with reality of Hungary in sixties. In the game Timesplitters: Future Perfect, One of the robot drones you fight is named Prometheus SK-8. Prometheus is a minor character in the novel The Big Over Easy, where he is a lodger in the home of the protagonist, Jack Spratt. Prometheus later marries Spratt's daughter Pandora, despite the 4,000 year difference in their ages. Prometheus and other gods feature in the novel Ye God! by Tom Holt. It is set in the 20th Century but Prometheus is still chained to the rock, even though he and the eagle are now friends and it keeps him up-to-date with events. In the game Age of Mythology: The Titans, Prometheus is a near Indestructible Titan, whom the Heroes will have to face and kill to save humanity from destruction. In the game, he is seen in two different levels. In Diana Wynne Jones's fantasy novel, The Homeward Bounders, Prometheus, as a character, plays a significant role. Prometheus Books, a publishing company for scientific, educational, and popular books, especially those relating to secular humanism or scientific skepticism, takes its name from the myth. In Ayn Rand's work, Anthem, the protagonist renames himself Prometheus at the end of the novella. Bristol England's The Pop Group included studio and live versions of a song called "Thief of Fire," on two of their albums. "Prometheus the Fallen One" is the seventh track of Virgin Steele's album "The Marriage of Heaven and Hell Part II". In the television series Robotech, the sea carrier docked to the spaceship SDF-1 that forms the left arm after modular transformation was called Prometheus. In the television series Stargate SG-1, the first battle cruiser built with technology taken from aliens was called Prometheus. In the television series Smallville, Lex Luthor has a project called Prometheus which is the creation of his battle suit, and in Superman Returns, he references the story as part of his motivations and plans. In the television series Star Trek: Voyager, a Federation starship called Prometheus is stolen by Romulans. In the television series Xena, Prometheus is bound by the Greek gods, causing mankind to lose his gifts of fire and the ability to heal ourselves. In rap group Jedi Mind Tricks's song "I Against I" rapper Jus Allah rhymes "Beast deceiving us ways devious possessing my peeps to walk the streets with stolen heat like Prometheus." Swedish symphonic metal band Therion has a song called "Feuer Overtüre/Prometheus Entfesselt" ("Fire Overture/Prometheus Unleashed") on their 2004 album Lemuria. In the video game God of War 2, the player encounters Prometheus. He is bound in chains as a huge bird eviscerates his torso. Prometheus begs the player to kill him (and thus end his eternal torment) by throwing him into the Fires of Olympus. In the video game Bioshock, the penultimate level of the game is called Point Prometheus In the MegaMan ZX series, Prometheus is one of the antagonists along with his partner, Pandora. In the video game Chrono Trigger, Prometheus is the true name of one of the main characters, a robot from the year 2300 AD known otherwise as Robo. In the sequel, Chrono Cross, he is part of the "Prometheus Circuit", a program which guards the "Frozen Flame" independently of a godlike supercomputer program, FATE. Robo (Prometheus) ultimately grants the game's protagonists access to the Frozen Flame in the hopes that they will use it to save humanity, but is executed by FATE as punishment for doing so. On Nickelodeon, there is a series of short animated episodes called Prometheus and Bob, wherein Bob is a primitive caveman and Prometheus is a skinny purple alien who tries to teach Bob about technology. The Prometheus Award is given by the Libertarian Futurist Society for Libertarian science fiction." The Doug Anthony All Stars; an Australian musical comedy trio, make reference to Prometheus in their song "Bless me Father" stating 'Like Prometheus in the morning, I'm bound to come around' used to allude to regret. The band Of Montreal references Prometheus in Heimdalsgate Like a Promethean Curse, in which the Promethean curse pertains to "the burdens of consciousness and creativity" inflicted upon mankind when, against the demands of Zeus, Prometheus brought fire to earth. Prometheus is the mascot of the Technische Universiteit Delft in Holland, where his statue stands in front of the main building; the fire of Prometheus can be seen on the T on the logo of the University. The Minho University in Portugal also features a prominent statue of Prometheus in the main entrance. Prometheus is the main character in the comic strip The Miserable Life of Prometheus by Mark Weinstein. The strip appears in "Athens Plus" and online at prometheuscomic.wordpress.com/ Michel Faber's book 'The Fire Gospel' is loosely inspired by the Prometheus myth. It tells of a scholar named Theo who steals an ancient manuscript from a bombed Iraqi museum; the manuscript is an eye-witness account of the death of Jesus. Theo is made to suffer (including being shot in the liver) for threatening the foundations of Christianity. In the series The Fire Thief, by Terry Deary, Prometheus escapes the eagle one day. Zeus makes a bet with him. If he can find a human hero, he can go free. Prometheus travels to the future (our past), to settle his bet. In Gradius IV, one of the game's soundtracks is titles Prometheus; possibly a reference to the self-regenerating entity and antagonist Bacterion. In the 90s Cartoon, Spiderman, Eddie Brock and Cletus Cassidy's other forms, Venom and Carnage, were made from a substance, called Prometheus X. The myth of Prometheus is referenced in the novel, 'The Last Hero' by British author Terry Pratchett, which is part of his famous Discworld series. In it, the last traditional hero, Cohen the Barbarian aims to 'return what the first hero stole' 'with interest' (by which he means to blow up the mountain where the gods live as an act of revenge at how the gods treat mortals). Near the end of the book, Cohen and his allies free the Discorworld equivalent of Prometheus from the rock where he is bound and give him a sword, leaving him to await the daily coming of the eagle that has tortured him for thousands of years. The metal band The Showdown Wrote the song Prometheus-the fires of deleverance See also Other figures in Greek mythology punished by the gods include: Heracles Medusa Sisyphus Tantalus Notes References Alexander, Hartley Burr. The Mythology of All Races. Vol 10: North American. Boston, 1916. Beall, E.F., Hesiod's Prometheus and Development in Myth, Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 52, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1991), pp. 355–371 Erdoes, Richard and Alfonso Ortiz, edds. American Indian Myths and Legends. New York, 1984. Fortson, Benjamin. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing, 2004. Judson, Katharine B. Myths and Legends of the Pacific Northwest. Chicago, 1912. Lamberton, Robert. Hesiod, Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0300040687 Swanton, John. "Myths and Tales of the Southeastern Indians." Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 88: 1929. Verdenius, Willem Jacob, "A Commentary on Hesiod: Works and Days, Vv. 1-382", Brill, 1985, ISBN 9004074651 West, M.L., "Hesiod, Theogony, ed. with prolegomena and commentary", Oxford: Clarendon Press 1966 West, M.L., "Hesiod, Works and Days, ed. with prolegomena and commentary", Oxford: Clarendon Press 1978 Westervelt, W.D. Legends of Maui – a Demigod of Polynesia, and of His Mother Hina. Honolulu, 1910. Williamson, George S. The Longing for Myth in Germany: Religion and Aesthetic Culture from Romanticism to Nietzsche (Chicago, 2004). Further reading Fernandes, Ângela, "Human values and spiritual values: Traces of Prometheus in Portuguese literature and criticism", in journal Neohelicon, Akadémiai Kiadó, co-published with Springer Science+Business Media B.V., Volume 34, Number 1 / June, 2007, pp. 41–49 Kerényi, Carl, (Translated by Ralph Manheim) "Prometheus: Archetypal Image of Human Existence", Princeton University Press, 1997. ISBN 069101907X External links Theoi Text, Theogony Theoi Text, Works and Days Theoi Text, Prometheus Bound Theoi Mythology, Prometheus Theoi Mythology, Pronoea GML, Prometheus Encyclopedia Mythica, Prometheus Messagenet, Prometheus Prometheus, a poem by Noevel (French) Prometheus, a poem by Byron Book "Prometheus Bound" (for free download - two volumes about 600 pages)'' O fogo e as chamas dos mitos (text in Portuguese) by Betty Mindlin (Essay about the origin of fire, the stealing of fire, the keeping of fire in different South-American indigenous cultures). | Prometheus |@lemmatized greek:21 mythology:9 prometheus:157 forethought:1 derivation:1 name:11 pro:1 manthano:1 learn:1 actually:1 folk:1 etymology:1 truth:2 come:5 pie:1 word:2 produce:3 vedic:2 pra:1 math:1 mean:4 steal:10 verb:2 pramathyu:1 thief:3 whence:1 yee:1 myth:32 fire:44 theft:7 mataricvan:1 analog:1 account:4 find:10 etymological:1 cognate:1 may:1 add:2 pramantha:1 tool:2 use:8 create:12 thus:5 fortson:2 williamson:2 titan:11 son:7 iapetus:3 themis:2 brother:5 atlas:2 epimetheus:5 menoetius:2 champion:1 human:22 kind:2 know:3 wily:1 intelligence:1 zeus:35 give:12 mortal:6 scholarly:1 thought:2 man:12 already:1 take:4 away:3 cf:1 l:3 west:3 commentary:5 hesiod:22 w:2 j:1 verdenius:2 r:1 lamberton:2 pp:4 punish:3 crime:1 bind:4 rock:8 great:4 eagle:14 eat:6 liver:17 every:3 day:11 grow:4 back:1 eaten:2 next:1 treat:2 number:3 ancient:6 source:3 credit:1 blame:2 play:10 pivotal:1 role:6 early:2 history:3 humankind:3 painting:3 jacob:2 jordaens:1 c:3 wallraf:1 richartz:1 museum:2 cologne:1 germany:2 first:13 appear:3 epic:2 poet:3 ca:1 bce:1 theogony:11 line:2 clymene:2 one:12 oceanid:1 introduces:1 lowly:1 challenger:1 omniscience:1 omnipotence:1 sicyon:1 sacrificial:2 meal:1 mark:2 settling:1 immortal:1 trick:3 place:4 two:9 offering:2 olympian:3 selection:1 bull:2 meat:2 hide:5 inside:3 ox:2 stomach:1 nourishment:1 displease:1 exterior:2 bone:2 wrap:2 completely:1 glisten:1 fat:2 something:1 inedible:1 hidden:1 please:1 choose:1 latter:1 set:2 precedent:1 future:3 sacrifice:2 henceforth:1 would:11 keep:3 burn:1 god:22 angered:1 retribution:1 go:2 athena:4 plea:1 admittance:1 olympus:4 grant:2 arrival:1 light:2 torch:3 fiery:1 chariot:1 sun:1 break:1 fragment:2 glow:1 charcoal:1 thrust:1 pithy:1 hollow:1 giant:1 fennel:1 stalk:1 extinguish:1 mankind:6 enrage:1 send:3 pandora:13 woman:6 fashion:2 hephaestus:1 clay:12 brought:1 life:7 four:4 wind:1 goddess:4 assemble:1 adorn:1 race:8 female:1 write:5 deadly:1 tribe:2 live:4 amongst:1 men:7 trouble:1 helpmeet:1 hateful:1 poverty:1 wealth:1 eternal:2 punishment:3 chain:6 caucasus:3 daily:3 aetos:1 kaukasios:1 caucasian:2 regenerate:5 night:2 legend:6 due:1 immortality:1 rare:1 organ:2 spontaneously:1 case:1 lesion:1 seem:2 aware:1 since:1 hêpar:2 apparently:2 derive:2 hêpaomai:1 mend:1 repair:1 hence:1 roughly:1 translate:3 repairable:1 year:11 later:4 period:2 vary:1 thirty:1 hundred:2 thousand:3 million:1 hero:8 heracles:5 hercules:1 shoot:2 vulture:3 free:5 revisit:1 story:9 work:10 expand:2 upon:4 reaction:1 withhold:1 well:1 provoke:1 wrath:1 easily:1 enough:1 supply:1 full:1 even:2 without:1 soon:2 put:1 rudder:1 smoke:1 field:1 sturdy:1 mule:1 run:1 waste:1 also:11 explicitly:1 call:14 gift:6 carry:1 jar:2 supposedly:1 wedding:1 release:2 evil:2 harsh:2 pain:2 troublesome:1 disease:1 death:2 translation:1 h:1 g:2 evelyn:1 white:1 hastily:1 shut:1 lid:1 realize:1 happen:1 late:1 contain:2 plight:1 escape:2 capture:1 true:2 hope:4 angelo:1 casanova:4 la:1 famiglia:1 di:2 analisi:1 filologica:1 dei:1 miti:1 e:4 prometeo:1 nella:1 tradizione:1 esiodea:1 florence:1 reflection:1 pre:1 hesiodic:4 trickster:1 figure:2 serve:2 mixture:1 good:1 bad:1 whose:2 fashioning:1 eastern:1 motif:1 familiar:1 enuma:2 elish:2 opponent:1 analogue:1 like:4 advocate:1 humanity:5 gain:2 semi:1 divine:1 status:1 athens:3 episode:2 liberated:1 interpret:1 post:1 interpolation:1 join:1 editor:1 aeschylus:10 perhaps:2 famous:2 treatment:1 tragedy:1 bound:9 traditionally:1 attribute:5 century:5 bc:3 tragedian:1 center:2 drama:2 result:1 current:1 playwright:1 dependence:1 material:1 clear:2 though:2 include:7 change:2 receive:1 tradition:1 rather:2 minor:3 instance:1 become:5 gaea:1 addition:2 chorus:1 make:11 passing:1 reference:9 wife:1 hesione:1 whereas:1 catalogue:1 pronoea:2 theoi:6 project:2 pronoia:1 decisive:1 titanomachy:1 secure:1 victory:1 torture:2 particularly:1 betrayal:1 scope:1 character:7 transgression:1 widen:1 claim:3 teach:3 art:3 civilization:1 writing:1 mathematics:1 agriculture:1 medicine:2 science:5 benefaction:1 save:3 complete:2 destruction:2 apparent:1 twist:1 five:2 age:4 wherein:2 cronus:1 destroy:1 successive:1 asserts:2 want:1 obliterate:1 somehow:1 stop:1 moreover:2 anachronistically:1 artificially:1 injects:1 another:1 victim:1 violence:1 ancestor:1 finally:2 key:1 bring:2 power:1 secret:5 knowledge:2 could:1 lead:1 downfall:2 tell:2 mother:2 gaia:1 potential:2 marriage:2 overthrow:1 fragmentary:1 evidence:1 indicate:1 trilogy:1 second:3 unbound:3 reveals:1 reconcile:1 final:2 bringer:1 mythic:2 innovation:2 omission:1 absence:1 connection:1 instead:2 oblique:1 allusion:1 cause:2 blind:1 heart:3 mention:1 reflect:2 thematic:1 reversal:1 extension:1 reinforce:1 theodicy:1 wise:1 ruler:1 universe:1 unenviable:1 existence:2 dynamic:1 transpose:1 benefactor:1 except:1 hermes:2 virtual:1 stand:2 decry:1 cruel:1 vicious:1 tyrant:1 author:5 dozen:1 roman:2 retell:1 far:3 embellish:1 ad:3 significant:2 detail:2 sappho:1 plato:2 aesop:2 ovid:2 central:2 creation:6 accord:9 dialogue:1 protagoras:1 animal:1 leave:3 define:1 physical:1 trait:1 pair:1 decide:1 civilizing:1 although:1 explicit:1 prometheia:1 hyginus:2 apollodorus:4 quintus:1 smyrna:1 confirm:1 warn:1 marry:3 sea:2 nymph:1 thetis:1 consequently:1 peleus:1 bear:1 father:2 achilles:1 trojan:1 war:2 clarifies:1 u:2 cryptic:1 statement:1 identify:1 centaur:1 chiron:1 suffering:1 die:1 attest:2 vase:2 classical:2 arm:2 axe:1 birth:2 explain:2 spring:1 forth:1 forehead:2 attach:1 origin:2 surround:1 deucalion:1 apollonius:2 rhodes:2 marginal:1 jason:1 argonaut:1 valerius:1 flaccus:1 anecdotally:1 fabulist:1 phaedrus:1 simple:1 etiology:1 homosexuality:1 get:1 drunk:1 misapply:1 genitalia:1 dionysos:1 comparative:1 prominent:2 aspect:1 expression:1 numerous:1 culture:6 throughout:1 around:2 world:1 babylonian:1 ninhursag:1 africa:1 yoruba:1 hold:2 obatala:1 likewise:1 egyptian:1 ram:1 head:1 khnum:1 people:2 water:1 nile:1 chinese:1 nuwa:1 mud:1 genesis:1 lord:2 form:4 dust:1 ground:1 breathe:1 nostril:1 breath:1 living:1 soul:1 qur:1 allah:2 mayan:1 tepeu:1 kukulkán:1 quetzalcoatl:1 unsatisfactory:1 navajo:1 spider:2 grandmother:2 māori:1 believe:1 tāne:1 mahuta:1 forest:1 breathed:1 georgian:1 amirani:1 challenge:1 chief:1 mountain:3 bird:2 rig:1 veda:1 mātariśvan:1 recover:1 cherokee:1 possum:1 buzzard:1 fail:1 web:1 sneak:1 land:1 pot:1 erdoes:2 ortiz:2 among:1 various:1 native:1 american:6 pacific:2 northwest:2 coyote:1 beaver:1 dog:1 judson:2 creek:1 indian:3 rabbit:2 stole:5 weasel:1 swanton:2 algonquin:1 old:2 daughter:2 alexander:3 ojibwa:1 nanabozho:1 hare:1 polynesian:1 māui:1 mudhens:1 westervelt:2 ch:1 book:8 enoch:1 fall:2 angel:1 azazel:1 lyrical:1 poem:6 johann:1 wolfgang:1 goethe:1 address:1 misotheist:1 accusation:1 defiance:1 norwegian:1 symphonic:3 black:1 metal:4 band:6 emperor:1 album:5 entitle:2 discipline:1 demise:1 beethoven:1 ballet:1 creature:3 act:3 percy:2 bysshe:2 shelley:4 publish:2 opus:1 scriabin:1 franz:3 liszt:1 opera:1 original:1 carl:2 orff:1 crag:1 poetry:1 collection:1 ted:1 hughes:1 torment:2 rescue:1 popular:2 subject:1 sometimes:1 depiction:1 relief:1 sculpture:2 base:1 cult:3 statue:4 athenian:1 parthenon:1 kafka:2 short:2 piece:1 willa:1 edwin:1 muir:1 concern:1 prometheusaccording:1 clamp:1 betray:1 fee:1 perpetually:1 renew:1 goad:1 tearing:1 beak:1 press:5 deep:1 deeply:1 third:1 treachery:1 forget:3 course:1 fourth:1 everyone:1 weary:3 meaningless:1 affair:1 wound:1 close:1 wearily:1 remain:1 inexplicable:3 mass:1 try:2 substratum:1 turn:1 end:4 glatzer:1 nahum:1 n:1 ed:3 schocken:1 inc:1 new:5 york:4 small:1 shrine:1 kerameikos:1 potter:1 quarter:1 academy:2 altar:1 dedicate:2 traveler:1 pausanias:3 site:1 city:3 argo:1 opous:1 resting:1 erect:1 tomb:1 honor:1 panopeus:1 depict:1 regeneration:5 mythological:1 scientist:1 study:1 indication:1 surgically:1 remove:1 injured:1 michalopoulos:2 defrances:2 association:1 associate:2 biomedical:1 company:2 involve:1 regenerative:1 george:2 k:1 marie:1 april:1 vol:3 recognize:1 condemn:1 portion:1 overnight:1 promethean:3 modern:3 front:2 ge:1 building:2 rockefeller:1 united:1 state:2 disney:1 jungle:1 king:1 louie:1 orangutan:1 kidnap:1 mowgli:1 red:1 industrial:1 burning:1 pittsburgh:1 pennsylvania:1 society:3 high:1 iq:1 six:1 time:1 selective:1 mensa:1 magazine:1 website:1 note:2 antiquity:1 mental:1 trivium:1 shogun:1 song:6 crucifix:1 describe:2 event:2 cloned:1 horse:1 prometea:1 moon:1 saturn:1 asteroid:1 inspire:2 many:1 romantic:2 saw:1 prototype:1 natural:1 daemon:1 genius:1 sixty:2 element:1 promethium:1 mary:1 novel:7 frankenstein:1 subtitle:1 theme:1 reaching:1 dangerous:1 area:1 herman:1 melville:1 moby:2 dick:2 metaphor:1 captain:1 ahab:1 intense:2 obsession:1 help:1 thee:2 thy:1 think:1 feed:1 ever:1 rewrite:1 lost:1 submit:1 jupiter:1 supplant:1 triumph:1 intellect:1 tyrannical:1 religion:2 byron:2 portray:1 unrepentant:1 rebel:1 resist:1 institutional:1 tyranny:1 epitomize:1 church:1 monarch:1 patriarch:1 draw:1 comparison:1 spirit:1 french:2 revolution:1 christ:1 milton:1 satan:1 divinely:1 inspired:1 artist:1 main:5 protagonist:4 prométheusz:1 rejtély:1 enigma:1 hungarian:1 writer:1 lajos:1 mesterházi:1 plot:1 intertwines:1 greece:1 reality:1 hungary:1 game:9 timesplitters:1 perfect:1 robot:2 drone:1 fight:1 sk:1 big:1 easy:1 lodger:1 home:1 jack:1 spratt:2 despite:1 difference:1 feature:2 ye:1 tom:1 holt:1 still:1 friend:1 date:1 near:2 indestructible:1 face:1 kill:2 see:3 different:2 level:2 diana:1 wynne:1 jones:1 fantasy:1 homeward:1 bounder:1 publishing:2 scientific:2 educational:1 especially:1 relate:1 secular:1 humanism:1 skepticism:1 ayn:1 rand:1 anthem:1 rename:1 novella:1 bristol:1 england:1 pop:1 group:2 studio:1 version:1 seventh:1 track:1 virgin:1 steele:1 heaven:1 hell:1 part:4 ii:1 television:5 series:9 robotech:1 carrier:1 dock:1 spaceship:1 sdf:1 left:1 modular:1 transformation:1 stargate:1 sg:1 battle:2 cruiser:1 build:1 technology:2 alien:2 smallville:1 lex:1 luthor:1 suit:1 superman:1 return:2 motivation:1 plan:1 star:2 trek:1 voyager:1 federation:1 starship:1 romulans:1 xena:1 lose:1 ability:1 heal:1 rap:1 jedi:1 mind:1 rapper:1 jus:1 rhyme:1 beast:1 deceive:1 way:1 devious:1 possess:1 peep:1 walk:1 street:1 stolen:1 heat:1 swedish:1 therion:1 feuer:1 overtüre:1 entfesselt:1 overture:1 unleash:1 lemuria:1 video:3 player:2 encounter:1 huge:1 eviscerate:1 torso:1 begs:1 throw:1 bioshock:1 penultimate:1 point:1 megaman:1 zx:1 antagonist:2 along:1 partner:1 chrono:2 trigger:1 otherwise:1 robo:2 sequel:1 cross:1 circuit:1 program:2 guard:1 frozen:2 flame:2 independently:1 godlike:1 supercomputer:1 fate:2 ultimately:1 access:1 execute:1 nickelodeon:1 animate:1 bob:3 primitive:1 caveman:1 skinny:1 purple:1 award:1 libertarian:2 futurist:1 fiction:1 doug:1 anthony:1 australian:1 musical:1 comedy:1 trio:1 bless:1 morning:1 allude:1 regret:1 montreal:1 heimdalsgate:1 curse:2 pertains:1 burden:1 consciousness:1 creativity:1 inflict:1 demand:1 earth:1 mascot:1 technische:1 universiteit:1 delft:1 holland:1 logo:1 university:4 minho:1 portugal:1 entrance:1 comic:1 strip:2 miserable:1 weinstein:1 plus:1 online:1 prometheuscomic:1 wordpress:1 com:1 michel:1 faber:1 gospel:1 loosely:1 scholar:1 theo:2 manuscript:2 bombed:1 iraqi:1 eye:1 witness:1 jesus:1 suffer:1 threaten:1 foundation:1 christianity:1 terry:2 deary:1 bet:2 travel:1 past:1 settle:1 gradius:1 iv:1 soundtrack:1 titles:1 possibly:1 self:1 regenerating:1 entity:1 bacterion:1 cartoon:1 spiderman:1 eddie:1 brock:1 cletus:1 cassidy:1 venom:1 carnage:1 substance:1 x:1 last:2 british:1 pratchett:1 discworld:1 traditional:1 cohen:2 barbarian:1 aim:1 interest:1 blow:1 revenge:1 ally:1 discorworld:1 equivalent:1 sword:1 await:1 showdown:1 deleverance:1 medusa:1 sisyphus:1 tantalus:1 hartley:1 burr:1 north:1 boston:1 beall:1 f:1 development:1 journal:2 idea:1 jul:1 sep:1 richard:1 alfonso:1 edds:1 benjamin:1 indo:1 european:1 language:1 introduction:1 blackwell:1 katharine:1 b:2 chicago:2 robert:1 yale:1 isbn:3 john:1 tale:1 southeastern:1 bureau:1 ethnology:1 bulletin:1 willem:1 vv:1 brill:1 prolegomenon:2 oxford:2 clarendon:2 maui:1 demigod:1 polynesia:1 hina:1 honolulu:1 longing:1 aesthetic:1 romanticism:1 nietzsche:1 reading:1 fernandes:1 ângela:1 value:2 spiritual:1 trace:1 portuguese:2 literature:1 criticism:1 neohelicon:1 akadémiai:1 kiadó:1 co:1 springer:1 business:1 medium:1 v:1 volume:2 june:1 kerényi:1 ralph:1 manheim:1 archetypal:1 image:1 princeton:1 external:1 link:1 text:4 gml:1 encyclopedia:1 mythica:1 messagenet:1 noevel:1 download:1 page:1 fogo:1 chamas:1 mitos:1 betty:1 mindlin:1 essay:1 stealing:1 south:1 indigenous:1 |@bigram folk_etymology:1 sacrificial_offering:1 hesiod_theogony:4 hundred_thousand:1 heracles_hercules:1 trickster_figure:1 enuma_elish:2 prometheus_bound:8 greek_tragedian:1 theoi_project:1 olympian_zeus:1 prometheus_unbound:3 aeschylus_prometheus:2 centaur_chiron:1 vase_painting:2 apollonius_rhodes:2 jason_argonaut:1 valerius_flaccus:1 rig_veda:1 johann_wolfgang:1 wolfgang_goethe:1 percy_bysshe:2 bysshe_shelley:2 symphonic_poem:1 franz_liszt:1 carl_orff:1 franz_kafka:2 edwin_muir:1 schocken_book:1 final_resting:1 resting_place:1 liver_regeneration:5 regenerative_medicine:1 pittsburgh_pennsylvania:1 mary_shelley:1 herman_melville:1 melville_moby:1 moby_dick:2 lord_byron:1 divinely_inspired:1 diana_wynne:1 wynne_jones:1 secular_humanism:1 ayn_rand:1 heaven_hell:1 stargate_sg:1 lex_luthor:1 star_trek:1 trek_voyager:1 chrono_trigger:1 sequel_chrono:1 chrono_cross:1 frozen_flame:2 science_fiction:1 comic_strip:1 wordpress_com:1 terry_pratchett:1 indo_european:1 blackwell_publishing:1 oxford_clarendon:2 clarendon_press:2 akadémiai_kiadó:1 external_link:1 encyclopedia_mythica:1 |
3,074 | Hydrocarbon | A three-dimensional rendered ball-and-stick model of the methane molecule, CH4. Methane is part of a homologous series known as the alkanes, which are a family of hydrocarbons that contain single bonds only. In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Silberberg, 620 With relation to chemical terminology, aromatic hydrocarbons or arenes, alkanes, alkenes and alkyne-based compounds composed entirely of carbon or hydrogen are referred to as "pure" hydrocarbons, whereas other hydrocarbons with bonded compounds or impurities of sulfur or nitrogen, are referred to as "impure", and remain somewhat erroneously referred to as hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are referred to as consisting of a "backbone" or "skeleton" composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen and other bonded compounds, and have a functional group that generally facilitates combustion. Silberberg, 620 The majority of hydrocarbons found naturally occur in crude oil, where decomposed organic matter provides an abundance of carbon and hydrogen which, when bonded, can catenate to form seemingly limitless chains. Clayden, Greeves, et al., 21 McMurry, 75-81 Types of hydrocarbons The classifications for hydrocarbons defined by IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry are as follows: Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) are the most simple of the hydrocarbon species and are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen. The general formula for saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2 (assuming non-cyclic structures). Silderberg, 623 Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are either found as linear or branched species. Hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae are called structural isomers. Silderberg, 625 As given in the example of 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues, branched hydrocarbons can be chiral. Silderberg, 627 Chiral saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and tocopherol. Meierhenrich Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms. Those with one double bond are called alkenes, with the formula CnH2n (assuming non-cyclic structures). Silderberg, 628 Those containing triple bonds are called alkynes, with general formula CnH2n-2. Silderberg, 631 Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons containing one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached. The general formula for a saturated hydrocarbon containing one ring is CnH2n. Silderberg, 625 Aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least one aromatic ring. Hydrocarbons can be gases (e.g. methane and propane), liquids (e.g. hexane and benzene), waxes or low melting solids (e.g. paraffin wax and naphthalene) or polymers (e.g. polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene). General properties Because of differences in molecular structure, the empirical formula remains different between hydrocarbons; in linear, or "straight-run" alkanes, alkenes and alkynes, the amount of bonded hydrogen lessens in alkenes and alkynes due to the "self-bonding" or catenation of carbon preventing entire saturation of the hydrocarbon by the formation of double or triple bonds. This inherent ability of hydrocarbons to bond to themselves is referred to as catenation, and allows hydrocarbon to form more complex molecules, such as cyclohexane, and in rarer cases, arenes such as benzene. This ability comes from the fact that bond character between carbon atoms is entirely non-polar, in that the distribution of electrons between the two elements is somewhat even due to the same electronegativity values of the elements (~0.30), and does not result in the formation of an electrophile. Generally, with catenation comes the loss of the total amount of bonded hydrocarbons and an increase in the amount of energy required for bond cleavage due to strain exerted upon the molecule; in molecules such as cyclohexane, this is referred to as ring strain, and occurs due to the "destabilized" spatial electron configuration of the atom. In simple chemistry, as per valence bond theory, the carbon atom must follow the "4-hydrogen rule", which states that the maximum number of atoms available to bond with carbon is equal to the number of electrons that are attracted into the outer shell of carbon. In terms of shells, carbon consists of an incomplete outer shell, which comprises 4 electrons, and thus has 4 electrons available for covalent or dative bonding. Some hydrocarbons also are abundant in the solar system. Lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan, Saturn's largest moon, confirmed by the Cassini-Huygens Mission http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6230381.stm . Simple hydrocarbons and their variations Number ofcarbon atomsAlkaneAlkeneAlkyneCycloalkaneAlkadiene 1 Methane — — — — 2 Ethane Ethene Ethyne — — 3 Propane Propene Propyne Cyclopropane Allene 4 ButaneIsobutane Butene Butyne CyclobutaneMethylcyclopropane Butadiene 5 PentaneIsopentaneNeopentane Pentene Pentyne CyclopentaneMethylcyclobutaneEthylcyclopropane PentadieneIsoprene 6 Hexane Hexene Hexyne CyclohexaneMethylcyclopentaneEthylcyclobutanePropylcyclopropane Hexadiene 7 Heptane Heptene Heptyne CycloheptaneMethylcyclohexane Heptadiene 8 Octane Octene Octyne Cyclooctane Octadiene 9 Nonane Nonene Nonyne Cyclononane Nonadiene 10 Decane Decene Decyne Cyclodecane Decadiene Usage Hydrocarbons are one of the Earth's most important energy resources. The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a combustible fuel source. In their solid form, hydrocarbons take the form of asphalt Dan Morgan, Lecture ENVIRO 100, University of Washington, 11/5/08 Mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons are now used in preference to the chlorofluorocarbons as a propellant for aerosol sprays, due to chlorofluorocarbons impact on the ozone layer. Methane [1C] and ethane [2C] are gaseous at ambient temperatures and cannot be readily liquified by pressure alone. Propane [3C] is however easily liquified, and exists in 'propane bottles' mostly as a liquid. Butane [4C] is so easily liquified that it provides a safe, volatile fuel for small pocket lighters. Pentane [5C] is a clear liquid at room temperature, commonly used in chemistry and industry as a powerful nearly odorless solvent of waxes and high molecular weight organic compounds, including greases. Hexane [6C] is also a widely used non-polar, non-aromatic solvent, as well as a significant fraction of common gasoline. The [6C] through [10C] alkanes, alkenes and isomeric cycloalkanes are the top components of gasoline, naptha, jet fuel and specialized industrial solvent mixtures. With the progressive addition of carbon units, the simple non-ring structured hydrocarbons have higher viscosities, lubricating indices, boiling points, solidification temperatures, and deeper color. At the opposite extreme from [1C] methane lie the heavy tars that remain as the lowest fraction in a crude oil refining retort. They are collected and widely utilized as roofing compounds, pavement composition, wood preservatives (the creosote series) and as extremely high viscosity sheer-resisting liquids. Burning hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons are currently the main source of the world’s electric energy and heat sources (such as home heating) because of the energy produced when burnt. Often this energy is used directly as heat such as in home heaters, which use either oil or natural gas. The hydrocarbon is burnt and the heat is used to heat water, which is then circulated. A similar principle is used to create electric energy in power plants. A common property of hydrocarbons is the fact that they produce hydrogen and oxygen during combustion. The simplest hydrocarbon, methane, burns as follows: CH4 + 2 O2 → 2 H2O + CO2 Another example of this property is propane: C3H8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H2O Petroleum Oil refineries are key to obtaining hydrocarbons; crude oil is processed through several stages to form desirable hydrocarbons, used in fuel and other commercial products. Liquid geologically-extracted hydrocarbons are referred to as petroleum (literally "rock oil") or mineral oil, while gaseous geologic hydrocarbons are referred to as natural gas. All are significant sources of fuel and raw materials as a feedstock for the production of organic chemicals and are commonly found in the Earth's subsurface using the tools of petroleum geology. The extraction of liquid hydrocarbon fuel from a number of sedimentary basins has been integral to modern energy development. Hydrocarbons are mined from tar sands, oil shale and potentially extracted from sedimentary methane hydrates. These reserves require distillation and upgrading to produce synthetic crude and petroleum. Oil reserves in sedimentary rocks are the principal source of hydrocarbons for the energy, transport and petrochemical industries. Hydrocarbons are of prime economic importance because they encompass the constituents of the major fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc.) and its derivatives plastics, paraffin, waxes, solvents and oils. In urban pollution, these components—along with NOx and sunlight--all contribute to the formation of tropospheric ozone and greenhouse gases. See also Abiogenic petroleum origin hypothesis Biohydrocarbon Energy storage Fractional distillation Functional group Hydrocarbon mixtures Notes References McMurry, J. (2000). Organic Chemistry 5th ed. Brooks/Cole: Thomson Learning. Clayden, J., Greeves, N., et al. (2000) Organic Chemistry Oxford. Silberberg, Martin. Chemistry The Molecular Nature Of Matter And Change. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2004. ISBN 978-0-07-255820-3 Meierhenrich, Uwe. Amino Acids and the Asymmetry of Life. Springer, 2008. ISBN 978-3-54-076885-2 External links The Methane Molecule | Hydrocarbon |@lemmatized three:1 dimensional:1 render:1 ball:1 stick:1 model:1 methane:10 molecule:5 part:1 homologous:1 series:2 know:2 alkane:5 family:1 hydrocarbon:49 contain:4 single:2 bond:15 organic:8 chemistry:7 compound:6 consist:2 entirely:5 hydrogen:9 carbon:13 silberberg:3 relation:1 chemical:2 terminology:1 aromatic:4 arenes:3 alkene:5 alkyne:4 base:1 compose:3 refer:8 pure:1 whereas:1 bonded:2 impurity:1 sulfur:1 nitrogen:1 impure:1 remain:3 somewhat:2 erroneously:1 backbone:1 skeleton:1 functional:2 group:2 generally:2 facilitate:1 combustion:2 majority:1 find:4 naturally:1 occur:1 crude:4 oil:10 decompose:1 matter:2 provide:2 abundance:1 catenate:1 form:5 seemingly:1 limitless:1 chain:2 clayden:2 greeves:2 et:2 al:2 mcmurry:2 type:1 classification:1 define:1 iupac:1 nomenclature:1 follow:3 saturate:4 simple:5 specie:2 general:4 formula:7 saturated:2 assume:2 non:6 cyclic:2 structure:3 silderberg:6 basis:1 petroleum:7 fuel:8 either:2 linear:2 branched:1 molecular:4 different:2 structural:2 call:3 isomer:1 give:1 example:2 methylhexane:1 high:4 homologues:1 branch:1 chiral:2 constitute:1 side:1 biomolecules:1 chlorophyll:1 tocopherol:1 meierhenrich:2 unsaturated:1 one:6 double:3 triple:3 atom:6 cycloalkanes:2 ring:5 attach:1 also:4 least:1 gas:5 e:4 g:4 propane:5 liquid:7 hexane:3 benzene:2 wax:4 low:2 melting:1 solid:2 paraffin:2 naphthalene:1 polymer:1 polyethylene:1 polypropylene:1 polystyrene:1 property:3 difference:1 empirical:1 straight:1 run:1 amount:3 lessens:1 due:5 self:1 catenation:3 prevent:1 entire:1 saturation:1 formation:3 inherent:1 ability:2 allow:1 complex:1 cyclohexane:2 rarer:1 case:1 come:2 fact:2 character:1 polar:2 distribution:1 electron:5 two:1 element:2 even:1 electronegativity:1 value:1 result:1 electrophile:1 loss:1 total:1 increase:1 energy:9 require:2 cleavage:1 strain:2 exerted:1 upon:1 occurs:1 destabilize:1 spatial:1 configuration:1 per:1 valence:1 theory:1 must:1 rule:1 state:1 maximum:1 number:4 available:2 equal:1 attract:1 outer:2 shell:3 term:1 consists:1 incomplete:1 comprise:1 thus:1 covalent:1 dative:1 bonding:1 abundant:1 solar:1 system:1 lake:1 ethane:3 titan:1 saturn:1 large:1 moon:1 confirm:1 cassini:1 huygens:1 mission:1 http:1 news:1 bbc:1 co:1 uk:1 hi:1 science:1 nature:2 stm:1 variation:1 ofcarbon:1 atomsalkanealkenealkynecycloalkanealkadiene:1 ethene:1 ethyne:1 propene:1 propyne:1 cyclopropane:1 allene:1 butaneisobutane:1 butene:1 butyne:1 cyclobutanemethylcyclopropane:1 butadiene:1 pentaneisopentaneneopentane:1 pentene:1 pentyne:1 cyclopentanemethylcyclobutaneethylcyclopropane:1 pentadieneisoprene:1 hexene:1 hexyne:1 cyclohexanemethylcyclopentaneethylcyclobutanepropylcyclopropane:1 hexadiene:1 heptane:1 heptene:1 heptyne:1 cycloheptanemethylcyclohexane:1 heptadiene:1 octane:1 octene:1 octyne:1 cyclooctane:1 octadiene:1 nonane:1 nonene:1 nonyne:1 cyclononane:1 nonadiene:1 decane:1 decene:1 decyne:1 cyclodecane:1 decadiene:1 usage:1 earth:2 important:1 resource:1 predominant:1 use:10 combustible:1 source:5 take:1 asphalt:1 dan:1 morgan:1 lecture:1 enviro:1 university:1 washington:1 mixture:2 volatile:2 preference:1 chlorofluorocarbon:2 propellant:1 aerosol:1 spray:1 impact:1 ozone:2 layer:1 gaseous:2 ambient:1 temperature:3 cannot:1 readily:1 liquify:3 pressure:1 alone:1 however:1 easily:2 exist:1 bottle:1 mostly:1 butane:1 safe:1 small:1 pocket:1 lighter:1 pentane:1 clear:1 room:1 commonly:2 industry:2 powerful:1 nearly:1 odorless:1 solvent:4 weight:1 include:1 grease:1 widely:2 well:1 significant:2 fraction:2 common:2 gasoline:2 isomeric:1 top:1 component:2 naptha:1 jet:1 specialized:1 industrial:1 progressive:1 addition:1 unit:1 structured:1 viscosity:2 lubricate:1 index:1 boil:1 point:1 solidification:1 deep:1 color:1 opposite:1 extreme:1 lie:1 heavy:1 tar:2 refining:1 retort:1 collect:1 utilized:1 roof:1 pavement:1 composition:1 wood:1 preservative:1 creosote:1 extremely:1 sheer:1 resisting:1 burn:2 currently:1 main:1 world:1 electric:2 heat:4 home:2 heating:1 produce:3 burnt:2 often:1 directly:1 heater:1 natural:3 water:1 circulate:1 similar:1 principle:1 create:1 power:1 plant:1 oxygen:1 another:1 refinery:1 key:1 obtain:1 process:1 several:1 stage:1 desirable:1 commercial:1 product:1 geologically:1 extract:2 literally:1 rock:2 mineral:1 geologic:1 raw:1 material:1 feedstock:1 production:1 subsurface:1 tool:1 geology:1 extraction:1 sedimentary:3 basin:1 integral:1 modern:1 development:1 mine:1 sand:1 shale:1 potentially:1 hydrate:1 reserve:2 distillation:2 upgrade:1 synthetic:1 principal:1 transport:1 petrochemical:1 prime:1 economic:1 importance:1 encompass:1 constituent:1 major:1 fossil:1 coal:1 etc:1 derivative:1 plastic:1 urban:1 pollution:1 along:1 nox:1 sunlight:1 contribute:1 tropospheric:1 greenhouse:1 see:1 abiogenic:1 origin:1 hypothesis:1 biohydrocarbon:1 storage:1 fractional:1 mixtures:1 note:1 reference:1 j:2 ed:1 brook:1 cole:1 thomson:1 learning:1 n:1 oxford:1 martin:1 change:1 new:1 york:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 company:1 isbn:2 uwe:1 amino:1 acid:1 asymmetry:1 life:1 springer:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram organic_chemistry:4 organic_compound:2 aromatic_hydrocarbon:2 alkane_alkene:3 alkene_alkyne:3 hydrogen_bond:2 crude_oil:3 et_al:2 iupac_nomenclature:1 saturate_hydrocarbon:3 carbon_atom:3 hydrogen_atom:1 aromatic_ring:1 paraffin_wax:2 valence_bond:1 methane_ethane:3 cassini_huygens:1 uk_hi:1 aerosol_spray:1 ozone_layer:1 ambient_temperature:1 hydrocarbon_methane:1 oil_refinery:1 raw_material:1 sedimentary_basin:1 tar_sand:1 oil_shale:1 methane_hydrate:1 synthetic_crude:1 crude_petroleum:1 sedimentary_rock:1 petrochemical_industry:1 fossil_fuel:1 tropospheric_ozone:1 greenhouse_gas:1 fractional_distillation:1 brook_cole:1 mcgraw_hill:1 amino_acid:1 external_link:1 |
3,075 | Damon_Runyon | Damon Runyon (October 4, 1880 – December 10, 1946) was a newspaperman and writer. He was best known for his short stories celebrating the world of Broadway in New York City that grew out of the Prohibition era. To New Yorkers of his generation, a "Damon Runyon character" evoked a distinctive social type from the Brooklyn or Midtown demi-monde. The adjective "Runyonesque" refers to this type of character as well as to the type of situations and dialog that Runyon depicted. He spun humorous tales of gamblers, hustlers, actors, and gangsters, few of whom go by "square" names, preferring instead colorful monikers such as "Nathan Detroit," "Big Jule," "Harry the Horse," "Good Time Charley," "Dave the Dude," or "The Seldom Seen Kid." Runyon wrote these stories in a distinctive vernacular style: a mixture of formal speech and colorful slang, almost always in present tense, and always devoid of contractions. A passage from "Tobias the Terrible", collected in More than Somewhat (1937) illustrates Runyon's memorable prose: If I have all the tears that are shed on Broadway by guys in love, I will have enough salt water to start an opposition ocean to the Atlantic and Pacific, with enough left over to run the Great Salt Lake out of business. But I wish to say I never shed any of these tears personally, because I am never in love, and furthermore, barring a bad break, I never expect to be in love, for the way I look at it love is strictly the old phedinkus, and I tell the little guy as much. The musical Guys and Dolls was based on two Runyon stories, "The Idyll of Miss Sarah Brown" and "Blood Pressure"; the film Little Miss Marker (and its remake, Sorrowful Jones) grew from his short story of the same name. Runyon was also a newspaperman. He wrote the lead article for UPI on Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Presidential inauguration in 1933. Biography Damon Runyon was born as Alfred Damon Runyan to a family of newspapermen in Manhattan, Kansas. His grandfather was a newspaper printer from New Jersey who had relocated to Manhattan in 1855, and his father was editor of his own newspaper in the town. In 1882 Runyon's father was forced to sell his newspaper, and the family moved westward. The family eventually settled in Pueblo, Colorado, in 1887, where Runyon spent the rest of his youth. He began to work in the newspaper trade under his father in Pueblo. In present-day Pueblo, Runyon Field, The Damon Runyon Repertory Theater Company and Runyon Lake are now named in his honor. He worked for various newspapers in the Rocky Mountain area; at one of those, the spelling of his last name was changed from "Runyan" to "Runyon," a change he let stand. In 1898 Runyon enlisted in the U.S. Army to fight in the Spanish-American War. While in the service, he was assigned to write for the Manila Freedom and Soldier's Letter. New York years After a notable failure in trying to organize a Colorado minor baseball league, Runyon moved to New York City in 1910. For the next ten years he covered the New York Giants and professional boxing for the New York American. In his first New York byline, the American editor dropped the "Alfred," and the name "Damon Runyon" appeared for the first time. A heavy drinker as a young man, he seems to have quit the bottle soon after arriving in New York, after his drinking nearly cost him the courtship of the woman who became his first wife, Ellen Egan. He remained a heavy smoker. His best friend was mobster accountant Otto Berman, and he incorporated Berman into several of his stories under the alias "Regret, the horse player." When Berman was killed in a hit on Berman's boss, Dutch Schultz, Runyon quickly assumed the role of damage control for his deceased friend, correcting erroneous press releases (including one that stated Berman was one of Schultz's gunmen, to which Runyon replied, "Otto would have been as effective a bodyguard as a two-year-old.") Runyon frequently contributed sports poems to the American on boxing and baseball themes, and also wrote numerous short stories and essays. He was the Hearst newspapers' baseball columnist for many years, beginning in 1911, and his knack for spotting the eccentric and the unusual, on the field or in the stands, is credited with revolutionizing the way baseball was covered. Perhaps as confirmation, Runyon was inducted into the writers' wing (the J. G. Taylor Spink Award) of the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1967. He is also a member of the International Boxing Hall Of Fame and is known for dubbing heavyweight champion James J. Braddock, the "Cinderella Man." Gambling was a common theme of Runyon's works, and he was a notorious gambler himself. A well-known saying of his paraphrases Ecclesiastes: "The race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, but that's the how the smart money bets." Runyon's marriage to Ellen Egan produced two children (Mary and Damon, Jr.), and broke up in 1928 over rumors that Runyon had become infatuated with a Mexican girl he had first met while covering the Pancho Villa raids in 1916 and discovered once again in New York, when she called the American seeking him out. Runyon had promised her in Mexico that, if she would complete the education he paid for her, he would find her a dancing job in New York. Her name was Patrice Amati del Grande, and she became his companion after he separated from his wife. After Ellen Runyon died of the effects of her own drinking problems, Runyon and Patrice married; that marriage ended in 1946 when Patrice left Runyon for a younger man. He died in New York City from throat cancer in late 1946, at age 66. His body was cremated, and his ashes were scattered from an airplane over Broadway in Manhattan by Captain Eddie Rickenbacker on December 18, 1946. The family plot of Damon Runyon is located at Woodlawn Cemetery in Bronx, . Media Bibliography The Tents of Trouble (Poems; 1911) Rhymes of the Firing Line (1912) Guys and Dolls (1932) Damon Runyon's Blue Plate Special (1934) Money From Home (1935) More Than Somewhat (1937) Furthermore (1938) Take It Easy (1938) My Wife Ethel (1939) My Old Man (1939) The Best of Runyon (1940) A Slight Case of Murder (with Howard Lindsay, 1940) Damon Runyon Favorites (1942) Capt. Eddie Rickenbacker (with W. Kiernan, 1942) Runyon a la Carte (1944) The Damon Runyon Omnibus (1944) Short Takes (1946) In Our Town (1946) The Three Wise Guys and Other Stories (1946) Trials and Other Tribulations (1947) Poems for Men (1947) Runyon First and Last (1949) Runyon on Broadway (1950) More Guys and Dolls (1950) The Turps (1951) Damon Runyon from First to Last (1954) A Treasury of Damon Runyon (1958) The Bloodhounds of Broadway and Other Stories (1985) Guys, Dolls, and Curveballs: Damon Runyon on Baseball (2005; Jim Reisler, editor) A Dangerous Guy Indeed (Unknown) Films Numerous Damon Runyon stories were adapted for the stage and the screen. Some of the best of these include: Lady for a Day (1933)—Adapted by Robert Riskin, who suggested the name change from Runyon's title "Madame La Gimp," the film garnered Academy Award nominations for Best Picture, Best Director (Frank Capra), Best Actress (May Robson), and Best Adaptation for the Screen (Riskin). It was remade as Pocketful of Miracles in 1961, with Bette Davis in the Apple Annie role; Frank Sinatra recorded the upbeat title song (his rendition is not used in the film). The film received Oscar nominations for composers Sammy Cahn and Jimmy Van Heusen and for co-star Peter Falk (Best Supporting Actor). In 1989, Jackie Chan adapted the story yet again for the Hong Kong action film Miracles, adding several of his trademark stunt sequences. Little Miss Marker (1934)—The film that made Shirley Temple a star, launched her career as perhaps America's most beloved child film star, and pushed her past Greta Garbo as the nation's biggest film draw of the year. Subsequent remakes include Sorrowful Jones (1949; Bob Hope, Lucille Ball), Forty Pounds of Trouble (1963; Tony Curtis), and Little Miss Marker (1980; Walter Matthau, Julie Andrews, Bob Newhart, Tony Curtis). The Lemon Drop Kid (1934); also filmed in 1951 starring Bob Hope and future I Love Lucy co-star William Frawley as a racetrack tout. A Slight Case of Murder (1938)— with Edward G. Robinson, remade in 1953 as Stop, You're Killing Me with Broderick Crawford and Claire Trevor. The Big Street (1942)— adapted from Runyon's story, "Little Pinks"; Henry Fonda, Lucille Ball Butch Minds the Baby (1942)— Broderick Crawford, Shemp Howard It Ain't Hay (1943)—adapted from "Princess O'Hara"; Bud Abbott, Lou Costello, Patsy O'Connor Money from Home (1953)—Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis Guys and Dolls (1955)—Marlon Brando, Jean Simmons, Frank Sinatra Radio Broadcast from January to December 1949, The Damon Runyon Theatre dramatized 52 of Runyon's short stories for radio. Television Damon Runyon Theatre aired on CBS-TV from 1955-56. Literary Style The near total avoidance of past tense (it is used only once, in the short story "The Lily of St Pierre") is not the only oddity of Runyon's use of tense; he also avoided the conditional, using instead the future indicative in situations that would normally require conditional. An example: "Now most any doll on Broadway will be very glad indeed to have Handsome Jack Madigan give her a tumble ..." (Guys and dolls, "Social error"). There is an homage to Runyon that makes use of this peculiarity ("Chronic Offender" by Spider Robinson) which involves a time machine. Some examples of Runyonesque slang terms include the following: pineapple—pineapple grenade roscoe/john roscoe/the old equalizer/that thing—gun shiv—knife noggin—head snoot—nose There are many recurring composite phrases such as: ever-loving wife (occasionally "ever-loving doll") more than somewhat (or "no little, and quite some") loathe and despise one and all Runyon's stories also employ occasional rhyming slang, similar to the cockney variety but native to New York (e.g.: "Miss Missouri Martin makes the following crack one night to her: ‘Well, I do not see any Simple Simon on your lean and linger.’ This is Miss Missouri Martin’s way of saying she sees no diamond on Miss Billy Perry’s finger.” (from "Romance in the Roaring Forties"). The comic effect of his style results partly from the juxtaposition of broad slang with mock-pomposity. Women, when not "dolls" (or "Judies", "pancakes", "tomatoes", "broads" etc.), may be "characters of a female nature". Legacy The Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation, established in his honor, was set up to fund promising scientists in the field of cancer research. Every year, the Denver Press Club hands out the Damon Runyon Award to a notable journalist. Past winners include Jimmy Breslin, Mike Royko, George Will and Bob Costas. History's first telethon was hosted by Milton Berle in 1949 to raise funds for the Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation. The house in Manhattan, Kansas where Runyon was born is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Named in his honor, the Damon Runyon Stakes is a Thoroughbred horse race run every December at Aqueduct Race Track. Runyon loved horse racing and ran a small stable of his own. In the mid-1930s, Runyon persuaded promoter Leo Seltzer to formally change his Roller Derby spectacle from a marathon roller skating race into a full-contact team sport. (link points to the archived article in the Spring 2000 edition of the author's own PopCult Magazine Web site) “The faster skaters would break out and try and get laps so they would get ahead in the race, and some of the slower skaters started to band together to try and hold them back,” says Seltzer. “And at first, they didn’t want to let them do that–but then the people liked it so much, they kind of allowed blocking. Then they came down to Miami–I think it was 1936, early ’37–and Damon Runyon, a very famous sports writer, saw it and he sat down with my father and hammered out the rules, almost exactly as they are today.” One block of West 45th Street (between 8th and 9th Avenues) in Manhattan's Hell's Kitchen is named Runyon's Way. See also World War I draft card References Further reading Mosedale, John (1981). The Men Who Invented Broadway: Damon Runyon, Walter Winchell & Their World. New York: Richard Marek Publishers External links Retrieved on 2009-5-16 Retrieved on 2009-5-16 Baseball Hall of Fame - Spink Award recipient ''Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation and Broadway Theater Service Text of Story "The Informal Execution of Soupbone Pew" at http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0606431.txt | Damon_Runyon |@lemmatized damon:24 runyon:59 october:1 december:4 newspaperman:3 writer:3 best:9 know:3 short:6 story:15 celebrate:1 world:3 broadway:8 new:14 york:12 city:3 grow:2 prohibition:1 era:1 yorkers:1 generation:1 character:3 evoke:1 distinctive:2 social:2 type:3 brooklyn:1 midtown:1 demi:1 monde:1 adjective:1 runyonesque:2 refers:1 well:3 situation:2 dialog:1 depict:1 spin:1 humorous:1 tale:1 gambler:2 hustler:1 actor:2 gangster:1 go:1 square:1 names:1 prefer:1 instead:2 colorful:2 moniker:1 nathan:1 detroit:1 big:3 jule:1 harry:1 horse:4 good:1 time:3 charley:1 dave:1 dude:1 seldom:1 see:4 kid:2 write:4 vernacular:1 style:3 mixture:1 formal:1 speech:1 slang:4 almost:2 always:3 present:2 tense:3 devoid:1 contraction:1 passage:1 tobias:1 terrible:1 collect:1 somewhat:3 illustrate:1 memorable:1 prose:1 tear:2 shed:2 guy:10 love:8 enough:2 salt:2 water:1 start:2 opposition:1 ocean:1 atlantic:1 pacific:1 left:1 run:3 great:1 lake:2 business:1 wish:1 say:4 never:3 personally:1 furthermore:2 bar:1 bad:1 break:3 expect:1 way:4 look:1 strictly:1 old:4 phedinkus:1 tell:1 little:6 much:2 musical:1 doll:9 base:1 two:3 idyll:1 miss:7 sarah:1 brown:1 blood:1 pressure:1 film:10 marker:3 remake:3 sorrowful:2 jones:2 name:8 also:7 lead:1 article:2 upi:1 franklin:1 delano:1 roosevelt:1 presidential:1 inauguration:1 biography:1 bear:2 alfred:2 runyan:2 family:4 manhattan:5 kansa:1 grandfather:1 newspaper:6 printer:1 jersey:1 relocate:1 father:4 editor:3 town:2 force:1 sell:1 move:2 westward:1 eventually:1 settle:1 pueblo:3 colorado:2 spend:1 rest:1 youth:1 begin:2 work:3 trade:1 day:2 field:3 repertory:1 theater:2 company:1 honor:3 various:1 rocky:1 mountain:1 area:1 one:6 spelling:1 last:3 change:4 let:2 stand:2 enlist:1 u:1 army:1 fight:1 spanish:1 american:5 war:2 service:2 assign:1 manila:1 freedom:1 soldier:1 letter:1 year:6 notable:2 failure:1 try:3 organize:1 minor:1 baseball:7 league:1 next:1 ten:1 cover:3 giant:1 professional:1 boxing:2 first:8 byline:1 drop:2 appear:1 heavy:2 drinker:1 young:2 man:4 seem:1 quit:1 bottle:1 soon:1 arrive:1 drinking:2 nearly:1 cost:1 courtship:1 woman:2 become:3 wife:4 ellen:3 egan:2 remain:1 smoker:1 friend:2 mobster:1 accountant:1 otto:2 berman:5 incorporate:1 several:2 alias:1 regret:1 player:1 kill:2 hit:1 bos:1 dutch:1 schultz:2 quickly:1 assume:1 role:2 damage:1 control:1 deceased:1 correct:1 erroneous:1 press:2 release:1 include:5 state:1 gunman:1 reply:1 would:6 effective:1 bodyguard:1 frequently:1 contribute:1 sport:3 poem:1 box:1 theme:2 numerous:2 essay:1 hearst:1 columnist:1 many:2 knack:1 spot:1 eccentric:1 unusual:1 credit:1 revolutionize:1 perhaps:2 confirmation:1 induct:1 wing:1 j:2 g:3 taylor:1 spink:2 award:4 hall:3 fame:3 member:1 international:1 dub:1 heavyweight:1 champion:1 james:1 braddock:1 cinderella:1 gambling:1 common:1 notorious:1 paraphrase:1 ecclesiastes:1 race:5 swift:1 battle:1 strong:1 smart:1 money:3 bet:1 marriage:2 produce:1 child:2 mary:1 jr:1 rumor:1 infatuate:1 mexican:1 girl:1 meet:1 pancho:1 villa:1 raid:1 discover:1 call:1 seek:1 promise:1 mexico:1 complete:1 education:1 pay:1 find:1 dance:1 job:1 patrice:3 amati:1 del:1 grande:1 companion:1 separate:1 die:2 effect:2 problem:1 marry:1 end:1 leave:1 throat:1 cancer:5 late:1 age:1 body:1 cremate:1 ash:1 scatter:1 airplane:1 captain:1 eddie:2 rickenbacker:2 plot:1 locate:1 woodlawn:1 cemetery:1 bronx:1 medium:1 bibliography:1 tent:1 trouble:2 poems:2 rhyme:1 firing:1 line:1 blue:1 plate:1 special:1 home:2 take:2 easy:1 ethel:1 slight:2 case:2 murder:2 howard:2 lindsay:1 favorite:1 capt:1 w:1 kiernan:1 la:2 carte:1 omnibus:1 three:1 wise:1 trial:1 tribulation:1 men:2 turp:1 treasury:1 bloodhound:1 curveballs:1 jim:1 reisler:1 dangerous:1 indeed:2 unknown:1 adapt:5 stage:1 screen:2 lady:1 robert:1 riskin:2 suggest:1 title:2 madame:1 gimp:1 garner:1 academy:1 nomination:2 picture:1 director:1 frank:3 capra:1 actress:1 may:2 robson:1 adaptation:1 pocketful:1 miracle:2 bette:1 davis:1 apple:1 annie:1 sinatra:2 record:1 upbeat:1 song:1 rendition:1 use:5 receive:1 oscar:1 composer:1 sammy:1 cahn:1 jimmy:2 van:1 heusen:1 co:2 star:5 peter:1 falk:1 support:1 jackie:1 chan:1 yet:1 hong:1 kong:1 action:1 add:1 trademark:1 stunt:1 sequence:1 make:3 shirley:1 temple:1 launch:1 career:1 america:1 beloved:1 push:1 past:3 greta:1 garbo:1 nation:1 draw:1 subsequent:1 bob:4 hope:2 lucille:2 ball:2 forty:2 pound:1 tony:2 curtis:2 walter:2 matthau:1 julie:1 andrew:1 newhart:1 lemon:1 future:2 lucy:1 william:1 frawley:1 racetrack:1 tout:1 edward:1 robinson:2 remade:1 stop:1 broderick:2 crawford:2 claire:1 trevor:1 street:2 pink:1 henry:1 fonda:1 butch:1 mind:1 baby:1 shemp:1 hay:1 princess:1 hara:1 bud:1 abbott:1 lou:1 costello:1 patsy:1 connor:1 dean:1 martin:3 jerry:1 lewis:1 marlon:1 brando:1 jean:1 simmons:1 radio:2 broadcast:1 january:1 theatre:2 dramatize:1 television:1 air:1 cbs:1 tv:1 literary:1 near:1 total:1 avoidance:1 lily:1 st:1 pierre:1 oddity:1 avoid:1 conditional:2 indicative:1 normally:1 require:1 example:2 glad:1 handsome:1 jack:1 madigan:1 give:1 tumble:1 error:1 homage:1 peculiarity:1 chronic:1 offender:1 spider:1 involve:1 machine:1 term:1 following:2 pineapple:2 grenade:1 roscoe:2 john:2 equalizer:1 thing:1 gun:1 shiv:1 knife:1 noggin:1 head:1 snoot:1 nose:1 recur:1 composite:1 phrase:1 ever:2 occasionally:1 quite:1 loathe:1 despise:1 employ:1 occasional:1 rhyming:1 similar:1 cockney:1 variety:1 native:1 e:1 missouri:2 crack:1 night:1 simple:1 simon:1 lean:1 linger:1 diamond:1 billy:1 perry:1 finger:1 romance:1 roaring:1 comic:1 result:1 partly:1 juxtaposition:1 broad:1 mock:1 pomposity:1 judies:1 pancakes:1 tomatoes:1 broads:1 etc:1 female:1 nature:1 legacy:1 research:4 foundation:3 establish:1 set:1 fund:2 promising:1 scientist:1 every:2 denver:1 club:1 hand:1 journalist:1 winner:1 breslin:1 mike:1 royko:1 george:1 costa:1 history:1 telethon:1 host:1 milton:1 berle:1 raise:1 house:1 kansas:1 list:1 national:1 register:1 historic:1 place:1 stake:1 thoroughbred:1 aqueduct:1 track:1 racing:1 small:1 stable:1 mid:1 persuade:1 promoter:1 leo:1 seltzer:2 formally:1 roller:2 derby:1 spectacle:1 marathon:1 skate:1 full:1 contact:1 team:1 link:2 point:1 archived:1 spring:1 edition:1 author:1 popcult:1 magazine:1 web:1 site:1 faster:1 skater:2 get:2 lap:1 ahead:1 slow:1 band:1 together:1 hold:1 back:1 want:1 people:1 like:1 kind:1 allow:1 blocking:1 come:1 miami:1 think:1 early:1 famous:1 saw:1 sit:1 hammer:1 rule:1 exactly:1 today:1 block:1 west:1 avenue:1 hell:1 kitchen:1 draft:1 card:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 mosedale:1 invent:1 winchell:1 richard:1 marek:1 publisher:1 external:1 retrieve:2 recipient:1 text:1 informal:1 execution:1 soupbone:1 pew:1 http:1 gutenberg:1 net:1 au:1 txt:1 |@bigram damon_runyon:22 shed_tear:1 guy_doll:6 franklin_delano:1 delano_roosevelt:1 presidential_inauguration:1 rocky_mountain:1 hall_fame:3 heavyweight_champion:1 pancho_villa:1 throat_cancer:1 cremate_ash:1 ash_scatter:1 woodlawn_cemetery:1 cemetery_bronx:1 trial_tribulation:1 award_nomination:1 frank_capra:1 bette_davis:1 frank_sinatra:2 oscar_nomination:1 jackie_chan:1 hong_kong:1 greta_garbo:1 lucille_ball:2 walter_matthau:1 broderick_crawford:2 henry_fonda:1 jerry_lewis:1 marlon_brando:1 past_tense:1 rhyming_slang:1 milton_berle:1 thoroughbred_horse:1 roller_derby:1 roller_skate:1 external_link:1 |
3,076 | Volkssturm | A Volkssturm wartime propaganda poster, translated: "For Freedom and Life, Volkssturm". The Volkssturm (lit. "folk-storm"; "People's" or "National Militia"; Sturm lit. "storm", may be translated in a military context with "assault") was a German national militia of the last months of World War II. It was founded on Adolf Hitler's orders on October 18, 1944 and conscripted males between the ages of 16 to 60 years who were not already serving in some military unit as part of a German Home Guard. Origins and Organization German Sturm has an inherited military sense besides the meteorological, so that the term Sturm for a military assault cannot be considered a metaphor. Grimm, Deutsches Wörterbuch: Sturm is from a Germanic *sturma with meanings (I) 'impetus, tumultus' and (II) 'procella, tempestas'. Old High German sturm has a primary meaning of "war, combat, conflict". The new Volkssturm drew inspiration from the old Prussian Landsturm of 1813-1815, that fought in the liberation wars against Napoleon, mainly as guerrilla forces. Plans to form a Landsturm national militia in Eastern Germany as a last resort to boost fighting strength initially came from Oberkommando des Heeres chief General Heinz Guderian in 1944. Because the Wehrmacht was lacking manpower to stop the Soviet advance, men in jobs not deemed necessary or previously deemed unfit for military service were now called under arms. The Volkssturm had existed, on paper, since approximately 1925, however it was only after Hitler ordered Martin Bormann to recruit six million men for this militia that the group became a physical reality. The intended strength of six million was never attained. In order for these militia units to be effective, Hitler and Bormann counted not only on strength in numbers, but also in fanaticism. During the early stages of Volkssturm planning, it became apparent that if militia units lacked morale they would lack combat effectiveness. To achieve the envisaged fanaticism, Volkssturm units were placed under direct command of the local Nazi party, meaning local Gau- and Kreisleiters. The new Volkssturm was also to become a nation-wide organization, with Heinrich Himmler, as Replacement Army Commander, responsible for armament and training. Though normally under party control, Volkssturm units were placed under Wehrmacht command when engaging in action. With the Nazi Party in charge of organizing the Volkssturm, each Gauleiter, or Nazi Party District Leader, is charged with the leadership, enrollment, and organization of the Volkssturm in his district, the largest Volkssturm unit seems to correspond to the next smaller territorial subdivision of the Nazi Party organization—the Kreis. The basic unit was a battalion of 642 men. Units were mostly composed of members of the Hitler Youth, invalids, the elderly, or men who had previously been considered unfit for military service. Municipal organization: A Battalion in every Kreis (roughly equivalent to a U.S. county; there are 920 kreise in Greater Germany) A Kompanie (company) in every Ortsgruppe (roughly equivalent to a U.S. Congressional district) A Zug (platoon) Zelle (literally "a cell"; roughly equivalent to a U.S. precinct) A Gruppe (squad) for every Block (city block) Each Gauleiter and Kreisleiter, has a Volkssturm Chief of Staff to assist in handling militia problems. Uniforms and insignia Volkssturm armband. Gruppenführer (1), Zugführer (2), Kompanieführer (3), Bataillonsführer (4) The Volkssturm "uniform" was only a black armband with words Deutscher Volkssturm Wehrmacht with a series of silver collar pips pinned to the wearer's collar. Although the Nazi government tried to issue as many of its members as possible with military uniforms, these could not be provided to all its members, thus many members of the Volkssturm wore makeshift paramilitary uniforms or uniforms from their civilian jobs (such as train conductors of the Reichsbahn). The simple paramilitary insignia of the Volkssturm was as follows: Volkssturm Rank Translation Comparative military rank Collar Insignia Bataillionsführer Battalion Leader Major Kompanieführer Company Leader Captain Zugführer Section Leader Lieutenant Gruppenführer Group Leader Sergeant Volkssturmmann People's Storm Trooper Private Training and Impact {February or March} 1945 Volkssturm members being trained to use the Panzerfaust anti-tank weapon. Typically, members of the Volkssturm received only very basic military training. It included a brief indoctrination and training on the use of basic weapons such as the Karabiner 98k rifle and Panzerfaust. Because of continuous fighting and weapon shortages, weapon training was often very minimal. There was also a lack of instructors, meaning that weapons training was sometimes done by WW1-veterans drafted into service themselves. Often Volkssturm members had to familiarize themselves with their weapons when in actual combat. There was no standardization of any kind and units were issued only what equipment was available. This was true of every form of equipment—Volkssturm members were required to bring their own uniforms and culinary equipment etc. This resulted in the units looking very ragged and, instead of boosting civilian morale, it often reminded people of Germany's desperate state. Armament was equally diverse, while some Karabiner 98ks were on hand, members were also issued Gewehr 98s and Gewehr 71s as well as Dreyse M1907s in addition to a plethora of Soviet, Belgian, French, Italian and other weapons that had been captured by German forces during the war. The Germans had also developed primitive cheap weapons to supply the Volkssturm, like MP 3008 machine pistols and the Volkssturmgewehr 1-5 rifle. Being armed with leftovers compounded their ineffectiveness; the large number of different ammunition types also put a strain on an already burdened logistics system. {The Gewehr 71s used a different type of ammunition then the two 98's rifles} Volkssturm prisoners captured by 1st Belorussian front, Berlin, 1945 When units had completed their training and received armament, members took a customary oath to Hitler and were then dispatched into combat. Unlike most English-speaking countries, Germany had universal military service for all young men for several generations, so many of the older members would have had at least basic military training when they served in the German Army and, as noted before, many would have been veterans of the First World War. Volkssturm units were supposed to be used only in their own districts, but many were sent directly to the front lines. Their most extensive use was during the Battle of Berlin, during which Volkssturm units fought in many parts of the city. This battle was particularly devastating to its formations, however, since many members fought to the death out of fear of being captured by the Soviets. Another important Volkssturm battle was the Battle of Königsberg. Notable Members Ernst Tiburzy, received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. Wilhelm Sitt, Knight's Cross holder. Otto Herzog, Knight's Cross holder. Karl Pakebusch, Knight's Cross holder. See also German Army Werwolf Guerrillas Wehrmacht MP 3008 Einstossflammenwerfer 46 Volkssturmgewehr 1-5 Volunteer Fighting Corps (Japan) Black Brigades (Italy) Home Guard (United Kingdom) Wachdienst Landwehr References David K. Yelton: Hitler's Home Guard: Volkssturmmann Western Front 1944-45 (Osprey 2002) External links U.S. Wartime Intelligence Report on German Volkssturm Text of the Volkssturm-Act | Volkssturm |@lemmatized volkssturm:30 wartime:2 propaganda:1 poster:1 translate:2 freedom:1 life:1 lit:2 folk:1 storm:3 people:3 national:3 militia:7 sturm:5 may:1 military:11 context:1 assault:2 german:9 last:2 month:1 world:2 war:5 ii:2 found:1 adolf:1 hitler:6 order:3 october:1 conscript:1 male:1 age:1 year:1 already:2 serve:2 unit:13 part:2 home:3 guard:3 origin:1 organization:5 inherited:1 sense:1 besides:1 meteorological:1 term:1 cannot:1 consider:2 metaphor:1 grimm:1 deutsches:1 wörterbuch:1 germanic:1 sturma:1 meaning:2 impetus:1 tumultus:1 procella:1 tempestas:1 old:3 high:1 primary:1 combat:4 conflict:1 new:2 draw:1 inspiration:1 prussian:1 landsturm:2 fight:4 liberation:1 napoleon:1 mainly:1 guerrilla:2 force:2 plan:1 form:2 eastern:1 germany:4 resort:1 boost:2 fighting:2 strength:3 initially:1 come:1 oberkommando:1 de:1 heeres:1 chief:2 general:1 heinz:1 guderian:1 wehrmacht:4 lack:4 manpower:1 stop:1 soviet:3 advance:1 men:5 job:2 deem:2 necessary:1 previously:2 unfit:2 service:4 call:1 arm:2 exist:1 paper:1 since:2 approximately:1 however:2 martin:1 bormann:2 recruit:1 six:2 million:2 group:2 become:3 physical:1 reality:1 intended:1 never:1 attain:1 effective:1 count:1 number:2 also:7 fanaticism:2 early:1 stage:1 planning:1 apparent:1 morale:2 would:3 effectiveness:1 achieve:1 envisaged:1 place:2 direct:1 command:2 local:2 nazi:5 party:5 mean:2 gau:1 kreisleiters:1 nation:1 wide:1 heinrich:1 himmler:1 replacement:1 army:3 commander:1 responsible:1 armament:3 training:7 though:1 normally:1 control:1 engage:1 action:1 charge:2 organize:1 gauleiter:2 district:4 leader:5 leadership:1 enrollment:1 large:2 seem:1 correspond:1 next:1 small:1 territorial:1 subdivision:1 kreis:2 basic:4 battalion:3 mostly:1 compose:1 member:13 youth:1 invalid:1 elderly:1 municipal:1 every:4 roughly:3 equivalent:3 u:4 county:1 kreise:1 great:1 kompanie:1 company:2 ortsgruppe:1 congressional:1 zug:1 platoon:1 zelle:1 literally:1 cell:1 precinct:1 gruppe:1 squad:1 block:2 city:2 kreisleiter:1 staff:1 assist:1 handle:1 problem:1 uniform:6 insignia:3 armband:2 gruppenführer:2 zugführer:2 kompanieführer:2 bataillonsführer:1 black:2 word:1 deutscher:1 series:1 silver:1 collar:3 pip:1 pin:1 wearer:1 although:1 government:1 try:1 issue:3 many:7 possible:1 could:1 provide:1 thus:1 wear:1 makeshift:1 paramilitary:2 civilian:2 train:3 conductor:1 reichsbahn:1 simple:1 follow:1 rank:2 translation:1 comparative:1 bataillionsführer:1 major:1 captain:1 section:1 lieutenant:1 sergeant:1 volkssturmmann:2 trooper:1 private:1 impact:1 february:1 march:1 use:5 panzerfaust:2 anti:1 tank:1 weapon:8 typically:1 receive:3 include:1 brief:1 indoctrination:1 karabiner:2 rifle:3 continuous:1 shortage:1 often:3 minimal:1 instructor:1 sometimes:1 veteran:2 draft:1 familiarize:1 actual:1 standardization:1 kind:1 equipment:3 available:1 true:1 require:1 bring:1 culinary:1 etc:1 result:1 look:1 ragged:1 instead:1 remind:1 desperate:1 state:1 equally:1 diverse:1 hand:1 gewehr:3 well:1 dreyse:1 addition:1 plethora:1 belgian:1 french:1 italian:1 capture:3 develop:1 primitive:1 cheap:1 supply:1 like:1 mp:2 machine:1 pistol:1 volkssturmgewehr:2 leftover:1 compound:1 ineffectiveness:1 different:2 ammunition:2 type:2 put:1 strain:1 burden:1 logistics:1 system:1 two:1 prisoner:1 belorussian:1 front:3 berlin:2 complete:1 take:1 customary:1 oath:1 dispatch:1 unlike:1 english:1 speaking:1 country:1 universal:1 young:1 several:1 generation:1 least:1 note:1 first:1 suppose:1 send:1 directly:1 line:1 extensive:1 battle:4 particularly:1 devastate:1 formation:1 death:1 fear:1 another:1 important:1 königsberg:1 notable:1 ernst:1 tiburzy:1 knight:4 cross:5 iron:1 wilhelm:1 sitt:1 holder:3 otto:1 herzog:1 karl:1 pakebusch:1 see:1 werwolf:1 einstossflammenwerfer:1 volunteer:1 corp:1 japan:1 brigade:1 italy:1 united:1 kingdom:1 wachdienst:1 landwehr:1 reference:1 david:1 k:1 yelton:1 western:1 osprey:1 external:1 link:1 intelligence:1 report:1 text:1 act:1 |@bigram wartime_propaganda:1 propaganda_poster:1 adolf_hitler:1 deutsches_wörterbuch:1 heinz_guderian:1 martin_bormann:1 heinrich_himmler:1 congressional_district:1 chief_staff:1 machine_pistol:1 external_link:1 |
3,077 | Greater_Poland | The present-day Greater Poland Voivodeship, within Poland Greater Poland or Great Poland, Polish Wielkopolska (, Latin: Polonia Maior) is a historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief city is Poznań. Administratively, most of the region now forms Greater Poland Voivodeship (), although some parts lie in Lubusz, Kuyavian-Pomeranian and Łódź Voivodeships. Name of the region Greater Poland was the core of the early medieval Polish state. It is often termed "the cradle of Poland", and at times has simply been called "Poland" (Latin Polonia). The name is first mentioned in the Latin form Polonia Maior in 1257, and in Polish ("w Wielkej Polszcze") in 1449. The region's name may be construed as referring to old Poland, as opposed to the new Poland, Lesser Poland (; ), a region in southern Poland with its capital at Kraków. Geography Greater Poland comprises much of the area drained by the Warta River and its tributaries, including the Noteć River. There are two major geographic regions: a lake district in the north, characterized by post-glacial lakes and hills, and a rather flat plain in the south. An area of of forest and lakeland south of Poznań is designated the Wielkopolska National Park (Wielkopolski Park Narodowy), established in 1957. References Information on Wielkopolska (Greater Poland) at University at Buffalo, State University of New York. | Greater_Poland |@lemmatized present:1 day:1 great:7 poland:15 voivodeship:2 within:1 polish:3 wielkopolska:3 latin:3 polonia:3 maior:2 historical:1 region:6 west:1 central:1 chief:1 city:1 poznań:2 administratively:1 form:2 although:1 part:1 lie:1 lubusz:1 kuyavian:1 pomeranian:1 łódź:1 voivodeships:1 name:3 core:1 early:1 medieval:1 state:2 often:1 term:1 cradle:1 time:1 simply:1 call:1 first:1 mention:1 w:1 wielkej:1 polszcze:1 may:1 construe:1 refer:1 old:1 oppose:1 new:2 less:1 southern:1 capital:1 kraków:1 geography:1 comprise:1 much:1 area:2 drain:1 warta:1 river:2 tributary:1 include:1 noteć:1 two:1 major:1 geographic:1 lake:2 district:1 north:1 characterize:1 post:1 glacial:1 hill:1 rather:1 flat:1 plain:1 south:2 forest:1 lakeland:1 designate:1 national:1 park:2 wielkopolski:1 narodowy:1 establish:1 reference:1 information:1 university:2 buffalo:1 york:1 |@bigram |
3,078 | Greater_London | For London as a whole, see the main article London. Greater London is the top-level administrative subdivision covering London, England. Travers, T., The Politics of London, (2004) The administrative area was officially created in 1965 and covers the City of London (including Middle Temple and Inner Temple), the City of Westminster and the other 31 London boroughs. Its area also forms the London region of England and the London European Parliament constituency. The region has by far the highest GDP per capita in the United Kingdom. It covers 1579 km² (609 square miles) and had a 2006 mid-year estimated population of 7,512,400. It is bounded by the Home Counties of Essex and Hertfordshire in the East of England region and Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Surrey and Kent in South East England. The highest point in Greater London is Westerham Heights, in the North Downs and on the boundary with Kent, at 245 metres (804 ft). The term Greater London was in use before 1965 to refer to a variously defined area, larger than the County of London and often similar to the Metropolitan Police District. Glass, R., London: aspects of change, (1964) Status Greater London is not a city in the proper sense that the word applies in the United Kingdom, that of being a status granted by the Crown. In addition, one of the London boroughs, Westminster, is already a city, Westminster City Council — One City — An Introduction as well as the City of London itself which would make such a status anomalous. Despite this, Greater London is commonly regarded as a city in the general sense of a municipality. A Lord Lieutenant of Greater London is appointed for its area, less the City of London, an area identical to the Metropolitan Police District, and for the purposes of the Lieutenancies Act 1997, this area is defined as a county. HMSO, Lieutenancies Act 1997, (1997) The term "London" is normally used in reference to Greater London or to the overall conurbation, but not often to the ancient, tiny City of London. Mills, A., Dictionary of London Place Names, (2001), Oxford Instead, this small area is often referred to simply as "the City" or "the Square Mile" and it forms the main financial district. Archaically the urbanised area of London was known as the Metropolis. In common usage, the terms "London" and "Greater London" are usually used interchangeably. It is officially divided for some purposes, with varying definitions, into Inner London and Outer London. For strategic planning purposes the region is divided into five sub regions. Politics The Greater London Authority is based in City Hall Regional government Logo of the Greater London Authority London is the only English region with directly elected local governance. Jones, B. et al., Politics UK, (2004) The Greater London Authority (GLA) comprises a regional assembly called the London Assembly and an executive head known as the Mayor of London. Arden Chambers Barristers, A Guide to the Greater London Authority Act, (2000) The current Mayor of London (not to be confused with the Lord Mayor of the City of London) is Boris Johnson. He is scrutinised by an elected London Assembly, which may amend his annual budget (by two-thirds majority) but otherwise lacks the power to block his directives. The headquarters of the GLA is at City Hall in Southwark. The Mayor is responsible for Greater London's strategic planning and is required to produce a London Plan document. Local government Greater London is divided into 32 London boroughs, each governed by a London borough council; and the City of London, which has a unique government dating back to the 12th century. These various authorities are all often considered as equivalent to unitary authorities, but not legally defined as such. All London borough councils belong to the London Councils association. Two London boroughs, Kensington and Chelsea, and Kingston, carry the purely honorific title of Royal borough. Within the City of London boundary are the liberties of Middle Temple and Inner Temple. City of London City of Westminster Kensington and Chelsea Hammersmith and Fulham Wandsworth Lambeth Southwark Tower Hamlets Hackney Islington Camden Brent Ealing Hounslow Richmond Kingston Merton Sutton Croydon Bromley Lewisham Greenwich Bexley Havering Barking and Dagenham Redbridge Newham Waltham Forest Haringey Enfield Barnet Harrow Hillingdon Twinning The Greater London Authority has twin and sister city agreements with the following cities. The Mayor of London's City Partnerships webpage Country City County / District / Region / State Date China Beijing Beijing Municipality 2006 "Beijing, London to be sister cities", China Daily, 11 April 2006. Retrieved on 2006-06-06. France Paris Île-de-France Germany Berlin Berlin 2000 Russia Moscow Central Federal District United States New York City New York 2001 Japan Tokyo Tokyo 2005 For Borough twinning see List of London Borough twinnings. Demographics With increasing industrialisation, London's population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, and was the most populated city in the world until overtaken by New York in 1925. Its population peaked at 8,615,245 in 1939. There were an estimated 7,512,400 official residents in Greater London as of mid-2006. However, London's continuous urban area extends beyond the borders of Greater London and was home to an estimated 9,332,000 people in 2005, while its wider metropolitan area has a population of between 12 and 14 million depending on the definition of that area. According to Eurostat, London is the most populous city and metropolitan area of the European Union. The region covers an area of 1,579 square kilometres. The population density is 4,761 people per square kilometre, more than ten times that of any other British region. In terms of population, London is the 25th largest city and the 17th largest metropolitan region in the world. It is also ranked 4th in the world in number of billionaires (United States Dollars) residing in the city. London ranks as one of the most expensive cities in the world, alongside Tokyo and Moscow. Ethnic groups In the 2001 census, 71.15% of these seven and a half million people classed their ethnic group as white, including the White British (59.79%), White Irish (3.07%) or "Other White" (8.29%, mostly Greek Cypriot, Italian and French). 12.09% classed themselves as British Asian, including Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and "Other Asian" (mostly Sri Lankan, Arab and other Southern Asian ethnicities). 10.91% classed themselves as Black British (around 7% as Black African, 1.79% as Black Caribbean, 0.84% as "Other Black"). 3.15% were of mixed race; 1.12% as Chinese; and 1.58% as other (mostly Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese and other "British Orientals"). 21.8% of inhabitants were born outside the European Union. The Irish, from both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, number about 200,000, as do the Scots and Welsh combined. In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that there were more than 300 languages spoken and more than 50 non-indigenous communities which have a population of more than 10,000 in London. Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that, as of 2006, London's foreign-born population is 2,288,000 (31%), up from 1,630,000 in 1997. The 2001 census showed that 27.1% of Greater London's population were born outside the UK, and a slightly higher proportion were classed as non-white. The table shows the top 21 'Countries of Birth' of London residents in 2001, the date of the last UK Census. Note that a portion of the German-born population are likely to be British nationals born to parents serving in the British armed forces in Germany. Note also that these figures do not give a fair indication of the total population of the specific ethnic groups associated with each country. For example Londoners of Greek origin (from both Greece and Cyprus) who reside in Greater London number 300,000, since an organised Greek community has been established for nearly two centuries. The same can be said for Italian and French Londoners whose communities have been here for centuries. Another type of community are i.e. Poles who are in London since the late Middle Ages, but it was in the 21st century that the community grew significantly (approximate number is 50,000 in 2008). London has been a focus for immigration for centuries, whether as a place of safety or for economic reasons. Huguenots, eastern European Jews and Cypriots are examples of the former; Irish, Bangladeshis and West Indians came for new lives. The East End district around Spitalfields has been first home for several ethnic groups, which have subsequently moved elsewhere in London as they gained prosperity. The largest ethnic communities are the Jamaican in Brixton and Tottenham, West-African in Southwark, Pakistani and Bangladeshi in Newham, Tamil in Wembley and East African and Caribbean in Harlesden and Gospel Oak. Religion The largest religious groupings in London are Christian (58.2%), No Religion (15.8%), Muslim (8.2%), Hindu (4.1%), Jewish (2.1%), and Sikh (1.5%). London has traditionally been Christian, and has a large number of churches, particularly in the City. The famous St Paul's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres, while the head of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion, the Archbishop of Canterbury has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. Important national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral, the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales. Religious practice is lower than any other part of the UK or Western Europe and is around seven times lower than American averages. Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, weekly observance is low within the Anglican denomination, although in recent years church attendance, particularly at evangelical Anglican churches in London, has started to increase. London is also home to sizeable Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, and Jewish communities. Many Muslims live in Tower Hamlets and Newham; the most important Muslim buildings are the East London Mosque in Whitchapel and the London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent's Park. London's large Hindu community is found in the north-western boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter of which contains one of Europe's largest Hindu temples, Neasden Temple. Sikh communities are located in East and West London, which is also home to the largest Sikh Temples in the world, outside India. The majority of British Jews live in London, with significant Jewish communities in Stamford Hill (the most Orthodox Jewish area outside New York City and Israel) and St. John's Wood, Golders Green, and Edgware in North London. See also List of churches and cathedrals of London London Assembly For elections to the London Assembly, London is divided into fourteen constituencies. The constituencies are formed from the area of two or three boroughs combined. The City of London forms part of the City and East constituency. UK Parliament London is divided into 74 Parliamentary constituencies, which are all small borough constituencies. They are formed from the combined area of several wards from one or more London Boroughs. Typically a single borough is covered by two or three constituencies. Their number will be reduced to 73 before the next general election, scheduled for 2010. History Early incarnations The term Greater London had been used well before 1965, particularly to refer to the area covered by the Metropolitan Police District (such as in the 1901 census), Vision of Britain -Census 1901: Preliminary Report the area of the Metropolitan Water Board (favoured by the London County Council for statistics), Young, K. & Garside, P., Metropolitan London: Politics and Urban Change, (1982) the London Passenger Transport Area and the area defined by the Registrar General as the Greater London Conurbation. Westergaard, J., The Structure of Greater London, London: Aspects of Change, (1961) The Greater London Arterial Road Programme was devised between 1913 and 1916. The Motorway Archive - The origins of the London Orbital Motorway (M25) One of the larger early forms was the Greater London Planning Region, devised in 1927, which occupied and included 9 million people. Arms of Greater London Council Royal Commission on London Government Although the London County Council had been created as a London-wide authority covering the County of London in 1889, the County did not even cover all the built-up area of London then, particularly West Ham and East Ham; furthermore many of the LCC housing projects, including the vast Becontree Estate, were constructed outside its formal boundaries. Saint, A., Politics and the people of London: the London County Council (1889-1965), (1989) London County Council pressed for an alteration in its boundaries soon after the end of the First World War, noting that within the Metropolitan and City Police Districts there were 122 housing authorities. A Royal Commission on London Government was set up to consider the issue. London Local Government. The Times. 18 April, 1921. Complex London: Big Task For Inquiry Commission. The Times. 5 August, 1921. London County Council proposed a vast new Greater London, somewhere between the Metropolitan Police District and the entire Home Counties. Greater London: Case for Central Authority: Area and Powers. The Times. 14 December, 1921. Protests were made at the possibility of including Windsor, Slough and Eton in the authority. Windsor and Greater London: Protests Against Proposals. The Times. 27 December, 1921 The Commission made its report in 1923, rejecting the LCC's scheme. Two minority reports favoured change beyond the amalgamation of smaller urban districts, including both smaller borough councils and a Central Authority for strategic functions. The London Traffic Act 1924 was a result of the Commission. Greater London: Report of Royal Commission. The Times. 22 March 1923. Creation of administrative area Reform of the local government arrangements in the County of London and its environs was again considered by the Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London. Greater London was formally created by the London Government Act 1963, which took force on 1 April 1965, replacing the former administrative counties of Middlesex and London, adding the City of London, which was not under the London County Council, and absorbing parts of Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire. Greater London originally had a two-tier system of local government, with the Greater London Council (GLC) sharing power with the City of London Corporation (governing the small City of London) and the 32 London borough councils. The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986 by the Local Government Act 1985. Its functions were devolved to the Corporation and the London boroughs with some functions transferred to central government and joint boards. Greater London Authority Greater London was used to form the London region of England in 1994. A referendum held in 1998, established public will to create a regional authority. The Greater London Authority, London Assembly and the directly elected Mayor of London were created in 2000 by the Greater London Authority Act 1999. The 2000 and 2004 mayoral elections were both won by Ken Livingstone, who had been the final leader of the GLC. The 2008 election was won by Boris Johnson the Conservative Party candidate. In 2000 the outer boundary of the Metropolitan Police District was re-aligned to the Greater London boundary. Statistics Population Population of Greater London The population on the current territory of Greater London rose from about 1.1 million in 1801 (back then only about 0.85 million people were in the urban area of London, while 0.25 million were living in villages and towns not yet part of London) to an estimated 8.6 million in 1939, but declined to 6.7 million in 1988, before starting to rebound in the end of the 1980s. As of 2006, the population in Greater London has only recovered the level of 1970 (which was also the level of population in the 1920s). Some researchers expect the population of Greater London to reach 8.15 million by 2016, which would still be 0.45 million short of the 1939 peak. Figures here are for Greater London in its 2001 limits. Figures before 1971 have been reconstructed by the Office for National Statistics based on past censuses in order to fit the 2001 limits. Figures from 1981 onward are midyear estimates (revised as of August 2007), which are more accurate than the censuses themselves, known to underestimate the population of London. 1891 April 5/6 5,572,012 1901 31 March/April 1 6,506,954 1911 April 2/3 7,160,525 1921 June 19/20 7,386,848 1931 April 26/27 8,110,480 1939 Midyear estimate 8,615,245 1951 April 8/9 8,196,978 1961 April 23/24 7,992,616 1965 Greater London formally created 1971 April 25/26 7,452,520 1981 Midyear estimate 6,805,000 1988 Midyear estimate 6,729,300 1991 Midyear estimate 6,829,300 2001 Midyear estimate 7,322,400 2002 Midyear estimate 7,361,600 2003 Midyear estimate 7,364,100 2004 Midyear estimate 7,389,100 2005 Midyear estimate 7,456,100 2006 Midyear estimate 7,512,400 Economy This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added (GVA) of Inner London at current basic prices published (pp.240-253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. Year Regional Gross Value Added Components may not sum to totals due to rounding Agriculture includes hunting and forestry Industry includes energy and construction Services includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured Hi 1995 64,616 7 8,147 56,461 2000 92,330 6 10,094 82,229 2003 112,090 12 10,154 101,924 This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Outer London at current basic prices published (pp.240–253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. Year Regional Gross Value Added Agriculture Industry Services 1995 44,160 51 10,801 33,307 2000 60,304 43 12,529 47,732 2003 67,582 39 13,081 54,462 Area The area of Greater London has not changed significantly since its creation. There have been a considerable number of small boundary changes. The most significant of these were the 1969 transfers of Knockholt to Kent and Farleigh to Surrey The Greater London, Kent and Surrey Order, 1962 and a series of minor adjustments during the 1990s which realigned the boundary to the M25 motorway in some places. Environment The majority of Greater London forms the London low emission zone from 4 February 2008. Education The education system has been split into the thirty three separate LEAs, which correspond to the City of London, the City of Westminster and the 32 London boroughs, since the 1990 enactment of the Education Reform Act 1988. Tomlinson, S., Education in a post-welfare society, (2001) From 1965 to 1990, twelve Inner London boroughs and the City of London had been served by an Inner London Education Authority. The introduction of comprehensive schools, directed by Circular 10/65 in 1965, was mostly followed in Greater London, however 19 grammar schools have been retained in some Outer London boroughs, BBC News - What future for grammar schools?. 15 February 2003. with Sutton having the most with five, followed by Bexley with four and others in five other boroughs. In these boroughs the state schools outperform the (relatively few) independent schools. In inner London, private schools always get the best results and are larger in number. At GCSE and A level, Outer London boroughs have broadly better results than Inner London boroughs. OFSTED, Improvements in London schools 2000–06, (2006) Top twenty state schools in Greater London (2007 A level results) These schools are from the boroughs of Sutton, Barnet, Kingston upon Thames, Bromley, Bexley, Enfield, Havering, Harrow, Waltham Forest and Redbridge. The three comprehensives in the list are from Waltham Forest and Havering. 1. Wilson's School, Wallington (1126) 2. Wallington County Grammar School 3. Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School for Boys, Barnet 4. St. Michael's Catholic Grammar School, North Finchley 5. Nonsuch High School for Girls, Cheam 6. The Tiffin Girls' School, Kingston upon Thames 7. Sutton Grammar School for Boys 8. St. Olave's and St. Saviour's Grammar School, Orpington 9. Townley Grammar School for Girls, Bexleyheath 10. Newstead Wood School for Girls, Orpington 11. Tiffin School, Kingston upon Thames 12. The Latymer School. Edmonton 13. Coopers' Company and Coborn School, Upminster 14. Sacred Heart of Mary Girls' School, Upminster 15. Beths Grammar School, Bexley 16. The Henrietta Barnett School, Hampstead Garden Suburb 17. St Dominic's Sixth Form College, Harrow on the Hill 18. Chingford Foundation School 19. Bullers Wood School, Chislehurst 20. Ilford County High School, Barkingside (885) Wider population Greater London is not exactly coterminous with London's built up area and a somewhat wider Greater London Urban Area has been defined and is used for mainly statistical purposes. London's wider metropolitan area is known as the London commuter belt and is delimited by a variety of definitions. See also Greater London Urban Area References External links Greater London Authority Greater London Online - London Community News, Information and Business Directory Greater London Business Community Directory | Greater_London |@lemmatized london:174 whole:1 see:4 main:3 article:1 great:56 top:3 level:5 administrative:5 subdivision:1 cover:8 england:7 travers:1 politics:5 area:30 officially:2 create:6 city:41 include:10 middle:3 temple:7 inner:8 westminster:7 borough:26 also:8 form:9 region:12 european:4 parliament:2 constituency:7 far:1 high:5 gdp:1 per:2 caput:1 united:3 kingdom:2 square:4 mile:2 mid:2 year:4 estimate:15 population:19 bound:1 home:6 county:17 essex:2 hertfordshire:2 east:8 buckinghamshire:1 berkshire:1 surrey:4 kent:5 south:2 point:1 westerham:1 height:1 north:4 boundary:8 metre:1 ft:1 term:5 use:6 refer:3 variously:1 defined:1 large:12 often:4 similar:1 metropolitan:12 police:6 district:11 glass:1 r:1 aspect:2 change:6 status:3 proper:1 sense:2 word:1 apply:1 grant:1 crown:1 addition:1 one:6 already:1 council:14 introduction:2 well:2 would:2 make:3 anomalous:1 despite:2 commonly:1 regard:1 general:3 municipality:2 lord:2 lieutenant:1 appoint:1 le:1 identical:1 purpose:4 lieutenancy:1 act:8 define:4 hmso:1 lieutenancies:1 normally:1 reference:2 overall:1 conurbation:2 ancient:1 tiny:1 mill:1 dictionary:1 place:3 name:1 oxford:1 instead:1 small:6 simply:1 financial:2 archaically:1 urbanised:1 know:4 metropolis:1 common:1 usage:1 usually:1 interchangeably:1 divide:5 vary:1 definition:3 strategic:3 planning:3 five:3 sub:1 authority:18 base:2 hall:2 regional:7 government:12 logo:1 english:1 directly:2 elect:2 local:7 governance:1 jones:1 b:1 et:1 al:1 uk:5 gla:2 comprise:1 assembly:6 call:1 executive:1 head:2 mayor:6 arden:1 chamber:1 barrister:1 guide:1 current:4 confuse:2 boris:2 johnson:2 scrutinise:1 elected:1 may:2 amend:1 annual:1 budget:1 two:7 third:1 majority:3 otherwise:1 lack:1 power:3 block:1 directive:1 headquarters:1 southwark:4 responsible:1 require:1 produce:1 plan:1 document:1 govern:2 unique:1 date:3 back:2 century:6 various:1 consider:3 equivalent:1 unitary:1 legally:1 belong:1 councils:1 association:1 kensington:2 chelsea:2 kingston:5 carry:1 purely:1 honorific:1 title:1 royal:6 within:3 liberty:1 hammersmith:1 fulham:1 wandsworth:1 lambeth:3 tower:2 hamlet:2 hackney:1 islington:1 camden:1 brent:2 ealing:1 hounslow:1 richmond:1 merton:1 sutton:4 croydon:1 bromley:2 lewisham:1 greenwich:1 bexley:4 havering:3 barking:1 dagenham:1 redbridge:2 newham:3 waltham:3 forest:3 haringey:1 enfield:2 barnet:3 harrow:4 hillingdon:1 twin:3 sister:2 agreement:1 following:1 partnership:1 webpage:1 country:3 state:5 china:2 beijing:3 daily:1 april:10 retrieve:1 france:2 paris:1 île:1 de:1 germany:2 berlin:2 russia:1 moscow:2 central:5 federal:1 unite:1 new:6 york:4 japan:1 tokyo:3 list:3 twinnings:1 demographic:1 increase:2 industrialisation:1 grow:2 rapidly:1 throughout:1 early:3 populated:1 world:6 overtake:1 peak:2 official:1 resident:2 however:2 continuous:1 urban:6 extend:1 beyond:2 border:1 people:6 wider:2 million:12 depend:1 accord:1 eurostat:1 populous:1 union:2 kilometre:2 density:1 ten:1 time:7 british:10 ranked:1 number:8 billionaire:1 dollar:1 reside:2 rank:1 expensive:1 alongside:1 ethnic:6 group:4 census:7 seven:2 half:1 class:2 white:5 irish:3 mostly:4 greek:3 cypriot:2 italian:2 french:2 classed:2 asian:3 indian:2 pakistani:2 bangladeshi:3 sri:1 lankan:1 arab:1 southern:1 ethnicity:1 black:4 around:3 african:3 caribbean:2 mixed:1 race:1 chinese:1 filipino:1 japanese:1 korean:1 vietnamese:1 oriental:1 inhabitant:1 bear:4 outside:5 republic:1 ireland:2 northern:1 scot:1 welsh:1 combine:2 january:1 survey:1 religious:3 diversity:1 claim:1 language:1 speak:1 non:2 indigenous:1 community:12 figure:7 office:4 national:6 statistic:6 show:3 foreign:1 born:1 slightly:1 proportion:1 table:1 birth:1 last:1 note:3 portion:1 german:1 likely:1 parent:1 serve:2 arm:2 force:2 give:1 fair:1 indication:1 total:2 specific:1 associate:1 example:2 londoner:2 origin:2 greece:1 cyprus:1 since:4 organised:1 establish:2 nearly:1 say:1 whose:1 another:1 type:1 e:1 pole:1 late:1 age:1 significantly:2 approximate:1 focus:1 immigration:1 whether:1 safety:1 economic:1 reason:1 huguenot:1 eastern:1 jew:2 former:2 west:4 come:1 life:1 end:3 spitalfields:1 first:2 several:2 subsequently:1 move:1 elsewhere:1 gain:1 prosperity:1 jamaican:1 brixton:1 tottenham:1 tamil:1 wembley:1 harlesden:1 gospel:1 oak:1 religion:2 grouping:1 christian:2 muslim:4 hindu:4 jewish:4 sikh:4 traditionally:1 church:6 particularly:4 famous:1 st:7 paul:2 cathedral:5 river:1 anglican:5 centre:1 worldwide:1 communion:1 archbishop:1 canterbury:1 residence:1 palace:1 important:2 ceremony:1 share:2 abbey:2 nearby:1 roman:1 catholic:2 wale:1 practice:1 low:4 part:4 western:2 europe:2 american:1 average:1 prevalence:1 weekly:1 observance:1 denomination:1 although:2 recent:1 attendance:1 evangelical:1 start:2 sizeable:1 many:2 live:3 building:1 mosque:2 whitchapel:1 edge:1 regent:1 park:1 find:1 latter:1 contain:1 neasden:1 locate:1 india:1 significant:2 stamford:1 hill:2 orthodox:1 israel:1 john:1 wood:3 golders:1 green:1 edgware:1 election:4 fourteen:1 three:4 parliamentary:1 combined:1 ward:1 typically:1 single:1 reduce:1 next:1 schedule:1 history:1 incarnation:1 vision:1 britain:1 preliminary:1 report:4 water:1 board:2 favour:2 young:1 k:1 garside:1 p:1 passenger:1 transport:1 registrar:1 westergaard:1 j:1 structure:1 arterial:1 road:1 programme:1 devise:2 motorway:3 archive:1 orbital:1 occupy:1 commission:7 wide:3 even:1 build:2 ham:2 furthermore:1 lcc:2 housing:2 project:1 vast:2 becontree:1 estate:1 construct:1 formal:1 saint:1 press:1 alteration:1 soon:1 war:1 set:1 issue:1 complex:1 big:1 task:1 inquiry:1 august:2 propose:1 somewhere:1 entire:1 case:1 december:2 protest:2 possibility:1 windsor:2 slough:1 eton:1 proposal:1 reject:1 scheme:1 minority:1 amalgamation:1 function:3 traffic:1 result:4 march:2 creation:2 reform:2 arrangement:1 environs:1 formally:2 take:1 replace:1 middlesex:1 add:5 absorb:1 originally:1 tier:1 system:2 glc:2 corporation:2 abolish:1 devolve:1 transfer:2 joint:1 referendum:1 held:1 public:1 mayoral:1 win:2 ken:1 livingstone:1 final:1 leader:1 conservative:1 party:1 candidate:1 outer:1 align:1 territory:1 rise:1 village:1 town:1 yet:1 decline:1 rebound:1 recover:1 researcher:1 expect:1 reach:1 still:1 short:1 limit:2 reconstruct:1 past:1 order:2 fit:1 onward:1 midyear:11 revise:1 accurate:1 underestimate:1 june:1 economy:1 chart:2 trend:2 gross:4 value:4 gva:1 basic:2 price:2 publish:2 pp:2 pound:2 sterling:2 component:1 sum:1 due:1 round:1 agriculture:2 hunting:1 forestry:1 industry:2 energy:1 construction:1 service:3 intermediation:1 indirectly:1 measure:1 hi:1 considerable:1 knockholt:1 farleigh:1 series:1 minor:1 adjustment:1 realign:1 environment:1 emission:1 zone:1 february:2 education:5 split:1 thirty:1 separate:1 lea:1 correspond:1 enactment:1 tomlinson:1 post:1 welfare:1 society:1 twelve:1 comprehensive:2 school:28 direct:1 circular:1 follow:2 grammar:9 retain:1 bbc:1 news:2 future:1 four:1 others:1 outperform:1 relatively:1 independent:1 private:1 always:1 get:1 best:1 gcse:1 broadly:1 good:1 ofsted:1 improvement:1 twenty:1 upon:3 thames:3 wilson:1 wallington:2 queen:1 elizabeth:1 boy:2 michael:1 finchley:1 nonsuch:1 girl:5 cheam:1 tiffin:2 olave:1 saviour:1 orpington:2 townley:1 bexleyheath:1 newstead:1 latymer:1 edmonton:1 cooper:1 company:1 coborn:1 upminster:2 sacred:1 heart:1 mary:1 beth:1 henrietta:1 barnett:1 hampstead:1 garden:1 suburb:1 dominic:1 sixth:1 college:1 chingford:1 foundation:1 bullers:1 chislehurst:1 ilford:1 barkingside:1 exactly:1 coterminous:1 somewhat:1 mainly:1 statistical:1 commuter:1 belt:1 delimit:1 variety:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 information:1 business:2 directory:2 |@bigram per_caput:1 essex_hertfordshire:2 metre_ft:1 et_al:1 unitary_authority:1 kensington_chelsea:2 barking_dagenham:1 waltham_forest:3 square_kilometre:2 sri_lankan:1 anglican_communion:1 archbishop_canterbury:1 borough_lambeth:1 westminster_abbey:1 golders_green:1 parliamentary_constituency:1 arterial_road:1 orbital_motorway:1 mayoral_election:1 ken_livingstone:1 midyear_estimate:11 estimate_midyear:8 pound_sterling:2 hunting_forestry:1 financial_intermediation:1 intermediation_service:1 bbc_news:1 queen_elizabeth:1 external_link:1 |
3,079 | James_Watt | James Watt (19 January 1736 – 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer whose improvements to the steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both the Kingdom of Great Britain and the world. Biography James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, a seaport on the Firth of Clyde. His father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, while his mother, Agnes Muirhead, came from a distinguished family and was well educated. Both were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters. Watt did not attend school regularly, but instead he was mostly schooled at home by his mother. He exhibited great manual dexterity and an aptitude for mathematics, although Latin and Greek left him cold, and he absorbed the legends and lore of the Scottish people. When he was 18, his mother died and his father's health had begun to fail. Watt travelled to London to study instrument-making for a year, then returned to Scotland – to Glasgow – intent on setting up his own instrument-making business. However, because he had not served at least seven years as an apprentice, the Glasgow Guild of Hammermen (any artisans using hammers) blocked his application, despite there being no other mathematical instrument makers in Scotland. Watt was saved from this impasse by three professors of the University of Glasgow, who offered him the opportunity to set up a small workshop within the university. It was established in 1758 and one of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black, became Watt's friend. In 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller, with whom he had five children, two of whom lived to adulthood. She died in childbirth in 1772. In 1777 he married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, who survived him. She died in 1832. Watt had a brother by the name of John. He was shipwrecked when James was 17. Four years after Watt had opened his workshop, his friend, Professor John Robison, called his attention to the use of steam as a source of power, and Watt began to experiment with it. Watt had never seen an operating steam engine, but he tried constructing a model. It failed to work satisfactorily, but he continued his experiments and began to read everything he could about the subject. He independently discovered the importance of latent heat in understanding the engine, which, unknown to him, Black had famously discovered some years before. He learned that the University owned a model Newcomen engine, but it was in London for repairs. Watt got the university to have it returned, and he made the repairs in 1763. It too just barely worked, and after much experimentation he showed that about 80% of the heat of the steam was consumed in heating the cylinder, because the steam in it was condensed by an injected stream of cold water. His critical insight was to cause the steam to condense in a separate chamber apart from the piston, and to maintain the temperature of the cylinder at the same temperature as the injected steam. He soon had a working model by 1765. Now came a long struggle to produce a full-scale engine. This required more capital, some of which came from Black. More substantial backing came from John Roebuck, the founder of the celebrated Carron Iron Works, near Falkirk, with whom he now formed a partnership. But the principal difficulty was in machining the piston and cylinder. Iron workers of the day were more like blacksmiths than machinists, so the results left much to be desired. Much capital was spent in pursuing the ground-breaking patent. An extension of the patent was successfully obtained (James Watt's Fire Engines Patent Act, 1775 (15 Geo 3 c. 61), which in those days required an Act of Parliament. Strapped for resources, Watt was forced to take up employment as a surveyor for eight years. Roebuck went bankrupt, and Matthew Boulton, who owned the Soho Foundry works near Birmingham, acquired his patent rights. Watt and Boulton formed a hugely successful partnership (Boulton & Watt), which lasted for the next twenty-five years. Watt finally had access to some of the best iron workers in the world. The difficulty of the manufacture of a large cylinder with a tightly fitting piston was solved by John Wilkinson who had developed precision boring techniques for cannon making at Bersham, near Wrexham, North Wales. Finally, in 1776, the first engines were installed and working in commercial enterprises. These first engines were used for pumps and produced only reciprocating motion to move the pump rods at the bottom of the shaft. Orders began to pour in and for the next five years Watt was very busy installing more engines, mostly in Cornwall for pumping water out of mines. Steam engine designed by Boulton & Watt. Engraving of a 1784 engine. Reproduction of James Watt's steam engine The field of application of the invention was greatly widened only after Boulton urged Watt to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston to produce rotational power for grinding, weaving and milling. Although a crank seemed the logical and obvious solution to the conversion Watt and Boulton were stymied by a patent for this, whose holder, James Pickard, and associates proposed to cross-license the external condenser. Watt adamantly opposed this and they circumvented the patent by their sun and planet gear in 1781. Over the next six years, he made a number of other improvements and modifications to the steam engine. A double acting engine, in which the steam acted alternately on the two sides of the piston was one. A throttle valve to control the power of the engine, and a centrifugal governor to keep it from "running away" were very important. He described methods for working the steam expansively. A compound engine, which connected two or more engines was described. Two more patents were granted for these in 1781 and 1782. Numerous other improvements that made for easier manufacture and installation were continually implemented. One of these included the use of the steam indicator which produced an informative plot of the pressure in the cylinder against its volume, which he kept as a trade secret. Another important invention, one of which Watt was most proud of, was the Parallel motion / three-bar linkage which was especially important in double-acting engines as it produced the straight line motion required for the cylinder rod and pump, from the connected rocking beam, whose end moves in a circular arc. This was patented in 1784. These improvements taken together produced an engine which was up to five times as efficient in its use of fuel as the Newcomen engine. Because of the danger of exploding boilers and the ongoing issues with leaks, Watt was opposed from the first to the use of high pressure steam--all of his engines used steam at very low pressure. In 1794 the partners established Boulton and Watt to exclusively manufacture steam engines, and this became a large enterprise. By 1824 it had produced 1164 steam engines having a total nominal horsepower of about 26,000. Carnegie, p 195 Boulton proved to be an excellent businessman, and both men eventually made fortunes. Method and personality Watt was an enthusiastic inventor, with a fertile imagination that sometimes got in the way of finishing his works, because he could always see "just one more improvement". He was skilled with his hands, and was also able to perform systematic scientific measurements that could quantify the improvements he made and produce a greater understanding of the phenomenon he was working with. Watt was a gentleman, greatly respected by other prominent men of the Industrial Revolution. He was an important member of the Lunar Society, and was a much sought after conversationalist and companion, always interested in expanding his horizons. He was a rather poor businessman, and especially hated bargaining and negotiating terms with those who sought to utilize the steam engine. Until he retired, he was always much concerned about his financial affairs, and was something of a worrier. His personal relationships with his friends and partners were always congenial and long-lasting. Later years James Watt's workshop Watt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and partnership with Boulton expired. The famous partnership was transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Boulton and James Watt Jr. Longtime firm engineer William Murdoch was made a partner and the firm prospered. Watt continued to invent other things before and during his semi-retirement. He invented a new method of measuring distances by telescope, a device for copying letters, improvements in the oil lamp, a steam mangle and a machine for copying sculptures. Within his home in Handsworth Heath, Staffordshire, Watt made use of a garret room as a workshop, and it was here that he worked on many of his inventions. He and his second wife travelled to France and Germany, and he purchased an estate in Wales at Doldowlod House, one mile south of Llanwrthwl, which he much improved. He died on 25 August 1819 at his home "Heathfield" in Handsworth, Birmingham, England at the age of 83. He was buried on 2 September. The garret room workshop that Watt used in his retirement was left locked and untouched until 1853, when it was first viewed by his biographer J. P. Muirhead. Thereafter, it was occasionally visited, but left untouched, as a kind of shrine. A proposal to have it transferred to the Patent Office came to nothing. When the house was due to be demolished in 1924, the room and all its contents were presented to the Science Museum, where it was recreated in its entirety. It remained on display for visitors for many years, but was walled-off when the gallery it was housed in closed. The workshop remains intact, and preserved, and there are plans for it to go on display again at some point in the near future. Controversy Original Condenser by James Watt. As with many major inventions, there is some dispute as to whether Watt was the original sole inventor of some of the numerous inventions he patented. There is no dispute, however, that he was the sole inventor of his most important invention, the separate condenser. It was his practice (from around the 1780s) to pre-empt others' ideas which were known to him by filing patents with the intention of securing credit for the invention for himself, and ensuring that no one else was able to practice it. As he states in a letter to Boulton of 17 August 1784: "I have given such descriptions of engines for wheel carriages as I could do in the time and space I could allow myself; but it is very defective and can only serve to keep other people from similar patents". Some argue that his prohibitions on his employee William Murdoch from working with high pressure steam on his steam road locomotive experiments delayed its development. Watt, with his partner Matthew Boulton, battled against rival engineers such as Jonathan Hornblower who tried to develop engines which did not fall foul of his patents. Watt patented the application of the sun and planet gear to steam in 1781 and a steam locomotive in 1784, both of which have strong claims to have been invented by his employee, William Murdoch. Watt himself described the provenance of the invention of the sun and planet gear in a letter to Boulton from Watt dated 5 January 1782: "I have tried a model of one of my old plans of rotative engines revived and executed by W. M[urdock] and which merits being included in the specification as a fifth method..." The patent was never contested by Murdoch, who remained an employee of Boulton and Watt for most of his life, and Boulton and Watt's firm continued to use the sun and planet gear in their rotative engines, even long after the patent for the crank expired in 1794. Legacy James Watt statue on City Square at Leeds. Watt celebrated in a statue by Alexander Munro in Chamberlain Square, outside Birmingham Central Library James Watt's improvements to the steam engine transformed the Newcomen engine, which had hardly changed for fifty years, and initiated a series of improvements in generating and applying power, which transformed the world of work, and was a key innovation of the Industrial Revolution. The importance of the invention can hardly be overstated--it gave us the modern world. A key feature of it was that it brought the engine out of the remote coal fields into factories where many mechanics, engineers, and even tinkerers were exposed to its virtues and limitations. It was a platform for generations of inventors to improve. It was clear to many that higher pressures produced in improved boilers would produce engines having even higher efficiency, and would lead to the revolution in transportation that was soon embodied in the locomotive and steamboat. It made possible the construction of new factories that, since they were not dependent on water power, could work the year round, and could be placed almost anywhere. Work was moved out of the cottages, resulting in economies of scale. Capital could work more efficiently, and manufacturing productivity greatly improved. It made possible the cascade of new sorts of machine tools that could be used to produce better machines, including that most remarkable of all of them, the Watt steam engine. Of Watt, the English Novelist Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) wrote; "To us, the moment 8:17 A.M. means something - something very important, if it happens to be the starting time of our daily train. To our ancestors, such an odd eccentric instant was without significance - did not even exist. In inventing the locomotive, Watt and Stephenson were part inventors of time." Honours Watt was a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the Royal Society of London. He was a member of the Batavian Society, and one of only eight Foreign Associates of the French Academy of Sciences. The watt is named after James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, and was adopted by the Second Congress of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1889 and by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960 as the unit of power incorporated in the International System of Units (or "SI"). Memorials Watt was buried in the grounds of St. Mary's Church, Handsworth, in Birmingham. Later expansion of the church, over his grave, means that his tomb is now buried inside the church. A statue of him, Boulton and Murdoch is in Birmingham, as are five other statues of him alone, one in Chamberlain Square, the other outside the Law Courts. He is also remembered by the Moonstones and a school is named in his honour, both in Birmingham. An extensive archive of his papers is held at Birmingham Central Library. Matthew Boulton's home, Soho House, is now a museum, commemorating the work of both men. The University of Glasgow's Faculty of Engineering, the oldest in the United Kingdom, (where Watt was a professor) has its headquarters in the James Watt Building, which also houses the department of Mechanical Engineering and the department of Aerospace Engineering. The location of James Watt's birth in Greenock is commemorated by a statue, close to his birthplace. Several locations and street names in Greenock recall him, most notably the Watt Memorial Library, which was begun in 1816 with Watt's donation of scientific books, and developed as part of the Watt Institution by his son (which ultimately became the James Watt College). Taken over by the local authority in 1974, the library now also houses the local history collection and archives of Inverclyde, and is dominated by a large seated statue in the vestibule. Watt is additionally commemorated by statuary in George Square, Glasgow and Princes Street, Edinburgh. The James Watt College has expanded from its original location to include campuses in Kilwinning (North Ayrshire), Finnart Street and The Waterfront in Greenock, and the Sports campus in Largs. Heriot-Watt University near Edinburgh was at one time the School of Arts of Edinburgh, founded in 1821 as the world’s first Mechanics Institute, but to commemorate George Heriot, the 16th century financier to King James, and James Watt, after Royal Charter the name was changed to Heriot-Watt University. Dozens of university and college buildings (chiefly of science and technology) are named after him. The huge painting James Watt contemplating the steam engine by James Eckford Lauder is now owned by the National Gallery of Scotland. Watt was ranked first, tying with Edison, among 229 significant figures in the history of technology by Charles Murray's survey of historiometry presented in his book Human Accomplishments. Watt was ranked 22nd in Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history. Over 50 roads or streets in the UK are named after him. A colossal statue of Watt by Chantrey was placed in Westminster Abbey, and later was moved to St. Paul's Cathedral. On the cenotaph the inscription reads: Chantrey's statue of James Watt NOT TO PERPETUATE A NAME, WHICH MUST ENDURE WHILE THE PEACEFUL ARTS FLOURISH, BUT TO SHOW THAT MANKIND HAVE LEARNED TO HONOUR THOSE WHO BEST DESERVE THEIR GRATITUDE, THE KING, HIS MINISTERS, AND MANY OF THE NOBLES AND COMMONERS OF THE REALM RAISED THIS MONUMENT TO JAMES WATT WHO DIRECTING THE FORCE OF AN ORIGINAL GENIUS EARLY EXERCISED IN PHILOSOPHIC RESEARCH TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE ENLARGED THE RESOURCES OF HIS COUNTRY INCREASED THE POWER OF MAN AND ROSE TO AN EMINENT PLACE AMONG THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS FOLLOWERS OF SCIENCE AND THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE WORLD BORN AT GREENOCK MDCCXXXVI DIED AT HEATHFIELD IN STAFFORDSHIRE MDCCCXIX A lecture theatre in the Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering building at the University of Birmingham is named 'G31 - The James Watt Lecture Theatre'. On May 29th, 2009, it was announced by the Bank of England that Watt would appear on a new £50 note, alongside Matthew Boulton. See also Watt steam engine Centrifugal governor Indicator diagram Watt's linkage Parallel motion Sun and planet gear References Further reading Jennifer Tann, Watt, James (1736–1819), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, May 2007, accessed 5 April 2008 Dickenson, H. W., James Watt: Craftsman and Engineer Cambridge University Press (1935). H. W. Dickinson and Hugh Pembroke Vowles James Watt and the Industrial Revolution (published in 1943, new edition 1948 and reprinted in 1949. Also published in Spanish and Portuguese (1944) by the British Council) J. P. Muirhead, Origin and Progress of the Mechanical Inventions of James Watt (London, 1854). J. P. Muirhead, Life of Watt (London, 1858). Samuel Smiles, Lives of the Engineers, (London, 1861-62, new edition, five volumes, 1905). "Some Unpublished Letters of James Watt" in Journal of Institution of Mechanical Engineers (London, 1915). Carnegie, Andrew, James Watt University Press of the Pacific (2001) (Reprinted from the 1913 ed.), ISBN 0-89875-578-6. Hills, Rev. Dr. Richard L., James Watt, Vol 1, His time in Scotland, 1736-1774 (2002); Vol 2, The years of toil, 1775-1785; Vol 3 Triumph through adversity 1785-1819. Landmark Publishing Ltd, ISBN 1-84306-045-0. Marsden, Ben. Watt's Perfect Engine Columbia University Press (New York, 2002) ISBN 0-231-13172-0. Hulse David K (1999): "The early development of the steam engine"; TEE Publishing, Leamington Spa, UK, ISBN 1 85761 107 1; pp.127 - 152 Hulse, David K., The development of rotary motion by steam power (TEE Publishing Ltd., Leamington, UK., 2001) ISBN 1 85761 119 5 Related topics Schofield, Robert E., (1963) The Lunar Society, A Social History of Provincial Science and Industry in Eighteenth Century England, Clarendon Press External links James Watt by Andrew Carnegie (1905) James Watt by Thomas H. Marshall (1925) Archives of Soho at Birmingham Central Library. BBC History: James Watt Revolutionary Players website Cornwall Record Office Boulton & Watt letters Significant Scots - James Watt | James_Watt |@lemmatized james:32 watt:88 january:3 august:3 scottish:2 inventor:6 mechanical:5 engineer:7 whose:3 improvement:10 steam:31 engine:39 fundamental:2 change:3 bring:2 industrial:4 revolution:5 kingdom:2 great:3 britain:1 world:6 biography:2 bear:2 greenock:5 renfrewshire:1 seaport:1 firth:1 clyde:1 father:2 shipwright:1 ship:1 owner:1 contractor:1 mother:3 agnes:1 muirhead:4 come:5 distinguish:1 family:1 well:1 educate:1 presbyterian:1 strong:2 covenanters:1 attend:1 school:4 regularly:1 instead:1 mostly:2 home:4 exhibit:1 manual:1 dexterity:1 aptitude:1 mathematics:1 although:2 latin:1 greek:1 leave:4 cold:2 absorb:1 legend:1 lore:1 people:2 die:5 health:1 begin:5 fail:2 travel:2 london:7 study:1 instrument:3 make:10 year:14 return:2 scotland:4 glasgow:6 intent:1 set:2 making:2 business:1 however:2 serve:2 least:1 seven:1 apprentice:1 guild:1 hammermen:1 artisan:1 use:11 hammer:1 block:1 application:3 despite:1 mathematical:1 maker:2 save:1 impasse:1 three:2 professor:4 university:13 offer:1 opportunity:1 small:1 workshop:6 within:2 establish:2 one:11 physicist:1 chemist:1 joseph:1 black:3 become:3 friend:3 marry:2 cousin:1 margaret:1 miller:1 five:6 child:1 two:4 live:1 adulthood:1 childbirth:1 ann:1 macgregor:1 daughter:1 dye:1 survive:1 brother:1 name:9 john:4 shipwreck:1 four:1 open:1 robison:1 call:1 attention:1 source:1 power:8 experiment:3 never:2 see:3 operating:1 try:3 construct:1 model:4 work:15 satisfactorily:1 continue:3 read:3 everything:1 could:9 subject:1 independently:1 discover:2 importance:2 latent:1 heat:3 understand:1 unknown:1 famously:1 learn:2 newcomen:3 repair:2 get:2 barely:1 much:6 experimentation:1 show:2 consume:1 cylinder:6 condense:2 injected:2 stream:1 water:3 critical:1 insight:1 cause:1 separate:2 chamber:1 apart:1 piston:5 maintain:1 temperature:2 soon:2 working:1 long:3 struggle:1 produce:11 full:1 scale:2 require:3 capital:3 substantial:1 backing:1 roebuck:2 founder:1 celebrated:1 carron:1 iron:3 near:5 falkirk:1 form:2 partnership:4 principal:1 difficulty:2 machine:4 worker:2 day:2 like:1 blacksmith:1 machinist:1 result:2 desire:1 spend:1 pursue:1 ground:2 breaking:1 patent:17 extension:1 successfully:1 obtain:1 fire:1 act:4 geo:1 c:1 parliament:1 strap:1 resource:2 force:2 take:3 employment:1 surveyor:1 eight:2 go:2 bankrupt:1 matthew:5 boulton:19 soho:3 foundry:1 birmingham:9 acquire:1 right:1 hugely:1 successful:1 last:1 next:3 twenty:1 finally:2 access:2 best:2 manufacture:5 large:3 tightly:1 fit:1 solve:1 wilkinson:1 develop:3 precision:1 bore:1 technique:1 cannon:1 bersham:1 wrexham:1 north:2 wale:2 first:6 instal:2 commercial:1 enterprise:2 pump:4 reciprocate:2 motion:6 move:4 rod:2 bottom:1 shaft:1 order:1 pour:1 busy:1 cornwall:2 mine:1 design:1 engraving:1 reproduction:1 field:2 invention:10 greatly:3 widen:1 urge:1 convert:1 rotational:1 grinding:1 weave:1 mill:1 crank:2 seem:1 logical:1 obvious:1 solution:1 conversion:1 stymie:1 holder:1 jam:2 pickard:1 associate:2 propose:1 cross:1 license:1 external:2 condenser:3 adamantly:1 oppose:2 circumvent:1 sun:5 planet:5 gear:5 six:1 number:1 modification:1 double:2 acting:1 alternately:1 side:1 throttle:1 valve:1 control:1 centrifugal:2 governor:2 keep:3 run:1 away:1 important:6 describe:3 method:4 expansively:1 compound:1 connect:2 grant:1 numerous:2 easy:1 installation:1 continually:1 implement:1 include:4 indicator:2 informative:1 plot:1 pressure:5 volume:2 trade:1 secret:1 another:1 proud:1 parallel:2 bar:1 linkage:2 especially:2 straight:1 line:1 rocking:1 beam:1 end:1 circular:1 arc:1 together:1 time:6 efficient:1 fuel:1 danger:1 explode:1 boiler:2 ongoing:1 issue:1 leak:1 high:4 low:1 partner:4 exclusively:1 total:1 nominal:1 horsepower:1 carnegie:3 p:4 prove:1 excellent:1 businessman:2 men:4 eventually:1 fortune:1 personality:1 enthusiastic:1 fertile:1 imagination:1 sometimes:1 way:1 finish:1 always:4 skilled:1 hand:1 also:6 able:2 perform:1 systematic:1 scientific:2 measurement:1 quantify:1 understanding:1 phenomenon:1 gentleman:1 respect:1 prominent:1 member:2 lunar:2 society:5 seek:2 conversationalist:1 companion:1 interested:1 expand:2 horizon:1 rather:1 poor:1 hated:1 bargaining:1 negotiating:1 term:1 utilize:1 retire:2 concern:1 financial:1 affair:1 something:3 worrier:1 personal:1 relationship:1 congenial:1 lasting:1 later:2 expire:2 famous:1 transfer:2 son:2 jr:1 longtime:1 firm:3 william:3 murdoch:5 prosper:1 invent:4 thing:1 semi:1 retirement:2 new:7 measure:2 distance:1 telescope:1 device:1 copy:2 letter:5 oil:1 lamp:1 mangle:1 sculpture:1 handsworth:3 heath:1 staffordshire:2 garret:2 room:3 many:6 second:2 wife:1 france:1 germany:1 purchase:1 estate:1 doldowlod:1 house:6 mile:1 south:1 llanwrthwl:1 improve:3 heathfield:2 england:3 age:1 bury:3 september:1 locked:1 untouched:2 view:1 biographer:1 j:3 thereafter:1 occasionally:1 visit:1 kind:1 shrine:1 proposal:1 office:2 nothing:1 due:1 demolish:1 content:1 present:2 science:6 museum:2 recreate:1 entirety:1 remain:3 display:2 visitor:1 wall:1 gallery:2 closed:1 intact:1 preserve:1 plan:2 point:1 future:1 controversy:1 original:4 major:1 dispute:2 whether:1 sole:2 practice:2 around:1 pre:1 empt:1 others:1 idea:1 know:1 file:1 intention:1 secure:1 credit:1 ensure:1 else:1 state:1 give:2 description:1 wheel:1 carriage:1 space:1 allow:1 defective:1 similar:1 argue:1 prohibition:1 employee:3 road:2 locomotive:4 delay:1 development:4 battle:1 rival:1 jonathan:1 hornblower:1 fall:1 foul:1 claim:1 provenance:1 date:1 old:2 rotative:2 revive:1 execute:1 w:3 urdock:1 merit:1 specification:1 fifth:1 contest:1 life:3 even:4 legacy:1 statue:8 city:1 square:4 leeds:1 celebrate:1 alexander:1 munro:1 chamberlain:2 outside:2 central:3 library:5 transform:2 hardly:2 fifty:1 initiate:1 series:1 generate:1 apply:1 key:2 innovation:1 overstate:1 u:2 modern:1 feature:1 remote:1 coal:1 factory:2 mechanic:2 tinkerer:1 expose:1 virtue:1 limitation:1 platform:1 generation:1 clear:1 improved:1 would:3 efficiency:1 lead:1 transportation:1 embody:1 steamboat:1 possible:2 construction:1 since:1 dependent:1 round:1 place:3 almost:1 anywhere:1 cottage:1 economy:1 efficiently:1 productivity:1 cascade:1 sort:1 tool:1 good:1 remarkable:1 english:1 novelist:1 aldous:1 huxley:1 write:1 moment:1 mean:2 happen:1 starting:1 daily:1 train:1 ancestor:1 odd:1 eccentric:1 instant:1 without:1 significance:1 exist:1 stephenson:1 part:2 honour:3 fellow:1 royal:3 edinburgh:4 batavian:1 foreign:1 french:1 academy:1 contribution:1 adopt:1 congress:1 british:2 association:1 advancement:1 general:1 conference:1 weight:1 unit:2 incorporate:1 international:1 system:1 si:1 memorial:2 st:2 mary:1 church:3 late:1 expansion:1 grave:1 tomb:1 inside:1 alone:1 law:1 court:1 remember:1 moonstone:1 extensive:1 archive:3 paper:1 hold:1 commemorate:4 faculty:1 engineering:4 united:1 headquarters:1 building:3 department:2 aerospace:1 location:3 birth:1 close:1 birthplace:1 several:1 street:4 recall:1 notably:1 donation:1 book:2 institution:2 ultimately:1 college:3 local:2 authority:1 history:5 collection:1 inverclyde:1 dominate:1 seat:1 vestibule:1 additionally:1 statuary:1 george:2 prince:1 campus:2 kilwinning:1 ayrshire:1 finnart:1 waterfront:1 sport:1 largs:1 heriot:3 art:2 found:1 institute:1 century:2 financier:1 king:2 charter:1 dozen:1 chiefly:1 technology:2 huge:1 painting:1 contemplate:1 eckford:1 lauder:1 national:2 rank:2 tie:1 edison:1 among:2 significant:2 figure:2 charles:1 murray:1 survey:1 historiometry:1 human:1 accomplishment:1 michael:1 h:4 hart:1 list:1 influential:1 uk:3 colossal:1 chantrey:2 westminster:1 abbey:1 paul:1 cathedral:1 cenotaph:1 inscription:1 perpetuate:1 must:1 endure:1 peaceful:1 flourish:1 mankind:1 deserve:1 gratitude:1 minister:1 noble:1 commoner:1 realm:1 raise:1 monument:1 direct:1 genius:1 early:2 exercise:1 philosophic:1 research:1 enlarge:1 country:1 increase:1 man:1 rise:1 eminent:1 illustrious:1 follower:1 real:1 benefactor:1 mdccxxxvi:1 mdcccxix:1 lecture:2 theatre:2 may:2 announce:1 bank:1 appear:1 note:1 alongside:1 diagram:1 reference:1 far:1 jennifer:1 tann:1 oxford:2 dictionary:1 press:5 sept:1 online:1 edn:1 april:1 dickenson:1 craftsman:1 cambridge:1 dickinson:1 hugh:1 pembroke:1 vowles:1 publish:2 edition:2 reprint:2 spanish:1 portuguese:1 council:1 origin:1 progress:1 samuel:1 smile:1 unpublished:1 journal:1 andrew:2 pacific:1 ed:1 isbn:5 hill:1 rev:1 dr:1 richard:1 l:1 vol:3 toil:1 triumph:1 adversity:1 landmark:1 publishing:3 ltd:2 marsden:1 ben:1 perfect:1 columbia:1 york:1 hulse:2 david:2 k:2 tee:2 leamington:2 spa:1 pp:1 rotary:1 related:1 topic:1 schofield:1 robert:1 e:1 social:1 provincial:1 industry:1 eighteenth:1 clarendon:1 link:1 thomas:1 marshall:1 bbc:1 revolutionary:1 player:1 website:1 record:1 scot:1 |@bigram firth_clyde:1 latent_heat:1 newcomen_engine:3 matthew_boulton:5 hugely_successful:1 boulton_watt:7 pre_empt:1 steam_locomotive:1 aldous_huxley:1 association_advancement:1 colossal_statue:1 westminster_abbey:1 leamington_spa:1 clarendon_press:1 external_link:1 andrew_carnegie:1 |
3,080 | Aristide_Maillol | Aristide Maillol, The Night, (1920), Stuttgart Aristide Maillol or Aristides Maillol (December 8, 1861September 27, 1944) was a French Catalan sculptor and painter. Biography Maillol was born in Banyuls-sur-Mer, Roussillon. He decided at an early age to become a painter, and moved to Paris in 1881 to study art. After several applications, his enrollment in the École des Beaux-Arts was accepted in 1885, and he studied there under Jean-Léon Gérôme and Alexandre Cabanel. His early paintings show the influence of his contemporaries Pierre Puvis de Chavannes and Paul Gauguin. Gauguin encouraged his growing interest in decorative art, an interest that led Maillol to take up tapestry design. In 1893 Maillol opened a tapestry workshop in Banyuls, producing works whose high technical and aesthetic quality gained him recognition for renewing this art form in France. He began making small terracotta sculptures in 1895, and within a few years his concentration on sculpture led to the abandonment of his work in tapestry. The subject of nearly all of Maillol's mature work is the female body, treated with a classical emphasis on stable forms. The figurative style of his large bronzes is perceived as an important precursor to the greater simplifications of Henry Moore and Alberto Giacometti, and his serene classicism set a standard for European (and American) figure sculpture until the end of World War II. His important public commissions include a 1912 commission for a monument to Cézanne, as well as numerous war memorials commissioned after World War I. He died in Banyuls at the age of eighty-three, in an automobile accident. While driving home during a thunderstorm, the car in which he was a passenger skidded off the road and rolled over. A large collection of Maillol's work is maintained at the Musée Maillol in Paris, which was established by Dina Vierny, Maillol's model and platonic companion during the last 10 years of his life. His home a few kilometers outside Banyuls, also the site of his final resting place, has been turned into a museum where a number of his works and sketches are displayed. Three of his bronzes grace the grand staircase of the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City: Summer (1910-11), Venus Without Arms (1920), and Kneeling Woman: Monument to Debussy (1950-55). The third is the artist's only reference to music, created for a monument at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Claude Debussy's birthplace. Maillol “spoke Catalan, wore traditional espadrilles, a sash and a barretina (the traditional Catalan cap), he danced sardanes” and he openly proclaimed his Catalan identity: “I consider Catalonia my true homeland”. Maguí Noguer, catalogue of the exhibition Fascination for Greece, Museu d’Art de Girona, 2009. References Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, “Aristide Maillol, 1861-1944”, New York, Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, 1975. Frèches-Thory, Claire, & Perucchi-Petry, Ursula, ed.: Die Nabis: Propheten der Moderne, Kunsthaus Zürich & Grand Palais, Paris & Prestel, Munich 1993 ISBN 3791319698 (German), (French) Other links Masters of 20th Century Figure Sculpture Maillol Museum | Aristide_Maillol |@lemmatized aristide:3 maillol:13 night:1 stuttgart:1 aristides:1 december:1 french:2 catalan:4 sculptor:1 painter:2 biography:1 bear:1 banyuls:4 sur:1 mer:1 roussillon:1 decide:1 early:2 age:2 become:1 move:1 paris:3 study:2 art:5 several:1 application:1 enrollment:1 école:1 de:3 beau:1 accept:1 jean:1 léon:1 gérôme:1 alexandre:1 cabanel:1 painting:1 show:1 influence:1 contemporary:1 pierre:1 puvis:1 chavannes:1 paul:1 gauguin:2 encourage:1 grow:1 interest:2 decorative:1 lead:2 take:1 tapestry:3 design:1 open:1 workshop:1 produce:1 work:5 whose:1 high:1 technical:1 aesthetic:1 quality:1 gain:1 recognition:1 renew:1 form:2 france:1 begin:1 make:1 small:1 terracotta:1 sculpture:4 within:1 year:2 concentration:1 abandonment:1 subject:1 nearly:1 mature:1 female:1 body:1 treat:1 classical:1 emphasis:1 stable:1 figurative:1 style:1 large:2 bronze:1 perceive:1 important:2 precursor:1 great:1 simplification:1 henry:1 moore:1 alberto:1 giacometti:1 serene:1 classicism:1 set:1 standard:1 european:1 american:1 figure:2 end:1 world:2 war:3 ii:1 public:1 commission:3 include:1 monument:3 cézanne:1 well:1 numerous:1 memorial:1 die:2 eighty:1 three:2 automobile:1 accident:1 drive:1 home:2 thunderstorm:1 car:1 passenger:1 skid:1 road:1 roll:1 collection:1 maintain:1 musée:1 establish:1 dina:1 vierny:1 model:1 platonic:1 companion:1 last:1 life:1 kilometer:1 outside:1 also:1 site:1 final:1 resting:1 place:1 turn:1 museum:3 number:1 sketch:1 display:1 bronzes:1 grace:1 grand:2 staircase:1 metropolitan:1 opera:1 house:1 new:2 york:2 city:1 summer:1 venus:1 without:1 arm:1 kneel:1 woman:1 debussy:2 third:1 artist:1 reference:2 music:1 create:1 saint:1 germain:1 en:1 laye:1 claude:1 birthplace:1 speak:1 wear:1 traditional:2 espadrille:1 sash:1 barretina:1 cap:1 dance:1 sardanes:1 openly:1 proclaim:1 identity:1 consider:1 catalonia:1 true:1 homeland:1 maguí:1 noguer:1 catalogue:1 exhibition:1 fascination:1 greece:1 museu:1 girona:1 solomon:2 r:2 guggenheim:2 foundation:1 frèches:1 thory:1 claire:1 perucchi:1 petry:1 ursula:1 ed:1 nabis:1 propheten:1 der:1 moderne:1 kunsthaus:1 zürich:1 palais:1 prestel:1 munich:1 isbn:1 german:1 links:1 master:1 century:1 |@bigram sculptor_painter:1 sur_mer:1 jean_léon:1 léon_gérôme:1 paul_gauguin:1 alberto_giacometti:1 automobile_accident:1 final_resting:1 resting_place:1 saint_germain:1 germain_en:1 en_laye:1 claude_debussy:1 guggenheim_museum:1 |
3,081 | House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom | The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords (the upper house). Both Commons and Lords meet in the Palace of Westminster. The Commons is a democratically elected body, consisting of 646 members, who are known as "Members of Parliament" or MPs. Members are elected, through the first-past-the-post system, by electoral districts known as constituencies, and hold their seats until Parliament is dissolved (a maximum of five years after the preceding election). A House of Commons evolved at some point in England during the 14th century and, in practice, has been in continuous existence since, becoming the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain Welcome parliament.uk, accessed 21 December, 2008 after the political union with Scotland. The House of Commons was originally far less powerful than the House of Lords, but today its legislative powers exceed those of the Lords. Under the Parliament Act 1911, the Lords' power to reject most legislative bills was reduced to a delaying power. Moreover, the Government is primarily responsible to the House of Commons; the Prime Minister stays in office only as long as he or she retains its support. Almost all government ministers are drawn from the House of Commons and, with one brief exception, In 1963, Sir Alec Douglas-Home was a member of the Lords when chosen as Prime Minister, however he entered the Commons two weeks later. all Prime Ministers since 1902. The full, formal style and title of the House of Commons is The Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. History Today's Parliament of the United Kingdom largely descends, in practice, from the Parliament of England, though the 1706 Treaty of Union, and the Acts of Union that ratified the Treaty, created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland. The Parliament of England developed from the council that advised the English monarch in medieval times. This royal council, meeting for short periods, included ecclesiastics, noblemen, as well as representatives of the counties (known as "knights of the shire"). The chief duty of the council was to approve taxes proposed by the Crown. In many cases, however, the council demanded the redress of the people's grievances before proceeding to vote on taxation. Thus, it developed legislative powers. In the "Model Parliament" of 1295, representatives of the boroughs (including towns and cities) were also admitted. Thus, it became settled practice that each county send two knights of the shire, and that each borough send two burgesses. At first, the burgesses were almost entirely powerless; whilst county representation was fixed, the monarch could enfranchise or disfranchise boroughs at pleasure. Any show of independence by burgesses would have led to the exclusion of their towns from Parliament. The knights of the shire were in a better position, though less powerful than their aristocratic counterparts in the still unicameral Parliament. The division of Parliament into two houses occurred during the reign of Edward III: the knights and burgesses formed the House of Commons, whilst the clergy and nobility became the House of Lords. Though they remained subordinate to both the Crown and the Lords, the Commons did act with increasing boldness. During the Good Parliament (1376), the Speaker of the House of Commons, Sir Peter de la Mare, complained of heavy taxes, demanded an accounting of the royal expenditures, and criticised the King's management of the military. The Commons even proceeded to impeach some of the King's ministers. The bold Speaker was imprisoned, but was soon released after the death of King Edward III. During the reign of the next monarch, Richard II, the Commons once again began to impeach errant ministers of the Crown. They insisted that they could not only control taxation, but also public expenditures. Despite such gains in authority, however, the Commons still remained much less powerful than the Lords and the Crown. Interior of the House of Commons In Session by Peter Tillemans, c. 1710 The influence of the Crown was increased by the civil wars of the late fifteenth century, which destroyed the power of the great nobles. Both houses of Parliament held little power during the ensuing years, and the absolute supremacy of the Sovereign was restored. The domination of the monarch grew further under the Tudor dynasty in the sixteenth century. This trend, however, was somewhat reversed when the House of Stuart came to the English Throne in 1603. The first two Stuart monarchs, James I and Charles I, provoked conflicts with the Commons over issues such as taxation, religion, and royal powers. The differences between Charles I and Parliament were great, and resulted in the English Civil War, in which the armed forces of Parliament were victorious. In December 1648 the House of Commons was purged by the New Model Army, which was supposed to be subservient to Parliament. Pride's Purge was indeed the only military coup in English history. Subsequently, King Charles I was beheaded and the Upper House was abolished. The unicameral Parliament that remained was later referred to by critics as the Rump Parliament, as it consisted only of a small selection of Members of Parliament approved by the army - some of whom were soldiers themselves. In 1653, when leading figures in this Parliament began to disagree with the army, it was dissolved by Oliver Cromwell. However, the monarchy and the House of Lords were both restored with the Commons in 1660. The influence of the Crown had been decreased, and was further diminished when James II was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The eighteenth century saw the development of the office of Prime Minister. The notion that a government remains in power only as long as it retains the support of Parliament evolved, leading to history's first-ever motion of no confidence, when Lord North's government failed to end the American Revolution. The modern notion that only the support of the House of Commons is necessary to a government, however, was of later development. Similarly, the custom that the Prime Minister is always a Member of the Lower House, rather than the Upper one, did not evolve immediately. The House of Commons in the early 19th century by Augustus Pugin and Thomas Rowlandson The House of Commons experienced an important period of reform during the nineteenth century. Over the years, several anomalies had developed in borough representation. The constituency boundaries had not been changed since 1660, so many towns that were once important but had declined by the nineteenth century still retained their ancient right of electing two members. The most notorious of these "rotten boroughs" were Old Sarum, which had only six voters for two MPs, and Dunwich which had fallen into the sea. At the same time, large cities such as Manchester received no separate representation (although their eligible residents were able to vote in the corresponding county seat). Also notable were the pocket boroughs, small constituencies controlled by wealthy landowners and aristocrats, whose "nominees" were invariably elected. The Commons attempted to address these anomalies by passing a Reform Bill in 1831. At first, the House of Lords proved unwilling to pass the bill, but were forced to relent when the Prime Minister, Lord Grey, advised King William IV to flood the House of Lords by creating pro-Reform peers. To avoid this the Lords relented and passed the bill in 1832. The Reform Act 1832, also known as the "Great Reform Act," abolished the rotten boroughs, established uniform voting requirements for the boroughs, and granted representation to populous cities, but still retained many pocket boroughs. In the ensuing years, the Commons grew more assertive, the influence of the House of Lords having been reduced by the Reform Bill Crisis, and the power of the patrons reduced. The Lords became more reluctant to reject bills that the Commons passed with large majorities, and it became an accepted political principle that the confidence of the House of Commons alone was necessary for a government to remain in office. The old Chamber of the House of Commons built by Sir Charles Barry was destroyed by German bombs during the Second World War. The essential features of Barry's design were preserved when the Chamber was rebuilt. Many more reforms were introduced in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The Reform Act 1867 lowered property requirements for voting in the boroughs, reduced the representation of the less populous boroughs, and granted parliamentary seats to several growing industrial towns. The electorate was further expanded by the Representation of the People Act 1884, under which property qualifications in the counties were lowered. The Redistribution of Seats Act of the following year replaced almost all multi-member constituencies with single-member constituencies. Progress continued in the early twentieth century. In 1908, the Liberal Government under Asquith introduced a number of social welfare programmes, which, together with an expensive arms race, forced the Government to seek higher taxes. In 1909, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, introduced the "People's Budget", which proposed a new tax targeting wealthy landowners. The unpopular measure, however, failed in the heavily Conservative House of Lords—and the government resigned. The resulting general election returned a hung parliament, but Asquith remained Prime Minister with the support of the smaller parties. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the Lords be severely curtailed. After a further election in December 1910, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords after threatening to flood the House with 500 new Liberal peers to ensure the passage of the bill. Thus, the Parliament Act 1911 came into effect, destroying the legislative equality of the two Houses of Parliament. The House of Lords was permitted only to delay most legislation, for a maximum of three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years (reduced to two sessions or one year by the Parliament Act 1949). Since the passage of these Acts, the House of Commons has become the dominant branch of Parliament, both in theory and in practice. In 1918, women over 30 were given the right to vote, quickly followed by the passage of a law enabling women to be eligible for election as Members of Parliament at the younger age of 21. The only woman to be elected that year was an Irish Sinn Féin candidate, Constance Markievicz. However, due to Sinn Féin's policy of abstention from Westminster, she never took her seat. She went on to become the first woman in Europe to hold a cabinet position, as Minister for Labour in Dáil Éireann Since the 17th century, MPs had been unpaid. Most of the men elected to the Commons had private incomes, while a few relied on financial support from a wealthy patron. Early Labour MPs were often provided with a salary by a trade union, but this was declared illegal by a House of Lords judgment of 1910. Consequently a clause was included in the Parliament Act 1911 finally introducing salaries for MPs. Government ministers had always been paid. Members and elections Since 1950 each Member of Parliament represents a single constituency. There remains a technical distinction between county constituencies and borough constituencies, but the only effect of this difference is the amount of money candidates are allowed to spend during campaigns. The boundaries of the constituencies are determined by four permanent and independent Boundary Commissions, one each for England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. The Commissions conduct general reviews of electoral boundaries once every 8 to 12 years, as well as a number of interim reviews. In drawing boundaries, they are required to take into account local government boundaries, but may deviate from this requirement in order to prevent great disparities in the populations of the various constituencies. The proposals of the Boundary Commissions are subject to parliamentary approval, but may not be amended. After the next general review of constituencies, the Boundary Commissions will be absorbed into the Electoral Commission, which was established in 2000. Currently the United Kingdom is divided into 646 constituencies, with 529 in England, 40 in Wales, 59 in Scotland, and 18 in Northern Ireland. General elections occur whenever Parliament is dissolved by the Sovereign. The timing of the dissolution is normally chosen by the Prime Minister (see relationship with the Government below); however, a parliamentary term may not last for more than five years, unless a Bill extending the life of Parliament passes both Houses and receives Royal Assent. The House of Lords, exceptionally, retains its power of veto over such a Bill. The date of a General Election is the choice of the Prime Minister, but traditionally, it tends to be a Thursday. A general election must be called once every five years, may be called at any time within that five years and in practice is usually called after four years. Historically, the fifth year of a parliamentary term tends to only be used when the incumbent Government is struggling in national opinion polls and faces the likelihood of an electoral defeat. A candidate must submit nomination papers signed by ten registered voters from the constituency, and pay a deposit of £500, which is refunded only if the candidate wins at least five per cent of the vote. The deposit seeks to discourage frivolous candidates. Each constituency returns one Member, using the first-past-the-post electoral system, under which the candidate with a plurality of votes wins. Minors, Members of the House of Lords, prisoners, and insane persons are not qualified to become Members of the House of Commons. In order to vote, one must be a resident of the United Kingdom as well as a citizen of the United Kingdom, of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. British citizens living abroad are allowed to vote for 15 years after moving from the United Kingdom. No person may vote in more than one constituency. Once elected, Members of Parliament normally continue to serve until the next dissolution of Parliament. If a Member, however, dies or ceases to be qualified (see qualifications below), his or her seat falls vacant. It is also possible for the House of Commons to expel a Member, but this power is exercised only in cases of serious misconduct or criminal activity. In each case, a vacancy may be filled by a by-election in the appropriate constituency, with the same electoral system as in general elections. The term "Member of Parliament" is normally used only to refer to Members of the House of Commons, even though the House of Lords is also a part of Parliament. Members of the House of Commons may use the post-nominal letters "MP". The annual salary of each Member is currently £63,291. Members may also receive additional salaries in right of other offices they hold (for instance, the Speakership). Most Members also claim between £100,000 and £150,000 for various office expenses (staff costs, postage, travelling, etc.) and, in the case of non-London Members, for the costs of maintaining a home in the capital. Qualifications There are numerous qualifications that apply to Members of Parliament. Most importantly, one must be aged at least 18 (the limit was 21 until S.17 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006 came into force), and must be a citizen of the United Kingdom, of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. These restrictions were introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981, but were previously far more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, only natural-born subjects were qualified. Members of the House of Lords may not serve in the House of Commons, or even vote in parliamentary elections; however, they are permitted to sit in the chamber during debates. A person may not sit in the Commons if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland). Also, lunatics are ineligible to sit in the House of Commons. Under the Mental Health Act 1983, two specialists must report to the Speaker that a Member is suffering from mental illness before a seat can be declared vacant. There also exists a common law precedent from the 18th century that the "deaf and dumb" are ineligible to sit in the Lower House; this precedent, however, has not been tested in recent years. Jack Ashley continued to serve as an MP for 25 years after becoming profoundly deaf. Anyone found guilty of high treason may not sit in Parliament until he or she has either completed the term of imprisonment, or received a full pardon from the Crown. Moreover, anyone serving a prison sentence of one year or more is ineligible. Finally, the Representation of the People Act 1983 disqualifies for ten years those found guilty of certain election-related offences. Several other disqualifications are codified in the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975: holders of high judicial offices, civil servants, members of the regular armed forces, members of foreign legislatures (excluding the Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth countries), and holders of several Crown offices. Ministers, even though they are paid officers of the Crown, are not disqualified. The rule that precludes certain Crown officers from serving in the House of Commons is used to circumvent a resolution adopted by the House of Commons in 1623, under which Members are not permitted to resign their seats. In practice, however, they always can. Should a Member wish to resign from the Commons, he or she may request appointment to one of two ceremonial Crown offices: that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, or that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead. These offices are sinecures (that is, they involve no actual duties); they exist solely in order to permit the "resignation" of Members of the House of Commons. The Chancellor of the Exchequer is responsible for making the appointment, and, by convention, never refuses to do so when asked by a Member who desires to leave the House of Commons. Officers The Speaker presides over debates in the House of Commons, as depicted in the above print commemorating the destruction of the Commons Chamber by fire in 1834. The House of Commons elects a presiding officer, known as the Speaker, at the beginning of each new parliamentary term. If the incumbent Speaker seeks a new term, then the House may re-elect him or her merely by passing a motion; otherwise, a secret ballot is held. A Speaker-elect cannot take office until he or she has been approved by the Sovereign; the granting of the royal approbation, however, is a formality. The Speaker is assisted by three Deputy Speakers, the most senior of which holds the title of Chairman of Ways and Means. The two other Deputy Speakers are known as the First and Second Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means. These titles derive from the Committee of Ways and Means, a body over which the Chairman once used to preside; even though the Committee was abolished in 1967, the traditional titles of the Deputy Speakers are still retained. The Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are always Members of the House of Commons. Whilst presiding, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker wears a ceremonial black robe. The presiding officer may also wear a wig, but this tradition has been abandoned by the present Speaker, Michael Martin, and by his predecessor, Betty Boothroyd. The Speaker or deputy presides from a chair at the front of the House. The Speaker is also chairman of the House of Commons Commission, which oversees the running of the House, and he or she controls debates by calling on members to speak. If a member believes that a rule (or Standing Order) has been breached, he or she may raise a "point of order", on which the Speaker makes a ruling that is not subject to any appeal. The Speaker may discipline members who fail to observe the rules of the House. Thus, the Speaker is far more powerful than his Lords counterpart, the Lord Speaker, who has no disciplinary powers. Customarily, the Speaker and the deputies are non-partisan; they do not vote, or participate in the affairs of any political party. By convention, a Speaker seeking re-election to parliament is not opposed in his or her constituency by any of the major parties. The lack of partisanship continues even after the Speaker leaves the House of Commons. The Clerk of the House is both the House's chief adviser on matters of procedure and Chief Executive of the House of Commons. He or she is a permanent official, not a Member of the House itself. The Clerk advises the Speaker on the rules and procedure of the House, signs orders and official communications, and signs and endorses bills. He or she chairs the Board of Management, which consists of the heads of the six departments of the House. The Clerk's deputy is known as the Clerk Assistant. Another officer of the House is the Serjeant-at-Arms, whose duties include the maintenance of law, order, and security on the House's premises. The Serjeant-at-Arms carries the ceremonial Mace, a symbol of the authority of the Crown and of the House of Commons, into the House each day in front of the Speaker, and the Mace is laid upon the Table of the House during sittings. The Librarian is head of the House of Commons Library, the House's research and information arm. Procedure See also the stages of a bill section in Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom Like the Lords, the Commons meets in the Palace of Westminster in London. The Commons chamber is small and modestly decorated in green, in contrast with the large, lavishly furnished red Lords chamber. There are benches on two sides of the chamber, divided by a centre aisle. This arrangement reflects the design of St Stephen's Chapel, which served as the home of the House of Commons until destroyed by fire in 1834. The Speaker's chair is at one end of the Chamber; in front of it is the Table of the House, on which the Mace rests. The Clerks sit at one end of the Table, close to the Speaker so that they may advise him or her on procedure when necessary. Members of the Government sit on the benches on the Speaker's right, whilst members of the Opposition occupy the benches on the Speaker's left. In front of each set of benches, a red line is drawn on the carpet—and members are traditionally not allowed to cross the line during debates. The red lines in front of the two sets of benches are said to be set two sword-lengths apart; a Member is thus supposed to be unable to attack an individual on the opposite side. Government ministers and the leader of the Opposition and the Shadow Cabinet sit on the front rows, and are known as "frontbenchers". Other Members of Parliament, in contrast, are known as "backbenchers". Oddly, all Members of Parliament cannot fit in the Chamber, which can seat only 427 of the 646 Members. Members who arrive late must stand near the entrance of the House if they wish to listen to debates. Sittings in the Chamber are held each day from Monday to Thursday, and also on some Fridays. During times of national emergency, the House may also sit at weekends. Sittings of the House are open to the public, but the House may at any time vote to sit in private. (This has been done only twice since 1950.) Traditionally, a Member who desired that the House sit privately could shout "I spy strangers" and a vote would automatically follow. In the past, when relations between the Commons and the Crown were less than cordial, this procedure was used whenever the House wanted to keep its debate private. More often, however, this device was used to delay and disrupt proceedings; as a result, it was abolished in 1998. Now, Members seeking that the House sit in private must make a formal motion to that effect. Public debates are broadcast on the radio, and on television by BBC Parliament, and are recorded in Hansard. Sessions of the House of Commons have sometimes been disrupted by angry protesters throwing objects into the Chamber from the galleries—items thrown include leaflets, manure, flour (see Fathers 4 Justice House of Commons protest), and a canister of chlorobenzylidene malonitrile (tear gas). Even members have been known to disturb proceedings of the House; for instance, in 1976, Conservative MP Michael Heseltine seized and brandished the Mace of the House during a heated debate. However, perhaps the most famous disruption of the House of Commons was caused by King Charles I, who entered the Commons Chamber in 1642 with an armed force in order to arrest five members for high treason. This action was deemed a breach of the privilege of the House, and has given rise to the tradition that the monarch may not set foot in the House of Commons. Each year, the parliamentary session begins with the State Opening of Parliament, a ceremony in the Lords Chamber during which the Sovereign, in the presence of Members of both Houses, delivers an address outlining the Government's legislative agenda. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod (a Lords official) is responsible for summoning the Commons to the Lords Chamber. When he arrives to deliver his summons, the doors of the Commons Chamber are traditionally slammed shut in his face, symbolising the right of the Lower House to debate without interference. The Gentleman Usher then knocks on the door three times with his Black Rod, and only then is granted admittance. He then informs the MPs that the Monarch awaits them, and they proceed to the House of Lords for the Queen's Speech. During debates, Members may speak only if called upon by the Speaker (or a Deputy Speaker, if the Speaker is not presiding). Traditionally, the presiding officer alternates between calling Members from the Government and Opposition. The Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, and other leaders from both sides are normally given priority. Formerly, all Privy Counsellors were also granted priority; however, the modernisation of Commons procedure in 1998 led to the abolition of this tradition. Speeches are addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr Speaker," "Madam Speaker," "Mr Deputy Speaker," or "Madam Deputy Speaker." Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in debate; other Members must be referred to in the third person. Traditionally, Members do not refer to each other by name, but by constituency, using forms such as "the Honourable Member for [constituency]," or, in the case of Privy Counsellors, "the Right Honourable Member for [constituency]." Members of the same party refer to each other as "my (Right) Honourable friend". This may not always be the case during the actual oral delivery, when it might be difficult for a Member to remember another Member's exact constituency, but it is invariably followed in the transcript entered in the Hansard. The Speaker enforces the rules of the House, and may warn and punish Members who deviate from them. Disregarding the Speaker's instructions is considered a severe breach of the rules of the House, and may result in the suspension of the offender from the House. In the case of grave disorder, the Speaker may adjourn the House without taking a vote. The Standing Orders of the House of Commons do not establish any formal time limits for debates. The Speaker may, however, order a Member who persists in making a tediously repetitive or irrelevant speech to stop speaking. The time set aside for debate on a particular motion is, however, often limited by informal agreements between the parties. Debate may also be restricted by the passage of "Allocation of Time Motions", which are more commonly known as "Guillotine Motions". Alternatively, the House may put an immediate end to debate by passing a motion to invoke Closure. The Speaker is allowed to deny the motion if he or she believes that it infringes upon the rights of the minority. Today, Bills are scheduled according to a Timetable Motion, which the whole House agrees in advance, obviating use of the guillotine. When the debate concludes, or when the Closure is invoked, the motion in question is put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and Members respond either "Aye" (in favour of the motion) or "No" (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his or her assessment is challenged by any Member or the voice vote is unclear, a recorded vote known as a division follows. (The presiding officer, if he or she believes that the result of the voice vote is clear, may reject the challenge.) When a division occurs, members enter one of two lobbies (the "Aye" lobby or the "No" lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. A member who wishes to pointedly abstain from a vote may do so by entering both lobbies, casting one vote for and one against. At each lobby are two tellers (themselves Members of the House) who count the votes of the members. Once the division concludes, the tellers provide the results to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker has a casting vote. Traditionally, this casting vote is exercised to allow further debate, if this is possible, or otherwise to avoid a decision being taken without a majority (e.g. voting No to a motion or the third reading of a bill). Ties rarely occur—the last one was in July 1993. The quorum of the House of Commons is 40 members for any vote. If fewer than 40 members have participated, the division is invalid. Formerly, if a Member sought to raise a point of order during a division, suggesting that some of the rules governing parliamentary procedure are violated, he was required to wear a hat, thereby signaling that he was not engaging in debate. Collapsible top hats were kept in the Chamber just for this purpose. This custom was discontinued in 1998. The outcome of most votes is largely known beforehand, since political parties normally instruct members on how to vote. A party normally entrusts some Members of Parliament, known as whips, with the task of ensuring that all party members vote as desired. Members of Parliament do not tend to vote against such instructions, since those who do so jeopardise promotion, or may be deselected as party candidates for future elections. Ministers, junior ministers and parliamentary private secretaries who vote against the whips' instructions usually resign. Thus, the independence of Members of Parliament tends to be low, although "backbench rebellions" by members discontent with their party's policies do occur. A member is also traditionally allowed some leeway if the interests of her/his constituency are adversely affected. In some circumstances, however, parties announce "free votes", allowing members to vote as they please. Votes relating to issues of conscience such as abortion and capital punishment are typically free votes. Committees The Parliament of the United Kingdom uses committees for a variety of purposes, e.g. for the review of bills. Committees consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. Bills of great constitutional importance, as well as some important financial measures, are usually sent to the "Committee of the Whole House", a body that includes all members of the Commons. Instead of the Speaker, the Chairman or a Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means presides. The Committee meets in the House of Commons Chamber. Most bills were until 2006 considered by Standing Committees, which consisted of between 16 and 50 members. The membership of each Standing Committee roughly reflected the strength of the parties in the House. The membership of Standing Committees changed constantly; new Members were assigned each time the committee considered a new bill. There was no formal limit on the number of Standing Committees, but usually only ten existed. Rarely, a bill was committed to a Special Standing Committee, which investigated and held hearings on the issues raised. In November 2006, Standing Committees were replaced by Public Bill Committees. The House of Commons also has several Departmental Select Committees. The membership of these bodies, like that of the Standing Committees, reflects the strength of the parties. Each committee elects its own Chairman. The primary function of a Departmental Select Committee is to scrutinise and investigate the activities of a particular government department. To fulfil these aims, it is permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Departmental Select Committees, but such a procedure is seldom used. A separate type of Select Committee is the Domestic Committee. Domestic Committees oversee the administration of the House and the services provided to Members. Other committees of the House of Commons include Joint Committees (which also include members of the House of Lords), the Committee on Standards and Privileges (which considers questions of parliamentary privilege, as well as matters relating to the conduct of the members), and the Committee of Selection (which determines the membership of other committees). Legislative functions Bills may be introduced in either house, though controversial bills normally originate in the House of Commons. The supremacy of the Commons in legislative matters is assured by the Parliament Acts, under which certain types of bills may be presented for the Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords. The Lords may not delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Moreover, the Lords may not delay most other public bills for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons. Moreover, a bill that seeks to extend a parliamentary term beyond five years requires the consent of the House of Lords. By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, only the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or Supply. Furthermore, supply bills passed by the House of Commons are immune to amendments in the House of Lords. In addition, the House of Lords is barred from amending a bill so as to insert a taxation or supply-related provision, but the House of Commons often waives its privileges and allows the Lords to make amendments with financial implications. Under a separate convention, known as the Salisbury Convention, the House of Lords does not seek to oppose legislation promised in the Government's election manifesto. Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the more powerful branch of Parliament. Relationship with the Government Although it does not elect the Prime Minister, the position of the parties in the House of Commons is of overriding importance. By convention the Prime Minister is answerable to, and must maintain the support of, the House of Commons. Thus, whenever the office of Prime Minister falls vacant, the Sovereign appoints the person most likely to command the support of the House—normally the leader of the largest party in the Commons. (The leader of the second-largest party becomes the Leader of the Opposition.) In modern times, by convention, the Prime Minister is always a member of the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords. The Lower House may indicate its lack of support for the Government by rejecting a Motion of Confidence, or by passing a Motion of No Confidence. Confidence and no confidence motions are sometimes phrased explicitly, for instance: "That this House has no confidence in Her Majesty's Government." Many other motions are considered confidence issues, even though not explicitly phrased as such. In particular, important bills that form a part of the Government's agenda are generally considered matters of confidence, as is the annual Budget. When a Government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the Prime Minister is obliged to either resign, or request the monarch to dissolve Parliament, thereby precipitating a general election. Except when compelled to do so by an adverse vote on a confidence issue, the Prime Minister is allowed to choose the timing of dissolutions with the permission of the Monarch, and consequently the timing of general elections. The timing reflects political considerations, and is generally most opportune for the Prime Minister's party. However, no parliamentary term can last for more than five years; a dissolution is automatic upon the expiry of this period unless an act of Parliament is passed extending the maximum term as happened during both World Wars. Parliament almost never sits for the maximum possible term, with dissolutions customarily being requested earlier. A Prime Minister may resign even if he or she is not defeated at the polls (for example, for personal health reasons); in such a case, the premiership goes to the new leader of the outgoing Prime Minister's party. Until 1965, the Conservative Party had no mechanism for electing a new leader and when Anthony Eden resigned as PM in 1957 without recommending a successor, the party was unable to nominate one. It fell to the Queen to appoint Harold Macmillan as the new Prime Minister, after taking the advice of ministers. By convention, all ministers must be members of the House of Commons or House of Lords. A handful have been appointed who are outside Parliament but in most cases they subsequently entered Parliament either by means of a by-election or receiving a peerage. Since 1902, all Prime Ministers have been members of the Commons (the sole exception, the Earl of Home, disclaimed his peerage days after becoming Prime Minister, and was immediately elected to the House of Commons as Sir Alec Douglas-Home). In modern times, a vast majority of ministers belong to the Commons rather than the Lords. No major cabinet position (except Lord Privy Seal, Lord Chancellor and Leader of the House of Lords) had been filled by a Lord since Lord Carrington resigned as Foreign Secretary in 1982 until Lord Mandelson was appointed Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform in October 2008, he was also briefly neither a member of the Lords nor Commons in this capacity. The elected status of members of the Commons, as opposed to the unelected nature of members of the Lords, is seen to lend more legitimacy to ministers. The Prime Minister chooses the Ministers, and may decide to remove them at any time; the formal appointment or dismissal, however, is made by the Sovereign. The House of Commons scrutinises the Government through "Question Time", during which members have the opportunity to ask questions of the Prime Minister and of other cabinet ministers. Prime Minister's question time occurs once each week, normally for a half-hour each Wednesday. Questions must relate to the responding Minister's official Government activities, not to his or her activities as a party leader or as a private Member of Parliament. Customarily, members of the Government party and members of the Opposition alternate when asking questions. In addition to questions asked orally during Question Time, Members of Parliament may also make inquiries in writing. In practice, the House of Commons' scrutiny of the Government is fairly weak. Since the first-past-the-post electoral system is employed, the governing party tends to enjoy a large majority in the Commons, and there is often little need to compromise with other parties. Modern British political parties are so tightly organised that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs. Thus, during the 20th century, the Government has lost confidence issues only three times — twice in 1924, and once in 1979. However, the threat of rebellions by their own party's backbench MPs often forces Governments to make concessions (recently over top-up fees and foundation hospitals). Occasionally the Government is defeated by backbench rebellions (Terrorism Act 2006). However, the scrutiny provided by the Select Committees is more serious. The House of Commons technically retains the power to impeach Ministers of the Crown (or any other subject, even if not a public officer) for their crimes. Impeachments are tried by the House of Lords, where a simple majority is necessary to convict. The power of impeachment, however, has fallen into disuse: the House of Commons exercises its checks on the Government through other means, such as No Confidence Motions; the last impeachment was that of Viscount Melville in 1806. Latest election Current composition Affiliation Members Labour Party 349 Conservative Party 193 Liberal Democrats 63 Democratic Unionist Party 9 Scottish National Party 7 Sinn Féin 5 Plaid Cymru 3 Social Democratic and Labour Party 3 Ulster Unionist Party 1 RESPECT The Unity Coalition 1 Health Concern 1 Independent Labour 1 Independent Conservative 2 Independent 3 Speaker and Deputies 4 Total 646 Government Working Majority 64 Clare Short resigned the Labour whip on 20 October 2006. Labour lost Dunfermline & West Fife to Lib Dems. Quentin Davies crossed the floor from the Conservatives to Labour on 26 June 2007. Bob Wareing resigned the Labour whip on 17 September 2007 Andrew Pelling currently suspended from the Conservatives, 19 September, 2007 Sinn Féin's policy of abstaining from participation in the House of Commons (because of the requirement to swear an oath to the Crown) precludes its MPs from taking their seats. Dai Davies, elected as an Independent in the Blaenau Gwent constituency. Richard Taylor is accounted for under Health Concern. Two Labour and two Conservative. Derek Conway was expelled from the Conservative Party. Bob Spink was expelled by the Conservatives on 12 March 2008, and subsequently joined UKIP on 21 April 2008. In November 2008 Spink asked to be redesignated as an Independent rather than UKIP. Labour lost Crewe and Nantwich to the Conservatives. Labour lost Glasgow East to the SNP. Social Democratic and Labour Party MPs presently take the Labour whip. David Chaytor has been suspended from the Parliamentary Labour Party The chamber in film and television In 1986, the British television production company Granada Television created a near-full size replica of the post-1950 House of Commons debating chamber at its studios in Manchester for use in its adaptation of the Jeffrey Archer novel First Among Equals. The set was highly convincing, and was retained after the production—since then, it has been used in nearly every British film and television production that has featured scenes set in the chamber. From 1988 until 1999 it was also one of the prominent attractions on the Granada Studios Tour, where visitors could watch actors performing mock political debates on the set. In 2002, the set was purchased by the scriptwriter Paul Abbott so that it could be used in his BBC drama serial State of Play. Abbott, a former Granada Television staff writer, bought it personally as the set would otherwise have been destroyed and he feared it would take too long to get the necessary money from the BBC. He currently keeps it in storage in Oxford. Abbott, Paul. Audio commentary on the DVD release of State of Play. BBC Worldwide. BBCDVD 1493. The post-1941 Commons Chamber was used in the film Ali G Indahouse, the political satire Restart by Komedy Kollective, about a British prime minister seeking re-election, and was mentioned in the Robin Williams stand-up special Robin Williams Live on Broadway in which he describes it as "like Congress, but with a two drink minimum". The pre-1941 Chamber was recreated in Shepperton Studios for the Ridley Scott/Richard Loncraine 2002 biopic on Churchill, The Gathering Storm. See also Adjournment debate Salaries of Members of the United Kingdom Parliament Canadian House of Commons Early day motion Father of the House Introduction (British House of Commons) Parliamentary Brief Records of members of parliament of the United Kingdom Speaker Denison's rule References Farnborough, T. E. May, 1st Baron. (1896). Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third, 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co. Mackenzie, K.R., "The English Parliament", (1950) Pelican Books. "Parliament" (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press. Pollard, Albert F. (1926). The Evolution of Parliament, 2nd ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co. Porritt, Edward, and Annie G. Porritt. (1903). The Unreformed House of Commons: Parliamentary Representation before 1832. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Raphael, D. D., Donald Limon, and W. R. McKay. (2004). Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice, 23rd ed. London: Butterworths Tolley. </div> External links Guide to the Commons BBC The Parliamentary Archives holds the historic records of the House of Commons. The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005). "A–Z of Parliament." The Guardian. (2005). "Special Report: House of Commons." The Parliament of the United Kingdom. House of Commons official website. The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Find Your MP. The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Parliament Live TV. Listen to a podcast tour of the Commons chamber with photos | House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom |@lemmatized house:153 common:107 low:6 parliament:74 united:16 kingdom:16 also:25 comprise:1 sovereign:7 lord:56 upper:3 meet:3 palace:2 westminster:3 democratically:1 elect:15 body:4 consist:4 member:102 know:15 mp:15 first:11 past:4 post:6 system:4 electoral:8 district:1 constituency:23 hold:10 seat:10 dissolve:4 maximum:4 five:8 year:23 precede:1 election:20 evolve:3 point:3 england:9 century:12 practice:9 continuous:1 existence:1 since:14 become:11 great:8 britain:3 welcome:1 uk:1 access:1 december:3 political:8 union:4 scotland:6 originally:1 far:6 less:5 powerful:5 today:3 legislative:7 power:17 exceed:1 act:23 reject:4 bill:34 reduce:5 delay:5 moreover:4 government:34 primarily:1 responsible:3 prime:26 minister:43 stay:1 office:11 long:3 retain:8 support:8 almost:4 draw:3 one:20 brief:2 exception:2 sir:4 alec:2 douglas:2 home:5 choose:4 however:26 enter:6 two:22 week:2 later:2 full:3 formal:5 style:1 title:4 honourable:4 northern:4 ireland:7 assemble:1 history:4 largely:2 descend:1 though:8 treaty:2 ratify:1 create:3 new:12 replace:3 effect:4 continuation:1 addition:3 peer:3 represent:2 develop:3 council:4 advise:4 english:5 monarch:9 medieval:1 time:17 royal:6 meeting:1 short:2 period:3 include:8 ecclesiastic:1 nobleman:1 well:5 representative:2 county:6 knight:4 shire:3 chief:3 duty:3 approve:3 tax:4 propose:3 crown:17 many:5 case:9 demand:2 redress:1 people:4 grievance:1 proceed:3 vote:39 taxation:6 thus:8 model:2 borough:12 town:4 city:3 admit:1 settled:1 send:3 burgess:4 entirely:1 powerless:1 whilst:4 representation:8 fix:1 could:5 enfranchise:1 disfranchise:1 pleasure:1 show:1 independence:2 would:4 lead:4 exclusion:1 good:2 position:4 aristocratic:1 counterpart:2 still:5 unicameral:2 division:6 occur:6 reign:2 edward:3 iii:2 form:3 clergy:1 nobility:1 remain:7 subordinate:1 increase:2 boldness:1 speaker:51 peter:2 de:1 la:1 mare:1 complain:1 heavy:1 accounting:1 expenditure:2 criticise:1 king:6 management:2 military:2 even:11 impeach:3 bold:1 imprison:1 soon:1 release:2 death:1 next:3 richard:3 ii:2 begin:3 errant:1 insist:1 control:3 public:8 despite:1 gain:1 authority:2 much:1 interior:1 session:6 tillemans:1 c:1 influence:3 civil:3 war:4 late:4 fifteenth:1 destroy:5 noble:1 little:3 ensue:2 absolute:1 supremacy:2 restore:2 domination:1 grow:3 tudor:1 dynasty:1 sixteenth:1 trend:1 somewhat:1 reversed:1 stuart:2 come:3 throne:1 james:2 charles:5 provoke:1 conflict:1 issue:6 religion:1 difference:2 result:7 armed:1 force:7 victorious:1 purge:2 army:3 suppose:2 subservient:1 pride:1 indeed:1 coup:1 subsequently:3 behead:1 abolish:4 refer:6 critic:1 rump:1 small:4 selection:2 soldier:1 figure:1 disagree:1 oliver:1 cromwell:1 monarchy:1 decrease:1 diminish:1 depose:1 glorious:1 revolution:2 eighteenth:1 saw:1 development:2 notion:2 ever:1 motion:19 confidence:13 north:1 fail:3 end:4 american:1 modern:4 necessary:5 similarly:1 custom:3 always:6 rather:4 immediately:2 early:4 augustus:1 pugin:1 thomas:1 rowlandson:1 experience:1 important:4 reform:9 nineteenth:3 several:5 anomaly:2 boundary:8 change:2 decline:1 ancient:1 right:8 notorious:1 rotten:2 old:2 sarum:1 six:2 voter:2 dunwich:1 fall:4 sea:1 large:6 manchester:2 receive:5 separate:3 although:3 eligible:2 resident:2 able:1 corresponding:1 notable:1 pocket:2 wealthy:3 landowner:2 aristocrat:1 whose:2 nominee:1 invariably:2 attempt:1 address:4 pass:10 prove:1 unwilling:1 relent:2 grey:1 william:1 iv:1 flood:2 pro:1 avoid:2 establish:3 uniform:1 voting:1 requirement:4 grant:4 populous:2 assertive:1 crisis:1 patron:2 reluctant:1 majority:6 accepted:1 principle:1 alone:1 chamber:24 build:1 barry:2 german:1 bomb:1 second:3 world:2 essential:1 feature:2 design:2 preserve:1 rebuild:1 introduce:6 latter:1 half:2 lower:2 property:2 parliamentary:19 industrial:1 electorate:1 expand:1 qualification:4 redistribution:1 following:1 multi:1 single:2 progress:1 continue:4 twentieth:1 liberal:3 asquith:4 number:3 social:3 welfare:1 programme:1 together:1 expensive:1 arm:6 race:1 seek:9 high:4 chancellor:3 exchequer:2 david:2 lloyd:1 george:2 budget:2 target:1 unpopular:1 measure:2 heavily:1 conservative:11 resign:10 general:9 return:2 hung:1 party:35 severely:2 curtail:3 secure:1 passage:5 threaten:1 ensure:2 equality:2 permit:5 legislation:2 three:4 calendar:2 dominant:1 branch:2 theory:1 woman:4 give:3 quickly:1 follow:4 law:3 enable:1 young:1 age:2 irish:1 sinn:4 féin:4 candidate:7 constance:1 markievicz:1 due:1 policy:3 abstention:1 never:3 take:9 go:2 europe:1 cabinet:4 labour:15 dáil:1 éireann:1 unpaid:1 men:1 private:6 income:1 rely:1 financial:3 often:6 provide:4 salary:5 trade:1 declare:2 illegal:1 judgment:1 consequently:2 clause:1 finally:2 pay:3 technical:1 distinction:1 amount:1 money:3 allow:9 spend:1 campaign:1 determine:2 four:2 permanent:2 independent:6 commission:6 wale:2 conduct:2 review:4 every:3 interim:1 require:3 account:2 local:1 may:45 deviate:2 order:12 prevent:1 disparity:1 population:1 various:2 proposal:1 subject:5 approval:1 amend:2 absorb:1 currently:4 divide:2 whenever:3 timing:4 dissolution:5 normally:9 see:6 relationship:2 term:10 last:4 unless:2 extend:3 life:1 assent:2 exceptionally:1 veto:1 date:1 choice:1 traditionally:8 tend:3 thursday:2 must:12 call:6 within:1 usually:4 historically:1 fifth:1 use:17 incumbent:2 struggle:1 national:4 opinion:1 poll:2 face:2 likelihood:1 defeat:3 submit:1 nomination:1 paper:1 sign:3 ten:3 register:1 deposit:2 refund:1 win:2 least:2 per:1 cent:1 discourage:1 frivolous:1 plurality:1 minor:1 prisoner:1 insane:1 person:5 qualify:3 citizen:3 british:10 overseas:2 territory:2 republic:3 commonwealth:3 nation:2 live:3 abroad:1 move:1 serve:6 dy:1 cease:1 vacant:3 possible:3 expel:3 exercise:3 serious:2 misconduct:1 criminal:1 activity:4 vacancy:1 fill:2 appropriate:1 part:2 nominal:1 letter:1 annual:2 additional:1 instance:3 speakership:1 claim:1 expense:1 staff:2 cost:2 postage:1 travel:1 etc:1 non:2 london:6 maintain:2 capital:2 numerous:1 apply:2 importantly:1 limit:4 administration:2 state:5 restriction:2 nationality:1 previously:1 stringent:1 settlement:1 natural:1 born:1 sit:12 debate:21 bankruptcy:1 applicable:1 wales:1 adjudge:1 bankrupt:1 estate:1 sequester:1 lunatic:1 ineligible:3 mental:2 health:4 specialist:1 report:2 suffer:1 illness:1 exist:3 precedent:2 deaf:2 dumb:1 test:1 recent:1 jack:1 ashley:1 profoundly:1 anyone:2 find:3 guilty:2 treason:2 either:6 complete:1 imprisonment:1 pardon:1 prison:1 sentence:1 disqualifies:1 certain:3 related:2 offence:1 disqualification:2 codify:1 holder:2 judicial:1 servant:1 regular:1 foreign:2 legislature:1 exclude:1 country:1 officer:13 disqualify:1 rule:8 preclude:2 circumvent:1 resolution:1 adopt:1 wish:3 request:3 appointment:3 ceremonial:3 steward:2 bailiff:2 chiltern:1 hundred:1 manor:1 northstead:1 sinecure:1 involve:1 actual:2 solely:2 resignation:1 make:9 convention:7 refuse:1 ask:5 desire:3 leave:4 preside:10 depict:1 print:1 commemorate:1 destruction:1 fire:2 presiding:2 beginning:1 merely:1 otherwise:3 secret:1 ballot:1 cannot:2 granting:1 approbation:1 formality:1 assist:1 deputy:16 senior:1 chairman:7 way:4 mean:6 derive:1 committee:28 traditional:1 wear:3 black:3 robe:1 wig:1 tradition:3 abandon:1 present:2 michael:2 martin:1 predecessor:1 betty:1 boothroyd:1 presides:2 chair:3 front:6 oversee:2 running:1 speak:2 believe:3 stand:9 breach:3 raise:3 ruling:1 appeal:1 discipline:1 observe:1 disciplinary:1 customarily:3 partisan:1 participate:2 affair:1 oppose:3 major:2 lack:2 partisanship:1 clerk:6 adviser:1 matter:4 procedure:8 executive:1 official:5 communication:1 endorse:1 board:1 head:2 department:2 assistant:1 another:2 serjeant:2 maintenance:1 security:1 premise:1 carry:1 mace:4 symbol:1 day:4 lay:1 upon:4 table:3 sitting:3 librarian:1 library:1 research:1 information:1 stage:1 section:1 like:3 modestly:1 decorate:1 green:3 contrast:2 lavishly:1 furnish:1 red:3 bench:5 side:4 centre:1 aisle:1 arrangement:1 reflect:4 st:1 stephen:1 chapel:1 rest:1 close:1 opposition:6 occupy:1 set:10 line:3 carpet:1 cross:2 say:1 sword:1 lengths:1 apart:1 unable:2 attack:1 individual:1 opposite:1 leader:10 shadow:1 row:1 frontbencher:1 backbencher:1 oddly:1 fit:1 arrive:2 near:2 entrance:1 listen:2 monday:1 friday:1 emergency:1 weekend:1 open:1 twice:2 privately:1 shout:1 spy:1 stranger:1 automatically:1 relation:1 cordial:1 want:1 keep:3 device:1 disrupt:2 proceeding:2 broadcast:1 radio:1 television:6 bbc:5 record:4 hansard:2 sometimes:2 angry:1 protester:1 throw:2 object:1 gallery:1 item:1 leaflet:1 manure:1 flour:1 father:2 justice:1 protest:1 canister:1 chlorobenzylidene:1 malonitrile:1 tear:1 gas:1 disturb:1 heseltine:1 seize:1 brandish:1 heated:1 perhaps:1 famous:1 disruption:1 cause:1 arrest:1 action:2 deem:1 privilege:4 rise:1 foot:1 opening:1 ceremony:1 presence:1 delivers:1 outline:1 agenda:2 gentleman:2 usher:2 rod:2 summon:1 deliver:1 summons:1 door:2 slam:1 shut:1 symbolise:1 without:5 interference:1 knock:1 admittance:1 inform:1 await:1 queen:2 speech:3 alternate:2 priority:2 formerly:2 privy:3 counsellor:2 modernisation:1 abolition:1 word:1 mr:2 madam:2 directly:1 third:3 name:2 friend:1 oral:1 delivery:1 might:1 difficult:1 remember:1 exact:1 transcript:1 enforce:1 warn:1 punish:1 disregard:1 instruction:3 consider:7 severe:1 suspension:1 offender:1 grave:1 disorder:1 adjourn:1 persist:1 tediously:1 repetitive:1 irrelevant:1 stop:1 speaking:1 aside:1 particular:3 informal:1 agreement:1 restrict:1 allocation:1 commonly:1 guillotine:2 alternatively:1 put:3 immediate:1 invoke:2 closure:2 deny:1 infringe:1 minority:1 schedule:1 accord:1 timetable:1 whole:2 agree:1 advance:1 obviate:1 conclude:2 question:10 voice:4 respond:2 aye:2 favour:1 announce:3 assessment:1 challenge:2 unclear:1 recorded:1 clear:1 lobby:5 pointedly:1 abstain:2 cast:1 teller:2 count:1 casting:2 decision:1 e:3 g:4 reading:1 tie:1 rarely:2 july:1 quorum:1 invalid:1 suggest:1 govern:2 violate:1 hat:2 thereby:2 signal:1 engage:1 collapsible:1 top:2 purpose:2 discontinue:1 outcome:1 beforehand:1 instruct:1 entrust:1 whip:5 task:1 jeopardise:1 promotion:1 deselected:1 future:1 junior:1 secretary:3 tends:2 backbench:3 rebellion:3 discontent:1 leeway:1 interest:1 adversely:1 affected:1 circumstance:1 free:3 please:1 relate:3 conscience:1 abortion:1 punishment:1 typically:1 committees:1 variety:1 detail:1 amendment:3 constitutional:2 importance:2 instead:1 membership:4 roughly:1 strength:2 constantly:1 assign:1 commit:1 special:3 standing:2 investigate:2 hearing:2 november:2 departmental:3 select:5 primary:1 function:2 scrutinise:2 fulfil:1 aim:1 collect:1 evidence:1 seldom:1 type:2 domestic:2 service:1 joint:1 standard:1 controversial:1 originate:3 assure:1 consent:2 view:1 concern:4 fund:1 month:1 provision:2 beyond:1 prevail:1 supply:3 furthermore:1 immune:1 bar:1 insert:1 waive:1 implication:1 salisbury:1 promise:1 manifesto:1 hence:1 statute:1 clearly:1 override:1 answerable:1 appoint:4 likely:1 command:1 indicate:1 phrase:2 explicitly:2 majesty:1 generally:2 lose:5 oblige:1 precipitate:1 except:2 compel:1 adverse:1 permission:1 consideration:1 opportune:1 automatic:1 expiry:1 happen:1 sits:1 earlier:1 example:1 personal:1 reason:1 premiership:1 outgoing:1 mechanism:1 anthony:1 eden:1 pm:1 recommend:1 successor:1 nominate:1 fell:1 harold:1 macmillan:1 advice:1 handful:1 outside:1 peerage:2 sole:1 earl:1 disclaim:1 vast:1 belong:1 seal:1 carrington:1 mandelson:1 business:1 enterprise:1 regulatory:1 october:2 briefly:1 neither:1 capacity:1 elected:1 status:1 unelected:1 nature:1 lend:1 legitimacy:1 decide:1 remove:1 dismissal:1 opportunity:1 hour:1 wednesday:1 orally:1 inquiry:1 write:1 scrutiny:2 fairly:1 weak:1 employ:1 enjoy:1 need:1 compromise:1 tightly:1 organise:1 relatively:1 room:1 threat:1 concession:1 recently:1 fee:1 foundation:1 hospital:1 occasionally:1 terrorism:1 technically:1 crime:1 impeachment:3 try:1 simple:1 convict:1 disuse:1 check:1 viscount:1 melville:1 current:1 composition:1 affiliation:1 democrat:1 democratic:3 unionist:2 scottish:1 plaid:1 cymru:1 ulster:1 respect:1 unity:1 coalition:1 total:1 work:1 clare:1 dunfermline:1 west:1 fife:1 lib:1 dems:1 quentin:1 davy:2 floor:1 june:1 bob:2 wareing:1 september:2 andrew:1 pelling:1 suspend:2 participation:1 swear:1 oath:1 dai:1 blaenau:1 gwent:1 taylor:1 derek:1 conway:1 spink:2 march:1 join:1 ukip:2 april:1 redesignated:1 crewe:1 nantwich:1 glasgow:1 east:1 snp:1 presently:1 chaytor:1 film:3 production:3 company:1 granada:3 size:1 replica:1 studio:2 adaptation:1 jeffrey:1 archer:1 novel:1 among:1 equal:1 highly:1 convincing:1 nearly:1 scene:1 prominent:1 attraction:1 studios:1 tour:2 visitor:1 watch:1 actor:1 perform:1 mock:1 purchase:1 scriptwriter:1 paul:2 abbott:3 drama:1 serial:1 play:2 former:1 writer:1 buy:1 personally:1 fear:1 get:1 storage:1 oxford:1 audio:1 commentary:1 dvd:1 worldwide:1 bbcdvd:1 ali:1 indahouse:1 satire:1 restart:1 komedy:1 kollective:1 mention:1 robin:2 williams:2 broadway:1 describe:1 congress:1 drink:1 minimum:1 pre:1 recreate:1 shepperton:1 ridley:1 scott:1 loncraine:1 biopic:1 churchill:1 gathering:1 storm:1 adjournment:1 canadian:1 introduction:1 denison:1 reference:1 farnborough:1 baron:1 accession:1 ed:4 longmans:2 co:2 mackenzie:1 k:1 r:2 pelican:1 book:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 cambridge:3 university:2 press:2 pollard:1 albert:1 f:1 evolution:1 porritt:2 annie:1 unreformed:1 raphael:1 donald:1 limon:1 w:1 mckay:1 erskine:1 butterworths:1 tolley:1 div:1 external:1 link:1 guide:1 archive:1 historic:1 broadcasting:1 corporation:1 z:1 guardian:1 website:1 tv:1 podcast:1 photo:1 |@bigram palace_westminster:2 democratically_elect:1 prime_minister:26 sir_alec:2 alec_douglas:2 unicameral_parliament:2 tudor_dynasty:1 pride_purge:1 rump_parliament:1 oliver_cromwell:1 glorious_revolution:1 nineteenth_century:3 rotten_borough:2 wealthy_landowner:2 twentieth_century:1 chancellor_exchequer:2 severely_curtail:2 sinn_féin:4 dáil_éireann:1 royal_assent:2 opinion_poll:1 per_cent:1 england_wales:1 mental_health:1 mental_illness:1 deaf_dumb:1 wear_wig:1 michael_heseltine:1 heated_debate:1 gentleman_usher:2 privy_counsellor:2 adversely_affected:1 harold_macmillan:1 vast_majority:1 privy_seal:1 fall_disuse:1 liberal_democrat:1 plaid_cymru:1 ulster_unionist:1 swear_oath:1 blaenau_gwent:1 crewe_nantwich:1 jeffrey_archer:1 robin_williams:2 ridley_scott:1 longmans_green:2 encyclopædia_britannica:1 london_butterworths:1 external_link:1 broadcasting_corporation:1 |
3,082 | Baroque_dance | Baroque dance is dance of the Baroque era in Europe (roughly 1600–1750), closely linked with Baroque music, theatre and opera. English country dance The majority of surviving choreographies from the period are English country dances, such as those in the many editions of Playford's The Dancing Master. Playford only gives the floor patterns of the dances, with no indication of the steps. However other sources of the period, such as the writings of the French dancing-masters Feuillet and Lorin, indicate that steps more complicated than simple walking were used at least some of the time. English country dance survived well beyond the Baroque era and eventually spread in various forms across Europe and its colonies, and to all levels of society. See the article on English country dance for more information. The French Noble style A costume design for Louis XIV as The Rising Sun, from the final entrée of Le Ballet de la Nuit (1653). The great innovations in dance in the 17th century originated at the French court under Louis XIV, and it is here that we see the first clear stylistic ancestor of classical ballet. The same basic technique was used both at social events, and as theatrical dance in court ballets and at public theaters. The style of dance is commonly known to modern scholars as the French noble style or belle danse (French, literally "beautiful dance"), however it is often referred to casually as baroque dance in spite of the existence of other theatrical and social dance styles during the baroque era. Primary sources include more than three hundred choreographies in Beauchamp-Feuillet notation Little, Meredith Ellis and Marsh, Carol G. La Danse Noble, An Inventory of Dances and Sources, (Broude Brothers Ltd, 1992) ISBN 0-8450-0092-6 Lancelot, Francine, La Belle Dance: Catalogue Raisonné, (Van Dieren Editeur, 1996) ISBN 2-911087-02-X , as well as manuals by Raoul Auger Feuillet and Pierre Rameau in France, Kellom Tomlinson and John Weaver in England, and Gottfried Taubert in Germany. This wealth of evidence has allowed modern scholars and dancers to recreate the style, although areas of controversy still exist. The standard modern introduction is Hilton Hilton, Wendy, Dance and Music of Court and Theater: Selected Writings of Wendy Hilton (Pendragon Press, 1997) ISBN 0-945193-98-X . French dance types include: Bourrée Canarie (canary) Chaconne (French) courante Entrée grave Forlane (forlana) Gavotte Gigue Loure (slow gigue) Menuet (minuet) Musette Passacaille (passacaglia) Passepied Rigaudon Sarabande Tambourin The English, working in the French style, added their own hornpipe to this list. Many of these dance types are familiar from classical music, perhaps most spectacularly in the stylized suites of J. S. Bach Little, Meredith and Jenne, Natalie. Dance and the Music of J.S. Bach (Indiana University Press, 1991, 2001) ISBN 0-253-21464-5 . Note however, that the allemandes, that occur in these suites do not correspond to a French dance from the same period. Theatrical dance The French noble style was danced both at social events and by professional dancers in theatrical productions such as opera-ballets and court entertainments. However, 18th century theatrical dance had at least two other styles: comic or grotesque, and semi-serious Fairfax, Edmund. The Styles of Eighteenth-Century Ballet (Scarecrow Press, 2003) ISBN 0-8108-4698-5 Harris-Warrick, Rebecca and Brown, Bruce Alan, editors. The Grotesque Dancer on the Eighteenth Century Stage (The University of Wisconsin Press, 2005) ISBN 0-299-20354-9 . Other social dance styles Other dance styles, such as the Italian and Spanish dances of the period are much less well studied than either English country dance or the French style. The general picture seems to be that during most of the 17th century, a style close to that of late Renaissance dance was widespread, but as time progressed, French ballroom dances such as the minuet were widely adopted at fashionable courts. Beyond this, the evolution and cross-fertilisation of dance styles is an area of ongoing research. Modern reconstructions The revival of baroque music in the 1960s and '70s sparked renewed interest in 17th and 18th century dance styles. While some 300 of these dances had been preserved in Beauchamp-Feuillet notation, it wasn't until the mid-20th century that serious scholarship commenced in deciphering the notation and reconstructing the dances. Perhaps best known among these pioneers was Britain's Melusine Wood, who published several books on historical dancing in the 1950's. Wood, Melusine, More Historical Dances, (Imperial Soc. Dancing, 1956) ISBN 0-900484-12-8 . Miss Wood passed her research on to her student Belinda Quirey, and also to Pavlova Company ballerina & choreographer Mary Skeaping (1902-1984). The latter became well known for her reconstructions of baroque ballets for London's "Ballet for All" company in the 1960s. The leading figures of the second generation of historical dance research include Wendy Hilton (1931-2002), a student of Belinda Quirey who supplemented the work of Melusine Wood with her own research into original sources. A native of Britain, Hilton arrived in the U.S. in 1969 joining the faculty of the Juilliard School in 1972 and establishing her own baroque dance workshop at Stanford University in 1974 which endured for more than 25 years. In 1964, French dance historian Francine Lancelot (1929-2003) began her massive research into historical French dance forms. In 1980, at the invitation of the French Minister of Culture, she founded the baroque dance company "Ris et Danceries". Her work in choreographing the landmark 1986 production of Lully's 1686 tragedie-lyrique Atys was part of the national celebration of the 300th anniversary of Lully's death. This production propelled the career of William Christie and his ensemble Les Arts Florissants. Since the Ris et Danseries company was disbanded circa 1993, choreographers from the company have continued with their own work. Béatrice Massin with her "Compagnie Fetes Galantes", along with Marie Genevieve Massé and her company "L'Eventail" are among the most prominent. In 1996 Francine Lancelot's catalogue raisonné of baroque dance, entitled "La Belle Dance" was published. Catherine Turocy (b.1952) (student of dance historian Shirley Wynne) founded The New York Baroque Dance Company in 1976 with Ann Jacoby, and the company has since toured internationally. Turocy choreographed the first production of Jean-Philippe Rameau's Les Boréades - it was never performed during the composer's lifetime. This French supported production was the national celebration of Rameau's 300th birthday with John Eliot Gardiner conductor, and his Orchestra playing. Ms. Turocy has been decorated as Chevalier in the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government, and received the New York BESSIE award for Sustained Achievement. References External links BaroqueDance.info background information, period dancing manuals, and a large collection of links. The Calendar of Early Dance information about upcoming baroque events, choreographies and photos galleries | Baroque_dance |@lemmatized baroque:13 dance:45 era:3 europe:2 roughly:1 closely:1 link:3 music:5 theatre:1 opera:2 english:6 country:5 majority:1 survive:2 choreography:3 period:5 many:2 edition:1 playford:2 dancing:4 master:2 give:1 floor:1 pattern:1 indication:1 step:2 however:4 source:4 writing:2 french:17 feuillet:4 lorin:1 indicate:1 complicated:1 simple:1 walking:1 use:2 least:2 time:2 well:4 beyond:2 eventually:1 spread:1 various:1 form:2 across:1 colony:1 level:1 society:1 see:2 article:1 information:3 noble:4 style:15 costume:1 design:1 louis:2 xiv:2 rise:1 sun:1 final:1 entrée:2 le:3 ballet:7 de:2 la:4 nuit:1 great:1 innovation:1 century:7 originate:1 court:5 first:2 clear:1 stylistic:1 ancestor:1 classical:2 basic:1 technique:1 social:4 event:3 theatrical:5 public:1 theater:2 commonly:1 know:3 modern:4 scholar:2 belle:3 danse:2 literally:1 beautiful:1 often:1 refer:1 casually:1 spite:1 existence:1 primary:1 include:3 three:1 hundred:1 beauchamp:2 notation:3 little:2 meredith:2 elli:1 marsh:1 carol:1 g:1 inventory:1 broude:1 brother:1 ltd:1 isbn:7 lancelot:3 francine:3 catalogue:2 raisonné:2 van:1 dieren:1 editeur:1 x:2 manual:2 raoul:1 auger:1 pierre:1 rameau:3 france:1 kellom:1 tomlinson:1 john:2 weaver:1 england:1 gottfried:1 taubert:1 germany:1 wealth:1 evidence:1 allow:1 dancer:3 recreate:1 although:1 area:2 controversy:1 still:1 exist:1 standard:1 introduction:1 hilton:5 wendy:3 select:1 pendragon:1 press:4 type:2 bourrée:1 canarie:1 canary:1 chaconne:1 courante:1 grave:1 forlane:1 forlana:1 gavotte:1 gigue:2 loure:1 slow:1 menuet:1 minuet:2 musette:1 passacaille:1 passacaglia:1 passepied:1 rigaudon:1 sarabande:1 tambourin:1 work:4 add:1 hornpipe:1 list:1 familiar:1 perhaps:2 spectacularly:1 stylized:1 suite:2 j:2 bach:2 jenne:1 natalie:1 indiana:1 university:3 note:1 allemande:1 occur:1 correspond:1 professional:1 production:5 entertainment:1 two:1 comic:1 grotesque:2 semi:1 serious:2 fairfax:1 edmund:1 eighteenth:2 scarecrow:1 harris:1 warrick:1 rebecca:1 brown:1 bruce:1 alan:1 editor:1 stage:1 wisconsin:1 italian:1 spanish:1 much:1 less:1 study:1 either:1 general:1 picture:1 seem:1 close:1 late:1 renaissance:1 widespread:1 progress:1 ballroom:1 widely:1 adopt:1 fashionable:1 evolution:1 cross:1 fertilisation:1 ongoing:1 research:5 reconstruction:2 revival:1 sparked:1 renew:1 interest:1 preserve:1 mid:1 scholarship:1 commence:1 decipher:1 reconstruct:1 best:1 among:2 pioneer:1 britain:2 melusine:3 wood:4 publish:2 several:1 book:1 historical:4 imperial:1 soc:1 miss:1 pass:1 student:3 belinda:2 quirey:2 also:1 pavlova:1 company:8 ballerina:1 choreographer:2 mary:1 skeaping:1 latter:1 become:1 london:1 lead:1 figure:1 second:1 generation:1 supplement:1 original:1 native:1 arrive:1 u:1 join:1 faculty:1 juilliard:1 school:1 establish:1 workshop:1 stanford:1 endure:1 year:1 historian:2 begin:1 massive:1 invitation:1 minister:1 culture:1 found:2 ri:2 et:3 danceries:1 choreograph:2 landmark:1 lully:2 tragedie:1 lyrique:1 atys:1 part:1 national:2 celebration:2 anniversary:1 death:1 propel:1 career:1 william:1 christie:1 ensemble:1 art:2 florissants:1 since:2 danseries:1 disband:1 circa:1 continue:1 béatrice:1 massin:1 compagnie:1 fete:1 galantes:1 along:1 marie:1 genevieve:1 massé:1 l:1 eventail:1 prominent:1 entitle:1 catherine:1 turocy:3 b:1 shirley:1 wynne:1 new:2 york:2 ann:1 jacoby:1 tour:1 internationally:1 jean:1 philippe:1 boréades:1 never:1 perform:1 composer:1 lifetime:1 support:1 birthday:1 eliot:1 gardiner:1 conductor:1 orchestra:1 playing:1 decorate:1 chevalier:1 ordre:1 des:1 lettres:1 government:1 receive:1 bessie:1 award:1 sustained:1 achievement:1 reference:1 external:1 baroquedance:1 info:1 background:1 large:1 collection:1 calendar:1 early:1 upcoming:1 photo:1 gallery:1 |@bigram louis_xiv:2 la_nuit:1 la_danse:1 catalogue_raisonné:2 ballroom_dance:1 philippe_rameau:1 ordre_des:1 external_link:1 photo_gallery:1 |
3,083 | Jan_Mayen | Jan Mayen Island is a volcanic island in the Arctic Ocean, 55 km (34 miles) long (southwest-northeast) and 373 km² (144 mi²) in area, partly covered by glaciers (an area of 114.2 km² around the Beerenberg). It has two parts: larger northeast Nord-Jan and smaller Sør-Jan, linked by an isthmus 2.5 km (1.6 mi) wide. It lies 600 km (about 400 mi) northeast of Iceland, 500 km (about 300 mi) east of central Greenland and 1,000 km (about 600 mi) west of the North Cape, Norway. The island is mountainous, the highest summit being the Beerenberg volcano in the north. The isthmus is the location of the two largest lakes of the island, Sørlaguna (South Lagoon), and Nordlaguna (North Lagoon). A third lake is called Ullerenglaguna (Ullereng Lagoon). Jan Mayen was formed by the Jan Mayen hotspot. It is part of the Kingdom of Norway. Economy Jan Mayen Island has no exploitable natural resources. Economic activity is limited to providing services for employees of Norway's radio and meteorological stations located on the island. It has one unpaved airstrip, Jan Mayensfield, which is about 1,585 metres (5,200 ft) long, and the 124.1 km (74.1 mi) of coast has no ports or harbours, only offshore anchorages. There are important fishing resources outside the island, and the existence of Jan Mayen establishes a large Exclusive Economic Zone around it. A dispute between Norway and Denmark regarding the fishing exclusion zone between Jan Mayen and Greenland was settled in 1988 granting Denmark the greater area of sovereignty. Jan Mayen is an integral part of Norway, not considered a dependency with special status. Since 1995, it has been administered by the County Governor (fylkesmann) of the northern Norwegian county of Nordland which is closest to it; however, some authority has been delegated to a station commander of the Norwegian Defence Logistics Organisation, a branch of the Norwegian Armed Forces. Society Snow-covered Beerenberg beyond coastal hills The only inhabitants on the island are personnel working for the Norwegian Armed Forces or the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. There are 18 people who spend the winter on the island, but the population may double (35) during the summer, when heavy maintenance is performed. Personnel serve either six months or one year, and are exchanged twice a year in April and October. The main purpose of the military personnel is to operate a LORAN-C base. The support crew, including mechanics, cooks and a nurse, are among the military personnel. Both the LORAN transmitter and the meteorological station are located a few kilometres away from the settlement Olonkinbyen (English: The Olonkin City), where all personnel live. Transport to the island is provided by C-130 Hercules military transport planes operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force that land at Jan Mayensfield, which only has a gravel runway. The planes fly in from Bodø Main Air Station eight times a year. Since the airport does not have any instrument landing capabilities, good visibility is required, and it is not uncommon for the planes to have to return to Bodø, two hours away, without landing. For heavy goods, freight ships visit during the summer, but since there are no harbours the ships must anchor up. The island has no indigenous population, but is assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code SJ (together with Svalbard), the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) .no (.sj is allocated but not used) and data code JN. Its amateur radio call sign prefix is JX. It has a postal code, N-8099 JAN MAYEN, but delivery time varies, especially during the winter. History A beach on Jan Mayen Unverified discoveries The first known discovery of the island was in 1614. There are earlier claims and possible discoveries: some historians believe that an Irish monk, Brendan, who was known as a good sailor, was close to Jan Mayen in the early 6th century. He came back from one of his voyages and reported that he had been close to a black island, which was on fire, and that there was a terrible noise in the area. He thought that he might have found the entrance to hell. The land named Svalbarð ("cold coast") by the Vikings in the early medieval Landnámabók may have been Jan Mayen (instead of Spitsbergen, which was renamed Svalbard by the Norwegians in modern times); the distance from Iceland to Svalbarð mentioned in that book is two days sailing, consistent with the ~530 km to Jan Mayen and not with the ~1550 km to Spitsbergen. J. M. Wordie (1922) "Jan Mayen Island", The Geographical Journal Vol 59 (3), pp. 180-194 The knowledge of Jan Mayen probably disappeared along with the Viking colonies on Greenland around the 14th century. In the 17th century many claims of the island's rediscovery were made, spurred by the rivalry on the Arctic whaling grounds, and the island received many names. According to Thomas Edge, an early 17th century whaling captain who was often inaccurate, "William Hudson" discovered the island in 1608 and named it Hudson's Touches (or Tutches). However, Henry Hudson could only have come by on his voyage in 1607 (if he had made an illogical detour) and he made no mention of it in his journal. Edge also suggested that Thomas Marmaduke, a Hull whaling captain, saw the island in 1612 and named it Trinity Island. There is no cartographical or written proof for either of these "discoveries". 1614 discoveries and final naming von Kármán vortex street created by Beerenberg in the westerly winds Jan Mayen was discovered in the summer of 1614, probably within one month by three separate expeditions. The English whaler John Clarke, sailing for a Dunkirk firm, had observed the island on June 28 while hunting Greenland right whales (now called Bowhead Whales) and named it Isabella. Louwrens Hacquebord, “The Jan Mayen Whaling Industry” in Jan Mayen Island in Scientific Focus, Stig Skreslet, editor, Springer Verlag 2004 In January the “Northern Company” (Noordsche Compagnie), modelled on the Dutch East India Company, had been established to support Dutch whaling in the Arctic. Two of its ships, financed by merchants from Amsterdam and Enkhuizen, reached Jan Mayen in July 1614. The captains of these ships (Jan Jacobsz May of Schellinkhout on the “Gouden Cath” (Golden Cat) and Jacob de Gouwenaar on the “Orangienboom” (Orange Tree), named it Mr. Joris Eylant after the Dutch cartographer Joris Carolus who was on board and mapped the island. The captains acknowledged that a third Dutch ship, the “Cleyn Swaentgen” (Little Swan) captained by Jan Jansz Kerckhoff and financed by Noordsche Compagnie shareholders from Delft, had already been at the island when they arrived. They had assumed that the latter, who named the island Maurits Eylandt (or Mauritius) after Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, would report their discovery to the States General. However, the Delft merchants had decided to keep the discovery secret and returned in 1615 to hunt for their own profit. The ensuing dispute was only settled in 1617, though both companies were allowed to whale at Jan Mayen in the meantime. In 1615, Robert Fotherby went ashore, apparently thinking it a new discovery and naming the island Sir Thomas Smith’s Island and the volcano “Mount Hakluyt”. Alexander King, J. N. Jennings: The Imperial College Expedition to Jan Mayen Island. The Geographical Journal, Vol. 94, No. 2 (Aug 1939), pp. 115-131 Jean Vrolicq renamed the island Île de Richelieu. Jan Mayen first appeared on Willem Jansz Blaeu’s 1620 edition map of Europe originally published by Cornelis Doedz in 1606. He named it Jan Mayen after captain Jan May of the Amsterdam-financed Gouden Cath, perhaps because he was by that time based in Amsterdam. Blaeu made a first detailed map of the island in his famous “Zeespiegel” atlas of 1623, establishing its current name. Jan Mayen as a Dutch whaling base From 1614 to 1638, Jan Mayen was used as a whaling base by the Dutch Noordsche Compagnie, which had effectively monopolized whaling in most of the Arctic Sea over those years. It took ships about three weeks to reach the island from the Netherlands. By 1616, 200 men were seasonally living and working on the island at six temporary whaling stations (spread along the NW coast). During the first decade of whaling more than 10 ships visited Jan Mayen each year, while in the second period (1624 and later) 5-10 ships were sent. In the mid-1620s these temporary stations consisting of tents of sail and crude furnaces were replaced by two semi-permanent stations in North and South bay with wooden storehouses and dwellings and large brick furnaces. In 1628 two forts were built to protect the stations. Among the sailors active at Jan Mayen was the later admiral Michiel Adriaensz de Ruyter. In 1632, at the age of 26, he was for the first time listed as an officer and his last whaling trip was in 1635. In 1632 the Noordsche Compagnie expelled the Danish-employed Basque whalers from Spitsbergen. In revenge, the latter sailed to Jan Mayen, where the Dutch had left for the winter, to plunder the Dutch equipment and burn down the settlements and factories. Captain Outger Jacobsz of Grootebroek was asked to stay the next winter (1633/34) on Jan Mayen with six shipmates to defend the island. While a group with the same task survived the winter on Spitsbergen, all seven on Jan Mayen died of scurvy or trichinosis (from eating raw polar bear meat) combined with the harsh conditions. The Greenland right whale was locally hunted to near extinction around 1640 (approximately 1000 had been killed and processed on the island), at which time Jan Mayen was abandoned and stayed uninhabited for two and a half centuries. 19th and 20th century Location of the stations on Jan Mayen Jan Mayen station in 2007 During the International Polar Year 1882-83 the Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition stayed one year at Jan Mayen. The expedition performed extensive mapping of the area, their maps being of such quality that they were used until the 1950s. The Austrian polar station on Jan Mayen Island was built and equipped in 1882 fully at Count Wilczek's own costs. Polar bears appear on Jan Mayen, Michael Jones and Kenneth Olwig. 2008. Nordic Landscapes: Region and Belonging on the Northern Edge of Europe, University of Minnesota Press, ISBN 0816639140, 9780816639144 576 pages although in diminished numbers compared with earlier times. Between 1900 and 1920, there were a number of Norwegian trappers spending winters on Jan Mayen, hunting white and blue foxes in addition to some polar bears. But the exploitation soon made the profits decline, and the hunting ended. Polar bears are genetically distinguishable in this region of the Arctic compared with other world regions such as the Canadian Arctic. C. Michael Hogan. 2008 Polar Bear: Ursus maritimus, Globaltwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg The first meteorological station was opened in 1921 by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute, who annexed the island in 1922 for Norway. By law of February 27 1930 the island was made part of the Kingdom of Norway. During World War II continental Norway was invaded and occupied by Germany in the spring of 1940. The four man team on Jan Mayen stayed at their posts and in an act of defiance began sending their weather reports to Great Britain instead of Norway. The British codenamed Jan Mayen 'island X' and attempted to reinforce it with troops to counteract any German attack. The Norwegian gunboat Fridtjof Nansen ran aground on one of the islands' many uncharted lava reefs and the 68 man crew abandoned ship and joined the Norwegian team on shore. The British expedition commander, prompted by the loss of the gunboat, decided to abandon Jan Mayen until the following spring and radioed for a rescue ship. Within a few days a ship arrived and evacuated the four Norwegians and their would-be reinforcements after demolishing the weather station to prevent it from falling into German hands. Nazi Germany attempted to land a weather team on the island on November 16. The German trawler carrying the team crashed on the rocks just off Jan Mayen after a patrolling British Destroyer picked them up on radar. Most of the crew struggled ashore and were taken prisoner by a landing party from the destroyer. The Allies returned to the island on 10 March, 1940, when the Norwegian ship Veslekari, escorted by the patrol boat Honningsvaag, dropped 12 Norwegian weathermen on the island. The teams radio transmissions soon betrayed its presence to the Axis, and German planes from Norway began to bomb and strafe Jan Mayen whenever weather would permit it, though they did little damage. Soon supplies and reinforcements arrived and even some anti aircraft guns, giving the island a garrison of a few dozen weathermen and soldiers. By 1941 the Germans had given up hope of evicting the Allies from the island and the constant air raids stopped. On 7 August 1942 a German Focke-Wulf Fw 200 "Condor", probably on a mission to bomb the station, smashed into the nearby mountainside of Danielsenkrateret in fog, killing all 9 crewmembers. The crash site at Danielsenkrateret In 1950, the wreck of another German plane with 4 crew members was discovered on the southwest side of the island. JAN MAYEN Brief history In 1943, the Americans established a radio locating station named Atlantic City in the north to try to locate German radio bases in Greenland. After the war the meteorological station was located at Atlantic City, but moved in 1949 to a new location. Radio Jan Mayen also served as an important radio station for ship traffic in the Arctic Ocean. In 1959, NATO decided to build the LORAN-C network in the Atlantic Ocean, and one of the transmitters had to be on Jan Mayen. By 1961, the new military installations, including a new airfield, were operational. For some time scientists doubted if there could be any activity in the volcano Beerenberg, but in 1970 the volcano erupted, and added another three square kilometres (1.2 sq mi) of land mass to the island during the three to four weeks it lasted. It had more eruptions in 1973 and most recently in 1985. During an eruption the sea temperature around the island may increase from just above freezing to about 30 degrees Celsius (86 °F). Historic stations and huts on the island are Hoyberg, Vera, Olsbu, Puppebu (cabin), Gamlemetten or Gamlestasjonen (the old weather station), Jan Mayen Radio, Helenehytta, Margarethhytta, and Ulla (a cabin at the foot of the Beerenberg). Traditional signpost with directions to civilization on Jan Mayen station Geography and geology Jan Mayen consists of two geographically distinct parts. Nord-Jan has a round shape and is dominated by the 2277 m high Beerenberg volcano with its large ice cap (114.2 km²), which can be divided into twenty individual outlet glaciers. The largest of those is Sørbreen, with an area of 15.00 km² and a length of 8.7 km. South-Jan is narrow, comparatively flat and unglaciated. Its highest elevation is Rudolftoppen with 769 meters. The station and living quarters are located on South-Jan. The island lies on the world's smallest microplate. The island was previously attached to Greenland. In popular culture In the 2008 game Tomb Raider: Underworld, Lara Croft visits Jan Mayen Island in search of Thor's Hammer. In the Tom Clancy book The Hunt for Red October the island is mentioned as a LORAN-C station for NATO See also List of islands of Norway by area #Outside the mainland of Norway References Bibliography Umbreit, Andreas (2005) Spitsbergen : Svalbard - Franz Josef Land - Jan Mayen, 3rd ed., Chalfont St. Peter : Bradt Travel Guides, ISBN 1-84162-092-0 External links Photographs and information on Jan Mayen Satellite Radar image of Jan Mayen – website by station crew; in English and Norwegian, with many details photographs Glaciers of Jan Mayen Weather forecasts for Jan Mayen at yr.no (Norwegian Meteorological institute and NRK) Weather statistics for Jan Mayen at yr.no be-x-old:Ян Маен | Jan_Mayen |@lemmatized jan:64 mayen:54 island:52 volcanic:1 arctic:7 ocean:3 km:9 mile:1 long:2 southwest:2 northeast:3 area:7 partly:1 cover:2 glacier:3 around:5 beerenberg:7 two:9 part:5 large:6 nord:2 small:2 sør:1 link:2 isthmus:2 mi:6 wide:1 lie:2 iceland:2 east:2 central:1 greenland:7 west:1 north:6 cape:1 norway:12 mountainous:1 high:3 summit:1 volcano:5 location:3 lake:2 sørlaguna:1 south:4 lagoon:3 nordlaguna:1 third:2 call:3 ullerenglaguna:1 ullereng:1 form:1 hotspot:1 kingdom:2 economy:1 exploitable:1 natural:1 resource:2 economic:2 activity:2 limit:1 provide:2 service:1 employee:1 radio:8 meteorological:7 station:23 locate:6 one:7 unpaved:1 airstrip:1 mayensfield:2 metre:1 ft:1 coast:3 port:1 harbour:2 offshore:1 anchorage:1 important:2 fishing:2 outside:2 existence:1 establish:4 exclusive:1 zone:2 dispute:2 denmark:2 regard:1 exclusion:1 settle:2 grant:1 great:2 sovereignty:1 integral:1 consider:1 dependency:1 special:1 status:1 since:3 administer:1 county:2 governor:1 fylkesmann:1 northern:3 norwegian:16 nordland:1 close:3 however:3 authority:1 delegate:1 commander:2 defence:1 logistics:1 organisation:1 branch:1 armed:2 force:3 society:1 snow:1 beyond:1 coastal:1 hill:1 inhabitant:1 personnel:5 work:2 institute:3 people:1 spend:2 winter:6 population:2 may:5 double:1 summer:3 heavy:2 maintenance:1 perform:2 serve:2 either:2 six:3 month:2 year:7 exchange:1 twice:1 april:1 october:2 main:2 purpose:1 military:4 operate:2 loran:4 c:5 base:5 support:2 crew:5 include:2 mechanic:1 cook:1 nurse:1 among:2 transmitter:2 kilometre:2 away:2 settlement:2 olonkinbyen:1 english:3 olonkin:1 city:3 live:2 transport:2 hercules:1 plane:5 royal:1 air:3 land:7 gravel:1 runway:1 fly:1 bodø:2 eight:1 time:8 airport:1 instrument:1 landing:1 capability:1 good:3 visibility:1 require:1 uncommon:1 return:3 hour:1 without:1 freight:1 ship:13 visit:3 must:1 anchor:1 indigenous:1 assign:1 iso:1 alpha:1 country:2 code:4 sj:2 together:1 svalbard:3 internet:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 cctld:1 allocate:1 use:3 data:1 jn:1 amateur:1 sign:1 prefix:1 jx:1 postal:1 n:3 delivery:1 varies:1 especially:1 history:2 beach:1 unverified:1 discoveries:1 first:6 know:2 discovery:7 early:5 claim:2 possible:1 historian:1 believe:1 irish:1 monk:1 brendan:1 sailor:2 century:6 come:2 back:1 voyage:2 report:3 black:1 fire:1 terrible:1 noise:1 think:2 might:1 find:1 entrance:1 hell:1 name:11 svalbarð:2 cold:1 viking:2 medieval:1 landnámabók:1 instead:2 spitsbergen:5 rename:2 modern:1 distance:1 mention:3 book:2 day:2 sail:4 consistent:1 j:2 wordie:1 geographical:2 journal:3 vol:2 pp:2 knowledge:1 probably:3 disappear:1 along:2 colony:1 many:4 rediscovery:1 make:6 spur:1 rivalry:1 whaling:6 ground:1 receive:1 accord:1 thomas:3 edge:3 whale:9 captain:7 often:1 inaccurate:1 william:1 hudson:3 discover:3 touch:1 tutches:1 henry:1 could:2 illogical:1 detour:1 also:3 suggest:1 marmaduke:1 hull:1 saw:1 trinity:1 cartographical:1 write:1 proof:1 final:1 naming:1 von:1 kármán:1 vortex:1 street:1 create:1 westerly:1 wind:1 within:2 three:4 separate:1 expedition:5 whaler:2 john:1 clarke:1 dunkirk:1 firm:1 observe:1 june:1 hunt:5 right:2 bowhead:1 isabella:1 louwrens:1 hacquebord:1 industry:1 scientific:1 focus:1 stig:1 skreslet:1 editor:1 springer:1 verlag:1 january:1 company:3 noordsche:4 compagnie:4 model:1 dutch:8 india:1 finance:3 merchant:2 amsterdam:3 enkhuizen:1 reach:2 july:1 jacobsz:2 schellinkhout:1 gouden:2 cath:2 golden:1 cat:1 jacob:1 de:3 gouwenaar:1 orangienboom:1 orange:2 tree:1 mr:1 joris:2 eylant:1 cartographer:1 carolus:1 board:1 map:4 acknowledge:1 cleyn:1 swaentgen:1 little:2 swan:1 jansz:2 kerckhoff:1 shareholder:1 delft:2 already:1 arrive:3 assume:1 latter:2 maurits:1 eylandt:1 mauritius:1 maurice:1 nassau:1 prince:1 would:3 state:1 general:1 decide:3 keep:1 secret:1 profit:2 ensue:1 though:2 allow:1 meantime:1 robert:1 fotherby:1 go:1 ashore:2 apparently:1 new:4 sir:1 smith:1 mount:1 hakluyt:1 alexander:1 king:1 jennings:1 imperial:1 college:1 aug:1 jean:1 vrolicq:1 île:1 richelieu:1 appear:2 willem:1 blaeu:2 edition:1 europe:2 originally:1 publish:1 cornelis:1 doedz:1 perhaps:1 detailed:1 famous:1 zeespiegel:1 atlas:1 current:1 effectively:1 monopolize:1 sea:2 take:2 week:2 netherlands:1 men:1 seasonally:1 temporary:2 spread:1 nw:1 decade:1 second:1 period:1 later:1 send:2 mid:1 consist:2 tent:1 crude:1 furnace:2 replace:1 semi:1 permanent:1 bay:1 wooden:1 storehouse:1 dwelling:1 brick:1 fort:1 build:3 protect:1 active:1 late:1 admiral:1 michiel:1 adriaensz:1 ruyter:1 age:1 list:2 officer:1 last:2 trip:1 expel:1 danish:1 employ:1 basque:1 revenge:1 leave:1 plunder:1 equipment:1 burn:1 factory:1 outger:1 grootebroek:1 ask:1 stay:4 next:1 shipmate:1 defend:1 group:1 task:1 survive:1 seven:1 die:1 scurvy:1 trichinosis:1 eat:1 raw:1 polar:7 bear:5 meat:1 combine:1 harsh:1 condition:1 locally:1 near:1 extinction:1 approximately:1 kill:2 process:1 abandon:3 uninhabited:1 half:1 international:1 austro:1 hungarian:1 pole:1 extensive:1 mapping:1 quality:1 austrian:1 equip:1 fully:1 count:1 wilczek:1 cost:1 michael:2 jones:1 kenneth:1 olwig:1 nordic:1 landscape:1 region:3 belonging:1 university:1 minnesota:1 press:1 isbn:2 page:1 although:1 diminished:1 number:2 compare:2 trapper:1 white:1 blue:1 fox:1 addition:1 exploitation:1 soon:3 decline:1 hunting:1 end:1 genetically:1 distinguishable:1 world:3 canadian:1 hogan:1 ursus:1 maritimus:1 globaltwitcher:1 com:1 ed:2 stromberg:1 open:1 annex:1 law:1 february:1 war:2 ii:1 continental:1 invade:1 occupy:1 germany:2 spring:2 four:3 man:2 team:4 post:1 act:1 defiance:1 begin:2 weather:7 britain:1 british:3 codenamed:1 x:2 attempt:2 reinforce:1 troop:1 counteract:1 german:8 attack:1 gunboat:2 fridtjof:1 nansen:1 run:1 aground:1 uncharted:1 lava:1 reef:1 join:1 shore:1 prompt:1 loss:1 following:1 radioed:1 rescue:1 evacuate:1 reinforcement:2 demolish:1 prevent:1 fall:1 hand:1 nazi:1 november:1 trawler:1 carry:1 crash:2 rock:1 patrol:2 destroyer:2 pick:1 radar:2 struggle:1 prisoner:1 party:1 ally:2 march:1 veslekari:1 escort:1 boat:1 honningsvaag:1 drop:1 weatherman:2 teams:1 transmission:1 betray:1 presence:1 axis:1 bomb:2 strafe:1 whenever:1 permit:1 damage:1 supply:1 even:1 anti:1 aircraft:1 gun:1 give:2 garrison:1 dozen:1 soldier:1 hope:1 evict:1 constant:1 raid:1 stop:1 august:1 focke:1 wulf:1 fw:1 condor:1 mission:1 smash:1 nearby:1 mountainside:1 danielsenkrateret:2 fog:1 crewmembers:1 site:1 wreck:1 another:2 member:1 side:1 brief:1 american:1 atlantic:3 try:1 move:1 traffic:1 nato:2 network:1 installation:1 airfield:1 operational:1 scientist:1 doubt:1 erupt:1 add:1 square:1 sq:1 mass:1 eruption:2 recently:1 temperature:1 increase:1 freeze:1 degree:1 celsius:1 f:1 historic:1 hut:1 hoyberg:1 vera:1 olsbu:1 puppebu:1 cabin:2 gamlemetten:1 gamlestasjonen:1 old:2 helenehytta:1 margarethhytta:1 ulla:1 foot:1 traditional:1 signpost:1 direction:1 civilization:1 geography:1 geology:1 geographically:1 distinct:1 round:1 shape:1 dominate:1 ice:1 cap:1 divide:1 twenty:1 individual:1 outlet:1 sørbreen:1 length:1 narrow:1 comparatively:1 flat:1 unglaciated:1 elevation:1 rudolftoppen:1 meter:1 living:1 quarter:1 microplate:1 previously:1 attach:1 popular:1 culture:1 game:1 tomb:1 raider:1 underworld:1 lara:1 croft:1 search:1 thor:1 hammer:1 tom:1 clancy:1 red:1 see:1 mainland:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 umbreit:1 andreas:1 franz:1 josef:1 chalfont:1 st:1 peter:1 bradt:1 travel:1 guide:1 external:1 photograph:2 information:1 satellite:1 image:1 website:1 detail:1 forecast:1 yr:2 nrk:1 statistic:1 ян:1 маен:1 |@bigram jan_mayen:54 arctic_ocean:2 metre_ft:1 offshore_anchorage:1 von_kármán:1 westerly_wind:1 bowhead_whale:1 springer_verlag:1 austro_hungarian:1 michael_hogan:1 bear_ursus:1 globaltwitcher_com:1 fridtjof_nansen:1 run_aground:1 patrol_boat:1 focke_wulf:1 wulf_fw:1 atlantic_ocean:1 volcano_erupt:1 square_kilometre:1 kilometre_sq:1 sq_mi:1 degree_celsius:1 outlet_glacier:1 tomb_raider:1 lara_croft:1 thor_hammer:1 tom_clancy:1 franz_josef:1 external_link:1 weather_forecast:1 |
3,084 | Montauban | Montauban (Montalban in Occitan) is a town and commune of southwestern France, préfecture (capital) of the Tarn-et-Garonne département, north of Toulouse. The town, built mainly of a reddish brick, stands on the right bank of the Tarn River at its confluence with the Tescou. History Arcade at Place Nationale in Montauban With the exception of Mont-de-Marsan, Montauban is the oldest of the bastides of southern France. Its foundation dates from 1144 when Alphonse Jourdain, count of Toulouse, granted it a liberal charter. The inhabitants were drawn chiefly from Montauriol, a village which had grown up around the neighbouring monastery of St Théodard. In the 13th century the town suffered much from the ravages of the Albigensians and from the Inquisition, but by 1317 it had recovered sufficiently to be chosen by John XXII as the head of a diocese of which the basilica of St Théodard became the cathedral. In 1360, at the Treaty of Brétigny, it was ceded to the English; they were expelled by the inhabitants in 1414. In 1560 the bishops and magistrates embraced Protestantism, expelled the monks, and demolished the cathedral. Ten years later it became one of the four Huguenot strongholds under the Peace of Saint-Germain, and formed a small independent republic. It was the headquarters of the Huguenot rebellion of 1621, and successfully withstood an 86-day siege by Louis XIII. It did not submit to royal authority until after the fall of La Rochelle in 1629, when its fortifications were destroyed by Cardinal Richelieu. The Protestants again suffered persecution after the repeal of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. During World War II, Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa was briefly hidden in a secret vault behind a wine cellar at Montauban. Sights Its fortifications have been replaced by boulevards beyond which extend numerous suburbs, while on the left bank of the Tarn is the suburb of Villebourbon, which is connected with the town by a remarkable bridge of the early 14th century. This bridge is known as Pont Vieux (i.e. "Old Bridge"). King Philip the Fair of France officially launched the building of the bridge in 1303 while on a tour to Toulouse. The project took 30 years to complete, and the bridge was inaugurated in 1335. The main architects were Étienne de Ferrières and Mathieu de Verdun. It is a pink brick structure over 205 meters (224 yards) in length, but while its fortified towers have disappeared, it is otherwise in good preservation. The bridge was designed to resist the violent floods of the Tarn River, and indeed it withstood successfully the two terrible millennial floods of 1441 and 1930. The bridge is a straight level bridge, which is quite unusual for Medieval Europe, where lack of technological skills meant that most bridges were humpback bridges. The Musée Ingres, on the site of a castle of the Counts of Toulouse and once the residence of the bishops of Montauban, stands at the east end of the bridge. It belongs chiefly to the 17th century, but some portions are much older, notably an underground chamber known as the Hall of the Black Prince (Salle du Prince Noir). It comprises most of the work (including his "Jesus among the Doctors") of Jean Ingres, the celebrated painter, whose birth in Montauban is commemorated by an elaborate monument. It is the largest museum of Ingres paintings in the world. The museum also contains some sculptures by famous sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, another native of Montauban, as well as collections of antiquities (Greek vases) and 18th and 19th ceramics. The Place Nationale is a square of the 17th century, entered at each corner by gateways giving access to a large open space surrounded by pink brick houses carried on double rows of arcades. The préfecture is located in the palace built by the intendant of Montauban (the equivalent of a préfet before the French Revolution), and is an elegant 18th century large mansion, built of pink bricks and white stones, with a steep roof of blue gray slates, in a style marrying northern and southern French styles of architecture. The chief churches of Montauban are the cathedral, remarkable only for the possession of the "Vow of Louis XIII", one of the masterpieces of Ingres, and the church of St Jacques (14th and 15th centuries), dedicated to Saint James of Compostela, the façade of which is surmounted by a handsome octagonal tower, the base of which is in Romanesque style, while the upper levels, built later, are in Gothic style. [Montauban: Economy The commercial importance of Montauban is due rather to its trade in agricultural produce, horses, game and poultry, than to its industries, which include nursery-gardening, cloth-weaving, cloth-dressing, flour-milling, wood-sawing, and the manufacture of furniture, silk-gauze and straw hats. Demographics Population: 1906: town, 16,813; commune, 28,688 1962: 41,002 1968: 45,872 1975: 48,028 1982: 50,682 1990: 51,224 1999: 51,855 2008: 57,100 Transport The town is a railway junction, and communicates with the Garonne by the Canal of Montech. Sport The town is home of the rugby union club US Montauban. The team gained promotion from the Pro D2 competition for the 2006–07 Top 14 season. Births Montauban was the birthplace of: Jean-Jacques Lefranc, marquis de Pompignan (1709–1784), poet Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert (1743–1790), general and military writer Olympe de Gouges (1748–1793), playwright and journalist whose feminist writings reached a large audience Jean Bon Saint-André (1749–1813), French revolutionary Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, (1780–1867), painter Antoine Bourdelle (1861–1929), sculptor and teacher Daniel Cohn-Bendit (1943–), leader of May '68 student protests and MEP Didier Rous (1970–), cyclist Mathieu Perget (1984–), cyclist Trivia Montauban is the seat of a bishop and a court of assize. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a board of trade arbitration, lycées and a training college, schools of commerce and viticulture, a branch of the Bank of France, and a faculty of Protestant theology. References External links Official website | Montauban |@lemmatized montauban:14 montalban:1 occitan:1 town:7 commune:2 southwestern:1 france:4 préfecture:2 capital:1 tarn:4 et:1 garonne:2 département:1 north:1 toulouse:4 build:4 mainly:1 reddish:1 brick:4 stand:2 right:1 bank:3 river:2 confluence:1 tescou:1 history:1 arcade:2 place:2 nationale:2 exception:1 mont:1 de:6 marsan:1 old:3 bastides:1 southern:2 foundation:1 date:1 alphonse:1 jourdain:1 count:2 grant:1 liberal:1 charter:1 inhabitant:2 draw:1 chiefly:2 montauriol:1 village:1 grow:1 around:1 neighbouring:1 monastery:1 st:3 théodard:2 century:6 suffer:2 much:2 ravage:1 albigensians:1 inquisition:1 recover:1 sufficiently:1 choose:1 john:1 xxii:1 head:1 diocese:1 basilica:1 become:2 cathedral:3 treaty:1 brétigny:1 cede:1 english:1 expel:2 bishop:3 magistrate:1 embrace:1 protestantism:1 monk:1 demolish:1 ten:1 year:2 later:2 one:2 four:1 huguenot:2 stronghold:1 peace:1 saint:3 germain:1 form:1 small:1 independent:1 republic:1 headquarters:1 rebellion:1 successfully:2 withstand:2 day:1 siege:1 louis:2 xiii:2 submit:1 royal:1 authority:1 fall:1 la:1 rochelle:1 fortification:2 destroy:1 cardinal:1 richelieu:1 protestant:2 persecution:1 repeal:1 edict:1 nantes:1 world:2 war:1 ii:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 mona:1 lisa:1 briefly:1 hide:1 secret:1 vault:1 behind:1 wine:1 cellar:1 sight:1 replace:1 boulevard:1 beyond:1 extend:1 numerous:1 suburb:2 left:1 villebourbon:1 connect:1 remarkable:2 bridge:11 early:1 know:2 pont:1 vieux:1 e:1 king:1 philip:1 fair:1 officially:1 launch:1 building:1 tour:1 project:1 take:1 complete:1 inaugurate:1 main:1 architect:1 étienne:1 ferrières:1 mathieu:2 verdun:1 pink:3 structure:1 meter:1 yard:1 length:1 fortified:1 tower:2 disappear:1 otherwise:1 good:1 preservation:1 design:1 resist:1 violent:1 flood:2 indeed:1 two:1 terrible:1 millennial:1 straight:1 level:2 quite:1 unusual:1 medieval:1 europe:1 lack:1 technological:1 skill:1 mean:1 humpback:1 musée:1 ingres:5 site:1 castle:1 residence:1 east:1 end:1 belong:1 portion:1 notably:1 underground:1 chamber:2 hall:1 black:1 prince:2 salle:1 du:1 noir:1 comprise:1 work:1 include:2 jesus:1 among:1 doctor:1 jean:4 celebrated:1 painter:2 whose:2 birth:2 commemorate:1 elaborate:1 monument:1 large:4 museum:2 painting:1 also:1 contain:1 sculpture:1 famous:1 sculptor:2 antoine:3 bourdelle:2 another:1 native:1 well:1 collection:1 antiquity:1 greek:1 vas:1 ceramic:1 square:1 enter:1 corner:1 gateway:1 give:1 access:1 open:1 space:1 surround:1 house:1 carry:1 double:1 row:1 locate:1 palace:1 intendant:1 equivalent:1 préfet:1 french:3 revolution:1 elegant:1 mansion:1 white:1 stone:1 steep:1 roof:1 blue:1 gray:1 slate:1 style:4 marry:1 northern:1 architecture:1 chief:1 church:2 possession:1 vow:1 masterpiece:1 jacques:3 dedicate:1 james:1 compostela:1 façade:1 surmount:1 handsome:1 octagonal:1 base:1 romanesque:1 upper:1 gothic:1 economy:1 commercial:1 importance:1 due:1 rather:1 trade:2 agricultural:1 produce:1 horse:1 game:1 poultry:1 industry:1 nursery:1 gardening:1 cloth:2 weaving:1 dressing:1 flour:1 milling:1 wood:1 sawing:1 manufacture:1 furniture:1 silk:1 gauze:1 straw:1 hat:1 demographic:1 population:1 transport:1 railway:1 junction:1 communicate:1 canal:1 montech:1 sport:1 home:1 rugby:1 union:1 club:1 u:1 team:1 gain:1 promotion:1 pro:1 competition:1 top:1 season:1 birthplace:1 lefranc:1 marquis:1 pompignan:1 poet:1 hippolyte:1 comte:1 guibert:1 general:1 military:1 writer:1 olympe:1 gouge:1 playwright:1 journalist:1 feminist:1 writing:1 reach:1 audience:1 bon:1 andré:1 revolutionary:1 auguste:1 dominique:1 teacher:1 daniel:1 cohn:1 bendit:1 leader:1 may:1 student:1 protest:1 mep:1 didier:1 rous:1 cyclist:2 perget:1 trivia:1 seat:1 court:1 assize:1 tribunal:1 first:1 instance:1 commerce:3 board:1 arbitration:1 lycées:1 training:1 college:1 school:1 viticulture:1 branch:1 faculty:1 theology:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram et_garonne:1 saint_germain:1 la_rochelle:1 cardinal_richelieu:1 edict_nantes:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 vinci_mona:1 mona_lisa:1 wine_cellar:1 flour_milling:1 rugby_union:1 jean_jacques:1 auguste_dominique:1 dominique_ingres:1 daniel_cohn:1 cohn_bendit:1 chamber_commerce:1 external_link:1 |
3,085 | Ecology | The science of ecology includes everything from global processes (above), the study of various marine and terrestrial habitats (middle) to individual interspecific interactions like predation and pollination (below). Ecology (from Greek oîkos, "house"; -λογία, -logos, study of) is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms and their interactions with their environment. The environment of an organism includes all external factors, including abiotic ones such as climate and geology, and biotic factors, including members of the same species (conspecifics) and other species that share a habitat. If the general life science of biology is viewed as a hierarchy of levels of organization, from molecular processes, to cells, tissues and organs, and finally to the individual, the population and the ecosystem, then the study of the latter three levels belongs within the purview of ecology. Examples of objects of ecological study include: Population processes, including reproductive behavior, mortality, bioenergetics and migrations, interspecific interactions such as predation, competition, parasitism and mutualism, plant and animal community structures and their function and resilience, and biogeochemical cycling. Because of its vast scope, ecological science is often closely related to other disciplines. Thus, molecular ecology addresses ecological questions using tools from genetics, paleoecology uses tools from archeology, and theoretical ecologists use often highly complex mathematical models to explore how ecosystems and their elements function. Aside from pure scientific inquiry, ecology is also a highly applied science. Much of natural resource management, such as forestry, fisheries, wildlife management and habitat conservation is directly related to ecological sciences and many problems in agriculture, urban development and public health are informed by ecological considerations. The term "ecology" has also been appropriated for philosophical ideologies like social ecology and deep ecology and is sometimes used as a synonym for the natural environment or environmentalism. Likewise "ecological" is often taken in the sense of environmentally friendly. Historical roots of ecology 90 px 90 px Ernst Haeckel (left) and Eugenius Warming (right), two early founders of ecology. Ecology as a scientific discipline is relatively young, reaching prominence mostly in the second half of the 20th century. However, systematic ecological studies can trace roots to ancient times, with Aristotle and Theophrastus, for example, making early observations on animal migrations and plant biogeography respectively. Several notable 19th century scientists such as Alexander Humboldt (1769 – 1859), Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882), Alfred Russel Wallace (1823 – 1913) and Karl Möbius (1825 – 1908) made many important contributions, from laying down the foundation of biogeography to identifying an interacting groups of organisms as a functionally connected community (biocoenosis). The term "ecology" itself () was first coined by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866, who defined it as "the comprehensive science of the relationship of the organism to the environment." The first significant textbook on the subject (together with the first university course) was written by the Danish botanist, Eugenius Warming. For this early work, Warming is sometimes identified as the founder of ecology. Goodland, R.J. (1975) The tropical origin of ecology: Eugen Warming’s jubilee. Oikos 26, 240-245. Scope Ecology is usually considered as a branch of biology, the general science that studies living organisms. It is associated with the highest levels of biological organization, including the individual organism, the population, the ecological community, the ecosystem and the biosphere as a whole. When referring to the study of a single species, a distinction is often made between its "ecology" and its "biology". For example, "polar bear biology" might include the study of the polar bear's physiology, morphology, pathology and ontogeny, whereas "polar bear ecology" would include a study of its prey species, its population and metapopulation status, distribution, dependence on environmental conditions, etc. Because of its focus on the interrelations between organisms and their environment, ecology is a multidisciplinary science that draws on many other branches, including geology and geography, meteorology, soil science, genetics, chemistry, physics, mathematics and statistics. Due to its breadth of scope, ecology is considered by some to be a holistic science, one that over-arches older disciplines such as biology which in this view become sub-disciplines contributing to ecological knowledge. It has been argued that the mechanistic models which have driven the development of most other sciences are inappropriate for unraveling the complex interactions in most ecosystems, and that progress in ecology is better served by a central paradigm driven by information theory and complexity theory. R. Ulanowicz, Ecology: The Ascendent Perspective, Columbia (1997) Ecology is also a highly applied science, especially with respect to issues of natural resource management. Efforts related to wildlife conservation, habitat management, mitigation of ecological impacts of environmental pollution, ecosystem restoration, species reintroductions, fisheries, forestry and game management are often the direct domain of applied ecology. Urban development, agricultural and public health issues are also often informed by ecological perspectives and analysis. Disciplines Ecology is a broad discipline comprising many sub-disciplines. A common, broad classification, moving from lowest to highest complexity, where complexity is defined as the number of entities and processes in the system under study, is: Ecophysiology examines how the physiological functions of organisms influence the way they interact with the environment, both biotic and abiotic. Behavioral ecology examines the roles of behavior in enabling an animal to adapt to its environment. Population ecology studies the dynamics of populations of a single species. Community ecology (or synecology) focuses on the interactions between species within an ecological community. Ecosystem ecology studies the flows of energy and matter through the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field focusing on the study, development, and organization of ecological systems from a holistic perspective. Landscape ecology examines processes and relationship in a spatially explicit manner, often across multiple ecosystems or very large geographic areas. Evolutionary ecology studies ecology in a way that explicitly considers the evolutionary histories of species and their interactions. Political ecology connects politics and economy to problems of environmental control and ecological change. Ecology can also be sub-divided according to the species of interest into fields such as animal ecology, plant ecology, insect ecology, and so on. Another frequent method of subdivision is by biome studied, e.g., Arctic ecology (or polar ecology), tropical ecology, desert ecology, marine ecology, etc. The primary technique used for investigation is often used to subdivide the discipline into groups such as chemical ecology, molecular ecology, field ecology, quantitative ecology, theoretical ecology, and so forth. Subdivisions of ecology are not mutually exclusive; indeed, very few exist in isolation. Many of them overlap, complement and inform each other. For example, the population ecology of an organism is a consequence of its behavioral ecology and intimately tied to its community ecology. Methods from molecular ecology might inform the study of the population, and all kinds of data are modeled and analyzed using quantitative ecology techniques, often motivated by basic results in theoretical ecology. Fundamental principles Levels of organization Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef Ecology can be studied at a wide range of levels, from large to small scale. These levels of ecological organization, as well as an example of a question ecologists would ask at each level, include: Biosphere: " What role does concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide play in the regulation of global temperature?" Region: "How has geological history influenced regional diversity within certain groups of organisms?" Landscape: "How do vegetated corridors affect the rate of movement by mammals among isolated fragments?" Ecosystem: "How does fire affect nutrient availability in grassland ecosystems?" Community: "How does disturbance influence the number of mammal species in African grasslands?" Interactions: "What evolutionary benefit do zebras gain by allowing birds to remove parasites?" Population: "What factors control zebra populations?" Individual Organism: "How do zebras regulate internal water balance?" These levels range from broadest to most specific. Ecology: Concepts & Applications. Fourth Edition Manuel C. Molles Jr. U of New Mexico. 2008 McGraw Hill Publishing. ISBN 978-0-07-305082-9 Biosphere For modern ecologists, ecology can be studied at several levels: population level (individuals of the same species in the same or similar environment), biocoenosis level (or community of species), ecosystem level, and biosphere level. The outer layer of the planet Earth can be divided into several compartments: the hydrosphere (or sphere of water), the lithosphere (or sphere of soils and rocks), and the atmosphere (or sphere of the air). The biosphere (or sphere of life), sometimes described as "the fourth envelope," is all living matter on the planet or that portion of the planet occupied by life. It reaches well into the other three spheres, although there are no permanent inhabitants of the atmosphere. Relative to the volume of the Earth, the biosphere is only the very thin surface layer that extends from 11,000 meters below sea level to 15,000 meters above. It is thought that life first developed in the hydrosphere, at shallow depths, in the photic zone. (Recently, though, a competing theory has emerged, that life originated around hydrothermal vents in the deeper ocean. See Origin of life.) Multicellular organisms then appeared and colonized benthic zones. Photosynthetic organisms gradually produced the chemically unstable oxygen-rich atmosphere that characterizes our planet. Terrestrial life developed later, protected from UV rays by the ozone layer. Diversification of terrestrial species is thought to be increased by the continents drifting apart, or alternately, colliding. Biodiversity is expressed at the ecological level (ecosystem), population level (intraspecific diversity), species level (specific diversity), and genetic level. The biosphere contains great quantities of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. Other elements, such as phosphorus, calcium, and potassium, are also essential to life, yet are present in smaller amounts. At the ecosystem and biosphere levels, there is a continual recycling of all these elements, which alternate between the mineral and organic states. Although there is a slight input of geothermal energy, the bulk of the functioning of the ecosystem is based on the input of solar energy. Plants and photosynthetic microorganisms convert light into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis, which creates glucose (a simple sugar) and releases free oxygen. Glucose thus becomes the secondary energy source that drives the ecosystem. Some of this glucose is used directly by other organisms for energy. Other sugar molecules can be converted to molecules such as amino acids. Plants use some of this sugar, concentrated in nectar, to entice pollinators to aid them in reproduction. Cellular respiration is the process by which organisms (like mammals) break the glucose back down into its constituents, water and carbon dioxide, thus regaining the stored energy the sun originally gave to the plants. The proportion of photosynthetic activity of plants and other photosynthesizers to the respiration of other organisms determines the specific composition of the Earth's atmosphere, particularly its oxygen level. Global air currents mix the atmosphere and maintain nearly the same balance of elements in areas of intense biological activity and areas of slight biological activity. Water is also exchanged between the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere in regular cycles. The oceans are large tanks that store water, ensure thermal and climatic stability, and facilitate the transport of chemical elements thanks to large oceanic currents. For a better understanding of how the biosphere works, and various dysfunctions related to human activity, American scientists attempted to simulate the biosphere in a small-scale model, called Biosphere II. Ecosystem The Daintree Rainforest in Queensland, Australia is an example of a forest ecosystem. A central principle of ecology is that each living organism has an ongoing and continual relationship with every other element that makes up its environment. The sum total of interacting living organisms (the biocoenosis) and their non-living environment (the biotope) in an area is termed an ecosystem. Studies of ecosystems usually focus on the movement of energy and matter through the system. Almost all ecosystems run on energy captured from the sun by primary producers via photosynthesis. This energy then flows through the food chains to primary consumers (herbivores who eat and digest the plants), and on to secondary and tertiary consumers (either carnivores or omnivores). Energy is lost to living organisms when it is used by the organisms to do work, or is lost as waste heat. Matter is incorporated into living organisms by the primary producers. Photosynthetic plants fix carbon from carbon dioxide and nitrogen from atmospheric nitrogen or nitrates present in the soil to produce amino acids. Much of the carbon and nitrogen contained in ecosystems is created by such plants, and is then consumed by secondary and tertiary consumers and incorporated into themselves. Nutrients are usually returned to the ecosystem via decomposition. The entire movement of chemicals in an ecosystem is termed a biogeochemical cycle, and includes the carbon and nitrogen cycle. Ecosystems of any size can be studied; for example, a rock and the plant life growing on it might be considered an ecosystem. This rock might be within a plain, with many such rocks, small grass, and grazing animals -- also an ecosystem. This plain might be in the tundra, which is also an ecosystem (although once they are of this size, they are generally termed ecozones or biomes). In fact, the entire terrestrial surface of the earth, all the matter which composes it, the air that is directly above it, and all the living organisms living within it can be considered as one, large ecosystem. Ecosystems can be roughly divided into terrestrial ecosystems (including forest ecosystems, steppes, savannas, and so on), freshwater ecosystems (lakes, ponds and rivers), and marine ecosystems, depending on the dominant biotope. Dynamics and stability Much attention has been given to preserving the natural characteristics of Hopetoun Falls, Australia, while allowing ample access for visitors. Ecological factors that affect dynamic change in a population or species in a given ecology or environment are usually divided into two groups: abiotic and biotic. Abiotic factors are geological, geographical, hydrological, and climatological parameters. A biotope is an environmentally uniform region characterized by a particular set of abiotic ecological factors. Specific abiotic factors include: Water, which is at the same time an essential element to life and a milieu Air, which provides oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide to living species and allows the dissemination of pollen and spores Soil, at the same time a source of nutriment and physical support Soil pH, salinity, nitrogen and phosphorus content, ability to retain water, and density are all influential Temperature, which should not exceed certain extremes, even if tolerance to heat is significant for some species Light, which provides energy to the ecosystem through photosynthesis Natural disasters can also be considered abiotic Biocenose, or community, is a group of populations of plants, animals, microorganisms. Each population is the result of procreations between individuals of the same species and cohabitation in a given place and for a given time. When a population consists of an insufficient number of individuals, that population is threatened with extinction; the extinction of a species can approach when all biocenoses composed of individuals of the species are in decline. In small populations, consanguinity (inbreeding) can result in reduced genetic diversity, which can further weaken the biocenose. Biotic ecological factors also influence biocenose viability; these factors are considered as either intraspecific or interspecific relations. Intraspecific relations are those that are established between individuals of the same species, forming a population. They are relations of cooperation or competition, with division of the territory, and sometimes organization in hierarchical societies. An antlion lies in wait under its pit trap, built in dry dust under a building, awaiting unwary insects that fall in. Many pest insects are partly or wholly controlled by other insect predators. Interspecific relations—interactions between different species—are numerous, and usually described according to their beneficial, detrimental, or neutral effect (for example, mutualism (relation ++) or competition (relation --). The most significant relation is the relation of predation (to eat or to be eaten), which leads to the essential concepts in ecology of food chains (for example, the grass is consumed by the herbivore, itself consumed by a carnivore, itself consumed by a carnivore of larger size). A high predator to prey ratio can have a negative influence on both the predator and prey biocenoses in that low availability of food and high death rate prior to sexual maturity can decrease (or prevent the increase of) populations of each, respectively. Selective hunting of species by humans that leads to population decline is one example of a high predator to prey ratio in action. Other interspecific relations include parasitism, infectious disease, and competition for limited resources, which can occur when two species share the same ecological niche. The existing interactions between the various living beings go along with a permanent mixing of mineral and organic substances, absorbed by organisms for their growth, their maintenance, and their reproduction, to be finally rejected as waste. These permanent recycling of the elements (in particular carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen) as well as the water are called biogeochemical cycles. They guarantee a durable stability of the biosphere (at least when unchecked human influence and extreme weather or geological phenomena are left aside). This self-regulation, supported by negative feedback controls, ensures the perenniality of the ecosystems. It is shown by the very stable concentrations of most elements of each compartment. This is referred to as homeostasis. The ecosystem also tends to evolve to a state of ideal balance, called the climax, which is reached after a succession of events (for example a pond can become a peat bog). Spatial relationships and subdivisions of land Ecosystems are not isolated from each other, but are interrelated. For example, water may circulate between ecosystems by means of a river or ocean current. Water itself, as a liquid medium, even defines ecosystems. Some species, such as salmon or freshwater eels, move between marine systems and fresh-water systems. These relationships between the ecosystems lead to the concept of a biome. A biome is a homogeneous ecological formation that exists over a large region, such as tundra or steppes. The biosphere comprises all of the Earth's biomes -- the entirety of places where life is possible -- from the highest mountains to the depths of the oceans. Biomes correspond rather well to subdivisions distributed along the latitudes, from the equator towards the poles, with differences based on the physical environment (for example, oceans or mountain ranges) and the climate. Their variation is generally related to the distribution of species according to their ability to tolerate temperature, dryness, or both. For example, one may find photosynthetic algae only in the photic part of the ocean (where light penetrates), whereas conifers are mostly found in mountains. Though this is a simplification of a more complicated scheme, latitude and altitude approximate a good representation of the distribution of biodiversity within the biosphere. Very generally, the richness of biodiversity (as well for animal as for plant species) is decreasing most rapidly near the equator and less rapidly as one approach the poles. The biosphere may also be divided into ecozones, which are very well defined today and primarily follow the continental borders. The ecozones are themselves divided into ecoregions, though there is not agreement on their limits. Ecosystem productivity In an ecosystem, the connections between species are generally related to their role in the food chain. There are three categories of organisms: The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. Producers or Autotrophs -- Usually plants or cyanobacteria that are capable of photosynthesis but could be other organisms such as the bacteria near ocean vents that are capable of chemosynthesis. Consumers or Heterotrophs -- Animals, which can be primary consumers (herbivorous), or secondary or tertiary consumers (carnivorous and omnivores). Decomposers or Detritivores -- Bacteria, fungi, and insects which degrade organic matter of all types and restore nutrients to the environment. The producers will then consume the nutrients, completing the cycle. These relations form sequences, in which each individual consumes the preceding one and is consumed by the one following, in what are called food chains or food networks. In a food network, there will be fewer organisms at each level as one follows the links of the network up the chain, forming a pyramid. These concepts lead to the idea of biomass (the total living matter in an ecosystem), primary productivity (the increase in organic compounds), and secondary productivity (the living matter produced by consumers and the decomposers in a given time). An ecological pyramid These last two ideas are key, since they make it possible to evaluate the carrying capacity -- the number of organisms that can be supported by a given ecosystem. In any food network, the energy contained in the level of the producers is not completely transferred to the consumers. The higher up the chain, the more energy and resources are lost. Thus, from a purely energy and nutrient point of view, it is more efficient for humans to be primary consumers (to subsist from vegetables, grains, legumes, fruit, etc.) than to be secondary consumers (consuming herbivores, omnivores, or their products) and still more so than as a tertiary consumer (consuming carnivores, omnivores, or their products). An ecosystem is unstable when the carrying capacity is overrun. The total productivity of ecosystems is sometimes estimated by comparing three types of land-based ecosystems and the total of aquatic ecosystems. Slightly over half of primary production is estimated to occur on land, and the rest in the ocean. The forests (1/3 of the Earth's land area) contain dense biomasses and are very productive. Savannas, meadows, and marshes (1/3 of the Earth's land area) contain less dense biomasses, but are productive. These ecosystems represent the major part of what humans depend on for food. Extreme ecosystems in the areas with more extreme climates -- deserts and semi-deserts, tundra, alpine meadows, and steppes -- (1/3 of the Earth's land area) have very sparse biomasses and low productivity Finally, the marine and fresh water ecosystems (3/4 of Earth's surface) contain very sparse biomasses (apart from the coastal zones). Ecosystems differ in biomass (grams carbon per square meter) and productivity (grams carbon per square meter per day), and direct comparisons of biomass and productivity may not be valid. An ecosystem such as that found in taiga may be high in biomass, but slow growing and thus low in productivity. Ecosystems are often compared on the basis of their turnover (production ratio) or turnover time which is the reciprocal of turnover. Humanity's actions over the last few centuries have seriously reduced the amount of the Earth covered by forests (deforestation), and have increased agro-ecosystems. In recent decades, an increase in the areas occupied by extreme ecosystems has occurred, such as desertification. Ecological crisis The retreat of Aletsch Glacier in the Swiss Alps (situation in 1979, 1991 and 2002), due to global warming. Generally, an ecological crisis occurs with the loss of adaptive capacity when the resilience of an environment or of a species or a population evolves in a way unfavourable to coping with perturbations that interfere with that ecosystem, landscape or species survival (Note: The concept of resilience is not universally accepted in ecology, and moreso represents a contingent within the field that take a holist view of the environment. There are also many ecologists that take a reductionistic perspective and that believe that the environment, at base, is indeterministic). It may be that the environment quality degrades compared to the species needs, after a change in an abiotic ecological factor (for example, an increase of temperature, less significant rainfalls). It may be that the environment becomes unfavourable for the survival of a species (or a population) due to an increased pressure of predation (for example overfishing). Lastly, it may be that the situation becomes unfavourable to the quality of life of the species (or the population) due to a rise in the number of individuals (overpopulation). Ecological crises vary in length and severity, occurring within a few months or taking as long as a few million years. They can also be of natural or anthropic origin. They may relate to one unique species or to many species, as in an Extinction event. Lastly, an ecological crisis may be local (as an oil spill) or global (a rise in the sea level due to global warming). According to its degree of endemism, a local crisis will have more or less significant consequences, from the death of many individuals to the total extinction of a species. Whatever its origin, disappearance of one or several species often will involve a rupture in the food chain, further impacting the survival of other species. In the case of a global crisis, the consequences can be much more significant; some extinction events showed the disappearance of more than 90% of existing species at that time. However, it should be noted that the disappearance of certain species, such as the dinosaurs, by freeing an ecological niche, allowed the development and the diversification of the mammals. An ecological crisis thus paradoxically favoured biodiversity. Sometimes, an ecological crisis can be a specific and reversible phenomenon at the ecosystem scale. But more generally, the crises impact will last. Indeed, it rather is a connected series of events, that occur till a final point. From this stage, no return to the previous stable state is possible, and a new stable state will be set up gradually (see homeorhesy). Lastly, if an ecological crisis can cause extinction, it can also more simply reduce the quality of life of the remaining individuals. Thus, even if the diversity of the human population is sometimes considered threatened (see in particular indigenous people), few people envision human disappearance at short span. However, epidemic diseases, famines, impact on health of reduction of air quality, food crises, reduction of living space, accumulation of toxic or non degradable wastes, threats on keystone species (great apes, panda, whales) are also factors influencing the well-being of people. Due to the increases in technology and a rapidly increasing population, humans have more influence on their own environment than any other ecosystem engineer. See also Acoustic ecology Agroecology Conservation movement Earth science Ecological economics Ecological Forecasting Ecology movement Ecology of contexts Ecosystem model Ecohydrology ELDIS, a database on ecological aspects of economical development. Forest farming Forest gardening Habitat conservation Human ecology Knowledge ecology Natural capital Nature Lists Index of biology articles Glossary of ecology List of ecologists List of important publications in biology#Ecology Outline of biology Outline of ecology Notes References Haeckel, E. (1866) General Morphology of Organisms; General Outlines of the Science of Organic Forms based on Mechanical Principles through the Theory of Descent as reformed by Charles Darwin. Berlin Odum, E. P. (1971) General Principles of Ecology, Third Edition W. B. Suanders Company. pp 17-20 Warming, E. (1909) Oecology of Plants - an introduction to the study of plant-communities. Clarendon Press, Oxford. External links Ecology (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Ecology Journals List of scientific journals related to Ecology Ecology Dictionary - Explanation of Ecological Terms | Ecology |@lemmatized science:14 ecology:74 include:15 everything:1 global:7 process:7 study:22 various:3 marine:5 terrestrial:5 habitat:5 middle:1 individual:13 interspecific:5 interaction:9 like:3 predation:4 pollination:1 greek:1 oîkos:1 house:1 λογία:1 logo:1 interdisciplinary:2 scientific:4 distribution:4 abundance:1 organism:24 environment:19 external:2 factor:11 abiotic:9 one:11 climate:3 geology:2 biotic:5 member:1 specie:41 conspecific:1 share:2 general:5 life:13 biology:8 view:4 hierarchy:1 level:23 organization:6 molecular:4 cell:1 tissue:1 organ:1 finally:3 population:26 ecosystem:59 latter:1 three:4 belongs:1 within:8 purview:1 example:16 object:1 ecological:35 reproductive:1 behavior:2 mortality:1 bioenergetics:1 migration:2 competition:4 parasitism:2 mutualism:2 plant:17 animal:8 community:10 structure:1 function:3 resilience:3 biogeochemical:3 cycling:1 vast:1 scope:3 often:11 closely:1 relate:8 discipline:8 thus:7 address:1 question:2 use:9 tool:2 genetics:2 paleoecology:1 us:1 archeology:1 theoretical:3 ecologist:5 highly:3 complex:2 mathematical:1 model:5 explore:1 element:10 aside:2 pure:1 inquiry:1 also:18 apply:1 much:4 natural:7 resource:4 management:5 forestry:2 fishery:2 wildlife:2 conservation:4 directly:3 many:10 problem:2 agriculture:1 urban:2 development:6 public:2 health:3 inform:4 consideration:1 term:6 appropriate:1 philosophical:1 ideology:1 social:1 deep:2 sometimes:7 synonym:1 environmentalism:1 likewise:1 take:4 sense:1 environmentally:2 friendly:1 historical:1 root:2 px:2 ernst:2 haeckel:3 leave:2 eugenius:2 warming:5 right:1 two:4 early:3 founder:2 relatively:1 young:1 reach:3 prominence:1 mostly:2 second:1 half:2 century:3 however:3 systematic:1 trace:1 ancient:1 time:7 aristotle:1 theophrastus:1 make:5 observation:1 biogeography:2 respectively:2 several:4 notable:1 scientist:2 alexander:1 humboldt:1 charles:2 darwin:2 alfred:1 russel:1 wallace:1 karl:1 möbius:1 important:2 contribution:1 lay:1 foundation:1 identify:2 interact:3 group:5 functionally:1 connect:1 biocoenosis:3 first:4 coin:1 german:1 biologist:1 define:4 comprehensive:1 relationship:5 significant:6 textbook:1 subject:1 together:1 university:1 course:1 write:1 danish:1 botanist:1 work:3 warm:2 goodland:1 r:2 j:1 tropical:2 origin:4 eugen:1 jubilee:1 oikos:1 usually:6 consider:8 branch:2 live:7 associate:1 high:8 biological:3 biosphere:16 whole:1 refer:2 single:2 distinction:1 polar:4 bear:3 might:5 physiology:1 morphology:2 pathology:1 ontogeny:1 whereas:2 would:2 prey:4 metapopulation:1 status:1 dependence:1 environmental:3 condition:1 etc:3 focus:4 interrelation:1 multidisciplinary:1 draw:1 geography:1 meteorology:1 soil:5 chemistry:1 physic:1 mathematics:1 statistic:1 due:6 breadth:1 holistic:2 arch:1 old:1 become:5 sub:3 contribute:1 knowledge:2 argue:1 mechanistic:1 drive:3 inappropriate:1 unravel:1 progress:1 well:8 serve:1 central:2 paradigm:1 information:1 theory:4 complexity:3 ulanowicz:1 ascendent:1 perspective:4 columbia:1 applied:2 especially:1 respect:1 issue:2 effort:1 mitigation:1 impact:4 pollution:1 restoration:1 reintroduction:1 game:1 direct:2 domain:1 agricultural:1 analysis:1 broad:3 comprise:2 common:1 classification:1 move:2 low:4 number:5 entity:1 system:6 ecophysiology:1 examine:2 physiological:1 organisms:4 influence:8 way:3 behavioral:2 role:3 enable:1 adapt:1 dynamic:3 synecology:1 flow:2 energy:15 matter:8 component:1 field:4 landscape:3 examines:1 spatially:1 explicit:1 manner:1 across:1 multiple:1 large:7 geographic:1 area:9 evolutionary:3 explicitly:1 history:2 political:1 connects:1 politics:1 economy:1 control:4 change:3 divide:6 accord:4 interest:1 insect:5 another:1 frequent:1 method:2 subdivision:4 biome:6 e:4 g:1 arctic:1 desert:3 primary:9 technique:2 investigation:1 subdivide:1 chemical:4 quantitative:2 forth:1 mutually:1 exclusive:1 indeed:2 exist:4 isolation:1 overlap:1 complement:1 consequence:3 intimately:1 tie:1 kind:1 data:1 analyze:1 motivate:1 basic:1 result:3 fundamental:1 principle:4 biodiversity:5 coral:1 reef:1 wide:1 range:3 small:5 scale:3 ask:1 concentration:2 atmospheric:2 carbon:11 dioxide:4 play:1 regulation:2 temperature:4 region:3 geological:3 regional:1 diversity:5 certain:3 vegetated:1 corridor:1 affect:3 rate:2 movement:5 mammal:4 among:1 isolated:1 fragment:1 fire:1 nutrient:5 availability:2 grassland:2 disturbance:1 african:1 benefit:1 zebra:3 gain:1 allow:4 bird:1 remove:1 parasite:1 regulate:1 internal:1 water:12 balance:3 specific:5 concept:5 application:1 fourth:2 edition:2 manuel:1 c:1 molle:1 jr:1 u:1 new:2 mexico:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 publishing:1 isbn:1 modern:1 similar:1 layer:3 planet:4 earth:11 compartment:2 hydrosphere:3 sphere:5 lithosphere:2 rock:4 atmosphere:6 air:5 describe:2 envelope:1 portion:1 occupy:2 although:3 permanent:3 inhabitant:1 relative:1 volume:1 thin:1 surface:3 extend:1 meter:4 sea:2 think:2 develop:2 shallow:1 depth:2 photic:2 zone:3 recently:1 though:3 compete:1 emerge:1 originate:1 around:1 hydrothermal:1 vent:2 ocean:7 see:4 multicellular:1 appear:1 colonize:1 benthic:1 photosynthetic:5 gradually:2 produce:3 chemically:1 unstable:2 oxygen:6 rich:1 characterize:2 later:1 protect:1 uv:1 ray:1 ozone:1 diversification:2 increase:8 continent:1 drift:1 apart:2 alternately:1 collide:1 express:1 intraspecific:3 genetic:2 contain:6 great:2 quantity:1 nitrogen:8 hydrogen:1 phosphorus:2 calcium:1 potassium:1 essential:3 yet:1 present:2 amount:2 continual:2 recycling:2 alternate:1 mineral:2 organic:5 state:4 slight:2 input:2 geothermal:1 bulk:1 functioning:1 base:5 solar:1 microorganism:2 convert:2 light:3 photosynthesis:5 create:2 glucose:4 simple:1 sugar:3 release:1 free:2 secondary:6 source:2 molecule:2 amino:2 acid:2 concentrate:1 nectar:1 entice:1 pollinator:1 aid:1 reproduction:2 cellular:1 respiration:2 break:1 back:1 constituent:1 regain:1 store:2 sun:2 originally:1 give:7 proportion:1 activity:4 photosynthesizers:1 determines:1 composition:1 particularly:1 current:3 mix:1 maintain:1 nearly:1 intense:1 exchange:1 regular:1 cycle:5 tank:1 ensure:2 thermal:1 climatic:1 stability:3 facilitate:1 transport:1 thanks:1 oceanic:1 good:2 understanding:1 dysfunction:1 human:9 american:1 attempt:1 simulate:1 call:4 ii:1 daintree:1 rainforest:1 queensland:1 australia:2 forest:6 living:7 ongoing:1 every:1 sum:1 total:5 non:2 biotope:3 almost:1 run:1 capture:1 producer:5 via:2 food:11 chain:7 consumer:11 herbivore:3 eat:3 digest:1 tertiary:4 either:2 carnivores:1 omnivores:2 lose:3 waste:3 heat:2 incorporate:2 fix:1 nitrate:1 consume:9 return:2 decomposition:1 entire:2 size:3 grow:1 plain:2 grass:2 grazing:1 tundra:3 generally:6 ecozones:3 fact:1 compose:2 roughly:1 steppe:3 savanna:2 freshwater:2 lake:1 pond:2 river:2 depend:2 dominant:1 attention:1 preserve:1 characteristic:1 hopetoun:1 fall:2 ample:1 access:1 visitor:1 geographical:1 hydrological:1 climatological:1 parameter:1 uniform:1 particular:3 set:2 milieu:1 provide:2 dissemination:1 pollen:1 spore:1 nutriment:1 physical:2 support:3 ph:1 salinity:1 content:1 ability:2 retain:1 density:1 influential:1 exceed:1 extreme:5 even:3 tolerance:1 disaster:1 biocenose:3 procreation:1 cohabitation:1 place:2 consist:1 insufficient:1 threaten:1 extinction:6 approach:2 biocenoses:2 decline:2 consanguinity:1 inbreeding:1 reduced:1 far:2 weaken:1 viability:1 relation:10 establish:1 form:4 cooperation:1 division:1 territory:1 hierarchical:1 society:1 antlion:1 lie:1 wait:1 pit:1 trap:1 build:1 dry:1 dust:1 building:1 await:1 unwary:1 pest:1 partly:1 wholly:1 predator:4 different:1 numerous:1 beneficial:1 detrimental:1 neutral:1 effect:1 lead:4 carnivore:3 ratio:3 negative:2 death:2 prior:1 sexual:1 maturity:1 decrease:2 prevent:1 selective:1 hunting:1 action:2 infectious:1 disease:2 limited:1 occur:6 niche:2 go:1 along:2 mixing:1 substance:1 absorb:1 growth:1 maintenance:1 reject:1 guarantee:1 durable:1 least:1 unchecked:1 weather:1 phenomenon:2 self:1 feedback:1 perenniality:1 show:2 stable:3 homeostasis:1 tend:1 evolve:2 ideal:1 climax:1 succession:1 event:4 peat:1 bog:1 spatial:1 land:6 isolate:1 interrelate:1 may:10 circulate:1 mean:1 liquid:1 medium:1 salmon:1 eel:1 fresh:2 homogeneous:1 formation:1 entirety:1 possible:3 mountain:3 correspond:1 rather:2 distribute:1 latitude:2 equator:2 towards:1 pole:2 difference:1 oceans:1 variation:1 tolerate:1 dryness:1 find:3 algae:1 part:2 penetrate:1 conifer:1 simplification:1 complicated:1 scheme:1 altitude:1 approximate:1 representation:1 richness:1 rapidly:3 near:2 less:4 today:1 primarily:1 follow:2 continental:1 border:1 ecoregions:1 agreement:1 limit:1 productivity:8 connection:1 category:1 leaf:1 site:1 autotroph:1 cyanobacteria:1 capable:2 could:1 bacteria:2 chemosynthesis:1 heterotroph:1 herbivorous:1 carnivorous:1 decomposers:2 detritivores:1 fungi:1 degrade:1 type:2 restore:1 complete:1 sequence:1 precede:1 following:1 network:4 link:2 pyramid:2 idea:2 biomass:8 compound:1 last:3 key:1 since:1 evaluate:1 carrying:2 capacity:3 completely:1 transfer:1 purely:1 point:2 efficient:1 subsist:1 vegetable:1 grain:1 legume:1 fruit:1 omnivore:2 product:2 still:1 overrun:1 estimate:2 compare:3 aquatic:1 slightly:1 production:2 rest:1 dense:2 productive:2 meadow:2 marsh:1 ecosystems:1 represent:2 major:1 semi:1 alpine:1 sparse:2 coastal:1 differ:1 grams:2 per:3 square:2 day:1 comparison:1 valid:1 taiga:1 slow:1 growing:1 basis:1 turnover:3 reciprocal:1 humanity:1 seriously:1 reduce:2 cover:1 deforestation:1 agro:1 recent:1 decade:1 desertification:1 crisis:11 retreat:1 aletsch:1 glacier:1 swiss:1 alp:1 situation:2 loss:1 adaptive:1 unfavourable:3 cop:1 perturbation:1 interfere:1 survival:3 note:3 universally:1 accept:1 moreso:1 contingent:1 holist:1 reductionistic:1 believe:1 indeterministic:1 quality:4 degrades:1 need:1 rainfall:1 increased:1 pressure:1 overfishing:1 lastly:3 rise:2 overpopulation:1 vary:1 length:1 severity:1 month:1 long:1 million:1 year:1 anthropic:1 unique:1 local:2 oil:1 spill:1 degree:1 endemism:1 whatever:1 disappearance:4 involve:1 rupture:1 case:1 dinosaur:1 paradoxically:1 favoured:1 reversible:1 connected:1 series:1 till:1 final:1 stage:1 previous:1 homeorhesy:1 cause:1 simply:1 remain:1 threatened:1 indigenous:1 people:3 envision:1 short:1 span:1 epidemic:1 famine:1 reduction:2 space:1 accumulation:1 toxic:1 degradable:1 threat:1 keystone:1 ape:1 panda:1 whale:1 technology:1 engineer:1 acoustic:1 agroecology:1 economics:1 forecast:1 context:1 ecohydrology:1 eldis:1 database:1 aspect:1 economical:1 farm:1 gardening:1 capital:1 nature:1 list:4 index:1 article:1 glossary:1 publication:1 outline:3 reference:1 mechanical:1 descent:1 reform:1 berlin:1 odum:1 p:1 third:1 w:1 b:1 suanders:1 company:1 pp:1 oecology:1 introduction:1 clarendon:1 press:1 oxford:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 philosophy:1 journal:2 dictionary:1 explanation:1 |@bigram biotic_factor:1 closely_relate:1 forestry_fishery:1 environmentally_friendly:1 ernst_haeckel:2 charles_darwin:2 alfred_russel:1 russel_wallace:1 wildlife_conservation:1 biotic_abiotic:3 behavioral_ecology:2 ecosystem_ecology:1 mutually_exclusive:1 coral_reef:1 carbon_dioxide:4 mcgraw_hill:1 hydrothermal_vent:1 multicellular_organism:1 photosynthetic_organism:1 ozone_layer:1 amino_acid:2 cellular_respiration:1 secondary_tertiary:3 biogeochemical_cycle:2 terrestrial_ecosystem:1 abiotic_factor:2 pollen_spore:1 nitrogen_phosphorus:1 predator_prey:3 sexual_maturity:1 infectious_disease:1 ecological_niche:2 negative_feedback:1 peat_bog:1 bacteria_fungi:1 organic_compound:1 carrying_capacity:2 aquatic_ecosystem:1 alpine_meadow:1 swiss_alp:1 global_warming:2 universally_accept:1 oil_spill:1 clarendon_press:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 |
3,086 | GRE_Physics_Test | The GRE physics test is an examination administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS). The test attempts to determine the extent of the examinees' understanding of fundamental principles of physics and their ability to apply them to problem solving. Many graduate schools require applicants to take the exam and base admission decisions in part on the results. This puts pressure on undergraduate programs to teach the topics students will need to succeed on the GRE. The scope of the test is largely that of the first three years of a standard United States undergraduate physics curriculum, since many students who plan to continue to graduate school apply during the first half of the fourth year. It consists of 100 five-option multiple-choice questions covering subject areas including classical mechanics, electromagnetism, wave phenomena and optics, thermal physics, relativity, atomic and nuclear physics, quantum mechanics, laboratory techniques, and mathematical methods. The table below indicates the relative weights, as asserted by ETS, and detailed contents of the major topics. Major content topics 1. Classical mechanics (20%) kinematics Newton's laws of motion work and energy rotational motion about a fixed axis dynamics of systems of particles central forces and celestial mechanics three-dimensional particle dynamics Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalism noninertial reference frames elementary topics in fluid dynamics 2. Electromagnetism (18%) electrostatics currents and DC circuits magnetic fields in free space Lorentz force electromagnetic induction Maxwell's equations and their applications electromagnetic waves (electromagnetic radiation) AC circuits magnetic and electric fields in matter 3. Optics and wave phenomena (9%) wave properties superposition interference diffraction geometrical optics polarization Doppler effect 4. Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics (10%) laws of thermodynamics thermodynamic processes equations of state ideal gases kinetic theory ensembles statistical concepts and calculation of thermodynamic quantities thermal expansion and heat transfer 5. Quantum mechanics (12%) fundamental concepts solutions of the Schrödinger wave equation square wells (Particle in a box) harmonic oscillators hydrogenic atoms spin angular momentum wave function symmetry elementary perturbation theory 6. Atomic physics (10%) properties of electrons Bohr model energy quantization atomic structure atomic spectra selection rules black-body radiation x-rays atoms in electric and magnetic fields 7. Special relativity (6%) introductory concepts of special relativity time dilation length contraction simultaneity energy and momentum four-vectors and Lorentz transformation 8. Laboratory methods (6%) data and error analysis electronics instrumentation radiation detection counting statistics interaction of charged particles with matter lasers and optical interferometers dimensional analysis fundamental applications of probability and statistics 9. Specialized topics (9%) nuclear and particle physics nuclear properties radioactive decay fission and fusion reactions fundamental properties of elementary particles condensed matter crystal structure x-ray diffraction thermal properties electron theory of metals semiconductors superconductors mathematical methods single and multivariate calculus coordinate systems (rectangular, cylindrical, spherical) vector algebra and vector differential operators Fourier series partial differential equations boundary value problems matrices and determinants functions of complex variables miscellaneous astrophysics computer applications External links Official Description of the GRE Physics Test Detailed Solutions to all ETS released tests - The Missing Solutions Manual, free online, and User Comments and discussions on individual problems GRE Prep Course at Ohio State University - Preparation course, with links to all 4 publicly released Physics GRE tests, as well as links to other Physics GRE resources | GRE_Physics_Test |@lemmatized gre:6 physic:10 test:6 examination:1 administer:1 educational:1 testing:1 service:1 ets:3 attempt:1 determine:1 extent:1 examinee:1 understanding:1 fundamental:4 principle:1 ability:1 apply:2 problem:3 solve:1 many:2 graduate:2 school:2 require:1 applicant:1 take:1 exam:1 base:1 admission:1 decision:1 part:1 result:1 put:1 pressure:1 undergraduate:2 program:1 teach:1 topic:5 student:2 need:1 succeed:1 scope:1 largely:1 first:2 three:2 year:2 standard:1 united:1 state:3 curriculum:1 since:1 plan:1 continue:1 half:1 fourth:1 consist:1 five:1 option:1 multiple:1 choice:1 question:1 cover:1 subject:1 area:1 include:1 classical:2 mechanic:6 electromagnetism:2 wave:6 phenomenon:2 optic:3 thermal:3 relativity:3 atomic:4 nuclear:3 quantum:2 laboratory:2 technique:1 mathematical:2 method:3 table:1 indicate:1 relative:1 weight:1 assert:1 detailed:2 content:2 major:2 kinematics:1 newton:1 law:2 motion:2 work:1 energy:3 rotational:1 fixed:1 axis:1 dynamic:3 system:2 particles:1 central:1 force:2 celestial:1 dimensional:2 particle:5 lagrangian:1 hamiltonian:1 formalism:1 noninertial:1 reference:1 frame:1 elementary:3 fluid:1 electrostatics:1 current:1 dc:1 circuit:2 magnetic:3 field:3 free:2 space:1 lorentz:2 electromagnetic:3 induction:1 maxwell:1 equation:4 application:3 radiation:3 ac:1 electric:2 matter:3 property:5 superposition:1 interference:1 diffraction:2 geometrical:1 polarization:1 doppler:1 effect:1 thermodynamics:2 statistical:2 thermodynamic:2 process:1 ideal:1 gas:1 kinetic:1 theory:3 ensemble:1 concept:3 calculation:1 quantity:1 expansion:1 heat:1 transfer:1 solution:3 schrödinger:1 square:1 well:2 box:1 harmonic:1 oscillator:1 hydrogenic:1 atom:1 spin:1 angular:1 momentum:2 function:2 symmetry:1 perturbation:1 electron:2 bohr:1 model:1 quantization:1 structure:2 spectra:1 selection:1 rule:1 black:1 body:1 x:2 ray:2 atoms:1 special:2 introductory:1 time:1 dilation:1 length:1 contraction:1 simultaneity:1 four:1 vector:3 transformation:1 data:1 error:1 analysis:2 electronics:1 instrumentation:1 detection:1 count:1 statistic:2 interaction:1 charge:1 laser:1 optical:1 interferometer:1 probability:1 specialize:1 radioactive:1 decay:1 fission:1 fusion:1 reaction:1 condense:1 crystal:1 metal:1 semiconductor:1 superconductors:1 single:1 multivariate:1 calculus:1 coordinate:1 rectangular:1 cylindrical:1 spherical:1 algebra:1 differential:2 operator:1 fourier:1 series:1 partial:1 boundary:1 value:1 matrix:1 determinant:1 complex:1 variable:1 miscellaneous:1 astrophysics:1 computer:1 external:1 link:3 official:1 description:1 release:2 missing:1 manual:1 online:1 user:1 comment:1 discussion:1 individual:1 prep:1 course:2 ohio:1 university:1 preparation:1 publicly:1 resource:1 |@bigram quantum_mechanic:2 celestial_mechanic:1 magnetic_field:2 electromagnetic_induction:1 maxwell_equation:1 electromagnetic_wave:1 electromagnetic_radiation:1 geometrical_optic:1 statistical_mechanic:1 harmonic_oscillator:1 angular_momentum:1 special_relativity:2 lorentz_transformation:1 radioactive_decay:1 elementary_particle:1 ray_diffraction:1 partial_differential:1 differential_equation:1 matrix_determinant:1 external_link:1 |
3,087 | Laos | Laos (, , or ), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west. Laos traces its history to the Kingdom of Lan Xang or Land of a Million Elephants, which existed from the 14th to the 18th century. After a period as a French protectorate, it gained independence in 1949. A long civil war ended officially when the communist Pathet Lao movement came to power in 1975, but the protesting between factions continued for several years. Etymology In the Lao language, the country's name is "Meuang Lao." The Imperial French, who made the country part of French Indochina in 1893, spelled it with a final silent "s," i.e., "Laos" (the Lao language itself has no final "s" sound, so Lao people pronounce it as in their native tongue though some, especially those living abroad, use the pronunciation ending in "s"). The usual adjectival form is "Lao," e.g., "the Lao economy," not the "Laotian" economy—although "Laotian" is used to describe the people of Laos to avoid confusion with the Lao ethnic group. History Laos traces its history to the kingdom of Lan Xang, founded in the 15th century by Fa Ngum, himself descended from a long line of Lao kings, tracking back to Khoun Boulom. Lan-Xang prospered until the 18th century, when the kingdom was divided into three principalities, which eventually came under Siamese suzerainty. In the 19th century, Luang Prabang was incorporated into the 'Protectorate' of French Indochina, and shortly thereafter, the Kingdom of Champasak and the territory of Vientiane were also added to the protectorate. Under the French, Vientiane once again became the capital of a unified Lao state. Following a brief Japanese occupation during World War II, the country declared its independence in 1945, but the French under Charles de Gaulle re-asserted their control and only in 1950 was Laos granted semi-autonomy as an "associated state" within the French Union. Moreover, the French remained in de facto control until 1954, when Laos gained full independence as a constitutional monarchy. Under a special exemption to the Geneva Convention, a French military training mission continued to support the Royal Laos Army. In 1955, the U.S. Department of Defense created a special Programs Evaluation Office to replace French support of the Royal Lao Army against the communist Pathet Lao as part of the U.S. containment policy. Laos was dragged into the Vietnam War and the eastern parts of the country were invaded and occupied by the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), which used Laotian territory as a staging ground and supply route for its war against the South. In response, the United States initiated a bombing campaign against the North Vietnamese, supported regular and irregular anticommunist forces in Laos and supported a South Vietnamese invasion of Laos. The result of these actions were a series of coups d'état and, ultimately, the Laotian Civil War between the Royal Laotian government and the communist Pathet Lao. In the Civil War the NVA, with its heavy artillery and tanks, was the real power behind the Pathet Lao insurgency. In 1968, the North Vietnamese Army launched a multi-division attack against the Royal Lao Army. The attack resulted in the army largely demobilizing and leaving the conflict to irregular forces raised by the United States and Thailand. The attack resulted in many people losing their lives. Massive aerial bombardment was carried out by the United States. The Guardian reported that Laos was hit by an average of one B-52 bombload every eight minutes, 24 hours a day, between 1964 and 1973. US bombers dropped more ordnance on Laos in this period than was dropped during the whole of the Second World War. Of the 260m "bombies" that rained down, particularly on Xieng Khouang province, 80m failed to explode, leaving a deadly legacy. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/dec/03/laos-cluster-bombs-uxo-deaths In 1975, the communist Pathet Lao, backed by the Soviet Union and the North Vietnamese Army, overthrew the royalist government, forcing King Savang Vatthana to abdicate on 2 December, 1975. He later died in captivity. After taking control of the country, Pathet Lao's government renamed the country as the "Lao People's Democratic Republic" and signed agreements giving Vietnam the right to station armed forces and to appoint advisers to assist in overseeing the country. Laos was ordered in the late 1970s by Vietnam to end relations with the People's Republic of China which cut the country off from trade with any country but Vietnam. Control by Vietnam and socialisation were slowly replaced by a relaxation of economic restrictions in the 1980s and admission into ASEAN in 1997. In 2005, the United States established Normal Trade Relations with Laos, ending a protracted period of punitive import taxes. U.S.-Laos Business Opportunities Making Normal Trade Relations a Reality (Dec. 15-2005) - U.S. Embassy Vientiane, Laos Geography Laos is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia and the thickly forested landscape consists mostly of rugged mountains, the highest of which is Phou Bia at 9,242 feet (2,817 m), with some plains and plateaus. The Mekong River forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand, whereas the mountains of the Annamite Chain form most of the eastern border with Vietnam. The climate is tropical and monsoonal. There is a distinct rainy season from May to November, followed by a dry season from December to April. Local tradition holds that there are three seasons (rainy, cold and hot) as the latter two months of the climatologically defined dry season are noticeably hotter than the earlier four months. The capital and largest city of Laos is Vientiane and other major cities include Luang Prabang, Savannakhet and Pakxe. In 1993, the government set aside 21% of the nation's land area for preservation. The country is one of four in the opium poppy growing region known as the "Golden Triangle." According to the October 2007 UNODC fact book "Opium Poppy Cultivation in South East Asia," the poppy cultivation area was , down from in 2008. Government and politics Laos is a single-party socialist republic. The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP). The head of state is President Choummaly Sayasone, who also is secretary-general (leader) of the LPRP. The head of government is Prime Minister Bouasone Bouphavanh. Government policies are determined by the party through the all-powerful nine-member Politburo and the 49-member Central Committee. Important government decisions are vetted by the Council of Ministers. Laos' first, French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on May 11, 1947 and declared it to be an independent state within the French Union. The revised constitution of 11 May 1957 omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated on 3 December 1975, when a communist People's Republic was proclaimed. A new constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a "leading role" for the LPRP. The following year, elections were held for a new 85-seat National Assembly with members elected by secret ballot to five-year terms. This National Assembly, which essentially acts as a rubber stamp for the LPRP, approves all new laws, although the executive branch retains authority to issue binding decrees. The most recent elections took place in April 2006. The assembly was expanded to 99 members in 1997 and in 2006 elections had 115. Laos's only type of government is communist state. Administrative Division Provinces of Laos Laos is divided into 16 provinces (qwang) and Vientiane Capital (Na Kone Luang Vientiane): Attapu Bokeo Bolikhamxai Champasak Houaphan Khammouan Loung Namtha Louangphabang Oudomxai Phongsali Salavan Savannakhet Vientiane Capital Vientiane Province Xaignabouli Xaisomboun (special administrative zone, dissolved in 2006) Xekong Xiangkhoang The country is further divided into districts (muang). Economy The Lao economy is heavily dependent on investment and trade with its neighbors, Thailand, Vietnam, and, especially in the north, China. Pakxe has also experienced growth based on cross-border trade with Thailand and Vietnam. Much of the country, however, lacks adequate infrastructure. Laos has no railways, except a short link to connect Vientiane with Thailand over the Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge. The major roads connecting the major urban centres, in particular Route 13, have been significantly upgraded in recent years, but villages far from major roads are accessible only through unpaved roads that may not be accessible year-round. There is limited external and internal telecommunication, but mobile phones have become widespread in urban centres. In many rural areas electricity is at least partly unavailable. Songthaews (pick-up trucks with benches) are used in the country for long-distance and local public transport. Subsistence agriculture still accounts for half of the GDP and provides 80% of total employment. Only 4.01% of the country is arable land, and 0.34% used as permanent crop land Field Listing - Land use, CIA World Factbook , the lowest percentage in the Greater Mekong Subregion. About Greater Mekong Subregion at Asian Development Bank Rice dominates agriculture, with about 80% of the arable land area used for growing rice. Rice, the fabric of life in Laos Approximately 77% of Lao farm households are self-sufficient in rice. Genuinely Lao, Rice Today, April-June 2006 Through the development, release and widespread adoption of improved rice varieties, and through economic reforms, production has increased by an annual rate of 5% between 1990 and 2005 FIFTEEN YEARS OF SUPPORT FOR RICE RESEARCH IN LAO PDR ^ ASIA BRIEF: FILLING THE RICE BASKET IN LAO PDR PARTNERSHIP RESULTS ^ Genuinely Lao, Prepared by IRRI’s International Programs Management Office , and Lao PDR achieved a net balance of rice imports and exports for the first time in 1999 The Green Revolution comes to Laos . Lao PDR may have the greatest number of rice varieties in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Since 1995 the Lao government has been working with the International Rice Research Institute to collect seed samples of each of the thousands of rice varieties found in Laos. A Race Against Time The economy receives development aid from the IMF, ADB and other international sources, and foreign direct investment for development of the society, industry, hydropower and mining, most notably copper and gold. Tourism is the fastest-growing industry in the country. However, economic development in has been hampered by brain drain, with a skilled emigration rate of 37.4% in 2000 [ http://ces.univ-paris1.fr/membre/Mariani/em/DM_BookWB%5B1%5D.pdf International Migration, Remittances & the Brain Drain] . Laos is rich in mineral resources but imports petroleum and gas. Metallurgy is an important industry, and the government hopes to attract foreign investment to develop the substantial deposits of coal, gold, bauxite, tin, copper and other valuable metals in the country. In addition, the country's plentiful water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export large quantities of hydroelectric energy. Of the potential capacity of approximately 18,000 megawatts, around 8,000 megawatts have been committed for exporting to Thailand and Vietnam. [ http://www.adb.org/Documents/TARs/LAO/40514-LAO-TAR.pdf Lao People’s Democratic Republic: Preparing the Cumulative Impact Assessment for the Nam Ngum 3 Hydropower Project] Tourism sector has grown rapidly, from 14,400 tourists visiting Laos in 1990, to 1.1 million in 2005. Annual tourism sector revenues are expected to grow to $250–300 million by 2020. [ http://www.latalaos.org/doc/Strategy2006.pdf Lao PDR Tourism Strategy 2006-2020] Demographics 69% of the country's people are ethnic Lao, the principal lowland inhabitants and the politically and culturally dominant group. The Lao belong to the Tai linguistic group who began migrating southward from China in the first millennium AD. 8% belong to other "lowland" groups, which together with the Lao people make up the Lao Loum. Hill people and minority cultures of Laos such as the Hmong (Miao), Yao (Mien), Dao, Shan, and several Tibeto-Burman speaking peoples have lived in isolated regions of Laos for many years. Mountain/hill tribes of mixed ethno/cultural-linguistic heritage are found in northern Laos which include the Lua (Lua) and Khmu people who are indigenous to Laos. Today, the Lua people are considered endangered. Collectively, they are known as Lao Soung or highland Laotians. In the central and southern mountains, Mon-Khmer tribes, known as Lao Theung or mid-slope Laotians, predominate. Some Vietnamese, Chinese and Thailand Thai minorities remain, particularly in the towns, but many left in two waves; after independence in the late 1940s and again after 1975. The term "Laotian" does not necessarily refer to the ethnic Lao language, ethnic Lao people, language or customs, but is a political term that also includes the non-ethnic Lao groups within Laos and identifies them as "Laotian" because of their political citizenship. The predominant religion in Laos is Theravada Buddhism which, along with the common Animism practiced among the mountain tribes, coexists peacefully with spirit worship. There also are a small number of Christians, mostly restricted to the Vientiane area, and Muslims, mostly restricted to the Myanmar border region. Christian missionary work is regulated by the government. The official and dominant language is Lao, a tonal language of the Tai linguistic group. The written language is based on Khmer writing script. Midslope and highland Lao speak an assortment of tribal languages. French, still common in government and commerce, is still studied by many, while English, the language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), has increased in recent years. Religion Of the people of Laos 67% are Buddhist, 1.5% are Christian, and 31.5% are other or unspecified according to the 2005 census. CIA the World Factbook Culture Theravada Buddhism is a dominant influence in Lao culture. It is reflected throughout the country from language to the temple and in art, literature, performing arts, etc. Many elements of Lao culture predate Buddhism, however. For example, Laotian music is dominated by its national instrument, the khaen, a type of bamboo pipe that has prehistoric origins. The khaen traditionally accompanied the singer in lam, the dominant style of folk music. Among the various lam styles, the lam saravane is probably the most popular. The country has two World Heritage Sites: Luang Prabang and Vat Phou. The government is seeking the same status for the Plain of Jars. Rice is the staple food and has cultural and religious significance. There are many traditions and rituals associated with rice production in different environments, and among many ethnic groups. For example, Khammu farmers in Luang Prabang plant the rice variety Khao Kam in small quantities near the hut in memory of dead parents, or at the edge of the rice field to indicate that parents are still alive.... An Evaluation of Synthesis of Rice Media All newspapers are published by the government, including two foreign language papers: the English-language daily Vientiane Times and the French-language weekly Le Rénovateur. Additionally, the Khao San Pathet Lao, the country's official news agency, publishes English and French versions of its eponymous paper. Internet cafes are now common in the major urban centres and are popular especially with the younger generation. However, the government strictly censors content and controls access. International rankings Organisation Survey Ranking Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom 137 out of 157 Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 164 out of 173 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 151 out of 180 United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 133 out of 179 See also List of Laos-related topics Communications in Laos Emblem of Laos Foreign relations of Laos French colonial empire Health in Laos Laotian Civil War List of indices of freedom Military of Laos North Vietnamese invasion of Laos Scouting in Laos Transport in Laos Vietnam War Leaders of ethnic minorities in Laos Pa Chay Vue Ong Keo Ong Kommandam Notes and references External links The Official Virtual tour of The LAO P.D.R BBC News - Country Profile: Laos The National Portal of Laos Lao National Tourism Administration Lao Voices Lao Media Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Laos from UCB Libraries GovPubs be-x-old:Лаос | Laos |@lemmatized lao:88 officially:2 people:17 democratic:3 republic:6 landlocked:2 country:24 southeast:3 asia:4 border:5 burma:1 china:4 northwest:1 vietnam:11 east:2 cambodia:1 south:4 thailand:8 west:1 laos:15 trace:2 history:3 kingdom:4 lan:3 xang:3 land:6 million:3 elephant:1 exist:1 century:4 period:3 french:17 protectorate:3 gain:2 independence:4 long:3 civil:4 war:9 end:4 communist:6 pathet:7 movement:1 come:3 power:3 protesting:1 faction:1 continue:2 several:2 year:8 etymology:1 language:13 name:1 meuang:1 imperial:1 make:3 part:4 indochina:2 spell:1 final:2 silent:1 e:2 sound:1 pronounce:1 native:1 tongue:1 though:2 especially:3 live:2 abroad:1 use:7 pronunciation:1 usual:1 adjectival:1 form:3 g:1 economy:5 laotian:11 although:2 describe:1 avoid:1 confusion:1 ethnic:7 group:7 found:1 fa:1 ngum:2 descend:1 line:1 king:2 track:1 back:2 khoun:1 boulom:1 prosper:1 divide:3 three:2 principality:1 eventually:1 siamese:1 suzerainty:1 luang:5 prabang:4 incorporate:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 champasak:2 territory:2 vientiane:11 also:6 add:1 become:2 capital:4 unified:1 state:10 follow:2 brief:2 japanese:1 occupation:1 world:6 ii:1 declare:2 charles:1 de:2 gaulle:1 assert:1 control:5 grant:1 semi:1 autonomy:1 associate:2 within:3 union:4 moreover:1 remain:2 facto:1 full:1 constitutional:1 monarchy:1 special:3 exemption:1 geneva:1 convention:1 military:2 training:1 mission:1 support:5 royal:4 army:7 u:5 department:1 defense:1 create:1 program:2 evaluation:2 office:2 replace:2 containment:1 policy:2 drag:1 eastern:2 invade:1 occupy:1 north:6 vietnamese:7 nva:2 staging:1 ground:1 supply:1 route:2 response:1 united:5 initiate:1 bombing:1 campaign:1 regular:1 irregular:2 anticommunist:1 force:4 invasion:2 result:4 action:1 series:1 coup:1 état:1 ultimately:1 government:16 heavy:1 artillery:1 tank:1 real:1 behind:1 insurgency:1 launch:1 multi:1 division:2 attack:3 largely:1 demobilize:1 leave:3 conflict:1 raise:1 many:8 lose:1 life:2 massive:1 aerial:1 bombardment:1 carry:1 guardian:2 report:1 hit:1 average:1 one:2 b:1 bombload:1 every:1 eight:1 minute:1 hour:1 day:1 bomber:1 drop:2 ordnance:1 whole:1 second:1 bombie:1 rain:1 particularly:2 xieng:1 khouang:1 province:4 fail:1 explode:1 deadly:1 legacy:1 http:4 www:3 co:1 uk:1 dec:2 cluster:1 bomb:1 uxo:1 death:1 soviet:1 overthrow:1 royalist:1 savang:1 vatthana:1 abdicate:1 december:3 later:1 die:1 captivity:1 take:2 rename:1 sign:1 agreement:1 give:1 right:1 station:1 arm:1 appoint:1 adviser:1 assist:1 oversee:1 order:1 late:2 relation:4 cut:1 trade:5 socialisation:1 slowly:1 relaxation:1 economic:4 restriction:1 admission:1 asean:2 establish:1 normal:2 protracted:1 punitive:1 import:3 tax:1 business:1 opportunity:1 reality:1 embassy:1 geography:1 thickly:1 forest:1 landscape:1 consist:1 mostly:3 rugged:1 mountain:5 high:1 phou:2 bia:1 foot:1 plain:2 plateau:1 mekong:4 river:1 large:3 western:1 boundary:1 whereas:1 annamite:1 chain:1 climate:1 tropical:1 monsoonal:1 distinct:1 rainy:2 season:4 may:5 november:1 dry:2 april:3 local:2 tradition:2 hold:2 cold:1 hot:1 latter:1 two:4 month:2 climatologically:1 define:1 noticeably:1 hotter:1 early:1 four:2 city:2 major:5 include:4 savannakhet:2 pakxe:2 set:1 aside:1 nation:3 area:5 preservation:1 opium:2 poppy:3 grow:5 region:3 know:3 golden:1 triangle:1 accord:2 october:1 unodc:1 fact:1 book:1 cultivation:2 politics:1 single:1 party:4 socialist:1 legal:1 political:3 revolutionary:1 lprp:4 head:2 president:1 choummaly:1 sayasone:1 secretary:1 general:2 leader:2 prime:1 minister:2 bouasone:1 bouphavanh:1 determine:1 powerful:1 nine:1 member:5 politburo:1 central:2 committee:1 important:2 decision:1 vet:1 council:1 first:3 write:3 monarchical:1 constitution:3 promulgate:1 independent:1 revised:1 omit:1 reference:2 close:1 educational:1 health:2 technical:1 tie:1 former:1 colonial:2 persist:1 document:2 abrogate:1 proclaim:1 new:3 adopt:1 enshrine:1 leading:1 role:1 following:1 election:3 seat:1 national:5 assembly:3 elect:1 secret:1 ballot:1 five:1 term:3 essentially:1 act:1 rubber:1 stamp:1 approve:1 law:1 executive:1 branch:1 retain:1 authority:1 issue:1 bind:1 decree:1 recent:3 place:1 expand:1 type:2 administrative:2 qwang:1 na:1 kone:1 attapu:1 bokeo:1 bolikhamxai:1 houaphan:1 khammouan:1 loung:1 namtha:1 louangphabang:1 oudomxai:1 phongsali:1 salavan:1 xaignabouli:1 xaisomboun:1 zone:1 dissolve:1 xekong:1 xiangkhoang:1 far:2 district:1 muang:1 heavily:1 dependent:1 investment:3 neighbor:1 experience:1 growth:1 base:2 cross:1 much:1 however:4 lack:1 adequate:1 infrastructure:1 railway:1 except:1 short:1 link:2 connect:2 thai:2 friendship:1 bridge:1 road:3 urban:3 centre:3 particular:1 significantly:1 upgrade:1 village:1 accessible:2 unpaved:1 round:1 limited:1 external:2 internal:1 telecommunication:1 mobile:1 phone:1 widespread:2 rural:1 electricity:1 least:1 partly:1 unavailable:1 songthaews:1 pick:1 truck:1 bench:1 distance:1 public:1 transport:2 subsistence:1 agriculture:2 still:4 account:1 half:1 gdp:1 provide:1 total:1 employment:1 arable:2 permanent:1 crop:1 field:2 list:3 cia:2 factbook:2 low:1 percentage:1 great:4 subregion:3 asian:2 development:7 bank:1 rice:17 dominate:2 fabric:1 approximately:2 farm:1 household:1 self:1 sufficient:1 genuinely:2 today:2 june:1 release:1 adoption:1 improved:1 variety:4 reform:1 production:2 increase:2 annual:2 rate:2 fifteen:1 research:2 pdr:5 fill:1 basket:1 partnership:1 prepare:2 irri:1 international:6 management:1 achieve:1 net:1 balance:1 export:3 time:3 green:1 revolution:1 number:2 since:1 work:2 institute:1 collect:1 seed:1 sample:1 thousand:1 find:2 race:1 receive:1 aid:1 imf:1 adb:2 source:1 foreign:4 direct:1 society:1 industry:3 hydropower:2 mining:1 notably:1 copper:2 gold:2 tourism:5 fast:1 hamper:1 brain:2 drain:2 skilled:1 emigration:1 ce:1 univ:1 fr:1 membre:1 mariani:1 em:1 pdf:3 migration:1 remittances:1 rich:1 mineral:1 resource:2 petroleum:1 gas:1 metallurgy:1 hop:1 attract:1 develop:1 substantial:1 deposit:1 coal:1 bauxite:1 tin:1 valuable:1 metal:1 addition:1 plentiful:1 water:1 mountainous:1 terrain:1 enable:1 produce:1 quantity:2 hydroelectric:1 energy:1 potential:1 capacity:1 megawatt:2 around:1 commit:1 org:2 tar:2 cumulative:1 impact:1 assessment:1 nam:1 project:1 sector:2 rapidly:1 tourist:1 visit:1 revenue:1 expect:1 latalaos:1 doc:1 strategy:1 demographic:1 principal:1 lowland:2 inhabitant:1 politically:1 culturally:1 dominant:4 belong:2 tai:2 linguistic:3 begin:1 migrate:1 southward:1 millennium:1 ad:1 together:1 loum:1 hill:2 minority:3 culture:4 hmong:1 miao:1 yao:1 mien:1 dao:1 tibeto:1 burman:1 speaking:1 isolated:1 tribe:3 mixed:1 ethno:1 cultural:2 heritage:3 northern:1 lua:3 khmu:1 indigenous:1 consider:1 endangered:1 collectively:1 soung:1 highland:2 southern:1 mon:1 khmer:2 theung:1 mid:1 slope:1 predominate:1 chinese:1 town:1 wave:1 necessarily:1 refer:1 custom:1 non:1 identify:1 citizenship:1 predominant:1 religion:2 theravada:2 buddhism:3 along:1 common:3 animism:1 practice:1 among:3 coexists:1 peacefully:1 spirit:1 worship:1 small:2 christian:3 restrict:2 muslim:1 myanmar:1 missionary:1 regulate:1 official:3 tonal:1 script:1 midslope:1 speak:1 assortment:1 tribal:1 commerce:1 study:1 english:3 association:1 buddhist:1 unspecified:1 census:1 influence:1 reflect:1 throughout:1 temple:1 art:2 literature:1 perform:1 etc:1 element:1 predate:1 example:2 music:2 instrument:1 khaen:2 bamboo:1 pipe:1 prehistoric:1 origin:1 traditionally:1 accompany:1 singer:1 lam:3 style:2 folk:1 various:1 saravane:1 probably:1 popular:2 site:1 vat:1 seek:1 status:1 jar:1 staple:1 food:1 religious:1 significance:1 ritual:1 different:1 environment:1 khammu:1 farmer:1 plant:1 khao:2 kam:1 near:1 hut:1 memory:1 dead:1 parent:2 edge:1 indicate:1 alive:1 synthesis:1 medium:2 newspaper:1 publish:1 paper:2 daily:1 weekly:1 le:1 rénovateur:1 additionally:1 san:1 news:2 agency:1 publishes:1 version:1 eponymous:1 internet:1 cafe:1 young:1 generation:1 strictly:1 censor:1 content:1 access:1 ranking:1 organisation:1 survey:1 rank:1 foundation:1 wall:1 street:1 journal:1 index:5 freedom:3 reporter:1 without:1 worldwide:1 press:1 transparency:1 corruption:1 perception:1 programme:1 human:1 see:1 related:1 topic:1 communication:1 emblem:1 empire:1 scouting:1 pa:1 chay:1 vue:1 ong:2 keo:1 kommandam:1 note:1 virtual:1 tour:1 p:1 r:1 bbc:1 profile:1 portal:1 administration:1 voice:1 chief:1 cabinet:1 information:1 ucb:1 library:1 govpubs:1 x:1 old:1 лаос:1 |@bigram southeast_asia:2 lan_xang:3 pathet_lao:7 lao_lao:4 avoid_confusion:1 luang_prabang:4 shortly_thereafter:1 de_gaulle:1 de_facto:1 constitutional_monarchy:1 geneva_convention:1 coup_état:1 aerial_bombardment:1 http_www:3 soviet_union:1 mekong_river:1 rainy_season:1 opium_poppy:2 poppy_cultivation:2 prime_minister:1 constitution_promulgate:1 rubber_stamp:1 thailand_vietnam:3 thailand_thai:2 thai_lao:1 mobile_phone:1 subsistence_agriculture:1 arable_land:2 permanent_crop:1 mekong_subregion:3 lao_pdr:5 tin_copper:1 mountainous_terrain:1 adb_org:1 politically_culturally:1 tibeto_burman:1 mon_khmer:1 theravada_buddhism:2 southeast_asian:1 corruption_perception:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 ucb_library:1 library_govpubs:1 |
3,088 | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FE_-_H | symbols - B -- C - D -- E - H -- I - K -- L - N -- O - Q -- R - S -- T - W -- X - Z -- FOLDOC Status Page E NO IMPORT - Duplicate info. E1 NO IMPORT - Esoteric E2 NO IMPORT - Esoteric E3 NO IMPORT - Esoteric E4 NO IMPORT - Esoteric E5 NO IMPORT - Esoteric EAF NO IMPORT - Esoteric EAG DONE eager evaluation Eagle NO IMPORT - Esoteric EAI NO IMPORT - Duplicate info. EAPROM NO IMPORT - Insignificant info. earliest deadline first DONE Early PL/I DONE EARN EAROM NO IMPORT - Duplicate info. earthquake NO IMPORT - Jargon Ease NO IMPORT - Duplicate info. EASE II NO IMPORT - Esoteric EASIAC NO IMPORT - Esoteric EAST NO IMPORT - Esoteric easter egg Easter egging Eastern Washington University EASY FOX NO IMPORT - Esoteric eat flaming death EBASIC EBCDIC EBCIDIC EBNF Ebone ec EC++ ECAP II E-carrier system Ecash ECC Eccles-Jordan circuit Echidna echo echo cancellation ECHT ECIP2 ECIS Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation ECL ECLIPSE ECM ECMA e-commerce Econet ECOOP ECP ECRC ECRC-Prolog ECSL ECSP ECSS II ECSSL ed EDA e-ddress Eden EDF EDI EDIF EDIFACT Edinburgh Multi Access System Edinburgh Prolog Edinburgh SML Edison EDL EDM EdML EDMS EDO DRAM EDO memory EDO RAM EDP EDRAM e-dress EDS+ edu edutainment Edward Lorenz Edward Yourdon ee EEMA EEPROM EER E. F. Codd EFF effective computable effective number of bits Effort Adjustment Factor EFL EFNet Eforth E-Forth EFT EFTS eg EGA egosurfing EGP egrep Eh eh EHTS EIA EIA-232 EIDE Eiffel Eiffel source checker eigenvalue eigenvector eight-bit clean eight queens problem eight queens puzzle eighty-column mind EISA -- DONE (redirected to Extended Industry Standard Architecture) EJB EL1 el(alpha) Elan El Camino Bignum elder days Electing a Pope Electrically Alterable Programmable Read-Only Memory Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory Electromagnetic Compatibility electromigration electron electronic commerce Electronic Commerce Dictionary electronic data interchange Electronic Data Processing Electronic Design Automation Electronic Frontier Foundation electronic funds transfer electronic funds transfer system electronic magazine electronic mail electronic mail address electronic meeting Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer Electronic Performance Support System Electronics Industry Association electronic whiteboarding electron model electron tube Electrostatic Discharge elegant element elephant elephantine elevator controller ELF ELI Eli Compiler Construction System ELISP elite ELIZA DONE ELIZA effect DONE Elk ELLA Ellemtel Ellie ELLIS elm ELMAGUIDE ELMAMETA ELP ELSIE Elvis elvish EM EM-1 EMA Emacs Emacs Lisp e-mail e-mail address EMAS Embedded Lisp Interpreter Embedded Mode embedded system embedding EMBLA Pro embosser EMC EMD Enterprises, Inc. EMDIR Emerald Emitter Coupled Logic EML EMM EMM386 emote emoticon empeg empire empty element tag EMS emTeX EMU8000 emulation emulator Emulator program EMX enabling Encapsulated PostScript encapsulation encode encoder encryption -endian endless loop End Of Line End of Medium End Of Text End Of Transmission end tag End Transmission Block end-user Engelbart, Douglas engine English programming language Enhanced Capabilities Port Enhanced Dynamic Random Access Memory Enhanced Graphics Adapter Enhanced IDE Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics enhanced parallel port Enhanced Small Disk Interface enhancement ENIAC Enigma ENOB ENQ Ente Nazionale Italiano di Unificazione enterprise Enterprise Application Integration Enterprise JavaBeans Enterprise Resource Planning Enterprise Systems CONnectivity EntireX entity-relationship diagram entity-relationship model entropy Entry Sequenced Data Set enumerated type enumeration environment environment variable Envoy EOF DONE EOL EOT EOU EOUG EP EPCS EPILOG EPIM EPL epoch EPP EPROM EPROM OTP EPROS EPS EPSILON epsilon epsilon squared EPSIMONE EPSS EqL EQLOG EQLog Eqn equals equational logic Equel equivalence class equivalence class partitioning equivalence relation ER er ERA DONE (Engineering Research Associates) era Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory erase ERC ERCIM ERD EREW PRAM ERFPI ergonomic ergonomics ERGO-Shell Eric Conspiracy Eric S. Raymond Eris Erlang erotica ERP error error-based testing error correcting memory error detection and correction es ES-1 ESA ESC ESCAPE escape escape sequence ESCD ESCON escrow ESD ESDI ESF ESI esim ESL ESLPDPRO ESML ESMTP ESP ESPOL ESPRIT ESR essential complexity Estelle Esterel EstPC ET et ET++ eta abstraction eta conversion eta expansion eta reduction ETB ETC e-text ETHER EtherGate Ethernet DONE Ethernet address Ethernet meltdown EtherTalk ethics ETM ETRN ETSI ETX Euclid Euclidean Algorithm Euclid's Algorithm Eudora EULA EULER EuLisp EUnet Ltd. Euphoria Eureka Eureka step Eurisko Eurocard Euro-ISDN EuroNet EuropaNET European Academic and Research Network European Computer-Industry Research Centre GmbH European Strategic Programme for Research in Information Technology European Telecommunications Standards Institute EUUG EV6 Eva EVALUATE evaluation evaluation strategy evaluator EVE event event-driven EVGA evil evil and rude evolutionary algorithm evolutionary computation evolutionary programming evolution strategy EWOS exa- Exabyte exabyte examining the entrails EXAPT Exceed Excel Excelan Excelerator exception exception handler EXCH Exchange Server excl exclamation mark EXE EXEC exec EXEC 2 EXEC 8 executable executable content execute execution executive Executive Systems Programming Oriented Language exercise, left as an exhaustive testing existential quantifier EXODUS eXodus EXOS expanded memory expanded memory manager expanded memory page frame Expanded Memory Specification expansion card expansion slot expect eXperimental LISP Experimental Physics Control Systems Experimental Programming Language Expert Judgement Models expert system Expert Systems Ltd. explicit parallelism explicit type conversion exploit Exploratory Data Analysis exponent exponential exponential-time exponential-time algorithm Express expression expression tree extend extended addressing Extended Affix Grammar DONE Extended ALGOL Extended Architecture Extended Backus-Naur Form Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code Extended BNF Extended C++ Extended Capabilities Port Extended Concurrent Prolog Extended Data Out Dynamic Random Access Memory Extended Data Out Random Access Memory Extended Fortran Language eXtended Graphics Array Extended Industry-Standard Architecture extended memory extended memory manager Extended Memory Specification Extended ML Extended Pascal Extended Self-containing Prolog Extended System Configuration Data Extended Tiny Extended Video Graphics Array eXtended Video Graphics Array extensible extensible database Extensible Markup Language Extensible Shell Extensible Stylesheet Language Extensible VAX Editor extension extensional extensional equality extensionality Extension Language Kit Exterior Gateway Protocol eXternal Data Representation external memory EXTRA extranet EXUG eyeball search DONE EZ ezd e-zine f2c F2F F68K FAC face time face-to-face Facile facsimile FACT fact factor FAD failover failure failure-directed testing FAIR Fairchild F8 fall back fall forward fall over fall through fall thru FALSE fandango on core FAP FAQ FAQL FAQ list faradise farkled farm farming FARNET fas FASBOL fascist FASE FAST Fast ATA Fast ATA-2 Fast Ethernet Fast Fourier Transform Fast Packet Fast Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory Fast SCSI FAT FAT32 fatal fatal error fatal exception fat binary fat client fat electrons fault fault-based testing fault tolerance fault tolerant fault tree analysis fax Fax over IP FC FC-AL FCB F-code FCP FC-PGA FCS FDC FDDI DONE FDISK fd leak fdlibm FDMA FDSE FDSP FDT fdx FEA fear and loathing feasible feature feature creature feature creep featurectomy feature key feature shock FEC Federal Geographic Data Committee Federal Information Exchange Federal Information Processing Standards Federal Networking Council Federation Against Software Theft feedback feedback control feed-forward Feel feep feeper feeping creature feeping creaturism FEL femto- fence fencepost error fepped out FEPROM Fermat prime Ferranti F100-L ferrite core memory Ferroelectric RAM Ferroelectric Random Access Memory Fetch fetch-execute cycle FF ffccc FFP FFT FGDC FGHC FGL FGL+LV FGRAAL fgrep FHS fi Fiber Distributed Data Interface Fiber Optic InterRepeater Link fiber optics Fibonacci series Fibre Channel Fibre Channel-Arbitrated Loop fibre optics FIDIL FIDO FidoNet field field circus field effect transistor field mouse field-programmable gate array field servoid FIFO Fifth Fifth Dimension Technologies fifth generation language fifth normal form Fight-o-net file File Allocation Table File Attach File Composition file compression file control block file descriptor file descriptor leak file extension FileMaker FileMaker, Inc. filename extension FileNet File Request File Separator file server File Service Protocol file signature file system Filesystem Hierarchy Standard file transfer File Transfer Protocol file type filing system filk fill-out form film at 11 FILO Filtabyte filter filter promotion FIMS Finagle's Law Financial Information eXchange fine adjuster fine grain finger finger-pointing syndrome finite Finite Automata Finite Automaton finite differencing Finite Impulse Response Finite State Automata Finite State Automaton Finite State Machine finn FIPS FIR firebottle firefighting firehose syndrome firewall firewall code firewall machine Firewire -- DONE fireworks mode Firmware firmy first class module First Fit first generation computer first generation language first-in first-out first normal form first-order first-order logic First Party DMA fish FISH queue FITNR FITS FIX fix fixed disk fixed point fixed-point fixed point combinator fixed-width FIXME fixpoint fj Fjolnir fk FL F+L flag flag day FLAIR flaky flamage flame flame bait flame off flame on flamer flame war flaming FLAP flap flapping router flarp Flash Flash EPROM Flash Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory flash memory Flash ROM flat flat address space flat ASCII flat file flatten flat thunk flavor flavorful Flavors flavour Fleng FLEX Flex Flex++ Flex 2 flib FLIC FLIP Flip Chip Pin Grid Array flip-flop flippy FLIP-SPUR floating-point floating-point accelerator Floating-Point SPECbaserate Floating-Point SPECbaseratio Floating-Point SPECrate Floating-Point SPECratio floating point underflow Floating-Point Unit floating underflow F-Logic flood FLOP Floppy floppy floppy disk floppy disk drive floppy drive FLOPS Flops floptical Flow flow chart flow control flower key FLOW-MATIC or FLOWMATIC flow of control FLPL FLUB Fluegelman, Andrew flush Flynn's taxonomy fly page Flyspeck 3 flytrap FM fm FMPL FMQ FMS FMV FNAL FNC fnord FN tunnelling fo FOAD FOAF FOCAL FOCL FOCUS focus group FOD FOIL FoIP FOIRL fold case folder FOLDOC followup font fontology foo foobar foogol FOOL fool file Fools' Lisp Foonly FOOP footprint for fora FORC Force ForceOne ForceTwo foreground foreign key Foresight for free fork fork bomb forked for loop FORM FORMAC FORMAL Formal Description Technique formal methods DONE Formal Object Role Modeling Language formal review FORMAT-Fortran Formatting Output Specification Instance Formes form factor form feed form function FORML forms formula Formula ALGOL Forsythe FORTH for The Rest Of Them for The Rest Of Us Forth Modification Lab Fortran Fortran 66 Fortran 77 Fortran 90 Fortran Automatic Symbol Translator Fortran D Fortran I Fortran II Fortran III Fortran IV Fortran-Linda Fortran M Fortran Matrix Abstraction Technique Fortran Fortran-Plus FORTRANSIT Fortran V Fortran VI Fortrash FORTRUNCIBLE fortune cookie forum for values of forward forward analysis forward chaining forward compatibility forward compatible forward delta forward engineering Forward Error Correction forwards compatibility forwards compatible FORWISS For Your Information FOSI FOSIL fossil foundation FOundation for Research and Technology - Hellas four-colour glossies four colour map theorem four colour theorem Fourier transform fourth generation computer fourth generation language -- DONE fourth normal form Fowler-Nordheim tunnelling FoxBASE+ FoxPRO Fox Software FP FP2 FPA fpc FPGA FPLMTS FPM FP/M FPM DRAM fprintf fps FPU FQDN FQL fr fractal fractal compression fractal dimension FRAD fragile fragment fragmentation FRAM frame frame buffer Frame Check Sequence frame grabber FrameKit FrameMaker frame pointer frame rate Frame Relay Frame Relay Access Device frames per second Frame Technology Corporation framework Framework 4 framing specification FRANK Franz Lisp FRED fred Fredette's Operating System Interface Language frednet free FreeBSD FreeHEP Freenet FreePPP freerexx free software Free Software Foundation free variable freeware freeze Frege, Gottlob frequency division multiple access frequency division multiplexing Frequency Modulation Frequency Shift Keying frequently asked question Fresco Fresh friction feed fried Friend FRINGE frink friode fritterware FRL FRMT-FTRN frob frobnicate frobnitz Frobozz Magic Programming Language frogging Frolic front end front-end processor front side bus frotz done frotzed frowney fry FS FSB fsck FSF FSK FSL FSM FSP fsplit FT FTAM FTP FTP archive FTP by mail FTP server FTP Software, Inc. FTTP FTX FUBAR FUD fudge fudge factor Fudgets FUDGIT FUD wars Fuel-can Fugue Fujitsu full-custom full-duplex full-duplex Switched Ethernet full laziness full-motion video full outer join fully associative cache Fully Automated Compiling Technique fully lazy lambda lifting fully qualified domain name fum function functional functional database functional dependency functionality functional language functional program functional programming functional programming language functional requirements functional specification functional testing functional unit function application function complete Function Graph Language function key Function Point Analysis functor funky FUNLOG FunnelWeb funny money furigana furrfu FUSE FUSION fusion FutureBasic future date testing futz fuzzball fuzzy computing fuzzy logic fuzzy subset fweep FWIW fx FX-87 FX-90 FYA FYI FYI4 G <g> G2 G3 G4 GA ga Gabriel gabriel Gabriel, Richard GADS Gaelic gag GAIA GAL Galaxy Galileo Gambit games game tree GAMMA gamma correction GAMS gamut GAN GANDALF gang bang GAP GAPLog garbageabetical order garbage collect garbage collection Gargoyle Garnet GARP garply Gartner Group gas GASP gas plasma display GAT GATE gate gated Gates gateway Gateway 2000 Gauss Gaussian distribution gawk GB Gb gb g-bell GBIP GBML gbps GC GCC GCL G-Code GCOS GCR GCT gd GDB GDBPSK Gödel, Kurt GDI GDMO GDPL GE ge GEA GEANT GECOM GECOS Gedanken gedanken geef geek geek out GEI GE Information Services GEM DONE gen gender mender Gene Amdahl General Electric Comprehensive Operating System General Magic General Packet Radio Service General Protection Failure General Protection Fault General Public Licence General Public License General Public Virus General Purpose Graphic Language General Purpose Interface Bus General Purpose Language General Purpose Macro-generator General Recursion Theorem generate generation Generic Array Logic Generic Expert System Tool generic identifier genericity generic markup generic programming Generic Routing Encapsulation Generic Security Service Application Programming Interface generic thunk generic type variable Genesia genetic algorithm genetic algorithms genetic programming GEnie Services Genken Programming Language GENOVA gensym Gensym Corporation Gensym Standard Interface Gentleman's Portable Coroutine System GEN-X Geographical Information System Geographic Information System GEORGE George Boole GEOS GEPURS Gerald Gerald Sussman German GEST Get a life! Get a real computer! get.com getty gf g file GFLOPS GFR gh GHC ghost ghostscript ghostview GHz GI gi Gibson, William gid GIF GIF89 GIF89a GIFF gig giga- gigabit gigabits per second gigabyte gigaflop gigaflops GigaHertz GIGO gilley gillion Gilmore, John GIM-1 GIN GINA Ginger GIP GIPS GIRL GIS GKS GKS-3D GL gl Glammar glark Glasgow Haskell Compiler GLASS glass glass box testing glassfet glass tty GLB glibc Glish Glisp glitch glob global index globalisation Global Network Navigator Global Positioning System Global System for Mobile Communications glork GLOS GLOW GLS GLU glue glue language glyph Glypnir gm GMAP GMD GMD Toolbox for Compiler Construction GMT gn gnarly Gnat GNN GNOME Gnome Computers GNU GNU archive site GNU assembler GNU awk GNU BC GNU C GNU C Library GNU DC GNU E GNU Emacs GNU General Public License GNUMACS GNU mirror site GNU Network Object Model Environment Gnuplot GNU public licence GNUS GNU sed GNU Smalltalk GNUStep GNU superoptimiser Go goal Go Back N gobble Godzillagram Goedel go-faster stripes Gofer Goffin go flatline GO-GO GOL golden golf ball printer GOM gonk gonkulator GOOD Good Thing Google googol googolplex gopher Gopher client Gopher object type gorets gorilla arm go root gorp GOSIP Gosling, James GOSMACS Gosperism GOSPL gotcha goto Gottlob Frege gov Government OSI Profile go voice GP gp GPF GPIB GPL GPM GPRS GPS GPSS GPV GPX gq gr GRAAL Grace Hopper GRAF Graffiti GRAIL GRAIN grain GRAM grammar grammar analysis grammatical inference granularity Grapes Grapevine graph Graph Algorithm and Software Package graph coloring graph colouring Graphic ALGOL Graphical Kernel System Graphical User Interface Graphic Display Interface Graphic Language graphics accelerator graphics adapter graphics adaptor graphics card Graphics Interchange Format Graphics Interface Format Graphics Language Object System graphic workstation Graph-Oriented Object Database graph plotter graph reduction graph rewriting system GRAPPLE GRAS GRASP/Ada GRASPIN grault Gray graybar land gray code gray-scale <gr&d> GRE greater than greatest common divisor greatest lower bound Great Renaming Great Runes Great Worm greek greeking Green Green Book Green Book CD-ROM green bytes green card green lightning green machine green monitor Green's Theorem Greenwich Mean Time Greg Olson grep grey-scale Greystone Technologies GRG GRIB grick grilf Grim File Reaper GRIND grind grind crank GRIP gripenet gritch grix groff grok gronk gronked group Group 3 Group 4 Group Code Recording group identifier Group Separator Group-Sweeping Scheduling Groupware Groupwise DONE grovel grunge gry GS gs GSBL GSI GSL GSM GSPL GSS GSS-API gt gtg GTL GT/SQL gu guaranteed scheduling guard NO IMPORT (already exists) Guarded Horn Clauses gubbish GUI GUIDE Guide Guide to Available Mathematical Software guiltware gun gunch Gunning Transceiver Logic gunzip Gupta Corporation gurfle guru guru meditation Guy Lewis Steele, Jr. Guy Steele GVL gw GW-Ada GW-BASIC gweep GWHIS GWM gy Gypsy gz gzip h H.261 H.323 Habitat hack hack attack hacked off hacked up hacker hacker ethic hacker humour hacking run Hacking X for Y Hackintosh hackish hackishness hackitude hack mode hack on hack together hack up hack value ha ha only serious hair hairy hairy ball HAKMEM hakspek HAL half-duplex halftone HALGOL HALMAT HAL/S Halt and Catch Fire halting problem Hamilton Hamiltonian cycle Hamiltonian path Hamiltonian problem Hamiltonian tour Hamilton's problem hammer Hamming code Hamming distance hamster Han character HAND hand cruft Handel hand-hacking Hand-held Personal Computer handle hand-roll handshake handshaking handwave hang hanja Hanoi Han Unification hanzi happily Happy haque hard boot hard-coded hardcopy hard disk hard disk drive hard drive hard link hard sector hardware Hardware Abstraction Layer hardware circular buffer Hardware Description Language hardware handshaking hardwarily hard-wired Harris Semiconductor Ltd. Harvard Graphics Harvest Harvest C hash hash bucket hash coding hash collision hash function hashing hash table Haskell Haskell B Haskell Curry Haskell User's Gofer System HASL HASP has the X nature hat Hayes Hayes-compatible HBOOK hc HCF HCI HCLP HCPRVR HCS HD HD6309 HDA HDC HDD HDF HDFL HDL HDLC HDM HDSL HDTV hdx Head Disk Assembly header head normal form head normalisation theorem heads down head-strict heap heartbeat heatseeker heat sink heat slug heavy metal heavyweight heavy wizardry Hebbian heisenbug Helen Keller mode Helix hello packet hello, sailor! hello, world HELP henry HENSA HEP HEPDB HEPiX HEPnet HEPVM HEQS HERA HERAKLIT here document Herman Hollerith Hermes Hesiod heterogeneous heterogeneous network heterogenous heuristic heuristics testing Hewlett-Packard Hewlett-Packard Graphics Language Hewlett-Packard Interface Bus Hewlett Packard Multi Processing Executive Hewlett Packard Precision Architecture Hewlett-Packard Visual Engineering Environment hex hexadecimal hexidecimal hexit HFC HHCP HHOJ HHOK HHOS HIBOL HID hidden flag hierarchical database Hierarchical Data Format DONE hierarchical file system Hierarchical Music Specification Language hierarchical routing hierarchy high bit High bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line high colour high density Higher Education National Software Archive higher-order function higher-order macro High-level Data Link Control high-level language high memory area high moby High Performance Computing and Communications High Performance File System High Performance Fortran High Performance Parallel Interface High Performance Routing High Performance Serial Bus High Speed Circuit Switched Data High Speed Connect high speed serial interface High Voltage Differential HIGZ hill climbing DONE HiLog HIMEM hing HINT HiPAC HIPPI hiragana hirsute HISTORIAN history hit Hitachi 6309 Hitachi HD64180 HITL hit rate hk HL7 HLISP HLL HLLAPI hlp hm HMA HMAC HMP HMSL HMTL hn Hoare powerdomain Hobbit hobbit hog HOL HOL-88 HOL-90 hole hole model Hollerithabetical order Hollerith, Herman Hollywired HOL-UNITY holy wars home box home machine home page Home Phoneline Networking Alliance HomePNA homogeneous homogenous homomorphism Honeywell-800 Business Compiler HOOD HOOK hook hop (telecommunications) Hope Hope+ Hope+C Hopfield model Hopfield network horizontal application horizontal encoding horizontal loop combination horizontal microcode horizontal scan rate horizontal tabulation Horn clause hose hosed HOS-STPL host host adaptor Host Command Facility host-host layer hostname host number Hot Fix HotJava Hotline Hotline Communications Ltd. Hotline Connect hotlink hotlist hot spot Hot Swapable Routing Protocol hot swapping HOTT house wizard Houston Automatic Spooling Program HP hp2ps H/PC HPCC HPcode HPCode-Plus HPF HPFS HP-GL DONE renamed as HPGL HP-GL/2 DONE same as above HP-IB HPL HPLOT HP-MPE HP-PA DONE, renamed as PA-RISC HPPI HPR HP-SUX HP-UX HP VEE hqx hr hs HSB HSC HSCSD HSL-FX HSRP HSSI HSV HT ht HTH HTLM HTML HTML+ HTTL HTTP HTTP/1.0 HTTP cookie HTTPd HTTPS HTTP server hu hub Hubnet hubs hue hue, saturation, brightness hue, saturation, value huff Huffman coding HUGO HUGS Human-Computer Interaction Human-Computer Interface Human Interface Device Human Interface Technology Laboratory humma humor humour hung Hungarian Notation Hungry Programmers hungry puppy Hungry ViewKit hungus Hunt the Wumpus - Computer game originally on Dartmouth On Line System in the 1970's Hurd HVD Hybrid Hybrid Fiber Coax hybrid multiprocessing hybrid testing hydrofluorocarbon HyperBase Hyper-C HyperCard hypercube Hyperion hyperlink Hyper-Man hypermedia HyperNeWS Hyperscript hyperspace HyperSPARC Hyperstrict HyperTalk hypertext Hypertext Markup Language Hypertext Transfer Protocol HyperText Transmission Protocol, Secure hyperware hysterical reasons Hytelnet HyTime See also : Free On-line Dictionary of Computing | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FE_-_H |@lemmatized symbol:2 b:2 c:7 e:15 h:6 k:1 l:3 n:2 q:1 r:1 w:1 x:4 z:1 foldoc:2 status:1 page:5 import:18 duplicate:4 info:5 esoteric:11 eaf:1 eag:1 eager:1 evaluation:3 eagle:1 eai:1 eaprom:1 insignificant:1 early:2 deadline:1 first:11 pl:1 earn:1 earom:1 earthquake:1 jargon:1 ease:2 ii:4 easiac:1 east:1 easter:2 egg:2 eastern:1 washington:1 university:1 easy:1 fox:2 eat:1 flame:7 death:1 ebasic:1 ebcdic:1 ebcidic:1 ebnf:1 ebone:1 ec:3 ecap:1 carrier:1 system:29 ecash:1 ecc:1 eccles:1 jordan:1 circuit:2 echidna:1 echo:2 cancellation:1 echt:1 ecis:1 eckert:1 mauchly:1 computer:11 corporation:4 ecl:1 eclipse:1 ecm:1 ecma:1 commerce:3 econet:1 ecoop:1 ecp:1 ecrc:2 prolog:4 ecsl:1 ecsp:1 ecssl:1 ed:2 eda:1 ddress:1 eden:1 edf:1 edi:1 edif:1 edifact:1 edinburgh:3 multi:2 access:8 sml:1 edison:1 edl:1 edm:1 edml:1 edms:1 edo:3 dram:2 memory:22 ram:2 edp:1 edram:1 dress:1 edu:1 edutainment:1 edward:2 lorenz:1 yourdon:1 ee:1 eema:1 eeprom:1 eer:1 f:5 codd:1 eff:1 effective:2 computable:1 number:2 bit:4 effort:1 adjustment:1 factor:4 efl:1 efnet:1 eforth:1 forth:3 eft:2 eg:1 ega:1 egosurfing:1 egp:1 egrep:1 eh:2 ehts:1 eia:2 eide:1 eiffel:2 source:1 checker:1 eigenvalue:1 eigenvector:1 eight:3 clean:1 queen:2 problem:4 puzzle:1 eighty:1 column:1 mind:1 eisa:1 redirect:1 extend:25 industry:4 standard:6 architecture:4 ejb:1 el:2 alpha:1 elan:1 camino:1 bignum:1 elder:1 day:2 elect:1 pope:1 electrically:2 alterable:1 programmable:5 read:4 erasable:3 electromagnetic:1 compatibility:3 electromigration:1 electron:4 electronic:15 dictionary:2 data:13 interchange:3 process:1 design:1 automation:1 frontier:1 foundation:4 fund:2 transfer:5 magazine:1 mail:5 address:5 meeting:1 numerical:1 integrator:1 performance:7 support:1 electronics:2 association:1 whiteboarding:1 model:7 tube:1 electrostatic:1 discharge:1 elegant:1 element:2 elephant:1 elephantine:1 elevator:1 controller:1 elf:1 eli:2 compiler:4 construction:2 elisp:1 elite:1 eliza:2 effect:2 elk:1 ella:1 ellemtel:1 ellie:1 elli:1 elm:1 elmaguide:1 elmameta:1 elp:1 elsie:1 elvis:1 elvish:1 em:2 ema:1 emacs:3 lisp:5 emas:1 embed:4 interpreter:1 mode:5 embla:1 pro:1 embosser:1 emc:1 emd:1 enterprise:6 inc:3 emdir:1 emerald:1 emitter:1 couple:1 logic:7 eml:1 emm:1 emote:1 emoticon:1 empeg:1 empire:1 empty:1 tag:2 ems:1 emtex:1 emulation:1 emulator:2 program:9 emx:1 enable:1 encapsulate:1 postscript:1 encapsulation:2 encode:2 encoder:1 encryption:1 endian:1 endless:1 loop:4 end:9 line:4 medium:1 text:2 transmission:3 block:2 user:3 engelbart:1 douglas:1 engine:1 english:1 programming:5 language:27 enhance:7 capability:2 port:3 dynamic:3 random:5 graphic:18 adapter:2 ide:1 integrated:1 drive:5 parallel:2 small:1 disk:7 interface:15 enhancement:1 eniac:1 enigma:1 enob:1 enq:1 ente:1 nazionale:1 italiano:1 di:1 unificazione:1 application:4 integration:1 javabeans:1 resource:1 planning:1 connectivity:1 entirex:1 entity:2 relationship:2 diagram:1 entropy:1 entry:1 sequence:3 set:1 enumerate:1 type:5 enumeration:1 environment:4 variable:3 envoy:1 eof:1 eol:1 eot:1 eou:1 eoug:1 ep:1 epcs:1 epilog:1 epim:1 epl:1 epoch:1 epp:1 eprom:3 otp:1 epros:1 eps:1 epsilon:3 square:1 epsimone:1 epss:1 eql:1 eqlog:2 eqn:1 equal:1 equational:1 equel:1 equivalence:3 class:3 partition:1 relation:1 er:2 era:2 engineering:3 research:5 associate:1 erase:1 erc:1 ercim:1 erd:1 erew:1 pram:1 erfpi:1 ergonomic:1 ergonomics:1 ergo:1 shell:2 eric:2 conspiracy:1 raymond:1 eris:1 erlang:1 erotica:1 erp:1 error:7 base:2 test:8 correct:1 detection:1 correction:3 esa:1 esc:1 escape:3 escd:1 escon:1 escrow:1 esd:1 esdi:1 esf:1 esi:1 esim:1 esl:1 eslpdpro:1 esml:1 esmtp:1 esp:1 espol:1 esprit:1 esr:1 essential:1 complexity:1 estelle:1 esterel:1 estpc:1 et:3 eta:4 abstraction:3 conversion:2 expansion:3 reduction:2 etb:1 etc:1 ether:1 ethergate:1 ethernet:5 meltdown:1 ethertalk:1 ethic:2 etm:1 etrn:1 etsi:1 etx:1 euclid:2 euclidean:1 algorithm:7 eudora:1 eula:1 euler:1 eulisp:1 eunet:1 ltd:4 euphoria:1 eureka:2 step:1 eurisko:1 eurocard:1 euro:1 isdn:1 euronet:1 europanet:1 european:4 academic:1 network:5 centre:1 gmbh:1 strategic:1 programme:1 information:8 technology:6 telecommunication:2 institute:1 euug:1 eva:1 evaluate:1 strategy:2 evaluator:1 eve:1 event:2 driven:1 evga:1 evil:2 rude:1 evolutionary:3 computation:1 evolution:1 ewos:1 exa:1 exabyte:2 examine:1 entrails:1 exapt:1 exceed:1 excel:1 excelan:1 excelerator:1 exception:3 handler:1 exch:1 exchange:3 server:4 excl:1 exclamation:1 mark:1 exe:1 exec:4 executable:2 content:1 execute:2 execution:1 executive:3 oriented:1 exercise:1 leave:1 exhaustive:1 testing:1 existential:1 quantifier:1 exodus:2 exos:1 expand:4 manager:2 frame:11 specification:6 card:3 slot:1 expect:1 experimental:3 physic:1 control:6 expert:4 judgement:1 explicit:2 parallelism:1 exploit:1 exploratory:1 analysis:5 exponent:1 exponential:3 time:4 express:1 expression:2 tree:3 affix:1 grammar:3 algol:3 backus:1 naur:1 form:11 binary:2 cod:4 decimal:1 code:7 bnf:1 concurrent:1 fortran:20 array:6 extended:2 ml:1 pascal:1 self:1 contain:1 configuration:1 tiny:1 video:3 extensible:6 database:4 markup:3 stylesheet:1 vax:1 editor:1 extension:4 extensional:2 equality:1 extensionality:1 kit:1 exterior:1 gateway:3 protocol:6 external:2 representation:1 extra:1 extranet:1 exug:1 eyeball:1 search:1 ez:1 ezd:1 zine:1 fac:1 face:3 facile:1 facsimile:1 fact:2 fad:1 failover:1 failure:3 direct:1 fair:1 fairchild:1 fall:5 back:2 forward:12 thru:1 false:1 fandango:1 core:2 fap:1 faq:2 faql:1 list:1 faradise:1 farkled:1 farm:1 farming:1 farnet:1 fa:1 fasbol:1 fascist:1 fase:1 fast:8 ata:2 fourier:2 transform:2 packet:3 scsi:1 fat:4 fatal:3 client:2 fault:6 tolerance:1 tolerant:1 fax:2 ip:1 fc:3 al:1 fcb:1 fcp:1 pga:1 fcs:1 fdc:1 fddi:1 fdisk:1 fd:1 leak:2 fdlibm:1 fdma:1 fdse:1 fdsp:1 fdt:1 fdx:1 fea:1 fear:1 loathe:1 feasible:1 feature:5 creature:2 creep:1 featurectomy:1 key:5 shock:1 fec:1 federal:4 geographic:2 committee:1 processing:2 networking:2 council:1 federation:1 software:8 theft:1 feedback:2 fee:1 feel:1 feep:1 feeper:1 feeping:2 creaturism:1 fel:1 femto:1 fence:1 fencepost:1 fepped:1 feprom:1 fermat:1 prime:1 ferranti:1 ferrite:1 ferroelectric:2 fetch:2 cycle:2 ff:1 ffccc:1 ffp:1 fft:1 fgdc:1 fghc:1 fgl:2 lv:1 fgraal:1 fgrep:1 fhs:1 fi:1 fiber:4 distribute:1 optic:3 interrepeater:1 link:3 fibonacci:1 series:1 fibre:3 channel:2 arbitrate:1 fidil:1 fido:1 fidonet:1 field:6 circus:1 transistor:1 mouse:1 gate:5 servoid:1 fifo:1 fifth:4 dimension:2 generation:6 normal:4 fight:1 net:1 file:24 allocation:1 table:2 attach:1 composition:1 compression:2 descriptor:2 filemaker:2 filename:1 filenet:1 request:1 separator:2 service:5 signature:1 filesystem:1 hierarchy:2 filing:1 filk:1 fill:1 film:1 filo:1 filtabyte:1 filter:2 promotion:1 fims:1 finagle:1 law:1 financial:1 fine:2 adjuster:1 grain:3 finger:2 point:13 syndrome:2 finite:8 automaton:4 differencing:1 impulse:1 response:1 state:3 machine:4 finn:1 fips:1 fir:1 firebottle:1 firefighting:1 firehose:1 firewall:3 firewire:1 fireworks:1 firmware:1 firmy:1 module:1 fit:2 order:6 party:1 dma:1 fish:2 queue:1 fitnr:1 fix:8 combinator:1 width:1 fixme:1 fixpoint:1 fj:1 fjolnir:1 fk:1 fl:1 flag:3 flair:1 flaky:1 flamage:1 bait:1 flamer:1 war:3 flap:3 router:1 flarp:1 flash:5 rom:2 flat:5 space:1 ascii:1 flatten:1 thunk:2 flavor:2 flavorful:1 flavour:1 fleng:1 flex:4 flib:1 flic:1 flip:4 chip:1 pin:1 grid:1 flop:4 flippy:1 spur:1 float:9 accelerator:2 specbaserate:1 specbaseratio:1 specrate:1 specratio:1 underflow:2 unit:2 flood:1 floppy:5 floptical:1 flow:5 chart:1 flower:1 matic:1 flowmatic:1 flpl:1 flub:1 fluegelman:1 andrew:1 flush:1 flynn:1 taxonomy:1 fly:1 flyspeck:1 flytrap:1 fm:3 fmpl:1 fmq:1 fmv:1 fnal:1 fnc:1 fnord:1 fn:1 tunnel:2 fo:1 foad:1 foaf:1 focal:1 focl:1 focus:2 group:9 fod:1 foil:1 foip:1 foirl:1 fold:1 case:1 folder:1 followup:1 font:1 fontology:1 foo:1 foobar:1 foogol:1 fool:3 foonly:1 foop:1 footprint:1 fora:1 forc:1 force:1 forceone:1 forcetwo:1 foreground:1 foreign:1 foresight:1 free:6 fork:3 bomb:1 formac:1 formal:5 description:2 technique:3 method:1 object:5 role:1 review:1 format:5 output:1 instance:1 formes:1 feed:2 function:9 forml:1 formula:2 forsythe:1 rest:2 u:1 modification:1 lab:1 automatic:2 translator:1 iii:1 iv:1 linda:1 matrix:1 plus:2 fortransit:1 v:1 vi:1 fortrash:1 fortruncible:1 fortune:1 cookie:2 forum:1 value:3 chain:1 compatible:3 delta:1 forwiss:1 fosi:1 fosil:1 fossil:1 hellas:1 four:3 colour:5 glossy:1 map:1 theorem:5 fourth:3 fowler:1 nordheim:1 foxbase:1 foxpro:1 fp:2 fpa:1 fpc:1 fpga:1 fplmts:1 fpm:2 fprintf:1 fps:1 fpu:1 fqdn:1 fql:1 fr:1 fractal:3 frad:1 fragile:1 fragment:1 fragmentation:1 fram:1 buffer:2 check:1 grabber:1 framekit:1 framemaker:1 pointer:1 rate:4 relay:2 device:2 per:2 second:2 framework:2 framing:1 frank:1 franz:1 fred:2 fredette:1 operating:2 frednet:1 freebsd:1 freehep:1 freenet:1 freeppp:1 freerexx:1 freeware:1 freeze:1 frege:2 gottlob:2 frequency:4 division:2 multiple:1 multiplexing:1 modulation:1 shift:1 frequently:1 ask:1 question:1 fresco:1 fresh:1 friction:1 fry:2 friend:1 fringe:1 frink:1 friode:1 fritterware:1 frl:1 frmt:1 ftrn:1 frob:1 frobnicate:1 frobnitz:1 frobozz:1 magic:2 frog:1 frolic:1 front:3 processor:1 side:1 bus:4 frotz:1 frotzed:1 frowney:1 fsb:1 fsck:1 fsf:1 fsk:1 fsl:1 fsm:1 fsp:1 fsplit:1 ft:1 ftam:1 ftp:5 archive:3 fttp:1 ftx:1 fubar:1 fud:2 fudge:2 fudgets:1 fudgit:1 fuel:1 fugue:1 fujitsu:1 full:6 custom:1 duplex:3 switch:2 laziness:1 motion:1 outer:1 join:1 fully:4 associative:1 cache:1 automate:1 compile:1 lazy:1 lambda:1 lift:1 qualify:1 domain:1 name:1 fum:1 functional:11 dependency:1 functionality:1 requirement:1 complete:1 graph:9 functor:1 funky:1 funlog:1 funnelweb:1 funny:1 money:1 furigana:1 furrfu:1 fuse:1 fusion:2 futurebasic:1 future:1 date:1 futz:1 fuzzball:1 fuzzy:3 compute:2 subset:1 fweep:1 fwiw:1 fx:4 fya:1 fyi:1 g:8 ltg:1 gt:4 ga:2 gabriel:3 richard:1 gad:1 gaelic:1 gag:1 gaia:1 gal:1 galaxy:1 galileo:1 gambit:1 game:3 gamma:2 gam:1 gamut:1 gan:1 gandalf:1 gang:1 bang:1 gap:1 gaplog:1 garbageabetical:1 garbage:2 collect:1 collection:1 gargoyle:1 garnet:1 garp:1 garply:1 gartner:1 gas:2 gasp:1 plasma:1 display:2 gat:1 gauss:1 gaussian:1 distribution:1 gawk:1 gb:3 bell:1 gbip:1 gbml:1 gbps:1 gc:1 gcc:1 gcl:1 gcos:1 gcr:1 gct:1 gd:1 gdb:1 gdbpsk:1 gödel:1 kurt:1 gdi:1 gdmo:1 gdpl:1 ge:3 gea:1 geant:1 gecom:1 gecos:1 gedanken:2 geef:1 geek:2 gei:1 gem:1 gen:2 gender:1 mender:1 gene:1 amdahl:1 general:14 electric:1 comprehensive:1 radio:1 protection:2 public:5 licence:2 license:2 virus:1 purpose:4 macro:2 generator:1 recursion:1 generate:1 generic:9 tool:1 identifier:2 genericity:1 rout:4 security:1 genesia:1 genetic:3 genie:1 genken:1 genova:1 gensym:3 gentleman:1 portable:1 coroutine:1 geographical:1 george:2 boole:1 geos:1 gepurs:1 gerald:2 sussman:1 german:1 gest:1 get:3 life:1 real:1 com:1 getty:1 gf:1 gflops:1 gfr:1 gh:1 ghc:1 ghost:1 ghostscript:1 ghostview:1 ghz:1 gi:2 gibson:1 william:1 gid:1 gif:1 giff:1 gig:1 giga:1 gigabit:2 gigabyte:1 gigaflop:1 gigaflops:1 gigahertz:1 gigo:1 gilley:1 gillion:1 gilmore:1 john:1 gim:1 gin:1 gina:1 ginger:1 gip:1 gips:1 girl:1 gis:1 gks:2 gl:4 glammar:1 glark:1 glasgow:1 haskell:5 glass:4 box:2 glassfet:1 tty:1 glb:1 glibc:1 glish:1 glisp:1 glitch:1 glob:1 global:4 index:1 globalisation:1 navigator:1 positioning:1 mobile:1 communication:3 glork:1 glos:1 glow:1 gls:1 glu:1 glue:2 glyph:1 glypnir:1 gm:1 gmap:1 gmd:2 toolbox:1 gmt:1 gn:1 gnarly:1 gnat:1 gnn:1 gnome:2 gnu:18 site:2 assembler:1 awk:1 bc:1 library:1 dc:1 gnumacs:1 mirror:1 gnuplot:1 sed:1 smalltalk:1 gnustep:1 superoptimiser:1 go:8 goal:1 gobble:1 godzillagram:1 goedel:1 faster:1 stripe:1 gofer:2 goffin:1 flatline:1 gol:1 golden:1 golf:1 ball:2 printer:1 gom:1 gonk:1 gonkulator:1 good:2 thing:1 google:1 googol:1 googolplex:1 gopher:3 gorets:1 gorilla:1 arm:1 root:1 gorp:1 gosip:1 gosling:1 james:1 gosmacs:1 gosperism:1 gospl:1 gotcha:1 goto:1 gov:1 government:1 osi:1 profile:1 voice:1 gp:2 gpf:1 gpib:1 gpl:1 gpm:1 gprs:1 gps:2 gpv:1 gpx:1 gq:1 gr:1 graal:1 grace:1 hopper:1 graf:1 graffiti:1 grail:1 gram:1 grammatical:1 inference:1 granularity:1 grape:1 grapevine:1 package:1 color:1 graphical:2 kernel:1 adaptor:2 workstation:1 orient:1 plotter:1 rewrite:1 grapple:1 gras:1 grasp:1 ada:2 graspin:1 grault:1 gray:3 graybar:1 land:1 scale:2 ltgr:1 ampd:1 gre:1 great:6 common:1 divisor:1 low:1 bound:1 rename:3 rune:1 worm:1 greek:1 greeking:1 green:9 book:2 cd:1 byte:1 lightning:1 monitor:1 greenwich:1 mean:1 greg:1 olson:1 grep:1 grey:1 greystone:1 grg:1 grib:1 grick:1 grilf:1 grim:1 reaper:1 grind:3 crank:1 grip:1 gripenet:1 gritch:1 grix:1 groff:1 grok:1 gronk:1 gronked:1 record:1 sweep:1 schedule:2 groupware:1 groupwise:1 grovel:1 grunge:1 gry:1 gsbl:1 gsi:1 gsl:1 gsm:1 gspl:1 api:1 gtg:1 gtl:1 sql:1 gu:1 guarantee:1 guard:2 already:1 exist:1 horn:2 clause:2 gubbish:1 gui:1 guide:3 available:1 mathematical:1 guiltware:1 gun:2 gunch:1 transceiver:1 gunzip:1 gupta:1 gurfle:1 guru:2 meditation:1 guy:2 lewis:1 steele:2 jr:1 gvl:1 gw:3 basic:1 gweep:1 gwhis:1 gwm:1 gy:1 gypsy:1 gz:1 gzip:1 habitat:1 hack:11 attack:1 hacker:3 humour:2 run:1 hackintosh:1 hackish:1 hackishness:1 hackitude:1 together:1 ha:2 serious:1 hair:1 hairy:2 hakmem:1 hakspek:1 hal:2 half:1 halftone:1 halgol:1 halmat:1 halt:1 catch:1 fire:1 halting:1 hamilton:2 hamiltonian:4 path:1 tour:1 hammer:1 ham:2 distance:1 hamster:1 han:2 character:1 hand:5 cruft:1 handel:1 hacking:1 hold:1 personal:1 handle:1 roll:1 handshake:1 handshaking:2 handwave:1 hang:1 hanja:1 hanoi:1 unification:1 hanzi:1 happily:1 happy:1 haque:1 hard:8 boot:1 hardcopy:1 sector:1 hardware:5 layer:2 circular:1 hardwarily:1 wired:1 harris:1 semiconductor:1 harvard:1 harvest:2 hash:7 bucket:1 collision:1 curry:1 hasl:1 hasp:1 nature:1 hat:1 hay:1 hayes:1 hbook:1 hc:1 hcf:1 hci:1 hclp:1 hcprvr:1 hcs:1 hd:1 hda:1 hdc:1 hdd:1 hdf:1 hdfl:1 hdl:1 hdlc:1 hdm:1 hdsl:1 hdtv:1 hdx:1 head:5 assembly:1 header:1 normalisation:1 strict:1 heap:1 heartbeat:1 heatseeker:1 heat:2 sink:1 slug:1 heavy:2 metal:1 heavyweight:1 wizardry:1 hebbian:1 heisenbug:1 helen:1 keller:1 helix:1 hello:3 sailor:1 world:1 help:1 henry:1 hensa:1 hep:1 hepdb:1 hepix:1 hepnet:1 hepvm:1 heqs:1 hera:1 heraklit:1 document:1 herman:2 hollerith:2 hermes:1 hesiod:1 heterogeneous:2 heterogenous:1 heuristic:2 hewlett:6 packard:6 precision:1 visual:1 hex:1 hexadecimal:1 hexidecimal:1 hexit:1 hfc:1 hhcp:1 hhoj:1 hhok:1 hhos:1 hibol:1 hid:1 hidden:1 hierarchical:5 music:1 high:21 digital:1 subscriber:1 density:1 education:1 national:1 level:2 area:1 moby:1 computing:1 serial:2 speed:3 connect:2 voltage:1 differential:1 higz:1 hill:1 climb:1 hilog:1 himem:1 hing:1 hint:1 hipac:1 hippi:1 hiragana:1 hirsute:1 historian:1 history:1 hit:2 hitachi:2 hitl:1 hk:1 hlisp:1 hll:1 hllapi:1 hlp:1 hm:1 hma:1 hmac:1 hmp:1 hmsl:1 hmtl:1 hn:1 hoare:1 powerdomain:1 hobbit:2 hog:1 hol:4 hole:2 hollerithabetical:1 hollywired:1 unity:1 holy:1 home:4 phoneline:1 alliance:1 homepna:1 homogeneous:1 homogenous:1 homomorphism:1 honeywell:1 business:1 hood:1 hook:2 hop:1 hope:3 hopfield:2 horizontal:6 combination:1 microcode:1 scan:1 tabulation:1 hose:2 ho:1 stpl:1 host:6 command:1 facility:1 hostname:1 hot:4 hotjava:1 hotline:3 hotlink:1 hotlist:1 spot:1 swapable:1 swap:1 hott:1 house:1 wizard:1 houston:1 spool:1 hp:9 pc:1 hpcc:1 hpcode:2 hpf:1 hpfs:1 hpgl:1 ib:1 hpl:1 hplot:1 mpe:1 pa:2 risc:1 hppi:1 hpr:1 sux:1 ux:1 vee:1 hqx:1 hr:1 hsb:1 hsc:1 hscsd:1 hsl:1 hsrp:1 hssi:1 hsv:1 ht:2 hth:1 htlm:1 html:2 httl:1 http:5 httpd:1 hu:1 hub:2 hubnet:1 hue:3 saturation:2 brightness:1 huff:1 huffman:1 hugo:1 hug:1 human:4 interaction:1 laboratory:1 humma:1 humor:1 hung:1 hungarian:1 notation:1 hungry:3 programmer:1 puppy:1 viewkit:1 hungus:1 hunt:1 wumpus:1 originally:1 dartmouth:1 hurd:1 hvd:1 hybrid:4 coax:1 multiprocessing:1 hydrofluorocarbon:1 hyperbase:1 hyper:2 hypercard:1 hypercube:1 hyperion:1 hyperlink:1 man:1 hypermedia:1 hypernews:1 hyperscript:1 hyperspace:1 hypersparc:1 hyperstrict:1 hypertalk:1 hypertext:4 secure:1 hyperware:1 hysterical:1 reason:1 hytelnet:1 hytime:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram z_foldoc:1 foldoc_status:1 import_duplicate:4 duplicate_info:4 import_esoteric:11 eager_evaluation:1 import_insignificant:1 import_jargon:1 easter_egg:2 el_camino:1 electrostatic_discharge:1 emacs_lisp:1 graphic_adapter:2 equivalence_relation:1 er_er:1 eric_raymond:1 detection_correction:1 euclidean_algorithm:1 euclid_algorithm:1 euro_isdn:1 exclamation_mark:1 existential_quantifier:1 exodus_exodus:1 expansion_slot:1 backus_naur:1 cod_decimal:1 fourier_transform:2 fault_tolerance:1 fault_tolerant:1 fc_fc:1 fiber_optic:2 fibre_optic:1 programmable_gate:1 filename_extension:1 finagle_law:1 finite_automaton:2 flip_flop:1 floppy_disk:2 floppy_drive:1 fm_fm:1 fortran_fortran:8 fortune_cookie:1 error_correction:1 division_multiplexing:1 frequency_modulation:1 ftp_archive:1 ftp_server:1 functional_dependency:1 fuzzy_logic:1 garbage_collection:1 ge_ge:1 gene_amdahl:1 george_boole:1 haskell_compiler:1 global_positioning:1 gnu_awk:1 gnu_emacs:1 gopher_gopher:1 gottlob_frege:1 grace_hopper:1 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 interchange_format:1 common_divisor:1 cd_rom:1 guru_meditation:1 guy_steele:1 hack_hack:4 hacker_ethic:1 ha_ha:1 halting_problem:1 hash_table:1 haskell_haskell:1 helen_keller:1 herman_hollerith:1 hewlett_packard:6 hopfield_network:1 horizontal_microcode:1 pa_risc:1 hp_ux:1 hue_saturation:2 huffman_cod:1 hunt_wumpus:1 hypertext_markup:1 |
3,089 | Carina_(constellation) | Carina ( Carína, genitive Carinae ), OED is a constellation in the southern sky. Its name is Latin for the keel of a ship, and it was formerly part of the larger constellation of Argo Navis (the ship Argo) until that constellation was divided in three. Notable features Carina contains Canopus, the second brightest star in the night sky, and the supermassive star η Carinae which is embedded in the giant Eta Carinae Nebula (NGC 3372). Since the Milky Way runs through Carina, there are a large number of open clusters in the constellation. These include NGC 2516 and IC 2602, the latter popularly known as the "Southern Pleiades." The most notable object in Carina is Homunculus Nebula in NGC 3372, the Eta Carinae Nebula. It is a planetary nebula visible to the naked eye that is being ejected by the erratic variable star Eta Carinae, one of the Milky Way's largest stars and one not far from becoming a supernova. NGC 3532 is a large binocular cluster having about 150 stars. Carina also contains the naked-eye globular cluster NGC 2808. Epsilon Carinae and Upsilon Carinae are double stars visible in small telescopes. Carina contains the radiant of the Eta Carinids meteor shower, which peaks around January 21 each year. References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Carina Starry Night Photography: Carina Eta Carina Nebula by Thomas Willig Star Tales – Carina Huge gamma-ray blast seen 12.2 billion light-years from Earth | Carina_(constellation) |@lemmatized carina:17 carína:1 genitive:1 oed:1 constellation:5 southern:2 sky:2 name:1 latin:1 keel:1 ship:2 formerly:1 part:1 large:4 argo:2 navis:1 divide:1 three:1 notable:2 feature:1 contains:1 canopus:1 second:1 bright:1 star:8 night:2 supermassive:1 η:1 embed:1 giant:1 eta:5 nebula:5 ngc:5 since:1 milky:2 way:2 run:1 number:1 open:1 cluster:3 include:1 ic:1 latter:1 popularly:1 know:1 pleiades:1 object:1 homunculus:1 planetary:1 visible:2 naked:2 eye:2 eject:1 erratic:1 variable:1 one:2 far:1 become:1 supernova:1 binocular:1 also:1 contain:2 globular:1 epsilon:1 upsilon:1 double:1 small:1 telescope:1 radiant:1 carinids:1 meteor:1 shower:1 peak:1 around:1 january:1 year:2 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 guide:2 collins:1 london:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 deep:1 photographic:1 starry:1 photography:1 thomas:1 willig:1 tale:1 huge:1 gamma:1 ray:1 blast:1 see:1 billion:1 light:1 earth:1 |@bigram eta_carina:4 carina_nebula:3 nebula_ngc:2 milky_way:2 planetary_nebula:1 visible_naked:1 naked_eye:2 globular_cluster:1 cluster_ngc:1 meteor_shower:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 starry_night:1 gamma_ray:1 |
3,090 | Bacillus_thuringiensis | Bacillus thuringiensis (also known as Bt) is a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium of the genus Bacillus. Additionally, B. thuringiensis also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well as on the dark surface of plants. B. thuringiensis was discovered 1901 in Japan by Ishiwata and 1911 in Germany by Ernst Berliner, who discovered a disease called Schlaffsucht in flour moth caterpillars. B. thuringiensis is closely related to B. cereus, a soil bacterium, and B. anthracis, the cause of anthrax: the three organisms differ mainly in their plasmids. Like other members of the genus, all three are aerobes capable of producing endospores. Zakharyan R.A et al. (1976,1977,1979) first reported the presence of plasmids in B. thuringiensis and suggested involvement of the plasmids in endospore/crystal formation. They also described the presence of large plasmid in the Cry+ variant of B. thuringiensis Upon sporulation, B. thuringiensis forms crystals of proteinaceous insecticidal δ-endotoxins (Cry toxins) which are encoded by cry genes, . It was determined that the "cry" genes are harbored in the plasmids in most strains of B. thuringiensis Cry toxins have specific activities against species of the orders Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), Diptera (flies and mosquitoes), Coleoptera (beetles), hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) and nematodes. Thus, B. thuringiensis serves as an important reservoir of Cry toxins and cry genes for production of biological insecticides and insect-resistant genetically modified crops. When insects ingest toxin crystals the alkaline pH of their digestive tract causes the toxin to become activated. It becomes inserted into the insect's gut cell membranes forming a pore resulting in swelling, cell lysis and eventually killing the insect. Dean D.H. ( October 1984)."Biochemical Genetics of the Bacterial Isect-Control Agent Bacillus thuringiensis:Basic Principles and Prospects for Genetic Engineering". Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Reviews-vol.2,341-363. Use in pest control Spores and crystalline insecticidal proteins produced by B. thuringiensis have been used to control insect pests since the 1920s. They are now used as specific insecticides under trade names such as Dipel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly, with little or no effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators, and most other beneficial insects. The Belgian company Plant Genetic Systems was the first company (in 1985) to develop genetically engineered (tobacco) plants with insect tolerance by expressing cry genes from B. thuringiensis. B. thurigiensis-based insecticides are often applied as liquid sprays on crop plants, where the insecticide must be ingested to be effective. It is thought that the solubilized toxins form pores in the midgut epithelium of susceptible larvae. Recent research has suggested that the midgut bacteria of susceptible larvae are required for B. thuringiensis insecticidal activity. Bacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis, a strain of B. thuringiensis is widely used as a larvicide against mosquito larvae, where it is also considered an environmentally friendly method of mosquito control. Genetic engineering for pest control Bt-toxins present in peanut leaves (bottom image) protect it from extensive damage caused by European corn borer larvae (top image). Usage Bt crops (in corn and cotton) were planted on 281,500 km² in 2006 (165,600 km² of Bt corn and 115900 km² of Bt cotton). This was equivalent to 11.1% and 33.6% respectively of global plantings of corn and cotton in 2006. Claims of major benefits to farmers, including poor farmers in developing countries, have been made by advocates of the technology, and have been challenged by opponents. The task of isolating impacts of the technology is complicated by the prevalence of biased observers, and by the rarity of controlled comparisons (such as identical seeds, differing only in the presence or absence of the Bt trait, being grown in identical situations). The main Bt crop being grown by small farmers in developing countries is cotton, and a recent exhaustive review of findings on Bt cotton by respected and unbiased agricultural economists concluded that "the overall balance sheet, though promising, is mixed. Economic returns are highly variable over years, farm type, and geographical location" . Environmental impacts appear to be positive during the first ten years of Bt crop use (1996-2005). One study concluded that insecticide use on cotton and corn during this period fell by 35.6 million kg of insecticide active ingredient which is roughly equal to the amount of pesticide applied to arable crops in the EU in one year. Using the Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) measure of the impact of pesticide use on the environment, the adoption of Bt technology over this ten year period resulted in 24.3% and 4.6% reduction respectively in the environmental impact associated with insecticide use on the cotton and corn area using the technology. Advantages There are several advantages in expressing Bt toxins in transgenic Bt crops: The level of toxin expression can be very high thus delivering sufficient dosage to the pest. The toxin expression is contained within the plant system and hence only those insects that feed on the crop perish. The toxin expression can be modulated by using tissue-specific promoters, and replaces the use of synthetic pesticides in the environment. The latter observation has been well documented world-wide. Health and safety Overall, Bt-modified crops appear to be safe for farmers and consumers. The proteins produced by Bt have been used in sprays in farming techniques for many years with seemingly no ill effects on environment or human health. Bt toxins are considered environmentally friendly by many farmers and may be a potential alternative to broad spectrum insecticides. The toxicity of each Bt type is limited to one or two insect orders, and is nontoxic to vertebrates and many beneficial arthropods. The reason is that Bt works by binding to the appropriate receptor on the surface of midgut epithelial cells. Any organism that lacks the appropriate receptors in its gut cannot be affected by Bt. There is clear evidence from laboratory settings that Bt toxins can affect non-target organisms. Usually, but not always, affected organisms are closely related to intended targets Lovei and Arpaia 2005 and Hilbeck and Schmidt 2006 . Typically, exposure occurs through the consumption of plant parts such as pollen or plant debris, or through Bt ingested by their predatory food choices. Nevertheless, due to significant data gaps, the real-world consequences of Bt transgenics remains unclear. Not all scientific reports on Bt safety have been positive. A 2007 study funded by the European arm of Greenpeace, suggested the possibility of a slight but statistically meaningful risk of liver damage in rats. While small statistically significant changes may have been observed, statistical differences are both probable and predictable in animal studies of this kind,(known as Type I errors), that is, the probability of finding a false-positive due to chance alone. In this case, the number of positive results was within the statistically predicted range for Type I errors. The observed changes have been found to be of no biological significance by the European Food Safety Authority. http://www.efsa.eu.int/EFSA/News_PR/PR_MON863__final,0.pdf A 2008 Austrian study investigating the usefulness of a long-term reproduction mouse model for GM crop safety reported that Bt-treated corn consumption in mice appeared to be correlated with reduced fertility via an unknown biochemical mechanism. Limitations of Bt crops Kenyans examining insect-resistant transgenic Bt corn. Constant exposure to a toxin creates evolutionary pressure for pests resistant to that toxin. Already, a Diamondback moth population is known to have acquired resistance to Bt in spray form (i.e., not engineered) when used in organic agriculture. The same researcher has now reported the first documented case of pest resistance to biotech cotton. One method of reducing resistance is the creation of non-Bt crop refuges to allow some non-resistant insects to survive and maintain a susceptible population. To reduce the chance that an insect would become resistant to a Bt crop, the commercialization of transgenic cotton and maize in 1996 was accompanied with a management strategy to prevent insects from becoming resistant to Bt crops, and insect resistance management plans are mandatory for Bt crops planted in the USA and other countries. The aim is to encourage a large population of pests so that any genes for resistance are greatly diluted. This technique is based on the assumption that resistance genes will be recessive. This means that with sufficiently high levels of transgene expression, nearly all of the heterozygotes (S/s), the largest segment of the pest population carrying a resistance allele, will be killed before they reach maturity, thus preventing transmission of the resistance gene to their progenies. The planting of refuges (i. e., fields of non-transgenic plants) adjacent to fields of transgenic plants increases the likelihood that homozygous resistant (s/s) individuals and any surviving heterozygotes will mate with susceptible (S/S) individuals from the refuge, instead of with other individuals carrying the resistance allele. As a result, the resistance gene frequency in the population would remain low. Nevertheless, there are limitations that can affect the success of the high-dose/refuge strategy. For example, expression of the Bt gene can vary. For instance, if the temperature is not ideal this stress can lower the toxin production and make the plant more susceptible. More importantly, reduced late-season expression of toxin has been documented, possibly resulting from DNA methylation of the promoter. So, while the high-dose/refuge strategy has been successful at prolonging the durability of Bt crops, this success has also had much to do with key factors independent of management strategy, including low initial resistance allele frequencies, fitness costs associated with resistance, and the abundance of non-Bt host plants that have supplemented the refuges planted as part of the resistance management strategy. Secondary pests Chinese farmers have found that after seven years of growing BT cotton the populations of other insects other than bollyworms, such as mirids, have become significant problems. Susan Lang, Cornell Chronicle "Profits die for Bt cotton in China" Retrieved on 2009-4-6 . Similar problems but with mealy bugs have been reported in India Bhaskar Goswami, InfoChange "Making a meal of Bt cotton" Retrieved on 2009-4-6 India Times "Bug makes meal of Punjab cotton, whither Bt magic?" Retrieved on 2009-4-6 . Possible problems Lepidopteran toxicity The most publisised problem associated with Bt crops is the claim that pollen from Bt maize could kill the monarch butterfly. This report was puzzling because the pollen from most maize hybrids contains much lower levels of Bt than the rest of the plant and led to multiple follow-up studies. It appears that the initial study was flawed by faulty pollen-collection procedure; researchers fed non-toxic pollen mixed with anther walls containing Bt toxin. The weight of the evidence is that Bt crops do not pose a risk to the monarch butterfly. Wild maize genetic contamination A study in Nature reported that Bt-containing maize genes was contaminating maize in its center of origin. Nature later "concluded that the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper." However, there still remains a controversy over the highly unorthodox retraction on the part of Nature http://www.pbs.org/now/science/genenature.html http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_17133.cfm . A subsequent large-scale study, in 2005, failed to find any evidence of contamination in Oaxaca. However, further researchs confirmed initial findings concerning contamination of natural maize by transgenic maize PIÑEYRO-NELSON, A.; VAN HEERWAARDEN, J.2; PERALES, H. R.; SERRATOS-HERNÁNDEZ, J. A.; RANGEL, A.; HUFFORD, M. B.; GEPTS, P.; GARAY-ARROYO, A.; RIVERA-BUSTAMANTE, R.; ÁLVAREZ-BUYLLA, E. R.; "Transgenes in Mexican maize: molecular evidence and methodological considerations for GMO detection in landrace populations." in Molecular Ecology ; Feb2009, Vol. 18 Issue 4, p750-761, 12p . However, further studies, such as that published in Molecular Ecology in 2008, have shown some small-scale (about 1%) genetic contamination (by the 35S promoter) in sampled fields in Mexico http://www.scidev.net/en/agriculture-and-environment/modified-genes-found-in-local-mexican-maize.html http://www.nature.com/news/2008/081112/full/456149a.html . One meta-study has found evidence for and against Bt contamination of maize, concluding that the preponderance of evidence points to Bt maize contamination in Mexico http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5%5B247%3ATPIMIT%5D2.0.CO%3B2 . Hypothetical outbreeding There is also the hypothetical risk that, for example, transgenic maize can crossbreed with wild grass variants, thus leading the Bt-gene into a natural environment, retaining its toxicity. An event like this would have ecological implications, as well as increasing the risk of Bt resistance arising in the general herbivore population. However, there is no evidence of crossbreeding between maize and wild grasses. Possible link to Colony Collapse Disorder As of 2007, a new phenomenon called Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) is affecting bee hives all over North America. Initial speculation on possible causes ranged from cell phone and pesticide use to the use of Bt resistant transgenic crops. The Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium published a report on 2007-03-27 that found no evidence that pollen from Bt crops is adversely affecting bees. The actual cause of CCD remains unknown, scientists believe that it may have multiple causes. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7925397.stm 'No proof' of bee killer theory Soil microbial community impact A 2008 study carried out by Navdanya, an organisation that promotes organic farming, compared the soil of 25 fields where Bt-cotton had been grown over three years with adjoining fields planted only with non GMO crops. The study found statistically significant drops in microbes and beneficial enzymes. The most significant drops were Acid phosphatase which contributes to the uptake of nutrients by microorganisms (-26.6%), Nitrogenase which fixes atmospheric nitrogen (-22.6%), Actinomycetes which break down cellulose to make humus (-17%), Bacteria (-14.2%) and Dehydrogenase an oxidiser which increases beneficial microbial activity (-10.3%). Bt Cotton: weaving a web of infertility Navdanya February 24, 2009 References See also Biological insecticides Western corn rootworm Genetically modified food External links Bacillus thuringiensis General Fact Sheet (National Pesticide Information Center) Bacillus thuringiensis Technical Fact Sheet (National Pesticide Information Center) Breakdown of the Bt toxin and effects on the environment Research projects and results How Bacillus thuringiensis has evolved specific toxins to colonize the insect world Bacillus thuringiensis Taxonomy (NIH) | Bacillus_thuringiensis |@lemmatized bacillus:8 thuringiensis:19 also:7 know:3 bt:52 gram:1 positive:5 soil:4 dwell:1 bacterium:2 genus:2 additionally:1 b:16 occur:2 naturally:1 gut:3 caterpillar:2 various:1 type:5 moth:4 butterfly:4 well:3 dark:1 surface:2 plant:16 discover:2 japan:1 ishiwata:1 germany:1 ernst:1 berliner:1 disease:1 call:2 schlaffsucht:1 flour:1 closely:2 relate:2 cereus:1 anthracis:1 cause:6 anthrax:1 three:3 organism:4 differ:2 mainly:1 plasmid:5 like:2 member:1 aerobes:1 capable:1 produce:3 endospore:2 zakharyan:1 r:4 et:1 al:1 first:4 report:8 presence:3 suggest:3 involvement:1 crystal:3 formation:1 describe:1 large:4 cry:8 variant:2 upon:1 sporulation:1 forms:1 proteinaceous:1 insecticidal:3 δ:1 endotoxin:1 toxin:20 encode:1 gene:12 determine:1 harbor:1 strain:2 specific:4 activity:3 specie:1 order:2 lepidoptera:1 diptera:1 fly:1 mosquito:3 coleoptera:1 beetle:1 hymenoptera:1 wasp:1 bee:4 ant:1 sawfly:1 nematode:1 thus:4 serve:1 important:1 reservoir:1 production:2 biological:3 insecticide:9 insect:15 resistant:8 genetically:3 modify:4 crop:21 insects:1 ingest:3 alkaline:1 ph:1 digestive:1 tract:1 become:5 activated:1 insert:1 cell:4 membrane:1 form:3 pore:2 result:6 swell:1 lysis:1 eventually:1 kill:3 dean:1 h:2 october:1 biochemical:2 genetics:1 bacterial:1 isect:1 control:5 agent:1 basic:1 principle:1 prospect:1 genetic:6 engineering:3 biotechnology:1 review:2 vol:2 use:16 pest:9 spore:1 crystalline:1 protein:2 since:1 trade:1 name:1 dipel:1 thuricide:1 specificity:1 pesticide:7 regard:1 environmentally:3 friendly:3 little:1 effect:3 human:2 wildlife:1 pollinator:1 beneficial:4 belgian:1 company:2 system:2 develop:3 engineer:2 tobacco:1 tolerance:1 express:2 thurigiensis:1 base:2 often:1 apply:2 liquid:1 spray:3 must:1 effective:1 think:1 solubilized:1 midgut:3 epithelium:1 susceptible:5 larva:4 recent:2 research:4 bacteria:2 require:1 serovar:1 israelensis:1 widely:1 larvicide:1 consider:2 method:2 present:1 peanut:1 leaf:1 bottom:1 image:2 protect:1 extensive:1 damage:2 european:3 corn:9 borer:1 top:1 usage:1 cotton:15 equivalent:1 respectively:2 global:1 planting:2 claim:2 major:1 benefit:1 farmer:6 include:2 poor:1 country:3 make:5 advocate:1 technology:4 challenge:1 opponent:1 task:1 isolate:1 impact:6 complicate:1 prevalence:1 biased:1 observer:1 rarity:1 controlled:1 comparison:1 identical:2 seed:1 absence:1 trait:1 grow:4 situation:1 main:1 small:3 exhaustive:1 finding:2 respect:1 unbiased:1 agricultural:1 economist:1 conclude:4 overall:2 balance:1 sheet:3 though:1 promising:1 mixed:2 economic:1 return:1 highly:2 variable:1 year:7 farm:2 geographical:1 location:1 environmental:3 appear:4 ten:2 one:5 study:12 period:2 fell:1 million:1 kg:1 active:1 ingredient:1 roughly:1 equal:1 amount:1 arable:1 eu:2 quotient:1 eiq:1 measure:1 environment:6 adoption:1 reduction:1 associate:3 area:1 advantage:2 several:1 transgenic:8 level:3 expression:6 high:4 deliver:1 sufficient:2 dosage:1 contain:3 within:2 hence:1 fee:1 perish:1 modulate:1 tissue:1 promoter:3 replace:1 synthetic:1 latter:1 observation:1 document:2 world:3 wide:1 health:2 safety:4 safe:1 consumer:1 technique:2 many:3 seemingly:1 ill:1 may:3 potential:1 alternative:1 broad:1 spectrum:1 toxicity:3 limit:1 two:1 nontoxic:1 vertebrate:1 arthropod:1 reason:1 work:1 bind:1 appropriate:2 receptor:2 epithelial:1 lack:1 cannot:1 affect:5 clear:1 evidence:9 laboratory:1 setting:1 non:7 target:2 usually:1 always:1 affected:1 intend:1 lovei:1 arpaia:1 hilbeck:1 schmidt:1 typically:1 exposure:2 consumption:2 part:3 pollen:6 debris:1 predatory:1 food:3 choice:1 nevertheless:2 due:2 significant:5 data:1 gap:1 real:1 consequence:1 transgenics:1 remain:4 unclear:1 scientific:1 fund:1 arm:1 greenpeace:1 possibility:1 slight:1 statistically:4 meaningful:1 risk:4 liver:1 rat:1 change:2 observe:1 statistical:1 difference:1 probable:1 predictable:1 animal:1 kind:1 error:2 probability:1 find:8 false:1 chance:2 alone:1 case:2 number:1 predicted:1 range:2 observed:1 significance:1 authority:1 http:7 www:6 efsa:2 int:1 pdf:1 austrian:1 investigate:1 usefulness:1 long:1 term:1 reproduction:1 mouse:2 model:1 gm:1 treat:1 correlate:1 reduced:1 fertility:1 via:1 unknown:2 mechanism:1 limitation:2 kenyans:1 examine:1 constant:1 create:1 evolutionary:1 pressure:1 already:1 diamondback:1 population:8 acquire:1 resistance:14 e:3 organic:2 agriculture:2 researcher:2 documented:1 biotech:1 reduce:3 creation:1 refuges:1 allow:1 survive:2 maintain:1 would:3 commercialization:1 maize:14 accompany:1 management:4 strategy:5 prevent:2 plan:1 mandatory:1 usa:1 aim:1 encourage:1 greatly:1 dilute:1 assumption:1 recessive:1 mean:1 sufficiently:1 transgene:2 nearly:1 heterozygote:2 segment:1 carry:3 allele:3 reach:1 maturity:1 transmission:1 progeny:1 refuge:5 field:5 adjacent:1 increase:3 likelihood:1 homozygous:1 individual:3 mate:1 instead:1 frequency:2 low:3 success:2 dose:2 example:2 vary:1 instance:1 temperature:1 ideal:1 stress:1 lower:1 importantly:1 late:1 season:1 possibly:1 dna:1 methylation:1 successful:1 prolong:1 durability:1 much:2 key:1 factor:1 independent:1 initial:4 fitness:1 cost:1 abundance:1 host:1 supplement:1 secondary:1 chinese:1 seven:1 bollyworms:1 mirid:1 problem:4 susan:1 lang:1 cornell:1 chronicle:1 profit:1 die:1 china:1 retrieve:3 similar:1 mealy:1 bug:2 india:2 bhaskar:1 goswami:1 infochange:1 meal:2 time:1 punjab:1 whither:1 magic:1 possible:3 lepidopteran:1 publisised:1 could:1 monarch:2 puzzle:1 hybrid:1 contains:1 rest:1 lead:2 multiple:2 follow:1 flaw:1 faulty:1 collection:1 procedure:1 feed:1 toxic:1 anther:1 wall:1 weight:1 pose:1 wild:3 contamination:6 nature:4 contaminate:1 center:3 origin:1 later:1 available:1 justify:1 publication:1 original:1 paper:1 however:4 still:1 controversy:1 unorthodox:1 retraction:1 pb:1 org:3 science:1 genenature:1 html:3 organicconsumers:1 article:1 cfm:1 subsequent:1 scale:2 fail:1 oaxaca:1 confirm:1 concern:1 natural:2 piñeyro:1 nelson:1 van:1 heerwaarden:1 j:2 perales:1 serratos:1 hernández:1 rangel:1 hufford:1 gepts:1 p:1 garay:1 arroyo:1 rivera:1 bustamante:1 álvarez:1 buylla:1 mexican:2 molecular:3 methodological:1 consideration:1 gmo:2 detection:1 landrace:1 ecology:2 issue:1 publish:2 show:1 sample:1 mexico:2 scidev:1 net:1 en:1 local:1 com:1 news:2 full:1 meta:1 preponderance:1 point:1 esajournals:1 doi:1 abs:1 co:2 hypothetical:2 outbreeding:1 crossbreed:2 grass:2 retain:1 event:1 ecological:1 implication:1 arise:1 general:2 herbivore:1 link:2 colony:2 collapse:2 disorder:2 new:1 phenomenon:1 ccd:2 hive:1 north:1 america:1 speculation:1 phone:1 mid:1 atlantic:1 apiculture:1 extension:1 consortium:1 adversely:1 actual:1 scientist:1 believe:1 bbc:1 uk:1 hi:1 sci:1 tech:1 stm:1 proof:1 killer:1 theory:1 microbial:2 community:1 navdanya:2 organisation:1 promote:1 farming:1 compare:1 adjoin:1 drop:2 microbe:1 enzyme:1 acid:1 phosphatase:1 contribute:1 uptake:1 nutrient:1 microorganisms:1 nitrogenase:1 fix:1 atmospheric:1 nitrogen:1 actinomycete:1 break:1 cellulose:1 humus:1 dehydrogenase:1 oxidiser:1 weave:1 web:1 infertility:1 february:1 reference:1 see:1 western:1 rootworm:1 external:1 fact:2 national:2 information:2 technical:1 breakdown:1 project:1 evolve:1 colonize:1 taxonomy:1 nih:1 |@bigram bacillus_thuringiensis:7 gram_positive:1 b_thuringiensis:12 closely_relate:2 et_al:1 wasp_bee:1 genetically_modify:2 digestive_tract:1 cell_lysis:1 insect_pest:1 environmentally_friendly:3 genetically_engineer:1 bt_toxin:6 epithelial_cell:1 statistically_significant:2 http_www:6 resistant_transgenic:2 scidev_net:1 preponderance_evidence:1 bee_hive:1 transgenic_crop:1 adversely_affect:1 uk_hi:1 hi_sci:1 sci_tech:1 tech_stm:1 organic_farming:1 gmo_crop:1 external_link:1 |
3,091 | Objectivity_(philosophy) | This article is about the philosophical concept of "objectivity". For discussions of objectivity as it is applied to the practices of science and journalism, see Objectivity (science) and Objectivity (journalism). For other uses see Objectivity (disambiguation). Objectivity is both an important and very difficult concept to pin down in philosophy. While there is no universally accepted articulation of objectivity, a proposition is generally considered to be objectively true when its truth conditions are "mind-independent"—that is, not the result of any judgments made by a conscious entity. Put another way, objective truths are those which are discovered rather than created. While such formulations capture the basic intuitive idea of objectivity, neither is without controversy. Objectivity and subjectivity In philosophy, an objective fact means a truth that remains true everywhere, independently of human thought or feelings. For instance, it is true always and everywhere that 'in base 10, 2 plus 2 equals 4'. A subjective fact is one that is only true under certain conditions, at certain times, in certain places or for certain people. The scientific virtues Among the truth-conducive tools of thought used by objective thinkers are the scientific virtues. When formulating a hypothesis to explain a particular fact, make sure that: your hypothesis is the simplest one on offer (Principle of Parsimony), that it is adequate to all known evidence, that it can predict as diverse an array of phenomena as possible, and that it is fruitful "risky," according to Popperians, but more generally, that it can be verified by new or as yet unperformed experiments or observations. The scientific virtue known as simplicity or parsimony has also come to be known as "Ockham’s Razor" because of its frequent use by the fourteenth century philosopher William of Ockham, whose primary statement of the principle in his nominalist epistemology is that in accounting for the facts nothing should be assumed as necessary unless it is established through evidentiary experience or reasoning, or is required by the articles of faith. Objectivism "Objectivism" is a term that describes a branch of philosophy that originated in the early nineteenth century. Gottlob Frege was the first to apply it, when he expounded an epistemological and metaphysical theory contrary to that of Immanuel Kant. Kant's rationalism attempted to reconcile the failures he perceived in realism, empiricism, and idealism and to establish a critical method of approach in the distinction between epistemology and metaphysics. Objectivism in this context is an alternate name for philosophical realism, the view that there is a reality or ontological realm of objects and facts that exists independent of the mind. Stronger versions of this claim might hold that there is only one correct description of this reality. If it is true that reality is mind-independent, it is thus inclusive of objects that are unknown and not the subject of intentionality. Objectivity in referring requires a definition of truth. According to metaphysical objectivists, an object may truthfully be said to have this or that attribute, as in the statement "This object exists," whereas the statement "This object is true" or "false" is meaningless. Thus, only propositions have truth values. Essentially, the terms "objectivity" and "objectivism" are not synonymous, with objectivism being an ontological theory that incorporates a commitment to the objectivity of objects. Plato's realism was a form of metaphysical objectivism, holding that the Ideas exist objectively and independently. Berkeley's empiricist idealism, on the other hand, could be called a subjectivism: he held that things only exist to the extent that they are perceived. Both theories claim methods of objectivity. Plato's definition of objectivity can be found in his epistemology, which takes as a model mathematics, and his metaphysics, where knowledge of the ontological status of objects and ideas is resistant to change. Plato considered knowledge of geometry as a condition of philosophical knowledge, both being concerned with universal truths. Plato's opposition between objective knowledge and doxa (opinions) would become the basis for later philosophies intent on resolving the problem of reality, knowledge and human existence. Personal opinions belong to the changing sphere of the sensible, opposed to a fixed and eternal incorporeal realm which is mutually intelligible. Where Plato distinguishes between what and how we know things (epistemology) and their ontological status as things (metaphysics), subjectivism such as Berkeley's and a mind dependence of knowledge and reality fails to make the distinction between what one knows and what is to be known, or in the least explains the distinction superficially. In Platonic terms, a criticism of subjectivism is that it is difficult to distinguish between knowledge, doxa, and subjective knowledge (true belief), distinctions which Plato makes. The importance of perception in evaluating and understanding objective reality is debated. Realists argue that perception is key in directly observing objective reality, while instrumentalists hold that perception is not necessarily useful in directly observing objective reality, but is useful in interpreting and predicting reality. The concepts that encompasses these ideas are important in the philosophy of science. Objectivity in ethics Ethical subjectivism (See also, David Hume, non-cognitivism, ethical subjectivism). The term, "ethical subjectivism," covers two distinct theories in ethics. According to cognitive versions of ethical subjectivism, the truth of moral statements depends upon people's values, attitudes, feelings, or beliefs. Some forms of cognitivist ethical subjectivism can be counted as forms of realism, others are forms of anti-realism. David Hume is a foundational figure for cognitive ethical subjectivism. On a standard interpretation of his theory, a trait of character counts as a moral virtue when it evokes a sentiment of approbation in a sympathetic, informed, and rational human observer. Similarly, Roderick Firth's ideal observer theory held that right acts are those that an impartial, rational observer would approve of. William James, another ethical subjectivist, held that an end is good (to or for a person) just in case it is desired by that person. According to non-cognitive versions of ethical subjectivism, such as emotivism, prescriptivism, and expressivism, ethical statements cannot be true or false, at all: rather, they are expressions of personal feelings or commands. For example, on A. J. Ayer's emotivism, the statement, "Murder is wrong" is equivalent in meaning to the emotive ejaculation, "Murder, Boo!" Ethical objectivism According to the ethical objectivist, the truth or falsity of typical moral judgments does not depend upon the beliefs or feelings of any person or group of persons. This view holds that moral propositions are analogous to propositions about chemistry, biology, or history: they describe (or fail to describe) a mind-independent reality. When they describe it accurately, they are true --- no matter what anyone believes, hopes, wishes, or feels. When they fail to describe this mind-independent moral reality, they are false --- no matter what anyone believes, hopes, wishes, or feels. There are many versions of ethical objectivism, including various religious views of morality, Platonistic intuitionism, Kantianism, and certain forms of contractualism and ethical egoism. Note that Platonists define ethical objectivism in an even more narrow way, so that it requires the existence of intrinsic value. Consequently, they reject the idea that contractualists or egoists could be ethical objectivists. See also Epistemology Phenomenology Truth Historical method Moral objectivism Scientific method Scholarly method Subject-object problem Michel Foucault's analysis of historical and political discourse Gilbert Ryle Gilles Deleuze's definition of Philosophy as singular creation of concepts, opposed to the contemplation of universal objects Habermas' conception of dialogue Jaakko Hintikka Alexius Meinong George Edward Moore Ayn Rand Paul Ricœur's conception of history Bertrand Russell Franz Brentano Willard Van Orman Quine (specifically Word and Object ) Relativism Objectivism (Ayn Rand) Objectivity (journalism) Objectivity (science) Journalism ethics and standards Historical method Further reading Bachelard, Gaston. La formation de l'esprit scientifique : contribution à une psychanalyse de la connaissance. Paris: Vrin, 2004 ISBN 2-7116-1150-7 . Castillejo, David. The Formation of Modern Objectivity. Madrid: Ediciones de Arte y Bibliofilia, 1982. Kuhn, Thomas S.. The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996, 3° ed. ISBN 0-226-45808-3 Megill, Allan. Rethinking Objectivity. London: Duke UP, 1994. Nagel, Ernest. The Structure of Science. New York: Brace and World, 1961. Nagel, Thomas. The View from Nowhere. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1986 Nozick, Robert. Invariances: the structure of the objective world. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2001. Popper, Karl. R.. Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach. Oxford University Press, 1972, trade paperback, 395 pages, ISBN 0-19-875024-2 , hardcover is out of print. See libraries. Rescher, Nicholas. Objectivity: the obligations of impersonal reason. Notre Dame: Notre Dame Press, 1977. Rorty, Richard. Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991 Rousset, Bernard. La théorie kantienne de l'objectivité, Paris: Vrin, 1967. Schaeffler, Israel. Science and Subjectivity. Hackett, 1982. Voices of Wisdom; a multicutural philosophy reader. kessler External links Subjectivity and Objectivity — by Pete Mandik | Objectivity_(philosophy) |@lemmatized article:2 philosophical:3 concept:4 objectivity:22 discussion:1 apply:2 practice:1 science:6 journalism:4 see:5 us:1 disambiguation:1 important:2 difficult:2 pin:1 philosophy:7 universally:1 accept:1 articulation:1 proposition:4 generally:2 consider:2 objectively:2 true:9 truth:11 condition:3 mind:6 independent:5 result:1 judgment:2 make:4 conscious:1 entity:1 put:1 another:2 way:2 objective:9 discover:1 rather:2 create:1 formulation:1 capture:1 basic:1 intuitive:1 idea:5 neither:1 without:1 controversy:1 subjectivity:3 fact:5 mean:2 remain:1 everywhere:2 independently:2 human:3 thought:2 feeling:4 instance:1 always:1 base:1 plus:1 equal:1 subjective:2 one:4 certain:5 time:1 place:1 people:2 scientific:5 virtue:4 among:1 conducive:1 tool:1 use:2 thinker:1 formulate:1 hypothesis:2 explain:2 particular:1 sure:1 simple:1 offer:1 principle:2 parsimony:2 adequate:1 know:6 evidence:1 predict:2 diverse:1 array:1 phenomenon:1 possible:1 fruitful:1 risky:1 accord:5 popperians:1 verify:1 new:2 yet:1 unperformed:1 experiment:1 observation:1 simplicity:1 also:3 come:1 ockham:2 razor:1 frequent:1 fourteenth:1 century:2 philosopher:1 william:2 whose:1 primary:1 statement:6 nominalist:1 epistemology:5 accounting:1 nothing:1 assume:1 necessary:1 unless:1 establish:2 evidentiary:1 experience:1 reasoning:1 require:3 faith:1 objectivism:11 term:4 describe:5 branch:1 originate:1 early:1 nineteenth:1 gottlob:1 frege:1 first:1 expound:1 epistemological:1 metaphysical:3 theory:6 contrary:1 immanuel:1 kant:2 rationalism:1 attempt:1 reconcile:1 failure:1 perceive:2 realism:5 empiricism:1 idealism:2 critical:1 method:6 approach:2 distinction:4 metaphysics:3 context:1 alternate:1 name:1 view:4 reality:11 ontological:4 realm:2 object:10 exist:4 strong:1 version:4 claim:2 might:1 hold:7 correct:1 description:1 thus:2 inclusive:1 unknown:1 subject:2 intentionality:1 refer:1 definition:3 objectivists:2 may:1 truthfully:1 say:1 attribute:1 whereas:1 false:3 meaningless:1 value:3 essentially:1 synonymous:1 incorporate:1 commitment:1 plato:6 form:5 berkeley:2 empiricist:1 hand:1 could:2 call:1 subjectivism:10 thing:3 extent:1 find:1 take:1 model:1 mathematics:1 knowledge:9 status:2 resistant:1 change:2 geometry:1 concern:1 universal:2 opposition:1 doxa:2 opinion:2 would:2 become:1 basis:1 late:1 intent:1 resolve:1 problem:2 existence:2 personal:2 belong:1 sphere:1 sensible:1 oppose:2 fix:1 eternal:1 incorporeal:1 mutually:1 intelligible:1 distinguish:2 dependence:1 fails:1 least:1 superficially:1 platonic:1 criticism:1 belief:3 importance:1 perception:3 evaluate:1 understand:1 debate:1 realist:1 argue:1 key:1 directly:2 observe:2 instrumentalist:1 necessarily:1 useful:2 interpret:1 encompass:1 ethic:3 ethical:15 david:3 hume:2 non:2 cognitivism:1 cover:1 two:1 distinct:1 cognitive:3 moral:6 depend:2 upon:2 attitude:1 cognitivist:1 count:2 others:1 anti:1 foundational:1 figure:1 standard:2 interpretation:1 trait:1 character:1 evoke:1 sentiment:1 approbation:1 sympathetic:1 inform:1 rational:2 observer:3 similarly:1 roderick:1 firth:1 ideal:1 right:1 act:1 impartial:1 approve:1 james:1 subjectivist:1 end:1 good:1 person:4 case:1 desire:1 emotivism:2 prescriptivism:1 expressivism:1 cannot:1 expression:1 command:1 example:1 j:1 ayer:1 murder:2 wrong:1 equivalent:1 emotive:1 ejaculation:1 boo:1 objectivist:1 falsity:1 typical:1 group:1 analogous:1 chemistry:1 biology:1 history:2 fail:2 accurately:1 matter:2 anyone:2 believe:2 hope:2 wish:2 feel:2 many:1 include:1 various:1 religious:1 morality:1 platonistic:1 intuitionism:1 kantianism:1 contractualism:1 egoism:1 note:1 platonists:1 define:1 even:1 narrow:1 intrinsic:1 consequently:1 reject:1 contractualists:1 egoist:1 phenomenology:1 historical:3 scholarly:1 michel:1 foucault:1 analysis:1 political:1 discourse:1 gilbert:1 ryle:1 gilles:1 deleuze:1 singular:1 creation:1 contemplation:1 habermas:1 conception:2 dialogue:1 jaakko:1 hintikka:1 alexius:1 meinong:1 george:1 edward:1 moore:1 ayn:2 rand:2 paul:1 ricœur:1 bertrand:1 russell:1 franz:1 brentano:1 willard:1 van:1 orman:1 quine:1 specifically:1 word:1 relativism:2 far:1 read:1 bachelard:1 gaston:1 la:3 formation:2 de:4 l:2 esprit:1 scientifique:1 contribution:1 à:1 une:1 psychanalyse:1 connaissance:1 paris:2 vrin:2 isbn:3 castillejo:1 modern:1 madrid:1 ediciones:1 arte:1 bibliofilia:1 kuhn:1 thomas:2 structure:3 revolution:1 chicago:2 university:3 press:4 ed:1 megill:1 allan:1 rethink:1 london:1 duke:1 nagel:2 ernest:1 york:1 brace:1 world:2 nowhere:1 oxford:3 nozick:1 robert:1 invariance:1 cambridge:3 harvard:1 popper:1 karl:1 r:1 evolutionary:1 trade:1 paperback:1 page:1 hardcover:1 print:1 library:1 rescher:1 nicholas:1 obligation:1 impersonal:1 reason:1 notre:2 dame:2 rorty:1 richard:1 rousset:1 bernard:1 théorie:1 kantienne:1 objectivité:1 schaeffler:1 israel:1 hackett:1 voice:1 wisdom:1 multicutural:1 reader:1 kessler:1 external:1 link:1 pete:1 mandik:1 |@bigram universally_accept:1 principle_parsimony:1 william_ockham:1 nineteenth_century:1 gottlob_frege:1 immanuel_kant:1 mutually_intelligible:1 ethical_subjectivism:7 david_hume:2 non_cognitivism:1 truth_falsity:1 ethical_egoism:1 michel_foucault:1 gilles_deleuze:1 ayn_rand:2 bertrand_russell:1 van_orman:1 l_esprit:1 popper_karl:1 rescher_nicholas:1 notre_dame:2 la_théorie:1 external_link:1 |
3,092 | Welcome_to_the_Pleasuredome_(song) | Welcome to the Pleasuredome is the title track of the 1984 debut album by Frankie Goes to Hollywood. The lyrics of the song were inspired by the poem Kubla Khan by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. In March 1985, the album track was substantially abridged and remixed for release as the group's fourth UK single. Original 1985 single Despite the group's record label (ZTT) pre-emptively promoting the single as "their fourth number one", an achievement that would have set a new UK record for consecutive number one singles by a debuting artist, "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" peaked at number two in the UK singles chart, being kept off the top spot by the Phil Collins/Philip Bailey duet "Easy Lover". The single spent a total of eleven weeks on the UK chart. It was the first release by the group not to reach number one and, despite representing a creditable success in its own right, it symbolically confirmed the end of the chart invincibility that the group had enjoyed during 1984. Frankie Goes to Hollywood would not release another record for seventeen months, and they would ultimately fail to emulate their past glories upon their return. The spoken-word introductions to both 12-inch mixes are adapted from Walter Kaufmann's 1967 translation of Friedrich Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy. The recitation on the first 12-inch ("Real Altered") is by Gary Taylor, whilst that on the second 12-inch ("Fruitness") and the cassette is by actor Geoffrey Palmer. It is unknown whether Palmer's concluding "Welcome To The Pleasuredrome" was a genuine mistake or a deliberately scripted one. B-sides All releases featured either a short, long or even longer version of "Get It On", originally recorded for a BBC Radio One session in 1983, plus a faded or full length version of "Happy Hi!", the only brand-new song to appear on the single. Both "Relax (International)" and "Born To Run" are faux-live recordings (ie. with studio overdubs), based on an actual live appearance on The Tubes "Europe A-Go-Go" in Newcastle during early January 1985. Video The video, by Bernard Rose, features the group stealing a car, going to a carnival and encountering all manner of deceptively "pleasureable" activities. The audio soundtrack of the video was included as part of the cassette single. Promotional releases In 1984, a few months prior to the album's release, an early instrumental version of the album track was issued as a promotional 12-inch single, entitled "Welcome to the Pleasuredome (Pleasure Fix)", along with a similar early instrumental of "The Only Star In Heaven" (subtitled "Star Fix"). These tracks were subsequently given wider release as part of the B-side to the second 12-inch of "The Power of Love" single. "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" was also used on several promotional records in the USA during 1985, featuring the following tracks in various combinations: The first UK 7-inch mix of the track ("Altered Real"), labelled "Trevor Horn Remix". An edited version of the album track created by the Sacramento radio station KZAP, and known as "Welcome to the Pleasuredome (KZAP Edit)" (6:22) A version of the second UK 7-inch mix ("Alternative Reel") with a new introduction added, and known as "Welcome to the Pleasuredome (Urban Mix)" (8:08). This is on the Bang! Japanese album and CD. A slightly edited (spoken introduction removed) version of "Relax (International)" (4:26) Track listing All discographical information pertains to the original UK single release only. All songs written by Peter Gill/Holly Johnson/Brian Nash/Mark O'Toole, unless otherwise noted. PZTAS 7 picture disc. 7": ZTT / ZTAS 7 (UK) "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" (Altered Real) - 4:20 "Get It On" [longer version] (Marc Bolan) — 3:28 "Happy Hi!" [fade] (Gill/Johnson/O'Toole) — 3:47 Matrix numbers on A-side: 1U/2U 7": ZTT / ZTAS 7 (UK) "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" (Alternative Reel) [aka: Escape Act Video Mix] - 5:05 "Get It On" [longer version] - 3:28 "Happy Hi!" [fade] - 3:47 Matrix numbers on A-side: 7U/8U 7": ZTT / PZTAS 7 (UK) "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" (Alternative Reel) - 5:05 "Get It On" [short version] - 2:32 "Happy Hi!" - 4:04 apple-shaped picture disc single 7": Island / 7-99653 (US) "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" (altered real) - 4:20 "Relax" (International edit) - 4:26 12": ZTT / 12 ZTAS 7 (UK) "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" (Real Altered) - 9:42 "Get It On" [short version] - 2:32 "Happy Hi!" - 4:04 "Relax" (International) (Gill/Johnson/O'Toole) — 4:51 12 XZTAS 7 cover art. 12": ZTT / 12 XTAS 7 (UK) "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" (Fruitness) - 10:47 "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" (Edit) - 1:23 "Get It On" ("live") - 2:32 "Happy Hi!" ("live") - 4:04 "Born to Run" ("live") - 4:49 MC: ZTT / CTIS 107 (UK) "Happy Hi!" (All in the Body) - 1:18 "Soundtrack from the "Welcome..." Bernard Rose Video" - 5:37 "Get It On" [even longer version] - 3:56 "Welcome to the Pleasuredome" (How to Remake the World) - 10:59 "Happy Hi!" (All in the Mind) - 1:05 Reissues The track has periodically been reissued as a single, including during 1993 and 2000. Although these releases have some admirers, and have usefully made available various original mixes on CD for the first time, the accompanying A-side remixes by contemporary DJs have tended on the whole to bear little or no comparison to the spirit of the originals. Reissues in the group's name have also tended to shun any overt reference to the identity of the original artists, and the reissue artwork has notably featured no images of the group. It has been suggested that this situation may relate to Johnson's successful but acrimonious court case against ZTT in 1989, which freed him (and effectively the other group members) from their unfair contract with the label.1993 reissues CD: ZTT / FGTH2CD "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Original 7") - 4:22 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Brothers In Rhythm Rollercoaster Mix) - 14:36 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Elevatorman's Non-stop Top Floor Club Mix) - 6:06 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Pleasurefix Original 12" Mix) - 9:41 12": ZTT / FGTH2T "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Brothers In Rhythm Rollercoaster Mix) - 14:36 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Elevatorman's Non-stop Top Floor Club Mix) - 6:06 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Elevatorman's Deep Down Bass-Ment Dub) - 6:022000 reissues' CD: ZTT / ZTT 166CD "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Sleazesister Album Mix Edit) - 3:35 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Nalin & Kane Remix Edit) - 8:00 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Sleazesister Anthem Mix) - 7:32 CD: Avex / AVTCDS-296 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Nalin & Kane Full Length Mix) - 11:23 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Sander's Coming Home Mix) - 10:18 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Paralyzer Remix) - 5:17 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Nalin & Kane Dub) - 11:22 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Sleazesister Edit) - 3:53 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Sleazesister Full Length Club) - 7:32 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Pleasurefix Mix) - 9:40 12": ZTT / ZTT 166 T "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Nalin & Kane Remix) - 11:23 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Sander's Coming Home Remix) - 10:18 2x12": ZTT / ZTT 166 TP "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Nalin & Kane Remix) - 11:23 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Sander's Coming Home Remix) - 10:18 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Paralyzer Remix) - 5:17 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Nalin & Kane Dub) - 11:22 UK 2x12" promo 12": ZTT / ZTT 166 TPX "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Sleazesisters Anthem Mix) - 7:32 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Paralyzer Remix) - 5:17 "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" (Sleazesister Edit) - 3:53 UK 12" promo External links Listen to CTIS 107 | Welcome_to_the_Pleasuredome_(song) |@lemmatized welcome:42 pleasuredome:40 title:1 track:9 debut:1 album:7 frankie:2 go:5 hollywood:2 lyric:1 song:3 inspire:1 poem:1 kubla:1 khan:1 samuel:1 taylor:2 coleridge:1 march:1 substantially:1 abridge:1 remixed:1 release:9 group:8 fourth:2 uk:15 single:13 original:7 despite:2 record:5 label:3 ztt:18 pre:1 emptively:1 promote:1 number:6 one:5 achievement:1 would:3 set:1 new:3 consecutive:1 debuting:1 artist:2 peak:1 two:1 chart:3 keep:1 top:3 spot:1 phil:1 collins:1 philip:1 bailey:1 duet:1 easy:1 lover:1 spent:1 total:1 eleven:1 week:1 first:4 reach:1 represent:1 creditable:1 success:1 right:1 symbolically:1 confirm:1 end:1 invincibility:1 enjoy:1 another:1 seventeen:1 month:2 ultimately:1 fail:1 emulate:1 past:1 glory:1 upon:1 return:1 spoken:2 word:1 introduction:3 inch:7 mix:17 adapt:1 walter:1 kaufmann:1 translation:1 friedrich:1 nietzsche:1 birth:1 tragedy:1 recitation:1 real:5 alter:3 gary:1 whilst:1 second:3 fruitness:2 cassette:2 actor:1 geoffrey:1 palmer:2 unknown:1 whether:1 conclude:1 pleasuredrome:1 genuine:1 mistake:1 deliberately:1 script:1 b:2 side:5 feature:4 either:1 short:3 long:5 even:2 version:11 get:7 originally:1 bbc:1 radio:2 session:1 plus:1 faded:1 full:3 length:3 happy:8 hi:8 brand:1 appear:1 relax:4 international:4 bear:3 run:2 faux:1 live:5 recording:1 ie:1 studio:1 overdubs:1 base:1 actual:1 appearance:1 tubes:1 europe:1 newcastle:1 early:3 january:1 video:5 bernard:2 rise:2 steal:1 car:1 carnival:1 encounter:1 manner:1 deceptively:1 pleasureable:1 activity:1 audio:1 soundtrack:2 include:2 part:2 promotional:3 prior:1 instrumental:2 issue:1 entitled:1 pleasure:1 fix:2 along:1 similar:1 star:2 heaven:1 subtitle:1 subsequently:1 give:1 wide:1 power:1 love:1 also:2 use:1 several:1 usa:1 follow:1 various:2 combination:1 trevor:1 horn:1 remix:9 edited:1 create:1 sacramento:1 station:1 kzap:2 know:2 edit:8 alternative:3 reel:3 add:1 urban:1 bang:1 japanese:1 cd:5 slightly:1 remove:1 list:1 discographical:1 information:1 pertains:1 write:1 peter:1 gill:3 holly:1 johnson:4 brian:1 nash:1 mark:1 toole:3 unless:1 otherwise:1 note:1 pztas:2 picture:2 disc:2 ztas:3 altered:2 marc:1 bolan:1 fade:2 matrix:2 aka:1 escape:1 act:1 apple:1 shaped:1 island:1 u:1 xztas:1 cover:1 art:1 xtas:1 mc:1 ctis:2 body:1 remake:1 world:1 mind:1 reissue:5 periodically:1 although:1 admirer:1 usefully:1 make:1 available:1 time:1 accompany:1 remixes:1 contemporary:1 dj:1 tend:2 whole:1 little:1 comparison:1 spirit:1 name:1 shun:1 overt:1 reference:1 identity:1 artwork:1 notably:1 image:1 suggest:1 situation:1 may:1 relate:1 successful:1 acrimonious:1 court:1 case:1 free:1 effectively:1 member:1 unfair:1 contract:1 reissues:1 brother:2 rhythm:2 rollercoaster:2 elevatorman:3 non:2 stop:2 floor:2 club:3 pleasurefix:2 deep:1 bass:1 ment:1 dub:3 sleazesister:5 nalin:6 kane:6 anthem:2 avex:1 avtcds:1 sander:3 come:3 home:3 paralyzer:3 tp:1 promo:2 tpx:1 sleazesisters:1 external:1 link:1 listen:1 |@bigram welcome_pleasuredome:40 kubla_khan:1 taylor_coleridge:1 walter_kaufmann:1 friedrich_nietzsche:1 trevor_horn:1 edited_version:1 holly_johnson:1 unless_otherwise:1 ztt_ztas:3 marc_bolan:1 pleasuredome_sleazesister:5 pleasuredome_nalin:6 nalin_kane:6 remix_welcome:6 external_link:1 |
3,093 | Modernism | Hans Hofmann, "The Gate", 1959–1960, collection: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. Hofmann was renowned not only as an artist but also as a teacher of art, and a modernist theorist both in his native Germany and later in the U.S. During the 1930s in New York and California he introduced modernism and modernist theories to a new generation of American artists. Through his teaching and his lectures at his art schools in Greenwich Village and Provincetown, Massachusetts, he widened the scope of modernism in America. Hans Hofmann biography, retrieved January 30, 2009 Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes both a set of cultural tendencies and an array of associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The term encompasses the activities and output of those who felt the "traditional" forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, social organization and daily life were becoming outdated in the new economic, social and political conditions of an emerging fully industrialized world. Modernism rejected the lingering certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and also that of the existence of a compassionate, all-powerful Creator. Pericles Lewis, Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel (Cambridge University Press, 2000). pp38-39. "[James] Joyce's [Ulysses] is a comedy not divine, ending, like Dante's, in the vision of a God whose will is our peace, but human all-too-human..." Peter Faulkner, Modernism (Taylor & Francis, 1990).pp60. This is not to say that all Modernists or Modernist movements rejected either religion or all aspects of Enlightenment thought, rather that Modernism can be viewed as a questioning of the axioms of the previous age. A salient characteristic of Modernism is self-consciousness. This often led to experiments with form, and work that draws attention to the processes and materials used (and to the further tendency of abstraction). Gardner, Helen, Horst De la Croix, Richard G. Tansey, and Diane Kirkpatrick. Gardner's Art Through the Ages (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991). ISBN 0155037706. p. 953. The poet Ezra Pound's paradigmatic injunction was to "Make it new!" However, the break from the past was not a clean break. Pound's phrase identified one Modernist objective, even as T.S. Eliot emphasized the relation of the artist to tradition.<ref>Eliot wrote: "[W]e shall often find that not only the best, but the most individual parts of [a poet's] work, may be those in which the dead poets, his ancestors, assert their immortality most vigorously." Tradition and the individual talent" (1919), in Selected Essays. Paperback Edition. (Faber & Faber, 1999). </ref> Literary scholar Peter Childs sums up the complexity: "There were paradoxical if not opposed trends towards revolutionary and reactionary positions, fear of the new and delight at the disappearance of the old, nihilism and fanatical enthusiasm, creativity and despair." Childs, Peter. Modernism (Routledge, 2000). ISBN 0415196477. p. 17. Accessed on 2009-02-08. These oppositions are inherent to Modernism: It is in its broadest cultural sense the assessment of the past as different to the modern age, the recognition that the world was becoming more complex, and that the old "final authorities" (God, government, science, and reason) were subject to intense critical scrutiny. Current interpretations of Modernism vary. Some divide 20th century reaction into Modernism and Postmodernism, whereas others see them as two aspects of the same movement. Present-day perspectives Some commentators approach Modernism as an overall socially progressive trend of thought, that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment, with the aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge or technology. "In the twentieth century, the social processes that bring this maelstrom into being, and keep it in a state of perpetual becoming, have come to be called 'modernization'. These world-historical processes have nourished an amazing variety of visions and ideas that aim to make men and women the subjects as well as the objects of modernization, to give them the power to change the world that is changing them, to make their way through the maelstrom and make it their own. Over the past century, these visions and values have come to be loosely grouped together under the name of 'modernism'" (Berman 1988, 16) From this perspective, Modernism encouraged the re-examination of every aspect of existence, from commerce to philosophy, with the goal of finding that which was 'holding back' progress, and replacing it with new ways of reaching the same end. Others focus on Modernism as an aesthetic introspection. This facilitates consideration of specific reactions to the use of technology in The First World War, and anti-technological and nihilistic aspects of the works of diverse thinkers and artists spanning the period from Nietzsche to Samuel Beckett. Lee Oser, The Ethics of Modernism: Moral ideas in Yeats, Eliot, Joyce, Woolf and Beckett (Cambridge University Press, 2007); F.J. Marker & C.D. Innes, Modernism in European Drama: Ibsen, Stringdberg, Pirandello, Beckett; Morag Shiach, "Situating Samuel Beckett" pp234-247 in The Cambridge Companion to the Modernist Novel, (Cambridge University Press, 2007); Kathryne V. Lindberg, Reading Pound Reading: Modernism After Nietzsche (Oxford University Press, 1987); Pericles Lewis, The Cambridge Introduction to Modernism (Cambridge University Press, 2007). pp21 History of Modernism Beginnings Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People, 1830, a Romantic work of art. The first half of the nineteenth century for Europe was marked by a number of wars and revolutions, which contributed to an aesthetic "turning away" from the realities of political and social fragmentation, and so facilitated a trend towards Romanticism: emphasis on individual subjective experience, the sublime, the supremacy of "Nature" as a subject for art, revolutionary or radical extensions of expression, and individual liberty. By mid-century, however, a synthesis of these ideas with stable governing forms had emerged, partly in reaction to the failed Romantic and democratic Revolutions of 1848. It was exemplified by Otto von Bismarck's Realpolitik and by "practical" philosophical ideas such as positivism. Called by various names—in Great Britain it is designated the "Victorian era"—this stabilizing synthesis was rooted in the idea that reality dominates over subjective impressions. Central to this synthesis were common assumptions and institutional frames of reference, including the religious norms found in Christianity, scientific norms found in classical physics and doctrines that asserted that the depiction of external reality from an objective standpoint was not only possible but desirable. Cultural critics and historians label this set of doctrines Realism, though this term is not universal. In philosophy, the rationalist, materialist and positivist movements established a primacy of reason and system. Against the current ran a series of ideas, some of them direct continuations of Romantic schools of thought. Notable were the agrarian and revivalist movements in plastic arts and poetry (e.g. the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the philosopher John Ruskin). Rationalism also drew responses from the anti-rationalists in philosophy. In particular, Hegel's dialectic view of civilization and history drew responses from Friedrich Nietzsche and Søren Kierkegaard, who were major influences on Existentialism. All of these separate reactions together began to be seen as offering a challenge to any comfortable ideas of certainty derived by civilization, history, or pure reason. From the 1870s onward, the ideas that history and civilization were inherently progressive and that progress was always good came under increasing attack. Writers Wagner and Ibsen had been reviled for their own critiques of contemporary civilization and for their warnings that accelerating "progress" would lead to the creation of individuals detached from social values and isolated from their fellow men. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, and could not move forward in its present form. Philosophers called into question the previous optimism. The work of Schopenhauer was labelled "pessimistic" for its idea of the "negation of the will", an idea that would be both rejected and incorporated by later thinkers such as Nietzsche. Two of the most significant thinkers of the period were, in biology, Charles Darwin, and in political science, Karl Marx. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined the religious certainty of the general public, and the sense of human uniqueness of the intelligentsia. The notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as "lower animals" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system—and that, contrary to the libertarian ideal, the workers were anything but free. Both thinkers would spawn defenders and schools of thought that would become decisive in establishing modernism. Historians have suggested various dates as the starting point of Modernism. William Everdell has argued that Modernism began with Richard Dedekind's division of the real number line in 1872 and Boltzmann's statistical thermodynamics in 1874. Clement Greenberg called Immanuel Kant "the first real Modernist", Frascina and Harrison 1982, p. 5. but also wrote, "What can be safely called Modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in France, with Baudelaire in literature and Manet in painting, and perhaps with Flaubert, too, in prose fiction. (It was a while later, and not so locally, that Modernism appeared in music and architecture)." Clement Greenberg: Modernism and Postmodernism, seventh paragraph of the essay. URL accessed on 15 June 2006 The "avant-garde" was what Modernism was called at first, and the term remained to describe movements which identify themselves as attempting to overthrow some aspect of tradition or the status quo. Fred Orton and Griselda Pollock, Avant-Gardes and Partisans Reviewed. Manchester University, 1996. Separately, in the arts and letters, two ideas originating in France would have particular impact. The first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors (en plein air). Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored Paris Salon, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by inferior artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention, and opened commercial doors to the movement. Odilon Redon, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper, The Art Institute of Chicago. The second school was Symbolism, marked by a belief that language is expressly symbolic in its nature and a portrayal of patriotism, and that poetry and writing should follow connections that the sheer sound and texture of the words create. The poet Stéphane Mallarmé would be of particular importance to what would occur afterwards. At the same time social, political, and economic forces were at work that would become the basis to argue for a radically different kind of art and thinking. Chief among these was steam-powered industrialization, which produced buildings that combined art and engineering in new industrial materials such as cast iron to produce railroad bridges and glass-and-iron train sheds—or the Eiffel Tower, which broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be—and at the same time offered a radically different environment in urban life. The miseries of industrial urbanism, and the possibilities created by scientific examination of subjects brought changes that would shake a European civilization which had, until then, regarded itself as having a continuous and progressive line of development from the Renaissance. With the telegraph's harnessing of a new power, offering instant communication at a distance, the experience of time itself was altered. The breadth of the changes can be sensed in how many modern disciplines are described, in their pre-twentieth century form, as being "classical", including physics, economics, and arts such as ballet or architecture. Turn of the century In the 1890s a strand of thinking began to assert that it was necessary to push aside previous norms entirely, instead of merely revising past knowledge in light of current techniques. The growing movement in art paralleled such developments as the Theory of Relativity in physics; the increasing integration of the internal combustion engine and industrialization; and the increased role of the social sciences in public policy. It was argued that, if the nature of reality itself was in question, and if restrictions which had been in place around human activity were falling, then art, too, would have to radically change. Thus, in the first fifteen years of the twentieth century a series of writers, thinkers, and artists made the break with traditional means of organizing literature, painting, and music. Piet Mondrian, Composition No. 10, 1939-42, oil on canvas, 80 x 73 cm, private collection. Powerfully influential in this wave of modernity were the theories of Sigmund Freud and Ernst Mach, who argued, beginning in the 1880s, that the mind had a fundamental structure, and that subjective experience was based on the interplay of the parts of the mind. All subjective reality was based, according to Freud's ideas, on the play of basic drives and instincts, through which the outside world was perceived. Ernst Mach developed a well-known philosophy of science, often called "positivism", according to which the relations of objects in nature were not guaranteed but only known through a sort of mental shorthand. This represented a break with the past, in that previously it was believed that external and absolute reality could impress itself, as it was, on an individual, as, for example, in John Locke's empiricism, with the mind beginning as a tabula rasa. Freud's description of subjective states, involving an unconscious mind full of primal impulses and counterbalancing self-imposed restrictions, was combined by Carl Jung with a belief in natural essence to stipulate a collective unconscious that was full of basic typologies that the conscious mind fought or embraced. Jung's view suggested that people's impulses towards breaking social norms were not the product of childishness or ignorance, but were instead essential to the nature of the human animal, the ideas of Darwin having already introduced the concept of "man, the animal" to the public mind. Friedrich Nietzsche championed a philosophy in which forces, specifically the 'Will to power', were more important than facts or things. Similarly, the writings of Henri Bergson championed the vital 'life force' over static conceptions of reality. What united all these writers was a romantic distrust of the Victorian positivism and certainty. Instead they championed, or, in the case of Freud, attempted to explain, irrational thought processes through the lens of rationality and holism. This was connected with the century-long trend to thinking in terms of holistic ideas, which would include an increased interest in the occult, and "the vital force". Out of this collision of ideals derived from Romanticism, and an attempt to find a way for knowledge to explain that which was as yet unknown, came the first wave of works, which, while their authors considered them extensions of existing trends in art, broke the implicit contract that artists were the interpreters and representatives of bourgeois culture and ideas. These "modernist" landmarks include Arnold Schoenberg's atonal ending to his Second String Quartet in 1908, the expressionist paintings of Wassily Kandinsky starting in 1903 and culminating with his first abstract painting and the founding of the Blue Rider group in Munich in 1911, and the rise of cubism from the work of Picasso and Georges Braque in 1908. This wave of the modern movement broke with the past in the first decade of the twentieth century, and tried to redefine various artforms in a radical manner. Leading lights within the literary wing of this movement (or, rather, these movements) include: Rafael Alberti Gabriele D'Annunzio Guillaume Apollinaire Louis Aragon Djuna Barnes Bertolt Brecht Basil Bunting Mário de Sá-Carneiro Constantine P. Cavafy Blaise Cendrars Jean Cocteau Joseph Conrad T. S. Eliot Paul Éluard William Faulkner H.D. Ernest Hemingway Modernism eNotes.com Hugo von Hofmannsthal Max Jacob James Joyce Franz Kafka D. H. Lawrence Wyndham Lewis Federico García Lorca Hugh MacDiarmid Marianne Moore Robert Musil Almada Negreiros Fernando Pessoa Luigi Pirandello Ezra Pound Marcel Proust Pierre Reverdy Gertrude Stein Wallace Stevens Italo Svevo Tristan Tzara Giuseppe Ungaretti Paul Valéry Robert Walser William Carlos Williams Virginia Woolf William Butler Yeats Composers such as Schoenberg, Stravinsky, and George Antheil represent modernism in music. Artists such as Gustav Klimt, Picasso, Matisse, Mondrian, and the movements Les Fauves, Cubism and the Surrealists represent various strains of Modernism in the visual arts, while architects and designers such as Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, and Mies van der Rohe brought modernist ideas into everyday urban life. Several figures outside of artistic modernism were influenced by artistic ideas; for example, John Maynard Keynes was friends with Woolf and other writers of the Bloomsbury group. Explosion, 1910–1930 Pablo Picasso, Le guitariste, 1910, oil on canvas, 100 x 73 cm, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris. On the eve of the First World War a growing tension and unease with the social order, seen in the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the agitation of "radical" parties, also manifested itself in artistic works in every medium which radically simplified or rejected previous practice. In 1913—the year of Edmund Husserl's Ideas, Niels Bohr's quantized atom, Ezra Pound's founding of Imagism, the Armory Show in New York, and, in Saint Petersburg, the "first Futurist opera," Victory Over the Sun by Alexey Kruchenykh, Velimir Khlebnikov and Kasimir Malevich—another Russian composer Igor Stravinsky, working in Paris for Sergei Diaghilev and the Ballets Russes, composed The Rite of Spring for a ballet, choreographed by Vaslav Nijinsky, that depicted human sacrifice. Meanwhile, young painters such as Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse were causing a shock with their rejection of traditional perspective as the means of structuring paintings—a step that none of the Impressionists, not even Cézanne, had taken. These developments began to give a new meaning to what was termed 'Modernism': It embraced discontinuity rejecting smooth change in everything from biology to fictional character development and moviemaking. It approved disruption, rejecting or moving beyond simple Realism in literature and art, and rejecting or dramatically altering tonality in music. This set modernists apart from 19th century artists, who had tended to believe not only in smooth change ('evolutionary' rather than 'revolutionary') but also in the progressiveness of such change—'progress'. Writers like Dickens and Tolstoy, painters like Turner, and musicians like Brahms were not 'radicals' or 'Bohemians', but were instead valued members of society who produced art that added to society, even if it were, at times, critiquing less desirable aspects of it. Modernism, while it was still "progressive" increasingly saw traditional forms and traditional social arrangements as hindering progress, and therefore the artist was recast as a revolutionary, overthrowing rather than enlightening. Futurism exemplifies this trend. In 1909, F.T. Marinetti's first manifesto was published in the Parisian newspaper Le Figaro; soon afterward a group of painters (Giacomo Balla, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Luigi Russolo, and Gino Severini) co-signed the Futurist Manifesto. Modeled on the famous "Communist Manifesto" of the previous century, such manifestoes put forward ideas that were meant to provoke and to gather followers. Strongly influenced by Bergson and Nietzsche, Futurism was part of the general trend of Modernist rationalization of disruption. Modernist philosophy and art were still viewed as being part, and only a part, of the larger social movement. Artists such as Klimt and Cézanne, and composers such as Mahler and Richard Strauss were "the terrible moderns"—those farther to the avant-garde were more heard of than heard. Polemics in favour of geometric or purely abstract painting were largely confined to 'little magazines' (like The New Age in the UK) with tiny circulations. Modernist primitivism and pessimism were controversial, but were not seen as representative of the Edwardian mainstream, which was more inclined towards a Victorian faith in progress and liberal optimism. However, the Great War and its subsequent events were the cataclysmic upheavals that late 19th century artists such as Brahms had worried about, and avant-gardists had embraced. First, the failure of the previous status quo seemed self-evident to a generation that had seen millions die fighting over scraps of earth—prior to the war, it had been argued that no one would fight such a war, since the cost was too high. Second, the birth of a machine age changed the conditions of life—machine warfare became a touchstone of the ultimate reality. Finally, the immensely traumatic nature of the experience dashed basic assumptions: Realism seemed to be bankrupt when faced with the fundamentally fantastic nature of trench warfare, as exemplified by books such as Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front. Moreover, the view that mankind was making slow and steady moral progress came to seem ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter of the Great War. The First World War, at once, fused the harshly mechanical geometric rationality of technology with the nightmarish irrationality of myth. Thus in the 1920s, modernism, which had been such a minority taste before the war, came to define the age. Modernism was seen in Europe in such critical movements as Dada, and then in constructive movements such as Surrealism, as well as in smaller movements such as the Bloomsbury Group. Each of these "modernisms", as some observers labelled them at the time, stressed new methods to produce new results. Again, Impressionism was a precursor: breaking with the idea of national schools, artists and writers adopted ideas of international movements. Surrealism, Cubism, Bauhaus, and Leninism are all examples of movements that rapidly found adopters far beyond their original geographic base. Illustration of the Spirit of St. Louis Exhibitions, theatre, cinema, books and buildings all served to cement in the public view the perception that the world was changing. Hostile reaction often followed, as paintings were spat upon, riots organized at the opening of works, and political figures denounced modernism as unwholesome and immoral. At the same time, the 1920s were known as the "Jazz Age", and the public showed considerable enthusiasm for cars, air travel, the telephone, and other technological advances. By 1930, modernism had won a place in the establishment, including the political and artistic establishment, although by this time modernism itself had changed. There was a general reaction in the 1920s against the pre-1918 modernism, which emphasized its continuity with a past while rebelling against it, and against the aspects of that period which seemed excessively mannered, irrational, and emotionalistic. The post-World War period, at first, veered either to systematization or nihilism and had, as perhaps its most paradigmatic movement, Dada. While some writers attacked the madness of the new modernism, others described it as soulless and mechanistic. Among modernists there were disputes about the importance of the public, the relationship of art to audience, and the role of art in society. Modernism comprised a series of sometimes contradictory responses to the situation as it was understood, and the attempt to wrestle universal principles from it. In the end science and scientific rationality, often taking models from the 18th Century Enlightenment, came to be seen as the source of logic and stability, while the basic primitive sexual and unconscious drives, along with the seemingly counter-intuitive workings of the new machine age, were taken as the basic emotional substance. From these two poles, no matter how seemingly incompatible, modernists began to fashion a complete weltanschauung that could encompass every aspect of life. Second generation, 1930–1945 By 1930, Modernism had entered popular culture. With the increasing urbanization of populations, it was beginning to be looked to as the source for ideas to deal with the challenges of the day. As modernism gained traction in academia, it was developing a self-conscious theory of its own importance. Popular culture, which was not derived from high culture but instead from its own realities (particularly mass production) fueled much modernist innovation. By 1930 The New Yorker magazine began publishing new and modern ideas by young writers and humorists like Dorothy Parker, Robert Benchley, E.B. White, S.J. Perelman, and James Thurber, amongst others. Modern ideas in art appeared in commercials and logos, the famous London Underground logo, designed by Edward Johnston in 1919, being an early example of the need for clear, easily recognizable and memorable visual symbols. Another strong influence at this time was Marxism. After the generally primitivistic/irrationalist aspect of pre-World War I Modernism, which for many modernists precluded any attachment to merely political solutions, and the neoclassicism of the 1920s, as represented most famously by T. S. Eliot and Igor Stravinsky—which rejected popular solutions to modern problems—the rise of Fascism, the Great Depression, and the march to war helped to radicalise a generation. The Russian Revolution was the catalyst to fuse political radicalism and utopianism, with more expressly political stances. Bertolt Brecht, W. H. Auden, André Breton, Louis Aragon and the philosophers Gramsci and Walter Benjamin are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this Modernist Marxism. This move to the radical left, however, was neither universal, nor definitional, and there is no particular reason to associate Modernism, fundamentally, with 'the left'. Modernists explicitly of 'the right' include: Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Wyndham Lewis, William Butler Yeats, T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, the Dutch author Menno ter Braak and many others. One of the most visible changes of this period is the adoption of objects of modern production into daily life. Electricity, the telephone, the automobile—and the need to work with them, repair them and live with them—created the need for new forms of manners, and social life. The kind of disruptive moment which only a few knew in the 1880s, became a common occurrence. The speed of communication reserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of family life. Modernism as leading to social organization would produce inquiries into sex and the basic bondings of the nuclear, rather than extended, family. The Freudian tensions of infantile sexuality and the raising of children became more intense, because people had fewer children, and therefore a more specific relationship with each child: the theoretical, again, became the practical and even popular. Modernism after World War II (The visual and performing arts) In Britain and America, Modernism as a literary movement is generally considered to be relevant up to the early 1930s, and "Modernist" is rarely used to describe authors prominent after 1945. This is somewhat true for all areas of culture, with the exception of the visual and performing arts. The Post war period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval with an urgency to economically and physically rebuild and to politically regroup. In Paris (the former center of European culture and the former capital of the art world) the climate for art was a disaster. Important collectors, dealers, and modernist artists, writers, and poets had fled Europe for New York and America. The Surrealists, and modern artists from every cultural center of Europe had fled the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United States. Many of those that didn't flee perished. A few artists, notably Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Pierre Bonnard, remained in France and survived. The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American Abstract expressionism, a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Surrealism, Joan Miró, Cubism, Fauvism, and early Modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham. American artists benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This Century, as well as other factors. Pollock and Abstract influences Jackson Pollock, No. 5, 1948, oil on fiberboard, 244 x 122 cm. (96 x 48 in.), private collection During the late 1940s Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all Contemporary art that followed him. To some extent Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like Pablo Picasso's innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture near the turn of the century via Cubism and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined the way art gets made. His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era and to all that came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process—the placing of unstretched raw canvas on the floor where it could be attacked from all four sides using artist materials and industrial materials; linear skeins of paint dripped and thrown; drawing, staining, brushing; imagery and non-imagery—essentially blasted artmaking beyond any prior boundary. Abstract expressionism in general expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities that artists had available for the creation of new works of art. The other Abstract expressionists followed Pollock's breakthrough with new breakthroughs of their own. In a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Robert Motherwell, Peter Voulkos and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed them. Rereadings into abstract art, done by art historians such as Linda Nochlin, Nochlin, Linda, Ch.1 in: Women Artists at the Millennium (edited by C. Armstrong and C. de Zegher) MIT Press, 2006. Griselda Pollock Pollock, Griselda, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge, 2007. and Catherine de Zegher De Zegher, Catherine, and Teicher, Hendel (eds.), 3 X Abstraction. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2005. critically shows, however, that pioneer women artists who have produced major innovations in modern art had been ignored by the official accounts of its history. In the 1960s after abstract expressionism Barnett Newman, Who's Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue?, 1966. Typical of Newman's later work, with the use of pure and vibrant color. In abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions like Hard-edge painting and other forms of Geometric abstraction, as a reaction against the subjectivism of Abstract expressionism began to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles. Clement Greenberg became the voice of Post-painterly abstraction; by curating an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout the United States in 1964. Color field painting, Hard-edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction Aldrich, Larry. Young Lyrical Painters, Art in America, v.57, n6, November-December 1969, pp.104-113. emerged as radical new directions. By the late 1960s however, Postminimalism, Process Art and Arte Povera Movers and Shakers, New York, "Leaving C&M", by Sarah Douglas, Art+Auction, March 2007, V.XXXNo7. also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements that encompassed both painting and sculpture, via Lyrical Abstraction and the Postminimalist movement, and in early Conceptual Art. Movers and Shakers, New York, "Leaving C&M", by Sarah Douglas, Art+Auction, March 2007, V.XXXNo7. Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, and plastic and real space. Nancy Graves, Ronald Davis, Howard Hodgkin, Larry Poons, Jannis Kounellis, Brice Marden, Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle, Alan Saret, Walter Darby Bannard, Lynda Benglis, Dan Christensen, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra, Sam Gilliam, Mario Merz, Peter Reginato were some of the younger artists who emerged during the era of late modernism that spawned the heyday of the art of the late 1960s. Martin, Ann Ray, and Howard Junker. The New Art: It's Way, Way Out, Newsweek 29 July 1968: pp.3,55-63. Pop Art Roy Lichtenstein, Whaam! (1963) In 1962 the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted The New Realists the first major Pop Art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. Sidney Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery at 15 E. 57th Street. The show sent shockwaves through the New York School and reverberated worldwide. Earlier in England in 1958 the term "Pop Art" was used by Lawrence Alloway to describe paintings that celebrated consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected Abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favor of art which depicted, and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. The early works of David Hockney and the works of Richard Hamilton and Eduardo Paolozzi were considered seminal examples in the movement. While in the downtown scene in New York's East Village 10th Street galleries artists were formulating an American version of Pop Art. Claes Oldenburg had his storefront, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show Tom Wesselmann and James Rosenquist. Later Leo Castelli exhibited other American artists, including Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein for most of their careers. There is a connection between the radical works of Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists with a sense of humor, and Pop Artists like Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, and Roy Lichtenstein, whose paintings reproduce the look of Benday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction. Minimalism Smithson's "Spiral Jetty" from atop Rozel Point, in mid-April 2005. It was created in 1970 and still exists although it has often been submerged by the fluctuating lake level. It consists of some 6500 tons of basalt, earth and salt. By the early 1960s Minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in geometric abstraction via Malevich, the Bauhaus and Mondrian) which rejected the idea of relational, and subjective painting, the complexity of Abstract expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of Action painting. Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation needed in art. Associated with painters such as Frank Stella, minimalism in painting, as opposed to other areas, is a modernist movement. Depending on the context, minimalism might be construed as a precursor to the postmodern movement. Seen from the perspective of writers who sometimes classify it as a postmodern movement, early minimalism began and succeeded as a modernist movement to yield advanced works, but which partially abandoned this project when a few artists changed direction in favor of the anti-form movement. In the late 1960s the term Postminimalism was coined by Robert Pincus-Witten Movers and Shakers, New York, "Leaving C&M", by Sarah Douglas, Art+Auction, March 2007, V.XXXNo7. to describe minimalist derived art which had content and contextual overtones which minimalism rejected, and was applied to the work of Eva Hesse, Keith Sonnier, Richard Serra and new work by former minimalists Robert Smithson, Robert Morris, and Sol Lewitt, and Barry Le Va, and others. Minimalists like Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, Agnes Martin, John McCracken and others continued to produce their late modernist paintings and sculpture for the remainder of their careers. In the 1960s the work of the avant-garde Minimalist composers La Monte Young, Philip Glass, Steve Reich, and Terry Riley also became prominent in the New York art world. Since this time, many artists have embraced minimal or Postminimal styles and the label postmodern, has been attached to them. Collage, Assemblage, Installations Robert Rauschenberg Untitled Combine, 1963 Related to Abstract expressionism was the emergence of combined manufactured items, with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. This trend in art is exemplified by the work of Robert Rauschenberg, whose "combines" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art and Installation art, and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photography. Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine, and Edward Kienholz among others were important pioneers of both abstraction and Pop Art; creating new conventions of art-making; they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion of unlikely materials as parts of their works of art. Another pioneer of Collage was Joseph Cornell whose more intimate scaled works were seen as radical; partially because of his personal iconography and partially because of his use of found objects. Neo-Dada In the early 20th century Marcel Duchamp exhibited a urinal as a sculpture. His professed point was to have people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art because he said it was a work of art. He referred to his work as "Readymades." Fountain, was a urinal signed with the pseudonym R. Mutt, that shocked the art world in 1917. This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as Dada. Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to conceptual art, other famous examples being John Cage's 4' 33", which is four minutes and thirty three seconds of silence, and Rauschenberg's Erased De Kooning Drawing. Many conceptual works take the position that art is created by the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not from the intrinsic qualites of the work itself. Thus, because Fountain was exhibited, it was a sculpture. Marcel Duchamp famously gave up "art" in favor of chess. Avant-garde composer David Tudor created a piece, Reunion (1968), written jointly with Lowell Cross that features a chess game, where each move triggers a lighting effect or projection. At the premiere, the game was played between Duchamp and John Cage. Another trend in art which can be associated with the term Neo-Dada is the use of a number of different media together. Intermedia, a term coined by Dick Higgins and meant to convey new artforms along the lines of Fluxus, Concrete Poetry, Found objects, Performance art, and Computer art. Higgins was the publisher of the Something Else Press, a Concrete poet, married to artist Alison Knowles and an admirer of Marcel Duchamp. Performance and happenings Carolee Schneemann, performing her piece Interior Scroll During the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide range of interests began to push the boundaries of Contemporary art. Yves Klein in France, and in New York City, Carolee Schneemann, Yayoi Kusama, Charlotte Moorman and Yoko Ono were pioneers of performance-based works of art. Groups like The Living Theater with Julian Beck and Judith Malina collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments; radically changing the relationship between audience and performer especially in their piece Paradise Now. The Judson Dance Theater located at the Judson Memorial Church, New York, and the Judson dancers, notably Yvonne Rainer, Trisha Brown, Elaine Summers, Sally Gross, Simonne Forti, Deborah Hay, Lucinda Childs, Steve Paxton and others collaborated with artists Robert Morris, Robert Whitman, John Cage, Robert Rauschenberg, and engineers like Billy Klüver. Park Place Gallery was a center for musical performances by electronic composers Steve Reich, Philip Glass and other notable performance artists including Joan Jonas. These performances were often designed to be the creation of a new art form, combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. The works were characterized by the reductive philosophies of minimalism, and the spontaneous improvisation, and expressivity of Abstract expressionism. During the same period—the late 1950s through the mid 1960s—various avant-garde artists created Happenings. Happenings were mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in varied specified locations, often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physicality, costuming, spontaneous nudity, and various random or seemingly disconnected acts. Allan Kaprow, Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, Red Grooms, and Robert Whitman among others were notable creators of Happenings. Fluxus Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by George Maciunas (1931-78), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to John Cage's 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at the New School for Social Research in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding members Jackson Mac Low, Al Hansen, George Brecht and Dick Higgins. Fluxus encouraged a do it yourself aesthetic, and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues. Late period Ronnie Landfield, Garden of Delight, 1971, Lyrical Abstraction from the early 1970s Artists from many disciplines continue to work in modernist styles into the 21st century. The continuation of Abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, Lyrical Abstraction, Geometric abstraction, Minimalism, Abstract Illusionism, Process Art, Pop Art, Postminimalism, and other late 20th century modernist movements in both painting and sculpture continue through the first decade of the 21st century. At the turn of the 21st century, well-established artists such as Sir Anthony Caro, Lucian Freud, Cy Twombly, Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Agnes Martin, Al Held, Ellsworth Kelly, Helen Frankenthaler, Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitski, Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, James Rosenquist, Alex Katz, Philip Pearlstein, and younger artists like Brice Marden, Chuck Close, Sam Gilliam, Isaac Witkin, Sean Scully, Joseph Nechvatal, Elizabeth Murray, Larry Poons, Richard Serra, Walter Darby Bannard, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis, Dan Christensen, Joel Shapiro, Tom Otterness, Joan Snyder, Ross Bleckner, Archie Rand, Susan Crile, and dozens of others continued to produce vital and influential paintings and sculpture. However by the early 1980s the Postmodern movement in art and architecture began to establish its position through various Conceptual and Intermedia formats. Postmodernism in music and literature began to take hold even earlier, some say by the 1950s. While postmodernism implies an end to modernism many theorists and scholars realize that late modernism continues into the 21st century. Goals of the movement The 'Glass Palace' (1935) in the Netherlands - functional and open Many modernists believed that by rejecting tradition they could discover radically new ways of making art. Arnold Schoenberg believed that by rejecting traditional tonal harmony, the hierarchical system of organizing works of music which had guided music making for at least a century and a half, and perhaps longer, he had discovered a wholly new way of organizing sound, based in the use of twelve-note rows (See Twelve-tone technique). Abstract artists, taking as their examples the Impressionists, as well as Paul Cézanne and Edvard Munch, began with the assumption that color and shape formed the essential characteristics of art, not the depiction of the natural world. Wassily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, and Kazimir Malevich all believed in redefining art as the arrangement of pure color. The use of photography, which had rendered much of the representational function of visual art obsolete, strongly affected this aspect of modernism. However, these artists also believed that by rejecting the depiction of material objects they helped art move from a materialist to a spiritualist phase of development. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's 330 North Wabash (formerly IBM Plaza) in Chicago Other modernists, especially those involved in design, had more pragmatic views. Modernist architects and designers believed that new technology rendered old styles of building obsolete. Le Corbusier thought that buildings should function as "machines for living in", analogous to cars, which he saw as machines for traveling in. Just as cars had replaced the horse, so modernist design should reject the old styles and structures inherited from Ancient Greece or from the Middle Ages. In same cases form superseded function. Following this machine aesthetic, modernist designers typically reject decorative motifs in design, preferring to emphasize the materials used and pure geometrical forms. The skyscraper, such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Seagram Building in New York (1956–1958), became the archetypal modernist building. Modernist design of houses and furniture also typically emphasized simplicity and clarity of form, open-plan interiors, and the absence of clutter. Modernism reversed the 19th century relationship of public and private: in the 19th century, public buildings were horizontally expansive for a variety of technical reasons, and private buildings emphasized verticality—to fit more private space on more and more limited land. Conversely, in the 20th century, public buildings became vertically oriented, and private buildings became organized horizontally. Many aspects of modernist design still persist within the mainstream of contemporary architecture today, though its previous dogmatism has given way to a more playful use of decoration, historical quotation, and spatial drama. Wassily Chair In other arts such pragmatic considerations were less important. In literature and visual art some modernists sought to defy expectations mainly in order to make their art more vivid, or to force the audience to take the trouble to question their own preconceptions. This aspect of modernism has often seemed a reaction to consumer culture, which developed in Europe and North America in the late 19th century. Whereas most manufacturers try to make products that will be marketable by appealing to preferences and prejudices, high modernists rejected such consumerist attitudes in order to undermine conventional thinking. The art critic Clement Greenberg expounded this theory of modernism in his essay Avant-Garde and Kitsch. Clement Greenberg, Art and Culture, Beacon Press, 1961 Greenberg labelled the products of consumer culture "kitsch", because their design aimed simply to have maximum appeal, with any difficult features removed. For Greenberg, modernism thus formed a reaction against the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercial popular music, Hollywood, and advertising. Greenberg associated this with the revolutionary rejection of capitalism. Some modernists did see themselves as part of a revolutionary culture—one that included political revolution. Others rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions, believing that a revolution of political consciousness had greater importance than a change in political structures. Many modernists saw themselves as apolitical. Others, such as T. S. Eliot, rejected mass popular culture from a conservative position. Indeed, one could argue that modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an elite culture which excluded the majority of the population. Criticisms of modernism Franz Marc, The fate of the animals, 1913, oil on canvas. Displayed at the exhibition of Entartete Kunst in Munich, Nazi Germany, 1937. The most controversial aspect of the modern movement was, and remains, its rejection of tradition. Modernism's stress on freedom of expression, experimentation, radicalism, and primitivism disregards conventional expectations. In many art forms this often meant startling and alienating audiences with bizarre and unpredictable effects: the strange and disturbing combinations of motifs in Surrealism, or the use of extreme dissonance and atonality in modernist music. In literature this often involved the rejection of intelligible plots or characterisation in novels, or the creation of poetry that defied clear interpretation. The Soviet Communist government rejected modernism after the rise of Stalin on the grounds of alleged elitism, although it had previously endorsed Futurism and Constructivism; and the Nazi government in Germany deemed it narcissistic and nonsensical, as well as "Jewish" and "Negro" (see Anti-semitism). The Nazis exhibited modernist paintings alongside works by the mentally ill in an exhibition entitled Degenerate art (Louis A. Sass (Bauer 2004) compares madness, specifically schizophrenia, and modernism in a less fascist manner by noting their shared disjunctive narratives, surreal images, and incoherence). Accusations of "formalism" could lead to the end of a career, or worse. For this reason many modernists of the post-war generation felt that they were the most important bulwark against totalitarianism, the "canary in the coal mine", whose repression by a government or other group with supposed authority represented a warning that individual liberties were being threatened. In fact, modernism flourished mainly in consumer/capitalist societies, despite the fact that its proponents often rejected consumerism itself. However, high modernism began to merge with consumer culture after World War II, especially during the 1960s. In Britain, a youth sub-culture even called itself "modernists", though usually shortened to Mods, following such representative music groups as The Who and The Kinks. The likes of Bob Dylan, Serge Gainsbourg and The Rolling Stones combined popular musical traditions with modernist verse, adopting literary devices derived from James Joyce, Samuel Beckett, James Thurber, T. S. Eliot, Guillaume Apollinaire, Allen Ginsberg, and others. The Beatles developed along similar lines, creating various modernist musical effects on several albums, while musicians such as Frank Zappa, Syd Barrett and Captain Beefheart proved even more experimental. Modernist devices also started to appear in popular cinema, and later on in music videos. Modernist design also began to enter the mainstream of popular culture, as simplified and stylized forms became popular, often associated with dreams of a space age high-tech future. This merging of consumer and high versions of modernist culture led to a radical transformation of the meaning of "modernism". Firstly, it implied that a movement based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition of its own. Secondly, it demonstrated that the distinction between elite modernist and mass consumerist culture had lost its precision. Some writers declared that modernism had become so institutionalized that it was now "post avant-garde", indicating that it had lost its power as a revolutionary movement. Many have interpreted this transformation as the beginning of the phase that became known as Postmodernism. For others, such as, for example, art critic Robert Hughes, postmodernism represents an extension of modernism. "Anti-modern" or "counter-modern" movements seek to emphasize holism, connection and spirituality as being remedies or antidotes to modernism. Such movements see Modernism as reductionist, and therefore subject to the failure to see systemic and emergent effects. Many Modernists came to this viewpoint, for example Paul Hindemith in his late turn towards mysticism. Writers such as Paul H. Ray and Sherry Ruth Anderson, in The Cultural Creatives (2000), Fredrick Turner in A Culture of Hope and Lester Brown in Plan B, have articulated a critique of the basic idea of modernism itself — that individual creative expression should conform to the realities of technology. Instead, they argue, individual creativity should make everyday life more emotionally acceptable. In some fields the effects of modernism have remained stronger and more persistent than in others. Visual art has made the most complete break with its past. Most major capital cities have museums devoted to 'Modern Art' as distinct from post-Renaissance art (circa 1400 to circa 1900). Examples include the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Tate Modern in London, and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. These galleries make no distinction between modernist and postmodernist phases, seeing both as developments within 'Modern Art'. Differences between Modernism and Postmodernism Modernism is an encompassing label for a wide variety of cultural movements. Postmodernism is essentially a centralized movement that named itself, based on socio-political theory, although the term is now used in a wider sense to refer to activities from the 20th Century onwards which exhibit awareness of and reinterpret the modern. Postmodern theory would assert that the attempt to canonize Modernism "after the fact" is doomed to undisambiguable contradictions. In a narrower sense, what was Modernist was not necessarily also Postmodern. Those elements of Modernism which accentuated the benefits of rationality and socio-technological progress were only Modernist. See also American modernism International style (architecture) Late Modernism Modern architecture Modern furniture Modernism (music) Modernismo Modernist literature Modernist poetry in English Postmodern art Work of art Notes and references Further reading Armstrong, Carol and de Zegher, Catherine (eds.), Women Artists as the Millennium, Cambridge Massachusetts: October Books, MIT Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-262-01226-3. Aspray, William & Philip Kitcher, eds., History and Philosophy of Modern Mathematics, Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science vol XI, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988 Baker, Houston A., Jr., Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987 Berman, Marshall, All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Modernity. Second ed. London: Penguin, 1988. ISBN 0140109625. Bradbury, Malcolm, & James McFarlane (eds.), Modernism: A Guide to European Literature 1890–1930 (Penguin "Penguin Literary Criticism" series, 1978, ISBN 0-14-013832-3). Brush, Stephen G., The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution, 1800-1950, Ames, IO: Iowa State U.P., 1988 Centre George Pompidou, Face a l'Histoire, 1933-1996. Flammarion, 1996. ISBN 2-85850-898-4. Crouch, Christopher, Modernism in art design and architecture, New York: St. Martins Press, 2000 Everdell, William R., The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth Century Thought, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997 Eysteinsson, Astradur, The Concept of Modernism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992 Frascina, Francis, and Charles Harrison (eds.). Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology. Published in association with The Open University. London: Harper and Row, Ltd. Reprinted, London: Paul Chapman Publishing, Ltd., 1982. Gates, Henry Louis. "The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. Hughes, Robert, The Shock of the New: Art and the Century of Change (Gardners Books, 1991, ISBN 0-500-27582-3). Kenner, Hugh, The Pound Era (1971), Berkeley, CA: U. of California Press, 1973 Kern, Stephen, The Culture of Time and Space, Cambridge, MA: Harvard U.P., 1983 Kolocotroni, Vassiliki et al., ed.,Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998). Levenson, Michael (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Modernism (Cambridge University Press, "Cambridge Companions to Literature" series, 1999, ISBN 0-521-49866-X). Lewis, Pericles. The Cambridge Introduction to Modernism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). Nicholls, Peter, Modernisms: A Literary Guide (Hampshire and London: Macmillan, 1995). Pevsner, Nikolaus, Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius (Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-300-10571-1). —, The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design (Thames & Hudson, "World of Art" series, 1985, ISBN 0-500-20072-6). Pollock, Griselda, Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts. (Routledge, London, 1996. ISBN 0-415-14128-1) Pollock, Griselda, and Florence, Penny, Looking Back to the Future: Essays by Griselda Pollock from the 1990s. (New York: G&B New Arts Press, 2001. ISBN 90-5701-132-8) Sass, Louis A. (1992). Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Bauer, Amy (2004). "Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music", in The Pleasure of Modernist Music. ISBN 1-58046-143-3. Schwartz, Sanford, The Matrix of Modernism: Pound, Eliot, and Early Twentieth Century Thought, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985 Van Loo, Sofie (ed.), Gorge(l). Royal Museum of Fine Art, Antwerp, 2006. ISBN Weston, Richard, Modernism (Phaidon Press, 2001, ISBN 0-7148-4099-8). de Zegher, Catherine, Inside the Visible. (MIT Press, 1996). External links Edwardian Modernists J.G. Ballard on Modernism Masters of Modernism Modernism: back when it meant something by John Haber Modernism Lab @ Yale University Modernism/Modernity, official publication of the Modernist Studies Association Modernism vs. Postmodernism Pope St. Pius X's encyclical Pascendi, in which he defines Modernism as "the synthesis of all heresies". be-x-old:Мадэрнізм | Modernism |@lemmatized han:3 hofmann:5 gate:2 collection:3 solomon:1 r:3 guggenheim:2 museum:6 renowned:1 artist:48 also:14 teacher:2 art:111 modernist:58 theorist:2 native:1 germany:3 later:5 u:4 new:53 york:19 california:2 introduce:2 modernism:99 theory:8 generation:6 american:8 teaching:1 lecture:1 school:9 greenwich:1 village:2 provincetown:1 massachusetts:2 widen:1 scope:2 america:6 biography:1 retrieve:1 january:1 broad:2 definition:2 modern:29 thought:6 character:2 practice:3 specifically:3 term:11 describe:7 set:3 cultural:7 tendency:2 array:1 associated:1 movement:41 originally:1 arise:2 wide:3 scale:2 far:3 reach:2 change:17 western:2 society:7 late:17 nineteenth:2 early:12 twentieth:7 century:33 encompass:4 activity:3 output:1 felt:2 traditional:6 form:17 architecture:9 literature:13 religious:3 faith:2 social:14 organization:2 daily:2 life:10 become:20 outdated:1 economic:2 political:13 condition:2 emerge:7 fully:1 industrialize:1 world:20 reject:23 linger:1 certainty:4 enlightenment:3 thinking:3 existence:2 compassionate:1 powerful:1 creator:2 pericles:3 lewis:5 nationalism:1 novel:3 cambridge:14 university:18 press:24 james:8 joyce:4 ulysses:1 comedy:1 divine:1 end:6 like:16 dante:1 vision:3 god:2 whose:5 peace:1 human:9 peter:6 faulkner:2 taylor:1 francis:2 say:3 either:3 religion:1 aspect:13 rather:6 view:8 questioning:1 axiom:1 previous:9 age:11 salient:1 characteristic:2 self:4 consciousness:2 often:16 lead:8 experiment:2 work:43 draw:4 attention:2 process:9 material:11 use:17 abstraction:11 gardner:3 helen:2 horst:1 de:9 la:2 croix:1 richard:9 g:5 tansey:1 diane:1 kirkpatrick:1 san:1 diego:1 harcourt:1 brace:1 jovanovich:1 isbn:15 p:6 poet:6 ezra:4 pound:8 paradigmatic:2 injunction:1 make:18 however:9 break:9 past:8 clean:1 phrase:1 identify:2 one:5 objective:2 even:7 eliot:9 emphasize:5 relation:2 tradition:8 ref:2 write:3 w:4 e:4 shall:1 find:7 best:1 individual:9 part:8 may:1 dead:1 ancestor:1 assert:4 immortality:1 vigorously:1 talent:1 select:1 essay:4 paperback:1 edition:1 fab:1 faber:1 literary:6 scholar:2 child:6 sum:1 complexity:3 paradoxical:1 oppose:2 trend:9 towards:5 revolutionary:8 reactionary:1 position:4 fear:1 delight:2 disappearance:1 old:5 nihilism:2 fanatical:1 enthusiasm:2 creativity:2 despair:1 routledge:3 access:2 opposition:1 inherent:1 sense:8 assessment:1 different:5 recognition:1 complex:1 final:1 authority:2 government:5 science:7 reason:6 subject:5 intense:2 critical:3 scrutiny:1 current:4 interpretation:2 vary:1 divide:1 reaction:9 postmodernism:9 whereas:2 others:17 see:19 two:4 present:3 day:2 perspectives:1 commentator:1 approach:2 overall:1 socially:1 progressive:4 affirm:1 power:6 create:13 improve:1 reshape:1 environment:3 aid:1 practical:3 experimentation:2 scientific:5 knowledge:3 technology:5 bring:3 maelstrom:2 keep:1 state:5 perpetual:1 come:9 call:8 modernization:2 historical:2 nourish:1 amazing:1 variety:3 idea:27 aim:2 men:2 woman:4 well:8 object:10 give:4 way:9 value:5 loosely:2 group:11 together:3 name:4 berman:2 perspective:3 encourage:2 examination:2 every:4 commerce:1 philosophy:9 goal:2 hold:3 back:3 progress:9 replace:2 focus:3 aesthetic:4 introspection:1 facilitate:2 consideration:2 specific:2 first:18 war:17 anti:7 technological:3 nihilistic:1 diverse:2 thinker:5 span:1 period:8 nietzsche:6 samuel:3 beckett:5 lee:1 oser:1 ethic:1 moral:2 yeats:3 woolf:3 f:2 j:3 marker:1 c:6 innes:1 european:4 drama:2 ibsen:2 stringdberg:1 pirandello:2 morag:1 shiach:1 situate:1 companion:3 kathryne:1 v:6 lindberg:1 read:1 reading:2 oxford:1 introduction:2 history:7 beginning:4 eugène:1 delacroix:1 liberty:3 people:4 romantic:4 half:2 europe:6 mark:3 number:3 revolution:7 contribute:1 turn:5 away:3 reality:10 fragmentation:1 romanticism:2 emphasis:1 subjective:6 experience:5 sublime:2 supremacy:1 nature:7 radical:12 extension:3 expression:3 mid:3 synthesis:4 stable:1 govern:1 partly:1 fail:1 democratic:1 exemplify:4 otto:1 von:2 bismarck:1 realpolitik:1 philosophical:1 positivism:3 various:8 great:6 britain:3 designate:1 victorian:3 era:5 stabilize:1 root:2 dominate:1 impression:1 central:1 common:2 assumption:3 institutional:1 frame:1 reference:2 include:14 norm:4 christianity:1 classical:2 physic:3 doctrine:2 depiction:3 external:3 standpoint:1 possible:1 desirable:2 critic:3 historian:3 label:7 realism:3 though:3 universal:3 rationalist:2 materialist:2 positivist:1 establish:4 primacy:1 system:3 run:1 series:6 direct:1 continuation:2 notable:3 agrarian:1 revivalist:1 plastic:2 poetry:5 pre:4 raphaelite:1 brotherhood:1 philosopher:3 john:13 ruskin:1 rationalism:1 response:3 particular:4 hegel:1 dialectic:1 civilization:5 drew:1 friedrich:2 søren:1 kierkegaard:1 major:4 influence:5 existentialism:1 separate:1 begin:17 offer:3 challenge:2 comfortable:1 derive:5 pure:4 onward:1 inherently:1 always:1 good:1 increase:3 attack:3 writer:12 wagner:1 revile:1 critique:3 contemporary:5 warning:2 accelerate:1 would:14 creation:5 detach:1 isolate:1 fellow:1 argument:1 merely:3 antithetical:1 could:9 move:7 forward:2 question:3 optimism:2 schopenhauer:1 pessimistic:1 negation:1 incorporate:2 significant:2 biology:2 charles:2 darwin:3 karl:2 marx:2 evolution:1 natural:3 selection:1 undermine:2 general:4 public:9 uniqueness:1 intelligentsia:1 notion:1 drive:4 impulse:3 low:2 animal:5 prove:2 difficult:2 reconcile:1 ennobling:1 spirituality:2 argue:9 fundamental:2 contradiction:2 within:4 capitalist:2 contrary:1 libertarian:1 ideal:2 worker:1 anything:1 free:1 spawn:2 defender:1 decisive:1 suggest:2 date:1 start:3 point:3 william:8 everdell:2 dedekind:1 division:2 real:3 line:4 boltzmann:1 statistical:1 thermodynamics:1 clement:5 greenberg:8 immanuel:1 kant:1 frascina:2 harrison:2 safely:1 middle:2 last:1 locally:2 france:4 baudelaire:1 manet:2 painting:28 perhaps:4 flaubert:1 prose:1 fiction:1 appear:4 music:16 seventh:1 paragraph:1 url:1 june:1 avant:10 garde:8 remain:4 attempt:5 overthrow:2 status:2 quo:2 fred:1 orton:1 griselda:6 pollock:15 gardes:1 partisan:1 review:1 manchester:1 separately:1 letter:1 originate:1 impact:1 impressionism:2 paint:3 initially:2 studio:2 outdoors:1 en:1 plein:1 air:3 impressionist:4 demonstrate:2 instead:7 light:4 gather:2 adherent:1 despite:2 internal:2 among:5 practitioner:1 increasingly:2 influential:4 important:8 commercial:7 show:6 time:14 sponsor:1 paris:6 salon:4 organize:7 yearly:1 exhibition:7 venue:1 coincide:1 official:3 event:2 des:1 refusés:1 emperor:1 napoleon:1 iii:1 display:2 standard:1 style:7 inferior:1 attract:1 tremendous:1 open:5 door:1 odilon:1 redon:1 guardian:1 spirit:2 water:1 charcoal:1 paper:1 institute:1 chicago:6 second:7 symbolism:1 belief:2 language:1 expressly:2 symbolic:1 portrayal:1 patriotism:1 writing:2 follow:7 connection:3 sheer:1 sound:3 texture:1 word:1 stéphane:1 mallarmé:1 importance:4 occur:1 afterwards:1 force:5 basis:1 radically:6 kind:2 chief:1 steam:1 industrialization:2 produce:8 building:10 combine:8 engineering:1 industrial:3 cast:1 iron:2 railroad:1 bridge:1 glass:4 train:1 shed:1 eiffel:1 tower:1 limitation:1 tall:1 man:3 urban:2 misery:1 urbanism:1 possibility:2 shake:1 regard:1 continuous:1 development:7 renaissance:3 telegraph:1 harnessing:1 instant:1 communication:2 distance:1 alter:1 breadth:1 many:16 discipline:2 economics:1 ballet:3 strand:1 think:6 necessary:1 push:2 aside:1 entirely:1 revise:1 technique:3 grow:2 parallel:1 relativity:1 integration:1 combustion:1 engine:1 increased:2 role:2 policy:1 restriction:2 place:3 around:1 fall:1 thus:4 fifteen:1 year:2 mean:4 piet:3 mondrian:5 composition:2 oil:4 canvas:4 x:8 cm:3 private:6 powerfully:1 wave:3 modernity:3 sigmund:1 freud:5 ernst:3 mach:2 mind:6 structure:4 base:7 interplay:1 accord:2 play:2 basic:8 instinct:1 outside:2 perceive:1 develop:5 know:4 guarantee:1 sort:1 mental:1 shorthand:1 represent:6 previously:2 believe:8 absolute:1 impress:1 example:11 locke:1 empiricism:1 tabula:1 rasa:1 description:1 involve:3 unconscious:3 full:2 primal:1 counterbalance:1 impose:1 carl:2 jung:2 essence:1 stipulate:1 collective:1 typology:1 conscious:2 fought:1 embrace:4 product:3 childishness:1 ignorance:1 essential:2 already:1 concept:3 champion:3 fact:4 thing:1 similarly:1 henri:4 bergson:2 vital:3 static:1 conception:1 unite:1 distrust:1 case:2 explain:2 irrational:2 lens:1 rationality:4 holism:2 connect:1 long:1 holistic:1 interest:2 occult:1 collision:1 yet:1 unknown:1 author:3 consider:3 exist:2 implicit:1 contract:1 interpreter:1 representative:3 bourgeois:1 culture:21 landmarks:1 arnold:2 schoenberg:3 atonal:1 string:1 quartet:1 expressionist:3 wassily:3 kandinsky:2 culminate:1 abstract:18 founding:2 blue:2 rider:1 munich:2 rise:3 cubism:5 picasso:7 george:7 braque:1 decade:2 try:2 redefine:3 artforms:2 manner:3 wing:1 rafael:1 alberti:1 gabriele:1 annunzio:1 guillaume:2 apollinaire:2 louis:7 aragon:2 djuna:1 barnes:1 bertolt:2 brecht:3 basil:1 bunt:1 mário:1 sá:1 carneiro:1 constantine:1 cavafy:1 blaise:1 cendrars:1 jean:1 cocteau:1 joseph:3 conrad:1 paul:6 éluard:1 h:4 ernest:1 hemingway:1 enotes:1 com:1 hugo:1 hofmannsthal:1 max:2 jacob:1 franz:3 kafka:1 lawrence:2 wyndham:2 federico:1 garcía:1 lorca:1 hugh:2 macdiarmid:1 marianne:1 moore:1 robert:17 musil:1 almada:1 negreiros:1 fernando:1 pessoa:1 luigi:2 marcel:5 proust:1 pierre:3 reverdy:1 gertrude:1 stein:1 wallace:1 stevens:1 italo:1 svevo:1 tristan:1 tzara:1 giuseppe:1 ungaretti:1 valéry:1 walser:1 carlos:1 williams:1 virginia:1 butler:2 composer:6 stravinsky:3 antheil:1 gustav:1 klimt:2 matisse:5 les:1 fauve:1 surrealist:2 strain:1 visual:8 architect:2 designer:3 le:5 corbusier:2 walter:5 gropius:2 mies:3 van:4 der:3 rohe:3 everyday:2 several:3 figure:2 artistic:5 maynard:1 keynes:1 friend:2 bloomsbury:2 explosion:1 pablo:5 guitariste:1 musée:1 national:2 moderne:1 centre:3 pompidou:3 eve:1 tension:2 unease:1 order:3 russian:3 agitation:1 party:1 manifest:1 medium:3 simplify:2 edmund:1 husserl:1 niels:1 bohr:1 quantized:1 atom:1 imagism:1 armory:1 saint:1 petersburg:1 futurist:2 opera:1 victory:1 sun:1 alexey:1 kruchenykh:1 velimir:1 khlebnikov:1 kasimir:1 malevich:3 another:4 igor:2 sergei:1 diaghilev:1 russes:1 compose:1 rite:1 spring:1 choreograph:1 vaslav:1 nijinsky:1 depict:2 sacrifice:1 meanwhile:1 young:6 painter:6 cause:1 shock:3 rejection:5 step:1 none:1 cézanne:3 take:7 meaning:2 discontinuity:1 smooth:2 everything:1 fictional:1 moviemaking:1 approve:1 disruption:2 beyond:3 simple:1 dramatically:1 altering:1 tonality:1 modernists:1 apart:1 tend:1 evolutionary:1 progressiveness:1 dickens:1 tolstoy:1 turner:2 musician:2 brahms:2 bohemian:1 member:2 add:1 less:3 still:5 saw:3 arrangement:2 hinder:1 therefore:3 recast:1 enlighten:1 futurism:3 marinetti:1 manifesto:4 publish:3 parisian:1 newspaper:1 figaro:1 soon:1 afterward:1 giacomo:1 balla:1 umberto:1 boccioni:1 carlo:1 carrà:1 russolo:1 gino:1 severini:1 co:1 sign:2 model:2 famous:4 communist:2 put:1 provoke:1 follower:1 strongly:2 rationalization:1 large:2 mahler:1 strauss:1 terrible:1 farther:1 heard:2 polemic:2 favour:1 geometric:5 purely:1 largely:1 confine:1 little:2 magazine:2 uk:1 tiny:1 circulation:1 primitivism:2 pessimism:1 controversial:2 edwardian:2 mainstream:3 inclined:1 liberal:1 subsequent:1 cataclysmic:1 upheaval:2 worry:1 gardists:1 failure:2 seem:5 evident:1 million:1 die:1 fight:2 scrap:1 earth:2 prior:2 since:2 cost:1 high:6 birth:1 machine:6 warfare:2 touchstone:1 ultimate:1 finally:1 immensely:1 traumatic:1 dash:1 bankrupt:1 face:3 fundamentally:2 fantastic:1 trench:1 book:5 erich:1 maria:1 remarque:1 quiet:1 front:1 moreover:1 mankind:1 slow:1 steady:1 ridiculous:1 senseless:1 slaughter:1 fuse:2 harshly:1 mechanical:1 nightmarish:1 irrationality:1 myth:1 minority:1 taste:1 define:2 dada:6 constructive:1 surrealism:4 small:1 observer:1 stress:2 method:1 result:1 precursor:3 breaking:1 adopt:2 international:2 bauhaus:2 leninism:1 rapidly:1 adopter:1 original:1 geographic:1 illustration:1 st:3 theatre:1 cinema:2 serve:1 cement:1 perception:1 hostile:1 spat:1 upon:1 riot:1 opening:1 denounce:1 unwholesome:1 immoral:1 jazz:1 considerable:1 car:3 travel:2 telephone:2 advance:1 win:1 establishment:2 although:4 continuity:1 rebel:1 excessively:1 mannered:1 emotionalistic:1 post:7 veer:1 systematization:1 madness:3 soulless:1 mechanistic:1 dispute:1 relationship:4 audience:5 comprise:1 sometimes:2 contradictory:1 situation:1 understood:1 wrestle:1 principle:1 source:4 logic:1 stability:1 primitive:1 sexual:1 along:3 seemingly:3 counter:2 intuitive:1 working:1 emotional:2 substance:1 pole:1 matter:1 incompatible:1 fashion:1 complete:2 weltanschauung:1 enter:2 popular:10 urbanization:1 population:2 look:4 deal:1 gain:1 traction:1 academia:1 particularly:1 mass:4 production:3 fuel:1 much:2 innovation:3 yorker:1 humorist:1 dorothy:1 parker:1 benchley:1 b:3 white:1 perelman:1 thurber:2 amongst:1 logo:2 london:7 underground:1 design:12 edward:2 johnston:1 need:4 clear:2 easily:1 recognizable:1 memorable:1 symbol:1 strong:3 marxism:2 generally:3 primitivistic:1 irrationalist:1 preclude:1 attachment:1 solution:2 neoclassicism:1 famously:2 problem:1 fascism:1 depression:1 march:4 help:2 radicalise:1 catalyst:1 radicalism:2 utopianism:1 stance:1 auden:1 andré:2 breton:2 gramsci:1 benjamin:1 exemplar:1 left:2 neither:1 definitional:1 associate:5 explicitly:1 right:1 ferdinand:1 céline:1 dutch:1 menno:1 ter:1 braak:1 visible:2 adoption:1 electricity:1 automobile:1 repair:1 live:1 disruptive:1 moment:1 knew:1 occurrence:1 speed:1 reserve:1 stock:1 broker:1 family:2 inquiry:1 sex:1 bonding:1 nuclear:1 extend:1 freudian:1 infantile:1 sexuality:1 raising:1 theoretical:1 ii:3 perform:3 relevant:1 rarely:1 prominent:2 somewhat:1 true:1 area:2 exception:1 leave:4 capital:3 urgency:1 economically:1 physically:1 rebuild:1 politically:1 regroup:1 former:3 center:4 climate:1 disaster:1 collector:1 dealer:1 flee:3 onslaught:1 nazi:4 safe:1 united:2 perish:1 notably:2 bonnard:1 survive:1 city:5 herald:1 triumph:1 expressionism:8 lesson:1 learn:1 joan:3 miró:1 fauvism:1 via:4 graham:1 benefit:2 presence:1 fernand:1 léger:1 gallery:9 peggy:1 factor:1 jackson:5 fiberboard:1 revolutionize:1 potential:1 extent:1 realize:3 journey:1 toward:1 innovative:1 reinventions:1 sculpture:10 near:2 constructed:1 get:1 easel:1 conventionality:1 liberating:1 signal:1 placing:1 unstretched:1 raw:1 floor:1 four:2 side:1 linear:1 skein:1 drip:1 throw:1 stain:1 brush:2 imagery:2 non:1 essentially:2 blast:1 artmaking:1 boundary:2 expand:1 available:1 breakthrough:2 willem:1 kooning:2 kline:1 rothko:1 philip:5 guston:1 hans:1 clyfford:1 barnett:2 newman:3 ad:1 reinhardt:1 motherwell:1 voulkos:1 floodgate:1 diversity:1 rereadings:1 linda:2 nochlin:2 ch:1 millennium:2 edit:1 armstrong:2 zegher:5 mit:3 encounter:1 virtual:1 feminist:1 space:5 archive:1 catherine:4 teicher:1 hendel:1 eds:5 yale:3 critically:1 pioneer:5 ignore:1 account:1 afraid:1 red:2 yellow:1 typical:1 vibrant:1 color:5 direction:3 hard:2 edge:2 subjectivism:1 circle:2 voice:1 painterly:1 curating:1 tour:1 throughout:1 field:3 lyrical:5 aldrich:1 larry:6 november:1 december:1 pp:2 postminimalism:3 arte:1 povera:1 mover:3 shaker:3 sarah:3 douglas:3 auction:3 postminimalist:1 conceptual:5 inspire:1 enable:1 encyclopedia:1 content:2 placement:1 nancy:1 graf:1 ronald:2 davis:2 howard:2 hodgkin:1 poon:2 jannis:1 kounellis:1 brice:2 marden:2 bruce:1 nauman:1 tuttle:1 alan:1 saret:1 darby:2 bannard:2 lynda:1 benglis:1 dan:3 christensen:2 zox:2 ronnie:3 landfield:3 eva:2 hesse:2 keith:2 sonnier:2 serra:3 sam:2 gilliam:2 mario:1 merz:1 reginato:1 heyday:1 martin:4 ann:1 ray:3 junker:1 newsweek:1 july:1 pop:8 roy:3 lichtenstein:3 whaam:1 sidney:2 janis:2 mount:2 realist:1 uptown:1 street:4 storefront:2 send:1 shockwaves:1 reverberate:1 worldwide:1 earlier:2 england:1 alloway:1 celebrate:2 consumerism:2 hermeneutic:1 psychological:1 interior:3 favor:4 consumer:7 advertising:2 iconography:2 david:2 hockney:1 hamilton:1 eduardo:1 paolozzi:1 seminal:1 downtown:1 scene:1 east:1 formulate:1 version:2 claes:5 oldenburg:5 green:1 tom:2 wesselmann:1 rosenquist:2 leo:1 castelli:1 exhibit:5 andy:2 warhol:2 career:3 duchamp:7 rebellious:1 dadaists:1 humor:1 reproduce:1 benday:1 dot:1 reproduction:1 minimalism:9 smithson:2 spiral:1 jetty:1 atop:1 rozel:1 april:1 submerge:1 fluctuate:1 lake:1 level:1 consist:1 ton:1 basalt:1 salt:1 relational:1 surface:1 zeitgeist:1 arena:1 action:1 extreme:2 simplicity:3 capture:1 representation:1 frank:3 stella:2 depend:1 context:1 might:1 construe:1 postmodern:7 classify:1 succeed:1 yield:1 advanced:1 partially:3 abandon:1 project:1 coin:2 pincus:1 witten:1 minimalist:4 contextual:1 overtone:1 apply:1 morris:3 sol:1 lewitt:1 barry:1 va:1 donald:1 judd:1 flavin:1 andre:1 agnes:2 mccracken:1 continue:5 remainder:1 monte:1 steve:3 reich:2 terry:1 riley:1 minimal:1 postminimal:1 attach:1 collage:2 assemblage:2 installation:2 rauschenberg:6 untitled:1 relate:1 emergence:1 manufactured:1 item:1 convention:3 forerunner:1 physical:1 stuffed:1 bird:1 photography:2 jasper:2 river:1 chamberlain:1 segal:1 jim:3 dine:3 kienholz:1 making:2 acceptable:2 serious:1 inclusion:1 unlikely:1 cornell:2 intimate:1 personal:1 found:2 neo:2 urinal:3 professed:1 refer:2 readymades:1 fountain:2 pseudonym:1 mutt:1 cage:5 minute:1 thirty:1 three:1 silence:1 erase:1 viewer:1 act:2 intrinsic:1 qualites:1 chess:2 tudor:1 piece:3 reunion:1 jointly:1 lowell:1 cross:1 feature:2 game:2 trigger:1 lighting:1 effect:5 projection:1 premiere:1 intermedia:2 dick:2 higgins:3 meant:2 convey:1 fluxus:8 concrete:2 performance:6 computer:1 publisher:1 something:2 else:1 marry:1 alison:1 knowles:1 admirer:1 happening:4 carolee:2 schneemann:2 scroll:1 range:1 yves:1 klein:1 yayoi:1 kusama:1 charlotte:1 moorman:1 yoko:1 ono:1 living:2 theater:2 julian:1 beck:1 judith:1 malina:1 collaborate:3 sculptor:1 performer:1 especially:3 paradise:1 judson:3 dance:2 locate:1 memorial:1 church:1 dancer:1 yvonne:1 rainer:1 trisha:1 brown:2 elaine:1 summer:1 sally:1 gross:1 simonne:1 forti:1 deborah:1 hay:1 lucinda:1 paxton:1 whitman:2 engineer:1 billy:1 klüver:1 park:1 musical:3 electronic:1 jonas:1 participation:1 characterize:1 reductive:1 spontaneous:3 improvisation:1 expressivity:1 mysterious:1 unscripted:1 gathering:1 relative:1 varied:1 specified:1 location:1 exercise:1 absurdity:1 physicality:1 costume:1 nudity:1 random:1 disconnected:1 allan:1 kaprow:1 groom:1 maciunas:1 lithuanian:1 born:1 trace:1 experimental:2 class:1 research:1 student:2 background:1 mac:1 al:3 hansen:1 commercialism:1 sensibility:1 disparage:1 conventional:4 market:1 creative:2 prefer:2 whatever:1 hand:1 colleague:1 garden:1 illusionism:1 sir:1 anthony:1 caro:1 lucian:1 cy:1 twombly:1 ellsworth:1 kelly:1 frankenthaler:1 kenneth:1 noland:1 jules:1 olitski:1 alex:1 katz:1 pearlstein:1 chuck:1 close:1 isaac:1 witkin:1 sean:1 scully:1 nechvatal:1 elizabeth:1 murray:1 joel:1 shapiro:1 otterness:1 snyder:1 ross:1 bleckner:1 archie:1 rand:1 susan:1 crile:1 dozen:1 format:1 imply:2 palace:1 netherlands:1 functional:1 discover:2 tonal:1 harmony:1 hierarchical:1 guide:4 least:1 longer:1 wholly:1 twelve:2 note:3 row:2 tone:1 edvard:1 munch:1 shape:1 kazimir:1 render:2 representational:1 function:4 obsolete:2 affect:1 spiritualist:1 phase:3 ludwig:2 north:2 wabash:1 formerly:1 ibm:1 plaza:1 pragmatic:2 analogous:1 horse:1 inherit:1 ancient:1 greece:1 supersede:1 typically:2 decorative:1 motif:2 geometrical:1 skyscraper:1 seagram:1 archetypal:1 house:1 furniture:2 emphasized:1 clarity:1 plan:2 absence:1 clutter:1 reverse:1 horizontally:2 expansive:1 technical:1 verticality:1 fit:1 limited:1 land:1 conversely:1 vertically:1 orient:1 persist:1 today:1 dogmatism:1 playful:1 decoration:1 quotation:1 spatial:1 chair:1 seek:2 defy:2 expectation:2 mainly:2 vivid:1 trouble:1 preconception:1 manufacturer:1 marketable:1 appeal:2 preference:1 prejudice:1 consumerist:2 attitude:1 expound:1 kitsch:2 beacon:1 simply:1 maximum:1 remove:1 hollywood:1 capitalism:1 politics:1 apolitical:1 conservative:1 indeed:1 sustain:1 elite:2 exclude:1 majority:1 criticism:2 marc:1 fate:1 entartete:1 kunst:1 freedom:1 disregard:1 startle:1 alienate:1 bizarre:1 unpredictable:1 strange:1 disturb:1 combination:1 dissonance:1 atonality:1 intelligible:1 plot:1 characterisation:1 soviet:1 stalin:1 ground:1 alleged:1 elitism:1 endorse:1 constructivism:1 deem:1 narcissistic:1 nonsensical:1 jewish:1 negro:1 semitism:1 alongside:1 mentally:1 ill:1 entitle:1 degenerate:1 sas:2 bauer:2 compare:1 schizophrenia:1 fascist:1 share:1 disjunctive:1 narrative:1 surreal:1 image:1 incoherence:1 accusation:1 formalism:1 bad:1 bulwark:1 totalitarianism:1 canary:1 coal:1 mine:1 repression:1 suppose:1 threaten:1 flourish:1 proponent:1 merge:1 youth:1 sub:1 usually:1 shorten:1 mod:1 kink:1 bob:1 dylan:1 serge:1 gainsbourg:1 rolling:1 stone:1 verse:1 device:2 allen:1 ginsberg:1 beatles:1 similar:1 album:1 zappa:1 syd:1 barrett:1 captain:1 beefheart:1 video:1 stylize:1 dream:1 tech:1 future:2 merging:1 transformation:2 firstly:1 secondly:1 distinction:2 lose:2 precision:1 declare:1 institutionalized:1 indicate:1 interpret:1 hughes:2 remedy:1 antidote:1 reductionist:1 systemic:1 emergent:1 viewpoint:1 hindemith:1 mysticism:1 sherry:1 ruth:1 anderson:1 creatives:1 fredrick:1 hope:1 lester:1 articulate:1 conform:1 emotionally:1 persistent:1 devote:1 distinct:1 circa:2 tate:1 postmodernist:1 difference:1 centralized:1 socio:2 wider:1 onwards:1 awareness:1 reinterpret:1 canonize:1 doom:1 undisambiguable:1 narrow:1 necessarily:1 element:1 accentuate:1 modernismo:1 english:1 carol:1 artists:1 october:1 aspray:1 kitcher:1 mathematics:1 minnesota:2 study:2 vol:1 xi:1 minneapolis:1 baker:1 houston:1 jr:1 harlem:1 marshall:1 solid:1 melt:1 ed:4 penguin:3 bradbury:1 malcolm:1 mcfarlane:1 stephen:2 ames:1 io:1 iowa:1 l:2 histoire:1 flammarion:1 crouch:1 christopher:1 profile:1 origin:1 eysteinsson:1 astradur:1 ithaca:1 ny:1 anthology:3 association:2 harper:1 ltd:2 reprint:1 chapman:1 publishing:1 henry:1 norton:2 african:1 company:1 inc:1 kenner:1 berkeley:1 ca:1 kern:1 harvard:1 kolocotroni:1 vassiliki:1 et:1 document:1 edinburgh:2 levenson:1 michael:1 nicholls:1 hampshire:1 macmillan:1 pevsner:1 nikolaus:1 thames:1 hudson:1 geography:1 florence:1 penny:1 insanity:1 cite:1 amy:1 cognition:1 constraint:1 blend:1 pleasure:1 schwartz:1 sanford:1 matrix:1 princeton:2 nj:1 loo:1 sofie:1 gorge:1 royal:1 fine:1 antwerp:1 weston:1 phaidon:1 inside:1 link:1 ballard:1 master:1 haber:1 lab:1 publication:1 pope:1 pius:1 encyclical:1 pascendi:1 heresy:1 мадэрнізм:1 |@bigram han_hofmann:3 guggenheim_museum:1 greenwich_village:1 twentieth_century:7 james_joyce:3 joyce_ulysses:1 taylor_francis:1 la_croix:1 san_diego:1 harcourt_brace:1 brace_jovanovich:1 ezra_pound:4 samuel_beckett:3 eugène_delacroix:1 nineteenth_century:1 victorian_era:1 pre_raphaelite:1 raphaelite_brotherhood:1 hegel_dialectic:1 friedrich_nietzsche:2 søren_kierkegaard:1 charles_darwin:1 karl_marx:2 richard_dedekind:1 clement_greenberg:5 immanuel_kant:1 url_access:1 avant_garde:8 status_quo:2 griselda_pollock:3 en_plein:1 plein_air:1 salon_des:1 stéphane_mallarmé:1 eiffel_tower:1 internal_combustion:1 combustion_engine:1 piet_mondrian:3 oil_canvas:3 sigmund_freud:1 ernst_mach:2 tabula_rasa:1 carl_jung:1 collective_unconscious:1 henri_bergson:1 arnold_schoenberg:2 string_quartet:1 expressionist_painting:1 wassily_kandinsky:2 george_braque:1 gabriele_annunzio:1 guillaume_apollinaire:2 bertolt_brecht:2 jean_cocteau:1 joseph_conrad:1 william_faulkner:1 ernest_hemingway:1 franz_kafka:1 wyndham_lewis:2 federico_garcía:1 garcía_lorca:1 fernando_pessoa:1 marcel_proust:1 gertrude_stein:1 tristan_tzara:1 paul_valéry:1 virginia_woolf:1 butler_yeats:2 gustav_klimt:1 le_corbusier:2 walter_gropius:2 mies_van:3 van_der:3 der_rohe:3 maynard_keynes:1 pablo_picasso:5 george_pompidou:2 edmund_husserl:1 niels_bohr:1 saint_petersburg:1 igor_stravinsky:2 ballet_russes:1 henri_matisse:3 le_figaro:1 luigi_russolo:1 futurist_manifesto:1 richard_strauss:1 trench_warfare:1 erich_maria:1 maria_remarque:1 counter_intuitive:1 dorothy_parker:1 james_thurber:2 easily_recognizable:1 h_auden:1 andré_breton:2 pierre_bonnard:1 abstract_expressionism:8 joan_miró:1 fernand_léger:1 peggy_guggenheim:1 jackson_pollock:4 abstract_expressionist:2 de_kooning:2 franz_kline:1 mark_rothko:1 clyfford_still:1 barnett_newman:2 robert_motherwell:1 de_zegher:5 geometric_abstraction:3 post_painterly:1 painterly_abstraction:1 lyrical_abstraction:4 mover_shaker:3 larry_poon:2 brice_marden:2 larry_zox:2 ronnie_landfield:3 richard_serra:3 roy_lichtenstein:3 sidney_janis:2 david_hockney:1 claes_oldenburg:5 james_rosenquist:2 andy_warhol:2 marcel_duchamp:4 frank_stella:2 terry_riley:1 robert_rauschenberg:5 jim_dine:3 neo_dada:2 yoko_ono:1 sculptor_painter:1 lucian_freud:1 ellsworth_kelly:1 helen_frankenthaler:1 kenneth_noland:1 joseph_nechvatal:1 tonal_harmony:1 paul_cézanne:1 edvard_munch:1 kazimir_malevich:1 ludwig_mies:2 decorative_motif:1 seagram_building:1 entartete_kunst:1 anti_semitism:1 mentally_ill:1 bob_dylan:1 serge_gainsbourg:1 rolling_stone:1 allen_ginsberg:1 frank_zappa:1 paul_hindemith:1 centre_pompidou:1 harlem_renaissance:1 ithaca_ny:1 ny_cornell:1 harper_row:1 norton_anthology:1 w_norton:1 et_al:1 edinburgh_edinburgh:1 thames_hudson:1 princeton_nj:1 nj_princeton:1 external_link:1 |
3,094 | International_Telecommunication_Union | Monument in Berne, Switzerland. The text reads: "Union Télégraphique Internationale fondée à Paris en 1865 sur l'initiative du gouvernement français. Érigé par décision de l'Union Télégraphique prise à la conférence internationale de Lisbonne en 1908." (In English: "International Telegraph Union founded at Paris in 1865 on the initiative of the French government. [This monument] erected by a decision of the Telegraph Union made at the international conference at Lisbon in 1908.") The International Telecommunication Union is the second-oldest international organization still in existence (the oldest being the Rhine Commission), established to standardize and regulate international radio and telecommunications. It was founded as the International Telegraph Union in Paris on 17 May 1865. Its main tasks include standardization, allocation of the radio spectrum, and organizing interconnection arrangements between different countries to allow international phone calls — in which regard it performs for telecommunications a similar function to what the UPU performs for postal services. It is one of the specialized agencies of the United Nations, and has its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, next to the main United Nations campus. Composition The ITU is made up of three sectors: The Telecommunication Standardization Sector, ITU-T, whose secretariat is the Telecommunication Standardization Bureau or TSB, known prior to 1992 as the International Telephone and Telegraph Consultative Committee or CCITT (from its French name "Comité consultatif international téléphonique et télégraphique"); The Radiocommunication Sector, ITU-R, whose secretariat is the Radiocommunication Bureau or BR, known prior to 1992 as the International Radio Consultative Committee or CCIR (from its French name "Comité consultatif international des radiocommunications"); The Telecommunication Development Sector, ITU-D, whose secretariat is the Telecommunication Development Bureau or BDT, created in 1992. A permanent General Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General, manages the day-to-day work of the Union and its sectors. Leadership The ITU is headed by a Secretary-General, who is elected to a four-year term by the member states at the plenipotentiary conference. At the 17th Plenipotentiary Conference (2006) in Antalya, Turkey, the ITU's Member States elected Dr. Hamadoun Touré of Mali as Secretary-General of the Union. Report on election of Toure Directors and Secretaries-general of ITU Directors of ITUNameBeginning of TermEnd of TermCountryLouis Curchod1 January 186924 May 1872 SwitzerlandKarl Lendi24 May 187212 January 1873 SwitzerlandLouis Curchod23 February 187318 October 1889 SwitzerlandAugust Frey25 February 189028 June 1890 SwitzerlandTimotheus Rothen25 November 189011 February 1897 SwitzerlandEmil Frey 11 March 18971 August 1921 SwitzerlandHenri Étienne2 August 1921 16 December 1927 SwitzerlandJoseph Räder1 February 192830 October 1934 SwitzerlandFranz von Ernst1 January 19351 January 1949 SwitzerlandSecretaries generalLéon Mulatier 1 January 19501 January 1953 FranceMarco Aurelio Andrada1 January 195418 June 1958 ArgentinaGerald C. Cross1 January 196429 October 1965 United States Manohar Balaji Sarwate30 October 196519 February 1967 India Mohamed Ezzedine Mili20 October 196731 December 1982 TunisiaRichard E. Butler1 January 198331 October 1989 AustraliaPekka Tarjanne1 November 198931 January 1999 FinlandYoshio Utsumi1 February 199931 December 2006 JapanHamadoun Touré1 January 2007present Mali Standards The international standards that are produced by the ITU are referred to as "Recommendations" (with the word ordinarily capitalized to distinguish its meaning from the ordinary sense of the word). Due to its longevity as an international organization and its status as a specialized agency of the United Nations, standards promulgated by the ITU carry a higher degree of formal international recognition than those of most other organizations that publish technical specifications of a similar form. Members ITU member states The work of the ITU is conducted by its members. As part of the United Nations structure, a country can be a member, in which case it is referred to as a Member State. Companies and other such organizations can hold other classes of membership referred to as Sector Member or Associate status. As of September 2007 there were 191 Member States and more than 700 Sector Members and Associates. http://www.itu.int/net/home/index.aspx ITU Membership Information and access to membership list Sector and Associate memberships enable direct participation by a company in the development of standards (something not allowed in some other standards bodies such as ISO, where formal ballots are processed by a single entity per country and companies participate only indirectly through national delegations). Various parts of the ITU also maintain liaison relationships with other organizations. Members are almost all of the UN members plus the Vatican City State. Only Palau and East Timor are not participating at this time. Other entities not represented are the Palestinian Authority and Taiwan, although the Palestinian Authority is granted non-voting observer status Resolution 99, "Status of Palestine in ITU", ITU Plenipotentiary Conference, Minneapolis, 1998 . Meetings The ITU decides matters between states and private organizations through an extensive series of working parties, study groups, regional meetings, and world meetings. Examples Stamp World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC) World administrative radio conferences (WARC) Regional Radiocommunication Conferences (RRC) Conferences Geneva 1925 Prague 1929 Luzern 1933 Montreux 1939 Copenhagen 1948 Stockholm 1952 Stockholm 1961 Geneva 1975 Geneva 1977 Geneva 1984 WRC 2000 Geneva 2006 World Summit on the Information Society Main article: World Summit on the Information Society The ITU was the lead organizing agency of the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) World Summit on the Information Society: Redirect , a United Nations summit aiming at bridging the digital divide and turning it into digital opportunity for all. WSIS provided a global forum on the theme of ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) for development, involving for the first time all stakeholders - governments, international organizations, civil society and business. WSIS was a pledge for building a people-centered development-oriented Information Society. Other big themes of the Summit were Internet governance and Financial mechanisms for meeting the challenges of ICTs for development. The idea of holding WSIS came from the Tunisian President Ben Ali on the ITU Plenipotentiary Conference in Minneapolis in 1998. The process was launched late in 2002 on the initiative of Kofi Annan. The first phase of the WSIS summit took place in December 2003 in Geneva and the second and final phase took place in Tunis in November 2005. See also ITU headquarters, Geneva ITU defines the future of mobile communications ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) ITU Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) ITU Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) ITU-T Recommendations ITU-R Recommendations UIT X.509 Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL) Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG) Telephone numbers in the European Union Notes ITU headquarters, Geneva External links ITU official site ITU history from the official site U.N. Summit to Focus on Internet - Washington Post article about ICANN and the United Nations' ITU relationship Video clips ITU YouTube channel | International_Telecommunication_Union |@lemmatized monument:2 berne:1 switzerland:2 text:1 read:1 union:9 télégraphique:3 internationale:2 fondée:1 à:2 paris:3 en:2 sur:1 l:2 initiative:3 du:1 gouvernement:1 français:1 érigé:1 par:1 décision:1 de:3 prise:1 la:1 conférence:1 lisbonne:1 english:1 international:15 telegraph:4 found:2 french:3 government:2 erect:1 decision:1 make:2 conference:8 lisbon:1 telecommunication:10 second:2 old:2 organization:7 still:1 existence:1 rhine:1 commission:2 establish:1 standardize:1 regulate:1 radio:4 may:3 main:3 task:1 include:1 standardization:4 allocation:1 spectrum:1 organize:2 interconnection:1 arrangement:1 different:1 country:3 allow:2 phone:1 call:1 regard:1 perform:1 similar:2 function:1 upu:1 performs:1 postal:1 service:1 one:1 specialized:2 agency:3 united:7 nation:6 headquarters:3 geneva:9 next:1 campus:1 composition:1 itu:34 three:1 sector:11 whose:3 secretariat:4 bureau:3 tsb:1 know:2 prior:2 telephone:2 consultative:2 committee:2 ccitt:1 name:2 comité:2 consultatif:2 téléphonique:1 et:1 radiocommunication:6 r:3 br:1 ccir:1 development:7 bdt:1 create:1 permanent:1 general:5 head:2 secretary:4 manage:1 day:2 work:4 leadership:1 elect:2 four:1 year:1 term:1 member:12 state:8 plenipotentiary:4 antalya:1 turkey:1 dr:1 hamadoun:1 touré:1 mali:2 report:1 election:1 toure:1 director:2 itunamebeginning:1 termend:1 termcountrylouis:1 january:11 switzerlandkarl:1 switzerlandlouis:1 february:6 october:6 switzerlandaugust:1 june:2 switzerlandtimotheus:1 november:3 switzerlandemil:1 frey:1 march:1 august:2 switzerlandhenri:1 december:4 switzerlandjoseph:1 switzerlandfranz:1 von:1 switzerlandsecretaries:1 generalléon:1 mulatier:1 francemarco:1 aurelio:1 argentinagerald:1 c:1 manohar:1 balaji:1 india:1 mohamed:1 ezzedine:1 tunisiarichard:1 e:1 australiapekka:1 finlandyoshio:1 japanhamadoun:1 standard:5 produce:1 refer:3 recommendation:3 word:2 ordinarily:1 capitalize:1 distinguish:1 meaning:1 ordinary:1 sense:1 due:1 longevity:1 status:4 promulgate:1 carry:1 high:1 degree:1 formal:2 recognition:1 publish:1 technical:1 specification:1 form:1 conduct:1 part:2 structure:1 case:1 company:3 hold:2 class:1 membership:4 associate:3 september:1 http:1 www:1 int:1 net:1 home:1 index:1 aspx:1 information:7 access:1 list:1 enable:1 direct:1 participation:1 something:1 body:1 iso:1 ballot:1 process:2 single:1 entity:2 per:1 participate:2 indirectly:1 national:1 delegation:1 various:1 also:2 maintain:1 liaison:1 relationship:2 almost:1 un:1 plus:1 vatican:1 city:1 palau:1 east:1 timor:1 time:2 represent:1 palestinian:2 authority:2 taiwan:1 although:1 grant:1 non:1 voting:1 observer:1 resolution:1 palestine:1 minneapolis:2 meeting:3 decide:1 matter:1 private:1 extensive:1 series:1 party:1 study:1 group:2 regional:2 world:7 example:1 stamp:1 wrc:2 administrative:1 warc:1 rrc:1 conferences:1 prague:1 luzern:1 montreux:1 copenhagen:1 stockholm:2 summit:8 society:6 article:2 lead:1 wsis:5 redirect:1 aim:1 bridge:1 digital:2 divide:1 turn:1 opportunity:1 provide:1 global:1 forum:1 theme:2 icts:2 communication:2 technology:1 involve:1 first:2 stakeholder:1 civil:1 business:1 pledge:1 build:1 people:1 center:1 orient:1 big:1 internet:3 governance:2 financial:1 mechanism:1 meet:1 challenge:1 idea:1 come:1 tunisian:1 president:1 ben:1 ali:1 launch:1 late:1 kofi:1 annan:1 phase:2 take:2 place:2 final:1 tunis:1 see:1 define:1 future:1 mobile:1 uit:1 x:1 inter:1 american:1 citel:1 wgig:1 number:1 european:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 site:2 history:1 u:1 n:1 focus:1 washington:1 post:1 icann:1 video:1 clip:1 youtube:1 channel:1 |@bigram berne_switzerland:1 monument_erect:1 geneva_switzerland:1 telecommunication_standardization:3 consultative_committee:2 comité_consultatif:2 consultatif_international:2 radiocommunication_sector:2 plenipotentiary_conference:4 http_www:1 itu_int:1 east_timor:1 itu_itu:3 kofi_annan:1 itu_recommendation:1 external_link:1 video_clip:1 |
3,095 | OS%2F2 | OS/2 is a computer operating system, initially created by Microsoft and IBM, then later developed by IBM exclusively. The name stands for "Operating System/2," because it was introduced as part of the same generation change release as IBM's "Personal System/2 (PS/2)" line of second-generation personal computers. OS/2 is no longer marketed by IBM, and IBM standard support for OS/2 was discontinued on 31 December 2006. Currently, Serenity Systems sells OS/2 under the brand name eComStation. OS/2 was intended as a protected mode successor of PC-DOS. Notably, basic system calls were modeled after MS-DOS calls; their names even started with "Dos" and it was possible to create "Family Mode" applications: text mode applications that could work on both systems. Because of this heritage, OS/2 shares similarities with Unix, Xenix, and Windows in many ways. Development history Enthusiastic beginnings The development of OS/2 began when IBM and Microsoft signed the Joint Development Agreement in August 1985. — a copy of Microsoft's 1987-04-02 press release announcing OS/2 It was code-named "CP/DOS" and it took two years for the first product to be delivered. OS/2 1.0 was announced in April 1987 and released in December as a textmode-only OS. However, it featured a rich API for controlling the video display (VIO) and handling keyboard and mouse events so that programmers writing for protected-mode no longer had to call the BIOS or access hardware directly. In addition, development tools included a subset of the video and keyboard APIs as linkable libraries so that family mode programs were able to run under MS-DOS. A task-switcher named Program Selector was available through the Ctrl-Esc hotkey combination, allowing the user to select among multitasked text-mode sessions (or screen groups; each could run multiple programs). Communications and database-oriented extensions were delivered in 1988, as part of OS/2 1.0 Extended Edition: SNA, X.25/APPC/LU 6.2, LAN Manager, Query Manager, SQL. The promised GUI, Presentation Manager, was introduced with OS/2 1.1 in October, 1988. It had an almost identical user interface to Windows 2.1. The Extended Edition of 1.1, sold only through IBM sales channels, introduced distributed database support to IBM database systems and SNA communications support to IBM mainframe networks. Version 1.2 introduced Installable Filesystems and notably the HPFS filesystem. HPFS provided a number of improvements over the older FAT filesystem, including long filenames and a form of alternate data streams called Extended Attributes. In addition, extended attributes were also added to the FAT filesystem. Installation Disk A of Microsoft OS/2 1.3 (3.5" floppy disk). The Extended Edition of 1.2 introduced TCP/IP and Ethernet support. OS/2 and Windows-related books of the late 1980s acknowledged the existence of both systems and promoted OS/2 as the system for the future. Breakup The collaboration between IBM and Microsoft unraveled in 1990, between the releases of Windows 3.0 and OS/2 1.3. Initially, at least publicly, Microsoft continued to insist the future belonged to OS/2. Steve Ballmer of Microsoft even took to calling OS/2 "Windows Plus". However, during this time, Windows 3.0 became a tremendous success, selling millions of copies in its first year. Much of its success was because Windows 3.0 (along with MS-DOS) was bundled with most new computers. OS/2, on the other hand, was only available as an expensive stand-alone software package. In addition, OS/2 lacked device drivers for many common devices such as printers, particularly non-IBM hardware. Windows, on the other hand, supported a much larger variety of hardware. The increasing popularity of Windows prompted Microsoft to shift its development focus from cooperating on OS/2 with IBM to building a franchise based on Windows. Several technical and practical reasons contributed to this breakup: Differences in culture and vision: Microsoft favored the open hardware system approach that contributed to its success on the PC; IBM sought to use OS/2 to drive sales of its own hardware, including systems that could not support the features Microsoft wanted. Microsoft programmers also became frustrated with IBM's bureaucracy and its use of lines of code to measure programmer productivity. IBM developers complained about the terseness and lack of comments in Microsoft's code, while Microsoft developers complained that IBM's code was bloated. Differences in API: OS/2 was announced when Windows 2.0 was near completion, and the Windows API already defined. However, IBM requested that this API be significantly changed for OS/2. Therefore, issues surrounding application compatibility appeared immediately. OS/2 designers hoped for source code conversion tools, allowing complete migration of Windows application source code to OS/2 at some point. However, OS/2 1.x did not gain enough momentum to allow vendors to avoid developing for both OS/2 and Windows in parallel. IBM's involvement was much more successful in redefining Windows' visual appearance after the 1.0 release, giving it what is today perceived as the "Windows 3.0 look". OS/2 targeted the 80286 processor: IBM insisted on supporting the Intel 80286 processor, with its 16-bit segmented memory mode, due to commitments made to customers who had purchased many 80286-based PS/2's because of IBM's promises surrounding OS/2. Until release 2.0 in April 1992, OS/2 ran in 16-bit protected mode and therefore could not benefit from the Intel 80386's much simpler 32-bit flat memory model and virtual 8086 mode features. This was especially painful in providing support for DOS applications. While, in 1988, Windows/386 2.1 could run several preemptively multitasked DOS applications, including expanded memory (EMS) emulation, OS/2 1.3, released in 1991, was still limited to one 640KB "DOS box". Given these issues, Microsoft started to work in parallel on a version of Windows which was more future-oriented and more portable. The hiring of Dave Cutler, former VMS architect, in 1988 created an immediate competition with the OS/2 team, as Cutler did not think much of the OS/2 technology and wanted to build on his work at Digital rather than creating a "DOS plus". His "NT OS/2," was a completely new architecture. The OS/2 2.0 upgrade box. IBM grew concerned about the delays in development of OS/2 2.0 and the diversion of IBM funds earmarked for OS/2 development towards Windows. Initially, the companies agreed that IBM would take over maintenance of OS/2 1.0 and development of OS/2 2.0, while Microsoft would continue development of OS/2 3.0. In the end, Microsoft decided to recast NT OS/2 3.0 as Windows NT, leaving all future OS/2 development to IBM. From a business perspective, it was logical to concentrate on a consumer line of operating systems based on DOS and Windows, and to prepare a new high-end system in such a way as to keep good compatibility with existing Windows applications. While waiting for this new high-end system to develop, Microsoft would still receive licensing money from Xenix and OS/2 sales. Windows NT's OS/2 heritage can be seen in its initial support for the HPFS filesystem, text mode OS/2 1.x applications, and OS/2 LAN Manager network support. Some early NT materials even included OS/2 copyright notices embedded in the software. One example of NT OS/2 1.x support is in the WIN2K resource kit. OS/2 support also includes Presentation Manager support with the addition of the Windows NT Add-On Subsystem for Presentation Manager. Microsoft Corporation 32-bit era OS/2 2.0 was released in April 1992. It provided a 32-bit API for native programs, though the OS itself was a mixture of 16-bit and 32-bit code. It included a new GUI environment called the Workplace Shell. This was a fully object-oriented GUI that was a significant departure from the previous GUI. Rather than merely providing an environment for program windows (such as the Program Manager), the Workplace Shell provided an environment in which a user could manage programs, files and devices by manipulating objects on the screen. DOS compatibility OS/2 2.0 was touted by IBM as "a better DOS than DOS and a better Windows than Windows". For the first time, OS/2 was able to run more than one DOS application at a time. This was so effective that it allowed OS/2 to actually run a modified copy of Windows 3.0, itself a DOS extender, including Windows 3.0 applications. Because of the limitations of the Intel 80286 processor, OS/2 1.x could run only one DOS program at a time, and did this in a way that allowed the DOS program to have total control over the computer. A problem in DOS mode could crash the entire computer. In contrast, OS/2 2.0 could benefit from the virtual 8086 mode of the Intel 80386 processor in order to create a much safer virtual machine in which to run DOS programs. This included an extensive set of configuration options to optimize the performance and capabilities given to each DOS program. Any real mode operating system (such as Xenix) could also be made to run using OS/2's virtual machine capabilities, subject to certain direct hardware access limitations. Like most 32-bit environments, OS/2 could however not run protected-mode DOS programs using the older VCPI interface, unlike the Standard mode of Windows 3.1; it only supported programs written according to DPMI. (Microsoft discouraged the use of VCPI under Windows 3.1, however, due to performance degradation. ) Unlike Windows NT, OS/2 also always gave DOS programs the possibility of masking real hardware interrupts, so any DOS program could deadlock (crash) the machine this way. OS/2 could however use a hardware watchdog on selected machines (notably IBM machines) to break out of such a deadlock. Later, release 3.0 leveraged the enhancements of newer Intel 486 and Intel Pentium processors—the Virtual Interrupt Flag (VIF), which was part of the Virtual Mode Extensions (VME)—to solve this problem. Windows 3.x compatibility Compatibility with Windows 3.0 (and later Windows 3.1) was achieved by adapting Windows user-mode code components to run inside a virtual DOS machine. Originally, a nearly complete version of Windows code was included with OS/2 itself: Windows 3.0 in OS/2 2.0, and Windows 3.1 in OS/2 2.1. Later, IBM developed versions of OS/2 that would use whatever Windows version the user had installed previously, patching it on the fly, and sparing the cost of an additional Windows license. It could either run full-screen, using its own set of video drivers, or "seamlessly," where Windows programs would appear directly on the OS/2 desktop. The process containing Windows was given fairly extensive access to hardware, especially video, and the result was that switching between a full-screen WinOS/2 session and the Workplace Shell could occasionally cause issues. Because OS/2 only ran the user-mode system components of Windows, it was not compatible with Windows device drivers (VxDs) and applications needing them. Multiple Windows applications ran in a single Windows session, just as they would under native Windows. To achieve true isolation between Windows 3.x programs, OS/2 could run multiple copies of Windows in parallel. This approach required considerable system resources, especially memory. It was possible to use DDE between OS/2 and Windows applications, and OLE between Windows applications only. The "Warp" years The OS/2 Warp 3 startup screen. OS/2 version 3.0, released in 1994, was labelled as "OS/2 Warp" to highlight the new performance benefits, and generally to freshen the product image. "Warp" had originally been the internal IBM name for the release: IBM claimed that it had used Star Trek terms as internal names for past OS/2 releases, and that this one seemed appropriate for external use as well. At the launch of OS/2 Warp in 1994, Patrick Stewart was to be the Master of Ceremonies; however Kate Mulgrew of the then-upcoming series Star Trek: Voyager was substituted at the last minute. OS/2 Warp offered a host of benefits over OS/2 2.1, notably broader hardware support, greater multimedia capabilities, Internet-compatible networking, and it included a basic office application suite known as IBM Works. It was released in two versions: the less expensive "Red Spine" and the more expensive "Blue Spine" (named for the color of their boxes). "Red Spine" was designed to support Microsoft Windows applications by finding and using Windows already installed on the computer's hard drive. For this reason, the Red Spine version was also known informally and humorously as the "Ferengi" version, a reference to the Star Trek character species, because of this version's "exploitation" of existing MS Windows installations to increase OS/2's usefulness and appeal, much as a Ferengi might do. The nickname was also an homage to its immediate predecessor, "OS/2 for Windows" version 2.1, whose internal IBM codename was indeed "Ferengi". OS/2 E-Zine "Blue Spine" included Windows support in its own installation, and so could support Windows applications without a Windows installation. As most computers were sold with Microsoft Windows pre-installed, "Red Spine" was the far more popular product. OS/2 Warp Connect, which had full LAN client support built-in, followed in mid-1995. Warp Connect only came with Windows support built in as well and was nicknamed "Grape." Although the operating system was still a combination of both 16-bit and 32-bit code, performance did not notably degrade on the Intel Pentium Pro, a CPU with noticeably poor 16-bit performance. In OS/2 2.0, most performance-sensitive subsystems, including the graphics (Gre) and multimedia (MMPM/2) systems, were updated to 32-bit code in a fixpack, and included as part of OS/2 2.1. Warp 3 brought about a fully 32-bit Windowing system, while Warp 4 introduced the object-oriented 32-bit GRADD display driver model. Mozilla 1.7.13 for OS/2 Warp 4. In 1996, Warp 4 added Java and speech recognition software. IBM also released server editions of Warp 3 and Warp 4 which bundled IBM's LAN Server product directly into the operating system installation. A personal version of Lotus Notes was also included, with a number of template databases for contact management, brainstorming, and so forth. The UK-distributed free demo CD-ROM of OS/2 Warp essentially contained the entire OS and was easily, even accidentally, cracked, meaning that even people who liked it didn't have to buy it. This was seen as a backdoor tactic to increase the number of OS/2 users, in the belief that this would increase sales and demand for third-party applications, and thus strengthen OS/2's desktop numbers. This suggestion was bolstered by the fact that this demo version had replaced another which was not so easily cracked, but which had been released with trial versions of various applications. In 2000 the July edition of Australian Personal Computer magazine bundled software CD-ROMs, included a full version of Warp 4 that required no activation and was essentially a free release. IBM also released a version of OS/2 that ran on its PowerPC workstations, and promised to produce low-cost PC style machines with the PowerPC processor. However, the PowerPC version of OS/2 was dropped less than a month after its release, and plans for supporting machines were scuttled. Such moves were seen in the industry as indicative of IBM's lack of long-term commitment to the operating system. Ironically, Microsoft Windows NT provided support for PowerPC — a chip co-developed and promoted by IBM — for over 5 years. Warp 4 was the last widely distributed version of OS/2, and IBM soon announced the end of marketing the operating system to individual users. Fading out Overall, OS/2 failed to catch on in the mass market and is today little used outside certain niches where IBM traditionally had a stronghold. For example, many bank installations, especially Automated Teller Machines, run OS/2 with a customized user interface; French SNCF national railways used OS/2 1.x in thousands of ticket selling machines. Telecom companies such as Nortel use OS/2 in some voicemail systems. Nevertheless, OS/2 still maintains a small and dedicated community of followers. IBM, unlike Microsoft, charged ISVs for the OS/2 development kit (Microsoft gave the Windows SDK away for free). Although IBM began indicating shortly after the release of Warp 4 that OS/2 would eventually be withdrawn, the company did not end support until 2006-12-31. Sales of OS/2 stopped on 2005-12-23. The latest IBM version is 4.52, which was released for both desktop and server systems in December 2001. A company called Serenity Systems has been reselling OS/2 since 2001, calling it eComStation. The latest stable version is 1.2, released in 2004. Version 2.0 was due for release early in 2007 , but release candidate 6a for version 2.0 was released on 2008-12-06. IBM is still delivering defect support for a fee. IBM urges customers to migrate their often highly complex applications to e-business technologies such as Java in a platform-neutral manner. Once application migration is completed, IBM recommends migration to a different operating system, suggesting Linux as an alternative. Virtualization support for running OS/2 under virtualization appears to be improving in a number of third-party products. OS/2 has historically been more difficult to run in a virtual machine than most other legacy x86 operating systems because of its extensive reliance on the full set of features of the x86 CPU. During a pre-launch session (ESX3) with VMware in Oslo, Norway, December 2005, they specifically said that OS/2's use of the CPU's ring 2 was the reason that it would not run in VMware. A beta of VMWare Workstation 2.0 released in January 2000 was the first hypervisor that could run OS/2 at all. Later, the company decided to drop official OS/2 support, presumably because it would require serious work that cannot be economically justified. Although, it is still possible to boot OS/2 by setting guestOS = "os2experimental" in the .vmx file of the VM (checked with VMware Workstation 3.0 and 5.5), but trying to run different versions of OS/2 leads to frustrating problems. Specifically, one can run OS/2 Warp 4 at Fixpack 5, but installing later Fixpacks will make the virtual machine unusable. eComStation 1.2 and 2.0 beta 4 will not install. checked with VMware Workstation 5.5 Versions 1.x will crash immediately with a "TRAP 0000". Versions 2.x are too ancient to recognize the simulated IDE CD-ROM, do not recognize the virtual SCSI hardware and can crash with "TRAP 000C" after some operations. Version 3.0 (Red) and Version 4.0 (Warp 4) seem to work fine under VMWare Server 1.04, however the 'guestOS = "os2experimental"' setting will cause an error. Changing the vmx file setting to guestOS = "other" seems to work just as well for both of these versions. Microsoft continues to support OS/2 as a hosted operating system in its Virtual PC product. OS/2 and eComStation can both be installed in Microsoft VirtualPC (checked with VPC 2004) although a virtual machine built in VPC 2004 would not run in VPC 2007. These operating systems can be installed under VPC 2007, with and without hardware-assisted virtualization. OS/2, eCS and other operating systems should work fine with the hardware-assisted virtualization checkbox grayed out (claiming that it's enabled when it actually isn't) with Pentium III class emulation and MMX, SSE2 and Intel VT processor features. VirtualBox from Sun Microsystems currently supports OS/2 Warp 3, 4 and 4.5 as well as eComStation as guests. Innotek (now part of Sun) also developed the “additions” code in both Virtual PC and Virtual Server which greatly improves host-guest OS interactions in OS/2. However, attempting to run OS/2 and eComStation can still be difficult, if not impossible to run, because of the strict requirements of VT-x/AMD-V hardware-enabled virtualization and only MCP2 is reported to work in a reliable matter. QEMU and Bochs also support running OS/2 as they're full x86 system emulators and not virtualization software, and thus emulates the entire x86 architecture instead of relying on the host CPU, essentially allowing OS/2 unrestricted access to Ring 2, albeit an emulated one. The difficulties in efficiently running OS/2 have, at least once, created an opportunity for a new virtualization company. A large German bank needed a way to use OS/2 on newer hardware that OS/2 did not support. As virtualization software is an easy way around this, the company desired to run OS/2 under a hypervisor. Once it was determined that VMware was not a possibility, it hired a group of Russian software developers to write a host-based hypervisor that would officially support OS/2. Thus, the Parallels, Inc. company and their Parallels Workstation was born. ATMs ATM vendors NCR Corporation and Diebold Incorporated have both adopted Microsoft Windows XP as their migration path from OS/2. Diebold Incorporated initially shipped XP Embedded Edition exclusively, but following extensive pressure from customer banks to support a common OS, switched to XP Professional to match their primary competitor NCR Corporation. Security niche OS/2 has very few native computer viruses. While it is not invulnerable by design, its reduced market share appears to have discouraged virus writers. There are, however, OS/2-based antivirus programs, dealing with DOS viruses and Windows viruses that could pass through an OS/2 server. Future There is a community of OS/2 users and developers, along with loyal company customers, hoping that IBM will release OS/2 or a significant part of it as open source. Petitions to that end were made in 2005 and 2007, but IBM declined, citing legal, technical and strategic reasons. It is unlikely that the entire OS will be open at some point in the future, because it contains third-party code, much of it from Microsoft. Also IBM made a deal with Commodore to license Amiga technology for OS/2 2.0 and above in exchange for the REXX scripting language. http://www.os2bbs.com/os2news/OS2Warp.html This means OS/2 may have code not written by IBM, which can prevent the OS from being open-sourced in the future. The Art of Unix Programming p. 66 ISBN 0131429019, 9780131429017 http://books.google.com/books?id=CZae0PbOXJMC&pg=PA66&lpg=PA66&dq=ibm+licenses+Amiga+workplace+shell&source=web&ots=h4TV3J8ojn&sig=Kj1WiElrYMlZCzssjAnb9oUCTRs&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result Version 2.0 had such a long design cycle that its design started while OS/2 1.1 was still under development, and thus, portions of it were developed in conjunction with Microsoft, even though Microsoft never released a branded version of 2.0 (although they did release a beta in their name). IBM's contribution to versions 1.2 and earlier mostly resides in the GUI components; however, bug fixes and substantial performance changes to the entire system in 1.3 were made by IBM , and much more of the overall system (including the kernel) for 2.0 was developed by IBM. The aborted PowerPC port did not involve Microsoft at all, and has been proposed as the basis for an open-source 64-bit version of OS/2. Still, the community has suggested that, even if only the IBM portion of it is made open, the missing parts could be written by the same community to form a next-generation version of the OS. Code could perhaps be integrated from the Wine or ReactOS projects. Many developers believe that these missing parts include many of the legacy 16-bit components not revised since OS/2 1.x, and are exactly the parts that should be rewritten anyway. There is an ongoing petition to open parts of the OS arranged by OS2World.com. With the possibility of an open-source future for OS/2, the OS may be given a new lease of life. IBM's current and heavy involvement with several open source projects indicate that opening parts of OS/2 will not be difficult for the company. But until then, OS/2's future remains in limbo. Open source operating systems such as Linux have already profited from OS/2 indirectly through IBM's release of the improved JFS file system which was ported from the OS/2 code base. OS/2 programs will eventually use emulators and compatibility layers for running programs dedicated for OS/2. Technology The graphic system has a layer named Presentation Manager that manages windows, fonts, and icons. This is similar in functionality to a non-networked version of X11 or the Windows GDI. On top of this lies the Workplace Shell (WPS) introduced in OS/2 2.0. WPS is an object-oriented shell allowing the user to perform traditional computing tasks such as accessing files, printers, launching legacy programs, and advanced object oriented tasks using built-in and 3rd party application objects that extended the shell in an integrated fashion not available on any other mainstream operating system. WPS follows IBM's Common User Access user interface standards. Hardware vendors were reluctant to support device drivers for alternative operating systems including OS/2 and Linux, leaving users with few choices from a select few vendors. To relieve this issue for video cards, IBM licensed a reduced version of the Scitech display drivers, allowing users to choose from a wide selection of cards supported through Scitech's modular driver design. WPS represents objects such as disks, folders, files, program objects, and printers using the System Object Model (SOM), which allows code to be shared among applications, possibly written in different programming languages. A distributed version called DSOM allowed objects on different computers to communicate. DSOM is based on CORBA. SOM is similar to, and a direct competitor to, Microsoft's Component Object Model. SOM and DSOM are no longer being developed. OS/2 also includes a radical advancement in application development with compound document technology called OpenDoc, which was developed with Apple. OpenDoc proved interesting as a technology, but was not widely used or accepted by users or developers. OpenDoc is also no longer being developed. The multimedia capabilities of OS/2 are accessible through Media Control Interface commands. The last update (bundled with the IBM version of Netscape Navigator plugins) added support for MPEG files. Support for newer formats like PNG, progressive JPEG, DivX, Ogg, MP3 comes from third parties. Sometimes it is integrated with the multimedia system, but in other offers it comes as standalone applications. The TCP/IP stack is based on the open source BSD stack. Problems Some problems were classic subjects of comparison with other operating systems: Synchronous input queue (SIQ): if a GUI application was not servicing its window messages, the entire GUI system could get stuck and a reboot was required. This problem was considerably reduced with later Warp 3 fixpacks and refined by Warp 4, by taking control over the application after it had not responded for several seconds. see IBM Developer Connection for OS/2, Internal Fixpack 12J No unified command line: OS/2 divided programs into strict categories and communication between programs of different categories was problematic: It was not possible to enter fullscreen mode from a "windowed OS/2 session"; a separate "fullscreen OS/2 session" was required, which could not be made windowed. OS/2 sessions could launch new DOS sessions, but with DOS sessions (which could be toggled fullscreen) it was not possible, in theory, to start OS/2 programs. Therefore transparent piping of data was not possible. There were however undocumented calls that allowed the development of some user tools to overcome these limitations. Worse, in the absence of 8.3 aliases for filenames and directories and DOS API extensions supporting long filenames, it was also problematic to give DOS programs access to files managed from OS/2 programs. Even native OS/2 programs had problems communicating: a command-line program could not fully access the system clipboard, which was reserved for "GUI" programs. Workarounds consisted in creating special helper programs (for example an invisible GUI program just for accessing the clipboard) or in using client-server setups, where the client and the server were different types of programs, but communicated using some available way. Just as OS/2 1.x, the 32-bit system was apparently designed with the idea that users would rapidly make a switch to all-native programs. No unified object handles. The availability of threads probably led system designers to overlook mechanisms which allow a single thread to wait for different types of asynchronous events at the same time, for example the keyboard and the mouse in a "console" program. Even though select was added later, it only worked on network sockets. In case of a console program, dedicating a separate thread for waiting on each source of events made it difficult to properly release all the input devices before starting other programs in the same "session". As a result, console programs usually polled the keyboard and the mouse alternatively, which resulted in wasted CPU and a characteristic "jerky" reactivity to user input. In OS/2 3.0 IBM introduced a new call for this specific problem. KbdGetConsole() and DosWaitMuxWaitSem(), see Control Program Programming Guide and Reference, IBM OS/2 Toolkit No unified virtual memory and disk cache. Modern operating systems can use the entire available RAM for disk caching and can map files into the address space of processes. OS/2 had a dedicated memory pool for disk caching and could not map files. This could result in decreased performance and RAM waste. Quotations During the next 10 years, millions of programmers and users will utilize this system. Bill Gates, November 1988 (in the Foreword to the Inside OS/2 book by Gordon Letwin, Microsoft's architect for OS/2). This quotation could be compared with another one, by Dave Cutler and coming from his introduction to the Inside Windows NT book: "In the summer of 1988, I received an interesting call from Bill Gates at Microsoft. He asked whether I'd like to come over and talk about building a new operating system at Microsoft for personal computers. [...] What Bill had to offer was the opportunity to build another operating system, one that was portable [...]." However, as "Inside Windows NT" says in chapter one, section 1.1, "An Operating System for the 1990s": "Originally, the plan also called for NT to have an OS/2-style user interface and to provide the OS/2 application programming interface (API) as its primary programming interface. Midway through the development of the system, however, Microsoft Windows 3.0 hit the market and was an instant success, in contrast to OS/2, which had not caught on with large numbers of users." Historical uses OS/2 was widely used in Brazilian banks. Banco do Brasil had a peak 10,000 machines running OS/2 Warp in the 1990s. OS/2 was used in automated teller machines until 2006. The workstations and automated teller machines have been migrated to Linux. OS/2 also was widely adopted by accounting professionals and auditing companies. In mid-1990s native 32-bit accounting software were well developed and serving corporate markets. OS/2 was used by radio personality Howard Stern. He once had a 10 minute on-air rant about OS/2 versus Windows 95 and recommended OS/2. He also used OS/2 on his IBM 760CD laptop. See also History of the graphical user interface References Further reading — Necasek discusses an aborted port to PowerPC machines. External links os2world.com - Community of OS/2 users netlabs.org - OpenSource Software for OS/2 and eCS OS/2 FAQ hobbes.nmsu.edu The OS/2 software repository eCSoft/2 - The OS/2 and eComstation software guide osFree an open source project to build an OS/2 clone operating system Voyager Project, to re implement OS/2 on modern technology OS/2 to Linux API porting project Open Source OS/2 API implementation for Windows Microsoft documentation of OS/2 API compatibility with Windows NT Technical details of OS/2 The History of OS/2 | OS%2F2 |@lemmatized os:135 computer:11 operate:12 system:53 initially:4 create:7 microsoft:37 ibm:62 later:8 develop:10 exclusively:2 name:10 stand:2 introduce:8 part:11 generation:3 change:4 release:30 personal:5 p:3 line:5 second:2 longer:4 market:6 standard:3 support:37 discontinue:1 december:4 currently:2 serenity:2 sell:4 brand:1 ecomstation:7 intend:1 protected:2 mode:19 successor:1 pc:5 notably:5 basic:2 call:14 model:5 even:9 start:5 possible:6 family:2 application:28 text:3 could:29 work:10 heritage:2 share:3 similarity:1 unix:2 xenix:3 window:61 many:6 way:7 development:15 history:3 enthusiastic:1 beginning:1 begin:2 sign:1 joint:1 agreement:1 august:1 copy:4 press:1 announce:4 code:17 cp:1 take:4 two:2 year:5 first:4 product:6 deliver:3 april:3 textmode:1 however:16 feature:5 rich:1 api:10 control:5 video:5 display:3 vio:1 handle:2 keyboard:4 mouse:3 event:3 programmer:4 write:6 protect:2 bios:1 access:9 hardware:16 directly:3 addition:5 tool:3 include:20 subset:1 apis:1 linkable:1 library:1 program:41 able:2 run:30 task:3 switcher:1 selector:1 available:5 ctrl:1 esc:1 hotkey:1 combination:2 allow:12 user:24 select:4 among:2 multitasked:2 session:10 screen:5 group:2 multiple:3 communication:3 database:4 orient:6 extension:3 extended:4 edition:6 sna:2 x:14 appc:1 lu:1 lan:4 manager:8 query:1 sql:1 promised:1 gui:9 presentation:4 october:1 almost:1 identical:1 interface:9 windows:13 sale:5 channel:1 distributed:2 mainframe:1 network:3 version:37 installable:1 filesystems:1 hpfs:3 filesystem:4 provide:7 number:6 improvement:1 old:2 fat:2 long:4 filename:3 form:2 alternate:1 data:2 stream:1 attribute:2 extend:2 also:20 add:4 installation:6 disk:6 floppy:1 tcp:2 ip:2 ethernet:1 relate:1 book:5 late:3 acknowledge:1 existence:1 promoted:1 future:9 breakup:2 collaboration:1 unravel:1 least:2 publicly:1 continue:3 insist:2 belong:1 steve:1 ballmer:1 plus:2 time:5 become:2 tremendous:1 success:4 million:2 much:9 along:2 ms:1 bundle:4 new:14 hand:2 expensive:3 alone:1 software:11 package:1 lacked:1 device:6 driver:7 common:3 printer:3 particularly:1 non:2 large:3 variety:1 increase:4 popularity:1 prompt:1 shift:1 focus:1 cooperate:1 build:9 franchise:1 base:8 several:4 technical:3 practical:1 reason:4 contribute:2 difference:2 culture:1 vision:1 favor:1 open:14 approach:2 seek:1 use:27 drive:2 want:2 frustrated:1 bureaucracy:1 measure:1 productivity:1 developer:7 complain:2 terseness:1 lack:2 comment:1 bloat:1 near:1 completion:1 already:3 define:1 request:1 significantly:1 therefore:3 issue:4 surround:2 compatibility:7 appear:4 immediately:2 designer:2 hop:2 source:13 conversion:1 complete:3 migration:4 point:2 gain:1 enough:1 momentum:1 vendor:4 avoid:1 parallel:5 involvement:2 successful:1 redefine:1 visual:1 appearance:1 give:8 today:2 perceive:1 look:1 target:1 processor:7 intel:8 bit:18 segmented:1 memory:6 due:3 commitment:2 make:10 customer:4 purchase:1 promise:2 ran:1 benefit:4 simpler:1 flat:1 virtual:15 especially:4 painful:1 preemptively:1 expand:1 ems:1 emulation:2 still:9 limit:1 one:10 box:3 portable:2 hiring:1 dave:2 cutler:3 former:1 vms:1 architect:2 immediate:2 competition:1 team:1 think:1 technology:7 digital:1 rather:2 nt:13 completely:1 architecture:2 upgrade:1 grow:1 concerned:1 delay:1 diversion:1 fund:1 earmark:1 towards:1 company:11 agree:1 would:13 maintenance:1 end:6 decide:2 recast:1 leave:2 business:2 perspective:1 logical:1 concentrate:1 consumer:1 prepare:1 high:2 keep:1 good:3 exist:2 wait:3 receive:2 license:5 money:1 see:6 initial:1 early:2 material:1 copyright:1 notice:1 embed:2 example:4 resource:2 kit:2 subsystem:2 corporation:3 era:1 native:6 though:3 mixture:1 environment:4 workplace:5 shell:7 fully:3 object:12 significant:2 departure:1 previous:1 merely:1 manage:3 file:10 manipulate:1 dos:9 tout:1 effective:1 actually:2 modified:1 extender:1 limitation:3 total:1 problem:8 crash:4 entire:7 contrast:2 order:1 safe:1 machine:17 extensive:4 set:5 configuration:1 option:1 optimize:1 performance:8 capability:4 real:2 subject:2 certain:2 direct:2 like:4 vcpi:2 unlike:3 accord:1 dpmi:1 discourage:2 degradation:1 always:1 possibility:3 mask:1 interrupt:2 deadlock:2 watchdog:1 break:1 leverage:1 enhancement:1 pentium:3 flag:1 vif:1 vme:1 solve:1 achieve:2 adapt:1 component:5 inside:4 originally:3 nearly:1 developed:2 whatever:1 instal:6 previously:1 patch:1 fly:1 spar:1 cost:2 additional:1 either:1 full:6 seamlessly:1 desktop:3 process:2 contain:3 fairly:1 result:5 switch:3 wino:1 occasionally:1 cause:2 compatible:2 vxds:1 need:2 single:2 true:1 isolation:1 require:5 considerable:1 dde:1 ole:1 warp:24 startup:1 label:1 highlight:1 generally:1 freshen:1 image:1 internal:4 claim:2 star:3 trek:3 term:2 past:1 seem:3 appropriate:1 external:2 well:5 launch:4 patrick:1 stewart:1 master:1 ceremony:1 kate:1 mulgrew:1 upcoming:1 series:1 voyager:2 substitute:1 last:3 minute:2 offer:3 host:5 broad:1 great:1 multimedia:4 internet:1 networking:1 office:1 suite:1 know:2 less:2 red:5 spine:6 blue:2 color:1 design:6 find:1 hard:1 informally:1 humorously:1 ferengi:3 reference:3 character:1 specie:1 exploitation:1 usefulness:1 appeal:1 might:1 nickname:2 homage:1 predecessor:1 whose:1 codename:1 indeed:1 e:2 zine:1 without:2 pre:2 far:1 popular:1 connect:2 client:3 follow:3 mid:2 come:5 grape:1 although:5 operating:10 degrade:1 pro:1 cpu:5 noticeably:1 poor:1 sensitive:1 graphic:2 gre:1 mmpm:1 update:2 fixpack:3 bring:1 windowing:1 gradd:1 mozilla:1 added:1 java:2 speech:1 recognition:1 server:8 lotus:1 note:1 template:1 contact:1 management:1 brainstorming:1 forth:1 uk:1 distribute:2 free:3 demo:2 cd:3 rom:3 essentially:3 easily:2 accidentally:1 crack:2 mean:2 people:1 buy:1 backdoor:1 tactic:1 belief:1 demand:1 third:4 party:5 thus:4 strengthen:1 suggestion:1 bolster:1 fact:1 replace:1 another:3 trial:1 various:1 july:1 australian:1 magazine:1 activation:1 powerpc:6 workstation:6 produce:1 low:1 style:2 drop:2 month:1 plan:2 scuttle:1 move:1 industry:1 indicative:1 ironically:1 chip:1 co:1 promote:1 widely:4 soon:1 individual:1 fade:1 overall:2 fail:1 catch:2 mass:1 little:1 used:1 outside:1 niche:2 traditionally:1 stronghold:1 bank:4 automated:2 teller:3 customized:1 french:1 sncf:1 national:1 railway:1 thousand:1 ticket:1 selling:1 telecom:1 nortel:1 voicemail:1 nevertheless:1 maintain:1 small:1 dedicated:2 community:5 follower:1 charge:1 isvs:1 sdk:1 away:1 indicate:2 shortly:1 eventually:2 withdraw:1 stop:1 resell:1 since:2 stable:1 candidate:1 defect:1 fee:1 urge:1 migrate:2 often:1 highly:1 complex:1 platform:1 neutral:1 manner:1 recommend:2 different:7 suggest:2 linux:5 alternative:2 virtualization:8 improve:2 historically:1 difficult:4 legacy:3 reliance:1 vmware:7 oslo:1 norway:1 specifically:2 say:2 ring:2 beta:3 january:1 hypervisor:3 official:1 presumably:1 serious:1 cannot:1 economically:1 justified:1 boot:1 guestos:3 vmx:2 vm:1 check:3 try:1 lead:2 frustrate:1 fixpacks:2 unusable:1 install:1 trap:2 ancient:1 recognize:2 simulated:1 ide:1 scsi:1 operation:1 fine:2 setting:1 error:1 virtualpc:1 vpc:4 assist:2 ec:1 checkbox:1 gray:1 enable:2 iii:1 class:1 mmx:1 vt:2 virtualbox:1 sun:2 microsystems:1 guest:2 innotek:1 greatly:1 interaction:1 attempt:1 impossible:1 strict:2 requirement:1 amd:1 v:1 report:1 reliable:1 matter:1 qemu:1 bochs:1 emulator:2 emulate:1 instead:1 rely:1 unrestricted:1 albeit:1 emulated:1 difficulty:1 efficiently:1 opportunity:2 german:1 easy:1 around:1 desire:1 determine:1 hire:1 russian:1 officially:1 inc:1 bear:1 atms:1 atm:1 ncr:2 diebold:2 incorporate:2 adopt:2 xp:3 path:1 ship:1 pressure:1 professional:2 match:1 primary:2 competitor:2 security:1 virus:4 invulnerable:1 reduce:2 writer:1 antivirus:1 deal:2 pass:1 loyal:1 petition:2 decline:1 cite:1 legal:1 strategic:1 unlikely:1 commodore:1 amiga:2 exchange:1 rexx:1 script:1 language:2 http:2 www:1 com:4 html:1 may:2 prevent:1 art:1 isbn:1 google:1 id:1 pg:1 lpg:1 dq:1 web:1 ots:1 sig:1 hl:1 en:1 sa:1 oi:1 resnum:1 ct:1 cycle:1 portion:2 conjunction:1 never:1 branded:1 contribution:1 earlier:1 mostly:1 reside:1 bug:1 fix:1 substantial:1 kernel:1 aborted:2 port:4 involve:1 propose:1 basis:1 miss:2 next:2 perhaps:1 integrate:2 wine:1 reactos:1 project:5 believe:1 revise:1 exactly:1 rewrite:1 anyway:1 ongoing:1 arrange:1 lease:1 life:1 current:1 heavy:1 remain:1 limbo:1 profit:1 indirectly:1 improved:1 jfs:1 layer:2 dedicate:2 font:1 icon:1 similar:2 functionality:1 networked:1 gdi:1 top:1 lie:1 wps:4 perform:1 traditional:1 compute:1 advance:1 integrated:1 fashion:1 mainstream:1 reluctant:1 choice:1 relieve:1 card:2 reduced:1 scitech:2 choose:1 wide:1 selection:1 modular:1 represent:1 folder:1 som:3 possibly:1 programming:3 dsom:3 communicate:3 corba:1 radical:1 advancement:1 compound:1 document:1 opendoc:3 apple:1 prove:1 interesting:2 accept:1 accessible:1 medium:1 command:3 netscape:1 navigator:1 plugins:1 mpeg:1 format:1 png:1 progressive:1 jpeg:1 divx:1 ogg:1 sometimes:1 standalone:1 stack:2 bsd:1 classic:1 comparison:1 synchronous:1 input:3 queue:1 siq:1 service:1 message:1 get:1 stick:1 reboot:1 considerably:1 refine:1 respond:1 connection:1 unified:3 divided:1 category:2 problematic:2 enter:1 fullscreen:3 windowed:2 separate:2 toggle:1 theory:1 transparent:1 piping:1 undocumented:1 overcome:1 worse:1 absence:1 alias:1 directory:1 clipboard:2 reserve:1 workarounds:1 consist:1 special:1 helper:1 invisible:1 setup:1 type:2 apparently:1 idea:1 rapidly:1 availability:1 thread:3 probably:1 overlook:1 mechanism:1 asynchronous:1 console:3 socket:1 case:1 properly:1 usually:1 poll:1 alternatively:1 wasted:1 characteristic:1 jerky:1 reactivity:1 specific:1 kbdgetconsole:1 doswaitmuxwaitsem:1 guide:2 toolkit:1 cache:1 modern:2 ram:2 caching:2 map:2 address:1 space:1 pool:1 decreased:1 waste:1 quotation:2 utilize:1 bill:3 gate:2 november:1 foreword:1 gordon:1 letwin:1 compare:1 introduction:1 summer:1 ask:1 whether:1 talk:1 chapter:1 section:1 midway:1 hit:1 instant:1 historical:1 us:1 brazilian:1 banco:1 brasil:1 peak:1 automate:1 account:1 audit:1 accounting:1 serve:1 corporate:1 radio:1 personality:1 howard:1 stern:1 air:1 rant:1 versus:1 laptop:1 graphical:1 read:1 necasek:1 discuss:1 link:1 netlabs:1 org:1 opensource:1 ecs:1 faq:1 hobbes:1 nmsu:1 edu:1 repository:1 ecsoft:1 osfree:1 clone:1 implement:1 implementation:1 documentation:1 detail:1 |@bigram protected_mode:2 user_interface:5 ibm_mainframe:1 floppy_disk:1 tcp_ip:2 steve_ballmer:1 window_nt:7 workplace_shell:5 intel_intel:1 intel_pentium:2 star_trek:3 os_warp:8 trek_voyager:1 microsoft_window:5 cd_rom:3 powerpc_processor:1 oslo_norway:1 vmware_workstation:3 pentium_iii:1 sun_microsystems:1 ncr_corporation:2 window_xp:1 http_www:1 id_pg:1 pg_lpg:1 lpg_dq:1 web_ots:1 ots_sig:1 sig_hl:1 hl_en:1 x_oi:1 oi_resnum:1 resnum_ct:1 bug_fix:1 netscape_navigator:1 client_server:2 windows_nt:1 automate_teller:1 howard_stern:1 graphical_user:1 external_link:1 |
3,096 | Armadillo | Armadillos are small placental mammals, known for having a leathery armor shell. The Dasypodidae are the only surviving family in the order Cingulata, part of the superorder Xenarthra along with the anteaters and sloths. The word armadillo is Spanish for "little armored one". There are approximately 10 extant genera and around 20 extant species of armadillo, some of which are distinguished by the number of bands on their armor. Their average length is about 75 centimeters (30 in), including tail; the Giant Armadillo grows up to 1.5 m (5 ft) and weighs 59 kg (130 lbs), while the Pink Fairy Armadillos are diminutive species with an overall length of 12–15 cm (4–5 in). All species are native to the Americas, where they inhabit a variety of environments. In the United States, the sole resident armadillo is the Nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), which is most common in the central southernmost states, particularly Texas. Their range is as far east as South Carolina and Florida and as far north as Nebraska; they have been consistently expanding their range over the last century due to a lack of natural predators and have been found as far north as Illinois and Indiana. Habitat and anatomy Armadillos are prolific diggers. Many species use their sharp claws to dig for food, such as grubs, and to dig dens. The Nine-banded Armadillo prefers to build burrows in moist soil near the creeks, streams, and arroyos around which it lives and feeds. The diet of different armadillo species varies, but consists mainly of insects, grubs, and other invertebrates. Some species, however, are almost entirely formicivorous (feeding mainly on ants). Armadillos have poor vision. The armor is formed by plates of dermal bone covered in relatively small, overlapping epidermal scales called "scutes", composed of bone with a covering of horn. In most species, there are rigid shields over the shoulders and hips, with a number of bands separated by flexible skin covering the back and flanks. Additional armor covers the top of the head, the upper parts of the limbs, and the tail. The underside of the animal is never armored, and is simply covered with soft skin and fur. This armor-like skin appears to be the main defense of many armadillos, although most escape predators by fleeing (often into thorny patches, from which their armor protects them) or digging to safety. Only the South American three-banded armadillos (Tolypeutes) rely heavily on their armor for protection. When threatened by a predator, Tolypeutes species frequently roll up into a ball. Other armadillo species cannot roll up because they have too many plates. The North American Nine-banded Armadillo tends to jump straight in the air when surprised, and consequently often collides with the undercarriage or fenders of passing vehicles. How high can a nine-banded armadillo jump? (Everyday Mysteries: Fun Science Facts from the Library of Congress) Armadillos have short legs but can move quite quickly, and have the ability to remain underwater for as long as six minutes. Because of the density of its armor, an armadillo will sink in water unless it inflates its stomach and intestines with air, which often doubles its size and allows it to swim across narrow bodies of water. Armadillos - Nine-Banded Armadillo - Texas Wildlife Armadillos use their claws for digging and finding food, as well as for making their homes in burrows. They dig their burrows with their claws, only making a single corridor where they fit themselves. They have five clawed toes on the hindfeet, and three to five toes with heavy digging claws on the forefeet. Armadillos have a large number of cheek teeth, which are not divided into premolars and molars, but usually have incisors or canines. Gestation lasts anywhere from 60 to 120 days, depending on species, although the nine-banded armadillo also exhibits delayed implantation, so that the young are not typically born for eight months after mating. Most members of the genus Dasypus give birth to four homozygous young (that is, identical quadruplets), but other species may have typical litter sizes that range from one to eight. The young are born with soft leathery skin, which hardens within a few weeks, and reach sexual maturity in 3–12 months, depending on the species. Armadillos are solitary animals, that do not share their burrows with other adults. Classification Order CINGULATA Family †Pampatheriidae: pampatheres Genus †Machlydotherium Genus †Kraglievichia Genus †Vassallia Genus †Plaina Genus †Scirrotherium Genus †Pampatherium Genus †Holmesina Family †Glyptodontidae: glyptodonts Genus †Doedicurus Genus †Glyptodon Genus †Glyptotherium Genus †Hoplophorus Genus †Panochthus Genus †Parapropalaehoplophorus Genus †Plaxhaplous Family Dasypodidae: armadillos Subfamily Dasypodinae Genus Dasypus Nine-banded Armadillo or Long-nosed Armadillo, Dasypus novemcinctus Seven-banded Armadillo, Dasypus septemcinctus Southern Long-nosed Armadillo, Dasypus hybridus Llanos Long-nosed Armadillo, Dasypus sabanicola Great Long-nosed Armadillo, Dasypus kappleri Hairy Long-nosed Armadillo, Dasypus pilosus Yepes's Mulita, Dasypus yepesi †Beautiful Armadillo, Dasypus bellus Subfamily Euphractinae Genus Calyptophractus Greater Fairy Armadillo, Calyptophractus retusus Genus Chaetophractus Screaming Hairy Armadillo, Chaetophractus vellerosus Big Hairy Armadillo, Chaetophractus villosus Andean Hairy Armadillo, Chaetophractus nationi Genus †Peltephilus Horned Armadillo, Peltephilus ferox Genus ChlamyphorusPink Fairy Armadillo, Chlamyphorus truncatus Pink Fairy Armadillo, Chlamyphorus truncatus Genus Euphractus Six-banded Armadillo, Euphractus sexcinctus Genus Zaedyus Pichi, Zaedyus pichiy Subfamily Tolypeutinae Genus Cabassous Northern Naked-tailed Armadillo, Cabassous centralis Chacoan Naked-tailed Armadillo, Cabassous chacoensis Southern Naked-tailed Armadillo, Cabassous unicinctus Greater Naked-tailed Armadillo, Cabassous tatouay Genus Priodontes Giant Armadillo, Priodontes maximus Genus Tolypeutes Southern Three-banded Armadillo, Tolypeutes matacus Brazilian Three-banded Armadillo, Tolypeutes tricinctus † indicates extinct taxon Armadillos and humans In science Armadillos are often used in the study of leprosy, since they, along with mangabey monkeys, rabbits and mice (on their footpads), are among the few known non-human animal species that can contract the disease systemically. They are particularly susceptible due to their unusually low body temperature, which is hospitable to the leprosy bacterium. The Nine-banded Armadillo also serves science through its unusual reproductive system, in which four genetically identical quadruplets are born in each litter. The Nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) http://www.valdosta.edu/~jloughry/Reprints/AmSci.pdf http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0033-5770(193309)8%3A3%3C348%3APITAGO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q Because they are always genetically identical, the group of four young provides a good subject for scientific, behavioral or medical tests that need consistent biological and genetic makeup in the test subjects. This is the only manifestation of polyembryony in the class mammalia, and only exists within the genus Dasypus and not in all armadillos, as is commonly believed. Other species which display this trait include parasitoid wasps, certain flatworms and various aquatic invertebrates. Armadillos (mainly Dasypus) make common roadkill due to their habit of jumping to about fender height when startled (such as by an oncoming car). Wildlife enthusiasts are using the northward march of the armadillo as an opportunity to educate others about the animals, which can be a burrowing nuisance to property owners and managers. In American culture During the Great Depression, the species was hunted for its meat in East Texas, where it was known as "Hoover Hog" by those who considered President Herbert Hoover to be responsible for the depression. Earlier, German settlers in Texas would often refer to the armadillo as Panzerschwein ("armored pig"). In 1995, the nine-banded armadillo was, with some resistance, made the state small mammal of Texas, Texas Symbols, Small Mammal: Armadillo - SHG Resources. Accessed March 2, 2008. where it is considered a pest and is often seen dead on the roadside. They first forayed into Texas across the Rio Grande from Mexico in the 1800s, eventually spreading across the southeast United States. Notes References External links Photographs of armadillo rolling into a ball | Armadillo |@lemmatized armadillo:58 small:4 placental:1 mammal:3 know:3 leathery:2 armor:10 shell:1 dasypodidae:2 survive:1 family:4 order:2 cingulata:2 part:2 superorder:1 xenarthra:1 along:2 anteater:1 sloth:1 word:1 spanish:1 little:1 armored:1 one:2 approximately:1 extant:2 genus:27 around:2 specie:15 distinguish:1 number:3 band:17 average:1 length:2 centimeter:1 include:2 tail:3 giant:2 grow:1 ft:1 weighs:1 kg:1 lb:1 pink:2 fairy:4 diminutive:1 overall:1 cm:1 native:1 america:1 inhabit:1 variety:1 environment:1 united:2 state:4 sole:1 resident:1 nine:10 dasypus:14 novemcinctus:3 common:2 central:1 southernmost:1 particularly:2 texas:7 range:3 far:3 east:2 south:2 carolina:1 florida:1 north:3 nebraska:1 consistently:1 expand:1 last:2 century:1 due:3 lack:1 natural:1 predator:3 find:2 illinois:1 indiana:1 habitat:1 anatomy:1 prolific:1 digger:1 many:3 use:4 sharp:1 claw:5 dig:5 food:2 grub:2 den:1 prefers:1 build:1 burrow:4 moist:1 soil:1 near:1 creek:1 stream:1 arroyo:1 live:1 feed:2 diet:1 different:1 varies:1 consist:1 mainly:3 insect:1 invertebrate:2 however:1 almost:1 entirely:1 formicivorous:1 ant:1 poor:1 vision:1 form:1 plate:2 dermal:1 bone:2 cover:4 relatively:1 overlap:1 epidermal:1 scale:1 call:1 scute:1 compose:1 covering:1 horn:2 rigid:1 shield:1 shoulder:1 hip:1 separate:1 flexible:1 skin:4 back:1 flank:1 additional:1 top:1 head:1 upper:1 limb:1 underside:1 animal:4 never:1 simply:1 soft:2 fur:1 like:1 appear:1 main:1 defense:1 although:2 escape:1 flee:1 often:6 thorny:1 patch:1 protect:1 safety:1 american:3 three:4 tolypeutes:5 rely:1 heavily:1 protection:1 threaten:1 frequently:1 roll:3 ball:2 cannot:1 tends:1 jump:3 straight:1 air:2 surprise:1 consequently:1 collide:1 undercarriage:1 fender:2 pass:1 vehicle:1 high:1 everyday:1 mystery:1 fun:1 science:3 fact:1 library:1 congress:1 short:1 leg:1 move:1 quite:1 quickly:1 ability:1 remain:1 underwater:1 long:6 six:2 minute:1 density:1 sink:1 water:2 unless:1 inflate:1 stomach:1 intestine:1 double:1 size:2 allow:1 swim:1 across:3 narrow:1 body:2 wildlife:2 digging:1 well:1 make:4 home:1 single:1 corridor:1 fit:1 five:2 toe:2 hindfeet:1 heavy:1 forefoot:1 large:1 cheek:1 teeth:1 divide:1 premolar:1 molar:1 usually:1 incisor:1 canine:1 gestation:1 anywhere:1 day:1 depend:2 also:2 exhibit:1 delay:1 implantation:1 young:4 typically:1 bear:3 eight:2 month:2 mat:1 member:1 give:1 birth:1 four:3 homozygous:1 identical:3 quadruplet:2 may:1 typical:1 litter:2 harden:1 within:2 week:1 reach:1 sexual:1 maturity:1 solitary:1 share:1 adult:1 classification:1 pampatheriidae:1 pampatheres:1 machlydotherium:1 kraglievichia:1 vassallia:1 plaina:1 scirrotherium:1 pampatherium:1 holmesina:1 glyptodontidae:1 glyptodonts:1 doedicurus:1 glyptodon:1 glyptotherium:1 hoplophorus:1 panochthus:1 parapropalaehoplophorus:1 plaxhaplous:1 armadillos:1 subfamily:3 dasypodinae:1 nosed:5 seven:1 septemcinctus:1 southern:3 hybridus:1 llano:1 sabanicola:1 great:4 kappleri:1 hairy:4 pilosus:1 yepes:1 mulita:1 yepesi:1 beautiful:1 bellus:1 euphractinae:1 calyptophractus:2 retusus:1 chaetophractus:4 scream:1 vellerosus:1 big:1 villosus:1 andean:1 nationi:1 peltephilus:2 ferox:1 chlamyphoruspink:1 chlamyphorus:2 truncatus:2 euphractus:2 sexcinctus:1 zaedyus:2 pichi:1 pichiy:1 tolypeutinae:1 cabassous:5 northern:1 naked:4 tailed:3 centralis:1 chacoan:1 chacoensis:1 unicinctus:1 tatouay:1 priodontes:2 maximus:1 matacus:1 brazilian:1 tricinctus:1 indicate:1 extinct:1 taxon:1 human:2 study:1 leprosy:2 since:1 mangabey:1 monkey:1 rabbit:1 mouse:1 footpad:1 among:1 non:1 contract:1 disease:1 systemically:1 susceptible:1 unusually:1 low:1 temperature:1 hospitable:1 bacterium:1 serve:1 unusual:1 reproductive:1 system:1 genetically:2 http:2 www:1 valdosta:1 edu:1 jloughry:1 reprint:1 amsci:1 pdf:1 link:2 jstor:1 org:1 sici:2 co:1 q:1 always:1 group:1 provide:1 good:1 subject:2 scientific:1 behavioral:1 medical:1 test:2 need:1 consistent:1 biological:1 genetic:1 makeup:1 manifestation:1 polyembryony:1 class:1 mammalia:1 exist:1 commonly:1 believe:1 display:1 trait:1 parasitoid:1 wasp:1 certain:1 flatworm:1 various:1 aquatic:1 roadkill:1 habit:1 height:1 startle:1 oncoming:1 car:1 enthusiast:1 northward:1 march:2 opportunity:1 educate:1 others:1 burrowing:1 nuisance:1 property:1 owner:1 manager:1 culture:1 depression:2 hunt:1 meat:1 hoover:2 hog:1 consider:2 president:1 herbert:1 responsible:1 earlier:1 german:1 settler:1 would:1 refer:1 panzerschwein:1 pig:1 resistance:1 symbol:1 shg:1 resource:1 access:1 pest:1 see:1 dead:1 roadside:1 first:1 foray:1 rio:1 grande:1 mexico:1 eventually:1 spread:1 southeast:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 photograph:1 |@bigram placental_mammal:1 kg_lb:1 pink_fairy:2 armadillo_dasypus:9 rely_heavily:1 stomach_intestine:1 cheek_teeth:1 sexual_maturity:1 nosed_armadillo:5 genetically_identical:2 http_www:1 jstor_org:1 org_sici:1 sici_sici:1 sici_co:1 class_mammalia:1 herbert_hoover:1 rio_grande:1 external_link:1 |
3,097 | Cannibalism | Cannibalism in Brazil in 1557 as told by Hans Staden. 1893 map of the spread of anthropophagy: green shows areas where the practice of cannibalism was residual or had ceased in historic times; red shows areas where cannibalism was still in full effect (parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania). A Woman-Cannibal, by Leonhard Kern, 1650 Cannibalism (from Spanish Caníbalis, the Caribs http://www.bartleby.com/61/97/C0069700.html ) is the act or practice of humans eating other humans. This article deals only with this meaning, but in zoology, the term "cannibalism" is extended to refer to any species consuming members of its own kind (see cannibalism (zoology)). The "cannibalism" term is extended outside of biological fields and used in a metaphorical sense, such as in aircraft maintenance when parts are "cannibalized" from an already broken airplane to fix another airplane. Cannibalism was widespread in the past among human beings throughout the world, and it continued into the 19th century in some isolated South Pacific cultures. Today, the Korowai are one of very few tribes still believed to eat human flesh. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/cannibals.html http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/92701/cannibalism Neanderthals are believed to have practiced cannibalism. Neanderthals Were Cannibals, Bones Show Archaeologists Rediscover Cannibals Among modern humans it has been practiced by various groups; Cannibalism Normal For Early Humans? in the past in Europe, The edible dead Suelzle, B: Review of "The Origins of War: Violence in Prehistory", Jean Guilaine and Jean Zammit. Africa, Cannibalism - LoveToKnow 1911 South America, Hans Staden Among the Tupinambas China, Okada Hidehiro, Chugoku Igaishi, Tokyo: Shinshokan, 1997, pp. 130-143 India, Indian doc focuses on Hindu cannibal sect. MSNBC. October 27, 2005. New Zealand, North America, Lab tests show evidence of cannibalism among ancient Indians Australia, Solomon Islands, King of the Cannibal Isles New Caledonia, cannibalism, or anthropophagy (human) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia New Guinea, Sleeping with Cannibals Sumatra, cannibalism -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia and Fiji, Fijians find chutney in bad taste usually in rituals connected to tribal warfare. Fiji was once known as the 'Cannibal Isles'. Evidence of cannibalism has been found in the Chaco Canyon ruins of the Anasazi culture. Anasazi Cannibalism? The closely related practice of headhunting continued in Europe until the early 20th century in the Balkan Peninsula and to the end of the Middle Ages in Ireland and the Scottish marches. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/258121/headhunting The reasons for cannibalism include the following: As sanctioned by a cultural norm By necessity in extreme situations of famine Caused by insanity Though Canibalism is not not mentioned in the formal index of insanity, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, presumably due to its rarity. (For that matter, necrophilia and vampirism aren't in there either.) The medical literature on the topic is likewise sparse. Cecil Adams discussed this in a 2004 edition in his popular newspaper column The Straight Dope headed "Eat or be eaten: Is cannibalism a pathology as listed in the DSM-IV?." or social deviancy. There are fundamentally two kinds of cannibalistic social behavior; endocannibalism (eating humans from the same community) and exocannibalism (eating humans from other communities). A separate ethical distinction can be made to delineate between the practice of killing a human for food (homicidal cannibalism) versus eating the flesh of a person who was already dead (necro-cannibalism). Overview The social stigma against cannibalism has been used as an aspect of propaganda against an enemy by accusing them of acts of cannibalism to separate them from their humanity. The Carib tribe in the Lesser Antilles, from whom the word cannibalism derives, for example, acquired a longstanding reputation as cannibals following the recording of their legends by Fr. Breton in the 17th century. Some controversy exists over the accuracy of these legends and the prevalence of actual cannibalism in the culture. According to a decree by Queen Isabella I of Castile and also later under British colonial rule, slavery was considered to be illegal unless the people involved were so depraved that their conditions as slaves would be better than as free men. This legal requirement may have led to conquerors exaggerating the extent of cannibalistic practices, or inventing them altogether, as demonstrations of cannibalistic tendencies were considered evidence of such depravity. Brief history of cannibal controversies; David F. Salisbury, August 15, 2001 The Korowai tribe of southeastern Papua could be one of the last surviving tribes in the world engaging in cannibalism, although there have been media reports of soldiers/rebels in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Liberia eating body parts Child Soldiers, children soldiers, boy soldiers, girl soldiers to intimidate child soldiers or captives. Forgotten War — Brownstone magazine http://media.www.nyunews.com/media/storage/paper869/news/2006/02/14/BrownstoneMagazine/Forgotten.War-2397297.shtml Marvin Harris has analyzed cannibalism and other food taboos. He argued that it was common when humans lived in small bands, but disappeared in the transition to states, the Aztecs being an exception. A well known case of mortuary cannibalism is that of the Fore tribe in New Guinea which resulted in the spread of the prion disease Kuru. It is often believed to be well-documented, although no eyewitnesses have ever been at hand. Some scholars argue that although postmortem dismemberment was the practice during funeral rites, cannibalism was not. Marvin Harris theorizes that it happened during a famine period coincident with the arrival of Europeans and was rationalized as a religious rite. In pre-modern medicine, an explanation for cannibalism stated that it came about within a black acrimonious humour, which, being lodged in the linings of the ventricle, produced the voracity for human flesh. Anthropophagy. Some now-challenged research received a large amount of press attention when scientists suggested that early man may have practiced cannibalism. Later reanalysis of the data found serious problems with this hypothesis. According to the original research, genetic markers commonly found in modern humans all over the world suggest that today many people carry a gene that evolved as protection against brain diseases that can be spread by consuming human brains. Later reanalysis of the data claims to have found a data collection bias, which led to an erroneous conclusion: that in some cases blame for incidents claimed as evidence has been given to 'primitive' local cultures, where in fact the cannibalism was practiced by explorers, stranded seafarers or escaped convicts. See Cannibalism - Some Hidden Truths for an example documenting escaped convicts in Australia who initially blamed natives, but later confessed to conducting the practice themselves out of desperate hunger. As cultural libel Unsubstantiated reports of cannibalism disproportionately relate cases of cannibalism among cultures that are already otherwise despised, feared, or are little known. In antiquity, Greek reports of anthropophagy were related to distant non-Hellenic barbarians, or else relegated in Greek mythology to the 'primitive' chthonic world that preceded the coming of the Olympian gods: see the explicit rejecAccording to ABC Whipple in Yankee Whalers in the South Seas (Doubleday, New York, 1954). All South Sea Islanders were cannibals so far as their enemies were concerned. When the whaleship Essex was rammed and sunk by a whale in 1820, the captain opted to sail 3000 miles upwind to Chile rather than 1400 miles downwind to the Marquesas because he had heard the Marquesans were cannibals. However, Herman Melville happily lived with the Marquesan Typees (Taipi), rumoured to have been the most vicious of the that island group's cannibal tribes, but also may have witnessed evidence of cannibalism. In his autobiographical novel Typee, he reports seeing shrunken heads and having strong evidence that the tribal leaders ceremonially consumed the bodies of killed warriors of the neighboring tribe after a skirmish. William Arens, author of The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy (New York : Oxford University Press, 1979; ISBN 0-19-502793-0), questions the credibility of reports of cannibalism and argues that the description by one group of people of another people as cannibals is a consistent and demonstrable ideological and rhetorical device to establish perceived cultural superiority. Arens bases his thesis on a detailed analysis of numerous "classic" cases of cultural cannibalism cited by explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists. His findings were that many were steeped in racism, unsubstantiated, or based on second-hand or hearsay evidence. In combing the literature he could not find a single credible eye-witness account. And, as he points out, the hallmark of ethnography is the observation of a practice prior to description. In the end he concluded that cannibalism was not the widespread prehistoric practice it was claimed to be; that anthropologists were too quick to pin the cannibal label on a group based not on responsible research but on our own culturally-determined pre-conceived notions, often motivated by a need to exoticize. He wrote: Arens' findings are controversial, and have been cited as an example of postcolonial revisionism . Timothy Taylor, The Buried Soul: How Humans Invented Death, Pages 58–60, Fourth Estate 2002 His argument is often mischaracterized as “cannibals do not and never did exist”, when in the end the book is actually a call for a more responsible and reflective approach to anthropological research. At any rate, the book ushered in an era of rigorous combing of the cannibalism literature. By Arens' later admission, some cannibalism claims came up short, others were reinforced. Conversely, Michel de Montaigne's essay "Of cannibals" introduced a new multicultural note in European civilization. Montaigne wrote that "one calls 'barbarism' whatever he is not accustomed to." By using a title like that and describing a fair indigean society, Montaigne may have wished to provoke a surprise in the reader of his Essays. During starvation Cannibalism has been occasionally practiced as a last resort by people suffering from famine. In the US, the group of settlers known as the Donner party resorted to cannibalism while snowbound in the mountains for the winter. The last survivors of Sir John Franklin's Expedition were found to have resorted to cannibalism in their final push across King William Island towards the Back River. Beattie, Owen and Geiger, John (2004). Frozen in Time. ISBN 1-55365-060-3. There are disputed claims that cannibalism was widespread during the famine of Ukraine in the 1930s, during the Siege of Leningrad in World War II, and during the Chinese Civil War and the Great Leap Forward in the People's Republic of China. Horror of a Hidden Chinese Famine, New York Times There were also rumors of several cannibalism outbreaks during World War II in the Nazi concentration camps where the prisoners were malnourished. Mauthausen Concentration Camp (Austria) Cannibalism was also practiced by Japanese troops as recently as World War II in the Pacific theater. A more recent example is of leaked stories from North Korean refugees of cannibalism practiced during and after a famine that occurred sometime between 1995 and 1997. Lowell Thomas records the cannibalisation of some of the surviving crew members of the Dumaru after the ship exploded and sank during the First World War in his book, The Wreck of the Dumaru (1930). Another case of shipwrecked survivors forced to engage in cannibalism was that of the Medusa, a French vessel which in 1816 ran aground on the Banc d'Arguin (English: The Bank of Arguin) off the coast of Africa, about sixty miles distant from shore. In 1972, the survivors of Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571, consisting of the rugby team from Stella Maris College in Montevideo and some of their family members, were forced to resort to cannibalism during their entrapment at the crash site. They had been stranded since October 13 and rescue operations at the crash site did not commence until December 22. The story of the survivors was chronicled in Piers Paul Read's 1974 book, Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors, in a 1993 film adaptation of the book, called simply Alive, and in a 2008 documentary: Stranded: I’ve Come From a Plane That Crashed on the Mountains. It is believed that cannibalism took place on Easter Island after the construction of the Moai caused an ecosystem collapse starting with the inaccessibility of wood to build fishing boats. Themes in mythology and religion Cannibalism features in many mythologies, and is most often attributed to evil characters or as extreme retribution for some wrong. Examples include witch in Hansel and Gretel and Baba Yaga of Slavic folklore. A number of stories in Greek mythology involve cannibalism, in particular cannibalism of close family members, for example the stories of Thyestes, Tereus and especially Cronus, who was Saturn in the Roman pantheon. The story of Tantalus also parallels this. These mythologies inspired Shakespeare's cannibalism scene in Titus Andronicus. Hindu mythology describes evil beings called "asura" or "rakshasa" that dwell in the forests and practice extreme violence including devouring their own kind, and possess many evil supernatural powers. These are however the Hindu equivalent of "demons" and do not relate to actual tribes of forest-dwelling people. The Wendigo (also Windigo, Weendigo, Windago, Windiga, Witiko, Wihtikow, and numerous other variants) The name is Wiindigoo in the Ojibwe language (the source of the English word [Brightman 1988:344]), Wìdjigò in the Algonquin language, and Wīhtikōw in the Cree language; the Proto-Algonquian term was *wi·nteko·wa, which probably originally meant "owl" (Goddard 1969, cited in Brightman 1988:340). is a mythical creature appearing in the mythology of the Algonquian people. It is a malevolent cannibalistic spirit into which humans could transform, or which could possess humans. Those who indulged in cannibalism were at particular risk, and the legend appears to have reinforced this practice as taboo. Historical accounts Pre-history Some anthropologists, such as Tim White, suggest that cannibalism was common in human societies prior to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period. This theory is based on the large amount of “butchered human" bones found in Neanderthal and other Lower/Middle Paleolithic sites. Cannibalism in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic may have occurred because of food shortages. Early history Cannibalism is mentioned many times in early history and literature. It is reported in the Bible during the siege of Samaria (2 Kings 6:25–30). Two women made a pact to eat their children; after the first mother cooked her child the second mother ate it but refused to reciprocate by cooking her own child. A similar story is reported by Flavius Josephus during the siege of Jerusalem by Rome in 70 CE, and the population of Numantia during the Roman Siege of Numantia in the second century BC was reduced to cannibalism and suicide. Cannibalism was also well-documented in Egypt during a famine caused by the failure of the Nile to flood for eight years (1073-1064 BCE). As in modern times, though, reports of cannibalism were often told as apocryphal second and third-hand stories, with widely varying levels of accuracy. St. Jerome, in his letter Against Jovinianus, discusses how people come to their present condition as a result of their heritage, and then lists several examples of peoples and their customs. In the list, he mentions that he has heard that Atticoti eat human flesh and that Massagetae and Derbices (a people on the borders of India) kill and eat old people.(---The Tibareni crucify those whom they have loved before when they have grown old---). ; this points to likelihood that St. Jerome's writing came from rumours and does not represent the situation accurately. Researchers have found physical evidence of cannibalism in ancient times. In 2001, archaeologists at the University of Bristol found evidence of Iron Age cannibalism in Gloucestershire. Cannibalistic Celts discovered in South Gloucestershire March 7, 2001 In Germany, Emil Carthaus and Dr. Bruno Bernhard have observed 1,891 signs of cannibalism in the caves at the Hönne (1000 - 700 BCE). "Cannibalism in Westphalia?" Stefan Enste, retrieved August 18, 2008 Middle Ages During the Muslim-Qurayš wars in the early 7th century, cases of cannibalism have been reported. Following the Muslim defeat at the Battle of Uhud in 625, it is said that after killing Hamzah ibn Abdu l-Muṭṭalib, his liver was consumed by Hind bint ‘Utbah, the wife of Abû Sufyan ibn Harb (one of the commanders of the Qurayš army) Ibn Ishaq (1955) 380—388, cited in Peters (1994) p. 218 . Although she later converted to Islam, and was the mother of Muawiyah I, the founder of the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate, Muawiyah was later slandered to be an unacceptable leader and the son of a cannibal. Reports of cannibalism were also recorded during the First Crusade, as Crusaders fed on the bodies of their dead opponents following the Siege of Ma'arrat al-Numan. Amin Maalouf also discusses further cannibalism incidents on the march to Jerusalem, and to the efforts made to delete mention of these from western history. During Europe's Great Famine of 1315–1317 there were many reports of cannibalism among the starving populations. In North Africa, as in Europe, there are references to cannibalism as a last resort in times of famine. Cannibalism in Early Modern North Africa, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies For a brief time in Europe, an unusual form of cannibalism occurred when thousands of Egyptian mummies preserved in bitumen were ground up and sold as medicine. The practice developed into a wide-scale business which flourished until the late 16th century. This "fad" ended because the mummies were revealed to actually be recently killed slaves. Two centuries ago, mummies were still believed to have medicinal properties against bleeding, and were sold as pharmaceuticals in powdered form (see human mummy confection). Quotes from John Sanderson's Travels (1586) in That Obscure Object of Desire: Victorian Commodity Culture and Fictions of the Mummy, Nicholas Daly, NOVEL: A Forum on Fiction, Vol. 28, No. 1 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 24–51. doi:10.2307/1345912 References to cannibalizing the enemy has also been seen in poetry written when China was repressed in the Song Dynasty, though the cannibalizing sounds more like poetic symbolism to express the hatred towards the enemy. (See Man Jiang Hong) While there is universal agreement that some Mesoamerican people practiced human sacrifice, there is a lack of scholarly consensus as to whether cannibalism in pre-Columbian America was widespread. At one extreme, anthropologist Marvin Harris, author of Cannibals and Kings, has suggested that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward, since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins. While most pre-Columbian historians believe that there was ritual cannibalism related to human sacrifices, they do not support Harris's thesis that human flesh was ever a significant portion of the Aztec diet. To Aztecs, Cannibalism Was a Status Symbol, New York Times Aztec Cannibalism: An Ecological Necessity? Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano. "Aztec Cannibalism: An Ecological necessity?" Science 200:611=617. 1978 Early modern era European explorers and colonizers brought home many stories of cannibalism practiced by the native peoples they encountered. The friar Diego de Landa reported about Yucatán instances, Yucatan before and after the Conquest, translated from Relación de las cosas de Yucatan, 1566 (New York: Dover Publications, 1978: 4), and there have been similar reports by Purchas from Popayán, Colombia, and from the Marquesas Islands of Polynesia, where human flesh was called long-pig (Alanna King, ed., Robert Louis Stevenson in the South Seas, London: Luzac Paragon House, 1987: 45–50). It is recorded about the natives of the captaincy of Sergipe in Brazil, "They eat human flesh when they can get it, and if a woman miscarries devour the abortive immediately. If she goes her time out, she herself cuts the navel-string with a shell, which she boils along with the secondine, and eats them both.'" (See E. Bowen, 1747: 532.) Reports of cannibalism among the Texas tribes were often applied to the Karankawa and the Tonkawa. The Tonkawa Tribe Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice, Global Politician Though cannibals, the fierce Tonkawas were great friends of the white Texas settlers, helping them against all their enemies. Handbook of Texas Online - Placido Among the North American tribes which practiced cannibalism in some form may be mentioned the Montagnais, and some of the tribes of Maine; the Algonkin, Armouchiquois, Iroquois, and Micmac; in the South the people who built the mounds in Florida, and the Tonkawa, Attacapa, Karankawa, Kiowa, Caddo, and Comanche (?); in the Northwest and West, portions of the continent, the Thlingchadinneh and other Athapascan tribes, the Tlingit, Heiltsuk, Kwakiutl, Tsimshian, Nootka, Siksika, some of the Californian tribes, and the Ute. There is also a tradition of the practice among the Hopi, and mentions of the custom among other tribes of New Mexico and Arizona. The Mohawk, and the Attacapa, Tonkawa, and other Texas tribes were known to their neighbours as "man-eaters." cannibalism, James WHITE, ed., Handbook of Indians of Canada, Published as an Appendix to the Tenth Report of the Geographic Board of Canada, Ottawa, 1913, 632p., pp. 77–78. As with most lurid tales of native cannibalism, these stories are treated with a great deal of scrutiny, as accusations of cannibalism were often used as justifications for the subjugation or destruction of "savages." However, there were several well-documented cultures that engaged in regular eating of the dead, such as New Zealand's Maori. In one infamous 1809 incident, 66 passengers and crew of the ship the Boyd were killed and eaten by Māori on the Whangaroa peninsula, Northland. (See also: Boyd massacre) Cannibalism was already a regular practice in Māori wars. 'Battle rage' fed Maori cannibalism, 08 Sep 2007 - Maori news — NZ Herald In another instance, on 11 July 1821 warriors from the Ngapuhi tribe killed 2,000 enemies and remained on the battlefield "eating the vanquished until they were driven off by the smell of decaying bodies". HONGI HIKA (c. 1780–1828) Ngapuhi war chief, the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Māori warriors fighting the New Zealand Government in Titokowaru's War in New Zealand's North Island in 1868–69 revived ancient rites of cannibalism as part of the radical Hauhau movement of the Pai Marire religion. James Cowan, The New Zealand Wars: A History of the Maori Campaigns and the Pioneering Period: Volume II, 1922. Other islands in the Pacific were home to cultures that allowed cannibalism to some degree. The dense population of Marquesas Islands, Polynesia, was concentrated in the narrow valleys, and consisted of warring tribes, who sometimes cannibalized their enemies. In parts of Melanesia, cannibalism was still practiced in the early 20th century, for a variety of reasons — including retaliation, to insult an enemy people, or to absorb the dead person's qualities. "Melanesia Historical and Geographical: the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides", Southern Cross n°1, London: 1950 This period of time was also rife with instances of explorers and seafarers resorting to cannibalism for survival. The survivors of the sinking of the French ship Medusa in 1816 resorted to cannibalism after four days adrift on a raft and their plight was made famous by Théodore Géricault's painting Raft of the Medusa. The misfortunes of the Donner Party in the United States are also well-known. After the sinking of the Essex of Nantucket by a whale, on November 20, 1820, (an important source event for Herman Melville's Moby-Dick) the survivors, in three small boats, resorted, by common consent, to cannibalism in order for some to survive. The Wreck of the Whaleship Essex Sir John Franklin's lost polar expedition is another example of cannibalism out of desperation. The case of R v. Dudley and Stephens (1884) 14 QBD 273 (QB) is an English case which dealt with four crew members of an English yacht, the Mignonette, which were cast away in a storm some from the Cape of Good Hope. After several days one of the crew, a seventeen year old cabin boy, fell unconscious due to a combination of the famine and drinking seawater. The others (one possibly objecting) decided then to kill him and eat him. They were picked up four days later. Two of the three survivors were found guilty of murder. A significant outcome of this case was that necessity was determined to be no defence against a charge of murder. Roger Casement writing to a consular colleague in Lisbon on 3 August 1903 from Lake Mantumba in the Congo Free State said: “The people round here are all cannibals. You never saw such a weird looking lot in your life. There are also dwarfs (called Batwas) in the forest who are even worse cannibals than the taller human environment. They eat man flesh raw! It’s a fact.” Casement then added how assailants would “bring down a dwarf on the way home, for the marital cooking pot…The Dwarfs, as I say, dispense with cooking pots and eat and drink their human prey fresh cut on the battlefield while the blood is still warm and running. These are not fairy tales my dear Cowper but actual gruesome reality in the heart of this poor, benighted savage land.” (National Library of Ireland, MS 36,201/3) Modern era World War II Finnish soldiers displaying the skins of the Soviet soldiers who were allegedly eaten by their own troops at Maaselkä in 1942. Many instances of cannibalism by necessity were recorded during World War II. For example, during the 872-day Siege of Leningrad, reports of cannibalism began to appear in the winter of 1941–1942, after all birds, rats and pets were eaten by survivors. Leningrad police even formed a special division to combat cannibalism. 900-Day Siege of Leningrad This Day in History 1941: Siege of Leningrad begins Following the Soviet victory at Stalingrad it was found that some German soldiers in the besieged city, cut off from supplies, resorted to cannibalism. . Later, in February 1943, roughly 100,000 German soldiers were taken prisoner of war (POW). Almost all of them were sent to POW camps in Siberia or Central Asia where, due to being chronically underfed by their Soviet captors, many resorted to cannibalism. Fewer than 5,000 of the prisoners taken at Stalingrad survived captivity. The majority, however, died early in their imprisonment due to exposure or sickness brought on by conditions in the surrounded army before the surrender. Beevor, Antony. Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege. Penguin Books, 1999. In parts of Eastern Europe during World War II, there are anecdotal accounts of people finding human fingernails in sausage suggesting the foodstuffs were composed of human flesh. Many written reports and testimonies collected by the Australian War Crimes Section of the Tokyo tribunal, and investigated by prosecutor William Webb (the future Judge-in-Chief), indicate that Japanese soldiers, in many parts of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, committed acts of cannibalism against Allied prisoners of war. According to historian Yuki Tanaka: "cannibalism was often a systematic activity conducted by whole squads and under the command of officers". Tanaka, Yuki. Hidden horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II, Westview Press, 1996, p.127. In some cases, flesh was cut from living people. An Indian POW, Lance Naik Hatam Ali (later a citizen of Pakistan), testified that in New Guinea: "the Japanese started selecting prisoners and every day one prisoner was taken out and killed and eaten by the soldiers. I personally saw this happen and about 100 prisoners were eaten at this place by the Japanese. The remainder of us were taken to another spot 50 miles [80 km] away where 10 prisoners died of sickness. At this place, the Japanese again started selecting prisoners to eat. Those selected were taken to a hut where their flesh was cut from their bodies while they were alive and they were thrown into a ditch where they later died." Lord Russell of Liverpool (Edward Russell), The Knights of Bushido, a short history of Japanese War Crimes, Greenhill Books, 2002, p.121 Another well-documented case occurred in Chichijima in February 1945, when Japanese soldiers killed and consumed five American airmen. This case was investigated in 1947 in a war crimes trial, and of 30 Japanese soldiers prosecuted, five (Maj. Matoba, Gen. Tachibana, Adm. Mori, Capt. Yoshii, and Dr. Teraki) were found guilty and hanged. In his book Flyboys: A True Story of Courage, James Bradley details several instances of cannibalism of World War II Allied prisoners by their Japanese captors. The author claims that this included not only ritual cannibalization of the livers of freshly-killed prisoners, but also the cannibalization-for-sustenance of living prisoners over the course of several days, amputating limbs only as needed to keep the meat fresh. Other cases The Leopard Society were a West African society active into mid-1900s that practiced cannibalism. They were centred in Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire. The Leopard men would dress in leopard skins, waylaying travelers with sharp claw-like weapons in the form of leopards' claws and teeth. The Leopard Men The victims' flesh would be cut from their bodies and distributed to members of the society. In Tanganyika, the Lion men committed an estimated 200 murders in a single three-month period. Murder by Lion, TIME During the 1930s, multiple acts of cannibalism were reported from Ukraine and Russia's Volga, South Siberian and Kuban regions during the Holodomor. , see also The Black Deeds of the Kremlin — Volume 2 The great famine in Ukraine in 1932–1933 (Federation of Ukraine Prisoners, ed. DOBRUS, 1955), Harvest of sorrow (Robert Conquest) Cannibalism is proved to have occurred in China during the Great Leap Forward, when rural China was hit hard by drought and famine. The black book of communism (Stephane Courtis, Nicolas Werth and others, Harvard U. Press), Wild swans: three daughters of China (Jung Chang, Touchstone Press), Daughter of the river: an autobiography (Hong Ying, Grove Press), Hungry ghosts: Mao's secret famine (Jasper Becker, Holt Press), Mao Tze Tung video of History Channel Reports of cannibalism during the Cultural Revolution in China have also emerged. These reports show that cannibalism was practiced for ideological purposes. Nicholas D. Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn, China Wakes: the Struggle for the Soul of a Rising Power (Times Books, 1994) p. 73–75. ISBN #0-8129-2252-2, Scarlet Memorial: Tales Of Cannibalism In Modern China (Zheng Yi, Westview Press) Prior to 1931, New York Times reporter William Buehler Seabrook, allegedly in the interests of research, obtained from a hospital intern at the Sorbonne a chunk of human meat from the body of a healthy human killed by accident, and cooked and ate it. He reported that, "It was like good, fully developed veal, not young, but not yet beef. It was very definitely like that, and it was not like any other meat I had ever tasted. It was so nearly like good, fully developed veal that I think no person with a palate of ordinary, normal sensitiveness could distinguish it from veal. It was mild, good meat with no other sharply defined or highly characteristic taste such as for instance, goat, high game, and pork have. The steak was slightly tougher than prime veal, a little stringy, but not too tough or stringy to be agreeably edible. The roast, from which I cut and ate a central slice, was tender, and in color, texture, smell as well as taste, strengthened my certainty that of all the meats we habitually know, veal is the one meat to which this meat is accurately comparable." William Bueller Seabrook. Jungle Ways London, Bombay, Sydney: George G. Harrap and Company, 1931 Allen, Gary. 1999. What is the Flavor of Human Flesh? Presented at the Symposium Cultural and Historical Aspects of Foods Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. The Soviet writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, in his novel The Gulag Archipelago, describes cases of cannibalism in the twentieth-century USSR. Of the famine in Povolzhie (1921–1922) he writes: "That horrible famine was up to cannibalism, up to consuming children by their own parents — the famine, which Russia had never known even in Time of Troubles [in 1601–1603]...". A.Solzhenitsyn "The Gulag Archipelago" part I, chapter 9 He says of the Siege of Leningrad (1941–1944): "Those who consumed human flesh, or dealt with the human liver trading from dissecting rooms... were accounted as the political criminals...". A.Solzhenitsyn "The Gulag Archipelago" part I, comments to chapter 5 And of the building of Northern Railway Prisoners Camp ("SevZhelDorLag") Solzhenitsyn writes: "An ordinary hard working political prisoner almost could not survive at that penal camp. In the camp SevZhelDorLag (chief: colonel Klyuchkin) in 1946–47 there were many cases of cannibalism: they cut human bodies, cooked and ate." A.Solzhenitsyn "The Gulag Archipelago" part III, chapter 15 The Soviet journalist Yevgenia Ginzburg, former long-term political prisoner, who spent time in the Soviet prisons, Gulag camps and settlements from 1938 to 1955, describes in her memoir book "Harsh Route" (or "Steep Route") the case, which she was directly involved in late 1940s, after she had been moved to the prisoners' hospital. Yevgenia Ginzburg "Harsh Route", part 2, chapter 23 "The Paradise On A Microscope View" "...The chief warder shows me the black smoked pot, filled with some food: 'I need your medical expertize regarding this meat.' I look into the pot, and hardly hold vomiting. The fibers of that meat are very small, and don't resemble me anything I have seen before. The skin on some pieces bristles with black hair (...) A former smith from Poltava, Kulesh worked together with Centurashvili. At this time, Centurashvili was only one month away from being discharged from the camp (...) And suddenly he surprisingly disappeared. The wardens looked around the hills, stated Kulesh's evidence, that last time Kulesh had seen his workmate near the fireplace, Kulesh went out to work and Centurashvili left to warm himself more; but when Kulesh returned to the fireplace, Centurashvili had vanished; who knows, maybe he got frozen somewhere in snow, he was a weak guy (...) The wardens searched for two more days, and then assumed that it was an escape case, though they wondered why, since his imprisonment period was almost over (...) The crime was there. Approaching the fireplace, Kulesh killed Centurashvili with an axe, burned his clothes, then dismembered him and hid the pieces in snow, in different places, putting specific marks on each burial place. (...) Just yesterday, one body part was found under two crossed logs." When Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 crashed into the Andes on October 13, 1972, the survivors resorted to eating the deceased during their 72 days in the mountains. Their story was later recounted in the books Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors and Miracle in the Andes as well as the film Alive, by Frank Marshall, and the documentaries Alive: 20 Years Later (1993) and Stranded: I've Come from a Plane that Crashed in the Mountains (2008). Cannibalism was reported by the journalist Neil Davis during the South East Asian wars of the 1960s and 1970s. Davis reported that Cambodian troops ritually ate portions of the slain enemy, typically the liver. However he, and many refugees, also report that cannibalism was practiced non-ritually when there was no food to be found. This usually occurred when towns and villages were under Khmer Rouge control, and food was strictly rationed, leading to widespread starvation. Any civilian caught participating in cannibalism would have been immediately executed. Tim Bowden. One Crowded Hour. ISBN 0-00-217496-0 Cannibalism has been reported in several recent African conflicts, including the Second Congo War, and the civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone. A U.N. human rights expert reported in July 2007 that sexual atrocities against Congolese women go 'far beyond rape' and include sexual slavery, forced incest, and cannibalism. Congo's Sexual Violence Goes 'Far Beyond Rape', July 31, 2007. The Washington Post. This may be done in desperation, as during peacetime cannibalism is much less frequent; Cannibals massacring pygmies: claim at other times, it is consciously directed at certain groups believed to be relatively helpless, such as Congo Pygmies, even considered subhuman by some other Congolese. Paul Salopek, "Who Rules the Forest", National Geographic Sept. 2005, p. 85 It is also reported by some that witch doctors sometimes use the body parts of children in their medicine. In the 1970s the Ugandan dictator Idi Amin was reputed to practice cannibalism. The self declared Emperor of the Central African Republic, Jean-Bédel Bokassa (Emperor Bokassa I), was tried on 24 October 1986 for several cases of cannibalism although he was never convicted . http://www.americancivilrightsreview.com/dvafricacfrcannibal.html . Between 17 April and 19 April a number of elementary school students were arrested after they had protested against wearing the expensive, government-required school uniforms. Around one-hundred were killed. Bokassa is said to have participated in the massacre, beating some of the children to death with his cane and allegedly ate some of his victims Papa in the Dock Time Magazine . The Aghoris of northern India consume the flesh of the dead floated in the Ganges in pursuit of immortality and supernatural powers. Members of the Aghori drink from human skulls and practice cannibalism in the belief that eating human flesh confers spiritual and physical benefits, such as prevention of aging. Indian doc focuses on Hindu cannibal sect, MSNBC Aghoris, Australian Broadcasting Corporation The Aghoris, Channel 4 It has been reported by defectors and refugees that, at the height of the famine in 1996, cannibalism was sometimes practiced in North Korea. Médecins Sans Frontières, the international medical charity, supplied photographic and other documentary evidence of ritualized cannibal feasts among the participants in Liberia's internecine strife in the 1980s to representatives of Amnesty International who were on a fact-finding mission to the neighboring state of Guinea. However, Amnesty International declined to publicize this material; the Secretary-General of the organization, Pierre Sane, said at the time in an internal communication that "what they do with the bodies after human rights violations are committed is not part of our mandate or concern". The existence of cannibalism on a wide scale in Liberia was subsequently verified in video documentaries by Journeyman Pictures of London. Dorangel Vargas known as "El comegente", Spanish for "maneater", was a serial killer and cannibal in Venezuela. Vargas killed and ate at least 10 men in a period of two years preceding his arrest in 1999. Another serial killer, Jeffrey Dahmer of the United States, became notorious for murdering his victims and then eating their body parts before his arrest and imprisonment in 1991. He also was reported to have killed children, cut them up into pieces, put the pieces into plastic bags, and freeze them. He took them out when he was hungry and ate them for dinner. Traces of human flesh and bones were found on pots and pans inside his home. In March 2001 in Germany, Armin Meiwes posted an Internet ad asking for "a well built 18 to 30 year old to be slaughtered and consumed". The ad was answered by Bernd Jürgen Brandes. After killing and eating Brandes, Meiwes was convicted of manslaughter and later, murder. The song "Mein Teil" by Rammstein is based on this. In September 2006, Australian television crews from 60 Minutes and Today Tonight attempted to rescue a six-year-old boy who they believed would be ritually cannibalized by his tribe, the Korowai, from West Papua, Indonesia. On September 14, 2007, a man named Özgür Dengiz was captured in Ankara, the Turkish capital, after killing and eating a man. Dengiz in his initial testimony said he "enjoyed" eating human flesh. He frequently burst into long laughing sessions during the testimony, police officers said. In 1997, he was jailed for murder of a friend, when he was 17, but he got out of jail on parole after serving three years. Dengiz said he did not know Cafer Er, his 55 year old victim, who worked as a garbage collector. Dengiz shot Er in the head with a firearm, because he felt Er was making the area "too crowded." After cutting slices of flesh from his victim's body, Dengiz distributed the rest to stray dogs on the street, according to his own testimony. He ate some of Er's flesh raw on his way home. Dengiz, who lived with his parents arrived at the family house and placed the remaining parts of Er's body in the fridge without saying a word to his parents. Also in his testimony he said, "I have no regrets, my conscience is free. I constantly thought of killing. I had dreams where I was being sacrificed. I decided to kill, to sacrifice others in place of me." Newspaper Today's Zaman September 17, 2007 Newspaper Milliyet September 16, 2007 In January 2008, Milton Blahyi, 37, confessed being part of human sacrifices which "included the killing of an innocent child and plucking out the heart, which was divided into pieces for us to eat." He fought versus Liberian president Charles Taylor's militia. news.bbc.co.uk, I ate children's hearts, ex-rebel says During Charles Taylor's war crimes trial on March 13, 2008, Joseph Marzah, Taylor's chief of operations and head of Taylor's alleged "death squad", accused Taylor of ordering his soldiers to commit acts of cannibalism against enemies, including peacekeepers and United Nations personnel. AP:Top Aide testifies Taylor ordered soldiers to eat victims, CNN.com, March 13, 2008 (accessed same date) In Tanzania in 2008, President Kikwete publicly condemned witch doctors for killing people with albinism for their body parts which are thought to bring good luck. Twenty-five albinic Tanzanians have been murdered since March 2007. Living in fear: Tanzania's albinos, BBC News Albino Africans live in fear after witch-doctor butchery, The Observer, November 16, 2008 In a documentary by Colombian Journalist Hollman Morris, a demobilized paramilitary confessed that during the mass killings that take place in Colombia's rural areas, many of them performed cannibalism. He also confesses that they were told to drink the blood of their victims on the belief that it would make them want to kill more. "Confesiones de un Ex-paramilitar" (parte I) //CONTRAVÍA//, YouTube. In November 2008, a group of 33 illegal migrants from the Dominican Republic who were en route to Puerto Rico were forced to resort to cannabalism after they were lost at sea for over 15 days before being rescued by a U.S. Coast Guard patrol boat. Dominican migrant: We ate flesh to survive - A small group turned to cannibalism after being stranded in mid-ocean, MSNBC.com, November 4, 2008 As of February 9, 2009, five members of the Kulina tribe in Brazil were wanted by Brazilian authorities on the charge of murdering, butchering and eating a farmer in a ritual act of cannibalism. Amazon Indians accused of cannibalizing farmer (9 february 2009), CNN. See also Albert Fish Androphagi Armin Meiwes Asmat people Cannibalism in popular culture Hannibal Lecter Manifesto Antropófago Manhunter (movie series) Placentophagy Self-cannibalism Soylent Green The Texas Chain Saw Massacre Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy Wendigo Vorarephilia References External links All about Cannibalism: The Ancient Taboo in Modern Times (Cannibalism Psychology) at CrimeLibrary.com The Straight Dope Notes arguing that routine cannibalism is myth Did a mob of angry Dutch kill and eat their prime minister? (from The Straight Dope) Harry J. Brown, 'Hans Staden among the Tupinambas.' | Cannibalism |@lemmatized cannibalism:131 brazil:3 tell:3 han:2 staden:3 map:1 spread:3 anthropophagy:5 green:2 show:6 area:4 practice:31 residual:1 cease:1 historic:1 time:22 red:1 still:5 full:1 effect:1 part:19 sub:1 saharan:1 africa:5 oceania:1 woman:4 cannibal:26 leonhard:1 kern:1 spanish:2 caníbalis:1 carib:2 http:6 www:6 bartleby:1 com:9 html:3 act:6 human:44 eat:44 article:1 deal:3 meaning:1 zoology:2 term:4 extend:2 refer:1 specie:1 consume:9 member:8 kind:3 see:13 outside:1 biological:1 field:1 use:5 metaphorical:1 sense:1 aircraft:1 maintenance:1 cannibalized:1 already:4 broken:1 airplane:2 fix:1 another:8 widespread:5 past:2 among:12 throughout:1 world:13 continue:2 century:9 isolated:1 south:9 pacific:3 culture:9 today:4 korowai:3 one:15 tribe:20 believe:8 flesh:22 smithsonianmag:1 travel:2 britannica:4 ebchecked:2 topic:3 neanderthal:3 bone:3 archaeologists:2 rediscover:1 modern:9 various:1 group:8 normal:2 early:10 europe:6 edible:2 dead:6 suelzle:1 b:1 review:1 origin:1 war:29 violence:3 prehistory:1 jean:3 guilaine:1 zammit:1 lovetoknow:1 america:3 hans:1 tupinambas:2 china:9 okada:1 hidehiro:1 chugoku:1 igaishi:1 tokyo:2 shinshokan:1 pp:3 india:3 indian:6 doc:2 focus:2 hindu:4 sect:2 msnbc:3 october:4 new:19 zealand:6 north:7 lab:1 test:1 evidence:11 ancient:4 australia:2 solomon:2 island:9 king:5 isles:1 caledonia:1 online:3 encyclopedia:3 guinea:4 sleep:1 sumatra:1 fiji:2 fijian:1 find:18 chutney:1 bad:2 taste:4 usually:2 ritual:4 connect:1 tribal:2 warfare:1 know:10 isle:1 chaco:1 canyon:1 ruin:1 anasazi:2 closely:1 related:1 headhunting:2 balkan:1 peninsula:2 end:4 middle:5 age:4 ireland:2 scottish:1 march:7 reason:2 include:9 following:1 sanction:1 cultural:6 norm:1 necessity:5 extreme:4 situation:2 famine:17 cause:3 insanity:2 though:5 canibalism:1 mention:6 formal:1 index:1 diagnostic:1 statistical:1 manual:1 mental:1 disorder:1 presumably:1 due:4 rarity:1 matter:1 necrophilia:1 vampirism:1 either:1 medical:3 literature:4 likewise:1 sparse:1 cecil:1 adam:1 discuss:3 edition:1 popular:2 newspaper:3 column:1 straight:3 dope:3 head:4 pathology:1 list:3 dsm:1 iv:1 social:3 deviancy:1 fundamentally:1 two:7 cannibalistic:5 behavior:1 endocannibalism:1 community:2 exocannibalism:1 separate:2 ethical:1 distinction:1 make:6 delineate:1 kill:23 food:7 homicidal:1 versus:2 person:3 necro:1 overview:1 stigma:1 aspect:2 propaganda:1 enemy:10 accuse:3 humanity:1 less:2 antilles:1 word:3 derives:1 example:9 acquire:1 longstanding:1 reputation:1 follow:4 recording:1 legend:3 fr:1 breton:1 controversy:2 exist:2 accuracy:2 prevalence:1 actual:3 accord:4 decree:1 queen:1 isabella:1 castile:1 also:24 later:12 british:2 colonial:1 rule:2 slavery:2 consider:3 illegal:2 unless:1 people:21 involve:3 deprave:1 condition:3 slave:2 would:7 good:6 free:3 men:5 legal:1 requirement:1 may:7 lead:3 conqueror:1 exaggerate:1 extent:1 invent:2 altogether:1 demonstration:1 tendency:1 depravity:1 brief:2 history:9 david:1 f:1 salisbury:1 august:3 southeastern:1 papua:2 could:6 last:5 surviving:1 engage:3 although:5 medium:3 report:29 soldier:16 rebel:2 democratic:1 republic:4 congo:5 liberia:5 body:15 child:12 boy:3 girl:1 intimidate:1 captive:1 forgotten:2 brownstone:1 magazine:2 nyunews:1 storage:1 news:4 brownstonemagazine:1 shtml:1 marvin:3 harris:4 analyze:1 taboo:3 argue:4 common:3 live:6 small:4 band:1 disappear:2 transition:1 state:8 aztec:5 exception:1 well:9 case:18 mortuary:1 fore:1 result:2 prion:1 disease:2 kuru:1 often:8 document:4 eyewitness:1 ever:3 hand:3 scholar:1 postmortem:1 dismemberment:1 funeral:1 rite:3 theorize:1 happen:2 period:7 coincident:1 arrival:1 european:3 rationalize:1 religious:1 pre:5 medicine:3 explanation:1 come:7 within:1 black:5 acrimonious:1 humour:1 lodge:1 lining:1 ventricle:1 produce:1 voracity:1 challenge:1 research:5 receive:1 large:2 amount:2 press:8 attention:1 scientist:1 suggest:5 man:7 late:4 reanalysis:2 data:3 serious:1 problem:1 hypothesis:1 original:1 genetic:1 marker:1 commonly:1 many:14 carry:1 gene:1 evolve:1 protection:1 brain:2 claim:7 collection:1 bias:1 erroneous:1 conclusion:1 blame:2 incident:3 give:1 primitive:2 local:1 fact:3 explorer:4 strand:5 seafarer:2 escape:3 convict:4 hidden:3 truth:1 documenting:1 initially:1 native:4 confess:4 conduct:2 desperate:1 hunger:1 libel:1 unsubstantiated:2 disproportionately:1 relate:4 otherwise:1 despise:1 fear:3 little:2 known:1 antiquity:1 greek:3 distant:2 non:2 hellenic:1 barbarian:1 else:1 relegate:1 mythology:7 chthonic:1 precede:2 olympian:1 god:1 explicit:1 rejecaccording:1 abc:1 whipple:1 yankee:1 whaler:1 sea:4 doubleday:1 york:6 islander:1 far:3 concern:2 whaleship:2 essex:3 ram:1 sink:2 whale:2 captain:1 opt:1 sail:1 mile:4 upwind:1 chile:1 rather:1 downwind:1 marquesas:3 hear:2 marquesans:1 however:6 herman:2 melville:2 happily:1 marquesan:1 typees:1 taipi:1 rumour:2 vicious:1 witness:2 autobiographical:1 novel:3 typee:1 shrink:1 strong:1 leader:2 ceremonially:1 killed:1 warrior:3 neighboring:1 skirmish:1 william:5 arens:4 author:3 myth:2 anthropology:1 oxford:1 university:3 isbn:4 question:1 credibility:1 description:2 consistent:1 demonstrable:1 ideological:2 rhetorical:1 device:1 establish:1 perceived:1 superiority:1 base:5 thesis:2 detailed:1 analysis:1 numerous:2 classic:1 cite:4 missionary:1 anthropologist:4 finding:2 steep:2 racism:1 second:5 hearsay:1 comb:1 single:2 credible:1 eye:1 account:4 point:2 hallmark:1 ethnography:1 observation:1 prior:3 conclude:1 prehistoric:1 quick:1 pin:1 label:1 responsible:2 culturally:1 determine:2 conceived:1 notion:1 motivate:1 need:3 exoticize:1 write:7 controversial:1 postcolonial:1 revisionism:1 timothy:1 taylor:7 buried:1 soul:2 death:3 page:1 fourth:1 estate:1 argument:1 mischaracterized:1 never:4 book:12 actually:2 call:6 reflective:1 approach:2 anthropological:1 rate:1 usher:1 era:3 rigorous:1 combing:1 admission:1 short:2 others:4 reinforce:2 conversely:1 michel:1 de:6 montaigne:3 essay:2 introduce:1 multicultural:1 note:2 civilization:1 barbarism:1 whatever:1 accustom:1 title:1 like:7 describe:2 fair:1 indigean:1 society:5 wish:1 provoke:1 surprise:1 reader:1 starvation:2 occasionally:1 resort:12 suffer:1 u:6 settler:2 donner:2 party:2 snowbound:1 mountain:4 winter:2 survivor:11 sir:2 john:4 franklin:2 expedition:2 final:1 push:1 across:1 towards:2 back:1 river:2 beattie:1 owen:1 geiger:1 freeze:2 dispute:1 ukraine:4 siege:10 leningrad:6 ii:9 chinese:2 civil:2 great:7 leap:2 forward:2 horror:2 rumor:1 several:8 outbreak:1 nazi:1 concentration:2 camp:8 prisoner:17 malnourish:1 mauthausen:1 austria:1 japanese:10 troop:3 recently:2 theater:1 recent:2 leaked:1 story:13 korean:1 refugee:3 occur:6 sometime:1 lowell:1 thomas:1 record:4 cannibalisation:1 survive:5 crew:5 dumaru:2 ship:3 explode:1 first:3 wreck:2 shipwrecked:1 force:6 medusa:3 french:2 vessel:1 ran:1 aground:1 banc:1 arguin:2 english:4 bank:1 coast:2 sixty:1 shore:1 uruguayan:2 air:2 flight:2 consist:2 rugby:1 team:1 stella:1 mari:1 college:1 montevideo:1 family:3 entrapment:1 crash:5 site:3 since:4 rescue:3 operation:2 commence:1 december:1 chronicle:1 pier:1 paul:2 read:1 alive:6 andes:4 film:2 adaptation:1 simply:1 documentary:5 plane:2 take:8 place:8 easter:1 construction:1 moai:1 ecosystem:1 collapse:1 start:3 inaccessibility:1 wood:1 build:3 fishing:1 boat:3 theme:1 religion:2 feature:1 attribute:1 evil:3 character:1 retribution:1 wrong:1 witch:4 hansel:1 gretel:1 baba:1 yaga:1 slavic:1 folklore:1 number:2 particular:2 close:1 thyestes:1 tereus:1 especially:1 cronus:1 saturn:1 roman:2 pantheon:1 tantalus:1 parallel:1 inspire:1 shakespeare:1 scene:1 titus:1 andronicus:1 describes:2 asura:1 rakshasa:1 dwell:2 forest:4 devour:2 possess:2 supernatural:2 power:3 equivalent:1 demon:1 wendigo:2 windigo:1 weendigo:1 windago:1 windiga:1 witiko:1 wihtikow:1 variant:1 name:2 wiindigoo:1 ojibwe:1 language:3 source:2 brightman:2 wìdjigò:1 algonquin:1 wīhtikōw:1 cree:1 proto:1 algonquian:2 wi:1 nteko:1 wa:1 probably:1 originally:1 mean:1 owl:1 goddard:1 mythical:1 creature:1 appear:3 malevolent:1 spirit:1 transform:1 indulge:1 risk:1 historical:3 tim:2 white:3 beginning:1 upper:1 paleolithic:3 theory:1 butcher:2 low:2 shortage:1 bible:1 samaria:1 pact:1 mother:3 cook:5 ate:1 refuse:1 reciprocate:1 similar:2 flavius:1 josephus:1 jerusalem:2 rome:1 ce:1 population:3 numantia:2 bc:1 reduce:1 suicide:1 egypt:1 failure:1 nile:1 flood:1 eight:1 year:8 bce:2 apocryphal:1 third:1 widely:1 vary:1 level:1 st:2 jerome:2 letter:1 jovinianus:1 present:2 heritage:1 custom:2 atticoti:1 massagetae:1 derbices:1 border:1 old:6 tibareni:1 crucify:1 love:1 grow:1 likelihood:1 represent:1 accurately:2 researcher:1 physical:2 bristol:1 iron:1 gloucestershire:2 celt:1 discover:1 germany:2 emil:1 carthaus:1 dr:2 bruno:1 bernhard:1 observe:1 sign:1 cave:1 hönne:1 westphalia:1 stefan:1 enste:1 retrieve:1 muslim:2 qurayš:2 defeat:1 battle:2 uhud:1 say:12 hamzah:1 ibn:3 abdu:1 l:1 muṭṭalib:1 liver:4 hind:1 bint:1 utbah:1 wife:1 abû:1 sufyan:1 harb:1 commander:1 army:2 ishaq:1 peter:1 p:5 convert:1 islam:1 muawiyah:2 founder:1 islamic:1 umayyad:1 caliphate:1 slander:1 unacceptable:1 son:1 crusade:1 crusader:1 feed:2 opponent:1 arrat:1 al:1 numan:1 amin:2 maalouf:1 effort:1 delete:1 western:1 starving:1 reference:3 journal:1 eastern:2 study:1 unusual:1 form:5 thousand:1 egyptian:1 mummy:5 preserve:1 bitumen:1 grind:1 sell:2 develop:2 wide:2 scale:2 business:1 flourish:1 fad:1 reveal:1 ago:1 medicinal:1 property:1 bleeding:1 pharmaceutical:1 powdered:1 confection:1 quote:1 sanderson:1 obscure:1 object:2 desire:1 victorian:1 commodity:1 fiction:2 nicholas:2 daly:1 forum:1 vol:1 autumn:1 doi:1 cannibalize:5 poetry:1 repress:1 song:2 dynasty:1 sound:1 poetic:1 symbolism:1 express:1 hatred:1 jiang:1 hong:2 universal:1 agreement:1 mesoamerican:1 sacrifice:6 lack:2 scholarly:1 consensus:1 whether:1 columbian:2 victim:8 aristocratic:1 diet:3 reward:1 protein:1 historian:2 support:1 significant:2 portion:3 aztecs:1 status:1 symbol:1 ecological:2 bernard:1 r:2 ortiz:1 montellano:1 science:1 colonizer:1 bring:4 home:5 encounter:1 friar:1 diego:1 landa:1 yucatán:1 instance:6 yucatan:2 conquest:2 translate:1 relación:1 la:1 cosas:1 dover:1 publication:1 purchas:1 popayán:1 colombia:2 polynesia:2 long:3 pig:1 alanna:1 ed:3 robert:2 louis:1 stevenson:1 london:4 luzac:1 paragon:1 house:2 captaincy:1 sergipe:1 get:3 miscarry:1 abortive:1 immediately:2 go:4 cut:10 navel:1 string:1 shell:1 boil:1 along:1 secondine:1 e:1 bowen:1 texas:5 apply:1 karankawa:2 tonkawa:4 global:1 politician:1 fierce:1 tonkawas:1 friend:2 help:1 handbook:2 placido:1 american:2 montagnais:1 maine:1 algonkin:1 armouchiquois:1 iroquois:1 micmac:1 mound:1 florida:1 attacapa:2 kiowa:1 caddo:1 comanche:1 northwest:1 west:3 continent:1 thlingchadinneh:1 athapascan:1 tlingit:1 heiltsuk:1 kwakiutl:1 tsimshian:1 nootka:1 siksika:1 californian:1 ute:1 tradition:1 hopi:1 mexico:1 arizona:1 mohawk:1 neighbour:1 eater:1 jam:1 canada:2 publish:1 appendix:1 tenth:1 geographic:2 board:1 ottawa:1 lurid:1 tale:3 treat:1 scrutiny:1 accusation:1 justification:1 subjugation:1 destruction:1 savage:2 regular:2 eating:1 maori:4 infamous:1 passenger:1 boyd:2 māori:3 whangaroa:1 northland:1 massacre:4 rage:1 sep:1 nz:1 herald:1 july:3 ngapuhi:2 remain:2 battlefield:2 vanquish:1 drive:1 smell:2 decay:1 hongi:1 hika:1 c:1 chief:5 fight:2 government:2 titokowaru:1 revive:1 radical:1 hauhau:1 movement:1 pai:1 marire:1 james:2 cowan:1 campaign:1 pioneering:1 volume:2 allow:1 degree:1 dense:1 concentrate:1 narrow:1 valley:1 sometimes:3 melanesia:2 variety:1 retaliation:1 insult:1 absorb:1 quality:1 geographical:1 hebrides:1 southern:1 cross:1 n:2 rife:1 survival:1 sinking:2 four:3 day:11 adrift:1 raft:2 plight:1 famous:1 théodore:1 géricault:1 paint:1 misfortune:1 united:3 nantucket:1 november:4 important:1 event:1 moby:1 dick:1 three:5 consent:1 order:2 lose:2 polar:1 desperation:2 v:1 dudley:1 stephen:1 qbd:1 qb:1 yacht:1 mignonette:1 cast:1 away:3 storm:1 cape:1 hope:1 seventeen:1 cabin:1 fell:1 unconscious:1 combination:1 drinking:1 seawater:1 possibly:1 decide:2 pick:1 guilty:2 murder:9 outcome:1 defence:1 charge:2 roger:1 casement:2 consular:1 colleague:1 lisbon:1 lake:1 mantumba:1 round:1 saw:3 weird:1 look:3 lot:1 life:1 dwarfs:1 batwas:1 even:4 taller:1 environment:1 raw:2 add:1 assailant:1 dwarf:2 way:3 marital:1 cooking:1 pot:5 dispense:1 drink:3 prey:1 fresh:2 blood:2 warm:2 run:1 fairy:1 dear:1 cowper:1 gruesome:1 reality:1 heart:3 poor:1 benighted:1 land:1 national:2 library:1 finnish:1 display:1 skin:3 soviet:6 allegedly:3 maaselkä:1 begin:2 bird:1 rat:1 pet:1 police:2 special:1 division:1 combat:1 victory:1 stalingrad:3 german:2 besieged:1 city:1 supply:2 february:4 roughly:1 pow:3 almost:3 send:1 siberia:1 central:3 asia:2 chronically:1 underfed:1 captor:2 captivity:1 majority:1 die:3 imprisonment:3 exposure:1 sickness:2 surrounded:1 surrender:1 beevor:1 antony:1 fateful:1 penguin:1 anecdotal:1 fingernail:1 sausage:1 foodstuff:1 compose:1 testimony:5 collect:1 australian:3 crime:5 section:1 tribunal:1 investigate:2 prosecutor:1 webb:1 future:1 judge:1 indicate:1 east:2 co:2 prosperity:1 sphere:1 committed:1 allied:1 yuki:2 tanaka:2 systematic:1 activity:1 whole:1 squad:2 command:1 officer:2 westview:2 lance:1 naik:1 hatam:1 ali:1 citizen:1 pakistan:1 testify:1 select:3 every:1 personally:1 remainder:1 spot:1 km:1 hut:1 throw:1 ditch:1 lord:1 russell:2 liverpool:1 edward:1 knight:1 bushido:1 greenhill:1 chichijima:1 five:4 airman:1 crimes:1 trial:2 prosecute:1 maj:1 matoba:1 gen:1 tachibana:1 adm:1 mori:1 capt:1 yoshii:1 teraki:1 hang:1 flyboys:1 true:1 courage:1 bradley:1 detail:1 ally:1 cannibalization:2 freshly:1 sustenance:1 living:1 course:1 amputate:1 limb:1 keep:1 meat:9 leopard:5 african:4 active:1 mid:2 centre:1 sierra:2 leone:2 nigeria:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 dress:1 waylay:1 traveler:1 sharp:1 claw:2 weapon:1 teeth:1 distribute:2 tanganyika:1 lion:2 commit:3 estimate:1 month:2 multiple:1 russia:2 volga:1 siberian:1 kuban:1 region:1 holodomor:1 deed:1 kremlin:1 federation:1 dobrus:1 harvest:1 sorrow:1 prove:1 rural:2 hit:1 hard:2 drought:1 communism:1 stephane:1 courtis:1 nicolas:1 werth:1 harvard:1 wild:1 swan:1 daughter:2 jung:1 chang:1 touchstone:1 autobiography:1 ying:1 grove:1 hungry:2 ghost:1 mao:2 secret:1 jasper:1 becker:1 holt:1 tze:1 tung:1 video:2 channel:2 revolution:1 emerge:1 purpose:1 kristof:1 sheryl:1 wudunn:1 wake:1 struggle:1 rise:1 scarlet:1 memorial:1 zheng:1 yi:1 reporter:1 buehler:1 seabrook:2 interest:1 obtain:1 hospital:2 intern:1 sorbonne:1 chunk:1 healthy:1 accident:1 fully:2 developed:1 veal:5 young:1 yet:1 beef:1 definitely:1 nearly:1 think:3 palate:1 ordinary:2 sensitiveness:1 distinguish:1 mild:1 sharply:1 define:1 highly:1 characteristic:1 goat:1 high:1 game:1 pork:1 steak:1 slightly:1 tough:2 prime:2 stringy:2 agreeably:1 roast:1 slice:2 tender:1 color:1 texture:1 strengthen:1 certainty:1 habitually:1 comparable:1 bueller:1 jungle:1 bombay:1 sydney:1 george:1 g:1 harrap:1 company:1 allen:1 gary:1 flavor:1 symposium:1 oregon:1 corvallis:1 writer:1 aleksandr:1 solzhenitsyn:5 gulag:5 archipelago:4 twentieth:1 ussr:1 povolzhie:1 horrible:1 parent:3 trouble:1 chapter:4 dealt:1 trading:1 dissect:1 room:1 political:3 criminal:1 comment:1 building:1 northern:2 railway:1 sevzheldorlag:2 writes:1 work:4 penal:1 colonel:1 klyuchkin:1 iii:1 journalist:3 yevgenia:2 ginzburg:2 former:2 spend:1 prison:1 settlement:1 memoir:1 harsh:2 route:4 directly:1 move:1 paradise:1 microscope:1 view:1 warder:1 smoke:1 fill:1 expertize:1 regard:1 hardly:1 hold:1 vomit:1 fiber:1 resemble:1 anything:1 piece:5 bristle:1 hair:1 smith:1 poltava:1 kulesh:6 together:1 centurashvili:5 discharge:1 suddenly:1 surprisingly:1 warden:2 around:2 hill:1 workmate:1 near:1 fireplace:3 leave:1 return:1 vanish:1 maybe:1 frozen:1 somewhere:1 snow:2 weak:1 guy:1 search:1 assume:1 wonder:1 axe:1 burn:1 clothes:1 dismember:1 hide:1 different:1 put:2 specific:1 mark:1 burial:1 yesterday:1 crossed:1 log:1 decease:1 recount:1 miracle:1 frank:1 marshall:1 neil:1 davis:2 asian:1 cambodian:1 ritually:3 slain:1 typically:1 town:1 village:1 khmer:1 rouge:1 control:1 strictly:1 ration:1 civilian:1 caught:1 participate:2 execute:1 bowden:1 crowd:2 hour:1 conflict:1 right:2 expert:1 sexual:3 atrocity:1 congolese:2 beyond:2 rape:2 incest:1 washington:1 post:2 peacetime:1 much:1 frequent:1 pygmy:2 consciously:1 direct:1 certain:1 relatively:1 helpless:1 subhuman:1 salopek:1 sept:1 doctor:3 ugandan:1 dictator:1 idi:1 repute:1 self:2 declare:1 emperor:2 bédel:1 bokassa:3 try:1 americancivilrightsreview:1 dvafricacfrcannibal:1 april:2 elementary:1 school:2 student:1 arrest:3 protest:1 wear:1 expensive:1 required:1 uniform:1 hundred:1 beat:1 cane:1 papa:1 dock:1 aghoris:3 float:1 ganges:1 pursuit:1 immortality:1 aghori:1 skull:1 belief:2 confers:1 spiritual:1 benefit:1 prevention:1 broadcasting:1 corporation:1 defector:1 height:1 korea:1 médecins:1 sans:1 frontières:1 international:3 charity:1 photographic:1 ritualized:1 feast:1 participant:1 internecine:1 strife:1 representative:1 amnesty:2 mission:1 neighbor:1 decline:1 publicize:1 material:1 secretary:1 general:1 organization:1 pierre:1 sane:1 internal:1 communication:1 violation:1 mandate:1 existence:1 subsequently:1 verify:1 journeyman:1 picture:1 dorangel:1 vargas:2 el:1 comegente:1 maneater:1 serial:2 killer:2 venezuela:1 least:1 jeffrey:1 dahmer:1 become:1 notorious:1 plastic:1 bag:1 dinner:1 trace:1 pan:1 inside:1 armin:2 meiwes:3 internet:1 ad:2 ask:1 slaughter:1 answer:1 bernd:1 jürgen:1 brandes:2 manslaughter:1 mein:1 teil:1 rammstein:1 september:4 television:1 minute:1 tonight:1 attempt:1 six:1 indonesia:1 özgür:1 dengiz:6 capture:1 ankara:1 turkish:1 capital:1 initial:1 enjoy:1 frequently:1 burst:1 laughing:1 session:1 jail:2 parole:1 serve:1 cafer:1 er:5 garbage:1 collector:1 shot:1 firearm:1 felt:1 rest:1 stray:1 dog:1 street:1 arrive:1 fridge:1 without:1 regret:1 conscience:1 constantly:1 dream:1 zaman:1 milliyet:1 january:1 milton:1 blahyi:1 killing:1 innocent:1 pluck:1 divide:1 liberian:1 president:2 charles:2 militia:1 bbc:2 uk:1 ex:2 joseph:1 marzah:1 allege:1 peacekeeper:1 nation:1 personnel:1 ap:1 top:1 aide:1 testifies:1 ordered:1 cnn:2 access:1 date:1 tanzania:2 kikwete:1 publicly:1 condemn:1 albinism:1 luck:1 twenty:1 albinic:1 tanzanian:1 albino:2 butchery:1 observer:1 colombian:1 hollman:1 morris:1 demobilized:1 paramilitary:1 mass:1 perform:1 want:2 confesiones:1 un:1 paramilitar:1 parte:1 contravía:1 youtube:1 migrant:2 dominican:2 en:1 puerto:1 rico:1 cannabalism:1 guard:1 patrol:1 turn:1 ocean:1 kulina:1 brazilian:1 authority:1 farmer:2 amazon:1 albert:1 fish:1 androphagi:1 asmat:1 hannibal:1 lecter:1 manifesto:1 antropófago:1 manhunter:1 movie:1 series:1 placentophagy:1 soylent:1 chain:1 transmissible:1 spongiform:1 encephalopathy:1 vorarephilia:1 external:1 link:1 psychology:1 crimelibrary:1 routine:1 mob:1 angry:1 dutch:1 minister:1 harry:1 j:1 brown:1 |@bigram sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 http_www:5 www_bartleby:1 bartleby_com:1 metaphorical_sense:1 com_ebchecked:2 ebchecked_topic:2 britannica_online:2 chaco_canyon:1 closely_related:1 balkan_peninsula:1 diagnostic_statistical:1 mental_disorder:1 straight_dope:3 dsm_iv:1 queen_isabella:1 isabella_castile:1 republic_congo:1 marvin_harris:3 prion_disease:1 herman_melville:2 resort_cannibalism:7 siege_leningrad:5 concentration_camp:2 proto_algonquian:1 mythical_creature:1 upper_paleolithic:1 flavius_josephus:1 battle_uhud:1 abdu_l:1 ibn_ishaq:1 umayyad_caliphate:1 egyptian_mummy:1 scholarly_consensus:1 pre_columbian:2 dover_publication:1 marquesas_island:2 louis_stevenson:1 melville_moby:1 moby_dick:1 roger_casement:1 fairy_tale:1 pow_camp:1 beevor_antony:1 westview_press:2 mile_km:1 greenhill_book:1 sierra_leone:2 côte_ivoire:1 harvest_sorrow:1 drought_famine:1 aleksandr_solzhenitsyn:1 gulag_archipelago:4 twentieth_century:1 solzhenitsyn_gulag:3 khmer_rouge:1 liberia_sierra:1 idi_amin:1 jean_bédel:1 bédel_bokassa:1 emperor_bokassa:1 broadcasting_corporation:1 médecins_sans:1 sans_frontières:1 amnesty_international:2 serial_killer:2 jeffrey_dahmer:1 plastic_bag:1 convict_manslaughter:1 garbage_collector:1 stray_dog:1 today_zaman:1 cnn_com:1 bbc_news:1 dominican_republic:1 en_route:1 puerto_rico:1 patrol_boat:1 hannibal_lecter:1 soylent_green:1 spongiform_encephalopathy:1 external_link:1 prime_minister:1 |
3,098 | Politics_of_the_Czech_Republic | Politically, the Czech Republic is a multi-party parliamentary representative democratic republic. According to the Constitution of the Czech Republic, the President is the head of state while the Prime Minister is the head of government, exercising supreme executive power. The Legislature is bicameral, with the Chamber of Deputies (Poslanecká sněmovna) and the Senate (Senát). Political developments The Czech political scene supports a broad spectrum of parties ranging from Communist Party on the far left to various nationalistic parties on the extreme right. Generally, the (liberal) right beyond the specific case of huge and conservative Civic Democratic Party is splintered and has failed in several attempts to unite. Czech voters returned a split verdict in the June 2002 parliamentary elections, giving Social Democrats (ČSSD) and Communists majority, without any possibility to form a functioning government together due to Vladimír Špidla's strong anticommunism. The results produced a ČSSD coalition government with Christian Democrats (KDU-ČSL) and Liberals (US-DEU), while Civic Democrats (ODS) and Communists (KSČM) took place in opposition. The MP ratio was the tiniest 101:99. After many buffetings and, finally, after the catastrophic results of the June European Parliament election, 2004 Špidla resigned after a revolt in his own party and the government was reshuffled on the same basis. Flag of the Czech president As the system in Czech repeatedly produces very weak governments (a specific problem is that about 15% of the electorate support the Communists, who are shunned by all the other parties) there is constant talk about changing it but without much chance of really pushing the reform through. An attempt to increase majority elements by tweaking the system parameters (more smaller districts, d'Hondt method used) by ČSSD and ODS during their "opposition agreement" 1998–2002 was vehemently opposed by smaller parties and blocked by the Constitutional Court as going too much against the constitution-stated proportional principle; only a moderated form was adopted. This, however led to a stalemate in 2006 elections where both the left and the right each gained exactly 100 seats; as many commenters point out, the earlier system would have given the right 3–4 seats majority. In March 2006, the parliament overturned a veto by President Václav Klaus, and the Czech Republic became the first former communist country in Europe to grant legal recognition to same-sex partnerships. A government formed of a coalition of the ODS, KDU-ČSL, and the Green Party (SZ), and led by the leader of the ODS Mirek Topolánek finally succeeded in winning a vote of confidence on January 19, 2007. This was thanks to two members of the ČSSD, Miloš Melčák and Michal Pohanka, who abstained. On March 23, 2009, the government of Mirek Topolánek lost a vote of no-confidence. Executive branch |President |Václav Klaus |ODS (ex-member) |7 March 2003 |- |Prime Minister |Jan Fischer |Independent |8 May 2009 |} Seat of government in Prague - Malá Strana The President of the Czech Republic is elected by joint session of the parliament for five-year term (no more than two consecutive). The president is a formal head of state with limited specific powers, most importantly to return laws to the parliament, nominate Constitutional Court judges for Senate's approval, and dissolve the parliament under certain special and rare conditions. He also appoints the prime minister as well the other members of the cabinet on a proposal by the prime minister. Václav Klaus, now President of the Czech Republic, former Prime Minister and chairman of Civic Democrats (ODS) remains one of the country's most popular politicians. The Prime Minister is the head of government and wields considerable powers, including the right to set the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy, mobilize the parliamentary majority, and choose governmental ministers. Legislative branch Interior of Sněmovna The Parliament (Parlament České republiky) has two chambers. The Chamber of Deputies (Poslanecká sněmovna) has 200 members, elected for a four year term by proportional representation with a 5 % election threshold. There are 14 voting districts identical to the country's administrative regions. The Chamber of Deputies, at first the Czech National Council, has the powers and responsibilities of the now defunct federal parliament of the former Czechoslovakia. The Senate (Senát) has 81 members, in single-seat constituencies elected by two-round runoff voting for a six-year term, with one third renewed every even year in the autumn. The first election was 1996 (for differing terms). This is patterned after the U.S. Senate but each constituency is of (roughly) same size and the system used is two-round runoff voting. The Senate is unpopular among the public and suffers from low election turnout (overall roughly 30% in the first round, 20% in the second). Political parties and elections Judicial branch The country's highest court of appeals is the Supreme Court. The Constitutional Court, which rules on constitutional issues, is appointed by the president with Senate approval, and its 15 members serve 10-year terms. The justices of the Constitutional Court have a mandatory retirement age of 70. Administrative divisions The Czech Republic is divided in 14 Regions including the capital of Prague. The older 73 districts (okresy, singular: okres) and 4 municipalities* (města, singular: město) were disbanded in 1999 in an often-criticised administrative reform; however are still traditionally recognized and remain the seats of various branches of state administration: Benešov, Beroun, Blansko, Břeclav, Brno-město*, Brno-venkov, Bruntál, České Budějovice, Česká Lípa, Český Krumlov, Cheb, Chomutov, Chrudim, Děčín, Domažlice, Frýdek-Místek, Havlíčkův Brod, Hodonín, Hradec Králové, Jablonec nad Nisou, Jeseník, Jičín, Jihlava, Jindřichův Hradec, Karlovy Vary, Karviná, Kladno, Klatovy, Kolín, Kroměříž, Kutná Hora, Liberec, Litoměřice, Louny, Mělník, Mladá Boleslav, Most, Náchod, Nový Jičín, Nymburk, Olomouc, Opava, Ostrava*, Pardubice, Pelhřimov, Písek, Plzeň*, Plzeň-jih, Plzeň-sever, Prachatice, Praha*, Praha-východ, Praha-západ, Přerov, Příbram, Prostějov, Rakovník, Rokycany, Rychnov nad Kněžnou, Semily, Sokolov, Strakonice, Šumperk, Svitavy, Tábor, Tachov, Teplice, Trutnov, Třebíč, Uherské Hradiště, Ústí nad Labem, Ústí nad Orlicí, Vsetín, Vyškov, Žďár nad Sázavou, Zlín, Znojmo International organization participation The Czech Republic is member of Australia Group, BIS, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (among the 10 new members since May 2004), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IEA (observer), IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OIF (Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie) (observer),OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UPU, Visegrád group, WCO, WEU (associate), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, Zangger Committee External links Constitution of the Czech Republic - website with results of all elections in Czech and English RZB Group: Czech Republic - Election 2006 Special Czech 2006 Election blog by the Prague Daily Monitor Erik Herron's Guide to Politics of East Central Europe and Eurasia | Politics_of_the_Czech_Republic |@lemmatized politically:1 czech:16 republic:10 multi:1 party:10 parliamentary:3 representative:1 democratic:2 accord:1 constitution:3 president:8 head:4 state:4 prime:6 minister:7 government:9 exercise:1 supreme:2 executive:2 power:4 legislature:1 bicameral:1 chamber:4 deputy:3 poslanecká:2 sněmovna:3 senate:6 senát:2 political:3 development:1 scene:1 support:2 broad:1 spectrum:1 range:1 communist:4 far:1 leave:1 various:2 nationalistic:1 extreme:1 right:5 generally:1 liberal:2 beyond:1 specific:3 case:1 huge:1 conservative:1 civic:3 splinter:1 fail:1 several:1 attempt:2 unite:1 voter:1 return:2 split:1 verdict:1 june:2 election:10 give:2 social:1 democrat:4 čssd:4 communists:1 majority:4 without:2 possibility:1 form:2 functioning:1 together:1 due:1 vladimír:1 špidla:2 strong:1 anticommunism:1 result:3 produce:2 coalition:2 christian:1 kdu:2 čsl:2 u:2 deu:1 od:6 ksčm:1 take:1 place:1 opposition:2 mp:1 ratio:1 tiny:1 many:2 buffeting:1 finally:2 catastrophic:1 european:1 parliament:7 resign:1 revolt:1 reshuffle:1 basis:1 flag:1 system:4 repeatedly:1 weak:1 problem:1 electorate:1 shun:1 constant:1 talk:1 change:1 much:2 chance:1 really:1 push:1 reform:2 increase:1 element:1 tweak:1 parameter:1 small:2 district:3 hondt:1 method:1 use:2 agreement:1 vehemently:1 oppose:1 block:1 constitutional:5 court:6 go:1 proportional:2 principle:1 moderated:1 adopt:1 however:2 lead:2 stalemate:1 left:1 gain:1 exactly:1 seat:5 commenters:1 point:1 early:1 would:1 march:3 overturn:1 veto:1 václav:3 klaus:3 become:1 first:4 former:3 country:4 europe:2 grant:1 legal:1 recognition:1 sex:1 partnership:1 formed:1 green:1 sz:1 leader:1 mirek:2 topolánek:2 succeed:1 win:1 vote:3 confidence:2 january:1 thanks:1 two:5 member:8 miloš:1 melčák:1 michal:1 pohanka:1 abstain:1 lose:1 branch:4 ex:1 jan:1 fischer:1 independent:1 may:2 prague:3 malá:1 strana:1 elect:3 joint:1 session:1 five:1 year:5 term:5 consecutive:1 formal:1 limited:1 importantly:1 law:1 nominate:1 judge:1 approval:2 dissolve:1 certain:1 special:2 rare:1 condition:1 also:1 appoint:2 well:1 cabinet:1 proposal:1 chairman:1 remain:2 one:2 popular:1 politician:1 wields:1 considerable:1 include:2 set:1 agenda:1 foreign:1 domestic:1 policy:1 mobilize:1 choose:1 governmental:1 legislative:1 interior:1 parlament:1 české:2 republiky:1 four:1 representation:1 threshold:1 identical:1 administrative:3 region:2 national:1 council:1 responsibility:1 defunct:1 federal:1 czechoslovakia:1 single:1 constituency:2 round:3 runoff:2 voting:2 six:1 third:1 renew:1 every:1 even:1 autumn:1 differ:1 pattern:1 roughly:2 size:1 unpopular:1 among:2 public:1 suffers:1 low:1 turnout:1 overall:1 second:1 judicial:1 high:1 appeal:1 rule:1 issue:1 serve:1 justice:1 mandatory:1 retirement:1 age:1 division:1 divide:1 capital:1 old:1 okresy:1 singular:2 okres:1 municipality:1 města:1 město:2 disband:1 often:1 criticise:1 still:1 traditionally:1 recognize:1 administration:1 benešov:1 beroun:1 blansko:1 břeclav:1 brno:2 venkov:1 bruntál:1 budějovice:1 česká:1 lípa:1 český:1 krumlov:1 cheb:1 chomutov:1 chrudim:1 děčín:1 domažlice:1 frýdek:1 místek:1 havlíčkův:1 brod:1 hodonín:1 hradec:2 králové:1 jablonec:1 nad:5 nisou:1 jeseník:1 jičín:2 jihlava:1 jindřichův:1 karlovy:1 vary:1 karviná:1 kladno:1 klatovy:1 kolín:1 kroměříž:1 kutná:1 hora:1 liberec:1 litoměřice:1 louny:1 mělník:1 mladá:1 boleslav:1 náchod:1 nový:1 nymburk:1 olomouc:1 opava:1 ostrava:1 pardubice:1 pelhřimov:1 písek:1 plzeň:3 jih:1 sever:1 prachatice:1 praha:3 východ:1 západ:1 přerov:1 příbram:1 prostějov:1 rakovník:1 rokycany:1 rychnov:1 kněžnou:1 semily:1 sokolov:1 strakonice:1 šumperk:1 svitavy:1 tábor:1 tachov:1 teplice:1 trutnov:1 třebíč:1 uherské:1 hradiště:1 ústí:2 labem:1 orlicí:1 vsetín:1 vyškov:1 žďár:1 sázavou:1 zlín:1 znojmo:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 australia:1 group:3 bi:1 ce:1 cei:1 cern:1 eapc:1 ebrd:1 ece:1 eu:1 new:1 since:1 fao:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icrm:1 ida:1 iea:1 observer:3 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 inmarsat:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 itu:1 ituc:1 nato:1 nea:1 nsg:1 oas:1 oecd:1 oif:1 organisation:1 internationale:1 de:1 la:1 francophonie:1 opcw:1 osce:1 pca:1 pfp:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 unmik:1 unmop:1 unmot:1 unomig:1 upu:1 visegrád:1 wco:1 weu:1 associate:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 zangger:1 committee:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 english:1 rzb:1 blog:1 daily:1 monitor:1 erik:1 herron:1 guide:1 politics:1 east:1 central:1 eurasia:1 |@bigram czech_republic:9 prime_minister:6 legislature_bicameral:1 chamber_deputy:3 vehemently_oppose:1 legislative_branch:1 proportional_representation:1 seat_constituency:1 runoff_voting:2 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 mandatory_retirement:1 district_okresy:1 karlovy_vary:1 ce_cei:1 cern_eapc:1 eapc_ebrd:1 ebrd_ece:1 ece_eu:1 fao_iaea:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_iea:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_inmarsat:1 inmarsat_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_iso:1 iso_itu:1 itu_ituc:1 nato_nea:1 nea_nsg:1 nsg_oas:1 oas_observer:1 organisation_internationale:1 la_francophonie:1 observer_opcw:1 opcw_osce:1 osce_pca:1 pca_pfp:1 pfp_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unmik_unmop:1 wco_weu:1 weu_associate:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 wtro_zangger:1 zangger_committee:1 external_link:1 |
3,099 | Crystallography | Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in solids. In older usage, it is the scientific study of crystals. The word "crystallography" is derived from the Greek words crystallon = cold drop / frozen drop, with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and graphein = write. Before the development of X-ray diffraction crystallography (see below), the study of crystals was based on the geometry of the crystals. This involves measuring the angles of crystal faces relative to theoretical reference axes (crystallographic axes), and establishing the symmetry of the crystal in question. The former is carried out using a goniometer. The position in 3D space of each crystal face is plotted on a stereographic net, e.g. Wulff net or Lambert net. In fact, the pole to each face is plotted on the net. Each point is labelled with its Miller index. The final plot allows the symmetry of the crystal to be established. Crystallographic methods now depend on the analysis of the diffraction patterns that emerge from a sample that is targeted by a beam of some type. The beam is not always electromagnetic radiation, even though X-rays are the most common choice. For some purposes electrons or neutrons are used, which is possible due to the wave properties of the particles. Crystallographers often explicitly state the type of illumination used when referring to a method, as with the terms X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction and electron diffraction. These three types of radiation interact with the specimen in different ways. X-rays interact with the spatial distribution of the valence electrons, while electrons are charged particles and therefore feel the total charge distribution of both the atomic nuclei and the surrounding electrons. Neutrons are scattered by the atomic nuclei through the strong nuclear forces, but in addition, the magnetic moment of neutrons is non-zero. They are therefore also scattered by magnetic fields. When neutrons are scattered from hydrogen-containing materials, they produce diffraction patterns with high noise levels. However, the material can sometimes be treated to substitute hydrogen for deuterium. Because of these different forms of interaction, the three types of radiation are suitable for different crystallographic studies. Theory An image of a small object is usually generated by using a lens to focus the illuminating radiation, as is done with the rays of the visible spectrum in light microscopy. However, the wavelength of visible light (about 4000 to 7000 Angstroms) is three orders of magnitude longer then the length of typical atomic bonds and atoms themselves (about 1 to 2 Angstroms). Therefore, obtaining information about the spatial arrangement of atoms requires the use of radiation with shorter wavelengths, such as X-rays. Employing shorter wavelengths implied abandoning microscopy and true imaging, however, because there exists no material from which a lens capable of focusing this type of radiation can be created. (That said, scientists have had some success focusing X-rays with microscopic Fresnel zone plates made from gold, and by critical-angle reflection inside long tapered capillaries). Diffracted x-ray beams cannot be focused to produce images, so the sample structure must be reconstructed from the diffraction pattern. Sharp features in the diffraction pattern arise from periodic, repeating structure in the sample, which are often very strong due to coherent reflection of many photons from many regularly spaced instances of similar structure, while non-periodic components of the structure result in diffuse (and usually weak) diffraction features. Because of their highly ordered and repetitive structure, crystals give diffraction patterns of sharp Bragg reflection spots, and are ideal for analyzing the structure of solids. Notation See Miller index for a full treatment of this topic. Coordinates in square brackets such as [100] denote a direction vector (in real space). Coordinates in angle brackets or chevrons such as <100> denote a family of directions which are related by symmetry operations. In the cubic crystal system for example, <100> would mean [100], [010], [001] or the negative of any of those directions. Miller indices in parentheses such as (100) denote a plane of the crystal structure, and regular repetitions of that plane with a particular spacing. In the cubic system, the normal to the (hkl) plane is the direction [hkl], but in lower-symmetry cases, the normal to (hkl) is not parallel to [hkl]. Indices in curly brackets or braces such as {100} denote a family of planes and their normals which are equivalent due to symmetry operations, much the way angle brackets denote a family of directions. Technique Some materials studied using crystallography, proteins for example, do not occur naturally as crystals. Typically, such molecules are placed in solution and allowed to crystallize over days, weeks, or months through vapor diffusion. A drop of solution containing the molecule, buffer, and precipitants is sealed in a container with a reservoir containing a hygroscopic solution. Water in the drop diffuses to the reservoir, slowly increasing the concentration and allowing a crystal to form. If the concentration were to rise more quickly, the molecule would simply precipitate out of solution, resulting in disorderly granules rather than an orderly and hence usable crystal. Once a crystal is obtained, data can be collected using a beam of radiation. Although many universities that engage in crystallographic research have their own X-ray producing equipment, synchrotrons are often used as X-ray sources, because of the purer and more complete patterns such sources can generate. Synchrotron sources also have a much higher intensity of X-ray beams, so data collection takes a fraction of the time normally necessary at weaker sources. Producing an image from a diffraction pattern requires sophisticated mathematics and often an iterative process of modelling and refinement. In this process, the mathematically predicted diffraction patterns of an hypothesized or "model" structure are compared to the actual pattern generated by the crystalline sample. Ideally, researchers make several initial guesses, which through refinement all converge on the same answer. Models are refined until their predicted patterns match to as great a degree as can be achieved without radical revision of the model. This is a painstaking process, made much easier today by computers. The mathematical methods for the analysis of diffraction data only apply to patterns, which in turn result only when waves diffract from orderly arrays. Hence crystallography applies for the most part only to crystals, or to molecules which can be coaxed to crystallize for the sake of measurement. In spite of this, a certain amount of molecular information can be deduced from the patterns that are generated by fibers and powders, which while not as perfect as a solid crystal, may exhibit a degree of order. This level of order can be sufficient to deduce the structure of simple molecules, or to determine the coarse features of more complicated molecules (the double-helical structure of DNA, for example, was deduced from an X-ray diffraction pattern that had been generated by a fibrous sample). Crystallography in materials engineering Crystallography is a tool that is often employed by materials scientists. In single crystals, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. In addition, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects. The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding crystallographic defects. Mostly, materials do not occur in a single crystalline, but poly-crystalline form, such that the powder diffraction method plays a most important role in structural determination. A number of other physical properties are linked to crystallography. For example, the minerals in clay form small, flat, platelike structures. Clay can be easily deformed because the platelike particles can slip along each other in the plane of the plates, yet remain strongly connected in the direction perpendicular to the plates. Such mechanisms can be studied by crystallographic texture measurements. In another example, iron transforms from a body-centered cubic (bcc) structure to a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure called austenite when it is heated. The fcc structure is a close-packed structure, and the bcc structure is not, which explains why the volume of the iron decreases when this transformation occurs. Crystallography is useful in phase identification. When performing any process on a material, it may be desired to find out what compounds and what phases are present in the material. Each phase has a characteristic arrangement of atoms. Techniques like X-ray diffraction can be used to identify which patterns are present in the material, and thus which compounds are present (note: the determination of the "phases" within a material should not be confused with the more general problem of "phase determination," which refers to the phase of waves as they diffract from planes within a crystal, and which is a necessary step in the interpretation of complicated diffraction patterns). Crystallography covers the enumeration of the symmetry patterns which can be formed by atoms in a crystal and for this reason has a relation to group theory and geometry. See symmetry group. Biology X-ray crystallography is the primary method for determining the molecular conformations of biological macromolecules, particularly protein and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. In fact, the double-helical structure of DNA was deduced from crystallographic data. The first crystal structure of a macromolecule was solved in 1958 (Kendrew, J.C. et al. (1958) A three-dimensional model of the myoglobin molecule obtained by X-ray analysis (Nature 181, 662–666). The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a freely accessible repository for the structures of proteins and other biological macromolecules. Computer programs like RasMol or Pymol can be used to visualize biological molecular structures. Electron crystallography has been used to determine some protein structures, most notably membrane proteins and viral capsids. Scientists of note William Henry Bragg William Lawrence Bragg Auguste Bravais Francis Crick Pierre Curie Boris Delone Paul Peter Ewald Rosalind Franklin Georges Friedel René Just Haüy Carl Hermann Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin Robert Huber Max von Laue Kathleen Lonsdale Ernest-François Mallard Charles-Victor Mauguin William Hallowes Miller Max Perutz Hugo Rietveld Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle Constance Tipper Don Craig Wiley Ada Yonath See also Atomic packing factor Condensed Matter Physics Crystal engineering Crystal growth Crystal optics Crystal system Crystal Crystallite Crystallization processes Crystallographic database Crystallographic group Diffraction Dynamical theory of diffraction Electron crystallography Electron diffraction Euclidean plane isometry Fixed points of isometry groups in Euclidean space Group action Laser-heated pedestal growth Materials Science Metallurgy Mineralogy Neutron crystallography Neutron diffraction Neutron Diffraction at OPAL Permutation group Point group Powder diffraction Solid state chemistry Space group Symmetric group Symmetry group Symmetry X-ray crystallography X-ray diffraction Further reading Applied Computational Powder Diffraction Data Analysis External links Introduction to Crystallography and Mineral Crystal Systems Crystallographic Teaching Pamphlets Crystal Lattice Structures Freely Available Crystallographic Software for Academia NetSci Software Listing for Crystallography SINCRIS Information Server for Crystallography ORTEP a professional grade viewer for use on a PC which is based on the FORTRAN code which came from Oak Ridge Vega Science Trust Interviews on Crystallography Freeview video interviews with Max Pertuz, Rober Huber and Aaron Klug. Commission on Crystallographic Teaching, Pamphlets Crystallography site of Steffen Weber with lots of Java Applets IUCr Online Dictionary of Crystallography American Crystallographic Association Laue Measurement of Single-Crystal Turbine Blades Ames Laboratory, US DOE Crystallography Research Resources | Crystallography |@lemmatized crystallography:22 experimental:1 science:3 determine:4 arrangement:4 atom:6 solid:5 old:1 usage:1 scientific:1 study:5 crystal:30 word:2 derive:1 greek:1 crystallon:1 cold:1 drop:4 frozen:1 mean:2 extend:1 degree:3 transparency:1 graphein:1 write:1 development:1 x:16 ray:17 diffraction:25 see:5 base:2 geometry:2 involve:1 measure:1 angle:4 face:4 relative:1 theoretical:1 reference:1 ax:2 crystallographic:13 establish:2 symmetry:9 question:1 former:1 carry:1 use:12 goniometer:1 position:1 space:5 plot:3 stereographic:1 net:4 e:1 g:1 wulff:1 lambert:1 fact:2 pole:1 point:3 label:1 miller:4 index:4 final:1 allow:3 method:5 depend:1 analysis:4 pattern:16 emerge:1 sample:5 target:1 beam:5 type:5 always:1 electromagnetic:1 radiation:7 even:1 though:1 common:1 choice:1 purpose:1 electron:8 neutron:8 possible:1 due:3 wave:3 property:3 particle:3 crystallographer:1 often:7 explicitly:1 state:2 illumination:1 refer:2 term:1 three:4 interact:2 specimen:1 different:3 way:2 spatial:2 distribution:2 valence:1 charge:2 therefore:3 feel:1 total:1 atomic:5 nucleus:2 surrounding:1 scatter:3 strong:2 nuclear:1 force:1 addition:2 magnetic:2 moment:1 non:2 zero:1 also:3 field:1 hydrogen:2 containing:1 material:12 produce:4 high:2 noise:1 level:2 however:3 sometimes:1 treat:1 substitute:1 deuterium:1 form:5 interaction:1 suitable:1 theory:3 image:3 small:2 object:1 usually:2 generate:5 lens:2 focus:4 illuminating:1 visible:2 spectrum:1 light:2 microscopy:2 wavelength:3 angstrom:2 order:4 magnitude:1 longer:1 length:1 typical:1 bond:1 obtain:3 information:3 require:2 short:2 employ:2 imply:1 abandon:1 true:1 imaging:1 exist:1 capable:1 create:1 say:1 scientist:3 success:1 microscopic:1 fresnel:1 zone:1 plate:3 make:3 gold:1 critical:1 reflection:3 inside:1 long:1 tapered:1 capillary:1 diffract:3 cannot:1 structure:24 must:1 reconstruct:1 sharp:2 feature:3 arise:1 periodic:2 repeat:1 coherent:1 many:3 photon:1 regularly:1 instance:1 similar:1 component:1 result:3 diffuse:2 weak:2 highly:1 repetitive:1 give:1 bragg:3 spot:1 ideal:1 analyze:1 notation:1 full:1 treatment:1 topic:1 coordinate:2 square:1 bracket:4 denote:5 direction:6 vector:1 real:1 chevron:1 family:3 relate:1 operation:2 cubic:4 system:4 example:5 would:2 negative:1 parenthesis:1 plane:7 regular:1 repetition:1 particular:1 spacing:1 normal:3 hkl:4 low:1 case:1 parallel:1 curly:1 brace:1 equivalent:1 much:3 technique:2 proteins:1 occur:3 naturally:1 typically:1 molecule:7 place:1 solution:4 crystallize:2 day:1 week:1 month:1 vapor:1 diffusion:1 contain:2 buffer:1 precipitant:1 seal:1 container:1 reservoir:2 hygroscopic:1 water:1 slowly:1 increase:1 concentration:2 rise:1 quickly:1 simply:1 precipitate:1 disorderly:1 granule:1 rather:1 orderly:2 hence:2 usable:1 data:6 collect:1 although:1 university:1 engage:1 research:2 equipment:1 synchrotron:2 source:4 purer:1 complete:1 intensity:1 collection:1 take:1 fraction:1 time:1 normally:1 necessary:2 sophisticated:1 mathematics:1 iterative:1 process:5 modelling:1 refinement:2 mathematically:1 predict:2 hypothesize:1 model:4 compare:1 actual:1 crystalline:5 ideally:1 researcher:1 several:1 initial:1 guess:1 converge:1 answer:1 refine:1 match:1 great:1 achieve:1 without:1 radical:1 revision:1 painstaking:1 easy:2 today:1 computer:2 mathematical:1 apply:2 turn:1 array:1 applies:1 part:1 coax:1 sake:1 measurement:3 spite:1 certain:1 amount:1 molecular:3 deduce:4 fiber:1 powder:4 perfect:1 may:2 exhibit:1 sufficient:1 simple:1 coarse:1 complicated:2 double:2 helical:2 dna:3 fibrous:1 engineering:2 tool:1 single:3 effect:1 macroscopically:1 natural:1 shape:1 reflect:1 physical:2 control:1 defect:2 understanding:1 important:2 prerequisite:1 understand:1 mostly:1 poly:1 play:1 role:1 structural:1 determination:3 number:1 link:2 mineral:2 clay:2 flat:1 platelike:2 easily:1 deform:1 slip:1 along:1 yet:1 remain:1 strongly:1 connect:1 perpendicular:1 mechanism:1 texture:1 another:1 iron:2 transforms:1 body:1 center:2 bcc:2 fcc:2 call:1 austenite:1 heat:2 close:1 packed:1 explain:1 volume:1 decrease:1 transformation:1 useful:1 phase:6 identification:1 perform:1 desire:1 find:1 compound:2 present:3 characteristic:1 like:2 identify:1 thus:1 note:2 within:2 confuse:1 general:1 problem:1 step:1 interpretation:1 cover:1 enumeration:1 reason:1 relation:1 group:10 biology:1 primary:1 conformation:1 biological:3 macromolecule:3 particularly:1 protein:5 nucleic:1 acid:1 rna:1 first:1 solve:1 kendrew:1 j:1 c:1 et:1 al:1 dimensional:1 myoglobin:1 nature:1 bank:1 pdb:1 freely:2 accessible:1 repository:1 program:1 rasmol:1 pymol:1 visualize:1 notably:1 membrane:1 viral:1 capsid:1 william:3 henry:1 lawrence:1 auguste:1 bravais:1 francis:1 crick:1 pierre:1 curie:1 boris:1 delone:1 paul:1 peter:1 ewald:1 rosalind:1 franklin:1 george:1 friedel:1 rené:1 haüy:1 carl:1 hermann:1 dorothy:1 crowfoot:1 hodgkin:1 robert:1 huber:2 max:3 von:1 laue:2 kathleen:1 lonsdale:1 ernest:1 françois:1 mallard:1 charles:1 victor:1 mauguin:1 hallow:1 perutz:1 hugo:1 rietveld:1 jean:1 baptiste:1 l:2 romé:1 de:1 isle:1 constance:1 tipper:1 craig:1 wiley:1 ada:1 yonath:1 pack:1 factor:1 condense:1 matter:1 physic:1 growth:2 optic:1 crystallite:1 crystallization:1 database:1 dynamical:1 euclidean:2 isometry:2 fix:1 action:1 laser:1 pedestal:1 metallurgy:1 mineralogy:1 opal:1 permutation:1 chemistry:1 symmetric:1 far:1 reading:1 computational:1 external:1 introduction:1 teach:1 pamphlet:2 lattice:1 available:1 software:2 academia:1 netsci:1 list:1 sincris:1 server:1 ortep:1 professional:1 grade:1 viewer:1 pc:1 fortran:1 code:1 come:1 oak:1 ridge:1 vega:1 trust:1 interview:2 freeview:1 video:1 pertuz:1 rober:1 aaron:1 klug:1 commission:1 teaching:1 site:1 steffen:1 weber:1 lot:1 java:1 applet:1 iucr:1 online:1 dictionary:1 american:1 association:1 turbine:1 blade:1 ames:1 laboratory:1 u:1 doe:1 resource:1 |@bigram ray_diffraction:5 diffraction_pattern:9 electromagnetic_radiation:1 valence_electron:1 atomic_nucleus:2 magnetic_field:1 curly_bracket:1 initial_guess:1 helical_structure:2 crystallographic_defect:1 cubic_fcc:1 ray_crystallography:2 protein_nucleic:1 nucleic_acid:1 dna_rna:1 et_al:1 lawrence_bragg:1 francis_crick:1 pierre_curie:1 rosalind_franklin:1 von_laue:1 max_perutz:1 jean_baptiste:1 external_link:1 crystal_lattice:1 oak_ridge:1 freeview_video:1 java_applet:1 turbine_blade:1 ames_laboratory:1 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.