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2,900 | National_Cartoonists_Society | The National Cartoonists Society is the world's largest organization of professional cartoonists. It presents the Reuben Awards. The NCS was born in 1946 when groups of cartoonists got together to entertain the troops. They found that they enjoyed each other's company and decided to get together on a regular basis. Today, the NCS membership roster includes over 500 of the world's major cartoonists, working in many branches of the profession, including newspaper comic strips and panels, comic books, editorial cartoons, animation, gag cartoons, greeting cards, advertising, magazine and book illustration and more. Membership is limited to established professional cartoonists, with a few exceptions of outstanding persons in affiliated fields. The NCS is not a guild or labor union. The NCS's stated primary purposes are: "to advance the ideals and standards of professional cartooning in its many forms", "to promote and foster a social, cultural and intellectual interchange among professional cartoonists of all types", and "to stimulate and encourage interest in and acceptance of the art of cartooning by aspiring cartoonists, students and the general public." The History of the NCS In 2005 it formed a Foundation to continue the charitable works of its fund for indigent cartoonists, the Milt Gross Fund. National Cartoonists Society Foundation brochure The Society's offices are in Winter Park, Florida. In addition, the NCS has chartered 16 regional chapters throughout the United States and one in Canada. Chapter Chairpersons sit on the NCS Regional Council and are represented by a National Representative, who is a voting member of the Board of Directors. In 2008, NCS joined over 60 other art licensing businesses (including the Artists Rights Society, Association of American Editorial Cartoonists, Society of Children's Book Writers and Illustrators, the Stock Artists Alliance, Illustrator's Partnership of America and the Advertising Photographers of America, among others) in opposing both The Orphan Works Act of 2008 and The Shawn Bentley Orphan Works Act of 2008. Orphan Works Legislative Action Center: Groups Opposed to the Orphan Works Act Known collectively as "Artists United Against the U.S. Orphan Works Acts", the diverse organizations joined forces to oppose the bills, which the groups believe "permits, and even encourages, wide-scale infringements while depriving creators of protections currently available under the Copyright Act." The Reuben Awards The National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Awards Weekend is a gala annual event which takes place at a site selected by the President. There, during the formal, black-tie banquet evening, the Reuben Award (a statuette designed by and named after the NCS' first president, Rube Goldberg) is presented to the "Cartoonist of the Year." Cartoonists in various professional divisions are also honored with special plaques for excellence. These awards are voted on by a combination of the general membership (by secret ballot) and specially-formed juries overseen by various NCS Regional Chapters. A cartoonist does not need to be a member of the NCS to receive one of the Society's awards. Prior to 1983, the Reuben Awards Dinner was held in New York City, usually at the Plaza. Since then, the event has expanded into a full weekend and is held in a different city each year. Recent Reuben locations have included New York City; Boca Raton, Florida; San Francisco, California; Cancún, Mexico and Kansas City, Missouri. Each year, during the NCS Annual Reuben Awards Weekend, the Society honors the year's outstanding achievements in all walks of the profession. Excellence in the fields of newspaper strips, newspaper panels, TV animation, feature animation, newspaper illustration, gag cartoons, book illustration, greeting cards, comic books, magazine feature/magazine illustration, and editorial cartoons, is honored in the NCS Division Awards, which are chosen by specially-convened juries at the chapter level. Cartoonist of the Year The recipient of the profession's highest honor, the Reuben Award for Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year is chosen by a secret ballot of the members. 1946: Milton Caniff, Terry and the Pirates 1947: Al Capp, Li'l Abner 1948: Chic Young, Blondie 1949: Alex Raymond, Rip Kirby 1950: Roy Crane, Buz Sawyer 1951: Walt Kelly, Pogo 1952: Hank Ketcham, Dennis the Menace 1953: Mort Walker, Beetle Bailey 1954: Willard Mullin, Sports 1955: Charles Schulz, Peanuts 1956: Herbert L. Block (Herblock), Editorial 1957: Hal Foster, Prince Valiant 1958: Frank King, Gasoline Alley 1959: Chester Gould, Dick Tracy 1960: Ronald Searle, Advertising and Illustration 1961: Bill Mauldin Editorial 1962: Dik Browne, Hi and Lois 1963: Fred Lasswell, Barney Google 1964: Charles Schulz, Peanuts 1965: Leonard Starr, Mary Perkins, On Stage 1966: Otto Soglow, The Little King 1967: Rube Goldberg, Humor in Sculpture 1968: Pat Oliphant, Editorial 1968: Johnny Hart, B.C. and The Wizard of Id 1969: Walter Berndt, Smitty 1970: Alfred Andriola, Kerry Drake 1971: Milton Caniff, Steve Canyon 1972: Pat Oliphant, Editorial 1973: Dik Browne, Hagar the Horrible 1974: Dick Moores, Gasoline Alley 1975: Bob Dunn, They'll Do It Every Time 1976: Ernie Bushmiller, Nancy 1977: Chester Gould, Dick Tracy 1978: Jeff MacNelly, Editorial 1979: Jeff MacNelly, Shoe 1980: Charles Saxon, Advertising 1981: Mel Lazarus, Miss Peach and Momma 1982: Bil Keane, Family Circus 1983: Arnold Roth, Advertising 1984: Brant Parker, The Wizard of Id 1985: Lynn Johnston, For Better or For Worse 1986: Bill Watterson, Calvin and Hobbes 1987: Mort Drucker, Mad Magazine 1988: Bill Watterson, Calvin and Hobbes 1989: Jim Davis, Garfield 1990: Gary Larson, The Far Side 1991: Mike Peters, Mother Goose & Grimm 1992: Cathy Guisewite, Cathy 1993: Jim Borgman, Editorial 1994: Gary Larson, The Far Side 1995: Garry Trudeau, Doonesbury 1996: Sergio Aragones, Mad Magazine 1997: Scott Adams, Dilbert 1998: Will Eisner, The Spirit 1999: Patrick McDonnell, Mutts 2000: Jack Davis, Mad Magazine 2001: Jerry Scott, Zits and Baby Blues 2002: Matt Groening, The Simpsons 2003: Greg Evans, Luann 2004: Pat Brady, Rose Is Rose 2005: Mike Luckovich, editorial cartoonist for The Atlanta Journal-Constitution 2006: Bill Amend, FoxTrot 2007: Al Jaffee, Mad Magazine Ace (Amateur Cartoonist Extraordinary) Award 1961 Arne Rhode 1962 Carol Burnett 1963 Hugh Hefner 1963 Jonathan Winters 1964 Chuck McCann 196? Cliff Arquette 1967 Jackie Gleason 1970 Orson Bean 1972 Bobby Day 1973 Robert Lansing 1974 Jane Powell 1975 Rita Moreno 197? Boyd Lewis 1979 Linda Gialeanella 1980 Ginger Rogers 1981 Claire Trevor 1990 John Updike 1991 Al Roker 1992 Tom Wolfe 1993 Pete Hamill 1996 Denis Leary 1998 Morley Safer Advertising Illustration Award From its inception until 1975 this award was known as the Advertising and Illustration award. The following year, it divided into two separate categories. Advertising and Illustration, combining again from 1982 to 1985. They divided again in 1986. This category was titled Commercial in 1989 and 1990. 1956 Harry Devlin 1957 Russell Patterson 1958 Carl Rose 1959 Ronald Searle 1960 Noel Sickles 1961 Eric Gurney 1962 Harry Devlin and Noel Sickles (tie) 1963 Harry Devlin 1964 Dick Hodgins, Jr. 1965 Ronald Searle 1966 Dick Hodgins, Jr. 1967 Roy Doty 1968 Dave Pascal 1969 Ronald Michaud 1970 Roy Doty 1971 Eric Gurney 1972 Irwin Caplan 1973 Al Jaffee 1974 Bill Kresse 1975 Burne Hogarth 1976 Mike Berry 1977 Charles Saxon 1978 Roy Doty 1979 Mischa Richter 1980 Jack Davis 1981 Irwin Caplan 1982 Arnold Roth 1983 Ronald Michaud 1984 Arnold Roth 1985 Arnold Roth 1986 Ronald Searle 1987 Ronald Searle 1988 Bob Bindig 1989 Roy Doty 1990 Steve Duquette 1991 W. B. Park 1992 Daryl Cagle 1993 Edward Sorel 1994 Jerry Buckley 1995 Jack Pittman 1996 Roy Doty 1997 B. B. Sams 1998 Jack Pittman 1999 Craig McKay 2000 Craig McKay (Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce posters) 2001 Pat Byrnes 2002 Jim Hummel 2003 Tom Richmond 2004 Mike Lester 2005 Roy Doty 2006 Tom Richmond 2007 2008 Tom Richmond Animation Award In 1989 and 1990, the category was titled Electronic Media. In 1995, it was divided into Feature Animation and Television Animation. 1957 Walt Disney 1958 Paul Terry 1960 Bill Hanna & Joe Barbera 1961 Walt Disney 1963 Walt Disney 1972 Bill Meléndez 1973 Johnny Hart 1974 Jim Logan 1975 Isadore Klein 1976 Howard Beckerman 1977 Sergio Aragones 1978 Ralph Bakshi 1979 Hilda Terry 1980 Selby Kelly 1981 Selby Kelly 1982 Bill Meléndez 1983 Howard Beckerman 1984 Nancy Beiman 1985 Chuck Jones 1986 Chuck Jones 1987 Chuck Jones 1988 Bill Meléndez 1989 Chuck Jones 1990 Chuck Jones 1991 Glen Keane (Beauty and the Beast) 1992 Eric Goldberg (Aladdin) 1993 Tim Burton (The Nightmare Before Christmas) 1994 David Silverman (The Simpsons) Feature Animation Award 1995 Joe Grant (Pocahontas) 1996 Mark Miller & crew 1997 Nik Ranieri (Hercules) 1998 Chen Yi Chang (Mulan) 1999 Brad Bird (The Iron Giant) 2000 Eric Goldberg (Fantasia 2000: "Rhapsody in Blue") 2001 Pete Docter (Monsters, Inc.) 2002 Chris Sanders (Lilo & Stitch) 2003 Andrew Stanton (Finding Nemo) 2004 Brad Bird (The Incredibles) 2005 Nick Park (Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit) 2006 2007 2008 David Silverman (The Simpsons Movie) Television Animation Award 1995 Bruce Timm (Batman: The Animated Series) 1996 Everett Peck (Duckman) 1997 David Feiss (Cow and Chicken) 1998 Danny Antonucci (Cartoon Sushi) 1999 Rich Moore (Futurama) 2000 Gary Baseman (Teacher's Pet) 2001 Chris Reccard & Lynn Naylor (Samurai Jack) 2002 Stephen Hillenburg (SpongeBob SquarePants) 2003 Paul Rudish (The Powerpuff Girls, Samurai Jack, and Star Wars: Clone Wars) 2004 Craig McCracken (Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends) 2005 David Silverman (The Simpsons) 2006 2007 2008 Stephen Silver (Kim Possible) Award of Honor This award was for recognition of the American cartoon as an instrument in war, peace, education and in the artistic betterment of our cultural environment. On September 22, 1965, the following were honored: General Omar N. Bradley Walter Cronkite John C. Daly John Cameron Swayze Book Illustration Award 1999 T. Lewis 2000 Mike Lester (A Is for Salad) 2001 Frank Cho 2002 B. B. Sams 2003 Chris Payne 2004 Geefwee Boedoe 2005 Ralph Steadman 2006 2007 2008 Sandra Boynton Comic Books Award In 1970, the Comic Books Award was divided into Humor Comic Books and Story Comic Books. They were merged back together in 1982. In 1989 and 1990, the Comic Books award was merged with the Magazine and Book Illustration Award. It was separated back into its own award in 1991. 1956 Jerry Robinson 1957 Wallace Wood 1958 Carmine Infantino and Steve Douglas (tie) 1959 Wallace Wood 1960 Bob Oksner 1961 Bob Oksner 1962 Bob Gustafson 1963 Frank Thorne 1964 Paul Fung Jr. 1965 Wallace Wood 1966 Al Williamson 1967 Will Eisner 1968 Will Eisner 1969 Will Eisner 1970 Henry Boltinoff (Humor) and Tom Gill (Story) 1971 Bob Gustafson (Humor) and Gil Kane (Story) 1972 Bob Gustafson (Humor) and Gil Kane (Story) 1973 Sergio Aragones (Humor) and Frank Springer (Story) 1974 Sergio Aragones (Humor) and Joe Kubert (Story) 1975 Hy Eisman (Humor) and Gil Kane (Story) 1976 Sergio Aragones (Humor) and Tex Blaisdell (Story) 1977 David Pascall (Humor) and Frank Springer (Story) 1978 Frank Johnson (Humor) and Al McWilliams (Story) 1979 Al Jaffee (Humor) and Will Eisner (Story) 1980 Paul Fung Jr. (Humor) and Joe Kubert (Story) 1981 George Wildman (Humor) and Frank Springer (Story) 1982 Bob Gustafson 1983 Hy Eisman 1984 Kurt Schaffenberger 1985 Dick Ayers 1986 Sergio Aragones 1987 Will Eisner 1988 Will Eisner 1989 N/A. See Magazine and Book Illustration Award. 1990 N/A. See Magazine and Book Illustration Award 1991 Frank Miller 1992 Todd McFarlane 1993 Mark Chiarello 1994 Dan Jurgens 1995 Jeff Smith (Bone) 1996 Jeff Smith 1997 Don Perlin 1998 Alex Ross (Superman: Peace on Earth) 1999 Chris Ware (Acme Novelty Library) 2000 Dan DeCarlo (Betty and Veronica) 2001 Frank Cho (Liberty Meadows) 2002 Stan Sakai (Usagi Yojimbo (Dark Horse Comics)) 2003 Terry Moore 2004 Darwyn Cooke (DC: The New Frontier) 2005 Paul Chadwick (Concrete: The Human Dilemma) 2006 2007 2008 Shaun Tan (The Arrival) Editorial Cartoons Award 1956 Bill Crawford (Newark News) 1957 Bill Crawford (Newark News) and Herbert Block (Washington Post) (tie) 1958 Bill Crawford (Newark News) 1959 Bill Mauldin (St Louis Post-Dispatch) 1960 Herbert Block (Washington Post) 1961 Karl Hubenthal (Los Angeles Examiner) 1962 John Fischetti (New York Herald Tribune) 1963 John Fischetti (New York Herald Tribune) 1964 John Fischetti (New York Herald Tribune) 1965 John Fischetti (New York Herald Tribune) 1966 Bill Crawford (Syndicated) 1967 Karl Hubenthal (Los Angeles Herald-Examiner) 1968 Warren King (New York Daily News) 1969 Blaine (Hamilton Spectator) 1970 Karl Hubenthal (Los Angeles Herald-Examiner) 1971 Pat Oliphant (Denver Post) 1972 Dick Hodgins, Jr. 1973 Pat Oliphant (Denver Post) 1974 Pat Oliphant (Denver Post) 1975 John Pierotti (New York Post) 1976 Dick Hodgins, Jr. 1977 Jeff MacNelly (Richmond News Leader) 1978 Paul Szep (Boston Globe) 1979 Frank Evers (New York Daily News) 1980 Larry Wright (Detroit News) 1981 Etta Hulme (Fort Worth Star Telegram) 1982 Mike Peters (Dayton Daily News) 1983 Mike Peters (Dayton Daily News) 1984 Pat Oliphant (Syndicated) and Larry Wright (Detroit News) (tie) 1985 Don Wright (Miami News) 1986 Jim Borgman (Cincinnati Enquirer) 1987 Jim Borgman (Cincinnati Enquirer) 1988 Jim Borgman (Cincinnati Enquirer) 1989 Pat Oliphant (Syndicated) 1990 Pat Oliphant (Syndicated) 1991 Pat Oliphant (Syndicated) 1992 Jim Morin (Miami Herald) 1993 Bill Schorr (Syndicated) 1994 Jim Borgman (Cincinnati Enquirer) 1995 Chip Bok (Akron Beacon Journal) 1996 Bill Day (Syndicated) 1997 Glenn McCoy (Belleville News-Democrat) 1998 Etta Hulme (Fort Worth Star Telegram) 1999 Chip Bok (Akron Beacon Journal) 2000 Jerry Holbert (Boston Herald) 2001 Mike Luckovich (Atlanta Journal-Constitution) 2002 Clay Bennett (Christian Science Monitor) 2003 Tom Toles (Washington Post) 2004 Jeff Parker (Florida Today) 2005 Jim Borgman (Cincinnati Enquirer) 2006 Michael Ramirez (Investor's Business Daily) 2007 2008 Bill Schorr Gag Cartoon Award 1956 Chon Day 1957 John Gallagher 1958 Eldon Dedini 1959 Vahan Shirvanian 1961 Eldon Dedini 1962 Chon Day 1963 Jack Tippit 1964 Eldon Dedini 1965 Orlando Busino 1966 Jack Tippit 1967 Orlando Busino 1968 Orlando Busino 1969 George Wolfe 1970 Chon Day 1971 John Gallagher 1972 Don Orehek 1973 George Wolfe 1974 Mischa Richter 1975 George Wolfe 1976 George Wolfe 1977 Bill Hoest 1978 Henry Martin 1979 Jack Markow 1980 Charles Saxon 1981 Bo Brown 1982 Don Orehek 1983 Sergio Aragones 1984 Don Orehek 1985 Don Orehek 1986 Charles Saxon 1987 Charles Saxon 1988 Eldon Dedini 1991 Arnie Levin 1992 Arnie Levin 1993 George Booth 1994 John Reiner 1995 Lee Lorenz 1996 Glenn McCoy 1997 Mark Tonra 1998 Charles Barsotti 1999 Rick Stromoski 2000 Kim Warp 2001 Jerry King 2002 Glenn McCoy 2003 Glenn McCoy 2004 Robert Weber 2005 Glenn McCoy 2006 2007 2008 Mort Gerberg Gold Key Award (National Cartoonists Society Hall of Fame) 1977 Hal Foster 1978 Edwina Dumm 1979 Raeburn Van Buren 1979 Herbert Block 1980 Rube Goldberg (posthumous) 1981 Milton Caniff 2000 Arnold Roth 2005 Larry Katzman 2006 Mort Walker Greeting Cards Award 1991 Patrick McDonnell 1992 Sandra Boynton 1993 W. B. Park 1994 Roy Doty 1995 Rick Stromoski 1996 Suzy Spafford 1997 Dave Coverly 1998 Rick Stromoski 1999 Anne Gibbons 2000 Bill Brewer 2001 Oliver Christianson 2002 Glenn McCoy 2003 Glenn McCoy 2004 Glenn McCoy 2005 Gary McCoy 2006 2007 Carla Ventresca 2007 Dave Mowder Magazine Feature and Magazine Illustration Award This award, which was originally Titled Illustration, was separated from the Advertising and Illustration Award from 1976 to 1981. It then became permanently separated in 1986. The award name changed to Magazine and Book Illustration in 1989, and then changed to the current name in 2003. 1976 Arnold Roth 1977 Harry Devlin 1978 Harry Devlin 1979 Arnold Roth 1980 Ronald Searle 1981 Arnold Roth 1986 Arnold Roth 1987 Arnold Roth 1988 Arnold Roth 1989 Sergio Aragonés 1990 Harry Devlin 1991 Patrick McDonnell 1992 Burne Hogarth 1993 Hal Mayforth 1994 Rick Geary 1995 Richard Thompson 1996 Doug Cushman 1997 Guy Gilchrist 1998 Guy Gilchrist 1999 Kevin Rechin 2000 Peter DeSeve 2001 Mark Brewer 2002 C.F. Payne 2003 Herman Meija 2004 Jack Pittman 2005 C.F. Payne 2006 2007 2008 Daryll Collins Milton Caniff Lifetime Achievement Award The Milton Caniff Lifetime Achievement Award is awarded by unanimous vote of the NCS Board of Directors. 1994 Harry Devlin 1994 Will Eisner 1995 Al Hirschfeld 1996 Jack Davis 1997 Dale Messick 1998 Bill Gallo 1999 Charles M. Schulz 2002 Jerry Robinson 2003 Morrie Turner 2004 Jules Feiffer 2005 Gahan Wilson Newspaper Illustration Award 1994 Jerry Dowling 1995 Richard Thompson 1996 David Clark 1997 Bob Staake 1998 Grey Blackwell 1999 Pierre Bellocq 2000 Drew Friedman 2001 Prudencio Ma, Jr.. 2002 Steve McGarry 2003 Bob Rich 2004 Michael McParlane 2005 Bob Rich 2006 2007 2008 Sean Kelly Newspaper Comic Strips The Newspaper Comic Strips (Humor) Category was created in 1957. In 1960, it was joined by the Newspaper Comic Strips (Story) Category. In 1989 the two categories were combined. Also, in 1989 and 1990, Newspaper Panel Cartoon was part of this category. 1957 Gus Arriola (Gordo) and Frank King (Gasoline Alley) (tie) (Humor) 1958 Martin Branner (Winnie Winkle) (Humor) 1959 Dik Browne (Hi and Lois) (Humor) 1960 Dik Browne (Hi and Lois) (Humor) and Leonard Starr (On Stage) (Story) 1961 Ernie Bushmiller (Nancy) (Humor) and Irwin Hasen (Dondi) (Story) 1962 Charles M. Schulz (Peanuts) (Humor) and Irwin Hasen (Dondi) (Story) 1963 Fred Lasswell (Barney Google and Snuffy Smith) (Humor) and Leonard Starr (On Stage) (Story) 1964 Frank O'Neal (Short Ribs) (Humor) and Hal Foster (Prince Valiant) (Story) 1965 Gus Arriola (Gordo) (Humor) and Roy Crane (Buz Sawyer) (Story) 1966 Mort Walker (Beetle Bailey) (Humor) and John Prentice (Rip Kirby) (Story) 1967 Johnny Hart (B.C.) (Humor) and John Prentice (Rip Kirby) (Story) 1968 Al Smith (Mutt and Jeff) (Humor) and Alex Kotsky (Apartment 3-G) (Story) 1969 Mort Walker (Beetle Bailey) (Humor) and Stan Drake (The Heart of Juliet Jones) (Story) 1970 Bud Blake (Tiger) (Humor) and Stan Drake (The Heart of Juliet Jones) (Story) 1971 Brant Parker (The Wizard of Id) (Humor) and John Cullen Murphy (Big Ben Bolt and Prince Valiant) (Story) 1972 Dik Browne (Hi and Lois) (Humor) and Stan Drake (The Heart of Juliet Jones) (Story) 1973 Mell Lazarus (Miss Peach) (Humor) and Dick Moores (Gasoline Alley) (Story) 1974 Reg Smythe (Andy Capp) (Humor) and John Cullen Murphy (Prince Valiant) (Story) 1975 Russell Myers (Broom-Hilda) (Humor) and Dale Messick (Brenda Starr) (Story) 1976 Brant Parker (The Wizard of Id) (Humor) and John Cullen Murphy (Prince Valiant) (Story) 1977 Dik Browne (Hi and Lois) (Humor) and Gil Kane (Star Hawks) (Story) 1978 Bud Blake (Tiger) (Humor) and John Cullen Murphy (Prince Valiant) (Story) 1979 Mel Lazarus (Miss Peach) (Humor) and Milton Caniff (Steve Canyon) (Story) 1980 Brant Parker (The Wizard of Id) (Humor) and Dick Moores (Gasoline Alley) (Story) 1981 Jim Davis (Garfield) (Humor) and Dick Moores (Gasoline Alley) (Story) 1982 Brant Parker (The Wizard of Id) (Humor) and Dick Moores (Gasoline Alley) (Story) 1983 Brant Parker (The Wizard of Id) (Humor) and Leonard Starr (Annie) (Story) 1984 Dik Browne (Hagar the Horrible) (Humor) and John Cullen Murphy (Prince Valiant) (Story) 1985 Jim Davis (Garfield) (Humor) and Dick Moores (Gasoline Alley) (Story) 1986 Dik Browne (Hagar the Horrible) (Humor) and John Prentice (Rip Kirby) (Story) 1987 Art and Chip Sansom (The Born Loser) (Humor) and John Cullen Murphy (Prince Valiant) (Story) 1988 Bill Watterson (Calvin and Hobbes)(Humor) and Jim Scancarelli (Gasoline Alley)(Story) 1989 Johnny Hart (B.C.) 1990 Art and Chip Sansom (The Born Loser) 1991 Lynn Johnston (For Better or For Worse) 1992 Wiley Miller (Non Sequitur) 1993 Bud Grace (Ernie) 1994 Garry Trudeau (Doonesbury) 1995 Rick Kirkman (Baby Blues) 1996 Patrick McDonnell (Mutts) 1997 Scott Adams (Dilbert) 1998 Jerry Scott & Jim Borgman (Zits) 1999 Jerry Scott & Jim Borgman (Zits) 2000 Bud Blake (Tiger) 2001 Brian Crane (Pickles) 2002 Darby Conley (Get Fuzzy) 2003 Stephan Pastis (Pearls Before Swine) 2004 Glenn McCoy (The Duplex) 2005 Brooke McEldowney (9 Chickweed Lane) 2006 2007 Stephan Pastis (Pearls Before Swine) 2008 Jim Meddick (Monty) Newspaper Panel Cartoon Award 1956 George Lichty (Grin and Bear It) 1957 Jimmy Hatlo (They'll Do It Every Time) 1958 Bob Barnes (The Better Half) 1959 Jimmy Hatlo (They'll Do It Every Time) 1960 George Lichty (Grin and Bear It) 1961 George Clark (The Neighbors) 1962 George Lichty (Grin and Bear It) 1963 Jerry Robinson (Still Life) 1964 George Lichty (Grin and Bear It) 1965 Jim Berry (Berry's World) 1966 Jim Berry (Berry's World) 1967 Bil Keane (The Family Circus) 1968 Bob Dunn (They'll Do It Every Time) 1969 Bob Dunn (They'll Do It Every Time) 1970 Jack Tippit (Amy) 1971 Bil Keane (The Family Circus) 1972 Jim Berry (Berry's World) 1973 Bil Keane (The Family Circus) 1974 Bil Keane (The Family Circus) 1975 Bill Hoest (The Lockhorns) 1976 Paul Frehm (Ripley's Believe It or Not!) 1977 Ted Key (Hazel) 1978 Brad Anderson (Marmaduke) 1979 Bob Dunn & Al Scaduto (They'll Do It Every Time) 1980 Bill Hoest (The Lockhorns) 1981 Henry Boltinoff (Stoker the Broker) 1982 Jim Unger (Herman) 1983 Bob Thaves (Frank and Ernest) 1984 Bob Thaves (Frank and Ernest) 1985 Gary Larson (The Far Side) 1986 Bob Thaves (Frank and Ernest) 1987 Jim Unger (Herman) 1988 Gary Larson (The Far Side) 1989 N/A. See Newspaper Comic Strip Award. 1990 N/A. See Newspaper Comic Strip Award. 1991 Al Scaduto (They'll Do It Every Time) 1992 Don Addis (Bent Offerings) 1993 Bill Rechin (Out Of Bounds) 1994 Dave Coverly (Speed Bump) 1995 Wiley Miller (Non Sequitur) 1996 Wiley Miller (Non Sequitur) 1997 David Gantz (Gantz Glances) 1998 Wiley Miller (Non Sequitur) 1999 Dan Piraro (Bizarro) 2000 Dan Piraro (Bizarro) 2001 Dan Piraro (Bizarro) 2002 Dave Coverly (Speed Bump) 2003 Jerry Van Amerongen (Ballard Street) 2004 Marcus Hamilton (Dennis The Menace) 2005 Jerry Van Amerongen (Ballard Street) 2006 2007 2008 Chad Carpenter (Tundra) Gold T-Square Award The Gold T-Square is awarded for 50 years as professional cartoonist. 1955 Rube Goldberg 1999 Mort Walker Silver T-Square Award The Silver T-Square is awarded, by unanimous vote of the NCS Board of Directors, to persons who have demonstrated outstanding dedication or service to the Society or the profession. 1948 David Low 1949 Carl Ed Cliff Sterrett H.C. "Bud" Fisher Frank King George McManus 1950 Harry S. Truman John Snyder James Berryman Martin Branner 1951 Red Manning 1953 Ed Kuekes 1954 Dwight D. Eisenhower George M. Humphrey Herbert Block 1956 James Thurber Gluyas Williams Al Posen Al Pierotti 1957 Harry Hershfield Tom Little Milton Caniff Bob Dunn 1958 Russell Patterson 1959 Carl Rose Bill Mauldin 1960 Ben Roth (posthumous) McGowan Miller 1961 Mort Walker Joe Musial 1962 Edmund Valtman 1963 Steve Douglas 1964 Tom Gill Vernon Greene 1967 Al Smith 1969 Otto Soglow Irwin Hasen Dick Ericson 1970 Alfred Andriola George Wunder 1971 Dick Hodgins Sr. Frank Fogarty 1972 Walt Kelly John Norment David Pascal Larry Katzman 1973 Bill Crawford John Fischetti Jack Tippit 1974 Isadore Klein "Tack" Knight 1975 Jack Rosen Hal Foster 1976 Al Kilgore 1977 Bill Kresse Paul Szep Lyman Young 1978 Bill Gallo Jim Ruth Hank Ketcham 1979 Dick Hodgins Jr. Sylvan Byck Ed Mitchell Jim Ivey 1980 Buck Peters 1981 John Cullen Murphy 1982 George Wolfe 1984 Sam Norkin 1986 Lee Falk 1992 Creig Flessel Herb Jacoby 1993 George Breisacher 1995 Arnold Roth and Caroline Roth 1996 David Folkman Bill Janocha 1997 Tim Rosenthal 1998 Joe Duffy 2000 Mel Lazarus 2001 Ted Goff Frank Pauer 2002 Bil Keane Joseph D’Angelo 2003 Jud Hurd John McMeel 2004 2005 Dick Locher 2006 Joe McGarry and Luke McGarry 2007 Stu Rees Elzie Segar Award This award is presented to a person who has made a unique and outstanding contribution to the profession of cartooning. The winner was selected by the NCS Board and later by King Features Syndicate, in honor of "Popeye" creator, Elzie Segar. 1971 Milton Caniff 1972 Otto Soglow 1973 Dik Browne 1974 Russell Patterson 1975 Bob Dunn 1976 Bill Gallo 1977 Mort Walker 1978 Hal Foster 1979 Al Capp (posthumous) 1980 Charles M. Schulz 1981 Johnny Hart 1982 Bil Keane 1983 John Cullen Murphy 1984 Fred Lasswell 1985 Jim Davis 1986 Brant Parker 1987 Mike Peters 1994 Fred Lasswell 1996 Tom Armstrong 1999 Mort Walker New Media Award 2000 Bill Hinds 2001 Mark Fiore 2002 Mark Fiore No. 1 (Sports Personality of the Year) Awards 1968 Ralph Houk 1970 Gil Hodges 1971 Jack Dempsey and Joan Whitney Payson (tie) 1972 Leroy "Satchel" Paige 1974 Rocky Graziano 1974 Monte Irwin 197? Casey Stengel 19?? Pearl Bailey 19?? Yogi Berra 19?? Dave DeBusschere 19?? Reggie Jackson 19?? Willis Reed 1984 Phil Rizzuto Special Features Award 1965 Jerry Robinson, Flubs and Fluffs 1966 Hal Foster, Prince Valiant 1967 Hal Foster, Prince Valiant 1968 Bruce Stark, Stark Impressions 1969 Chon Day, Brother Sebastian 1970 Jim Berry, Berry's World 1971 Al Jaffee, Mad Fold-Ins 1972 Jim Berry, Berry at the Democratic Convention 1973 Frank Fogarty, Illuminated Scrolls 1974 Burne Hogarth, Jungle Tales of Tarzan 1975 Al Jaffee, Snappy Answers to Stupid Questions 1976 Bil Keane, Channel Chuckles 1977 Sergio Aragones, Mad Magazine 1978 Jud Hurd, Health Capsules 1979 Arnold Roth, Humorous Illustration 1980 Sam Norkin, Theatrical Caricature 1981 Don Martin, Mad Magazine 1982 Don Martin, Mad Magazine 1983 Al Kilgore. Elvis the Paper Doll Book 1984 Kevin McVey, Theatrical Caricature 1985 Mort Drucker, Mad Magazine 1986 Mort Drucker, Mad Magazine 1987 Mort Drucker, Mad Magazine 1988 Mort Drucker, Mad Magazine Sports Cartoons Award 1957 Willard Mullin 1958 Willard Mullin 1959 Willard Mullin 1960 Willard Mullin 1961 Willard Mullin 1962 Willard Mullin 1963 Lou Darvas 1964 Willard Mullin 1965 Willard Mullin 1966 Bruce Stark 1967 Lou Darvas 1968 Bill Gallo 1969 Bill Gallo 1970 Bill Gallo 1971 Karl Hubenthal 1972 Bill Gallo 1973 Bill Gallo 1974 Murray Olderman 1975 Bruce Stark 1976 Arnold Roth 1977 Arnold Roth 1978 Murray Olderman 1979 Karl Hubenthal 1980 Karl Hubenthal 1981 Eddie Germano 1982 Karl Hunbenthal 1983 Bill Gallo 1984 Bill Gallo 1985 Bill Gallo 1986 Bill Hinds 1987 Bill Gallo and Paul Szep (tie) 1988 Bill Gallo 1991 Pierre Bellocq 1992 Eddie Germano 1993 Drew Litton NCS Presidents 1946-1948 Rube Goldberg 1948-1949 Milton Caniff 1950-1952 Alex Raymond 1952-1953 Russell Patterson 1953-1954 Otto Soglow 1954-1956 Walt Kelly 1956-1957 Harry Devlin 1957-1959 John Pierotti 1959-1960 Mort Walker 1960-1961 Bill Crawford 1961-1963 Bill Holman 1963-1965 Dik Browne 1965-1967 Bob Dunn 1967-1969 Jerry Robinson 1969-1971 Al Smith 1971-1973 Jack Tippit 1973-1975 Bill Gallo 1975-1977 Bill Gallo 1977-1979 Burne Hogarth 1979-1981 John Cullen Murphy 1981-1983 Bil Keane 1983-1985 Arnold Roth 1985-1987 Frank Evers 1987-1988 Bill Hoest 1988 Bill Rechin 1988-1989 Lynn Johnston 1989-1991 Mell Lazarus 1991-1993 Mell Lazarus 1993-1995 Bruce Beattie 1995-1997 Frank Springer 1997-1999 George Breisacher 1999-2001 Daryl Cagle 2001-2003 Steve McGarry 2003-2005 Steve McGarry 2005-2007 Rick Stromoski 2008-2010 Jeff Keane References External links National Cartoonists Society - Official web site. | National_Cartoonists_Society |@lemmatized national:6 cartoonist:21 society:11 world:6 large:1 organization:2 professional:6 present:3 reuben:8 award:52 nc:8 bear:7 group:3 get:3 together:3 entertain:1 troop:1 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2,901 | Joanna_Russ | Joanna Russ (born February 22, 1937, New York City ), born to teachers Evarett I. and Bertha Zinner Russis, is an American writer and feminist. She is the author of a number of works of science fiction, fantasy and feminist literary criticism and is best known for The Female Man, a novel combining utopian fiction and satire. It used the device of parallel worlds as a form of a mediation of the ways that different societies might produce very different versions of the same person, and how all might interact and respond to sexism. Works Russ has been creating works of fiction since a very early age. For example, a five year old Russ had a short story called "Bubble Land," complete with illustrations, dictated by an unknown person onto notebook paper. Over the following years the young Russ filled countless notebooks with stories, poems, comics and illustrations, often hand-binding the material with thread. Browne Popular Culture Library Manuscript Collection (forthcoming) Russ first came to be noticed in the science fiction world in the early 1970s, a time when women were starting to enter the field in larger numbers. Much of her earliest published work was short horror fiction. It has been said that SF was a field dominated by male authors, often thought to be writing for a predominantly male audience. Russ, who is openly lesbian, was one of the most outspoken authors to challenge male dominance of the field, and is generally regarded as one of the leading feminist science fiction scholars and writers. A notable example is her novel, We Who Are About To, a variation on an established science fiction literary trope: a group of space travelers marooned on an uninhabited planet decide that they must form a colony and "propagate the species". One of the castaway, however, is a woman who has no particular desire to be part of such an effort. When the others try to force her to be part of the colony, she rebels against them. Along with her work as a writer of prose fiction, Russ has also been a playwright,essayist, and an active member of the Kirk/Spock slash fiction community. Browne Popular Culture Library Slash Zine Collection . In addition, she has also written nonfiction works such as the essay collection Magic Mommas, Trembling Sisters, Puritans & Perverts and the book-length study of modern feminism, What Are We Fighting For? Russ won a 1972 Nebula Award for her short story "When It Changed" and a 1983 Hugo Award for her novella "Souls." In recent years she has published little, largely due to chronic back pain and chronic fatigue syndrome. Selected bibliography Novels Picnic on Paradise (1968) And Chaos Died (1970) The Female Man (1975) We Who Are About To... (1977) The Two of Them (1978) On Strike Against God (1980) Short fiction collections The Adventures of Alyx (1976) (includes Picnic on Paradise) The Zanzibar Cat (1983) (Extra)ordinary People (1985) The Hidden Side of the Moon (1987) Children's fiction Kittatinny: A Tale of Magic (1978) Nonfiction collections Speculations on the Subjunctivity of Science Fiction (1973) Somebody's Trying to Kill Me and I Think It's My Husband: The Modern Gothic (1973) How to Suppress Women's Writing (1983) Magic Mammas, Trembling Sisters, Puritans and Perverts: Feminist Essays (1985) To Write Like a Woman (1996) What Are We Fighting For?: Sex, Race, Class, and the Future of Feminism (1997) The Country You Have Never Seen (forthcoming, 2007) References Further reading Cortiel, Jeanne. Demand My Writing: Joanna Russ/Feminism/Science Fiction. Science Fiction Texts and Studies. Liverpool, England: Liverpool UP, 1999. ISBN 0-85323-614-3 ---. "Determinate Politics of Indeterminacy: Reading Joanna Russ's Recent Work in Light of Her Early Short Fiction." Future Females, the Next Generation: New Voices and Velocities in Feminist Science Fiction Criticism. Eds. Marleen S. Barr, et al. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000. 219-36. ISBN 0-8476-9126-8 ---. Joanna Russ. Significant Contemporary Feminists: A Biocritical Sourcebook. Ed. Jenifer Scanlon. New York, Westport, CT, and London: Greenwood, 1999. Delany, Samuel R. "Orders of Chaos: The Science Fiction of Joanna Russ." Women Worldwalkers: New Dimensions of Science Fiction and Fantasy. Ed. Jane B. Weedman. Lubbock: Texas Tech P, 1985. 95-123. Delany, Samuel. "Introduction." Joanna Russ. We Who Are About To. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 2005. v-xv. ISBN 0-8195-6759-0 Hacker, Marilyn. "Science Fiction and Feminism: The Work of Joanna Russ." Chrysalis 4 (1977): 67-79. Holt, Marilyn J. "Joanna Russ, 1937." Science Fiction Writers: Critical Studies of the Major Authors from the Early Nineteenth Century to the Present Day. Ed. Everett Franklin Bleiler. New York: Scribner's, 1982. 483-90. Law, Richard G. "Joanna Russ and The "Literature of Exhaustion"." Extrapolation 25 (1984): 146-56. Malmgren, Carl. "Meta-Sf: The Examples of Dick, Leguin, and Russ." Extrapolation: A Journal of Science Fiction and Fantasy 43.1 (2002): 22. 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2,902 | Isolationism | Isolationism is a foreign policy which combines a non-interventionist military policy and a political policy of economic nationalism (protectionism). In other words, it asserts both of the following: Non-interventionism – Political rulers should avoid entangling alliances with other nations and avoid all wars not related to direct territorial self-defense. Protectionism – There should be legal barriers to control trade and cultural exchange with people in other states. Introduction "Isolationism" has always been a debated political topic. Whether or not a country should be or should not be isolationist affects both living standards and the ability of political rulers to benefit favored firms and industries. All the First World countries (the UK, United States, etc.) trade in a world economy, and are experiencing an expansion of the division of labor, generally raising living standards. However, some characterize this as "a wage race to the bottom" in the manufacturing industries that should be curtailed by protectionism. Some argue that isolating a country from a global division of labor--i.e. employing protectionist trading policies--could be potentially helpful. The consensus amongst most economists is that such a policy is detrimental, and point to the mercantilism of the pre-industrial era as the classic example. Others argue that as the world's biggest consumer, with its own natural resources, the U.S. can wisely dictate what conditions can apply to goods and services imported for U.S. consumption, misunderstanding the nature of prices and their emergent, non-centrally planned, nature. Countries and regions generally enjoy a comparative advantage over others in some area. Free trade between countries allows each country to do what it does best, and benefit from the products and services that others do best. But "best" too often means monetary, excluding human and ecological costs, due to firms externalizing costs as a result of inadequately defined property rights. Protectionism allegedly interferes in the market process, making people poorer than they would be otherwise. Isolationism by country China After the Zheng He voyages in the 14th century, the foreign policy of the Ming Dynasty in China became increasingly isolationist. Hongwu Emperor was the first to propose the policy to ban all maritime shipping in 1371. Vo Glahn, Richard. [1996] (1996). Fountain of Fortune: money and monetary policy in China, 1000-1700. University of California Press. ISBN 0520204085 The Qing Dynasty that came after the Ming often continued the latter dynasty's isolationist policies. Wokou or Japanese pirates were one of the key primary concerns, although the maritime ban was not without some controversy.. Ireland Irish neutrality has been a policy of the Irish Free State and its successor the Republic of Ireland since independence from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1922. This policy led to Ireland's neutral stance during World War II. Economically, the Navigation Acts restricted and taxed Irish trade, to the detriment of her economy, which was also affected badly by the Corn Laws. These were introduced to protect Britain against reliance on cheap imports of grain, and to safeguard the income and power of hereditary landowners rather than business interests. The Corn Laws were campaigned against by those who favoured a return to a more free trade practice. In the late 1840's, when British shipping had achieved a world monopoly, those protectionist acts and laws were repealed. England then paid the Irish 11 million for a loan on a tank. Japan From 1641 to 1853, the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan enforced a policy which it called sakoku. The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries. However, the commonly held idea that Japan was entirely closed is misleading and stems from a Eurocentric worldview. In fact, Japan maintained trade and diplomatic relations with China, Korea, and the Ryukyus, and trade only with the Netherlands. Ronald P. Toby, State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu, Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, (1984) 1991. The culture of Japan developed with limited influence from the outside world and had one of the longest stretches of peace in history. During this period, Japan developed thriving cities and castle towns and increasing commodification of agriculture and domestic trade, Thomas C. Smith, The Agrarian Origins of Modern Japan, Stanford Studies in the Civilizations of Eastern Asia, Stanford, Calif., 1959,: Stanford University Press. wage labor, increasing literacy and concomitant print culture, Mary Elizabeth Berry, Japan in Print: Information and Nation in the Early Modern Period, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. laying the groundwork for modernization, even as the shogunate itself grew weak. Albert Craig, Chōshū in the Meiji Restoration, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961; Marius B. Jansen, Sakamoto Ryōma and the Meiji Restoration, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1961. North Korea The foreign relations of North Korea are often tense and unpredictable. Since the ceasefire of the Korean War in 1953, the North Korean government has been largely isolationist, becoming one of the world's most authoritarian societies. Technically still in a state of war with South Korea and the West, North Korea has maintained close relations with China and often limited ones with other nations. Paraguay Just after independence was achieved, the country was governed since 1814 by the dictator Dr. Francia, who closed the borders of the country and prohibited trade or any relation with the exterior until his death in 1840. See also Imperium Monroe Doctrine Non-intervention Non-interventionism Sakoku United States non-interventionism Works cited References Barry, Tom. “A Global Affairs Commentary: The Terms of Power” (Foreign Policy in Focus, November 6, 2002), University Press. Toby, Ronald P. (1984) 1991. State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu. Stanford ed. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. White House, The. The National Security Strategy of The United States. (September 2002) | Isolationism |@lemmatized isolationism:3 foreign:5 policy:14 combine:1 non:6 interventionist:1 military:1 political:4 economic:1 nationalism:1 protectionism:4 word:1 assert:1 following:1 interventionism:3 ruler:2 avoid:2 entangle:1 alliance:1 nation:3 war:4 relate:1 direct:1 territorial:1 self:1 defense:1 legal:1 barrier:1 control:1 trade:9 cultural:1 exchange:1 people:2 state:8 introduction:1 always:1 debated:1 topic:1 whether:1 country:10 isolationist:4 affect:2 living:2 standard:2 ability:1 benefit:2 favored:1 firm:2 industry:2 first:2 world:7 uk:1 united:4 etc:1 economy:2 experience:1 expansion:1 division:2 labor:3 generally:2 raise:1 however:2 characterize:1 wage:2 race:1 bottom:1 manufacturing:1 curtail:1 argue:2 isolate:1 global:2 e:1 employ:1 protectionist:2 trading:1 could:1 potentially:1 helpful:1 consensus:1 amongst:1 economist:1 detrimental:1 point:1 mercantilism:1 pre:1 industrial:1 era:1 classic:1 example:1 others:3 big:1 consumer:1 natural:1 resource:1 u:2 wisely:1 dictate:1 condition:1 apply:1 good:1 service:2 import:2 consumption:1 misunderstand:1 nature:2 price:1 emergent:1 centrally:1 plan:1 region:1 enjoy:1 comparative:1 advantage:1 area:1 free:3 allow:1 best:3 product:1 often:4 mean:1 monetary:2 exclude:1 human:1 ecological:1 cost:2 due:1 externalize:1 result:1 inadequately:1 define:1 property:1 right:1 allegedly:1 interfere:1 market:1 process:1 make:1 poor:1 would:1 otherwise:1 china:5 zheng:1 voyage:1 century:1 ming:2 dynasty:3 become:2 increasingly:1 hongwu:1 emperor:1 propose:1 ban:2 maritime:2 shipping:2 vo:1 glahn:1 richard:1 fountain:1 fortune:1 money:1 university:8 california:2 press:8 isbn:1 qing:1 come:1 continue:1 latter:1 wokou:1 japanese:1 pirate:1 one:4 key:1 primary:1 concern:1 although:1 without:1 controversy:1 ireland:4 irish:4 neutrality:1 successor:1 republic:1 since:3 independence:2 kingdom:1 great:1 britain:2 lead:1 neutral:1 stance:1 ii:1 economically:1 navigation:1 act:2 restrict:1 tax:1 detriment:1 also:2 badly:1 corn:2 law:3 introduce:1 protect:1 reliance:1 cheap:1 grain:1 safeguard:1 income:1 power:2 hereditary:1 landowner:1 rather:1 business:1 interest:1 campaign:1 favour:1 return:1 practice:1 late:1 british:1 achieve:2 monopoly:1 repeal:1 england:1 pay:1 million:1 loan:1 tank:1 japan:10 tokugawa:3 shogunate:2 enforce:1 call:1 sakoku:2 prohibit:1 contact:1 outside:2 commonly:1 hold:1 idea:1 entirely:1 close:3 mislead:1 stem:1 eurocentric:1 worldview:1 fact:1 maintain:2 diplomatic:1 relation:4 korea:5 ryukyus:1 netherlands:1 ronald:2 p:2 toby:2 diplomacy:2 early:3 modern:4 asia:3 development:2 bakufu:2 stanford:8 calif:3 culture:2 develop:2 limited:2 influence:1 long:1 stretch:1 peace:1 history:1 period:2 thriving:1 city:1 castle:1 town:1 increase:2 commodification:1 agriculture:1 domestic:1 thomas:1 c:1 smith:1 agrarian:1 origin:1 study:1 civilization:1 eastern:1 literacy:1 concomitant:1 print:2 mary:1 elizabeth:1 berry:1 information:1 berkeley:1 lay:1 groundwork:1 modernization:1 even:1 grow:1 weak:1 albert:1 craig:1 chōshū:1 meiji:2 restoration:2 cambridge:1 mass:1 harvard:1 marius:1 b:1 jansen:1 sakamoto:1 ryōma:1 princeton:2 n:1 j:1 north:4 tense:1 unpredictable:1 ceasefire:1 korean:2 government:1 largely:1 authoritarian:1 society:1 technically:1 still:1 south:1 west:1 paraguay:1 govern:1 dictator:1 dr:1 francia:1 border:1 prohibited:1 exterior:1 death:1 see:1 imperium:1 monroe:1 doctrine:1 intervention:1 work:1 cite:1 reference:1 barry:1 tom:1 affair:1 commentary:1 term:1 focus:1 november:1 ed:1 white:1 house:1 national:1 security:1 strategy:1 september:1 |@bigram centrally_plan:1 ming_dynasty:1 qing_dynasty:1 tokugawa_shogunate:1 diplomatic_relation:1 stanford_calif:3 calif_stanford:3 lay_groundwork:1 meiji_restoration:2 |
2,903 | Carousel_(musical) | Carousel is a musical by Richard Rodgers (music) and Oscar Hammerstein II (book and lyrics) that was adapted from Ferenc Molnar's 1909 play Liliom, transplanting the Budapest setting of Molnar's play to a New England fishing village. The show includes the hit musical numbers If I Loved You, June Is Bustin' Out All Over, and You'll Never Walk Alone. Carousel was innovative for its time, being one of the first musicals to contain a tragic plot. The original production opened on Broadway on April 19, 1945, and ran for 890 performances. The musical has enjoyed award-winning revivals (particularly the 1994 revival at the Vivian Beaumont Theatre) and has been adapted as a Cinemascope 55 film in 1956 and as a made-for-television special on videotape in 1967. It is particularly well-regarded among musicals by the theatre community, and Richard Rodgers, in his autobiography Musical Stages, said it was his favorite musical. Time magazine named it the best musical of the 20th century. History Theresa Helburn and Lawrence Langner of the Theatre Guild, producers of the blockbuster musical Oklahoma!, proposed to Rodgers and Hammerstein that they turn Molnar's Liliom into a musical. At first reluctant -- put off by the original setting (Hungary), the dark story, and a criminal anti-hero leading character -- they agreed to take on the project. Moving the setting to the New England coast was the key. R&H Theatricals website Both Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II said Carousel was their favorite collaboration. They broke new ground in musical theater storytelling with their extended music-and-dialog scenes, such as the "bench scene", which features "If I Loved You", and the haunting "Soliloquy" in which Billy imagines his future child. These scenes, especially the former, treat singing like spoken dialog set to music (much as in opera recitative, with the "recitative" singing leading up to the actual song). The final anthem "You'll Never Walk Alone" has assumed a life of its own as a funeral and graduation standard. It is also customarily sung by supporters of several association football (soccer) clubs, beginning with Liverpool F.C. Liverpool signature tune in the 1960s. "Liverpool or Celtic: who Walked Alone first?" The Guardian, March 12, 2003 In 1999, Time magazine in its "Best of the Century" list, named Carousel the Best Musical of the 20th century, writing that Rodgers and Hammerstein "set the standards for the 20th century musical". Time magazine, December 31, 1999 Ironically, in a highly critical review of the 1956 film version Time, in its March 19, 1956 issue, had also been critical of the stage musical. Plot synopsis Act I Two young female millworkers in freshly industrialized 1870s New England visit the town's carousel after work. One of them — demure Julie Jordan — shares a lingering glance and is flirted with by the carousel's barker, Billy Bigelow (instrumental piece: "Carousel Waltz"). Mrs. Mullin, owner of the carousel, arrives and tells Julie never to return to the carousel because Julie let Billy put his arm around her during the ride. Julie's friend, Carrie Pipperidge, and Julie argue with Mrs. Mullin. Billy arrives and initially sides with Mrs. Mullin (who flirts with him outrageously) until he realizes that Mrs. Mullin is just jealous of Julie, at which point he switches sides and is fired from his job. Carrie presses Julie for information about the carousel ride with Billy, but Julie is reticent about the encounter ("You're a Queer One, Julie Jordan"). Eventually satisfied, Carrie confides that she has a beau of her own: local fisherman Enoch Snow ("Mister Snow"). Billy returns and makes it clear that only Julie should stay with him. Carrie leaves after revealing that, if they stay out, they will lose their jobs at the mill. Mr. Bascombe, owner of the mill, and a policeman appear and warn Julie that Billy has taken money from other women. Bascombe offers to take Julie home so she can keep her job, but she refuses and gets fired, too. She and Billy, now alone, can talk freely, but neither can quite confess the growing attraction they feel for each other ("If I Loved You"). A month passes. At a spa owned by Julie's cousin, Nettie Fowler, sailors appear with clams for the evening's clambake. They are noisy, which spurs Carrie and the other female townfolk to jeer at them (this section is sung as a sort of recitative, rather than spoken). Nettie arrives and, spotting the sexual tension, leads them all in celebrating love and spring. An elaborate dance ensues ("June Is Bustin' Out All Over"). The men leave as Julie, now married to Billy, arrives. (He and his whaler friend Jigger have been missing all night.) Nettie tells Carrie to comfort Julie. To divert the other girls from their eavesdropping, Nettie then unsuccessfully encourages the girls to clean up. Julie confides in Carrie that Billy, now unemployed and living with Julie at Nettie's, is unhappy over the loss of his job and, out of frustration, has slapped Julie. Carrie also has happier news — she and Enoch are to be married. At this, the girls who have so far been feigning work, rush over, congratulate Carrie, and imagine the wedding day (reprise: "Mister Snow"). Enoch has arrived and startles the girls by joining them in song. The girls leave Julie, Carrie, and Enoch alone. Carrie tries to converse with Julie and Enoch, but Julie's unhappiness overcomes her: she bursts into tears in Enoch's arms. As she pulls herself together, Billy arrives with Jigger. He is openly rude to Enoch and then Julie, and he soon leaves along with Jigger, followed by a distraught Julie. Left alone, Carrie and Enoch extol the virtues of a life plan. Enoch reveals how he expects both to become rich selling herring and to have a large family with Carrie ("When The Children Are Asleep"). Meanwhile, Billy, Jigger, and other whalers sing of life on the sea ("Blow High, Blow Low"). The singing segues into a dance, with the local girls flirting with the whalers. Jigger tries to recruit Billy to help with a robbery, but Billy declines when Jigger tells him that the victim - Julie's former boss Mr. Bascombe - might have to be killed. Mrs. Mullin arrives and tries to tempt Billy back to the carousel (and to her), and he reveals he is unhappy with Julie. Julie arrives. There is almost an argument, but Mrs. Mullin leaves to go to the bank. Julie tells Billy of her pregnancy and they go inside. Mrs. Mullin and Jigger return and spar until Billy comes back out and tells Mrs. Mullin to leave. Overwhelmed with happiness by the news, and determined to provide financially for his future child, Billy decides to be Jigger's accomplice after all ("Soliloquy"). Act 1 ends with the whole town leaving for the clambake. Billy, who previously shunned the idea of going to the clambake, now realizes it is integral to his and Jigger's alibi: he decides to go too. Julie is delighted. Act II The act begins with the town reminiscing about the huge meal that they have just eaten ("This Was a Real Nice Clambake"). As everyone leaves to help clear up before the treasure hunt, Jigger tries to seduce Carrie. Unfortunately, Enoch walks in while Carrie is in a compromising position. He declares that he is finished with her ("Geraniums In The Winder"), as Jigger jeers ("Stonecutters Cut It On Stone"). The girls try to comfort Carrie, saying all men are bad. When Carrie turns to Julie for comfort, she reflects simply that all that matters is that "he's your feller and you love him" ("What's The Use Of Wondrin'?"). Then Julie sees Billy trying to sneak away with Jigger and, while trying to stop him, feels the knife hidden in his shirt. She begs him to give it to her, but he refuses and leaves to commit the robbery. Julie realizes that Billy is about to do something that may get him into trouble. Jigger and Billy gamble, using cards. At stake are their shares of the anticipated robbery spoils. Billy loses his share of the expected proceeds: his participation is now pointless. Unbeknownst to Billy and Jigger, Mr. Bascombe, the intended robbery victim, has already deposited the money he was expected to be carrying. He instead carries a gun. The robbery fails: Bascombe pulls his gun and starts shooting. Jigger escapes unharmed, but the police corner Billy. Billy stabs himself with his knife and dies; Julie arrives just in time for him to say his last words to her. Carrie tells Julie that Billy's death is not necessarily a bad thing. Enoch gets back together with Carrie and supports this view. Mrs. Mullin arrives, much to the disgust of the townfolk, but Julie lets her view the body. Mrs. Mullin does so, then runs off weeping. Everyone leaves except Julie. Nettie arrives on the scene and comforts her ("You'll Never Walk Alone"). Billy arrives at heaven's gate. There, a pair of blunt-spoken angels explain that, to enter, he must alleviate the distress he caused. Billy refuses to see a simple magistrate in Heaven: he demands to be taken directly to God to be judged ("The Highest Judge Of All"). The Starkeeper sends him back to earth. Stealing a star on the way down, he returns fifteen years after his suicide. His daughter, Louise, is now an angry and rebellious teen, mocked by Mr. Snow's snobbish and wealthy children because her father was a thief (instrumental: "Louise's Ballet"). Enoch and his children stop by Julie's house to pick up Carrie on the way to the graduation, and Enoch's son (Enoch Jr.) waits behind to talk to Louise. Louise reveals that she plans to run away from home with a carnival troupe she met, but when Enoch Jr. proposes, she decides to stay. He reveals, however, that his father would not think Louise an appropriate match. Insulted, Louise orders him to leave and bursts into tears. Billy, able to make himself visible or invisible at will, reveals himself to Louise; he pretends to be a friend of her father. Trying to cheer her up, he offers her a small gift — the star he stole from Heaven. She refuses it and, frustrated, he slaps her. As he makes himself invisible, Louise tells Julie what has happened. She reveals that the slap miraculously felt like a kiss, not a blow. Without allowing her to actually see him, Billy finally confesses his love to Julie (reprise: "If I Loved You"). Having thus made amends, he invisibly attends Louise's high-school graduation. The whole town shuns her and refuses to applaud her. Dr. Seldon, who strangely resembles the Starkeeper, tells the graduating class not to rely on their parents' success (advice directed at Enoch Jr.) or be held back by their parents' mistakes (directed at Louise). Seldon then leads everyone in a final chorus (reprise: "You'll Never Walk Alone"). Billy, still invisible, whispers to Louise, telling her to have confidence in herself. His silent words enter her mind and, inspired, she – along with Julie – joins the singing. This good deed redeems Billy, who wins entry into Heaven. Note: The graduation scene is a complete departure from Molnar's Liliom, in which Liliom is presumably condemned to Hell after slapping his daughter (even though, in Molnar's play, the slap also feels like a kiss). Production history Original Broadway The original production, directed by Rouben Mamoulian with choreography by Agnes de Mille, opened at Broadway's Majestic Theatre on April 19, 1945, and closed on May 24, 1947, after 890 performances. The original cast included John Raitt (Billy), Jan Clayton (Julie), Jean Darling (Carrie), Eric Mattson (Mr. Snow), Christine Johnson (Nettie), Murvyn Vye (Jigger), Bambi Linn (Louise), Jean Casto (Mrs. Mullin) and Russell Collins (the Starkeeper and Dr. Seldon). A two-year national tour and 1949 Broadway revival followed. Original West End Carousel premiered at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in June 1950, soon after Oklahoma! closed, for a run of over a year and a half. 1950 listingnodanw.com, accessed December 2, 2008 1957 New York revival The 1957 revival opened at New York City Center on September 11, 1957 and ran for 24 performances. The New York City Center Light Opera Company produced this revival. John Fearnley and Robert Pageant directed, and Agnes de Mille handled the choreography. The cast featured Barbara Cook (Julie Jordan), Howard Keel (Billy Bigelow), Pat Stanley (Carrie Pipperidge), Russell Nype (Mr. Snow), James Mitchell (Jigger), and Daniel Reed (Starkeeper). 1965 Lincoln Center revival In 1965, the Music Theater of Lincoln Center produced Carousel. John Raitt re-created the role of Billy Bigelow. The Starkeeper and Dr. Seldon were played by Edward Everett Horton in his final stage appearance. London's Royal National Theatre 1992 revival The Royal National Theatre (RNT) revival, directed by Nicholas Hytner and choreographed by Sir Kenneth MacMillan, opened on December 10, 1992. It played for sixteen weeks in the Lyttelton Theatre then transferred in September 1993 to the Shaftesbury Theatre where it ran until March 1994. This is Theatre listing for 1992 London revival The production starred Joanna Riding as Julie Jordan, Patricia Routledge as Nettie, Michael Hayden as Billy Bigelow, and Katrina Murphy as Carrie. Riding won the Olivier Award, Best Actress in a Musical, and Hayden was nominated for an Olivier Award. 1993 Official London Theatre listing 1994 Broadway revival The 1994 revival, a joint production of The Royal National Theatre and Lincoln Center Theater, opened at the Vivian Beaumont Theatre on March 24, 1994. It ran for 337 performances plus 38 previews. The production was a transfer of the 1992 RNT production of Carousel. The New York Times, March 31, 1994, Bruce Weber, Section C;Page 11 After the London run, an interracial production was directed by Hytner, with choreography by MacMillan. It featured Sally Murphy as Julie Jordan, Audra McDonald as Carrie Pipperidge, Shirley Verrett as Nettie and Hayden, again, as Billy Bigelow. The revival won five Tony Awards, including Best Revival of a Musical, best direction, best choreography. It received eight Drama Desk Award nominations, winning five. McDonald, in her first Broadway role, won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. McDonald and Hayden received the Theatre World Award. A Japanese tour followed. 1996/1997 U.S. national tour The London/Broadway production, directed by Hytner, choreographed by MacMillan, and produced by the Royal National Theatre, toured the U.S. for fifteen months. This was the first national exposure for Patrick Wilson, who played Billy Bigelow. Other cast members who eventually went on to Broadway and film careers include Sarah Uriarte Berry, Jennifer Laura Thompson and Brett Rickaby. 2002 New York Concert On June 6, 2002, Hugh Jackman as Billy Bigelow and Audra McDonald as Julie Jordan appeared in a special concert performance of Carousel at Carnegie Hall in New York. Gans, Andrew and Simonson, Robert."Hugh Jackman and Audra McDonald Ride the Carnegie Hall Carousel June 6",playbill.com, June 6, 2002 2008 West End revival After a Bromley tryout from 26 September 2008, arevival of Carousel opened at the Savoy Theatre on December 2, 2008, starring Jeremiah James as Billy Bigelow, Alexandra Silber as Julie Jordan, and Lesley Garrett as Nettie Fowler. The director is Lindsay Posner, with choreography by Adam Cooper. Initial reviews have been fair to positive. Coveney, Michael. "Carousel, Savoy Theatre, London", The Independent, 4 December 2008 de Jong, Nicholas. "Take an enchanting turn on a vivid and poignant Carousel", Evening Standard, 3 December 2008 Garrett and other cast members can be seen in the interval act of Eurovision Dance Contest 2008 where they perform medley of "June Is Busting Out All Over" and "You'll Never Walk Alone". Eurovision Dance Contest info page Cast albums The original 1945 production, 1945 cast album (selections) at Amazon.com the 1965 Lincoln Center production, 1965 cast album at Amazon.com and the 1992 1993 London cast album at Amazon.com and 1994 1994 Broadway revival cast album at Amazon.com productions all received original cast albums. The 1957 revival did not. Themes and issues Carousel was an opportunity for Oscar Hammerstein II to explore societal attitudes and prejudices in a musical play. The main social themes are social class, hypocrisy and conduct. Julie and Billy are working class; Enoch and (ultimately) Carrie are middle class. The second act illuminates differences between these two families. South Pacific would go on to return to social themes by highlighting and attacking racial prejudice. Domestic violence is another significant and controversial theme in the play. Billy's physical abuse of Julie is condemned by some of the characters, but accepted by Julie herself, who endures his slaps because she loves him and understands his emotional pain. Talkin' Broadway Regional News & Reviews - Washington, D.C. - Carousel - 11/25/04 Musical numbers Act I "The Carousel Waltz" "You're a Queer One, Julie Jordan" (omitted from the 1956 film, but included on the film's soundtrack album) "Mister Snow" "If I Loved You" "June Is Bustin' Out All Over" "June Is Bustin' Out All Over Dance Sequence" "Mister Snow (reprise)" (omitted from the 1956 film) "When the Children Are Asleep" (moved to just before "A Real Nice Clambake" in the 1956 film) "Blow High, Blow Low" (omitted from the 1956 film, but included on the film's soundtrack album) "Soliloquy" "Act I Finale" (omitted from the 1956 film) (reprise of "June Is Bustin' Out All Over") Act II "Entr'acte" (omitted from the 1956 film) "A Real Nice Clambake" The song "Such a Merry Party", from the 1959 musical Little Mary Sunshine, parodies "A Real Nice Clambake." "Geraniums in the Winder" (omitted from the 1956 film) "Stonecutters Cut It On Stone" "What's the Use of Wond'rin'?" "You'll Never Walk Alone" "The Highest Judge of All" (omitted from the 1956 film) "Louise's Ballet" "If I Loved You (reprise)" "Finale Ultimo: You'll Never Walk Alone (reprise)" "Exit Music" (omitted from the 1956 film) 1956 film and 1967 TV version A film version of the musical was made in 1956, starring Gordon MacRae and Shirley Jones. There was also a 1967 network television version. References External links Carousel info page on StageAgent.com - Carousel plot summary & character descriptions Flyrope.com page Review of 2008 UK revival R&H Theatricals | Carousel_(musical) |@lemmatized carousel:24 musical:21 richard:3 rodgers:5 music:5 oscar:3 hammerstein:5 ii:5 book:1 lyric:1 adapt:2 ferenc:1 molnar:5 play:8 liliom:4 transplant:1 budapest:1 setting:3 new:10 england:3 fishing:1 village:1 show:1 include:6 hit:1 number:2 love:10 june:10 bustin:5 never:8 walk:9 alone:11 innovative:1 time:7 one:4 first:5 contain:1 tragic:1 plot:3 original:8 production:12 open:6 broadway:10 april:2 run:8 performance:5 enjoy:1 award:7 winning:1 revival:18 particularly:2 vivian:2 beaumont:2 theatre:17 cinemascope:1 film:16 make:6 television:2 special:2 videotape:1 well:1 regard:1 among:1 community:1 autobiography:1 stage:3 say:4 favorite:2 magazine:3 name:2 best:8 century:4 history:2 theresa:1 helburn:1 lawrence:1 langner:1 guild:1 producer:1 blockbuster:1 oklahoma:2 propose:1 turn:3 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2,904 | Clarence_Brown | Clarence Brown (May 10, 1890 – August 17, 1987) was an American film director. Early life Born in Clinton, Massachusetts, to a cotton manufacturer, Brown moved to the South when he was eleven. He attended the University of Tennessee, graduating at the age of 19 with two degrees in engineering. An early fascination in automobiles led Brown to a job with the Stevens-Duryea Company, then to his own Brown Motor Car Company in Alabama. He later abandoned the car dealership after developing an interest in motion pictures around 1913. He was hired by the Peerless Studio at Fort Lee, New Jersey, and became an assistant to the great French-born director Maurice Tourneur. Career After serving in World War I, Brown was given his first co-directing credit (with Tourneur) for 1920s The Great Redeemer. Later that year, he directed a major portion of The Last of the Mohicans after Tourneur was injured in a fall. Brown moved to Universal in 1924, and then to MGM, where he stayed until the mid-1950s. At MGM he was one of the main directors of their female stars–he directed both Joan Crawford and Greta Garbo five times. Garbo referred to Brown as her favorite director. He not only made the difficult transition from silent cinema to sound cinema, but thrived there, proving himself to be a "actor's director": listening to his actors', respecting their instincts, and often incorporating their suggestions into scenes. In doing so, Brown created believable, under-played, naturalistic dialogue scenes stripped of melodrama, pulsing with the honest rhythms of real-life conversation. He was nominated five times (see below) for the Academy Award as a director, and once as a producer, but never received an Oscar. However, he did win Best Foreign Film for Anna Karenina at the 1935 Venice International Film Festival. Brown retired a wealthy man due to his real estate investments, but refused to watch new movies, as he feared they might cause him to restart his career. In the 1970s, Brown became a much-sought guest lecturer on the film-festival circuit, thanks in part to his connection with Garbo. The Clarence Brown Theater, on the campus of the University of Tennessee, is named in his honor. Filmography The Great Redeemer (1920) The Last of the Mohicans (1920) The Foolish Matrons (1921) The Light in the Dark (1922) Don't Marry for Money (1923) The Acquittal (1923) The Signal Tower (1924) Butterfly (1924) The Eagle (1925) The Goose Woman (1925) Smouldering Fires (1925) Flesh and the Devil (1926) Kiki (1926) A Woman of Affairs (1928) The Trail of '98 (1929) Navy Blues (1929) Wonder of Women (1929) Anna Christie (1930) - Academy Award nomination for Best Director (see NOTE below) Romance (1930) - Academy Award nomination for Best Director (see NOTE below) Inspiration (1931) Possessed (1931) A Free Soul (1931) - Academy Award nomination for Best Director Emma (1932) Letty Lynton (1932) The Son-Daughter (1932) Looking Forward (1933) Night Flight (1933) Sadie McKee (1934) Chained (1934) Ah, Wilderness! (1935) Anna Karenina (1935) Wife vs. Secretary (1935) The Gorgeous Hussy (1936) Conquest (1937) Of Human Hearts (1938) Idiot's Delight (1939) The Rains Came (1939) Edison, the Man (1940) Come Live with Me (1941) They Met in Bombay (1941) The Human Comedy (1943) - Academy Award nominations for Best Director and for Best Picture The White Cliffs of Dover (1944) National Velvet (1944) - Academy Award nomination for Best Director The Yearling (1946) - Academy Award nomination for Best Director Song of Love (1947) Intruder in the Dust (1949) To Please a Lady (1950) Angels in the Outfield (1951) When in Rome (1952) Plymouth Adventure (1952) NOTE: In 1929/1930, Brown received one Academy Award nomination for two films. According to the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, "As allowed by the award rules for this year, a single nomination could honor work in one or more films." References An Extraordinary Town, How one of America's smallest towns shaped the world - A Historical Marketing Book by A. J. Bastarache. Featuring a comprehensive section on Clarence Brown. External links "An Extraordinary Town, How one of America's smallest towns shaped the world" A book on Clarence Brown's home town with an extensive section on the life and contributions of Clarence Brown. Academy Awards Database Information available on the actual dates and nominations, plus commentary on the nominations for multiple roles/films in 1929/1930. | Clarence_Brown |@lemmatized clarence:5 brown:15 may:1 august:1 american:1 film:7 director:12 early:2 life:3 bear:1 clinton:1 massachusetts:1 cotton:1 manufacturer:1 move:2 south:1 eleven:1 attend:1 university:2 tennessee:2 graduate:1 age:1 two:2 degree:1 engineering:1 fascination:1 automobile:1 lead:1 job:1 stevens:1 duryea:1 company:2 motor:1 car:2 alabama:1 later:2 abandon:1 dealership:1 develop:1 interest:1 motion:2 picture:3 around:1 hire:1 peerless:1 studio:1 fort:1 lee:1 new:2 jersey:1 become:2 assistant:1 great:3 french:1 born:1 maurice:1 tourneur:3 career:2 serve:1 world:3 war:1 give:1 first:1 co:1 directing:1 credit:1 redeemer:2 year:2 direct:2 major:1 portion:1 last:2 mohican:2 injure:1 fall:1 universal:1 mgm:2 stay:1 mid:1 one:5 main:1 female:1 star:1 joan:1 crawford:1 greta:1 garbo:3 five:2 time:2 refer:1 favorite:1 make:1 difficult:1 transition:1 silent:1 cinema:2 sound:1 thrive:1 prove:1 actor:2 listen:1 respect:1 instinct:1 often:1 incorporate:1 suggestion:1 scene:2 create:1 believable:1 played:1 naturalistic:1 dialogue:1 strip:1 melodrama:1 pulse:1 honest:1 rhythm:1 real:2 conversation:1 nominate:1 see:3 academy:10 award:10 producer:1 never:1 receive:2 oscar:1 however:1 win:1 best:8 foreign:1 anna:3 karenina:2 venice:1 international:1 festival:2 retire:1 wealthy:1 man:2 due:1 estate:1 investment:1 refuse:1 watch:1 movie:1 fear:1 might:1 cause:1 restart:1 much:1 sought:1 guest:1 lecturer:1 circuit:1 thanks:1 part:1 connection:1 theater:1 campus:1 name:1 honor:2 filmography:1 foolish:1 matron:1 light:1 dark:1 marry:1 money:1 acquittal:1 signal:1 tower:1 butterfly:1 eagle:1 goose:1 woman:3 smoulder:1 fire:1 flesh:1 devil:1 kiki:1 affair:1 trail:1 navy:1 blue:1 wonder:1 christie:1 nomination:10 note:3 romance:1 inspiration:1 possess:1 free:1 soul:1 emma:1 letty:1 lynton:1 son:1 daughter:1 look:1 forward:1 night:1 flight:1 sadie:1 mckee:1 chain:1 ah:1 wilderness:1 wife:1 v:1 secretary:1 gorgeous:1 hussy:1 conquest:1 human:2 heart:1 idiot:1 delight:1 rain:1 come:2 edison:1 live:1 meet:1 bombay:1 comedy:1 white:1 cliff:1 dover:1 national:1 velvet:1 yearling:1 song:1 love:1 intruder:1 dust:1 please:1 lady:1 angel:1 outfield:1 rome:1 plymouth:1 adventure:1 accord:1 art:1 science:1 allow:1 rule:1 single:1 could:1 work:1 reference:1 extraordinary:2 town:5 america:2 small:2 shape:2 historical:1 marketing:1 book:2 j:1 bastarache:1 feature:1 comprehensive:1 section:2 external:1 link:1 home:1 extensive:1 contribution:1 database:1 information:1 available:1 actual:1 date:1 plus:1 commentary:1 multiple:1 role:1 |@bigram car_dealership:1 motion_picture:2 maurice_tourneur:1 last_mohican:2 joan_crawford:1 greta_garbo:1 anna_karenina:2 real_estate:1 guest_lecturer:1 award_nomination:7 external_link:1 |
2,905 | Emperor_Junna | Emperor Junna (淳和天皇 Junna-tennō) (786-840) was the 53rd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He was a son of Emperor Kammu. He reigned from 823 to 833. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon, pp. 102-106; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp.282-283; Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, p. 164. Genealogy Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) Brown, pp. 264. [Up until the time of Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their imina) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.] was Ōtomo shinnō (大伴親王). Titsingh, p. 103; Brown, p. 282. Junna had six Empresses and Imperial consorts and 13 Imperial sons and daughters. Brown, p. 282. Events of Junna's life After the rebellion of Emperor Heizei. he became the crown prince of Emperor Saga. Kōnin 14, 17th day of the 4th month 823): In the 14th year of Emperor Saga's reign (嵯峨天皇14年), he abdicated; and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received by a his younger brother, Emperor Kammu's third son. Shortly thereafter, Emperor J.ter stepping down from the throne, two former Emperors were alive. In this period, Saga was called the Senior Retired Emperor and Junna was known as the Junior Retired Emperor. Brown, pp. 282-283. Jōwa 7, on the 8th day of the 5th month (840): Former-Emperor Juntoku died at the age of 55. Brown, p. 284; Varely, p. 164. Kugyō Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.-- kugyō of Junna-tennō (in French) In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Junna's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included: Sadaijin, Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu (藤原冬嗣), 825-826. Sadaijin, Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 832-843. Udaijin, Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 825-832. Udaijin, Kiyohara no Natsuno (清原夏野), 832-837. [see above] Naidaijin (not appointed) Dainagon, Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 821-825. Dainagon, Yoshimine no Yasuyo (良峯安世)(half brother of Emperor Junna), 828-830. Dainagon, Kiyohara no Natsuno (清原夏野), 828-832 Dainagon, Fujiwara no Mimori (藤原三守), 829-838 Eras of Junna's reign The years of Junna's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. Titsingh, p. 102. Kōnin (810-824) Tenchō (824-834) Consorts and Children Empress: Imperial Princess Shōshi/Masako (正子内親王) (810-879), daughter of Emperor Saga Imperial Prince Tsunesada (恒貞親王) (825-884), the Crown Prince (deposed in 842) Imperial Prince Tsunefusa (恒統親王) (830-842) Imperial Prince Motosada (基貞親王) (?-869) Hi(Empress as posthumous honors): Imperial Princess Koshi (高志内親王) (789-809), daughter of Emperor Kammu Imperial Prince Tsuneyo (恒世親王) (806-826) Imperial Princess Ujiko (氏子内親王) (?-885), 16th Saiō in Ise Shrine(823-827) Imperial Princess Yushi (有子内親王) (?-862) Imperial Princess Sadako (貞子内親王) (?-834) Nyogō: Nagahara no Motohime (永原原姫) Nyogō: Tachibana no Ujiko (橘氏子), daughter of Tachibana no Nagana Koui: Fujiwara no Kiyoko (藤原潔子), daughter of Fujiwara no Nagaoka Court lady: Princess Otsugu (緒継女王) (787-847) Court lady: Ōnakatomi no Yasuko (大中臣安子), daughter of Ōnakatomi no Fuchiio Imperial Prince Yoshisada (良貞親王) (?-848) Court lady: Ōno no Takako (大野鷹子), daughter of Ōno no Masao Imperial Princess Hiroko (寛子内親王) (?-869) Court lady: Tachibana no Funeko (橘船子), daughter of Tachibana no Kiyono Imperial Princess Takaiko (崇子内親王) (?-848) Court lady: Tajihi no Ikeko (丹犀池子), daughter of Tajihi no Kadonari Imperial Princess Tomoko (同子内親王) (?-860) Court lady: Kiyohara no Haruko (清原春子), daughter of Kiyohara no Natsuno Imperial Princess Meishi (明子内親王) (?-854) Unknown lady Mune no Chushi (統忠子) (?-863), removed from the Imperial Family by receiving the family name from Emperor (Shisei Kōka賜姓降下) in 862. Notes References Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Kasai, Masaki. (1991). Tokyo: Yamakawa Shuppan-sha. ISBN 4-634-60270-9; 13-ISBN 978-4-634-60270-0; OCLC 166930357 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Junna |@lemmatized emperor:21 junna:10 淳和天皇:1 tennō:2 japan:6 accord:1 traditional:1 order:1 succession:2 son:3 kammu:3 reign:6 titsingh:4 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:4 brown:7 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:3 varley:3 h:3 paul:3 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 p:7 genealogy:1 ascension:1 chrysanthemum:1 throne:2 personal:2 name:5 imina:2 time:2 jomei:2 long:1 people:1 generally:1 use:1 number:1 character:1 diminish:1 ōtomo:1 shinnō:1 大伴親王:1 six:1 empress:3 imperial:19 consort:2 daughter:10 event:1 life:2 rebellion:1 heizei:1 become:1 crown:2 prince:7 saga:4 kōnin:2 day:2 month:2 year:2 abdicate:1 senso:1 receive:2 younger:1 brother:2 third:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 j:1 ter:1 step:1 two:1 former:2 alive:1 period:1 call:1 senior:1 retired:1 know:1 junior:1 retire:1 jōwa:1 juntoku:1 die:1 age:1 varely:1 kugyō:3 公卿:1 collective:1 term:1 powerful:1 men:2 attach:1 court:7 pre:1 meiji:1 eras:1 french:1 general:1 elite:1 group:1 include:2 three:1 four:1 hereditary:1 courtier:1 whose:1 experience:1 background:1 would:1 bring:1 pinnacle:1 career:1 apex:1 daijō:1 kan:1 sadaijin:2 fujiwara:7 fuyutsugu:1 藤原冬嗣:1 otsugu:4 藤原緒嗣:3 udaijin:2 kiyohara:4 natsuno:3 清原夏野:2 see:2 naidaijin:1 appoint:1 dainagon:4 yoshimine:1 yasuyo:1 良峯安世:1 half:1 mimori:1 藤原三守:1 era:2 specifically:1 identify:1 one:1 nengō:1 tenchō:1 child:1 princess:10 shōshi:1 masako:1 正子内親王:1 tsunesada:1 恒貞親王:1 depose:1 tsunefusa:1 恒統親王:1 motosada:1 基貞親王:1 hi:1 posthumous:1 honor:1 koshi:1 高志内親王:1 tsuneyo:1 恒世親王:1 ujiko:2 氏子内親王:1 saiō:1 ise:1 shrine:1 yushi:1 有子内親王:1 sadako:1 貞子内親王:1 nyogō:2 nagahara:1 motohime:1 永原原姫:1 tachibana:4 橘氏子:1 nagana:1 koui:1 kiyoko:1 藤原潔子:1 nagaoka:1 lady:7 緒継女王:1 ōnakatomi:2 yasuko:1 大中臣安子:1 fuchiio:1 yoshisada:1 良貞親王:1 ōno:2 takako:1 大野鷹子:1 masao:1 hiroko:1 寛子内親王:1 funeko:1 橘船子:1 kiyono:1 takaiko:1 崇子内親王:1 tajihi:2 ikeko:1 丹犀池子:1 kadonari:1 tomoko:1 同子内親王:1 haruko:1 清原春子:1 meishi:1 明子内親王:1 unknown:1 mune:1 chushi:1 統忠子:1 remove:1 family:2 shisei:1 kōka賜姓降下:1 note:1 reference:1 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 jien:1 c:1 future:1 past:1 translation:2 study:1 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 isbn:4 kasai:1 masaki:1 tokyo:1 yamakawa:1 shuppan:1 sha:1 oclc:2 ponsonby:2 fane:1 richard:1 arthur:1 brabazon:1 house:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 society:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 chronicle:1 god:1 sovereign:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 also:1 list:1 cult:1 |@bigram emperor_junna:3 emperor_kammu:3 kammu_reign:1 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 brown_delmer:2 delmer_et:1 et_al:1 varley_h:2 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 genealogy_ascension:1 ascension_chrysanthemum:1 chrysanthemum_throne:1 imina_brown:1 emperor_jomei:1 jomei_personal:1 emperor_imina:1 diminish_jomei:1 jomei_reign:1 emperor_heizei:1 abdicate_succession:1 succession_senso:1 younger_brother:1 shortly_thereafter:1 kugyō_kugyō:1 kugyō_公卿:1 公卿_collective:1 pre_meiji:1 meiji_eras:1 eras_kugyō:1 hereditary_courtier:1 apex_daijō:1 daijō_kan:1 sadaijin_fujiwara:2 udaijin_fujiwara:1 naidaijin_appoint:1 nengō_titsingh:1 imperial_princess:9 saiō_ise:1 ise_shrine:1 daughter_tachibana:2 daughter_fujiwara:1 daughter_tajihi:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 ponsonby_fane:1 fane_richard:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
2,906 | Funk | Funk is an American musical style that originated in the mid to late 1960s when African American musicians blended soul music, soul jazz and R&B into a rhythmic, danceable new form of music. Funk "de-emphasizes melody and harmony and brings a strong rhythmic groove of electric bass and drums" to the foreground. Unlike R&B and Soul songs, which had many chord changes, funk songs are often based on an extended vamp on a single chord. Like much of African-inspired music, funk typically consists of a complex groove with rhythm instruments such as electric guitar, electric bass, Hammond organ, and drums playing interlocking rhythms. Funk bands sometimes have a horn section of several saxophones, trumpets, and in some cases, a trombone, which plays rhythmic "hits". Influential African American funk performers include James Brown, Sly and the Family Stone, George Clinton and Parliament-Funkadelic, Curtis Mayfield, The Meters, The Funk Brothers, Bootsy Collins, Rick James, and Prince. Notable 1970s funk bands included Rufus feat. Chaka Khan, Earth, Wind & Fire, Eric Burdon & War, Tower of Power, Average White Band, The Ohio Players, The Commodores, Kool & the Gang and Cameo, though many of these most famous bands in the genre also played disco and soul extensively. Funk music was a major influence on the development of 1970s disco music, and funk samples were present in most styles of house music and early hip hop music. It is also the main influence of go-go. Funk also has left its mark on new wave, and its pulse is evident in post punk as well. Characteristics Funk creates an intense groove by using strong bass guitar riffs and bass lines. Like Motown recordings, funk songs used bass lines as the centerpiece of songs. Notable funk bassists include Bootsy Collins, Kenny Franklin,Bernard Edwards, George Porter, Jr., Louis Johnson, Francis "Rocco" Prestia of Tower of Power and Larry Graham of Sly & the Family Stone. Graham is generally credited with inventing the percussive "slap bass technique." Slap bass' mixture of thumb-slapped low notes and finger "popped" high notes allowed the bass to have a drum-like rhythmic role, which became a distinctive element of funk. Some of the best known and most skillful soloists in funk have jazz backgrounds. Trombonist Fred Wesley and saxophonist Maceo Parker are among the most notable musicians in the funk music genre, with both of them working with James Brown, George Clinton and Prince. Sometimes 1970s funk bands are divided to "hardcore funk" and "sophisticated funk", the former concept referring to earthy sound in the vein of James Brown or Funkadelic, while "sophisticated funk" refers to artists such as Tower Of Power, Earth, Wind & Fire, The Blackbyrds or The Brothers Johnson, who use softer sounds and usually incorporate soul ballads into their material. Funk utilized the same extended chords found in bebop jazz, such as minor chords with added sevenths and elevenths, or dominant seventh chords with altered ninths. However, unlike bebop jazz, with its complex, rapid-fire chord changes, funk virtually abandoned chord changes, creating static single chord vamps with little harmonic movement, but with a complex and driving rhythmic feel. The chords used in funk songs typically imply a dorian or mixolydian mode, as opposed to the major or natural minor tonalities of most popular music. Melodic content was derived by mixing these modes with the blues scale. In the 1970s, jazz music drew upon funk to create a new subgenre of jazz-funk, which can be heard in 1970s recordings by Miles Davis (On The Corner) and Herbie Hancock (Head Hunters). In funk bands, guitarists typically play in a percussive style, often using the wah-wah sound effect and muting the notes in their riffs to create a percussive sound. Guitarist Ernie Isley of The Isley Brothers and Eddie Hazel of Funkadelic were notably influenced by Jimi Hendrix's improvised solos. Eddie Hazel, who worked with George Clinton, is one of the most notable guitar soloists in funk. Ernie Isley was tutored at an early age by Jimi Hendrix himself, when he was a part of The Isley Brothers backing band and lived in the attic temporarily at the Isleys' household. Jimmy Nolen and Phelps Collins are famous funk rhythm guitarists who both worked with James Brown. History Origin of funk The word "funk", once defined in dictionaries as body odor or the smell of sexual intercourse, commonly was regarded as coarse or indecent. African-American musicians originally applied "funk" to music with a slow, mellow groove, then later with a hard-driving, insistent rhythm because of the word's association with sexual intercourse. This early form of the music set the pattern for later musicians. funk, funky The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. The music was slow, sexy, loose, riff-oriented and danceable. Funky typically described these qualities. In jam sessions, musicians would encourage one another to "get down" by telling one another, "Now, put some stank ("stink"/funk) on it!" At least as early as 1907, jazz songs carried titles such as Buddy Bolden's "Funky Butt." Who Started Funk Music, Real Music Forum As late as the 1950s and early 1960s, when "funk" and "funky" were used increasingly in the context of Soul music, the terms still were considered indelicate and inappropriate for use in polite company. According to one source, New Orleans-born drummer Earl Palmer "was the first to use the word "funky" to explain to other musicians that their music should be made more syncopated and danceable." [http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2008/sep/23/popandrock.usa Obituary, The Guardian] The distinctive characteristics of African-American musical expression are rooted in West African musical traditions, and find their earliest expression in spirituals, work chants/songs, praise shouts, gospel and blues. In more contemporary music, gospel, blues and blues extensions and jazz often flow together seamlessly. Funky music is an amalgam of soul music, soul jazz and R&B. James Brown and others have credited Little Richard's mid-1950s road band, with Earl Palmer on drums, as being the first to put the funk in the rock 'n' roll beat. Little Richard Following his temporary exit from secular music to become an evangelist, some of Little Richard's band members joined Brown and the Famous Flames, beginning a long string of hits in 1958. James Brown and funk as a genre By mid-1960s, James Brown had developed his signature groove that emphasized the downbeat – with heavy emphasis on the first beat of every measure to etch his distinctive sound, rather than the backbeat that typified African American music. Lessons in listening - Concepts section: Fantasy, Earth Wind & Fire, The Best of Earth Wind & Fire Volume I, Freddie White. (1998, January). Modern Drummer Magazine, pp. 146–152. Retrieved January 21, 2007. Brown often cued his band with the command "On the one!," changing the percussion emphasis/accent from the one-two-three-four backbeat of traditional soul music to the one-two-three-four downbeat – but with an even-note syncopated guitar rhythm (on quarter notes two and four) featuring a hard-driving, repetitive brassy swing. This one-three beat launched the shift in Brown's signature funk music style, starting with his 1964 hit single, "Out of Sight" and his 1965 hit, "Papa's Got a Brand New Bag." Brown's innovations pushed the funk music style further to the forefront with releases such as "Cold Sweat" (1967), "Mother Popcorn" (1969) and "Get Up (I Feel Like Being A) Sex Machine" (1970), discarding even the twelve-bar blues featured in his earlier music. Instead, Brown's music was overlaid with "catchy, anthemic vocals" based on "extensive vamps" in which he also used his voice as "a percussive instrument with frequent rhythmic grunts and with rhythm-section patterns ... [resembling] West African polyrhythms" -- a tradition evident in African American work songs and chants. Collins, W. (2002, January 29). James Brown. St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture. Retrieved January 12, 2007. Throughout his career, Brown's frenzied vocals, frequently punctuated with screams and grunts, channeled the "ecstatic ambiance of the black church" in a secular context. Although "Papa's Got a Brand New Bag" and "Cold Sweat" were widely credited as the prototypes that launched the funk genre, "Out of Sight" was the breakthrough hit that signaled the shift in Brown's sound to establish funk as a distinct genre. Jones, S. (2006, December 25). "Godfather of Soul" James Brown dies at 73. USAToday. Retrieved March 27, 2007. In a 1990 interview, Brown offered his reason for switching the rhythm of his music: "I changed from the upbeat to the downbeat.... Simple as that, really." Pareles, J. (2006, December 26). James Brown, the "Godfather of Soul" dies at 73. The New York Times. Retrieved January 31, 2007. According to Maceo Parker, Brown's former saxophonist, playing on the downbeat was at first hard for him and took some getting used to. Reflecting back to his early days with Brown's band, Parker reported that he had difficulty playing "on the one" during solo performances, since he was used to hearing and playing with the accent on the second beat. Gross, T. (1989). Musician Maceo Parker (Fresh Air WHYY-FM audio interview). National Public Radio. Retrieved January 22, 2007. Other musical groups picked up on the riffs, rhythms, and vocal style developed by James Brown and his band, and the style began to grow. Dyke & the Blazers based in Phoenix, Arizona, released "Funky Broadway" in 1967, perhaps the first record of the soul/rock 'n' roll era to have "funky" in the title. Meanwhile, on the West Coast, Charles Wright & the Watts 103rd Street Rhythm Band was releasing funk tracks beginning with its first album in 1967, culminating in the classic single "Express Yourself" in 1970. The Meters defined funk in New Orleans, starting with their Top Ten R&B hits "Sophisticated Cissy" and "Cissy Strut" in 1969. Another group who would define funk in the decade to come were The Isley Brothers, whose funky 1969 #1 R&B hit, "It's Your Thing", signaled a breakthrough in African-American music, bridging the gaps of the rock of Jimi Hendrix and the upbeat soul of Sly & the Family Stone and Mother's Finest. 1970s and P-Funk In the 1970s, a new group of musicians further developed the "funk rock" approach innovated by George Clinton, with his main bands Parliament and, later, Funkadelic. Together, they produced a new kind of funk sound heavily influenced by jazz and psychedelic rock. The two groups had members in common and often are referred to collectively as "Parliament-Funkadelic." The breakout popularity of Parliament-Funkadelic gave rise to the term "P-Funk," which referred to the music by George Clinton's bands, and defined a new subgenre. "P-funk" also came to mean something in its quintessence, of superior quality, or sui generis, as in the lyrics from "P-Funk (Wants to Get Funked Up)" a hit single from Parliament's album "Mothership Connection": The 1970s was probably the era of highest mainstream visibility for funk music. Other prominent funk bands of the period included Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, Dennis Coffey, The Brothers Johnson, Earth, Wind & Fire, Bootsy's Rubber Band, The Meters, Tower of Power, Ohio Players, The Commodores, War, Kool & the Gang, Confunkshun, Slave, Cameo, the Bar-Kays, Zapp, Johnny Guitar Watson, and many more. George Clinton also played a masterminding role in Bootsy's Rubber Band and several other bands he put together, including Parlet, the Horny Horns, and the Brides of Funkenstein, all part of the P-Funk conglomerate. Already, in late 1960s, many jazz musicians — among them Horace Silver, Herbie Hancock (with his Headhunters band), Grover Washington, Jr., and Cannonball Adderley, Lou Donaldson, Les McCann, and Eddie Harris — had begun to combine jazz and funk. Sometimes this approach is called "jazz-funk". Other Jazz-funk interpreters was Bob James and Manzel. Additionally, in the late 1960s work of Miles Davis (with girlfriend/wife Betty Davis) and Tony Williams helped to create Jazz fusion and influenced funk. Herbie Hancock defined instrumental jazz-funk music in the 70's and 80's with his albums Thrust, Man-Child, Secrets, Sunlight, Mr. Hands, and Flood. Funk music was exported to Africa in the late 1960s, and melded with African singing and rhythms to form Afrobeat. Fela Kuti was a Nigerian musician who is credited with creating the music and terming it "Afrobeat". In the early 1970’s, when funk was becoming more mainstreamed, artists like Parliament Funkadelic, the Isley Brothers, Sly and the Family Stone, Ohio Players, Confunkshun, among others, were successful and getting radio play but according to Billboard Magazine, only Sly & the Family Stone had singles which made it to #1. In 1970 ‘Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin)’ hit # 1 as did ‘Family Affair’ in 1971 affording Sly and Funk crossover success and greater recognition unlike some of their equally talented but moderately popular peers before the onslaught of Disco around the middle of that decade which remained hugely popular thru the early 80's. Disco music owed a great deal to funk. Many early disco songs and performers came directly from funk-oriented backgrounds. Some disco music hits, for example "I'm Your Boogie Man" by KC & The Sunshine Band and "Le Freak" by Chic, included riffs or rhythms very similar to funk music. 1980s and stripped-down funk In the 1980s, many of the core elements that formed the foundation of the P-Funk formula began to be usurped by electronic machines and synthesizers. Horn sections of saxophones and trumpets were replaced by synth keyboards, and the horns that remained were given simplified lines, and few horn solos. The classic keyboards of funk, like the Hammond B3 organ and the Fender Rhodes piano began to be replaced by the new digital synthesizers such as the Yamaha DX7. Electronic drum machines began to replace the "funky drummers" of the past, and the slap and pop style of bass playing were often replaced by synth keyboard bass lines. As well, the lyrics of funk songs began to change from suggestive double entendres to more graphic and sexually explicit content. Rick James was the first funk musician of the 1980s to assume the funk mantle dominated by P-Funk in the 1970s. His 1981 album Street Songs with the singles "Give It To Me Baby" and "Super Freak" resulted in James becoming a bit of a rock star, and paved the way for the future direction of explicitness in funk. Prince used a stripped-down instrumentation similar to Rick James, and went on to have as much of an impact on the sound of funk as any one artist since James Brown. Prince combined eroticism, technology, an increasing musical complexity, and an outrageous image and stage show to ultimately create a musical world as ambitious and imaginative as P-Funk. The Time, originally conceived as an opening act for Prince and based on his "Minneapolis sound", hybrid mixture of funk, rock, pop, R&B & new wave. They went on to define their own style of stripped-down funk based on tight musicianship and sexual themes. Bands that began during the 1970s P-Funk era incorporated some of the uninhibited sexuality of Prince and state-of-the-art technological developments to continue to craft funk hits. Cameo, Zapp, The Gap Band, The Bar-Kays, and The Dazz Band all found their biggest hits in the 80s, but by the latter half of the 80s, funk had lost its commercial impact. Afrika Bambaataa, influenced by Kraftwerk, created "Electro Funk", a minimalist machine-driven style of funk with his single "Planet Rock" in 1982. Also known simply as Electro, this style of funk was driven by synthesizers and the electronic rhythm of the TR-808 drum machine. The single "Renegades of Funk" followed in 1983. Funk became an international style of music, and is played by bands from such countries as Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, Japan, Algeria, India, South Africa, Brazil, and Nigeria. Recent developments While funk was all but driven from the radio by slick commercial R&B and New Jack Swing, its influence continued to spread. Rock bands began adding elements of Funk to their sound, creating new combinations of "funk rock" and funk metal. Red Hot Chili Peppers, Living Colour, Jane's Addiction, Prince, Primus, Fishbone, Faith No More, Incubus and Rage Against the Machine spread the approach and styles garnered from funk pioneers to new audiences in the mid-to-late 1980s and the 1990s. These bands later inspired the underground mid-1990s funkcore movement and current funk-inspired artists like Outkast, The Black Eyed Peas, Malina Moye and Van Hunt. In the 1990s, artists like Me'shell Ndegeocello and the (predominantly UK-based) Acid jazz movement including artists and bands such The Brand New Heavies, Incognito, Galliano, Omar and Jamiroquai carried on with strong elements of funk. However, they never came close to reaching the commercial success of funk in its heyday, with the exception of Jamiroquai whose album Travelling without Moving sold about 11.5 million units worldwide. Meanwhile in Australia and New Zealand, bands playing the pub circuit, such as Supergroove, Skunkhour and The Truth, preserved a more instrumental form of funk. Since the middle of the 80s hip hop artists regularly sample old funk tunes. James Brown is said to be the most sampled artist in the history of hip hop. while P-Funk is the second most sampled artist; samples of old Parliament and Funkadelic songs formed the basis of West Coast G Funk. Original beats that feature funk-styled bass or rhythm guitar riffs are also not uncommon. Dr. Dre (considered the progenitor of the G-Funk genre) has freely acknowledged to being heavily influenced by George Clinton's psychedelic funk: "Back in the 70s that's all people were doing: getting high, wearing Afros, bell-bottoms and listening to Parliament-Funkadelic. That's why I called my album The Chronic and based my music and the concepts like I did: because his shit was a big influence on my music. Very big". Dr. Dre > Biography at MyStrands Digital Underground was a large contributor to the rebirth of funk in the 1990s by educating their listeners with knowledge about the history of funk and its artists. George Clinton branded Digital Underground as "Sons of the P", as their second full length release is also titled. DU's first release, Sex Packets, was full of funk samples, with the most widely known "The Humpty Dance" sampling Parliament's "Let's Play House". A very strong funk album of DU's was their 1996 release Future Rhythm. Much of contemporary club dance music, drum and bass in particular has heavily sampled funk drum breaks. Funk is a major element of certain artists identified with the Jam band scene of the late 1990s and 2000s. Phish began playing funkier jams in their sets around 1996, and 1998's The Story of the Ghost was heavily influenced by funk. Medeski Martin & Wood, Robert Randolph & The Family Band, Galactic, Soulive, and Karl Denson's Tiny Universe all drawing heavily from the funk tradition. Lettuce, a band of Berklee College Of Music graduates, was formed in the late 1990s as a pure-funk emergence was being felt through the Jam band scene. Many members of the band including keyboardist Neal Evans went on to other projects such as Soulive or the Sam Kininger Band. In April 2008, they released a new album entitled Rage! Since the mid 1990s the nu-funk scene, centered around the Deep Funk collectors scene, is producing new material influenced by the sounds of rare funk 45's. Labels include Desco, Soul Fire, Daptone, Timmion, Neapolitan, Kay-Dee, and Tramp. Bands include Sharon Jones & The Dap-Kings, The Soul Destroyers, The Grits, Chris Joss, Speedometer, The Poets of Rhythm, The Neapolitans, Quantic Soul Orchestra, The New Mastersounds, Breakestra, The Bamboos and Lefties Soul Connection. These labels often release on 45 rpm records. Although specializing in music for rare funk DJ's, there has been some crossover into the mainstream music industry, such as Sharon Jones' 2005 appearance on Late Night with Conan O'Brien. In the early 2000s, some punk funk bands such as Out Hud perform in the indie rock scene. Indie band Rilo Kiley, in keeping with their tendency to explore a variety of rockish styles, incorporated funk in to their song "The Moneymaker" on the album Under the Blacklight. Prince, with his recent albums has given a rebirth to the funk sound with songs like "The Everlasting Now", "Musicology" and "Black Sweat". Funk has also been incorporated into modern Urban Pop & R&B music by many female singers such as Beyoncé Knowles with her 2003 hit "Crazy In Love", Jennifer Lopez in 2005 with Get Right which samples Maceo Parker's Soul Power '74 horn sound, and also Amerie with her song 1 Thing. Funk rock Funk rock (also written as funk-rock or funk/rock) fuses funk and rock elements. ISBN 0415969190 Its earliest incarnation was heard in the late '60s through the mid-'70's by musicians such as Jimi Hendrix, Frank Zappa, Gary Wright, David Bowie, as well as Mother's Finest, and Funkadelic on their earlier albums. Characteristics Funk rock is a fusion of funk and rock. Many instruments may be incorporated into the music, but the overall sound is defined by a definitive bass or drum beat and electric guitars. The bass and drum rhythms are influenced by funk music but with more intensity, while the guitar can be funk-or-rock-influenced, usually with distortion. History The Yardbirds, with Happenings Ten Years Time Ago (released in 1966) were the first well-known recording artist to combine the rhythms and riffs of early funk to psychedelic rock sound, followed by Jimi Hendrix. An early example is his song "Little Miss Lover" (1967). His live album Band of Gypsys features funky riffs and rhythms throughout (especially the song "Power of Soul") and his unfinished album also included a couple of funk-rock songs such as "Freedom", "Izabella", "Straight Ahead", and "Voodoo Child (Slight Return)", which many consider to have the funkiest opening riff of its era. Other pioneers of funk-rock evolved in the 1970s in the music of the British rock-band Trapeze, The Rolling Stones (Miss You & Hot Stuff), Led Zeppelin (The Crunge,Trampled Under Foot) & singer David Bowie with his hit song "Fame". The Mark III & IV lineups of Deep Purple (with Glenn Hughes of Trapeze, David Coverdale of Whitesnake and Tommy Bolin of The James Gang) featured mature elements of funk in such songs as "Sail Away (Tomorrow)" and "Coronarias Redig", enough of which was believed to prompt the exit of guitarist Ritchie Blackmore. American artists Frank Zappa ("My Guitar Wants To Kill Your Mama" song and "Overnite Sensation" LP), Steve Miller Band ("Fly Like An Eagle"), Gary Wright ("My Love is Alive", good example of early Synth-funk as well), along with bands like Graham Central Station, Rufus, Mother's Finest, Funkadelic & the Isley Brothers ("The Heat Is On" & 3 + 3 albums ) all experimented with the blending of Funk & Rock rhythms. The Big Boys, Xavion(An Afro-American group whose Asylum/Mirage LP in '84 pre-dated Living Colour) & Rick James along with New Wave mainstays Blondie & the Talking Heads created their own sound mix of Punk Funk in the early 1980s. One famous funk rock song of the period was Another One Bites the Dust by British Rock icons Queen.The songs Last Child and Walk This Way, by Aerosmith, are Funk Rock songs. The genre's representatives from the late 1980s to present day include the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Jane's Addiction, Fishbone, Primus, Living Colour, Spin Doctors, Cake, as well as Prince & spinoffs The Time & one hit wonders Mazarati, who all have created, expanded and defined the Funk Rock style. In the early 1990s, several bands combined funky rhythms with Heavy Metal guitar sounds, resulting in "Funk metal", where the emphasis is in using much Heavier distorted guitar sounds in the mix. Funk Rock employs more of a lighter (crunch) distorted Guitar sound, and the musical emphasis tends to be more Beat driven with prominent Bass lines, more rhythmic in the R&B sense. Subgenres Electro music Electro music is a hybrid of electronic music and funk. It essentially follows the same form as funk, and retains funk's characteristics, but is made entirely (or partially) with a use of electronic instruments such as the TR-808. Vocoders are often used. Early artists include Herbie Hancock, Zapp (band), Afrika Bambaataa and Vaughn Mason & Crew. Funkcore Funkcore is a fusion of hardcore punk and funk created in the 1980s. Hard, loud and fast guitars are featured, but unlike in most rock music, it does not overpower the bass, which is heavy and driving. Drums are often funk-influenced, but with intense hardcore-styled pounding. Synthesizers or horn sections sometimes make an appearance, although they are not integral. Examples of funkcore bands are Jungle Fever, Adequate Seven, and Big Boys. Punk-funk Punk-funk (or funk-punk) is a mix of punk or post-punk songs with funk elements, very similar to dance-punk. Some times, the punk influence is replaced by an alternative rock influence. The first appearance of this subgenre was in 1979, when Gang Of Four released their debut album, Entertainment!. In the 1980s, bands such as Talking Heads, Blondie, Loose Ends, ESG, Rick James, and The Clash made punk-funk become more famous. The style was revitalized by "The New New York Underground Scene", such as The Rapture, Radio 4, Liars, !!!, Out Hud and LCD Soundsystem starting to mix their usual punk-funk with house, dub and hip-hop. Funk metal Funk metal (sometimes typeset differently such as funk-metal) is a fusion genre of music which emerged in the 1980s. It typically incorporates elements of funk and heavy metal. It features hard-driving heavy metal guitar riffs, the pounding bass rhythms characteristic of funk, and sometimes hip hop-style rhymes into an alternative rock approach to songwriting. Rage Against The Machine, Faith No More, Primus, SkyCoil, Living Colour, Mammal (band) and 24-7 Spyz are such bands, as is Infectious Grooves or Suicidal Tendencies (Robert Trujillo's bass work) G-Funk G-Funk is a fusion genre of music which combines gangsta rap and funk that are sampled by Dr.Dre and Livin' Like Hustlers. See also List of funk musicians African American music Notes References | Funk |@lemmatized funk:159 american:12 musical:7 style:18 originate:1 mid:7 late:12 african:12 musician:13 blend:1 soul:19 music:56 jazz:17 r:9 b:9 rhythmic:7 danceable:3 new:24 form:8 de:1 emphasize:2 melody:1 harmony:1 bring:1 strong:4 groove:6 electric:4 bass:18 drum:11 foreground:1 unlike:4 song:25 many:10 chord:9 change:6 often:9 base:7 extended:2 vamp:3 single:9 like:13 much:4 inspired:2 typically:5 consist:1 complex:3 rhythm:19 instrument:4 guitar:14 hammond:2 organ:2 play:13 interlock:1 band:48 sometimes:6 horn:7 section:5 several:3 saxophone:2 trumpet:2 case:1 trombone:1 hit:15 influential:1 performer:2 include:12 james:21 brown:23 sly:6 family:7 stone:6 george:9 clinton:8 parliament:9 funkadelic:11 curtis:1 mayfield:1 meter:3 brother:8 bootsy:4 collins:4 rick:5 prince:9 notable:4 rufus:2 feat:1 chaka:1 khan:1 earth:5 wind:5 fire:7 eric:1 burdon:1 war:2 tower:4 power:6 average:1 white:2 ohio:3 player:3 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2,907 | Mazda_MX-5 | The Mazda MX-5, also known as Miata () in North America and Roadster () in Japan, is a two-seater roadster sports car built by Mazda in Hiroshima, Japan – introduced in 1989 and now in its third generation. According to a 2003 Edmunds.com article, "the Miata deserves credit not only for reviving a dormant passion for roadsters, but for emboldening other manufacturers." Generations and overview Now in its third generation, the MX5's first generation, the NA, sold over 400,000 units from 1989 to 1997 – with a straight-4 engine to 1993, a engine thereafter (with a de-tuned 1.6 as a budget option in some markets) – recognizable by its pop-up headlights. The second generation (NB) was introduced in 1998 with a slight increase in engine power; it can be recognized by the fixed headlights, and the glass rear window. The third generation (NC) was introduced in 2005 with a engine. The MX-5 was conceived as an elemental small roadster – with light weight and minimal mechanical complexity limited only by legal and safety requirements; technologically modern, but a philosophically direct descendant of the small British roadsters of the 1960s such as the Triumph Spitfire, Austin-Healey Sprite, MG Midget and Lotus Elan. The MX-5 was designed with a traditional front-engine, rear-wheel drive layout and four-wheel independent double wishbone suspension. It has a longitudinally-mounted four cylinder engine coupled to a manual transmission (5 speed for NA, 5 or 6 speed in NB & NC); an automatic transmission is a cost option. The body is a conventional, but light, unibody or monocoque construction, with a (detachable) rear subframe. The MX-5 also incorporates a truss marketed as the Powerplant Frame (PPF) which connects the engine to the differential, minimizing flex and contributing to responsive handling. Many MX-5s feature limited slip differentials and anti-lock braking system. Traction control is an option available on NC models. The earlier cars weighed in at just over a ton, with engine power output usually . The later cars were heavier, with higher power engines. With an approximate 50:50 front/rear weight balance, the car has nearly neutral handling. Inducing oversteer is easy and very controllable, thus making the MX-5 a popular choice for amateur and stock racing, including, in the USA, the Sports Car Club of America's Solo2 autocross and Spec Miata race series. Beginning with the third generation, Mazda consolidated worldwide marketing using the MX-5 name, though enthusiasts in the USA still refer to it as Miata, a name that means "reward" in Old High German. The MX-5 has won over 150 awards in its history, including making Car and Driver magazine's annual Ten Best list seven times; Wheels Magazine 's Car of the Year for 1989 and 2005; Sports Car Internationals "best sports car of the 1990s" and "ten best sports cars of all time"; 2005-2006 Car of the Year Japan; and 2005 Australian Car of the Year. From idea to production In 1976, Bob Hall, a journalist at Motor Trend magazine who was an expert in Japanese cars and fluent in the language, met Kenichi Yamamoto, head of Research and Development at Mazda. Yamamoto asked Hall what kind of car Mazda should make in the future: In 1981, Bob Hall moved to a product planning position with Mazda US and again met Kenichi Yamamoto, now chairman of Mazda Motors, who remembered their conversation about a roadster and gave Hall the go-ahead to research the idea further. In 1983, the idea turned concept was approved under the "Offline 55" program, an internal Mazda initiative that sought to change the way new models were developed. Thus, under head of project Masakatsu, the concept development was turned into a competition between the Mazda design teams in Tokyo and California. The California team proposed a front-engine, rear-wheel drive layout, codenamed Duo 101, in line with the British roadster ancestry, but their Japanese counterparts favored the more common front-engine, front-wheel drive layout or the rear mid-engine, rear-wheel drive layout. The first round of judging the competing designs was held in April 1984. At this stage, designs were presented solely on paper. The mid-engined car appeared the most impressive, although it was known at the time that such a layout would struggle to meet the noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) requirements of the project. It was only at the second round of the competition in August 1984, when full-scale clay models were presented, that the Duo 101 won the competition and was selected as the basis for Mazda's new light-weight sports car. The Duo 101, so named as either a soft top or hard top could be used, incorporated many key stylistic cues inspired by the Lotus Elan, a 1960s roadster. International Automotive Design (IAD) in Worthing, England was commissioned to develop a running prototype, codenamed V705. It was built with a fiberglass body, a engine from a Mazda Familia and components from a variety of early Mazda models. The V705 was completed in August 1985 and taken to the U.S.A. where it rolled on the roads around Santa Barbara and got positive reactions. The project received final approval on 18 January 1986. The model's codename was changed to P729 as it moved into production phase, under head of program Toshihiko Hirai. The task of constructing five engineering mules (more developed prototypes) was again allocated to IAD, which also conducted the first front and rear crash tests on the P729. While Tom Matano and Koichi Hayashi worked on the final design, the project was moved to Japan for engineering and production details. By 1989, with a definitive model name now chosen, the MX-5 (as in "Mazda eXperimental", project number 5) was ready to be introduced to the world as a true lightweight sports car, weighing just . Jinba ittai The design credo Mazda has used across the three generations of the MX5's development was the phrase , which translates loosely into English as "rider (jin) horse (ba) as one (ittai)." Referring to the design of the third generation, Mazda MX-5 program manager (NA), Takao Kijima said: With the first generation of the Miata, the phrase was developed into five specific core design requirements: That the car would be as compact and as light as possible while meeting global safety requirements. That the cockpit would comfortably accommodate two full-stature occupants with no wasted space. That the basic layout would continue with the original’s front-midship rear-drive configuration with the engine positioned ahead of the driver but behind the front axle for 50:50 weight distribution. That all four wheels would be attached by wishbone or multi-link suspension systems to maximize tire performance, road grip and dynamic stability. And that a power-plant frame would again provide a solid connection between the engine and rear-mounted differential to sharpen throttle response. First generation (NA) The MX-5 was unveiled at the Chicago Auto Show on February 10, 1989, with a price tag of US$13,800 (US$24,109 in 2008 adjusted for inflation ). The MX-5, with production code NA, was made available for delivery to buyers worldwide in the following dates: March 1989 in Japan, July 1989 (as a 1990 model) in the U.S.A., 1990 in Europe. An optional hardtop was made available at the same time, in sheet moulding compound (SMC). Demand initially outstripped production, fueled by enthusiastic press reviews. In Japan, the car was not badged as a Mazda, as the company was experimenting with the creation of different marques for deluxe models, similar to Nissan's Infiniti and Toyota's Lexus. Instead, the Mazda MX-5 was sold as the Eunos Roadster''' in that market. The body shell of the NA was all-steel with a light-weight aluminium hood. Overall dimensions were in length, in width, and in height. Drag coefficient was indicated as 0.38. Suspension was an independent double wishbone on all four wheels, with an anti-roll bar at the front and rear. Four wheel-disc brakes, ventilated at the front, were behind alloy wheels with 185/60HR14 radial tires. The original MX-5 came with a double overhead cam inline four-cylinder engine, producing and of torque. The engine employs an electronic fuel injection system using a vane-type air flow meter and a camshaft angle sensor instead of a distributor. This engine, codename B61P, had been previously used in the 323 series. Standard transmission was 5-speed manual. Japan and the USA got an optional automatic transmission which proved unpopular; these markets also received an optional viscous limited slip rear differential, although were only available for cars with a manual transmission. The NA could reach in 9.4 seconds and had a top speed of . This first generation of Miata (often referred to as the NA) included a special edition in 1991, produced in British Racing Green with the first use of tan interior. 1500 LE (Limited Edition)cars were produced in 1993. This model featured red leather interior, upgraded stereo, Nardi shift knob, leather wrapped steering wheel, cruise, limited slip differential, power windows, power mirrors, power steering, air conditioning, BBS wheels, Bilstein shocks, front and rear spoilers, ABS brakes, stainless sill plates and Harley style peanut tank door speaker trim. All '93 LE cars came in black. In November 1993, in an attempt to boost sales, Mazda of Australia introduced an automatic transmission as an option on the MX-5 for the first time. Unfortunately, sales continued to decline, and hit an all-time low of just 197 units in 1995. For the 1994 model year, the first-generation MX-5 was freshened with the introduction of the more powerful BP-ZE engine, dual airbags and a limited slip differential in some markets. The chassis was substantially braced to meet new side-impact standards, most visibly by adding a "track bar" between the seatbelt towers inside the car, but also to the front and rear subframes. Also, 1994 and 1995 were the only years in which Mazda offered a light metallic blue paint (Laguna Blue Mica), making these cars rare collectors cars to some. 1994 also saw the introduction of the "R" package, a sport-themed package with Bilstein shocks and subtle underbody spoilers, in addition to the removal of unnecessary items such as power steering. No body style changes were made, though. The new engine produced , which was then increased by for the 1996 model year. The base weight increased to . Performance was improved slightly, the additional power being partly offset by the extra weight. In some markets such as Europe, the engine continued to be available as a lower-cost option, but was detuned to . This lower-powered model did not receive all the additional chassis bracing of the new . Japanese and US cars were fitted with an optional Torsen LSD, which was far more durable than the previous viscous differential. The retractable headlights of the NA (front car) were replaced by fixed headlights on the NB (rear car). There were a number of trim levels and special editions available, determined by local Mazda marketing departments. In the US, the base model was offered for US$13,995 at launch and was very basic, with manual windows, steel wheels, and without A/C or power steering. The "A Package" offered power steering, a leather-wrapped steering wheel, aluminum alloy wheels and cassette stereo. The "B Package" added power windows, along with cruise control and headrest speakers, while the "C Package" included a tan interior and top and leather seats. The "R Package" was for racing, and the annual special editions were formalized as "M Editions". These included all of the luxury options from the "C Package" as well as special paint and, sometimes, special wheels. In the UK, to celebrate Mazda's 24 hours of Le Mans win, Mazda brought out a special edition of the MX-5, with the winner's color scheme (see Mazda 787B) and came equipped with BBR (Brodie Brittain Racing) turbo conversion; the car is one of the most sought after special edition cars of the MX-5s. The first generation MX-5 was phased out with the 1997 model year (with the exception of 400 limited edition Berkeley models sold only in the UK in 1998 to mark the end of the NA), with the final 1500 NAs produced for the US market being the "STO" ("Special Touring Option") versions. Second generation (NB) In 1998, Mazda released the second-generation MX-5, production code NB, for the 1999 model year. The NB featured a more powerful engine and external styling cues borrowed from the third generation Mazda RX-7 model. Prices in the United States, the main market for the MX-5, started at US$19,770 (US$26,275 in 2008 adjusted for inflation). Although many parts of the interior and body were different, the most notable changes were the headlights: the first generation's retractable headlights no longer passed pedestrian safety tests and were replaced by fixed ones. The new car grew slightly in width compared to the earlier model; its dimensions were: length , width , height and wheelbase . Without options, the NB weighed exactly . The new generation was slightly more aerodynamic than the original, with a Cd figure of 0.36. The NB continued to employ four-wheel independent suspension, with enlarged anti-roll bars at the front and rear, but the wheels, tires and brakes were significantly upgraded: anti-lock braking system was offered as an option; alloy wheels were now or in diameter and in width, depending on the trim package; sports models were equipped with the larger wheels and 195/50VR15 tires. The BP-4W engine remained at but received several minor updates. The engine compression ratio was raised from 9.0:1 to 9.5:1 by adding slightly domed pistons; the intake cam was changed to a solid lifter design with a stronger cam; the intake runners in the head were straightened and the intake manifold was mounted higher up. Mazda's Variable Intake Control System was introduced, which effectively gave a long narrow intake manifold at low rpm for better swirl, changing to a short, free-flowing manifold at high rpm for maximum breathing. Power output of the new engine was quoted at with of torque. The B6 engine remained available in Europe and Japan. The base-model NB could reach in 7.9 s and had a top speed of . In 1999, Mazda celebrated the 10th anniversary of the MX-5 with the 10th Anniversary Model, a limited edition featuring some until-then exclusive features, namely a six-speed transmission and Bilstein shock absorbers; performance figures were slightly different, with faster acceleration but lower top speed than the standard NB. For the 2001 model year, a facelift to the second-generation MX-5 was released. There were some minor exterior changes, with a press-release of July 18, 2000 announcing the changes as "resulting in an even sportier and more forceful look". Some cockpit elements were changed, with the instrument panel gauges receiving a white face and red numbers. The seats were also upgraded, incorporating more support in the side bolsters and taller headrests. Added for top models were wheels with 205/45VR16 low-profile tires and larger brakes at the front and rear. The upgraded tires and suspension allowed the new model to pull 0.88 g in lateral grip in tests by Car and Driver magazine. The body was strengthened, gaining 16% in bending rigidity and 22% in torsional rigidity. With the minimum of options, the 2001 model weighed . The BP-Z3 engine was slightly modified and now featured variable valve timing on the intake camshaft. The intake and exhaust system also received a minor upgrade. These modifications resulted in a power output of (Japan and Australia) or (US only). In the United States, Mazda erroneously quoted the power figure for the Japanese and Australian model in early catalogues. Car and Driver magazine and numerous owners confirmed the missing power, and Mazda offered to buy back the 2001 cars due to those misleading power claims. Owners who did not take up the buy back offer were offered an apology and free servicing for the warranty period. 2002 Laser Blue Mica (NB 2.5) with front skirt 2002 saw the launch of the MX5 SP. The MX-5 SP was developed and sold in Australia and its turbocharged engine produced at 6800 rpm. Only 100 of these cars were built. The SP was very expensive in comparison to a standard MX5 at the time yet offered blistering performance. In 2003 Mazda launched a campaign to target a younger group of drivers with the introduction of the Shinsen Version (SV) Miata. The Shinsen (Japanese for "Fresh and New,") provided an intermediate step between the base model and the pricier LS. Equipped with most standard features on the LS, such as cruise control and aluminum brush trim, the SV added a touch of comfort and style without a hefty price tag. This limited production model also shared an inverted color scheme of the same year Special Edition. With a titanium silver exterior, dark blue top and interior, the Shinsen Version was a handsome addition to the Miata family. 2005 Lava Orange Mazdaspeed Miata next to a 2004 Velocity Red Mazdaspeed Miata The 2004 model year saw the introduction of the official turbocharged Mazdaspeed MX-5, Roadster Turbo in Japan. It featured an IHI RHF5 VJ35 turbocharger equipped variant of the BP-4W engine that produced at 6000 rpm with a front-mounted air-to-air intercooler. Other features included a special suspension, upgraded transmission and clutch assemblies, upgraded drivetrain components, Racing Hart alloy wheels, special interior trim. The 2004 Mazdaspeed MX-5 was only available in Velocity Red Mica and Titanium Gray Metallic while the 2005 model was available additionally in Lava Orange Mica and Black Mica. Of the 5,428 Mazdaspeed MX-5s produced during model years 2004 and 2005, 4,000 were produced in 2004; the 2005 production run was shortened to only 1428, due to a fire at the production facility. Also during the 2004 model year, a division of Mazda in Japan produced the Roadster Coupé, with an integral hardtop roof. The body structure was reworked to incorporate the roof for a substantial increase in chassis rigidity and a weight increase of . Production was limited to 350 units for Japan only. Third generation (NC) Production of the third-generation MX-5, code NC, began May 17, 2005, for delivery in August, for the 2006 model year. This was partially due to the declining sales of the MX-5 during its second generation run. The easiest way to distinguish the third-generation MX-5 is to look for fender bulges over the wheel wells. The exterior styling resembles the original design, but unlike the update from NA to NB, which was mostly a nose/tail/interior change, the NC shares no components with the NB, except for the side-panel turning-lights on non-USA models. The suspension has changed from a 4-wheel double wishbone setup to a front wishbone/rear multilink setup. Technologies like traction control and stability control were added to increase driveability. For the USA, the engine is the new 16-valve, MZR I4, producing and coupled to either a 5-speed or a 6-speed manual transmission or with the optional 6-speed automatic transmission. A limited slip differential is available with the 6-speed option. In Australia the MZR is offered, rated at and and the 6-speed transmission and LSD are standard. In Europe, two engines are offered: the MZR rated at and , coupled to the 6-speed manual transmission; and a new MZR, rated at and , coupled to the 5-speed manual transmission. A six-speed automatic transmission, with steering wheel mounted paddle shifters, is optional. A test by Car and Driver magazine revealed a 0- time of 6.5 s for the U.S.-spec NC. Manufacturer figures for the European-spec model are: 0- in 9.4 s () and 7.9 s (). The NC was launched with a special edition called "3rd Generation Limited" which featured added chrome accents and special wheels. 3500 were built worldwide (300 in the UK, 750 in the USA), delivered in advance of standard models. The NC offers a wider range of accessories for customization than the earlier generations. The softtop, in cloth instead of vinyl, can now be chosen in more than two colors: black and cream as previously, but also grey, camel, blue and green; and the interior can be customized to the exterior paint color. 2007 True Red Power Retractable Hard Top In July 2006, Mazda unveiled a coupé convertible version of the NC with a three-piece folding hardtop, named "MX-5 Roadster Coupe" in Europe, "Roadster Power Retractable Hard Top" in Japan, and "MX-5 Miata Power Retractable Hard Top" in the USA. Adding to the weight of a comparable model with soft top, the hard top takes 12 seconds to raise or lower; in a departure from the competition, it does not take any of the existing trunk space when folded down. The first units were delivered to customers in late August, for a price premium less than the cost of a separate hard top. Performance times are slightly affected with the weight increase, to 9.6 s () and 8.2 s () from 0-, but top speed is increased from 196km/h (121.8mph) to 200km/h (124.3mph) () and from to (), for the European-spec model. For 2008, Mazda released a Special Edition MX-5 in Icy Blue exterior, with exclusive Saddle Brown folding top, with matching leather with blue stitching steering wheel, seats, and hand brake. The Special Edition also featured a silver-accented shift knob, dark-silver finished instrument panel with chrome accents, special alloy wheels, stainless steel MX-5 scuff plate, and chrome front headlight bezel, grille surround and fog lamp surround. The 2008 Special Edition was limited to 750 units in the US. Facelift 2009 Mazda MX-5 soft-top (US) 2009 Mazda MX-5 hardtop (US) The 2009 MX-5 facelift debuted at the 2008 Paris Auto Show. Major changes concern the restyled front which now incorporates elements from Mazda’s newer models like the larger grille and new head- and fog lights. Further restyled elements are the side skirts, rear bumper and the tail lights. The hardtop Roadster Coupe now features a mesh grille bordered by a chrome frame and chrome elements inside the headlamps and outer door handles. The instrument panel gained darker features and redesigned graphics for the gauges. To create more leg space in the cabin, a protrusion from the door pockets was eliminated. The 118 kW 2.0-liter engine was upgraded to allow for a 500 rpm higher rev limit and features an improved, sportier sound. The suspension and gearbox have been fine-tuned; latter offers smoother shifts and automatic transmission will be introduced in Europe for the first time. Safety In the 2002 Euro NCAP Safety Ratings, the MX5 manufactured in 2002 received 4 out of 5 stars. Production numbers and detailsSee also: List of Mazda MX-5 colors and special editions.+Source: official Mazda recordsYearProductionSales (U.S.)Sales (Global)198812 (pre-production cars) 198945,26623,05235,807199095,64035,94475,789199163,43431,24071,586199252,71224,96453,031199344,74021,58845,155199439,62321,40038,826199531,88620,17435,673199633,61018,40833,205199727,03717,21832,035199858,68219,84549,205199944,85117,73846,370200047,49618,29944,573200138,87016,48639,258200240,75414,39238,917200330,10610,92032,990200424,2329,35626,531200529,9509,80114,316200648,38916,89722,5462007 15,0752008 10,977Total797,293373,774735,813 The 250,000th MX-5 rolled out of the factory on November 9, 1992; the 500,000th, in February 8, 1999; the 750,000th, in March 2004; and the 800,000th in January 2007. See also List of Mazda MX-5 colors and special editions Mazda MX-5 10th Anniversary Model Spec Miata, a class of racing cars in the U.S. Mazda MX5 Championship, a UK one make series References Long, B. MX-5 Miata - The full story of the world's favourite sports car'', Veloce Publishing, 2002. ISBN 1-903706-21-1. Carey, J. (March, 2005). "New Mazda MX-5". Wheels (Australia), p. 48. Mazda MX-5 SE. Retrieved November 5, 2006. Club MX-5 Portugal - History page Retrieved February 9, 2007. 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2,908 | Kenneth_Lee_Pike | Kenneth Lee Pike (June 9 1912–December 31 2000), also known during his life as Ken Pike, was an American linguist and anthropologist. He was the originator of the theory of tagmemics and coiner of the terms "emic" and "etic". Life Pike was born in Woodstock, Connecticut, and studied theology at Gordon College, graduating with a B.A. in 1933. He initially wanted to do missionary work in China; when this was denied him, went on in 1935 to study Amerindian languages at the Summer Institute of Linguistics (S.I.L.) at the University of Oklahoma, learning Mixtec from native speakers in Mexico. In 1937 Pike went to the University of Michigan, where he worked for his doctorate in linguistics under Edward Sapir. His research involved living among the Mixtecs, and he and his wife Evelyn developed a written system for the Mixtec language. After gaining his Ph. D. In 1942, Pike became president of Summer Institute in Linguistics (SIL). The Institute's main function was to produce translations of the Judæo-Christian Bible into unwritten languages, and in 1951 Pike published the Mixtec New Testament. He was the President of SIL International from 1942 to 1979. As well as and in parallel with his role at SIL, Pike spent thirty years at the University of Michigan, during which time he served as chairman of its linguistics department, professor of linguistics, and director of its English Language Institute (he did pioneering work in the field of English language learning and teaching) and was later Professor Emeritus of the university. He was a member of National Academy of Sciences, the Linguistic Society of America (LSA), the Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States (LACUS), and the American Anthropological Association. He served as president of LSA and LACUS. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize 15 years in a row and the Templeton Prize three years (Headland 2001:506). Work Pike is best known for his distinction between the emic and the etic. "Emic" (as in "phonemics") refers to the subjective understanding and account of meaning in the sounds of languages, while "etic" (as in phonetics") refers to the objective study of those sounds. Pike argued that only native speakers are competent judges of emic descriptions, and are thus crucial in providing data for linguistic research, while investigators from outside the linguistic group apply scientific methods in the analysis of language, producing etic descriptions which are verifiable and reproducible. Pike himself carried out studies of indigenous languages in Australia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Ghana, Java, Mexico, Nepal, New Guinea, Nigeria, the Philippines, and Peru. Pike developed his theory of tagmemics to help with the analysis of languages from Central and South America, by identifying (using both semantic and syntactic elements) strings of linguistic elements capable of playing a number of different roles. Pike's approach to the study of language put him outside the circle of the "generative" movement begun by Noam Chomsky, a dominant linguist, since Pike believed that the structure of language should be studied in context, not just single sentences, as seen in the title of his magnum opus "Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior" (1967). He became well known for his "monolingual demonstrations". He would stand before an audience, with a large number of chalkboards. A speaker of a language unknown to him would be brought in to work with Pike. Using gestures and objects, not asking questions in a language that the person might know, Pike would begin to analyze the language before the audience. Pike also developed the constructed language Kalaba-X for use in teaching the theory and practice of translation. When asked whether he was a missionary or a linguist, he replied "I am a mule." He explained that a mule is part horse, part donkey, combining traits of each. He pointed out that sometimes he did more of the work of a horse, other times he did more of the work of a donkey, but he was always both (Headland 2001:508). Bibliography Primary texts See Complete list of Pike's publications (over 250) 1943: Phonetics, a Critical Analysis of Phonetic Theory and a Technique for the Practical Description of Sounds (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press) 1967: Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behaviour (The Hague: Mouton) 1970: Rhetoric: Discover and Change, with R.E. Young and Alton Becker (New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World) Secondary texts Emily A. Denning, "Kenneth L. Pike", in Encyclopedia of Anthropology ed. H. James Birx (2006, SAGE Publications; ISBN 0-7619-3029-9) Headland, Thomas N. 2001. "Kenneth Lee Pike (1912-2000)." American Anthropologist 103(2): 505-509. Pike, Eunice V. 1981. Ken Pike: Scholar and Christian. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. See also Wycliffe Bible Translators JAARS SIL External links www.sil.org/klp/ Biographical profile at SIL, with autobiographical essays by Pike Langmaker profile of Kalaba-X | Kenneth_Lee_Pike |@lemmatized kenneth:3 lee:2 pike:22 june:1 december:1 also:3 know:4 life:2 ken:2 american:3 linguist:3 anthropologist:2 originator:1 theory:6 tagmemics:2 coiner:1 term:1 emic:4 etic:4 bear:1 woodstock:1 connecticut:1 study:6 theology:1 gordon:1 college:1 graduate:1 b:1 initially:1 want:1 missionary:2 work:7 china:1 deny:1 go:2 amerindian:1 language:17 summer:3 institute:5 linguistics:6 l:2 university:5 oklahoma:1 learn:1 mixtec:3 native:2 speaker:3 mexico:2 michigan:3 doctorate:1 edward:1 sapir:1 research:2 involve:1 living:1 among:1 mixtecs:1 wife:1 evelyn:1 develop:3 write:1 system:1 gain:1 ph:1 become:2 president:3 sil:6 main:1 function:1 produce:2 translation:2 judæo:1 christian:2 bible:2 unwritten:1 publish:1 new:3 testament:1 international:1 well:2 parallel:1 role:2 spend:1 thirty:1 year:3 time:2 serve:2 chairman:1 department:1 professor:2 director:1 english:2 pioneer:1 field:1 learning:1 teaching:1 later:1 emeritus:1 member:1 national:1 academy:1 science:1 linguistic:5 society:1 america:2 lsa:2 association:2 canada:1 united:1 state:1 lacus:2 anthropological:1 nominate:1 nobel:1 prize:2 row:1 templeton:1 three:1 headland:3 best:1 distinction:1 phonemics:1 refers:2 subjective:1 understanding:1 account:1 meaning:1 sound:3 phonetics:2 objective:1 argue:1 competent:1 judge:1 description:3 thus:1 crucial:1 provide:1 data:1 investigator:1 outside:2 group:1 apply:1 scientific:1 method:1 analysis:3 verifiable:1 reproducible:1 carry:1 indigenous:1 australia:1 bolivia:1 ecuador:1 ghana:1 java:1 nepal:1 guinea:1 nigeria:1 philippine:1 peru:1 help:1 central:1 south:1 identify:1 use:3 semantic:1 syntactic:1 element:2 string:1 capable:1 play:1 number:2 different:1 approach:1 put:1 circle:1 generative:1 movement:1 begin:2 noam:1 chomsky:1 dominant:1 since:1 believe:1 structure:3 context:1 single:1 sentence:1 see:3 title:1 magnum:1 opus:1 relation:2 unified:2 human:2 behavior:1 monolingual:1 demonstration:1 would:3 stand:1 audience:2 large:1 chalkboard:1 unknown:1 bring:1 gesture:1 object:1 ask:2 question:1 person:1 might:1 analyze:1 constructed:1 kalaba:2 x:2 teach:1 practice:1 whether:1 reply:1 mule:2 explain:1 part:2 horse:2 donkey:2 combine:1 trait:1 point:1 sometimes:1 always:1 bibliography:1 primary:1 text:2 complete:1 list:1 publication:2 critical:1 phonetic:1 technique:1 practical:1 ann:1 arbor:1 press:1 behaviour:1 hague:1 mouton:1 rhetoric:1 discover:1 change:1 r:1 e:1 young:1 alton:1 becker:1 york:1 harcourt:1 brace:1 world:1 secondary:1 emily:1 denning:1 encyclopedia:1 anthropology:1 ed:1 h:1 james:1 birx:1 sage:1 isbn:1 thomas:1 n:1 eunice:1 v:1 scholar:1 dallas:1 wycliffe:1 translator:1 jaars:1 external:1 link:1 www:1 org:1 klp:1 biographical:1 profile:2 autobiographical:1 essay:1 langmaker:1 |@bigram edward_sapir:1 professor_emeritus:1 nobel_prize:1 templeton_prize:1 bolivia_ecuador:1 noam_chomsky:1 magnum_opus:1 ann_arbor:1 hague_mouton:1 harcourt_brace:1 wycliffe_bible:1 external_link:1 |
2,909 | Media_bias | Media bias refers to the real and perceived bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media, in the selection of which events and stories are reported and how they are covered. The term "media bias" usually implies a pervasive or widespread bias contravening the standards of journalism, rather than the perspective of an individual journalist or article. The direction and degree of media bias in various countries is widely disputed, although its causes are both practical and theoretical. Practical limitations to media neutrality include the inability of journalists to report all available stories and facts, and the requirement that selected facts be linked into a coherent narrative (Newton 1989). Since it is impossible to report everything, some selectivity is inevitable. Government influence, including overt and covert censorship, biases the media in some countries. Market forces that can result in a biased presentation include the ownership of the news source, the selection of staff, the preferences of an intended audience, pressure from advertisers, or reduced funding due to lower ratings or governmental funding cuts. Political affiliations arise from ideological positions of media owners and journalists. The space or air time available for reports, as well as deadlines needing to be met, can lead to incomplete and apparently biased stories. Types of bias Advertising bias, corporate media depends on advertising revenue for funding. This relationship promotes a bias to please the advertisers. Ethnic or racial bias, including racism, nationalism. Corporate bias, coverage' of political campaigns in such a way as to favor or oppose corporate interests, and the reporting of issues to favor the interests of the owners of the news media or its advertisers. Some critics view the financing of news outlets through advertisers as an inherent bias. Class bias, including bias favoring one social class and bias ignoring (or exaggerating) social or class divisions. Political bias, including bias in favor of or against a particular political party, candidate, or policy. Other complaints are: the American media has an "either or" view by only focusing on Republicans or Democrats, and ignoring other lines of thought such as socialism and libertarianism. Mainstream bias, a tendency to report what everyone else is reporting, and to gather news from a relatively small number of easily available sources. Religious and cultural bias, including bias in which one religious or nonreligious viewpoint is given preference over others. Bias based on sex, age, background, education, language, among others. (For instance woman's issues are rarely featured in mainstream news, and a poorly written letter won't make it into the Letters to the Editor section.) Sensationalism, bias in favor of the exceptional over the ordinary. This includes the practice whereby exceptional news may be overemphasized, distorted or fabricated to boost commercial ratings; entertainment news is often subjected to sensationalism. Exaggerated influence of minority views: Like sensationalism, this is a tendency to emphasize the new and the different over the status quo or existing consensus. This may be done in an attempt to be "fair", or to find something worth reporting. Bias toward ease or expediency: This can be a tendency to present information which is already widely reported in other news media, i.e. "jumping on the bandwagon" or "following the leader", presentation of "fluff pieces" which are of questionable journalistic merit (such as coverage in news media of the personal lives of celebrities, or "news you can use"-style reporting which offers consumer advice which is widely viewed as common sense), and over representation of crime reporting, particularly street crime. This type of bias is largely attributed to the relatively low cost of presenting these stories (compared to investigative journalism which tends to require more time and research, and thus more money, to produce), competition between commercial news media for consumers, ratings and ad revenue, and a 24-hour news cycle which demands constant output. "Accidental bias" which could include errors and misinformation (re: expediency) or editors accidentally reinterpreting a reporter's work. Sources of media bias Valid questions remain about media performance and the role of public communications practitioners in coercing perception and judgement. There are some researchers who use a “social construction of reality” framework to analyze media and the ways in which information is filtered. According to scholar Richard Alan Nelson's (2003) study Tracking Propaganda to the Source: Tools for Analyzing Media Bias http://lass.calumet.purdue.edu/cca/gmj/fa03/gmj-fa03-nelson.htm , media effects findings suggest that when bias occurs it stems from a combination of ten factors: The media are neither objective nor completely honest in their portrayal of important issues. Framing devices are employed in stories by featuring some angles and downplaying others. The news is a product not only of deliberate manipulation, but of the ideological and economic conditions under which the media operate. While appearing independent, the news media are institutions that are controlled or heavily influenced by government and business interests experienced with manufacturing of consent/consensus. Reporters’ sources frequently dominate the flow of information as a way of furthering their own overt and hidden agendas. In particular, the heavy reliance on political officials and other-government related experts occurs through a preferential sourcing selection process which excludes dissident voices. Journalists widely accept the faulty premise that the government's collective intentions are benevolent, despite occasional mistakes. The regular use of the word “we” by journalists in referring to their government’s actions implies nationalistic complicity with those policies. There is an absence of historical context and contemporary comparisons in reportage which would make news more meaningful. The failure to provide follow up assessment is further evidence of a pack journalism mentality that at the conclusion of a “feeding frenzy” wants to move on to other stories. Citizens must avoid self-censorship by reading divergent sources and maintaining a critical perspective on the media in order to make informed choices and participate effectively in the public policy process. Scholarly treatment of media bias in the United States and United Kingdom Media bias is studied at schools of journalism, university departments (including Media studies, Cultural studies and Peace studies) and by many independent watchdog groups from various parts of the political spectrum. In the United States, many of these studies focus on issues of a conservative/liberal balance in the media. Other focuses include international differences in reporting, as well as bias in reporting of particular issues such as economic class or environmental interests. A widely-cited public opinion study http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/international_security_bt/102.php?nid=&id=&pnt=102 documents a correlation between news source and certain misconceptions about the Iraq war. Conducted by the Program on International Policy Attitudes in October 2003, the poll asked Americans whether they believed statements about the Iraq war that were known to be false. Respondents were also asked which was their primary news source: Fox News, CBS, NBC, ABC, CNN, "Print sources," or NPR . By cross referencing the responses according to primary news source, the study showed that higher numbers of Fox News watchers held certain misconceptions about the Iraq war. The director of Program on International Policy (PIPA), Stephen Kull said, “While we cannot assert that these misconceptions created the support for going to war with Iraq, it does appear likely that support for the war would be substantially lower if fewer members of the public had these misperceptions.” http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/international_security_bt/102.php?nid=&id=&pnt=102 The Glasgow Media Group Glasgow University Media Group carried out the Bad News Studies, a series of detailed analyses of television broadcasts (and later newspaper coverage) in the United Kingdom. (Eldridge, 2000). Published between 1976 and 1985, the Bad News Studies used content analysis, interviews and covert participant observation to conclude that news was biased against trade unions, blaming them for breaking wage negotiating guidelines and causing high inflation. Martin Harrison's TV News: Whose Bias? (1985) criticized the methodology of the Glasgow Media Group, arguing that the GMG identified bias selectively, via their own preconceptions about what phrases qualify as biased descriptions. For example, the GMG sees the word "idle" to describe striking workers as pejorative, despite the word being used by strikers themselves. (Street 2001, p. 31). Herman and Chomsky (1988) proposed a propaganda model hypothesizing systematic biases of U.S. media from structural economic causes. They hypothesize media ownership by corporations, funding from advertising, the use of official sources, efforts to discredit independent media ("flak"), and "anti-communist" ideology as the filters that bias news in favor of U.S. corporate interests. Their propaganda model first and foremost disuses self censorship through the corporate system (see corporate censorship); that reporters and especially editors share and/or acquire values with corporate elites in order to further their careers. Those that don’t are usually weeded out or marginalized. Such examples have been dramatized in fact based movie dramas as “Good Night, and Good Luck” and “The Insider” or demonstrated in the documentary “The Corporation” “The Corporation” 11 . George Orwell originally wrote a preface for his book “Animal Farm”, which focuses on British self censorship. "The sinister fact about literary censorship in England is that it is largely voluntary. ... [Things are] kept right out of the British press, not because the Government intervened but because of a general tacit agreement that ‘it wouldn’t do’ to mention that particular fact." As if to prove the point, the preface itself was censored and is not published with most copies of the book. The propaganda model posits that advertising dollars are essential for funding most media sources and clearly have an effect on the content of the media. For example, according to Fair, ‘When Al Gore proposed launching a progressive TV network, a Fox News executive told Advertising Age (10/13/03): "The problem with being associated as liberal is that they wouldn't be going in a direction that advertisers are really interested in.... If you go out and say that you are a liberal network, you are cutting your potential audience, and certainly your potential advertising pool, right off the bat.” FAIR - Why Progressive TV Is DOA by Jim Naureckas November/December 2003. Furthermore “an internal memo from ABC Radio Networks to its affiliates reveals scores of powerful sponsors have a standing order that their commercials never be placed on syndicated Air America programming that airs on ABC affiliates…. The list, totaling 90 advertisers, includes some of largest and most well-known corporations advertising in the U.S.: Wal-Mart, GE, Exxon Mobil, Microsoft, Bank of America, Fed-Ex, Visa, Allstate, McDonald's, Sony and Johnson & Johnson. The U.S. Postal Service and the U.S. Navy are also listed as advertisers who don't want their commercials to air on Air America.” FAIR - Air America Blackout Oct 25/31 2006 The academic study cited most frequently by critics of a "liberal media bias" in American journalism is The Media Elite,* a 1986 book co-authored by political scientists Robert Lichter, Stanley Rothman, and Linda Lichter. They surveyed journalists at national media outlets such as the New York Times, Washington Post, and the broadcast networks. The survey found that most of these journalists were Democratic voters whose attitudes were well to the left of the general public on a variety of topics, including such hot-button social issues such as abortion, affirmative action, and gay rights. Then they compared journalists' attitudes to their coverage of controversial issues such as the safety of nuclear power, school busing to promote racial integration, and the energy crisis of the 1970s. The book's most thorough case study involved nuclear energy. The survey of journalists showed that most were highly skeptical about nuclear safety. However, the authors conducted a separate survey of scientists in energy related fields, who were much more sanguine about nuclear safety issues. They then conducted a content analysis of nuclear energy coverage in the media outlets they had surveyed. They found that the opinions of sources who were cited as scientific experts reflected the antinuclear sentiments of journalists, rather than the more pro-nuclear perspectives held by most energy scientists. The authors concluded that journalists' coverage of controversial issues reflected their own attitudes, and the predominance of political liberals in newsrooms therefore pushed news coverage in a liberal direction. They presented this tilt as a mostly unconscious process of like-minded individuals projecting their shared assumptions onto their interpretations of reality. At the time the study was embraced mainly by conservative columnists and politicians, who adopted the findings as scientific proof of liberal media bias. Many of the positions in the preceding study are supported by a 2002 study by Jim A. Kuypers: Press Bias and Politics: How the Media Frame Controversial Issues. In this study of 116 mainstream US papers (including The New York Times, the Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, and the San Francisco Chronicle), Kuypers found that the mainstream print press in America operate within a narrow range of liberal beliefs. Those who expressed points of view further to the left were generally ignored, whereas those who expressed moderate or conservative points of view were often actively denigrated or labeled as holding a minority point of view. In short, if a political leader, regardless of party, spoke within the press-supported range of acceptable discourse, he or she would receive positive press coverage. If a politician, again regardless of party, were to speak outside of this range, he or she would receive negative press or be ignored. Kuypers also found that the liberal points of view expressed in editorial and opinion pages were found in hard news coverage of the same issues. Although focusing primarily on the issues of race and homosexuality, Kuypers found that the press injected opinion into its news coverage of other issues such as welfare reform, environmental protection, and gun control; in all cases favoring a liberal point of view. Studies reporting perceptions of liberal bias in the media are not limited to studies of print media. A joint study by the Joan Shorenstein Center on Press, Politics and Public Policy at Harvard University and the Project for Excellence in Journalism found that people see liberal media bias in television news media such as CNN. http://www.journalism.org/files/The%20Early%20Campaign%20FINAL.pdf . Although both CNN and Fox were perceived in the study as being left of center, CNN was perceived as being more liberal than Fox. Moreover, the study's findings concerning CNN's perceived liberal bias are echoed in other studies. Jeffrey N. Weatherly, et al., “Perceptions of Political Bias in the Headlines of Two Major News Organizations,” The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics (2007) (12), 91 at p. 97 There is also a growing economics literature on mass media bias, both on the theoretical and the empirical side. On the theoretical side the focus is on understanding to what extent the political positioning of mass media outlets is mainly driven by demand or supply factors. According to Dan Sutter of the University of Oklahoma, a systematic liberal bias in the U.S. media could depend on the fact that owners and/or journalists typically lean to the left. www.cato.org Along the same lines, David Baron of Stanford GSB presents a game-theoretic model of mass media behaviour in which, given that the pool of journalists systematically leans towards the left or the right, mass media outlets maximise their profits by providing content that is biased in the same direction. www.wallis.rochester.edu Media Bias, the paper is now published on the Journal of Public Economics. They can do so, because it is cheaper to hire journalists that write stories which are consistent with their political position. A concurrent theory would be that supply and demand would cause media to attain a neutral balance because consumers would of course gravitate towards the media they agreed with. This argument fails in considering the imbalance in self-reported political allegiances by journalists themselves, that distort any market analogy as regards offer: (...) Indeed, in 1982, 85 percent of Columbia Graduate School of Journalism students identified themselves as liberal, versus 11 percent conservative" (Lichter, Rothman, and Lichter 1986: 48), quoted in Sutter, 2001. www.cato.org Weekly Network Bias rankings This same argument would have news outlets in equal numbers increasing profits of a more balanced media far more than the slight increase in costs to hire unbiased journalists, notwithstanding the extreme rarity of self-reported conservative journalists (Sutton, 2001). As mentioned above, Tim Groseclose of UCLA and Jeff Milyo of the University of Missouri at Columbia Media Bias, the paper is now published on the Quarterly Journal of Economics use think tank quotes, in order to estimate the relative position of mass media outlets in the political spectrum. The idea is to trace out which think tanks are quoted by various mass media outlets within news stories, and to match these think tanks with the political position of members of the U.S. Congress who quote them in a non-negative way. Using this procedure, Groseclose and Milyo obtain the stark result that all sampled news providers -except Fox News' Special Report and the Washington Times- are located to the left of the average Congress member, i.e. there are signs of a liberal bias in the US news media. However, the news media also show a remarkable degree of centrism, just because all outlets but one are located –from an ideological point of view- between the average Democrat and average Republican in Congress. The methods Groseclose and Milyo used to calculate this bias have been criticized by Mark Liberman, a professor of Computer Science at the University of Pennsylvania. Liberman concludes by saying he thinks "that many if not most of the complaints directed against G&M are motivated in part by ideological disagreement -- just as much of the praise for their work is motivated by ideological agreement. It would be nice if there were a less politically fraught body of data on which such modeling exercises could be explored." Sendhil Mullainathan and Andrei Shleifer of Harvard University construct a behavioural model post.economics.harvard.edu, now published on the American Economic Review , which is built around the assumption that readers and viewers hold beliefs that they would like to see confirmed by news providers. When news customers share common beliefs, profit-maximizing media outlets find it optimal to select and/or frame stories in order to pander to those beliefs. On the other hand, when beliefs are heterogeneous, news providers differentiate their offer and segment the market, by providing news stories that are slanted towards the two extreme positions in the spectrum of beliefs. Matthew Gentzkow and Jesse Shapiro of Chicago GSB present another demand-driven theory of mass media bias. www.gsb.uchicago.edu, published on the Journal of Political Economy If readers and viewers have a priori views on the current state of affairs and are uncertain about the quality of the information about it being provided by media outlets, then the latter have an incentive to slant stories towards their customers' prior beliefs, in order to build and keep a reputation for high-quality journalism. The reason for this is that rational agents would tend to believe that pieces of information that go against their prior beliefs in fact originate from low-quality news providers. The economics empirical literature on mass media bias mainly focuses on the United States. Steve Ansolabehere, Rebecca Lessem and Jim Snyder of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology analyze the political orientation of endorsements by U.S. newspapers. See econ-www.mit.edu for the working paper version; the paper is forthcoming on the Quarterly Journal of Political Science They find an upward trend in the average propensity to endorse a candidate, and in particular an incumbent one. There are also some changes in the average ideological slant of endorsements: while in the 40s and in the 50s there was a clear advantage to Republican candidates, this advantage continuously eroded in subsequent decades, to the extent that in the 90s the authors find a slight Democratic lead in the average endorsement choice. John Lott and Kevin Hassett of the American Enterprise Institute study the coverage of economic news by looking at a panel of 389 U.S. newspapers from 1991 to 2004, and from 1985 to 2004 for a subsample comprising the top 10 newspapers and the Associated Press. Link to the abstract For each release of official data about a set of economic indicators, the authors analyze how newspapers decide to report on them, as reflected by the tone of the related headlines. The idea is to check whether newspapers display some kind of partisan bias, by giving more positive or negative coverage to the same economic figure, as a function of the political affiliation of the incumbent President. Controlling for the economic data being released, the authors find that there are between 9.6 and 14.7 percent fewer positive stories when the incumbent President is a Republican. Riccardo Puglisi of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology looks at the editorial choices of the New York Times from 1946 to 1997. Link to the abstract He finds that the Times displays Democratic partisanship, with some watchdog aspects. This is the case, because during presidential campaigns the Times systematically gives more coverage to Democratic topics of civil rights, health care, labor and social welfare, but only when the incumbent president is a Republican. These topics are classified as Democratic ones, because Gallup polls show that on average U.S. citizens think that Democratic candidates would be better at handling problems related to them. According to Puglisi, in the post-1960 period the Times displays a more symmetric type of watchdog behaviour, just because during presidential campaigns it also gives more coverage to the typically Republican issue of Defense when the incumbent President is a Democrat, and less so when the incumbent is a Republican. Alan Gerber and Dean Karlan of Yale University use an experimental approach to examine not whether the media are biased, but whether the media influence political decisions and attitudes. They conduct a randomized control trial just prior to the November 2005 gubernatorial election in Virginia and randomly assign individuals in Northern Virginia to (a) a treatment group that receives a free subscription to the Washington Post, (b) a treatment group that receives a free subscription to the Washington Times, or (c) a control group. They find that those who are assigned to the Washington Post treatment group are eight percentage points more likely to vote for the Democrat in the elections. The report also found that "exposure to either newspaper was weakly linked to a movement away from the Bush administration and Republicans." Link to the paper Another unaffiliated group, Media Study Group, established seven categories of poor journalistic practice: for example, the journalist stating personal opinion in a report, asserting incorrect facts, applying unequal space or treatment to two sides of a controversial issue; then analyzed The Age Newspaper (Melbourne Australia) for the frequency of infraction of this code of practice. The resultant instances were then analyzed statistically with respect to the frequency they supported one or other side of the two-sided controversial issue under consideration. The goal of this group was to establish a quantitative methodology for the study of bias. A self-described liberal media watchdog group, Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, in consultation with the Survey and Evaluation Research Laboratory at Virginia Commonwealth University, sponsored a biased academic study in which journalists were asked a range of questions about how they did their work and about how they viewed the quality of media coverage in the broad area of politics and economic policy. “They were asked for their opinions and views about a range of recent policy issues and debates. Finally, they were asked for demographic and identifying information, including their political orientation”. They then compared to the say or similar questions posed with “the public” based on Gallup, and Pew Trust polls. FAIR - Examining the "Liberal Media" Claim - Journalists' Views on Politics, Economic Policy and Media Coverage 06/01/98 Their study concluded that a majority of journalists, although relatively liberal on social policies, were significantly to the right of the public on economic, labor, health care and foreign policy issues. This study continues: “we learn much more about the political orientation of news content by looking at sourcing patterns rather than journalists' personal views. As this survey shows, it is government officials and business representatives to whom journalists "nearly always" turn when covering economic policy. Labor representatives and consumer advocates were at the bottom of the list. This is consistent with earlier research on sources. For example, analysts from the centrist Brookings Institution and conservative think tanks such as the Heritage Foundation and the American Enterprise Institute are those most quoted in mainstream news accounts; liberal think tanks are often invisible. When it comes to sources, ‘liberal bias’ is nowhere to be found.” Experimenter bias A major problem in studies is experimenter bias. Research into studies of media bias in the United States shows that Liberal experimenters tend to get results that say the media has a conservative bias, while conservatives experimenters tend to get results that say the media has a liberal bias, and those who do not identify themselves as either liberal or conservative get results indicating little bias, or mixed bias. This same problem with experimenter bias extends to the studies of experimenter bias, of course. http://www.newsroom.ucla.edu/page.asp?RelNum=6664 http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=2447 http://mediamatters.org/items/200505110005 Whether bias is toward the left or the right depends on where you stand. The study "A Measure of Media Bias" (pdf) by political scientist Timothy J. Groseclose of UCLA and economist Jeffrey D. Milyo of the University of Missouri-Columbia, purports to rank news organisations in terms of identifying with liberal or conservative values relative to each other. They used the Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) scores as a quantitative proxy for political leanings of the referential organizations. Thus their definition of "liberal" includes the RAND Corporation, a nonprofit research organization with strong ties to the Defense Department. According to Media Matters for America (a non-profit liberal research and information center), “the study employed a measure of "bias" so problematic that its findings are next to useless”. (Media Matters for America - Former fellows at conservative think tanks issued flawed UCLA-led study on media's "liberal bias 21/12/05) What is "liberal" in the United States may not be "liberal" by world standards. FAIR suggests that a benchmark for each country be set by scientific polling of a cross-section of the citizens. (FAIR - Maybe the Public - not the Press - Has a Leftist Bias by Jeff Cohen 05/07/98.) Another source of bias is the fact that some studies are reported by the media, and other stories are not. The case study "A Measure of Media Bias" discussed above was widely reported in the United States. George Orwell pointed out that in the UK during the last century businesses did not undermine their own interests by reporting leftist (anti business or pro-labor) information. In the United States Ben Bagdikian (Ben Bagdikian - The New Media Monopoly.) documents a long history of advertisers pulling out support when media content becomes too controversial. Tools for measuring and evaluating media bias Richard Alan Nelson's (2003) study cited above on Tracking Propaganda to the Source: Tools for Analyzing Media Bias http://lass.calumet.purdue.edu/cca/gmj/fa03/gmj-fa03-nelson.htm reports there are at least 12 methods used to analyze the existence of and quantify bias: Surveys of the political/cultural attitudes of journalists, particularly members of the media elite, and of journalism students. Studies of journalists' previous professional connections. Collections of quotations in which prominent journalists reveal their beliefs about politics and/or the proper role of their profession. Computer word-use and topic analysis searches to determine content and labeling. Studies of policies recommended in news stories. Comparisons of the agenda of the news and entertainment media with agendas of political candidates or other activists. Positive/negative coverage analysis. Reviews of the personal demographics of media decision makers. Comparisons of advertising sources/content which influence information/entertainment content. Analyses of the extent of government propaganda and public relations (PR) industry impact on media. Studies of the use of experts and spokespersons etc. by media vs. those not selected to determine the interest groups and ideologies represented vs. those excluded. Research into payments of journalists by corporations and trade associations to speak before their groups and the impact that may have on coverage. Efforts to correct bias A technique used to avoid bias is the "point/counterpoint" or "round table," an adversarial format in which representatives of opposing views comment on an issue. This approach theoretically allows diverse views to appear in the media. However, the person organizing the report still has the responsibility to choose people who really represent the breadth of opinion, to ask them non-prejudicial questions, and to edit or arbitrate their comments fairly. When done carelessly, a point/counterpoint can be as unfair as a simple biased report, by suggesting that the "losing" side lost on its merits. The Skeptics Society has accused reporters of misusing the point/counterpoint format by giving more time to superstitions than to their scientific rebuttals. Using this format can also lead to accusations that the reporter has created a misleading appearance that viewpoints have equal validity (sometimes called "false balance" http://www.fair.org/activism/false-balance.html ). This may happen when a taboo exists around one of the viewpoints, or when one of the representatives habitually makes claims that are easily shown to be inaccurate. One such allegation of misleading balance came from Mark Halperin, political director of ABC News. He stated in an internal e-mail message that reporters should not "artificially hold [George W. Bush and John Kerry] 'equally' accountable" to the public interest, and that complaints from Bush supporters were an attempt to "get away with ... renewed efforts to win the election by destroying Senator Kerry." When the Drudge Report published this message "ABCNEWS POLITICAL DIRECTOR MEMO SPARKS CONTROVERSY: BOTH SIDES NOT 'EQUALLY ACCOUNTABLE'" from Drudge Report , many Bush supporters viewed it as "smoking gun" evidence that Halperin was using ABC to propagandize against Bush to Kerry's benefit, by interfering with reporters' attempts to avoid bias. An academic content analysis of election news later found that coverage at ABC, CBS, and NBC was more favorable toward Kerry than Bush, while coverage at Fox News Channel was more favorable toward Bush. Stephen Farnsworth and S. Robert Lichter, The Nightly News Nightmare: How Television Portrays Presidential Elections, Second Edition, Rowman & Littlefield, 2006 Scott Norvell, the London bureau chief for Fox News, stated in a May 20, 2005 interview with the Wall Street Journal that "Even we at Fox News manage to get some lefties on the air occasionally, and often let them finish their sentences before we club them to death and feed the scraps to Karl Rove and Bill O'Reilly. And those who hate us can take solace in the fact that they aren't subsidizing Bill's bombast; we payers of the BBC license fee don't enjoy that peace of mind. Fox News is, after all, a private channel and our presenters are quite open about where they stand on particular stories. That's our appeal. People watch us because they know what they are getting. The Beeb's (British Broadcasting Corporation) (BBC) institutionalized leftism would be easier to tolerate if the corporation was a little more honest about it”. http://slate.com/id/2119864/ With the release of the 2008 book What Happened: Inside the Bush White House and Washington's Culture of Deception by George W. Bush's press secretary Scott McClellan, there are some who contend that this is evidence of Mark Halperin being correct instead of biased. In his book, McClellan admits to lying to the media, and describes the contempt he felt for reporters who so easily believed his lies, and were cowed by the fear that if they exposed the lies, they would be accused of "liberal bias". Scott McClellan, What Happened: Inside the Bush White House and Washington's Culture of Deception, PublicAffairs, 2008, ISBN 978-1586485566. Another technique used to avoid bias is disclosure of affiliations that may be considered a possible conflict of interest. This is especially apparent when a news organization is reporting a story with some relevancy to the news organization itself or to its ownership individuals or conglomerate. Often this disclosure is mandated by the laws or regulations pertaining to stocks and securities. Commentators on news stories involving stocks are often required to disclose any ownership interest in those corporations or in its competitors. In rare cases, a news organization may dismiss or reassign staff members who appear biased. This approach was used in the Killian documents affair and after Peter Arnett's interview with the Iraqi press. This approach is presumed to have been employed in the case of Dan Rather over a heavily biased story that he ran on 60 Minutes in the month prior to the 2004 election that attempted to impugn the military record of George W. Bush by relying on obviously fake documents that were provided by a Democrat Party operative. CNN reporter Susan Roesgen [] was taken off the air after an April 15 2009 live coverage of the non partisan Tea Party tax protest. Roesgen interjected herself into the coverage by telling a tax protester "Did you know that the state of Lincoln gets $50 billion out of these stimulus? That's $50 billion for this state, sir" and then wrapping up the report by saying "you get the general tenor of this, Anti-government, anti-CNN since this is highly promoted by the right-wing conservative network Fox." [] CNN media analyst Howard Kurtz noted on Reliable Sources that "Susan Roesgen sounded dismissive to me of the whole protest." [] CNN has removed the video from YouTube. Finally, some countries have laws enforcing balance in state-owned media. Since 1991, the CBC and Radio Canada, its Francophone counterpart, are governed by the Broadcasting Act. This act states, amongst other things: the programming provided by the Canadian broadcasting system should (i) be varied and comprehensive, providing a balance of information, enlightenment and entertainment for men, women and children of all ages, interests and tastes, (...) (iv) provide a reasonable opportunity for the public to be exposed to the expression of differing views on matters of public concern History of bias in the mass media Political bias has been a feature of the mass media since its birth with the invention of the printing press. The expense of early printing equipment restricted media production to a limited number of people. Historians have found that publishers often served the interests of powerful social groups. Ann Heinrichs, The Printing Press (Inventions That Shaped the World), p. 53, Franklin Watts, 2005, ISBN 0531167224, ISBN13 978-0531167229 John Milton's pamphlet Areopagitica, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, published in 1644, was one of the first publications advocating freedom of the press. John Milton, Areopagitica And Other Prose Works, Kessinger, 2004, ISBN 1417912111, ISBN13 978-1417912117 In the nineteenth century, journalists began to recognize the concept of unbiased reporting as an integral part of journalistic ethics. This coincided with the rise of journalism as a powerful social force. Even today, though, the most conscientiously objective journalists cannot avoid accusations of bias. Dale Jacquette, Journalistic Ethics: Moral Responsibility in the Media, Prentice Hall, 2006, ISBN 0131825399, ISBN13 978-0131825390 Like newspapers, the broadcast media (radio and television) have been used as a mechanism for propaganda from their earliest days, a tendency made more pronounced by the initial ownership of broadcast spectrum by national governments. Although a process of media deregulation has placed the majority of the western broadcast media in private hands, there still exists a strong government presence, or even monopoly, in the broadcast media of many countries across the globe. At the same time, the concentration of media in private hands, and frequently amongst a comparatively small number of individuals, has also lead to accusations of media bias. There are many examples of accusations of bias being used as a political tool, sometimes resulting in government censorship. In the United States, in 1798, Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which prohibited newspapers from publishing “false, scandalous, or malicious writing” against the government, including any public opposition to any law or presidential act. This act was in effect until 1801. During the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln accused newspapers in the border states of bias in favor of the Southern cause, and ordered many newspapers closed. Chancellor Adolf Hitler of Germany, in the years leading up to World War II, accused newspapers of Marxist bias, an accusation echoed by pro-German media in England and the United States. Politicians who favored the United States entering World War II on the German side asserted that the international media were controlled by Jews, and that reports of German mistreatment of Jews were biased and without foundation. Hollywood was said to be a hotbed of Jewish bias, and films such as Charlie Chaplin’s The Great Dictator were offered as proof. Louis Pizzitola, Hearst Over Hollywood, Columbia University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-231-11646-2 In the 1980s, the South African government accused newspapers of liberal bias and instituted government censorship. In 1989, the newspaper New Nation was closed by the government for three months for publishing anti-apartheid propaganda. Other newspapers were not closed, but were extensively censored. Some published the censored sections blacked out, to demonstrate the extent of government censorship. In the USA during the labor union movement and the civil rights movement, newspapers supporting liberal social reform were accused by conservative newspapers of communist bias. Heather Cox Richardson, The Death of Reconstruction: Race, Labor, and Politics in the Post-Civil War North, 1865-1901, Harvard University Press, 2001, ISBN 0674006372, ISBN 978-0674006379 Steve Estes, I Am a Man!: Race, Manhood, and the Civil Rights Movement, The University of North Carolina Press, 2005, ISBN 0807829293, ISBN 978-0807829295 Film and television media were accused of bias in favor of mixing of the races, and many television programs with racially mixed casts, such as I Spy and Star Trek, were not aired on Southern stations. Nichelle Nichols, Beyond Uhura: Star Trek and Other Memories, Berkley, 1995, ISBN 1572970111 ISBN 978-1572970113 During the war between the United States and North Vietnam, Vice President Spiro Agnew accused newspapers of anti-American bias, and in a famous speech delivered in San Diego in 1970, called anti-war protesters “The nattering nabobs of negativism.” www.bartleby.com/63/48/8148.html. Retrieved on 2007-03-28. Not all accusations of bias are political. Science writer Martin Gardner has accused the entertainment media of anti-science bias. He claims that television programs such as The X-Files promote superstition. Martin Gardner, The Night is Large, St. Martin's Griffin, 1997, ISBN 0312169493, ISBN13 978-0312169497 In contrast, the Competitive Enterprise Institute accuses the media of being biased in favor of science and against business interests, and of credulously reporting science that purports to show that greenhouse gasses cause global warming. Ronald Bailey, Global Warming and Other Eco Myths: How the Environmental Movement Uses False Science to Scare Us to Death, Prima Lifestyles; 2002, ISBN 0761536604, ISBN13 978-0761536604 Role of language Mass media, despite its ability to project worldwide, is limited in its cross-ethnic compatibility by one simple attribute - language. Ethnicity, being largely developed by a divergence in geography, language, culture, genes and similarly, point of view, has the potential to be countered by a common source of information. Therefore, language, in the absence of translation, comprises a barrier to a worldwide community of debate and opinion, although it is also true that media within any given society may be split along class, political or regional lines. Furthermore, if the language is translated, the translator has room to shift a bias by choosing weighed words for translation. Language may also be seen as a political factor in mass media, particularly in instances where a society is characterized by a large number of languages spoken by its populace. The choice of language of mass media may represent a bias towards the group most likely to speak that language, and can limit the public participation by those who do not speak the language. On the other hand, there have also been attempts to use a common-language mass media to reach out to a large, geographically dispersed population, such as in the use of Arabic language by news channel Al Jazeera. Many media theorists concerned with language and media bias point towards the media of the United States, a large country where English is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Some theorists argue that the common language is not homogenizing; and that there still remain strong differences expressed within the mass media. This viewpoint asserts that moderate views are bolstered by drawing influences from the extremes of the political spectrum. In the United States, the national news therefore contributes to a sense of cohesion within the society, proceeding from a similarly informed population. According to this model, most views within society are freely expressed, and the mass media are accountable to the people and tends to reflect the spectrum of opinion. Language may also be a more subtle form of bias. Use of a word with positive or negative connotations rather than a more neutral synonym can form a biased picture in the audience's mind. It makes a difference whether the media calls a group "terrorist" or "freedom fighters" or "insurgents". For example, a 2005 memo to the staff of the CBC states: Rather than calling assailants "terrorists," we can refer to them as bombers, hijackers, gunmen (if we're sure no women were in the group), militants, extremists, attackers or some other appropriate noun. In a widely criticized episode, initial online BBC reports of the 7 July 2005 London bombings identified the perpetrators as terrorists, in contradiction to the BBC's internal policy. But by the next day, Tom Gross JPost: Tom Gross - The BBC discovers 'terrorism,' briefly and many others noted that the online articles had been edited, replacing "terrorists" by "bombers". In another case, March 28 2007, the broadcaster paid almost $400,000 in legal fees in a London court to keep an internal memo dealing with alleged anti-Israeli bias from becoming public. BBC was accused of pro-Palestinian bias over a documentary about Israel developing a nuclear weapon during the second Palestinian intifada in 2000. http://www.upi.com/NewsTrack/Top_News/20070328-124109-2091r/ National and ethnic viewpoint Many news organizations reflect or are perceived to reflect in some way the viewpoint of the geographic, ethnic, and national population that they primarily serve. Media within countries is sometimes seen as being sycophantic or unquestioning about the country's government. Western media are often criticized in the rest of the world (including eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East) as being pro-Western with regard to a variety of political, cultural and economic issues. Al Jazeera has been frequently criticized in the West about its coverage of Arab world issues. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict and wider Arab-Israeli issues are a particularly controversial area, and nearly all coverage of any kind generates accusation of bias from one or both sides. This topic is covered in a separate article. Anglophone bias in the world media It has been observed that the world's principal suppliers of news, the news agencies, and the main buyers of news are Anglophone corporations and this gives an Anglophone bias to the selection and depiction of events. Anglophone definitions of what constitutes news are paramount; the news provided originates in Anglophone capitals and responds first to their own rich domestic markets. Despite the plethora of news services, most news printed and broadcast throughout the world each day comes from only a few major agencies, the three largest of which are the Associated Press, Reuters and Agence France-Presse. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/413092/news-agency Although these agencies are 'global' in the sense of their activities, they each retain significant associations with particular nations, namely France (AFP), the United States (AP) and the United Kingdom (Reuters). Chambers and Tinckell suggest that the so-called global media are agents of Anglophone values which privilege norms of 'competitive individualism, laissez faire capitalism, parliamentary democracy and consumerism.' They see the presentation of the English language as international as a further feature of Anglophone dominance. Chambers and Tinckell (1998) Angocentric versions of the international: the privileging of Anglo-ethnicity in cultural studies and the global media. 21st conference of IAMCR, Glasgow Vis-a-vis religious issues Media bias towards religion is most obvious in countries where the media are controlled by the state, which is in turn dominated by a particular religion. In these instances, bias against other faiths can be explicit and virulent. But even in countries with freedom of religion and a free press, the dominant religion exerts some amount of influence on the media. In nations where Christianity is the majority faith, reporters tend to focus on the activities of the Christian community, to the exclusion of other faiths. But the opposite may also occur, with media self-consciously avoiding reporting on any religious matters at all in order to avoid the appearance of favoring one faith over another, or presenting religious faith and phenomenon in a negative light. This type of bias is often seen with reporting on new religious movements. It is often the case that the only view the public gets of a new religious movement, controversial group or purported cult is a negative and sensationalized report by the media. For example, most new or minority religious movements only receive media coverage when something sensational occurs, e.g. the mass suicide of a cult or illegal activities of a leader in the religious movement. According to the Encyclopedia of Social Work (19th edition), the news media play an influential role in the general public's perception of cults. As reported in several studies, the media have depicted cults as problematic, controversial, and threatening from the beginning, tending to favor sensationalistic stories over balanced public debates (Beckford, 1985; Richardson, Best, & Bromley, 1991; Victor, 1993). It furthers the analysis that media reports on cults rely heavily on police officials and cult "experts" who portray cult activity as dangerous and destructive, and when divergent views are presented, they are often overshadowed by horrific stories of ritualistic torture, sexual abuse, mind control, etc. Furthermore, unfounded allegations, when proved untrue, receive little or no media attention. Robins, Susan P., Encyclopedia of Social Work, 19th Edition, National Association of Social Workers. Washington, DC. 1997 Update Other influences The apparent bias of media is not always specifically political in nature. The news media tend to appeal to a specific audience, which means that stories that affect a large number of people on a global scale often receive less coverage in some markets than local stories, such as a public school shooting, a celebrity wedding, a plane crash, or similarly glamorous or shocking stories. For example, the deaths of millions of people in an ethnic conflict in Africa might be afforded scant mention in American media, while the shooting of five people in a high school is analyzed in depth. The reason for this type of bias is a function of what the public wants to watch and/or what producers and publishers believe the public wants to watch. Bias has also been claimed in instances referred to as conflict of interest, whereby the owners of media outlets have vested interests in other commercial enterprises or political parties. In such cases in the United States, the media outlet is required to disclose the conflict of interest. However, the decisions of the editorial department of a newspaper and the corporate parent frequently are not connected, as the editorial staff retains freedom to decide what is covered as well as what isn't. Biases, real or implied, frequently arise when it comes to deciding what stories will be covered and who will be called for those stories. Accusations that a source is biased, if accepted, may cause media consumers to distrust certain kinds of statements, and place added confidence on others. For example, if readers believe that a particular newspaper is conservatively biased, they may feel that a pro-liberal article in that paper must be true. Conversely, they may assume that a pro-conservative article in that paper is suspect. Because of the possibility of influencing the public in this way, accusations about which media outlets are biased, and how, have become a very common occurrence. See also Hostile media effect Media bias in the United States Media bias in South Asia Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict Media representation of Hugo Chávez References External links Impartial organizations monitoring media bias Fact Check Facts on File (requires membership) Conservative organizations monitoring liberal bias Accuracy in Media , a conservative media watchdog group founded in 1969 by Reed Irvine. Media Research Center , website that provide examples of claims about liberal bias and misinformation in the news. Liberal organizations monitoring conservative bias Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting , a liberal media watch group which has been offering criticism of public relations firms, think tanks, industry-funded organizations and industry-friendly experts. Media Matters for America , website providing examples of claims about conservative bias and misinformation in the news. Other blogs and websites about media bias Media Lens , a media analysis website based in the United Kingdom. Center for Media and Democracy, a liberal leaning group, aims to strengthen participatory democracy by investigating and exposing public relations spin and propaganda. Reporting Wars, compares MSM news items side by side, attempting to expose any media bias with their own news stories. What is media bias? Glasgow Media Group Media Bias Ratings (MBR), website presenting public polls to track perceived media bias by the public. Newsbusters.org, daily blogs that provide examples of claims about media bias and misinformation in the news. Media Bias Indicators, from Chronically Biased. Glasgow University Mass Media Unit Politmus.com, a website that allows users to rate and comment on media bias. Skewz.com A website that employs a user-generated rating system that allows the community to vote on the political bias (liberal vs. conservative) of traditional and new media. Also has a media bias chart Websites/blogs focused on specific media organizations Biased BBC, a blog critical of BBC News. CBCwatch, a blog critical of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) cnnEXPOSED.com, details examples of CNN's alleged pro-U.S. bias in war and national security reporting. A site critical of the Daily Mail Chronicle of Bias A site that talks about alleged liberal bias in the Houston Chronicle "Stiffed by the Star Tribune" - a Minnesota newspaper's coverage of the 2008 election for Congress in the 5th district (chapter in book) Times Watch, website updated daily that provide examples of claims about bias in the New York Times reporting. Websites/blogs focused on media about or in specific regions Israel: Israel's Media Watch, bias in the Israeli media. "Those Aren't Stones, They're Rocks" -Seth Ackerman Article concerning perceived pro-Israel bias Honest Reporting, a site about anti-Israeli media bias. Netherlands: Bad News from the Netherlands. Finland: Bad news from Finland. Middle East: CAMERA, another site documenting bias in the coverage of Middle East. Other Tracking Propaganda to the Source: Tools for Analyzing Media Bias by Richard Alan Nelson. What's Wrong With the News? - Analysis of what is wrong with the media today. Weekly Network Bias Rankings and discussion Content Analysis The Memory Hole (site for the preservation of FOIAed documents and material removed from government websites) The Media Awareness Project (site about drug reform) Blinded By Science: How ‘Balanced’ Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality by reporter Chris Mooney "A Measure of Media Bias" - a paper-in-progress attempting to analyze media bias by looking at sources statistically | Media_bias |@lemmatized medium:175 bias:151 refers:1 real:2 perceive:5 journalist:30 news:82 producer:2 within:9 mass:19 selection:4 event:2 story:26 report:33 cover:5 term:2 usually:2 imply:2 pervasive:1 widespread:1 contravene:1 standard:2 journalism:11 rather:6 perspective:3 individual:5 article:8 direction:4 degree:2 various:3 country:10 widely:7 dispute:1 although:7 cause:7 practical:2 theoretical:3 limitation:1 neutrality:1 include:18 inability:1 available:3 fact:12 requirement:1 select:3 link:6 coherent:1 narrative:1 newton:1 since:4 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2,910 | Basic_Role-Playing | Basic Role-Playing (BRP) is a role-playing game system which originated in the fantasy-oriented RuneQuest role-playing game rules. A percentile skill-based system, BRP was used as the basis for most of the games published by Chaosium, including Stormbringer, Worlds of Wonder, Call of Cthulhu, Superworld, Ringworld, Elfquest, Hawkmoon, Elric!, and Nephilim. Pendragon (acquired in 1998 by Green Knight Publishing, and 2005 by White Wolf), while related, has sufficiently different mechanics that it can be seen as a separate system. The BRP standalone booklet was first released in 1980. Two years later it became part of the Worlds of Wonder boxed set. The first edition boxed set of Call of Cthulhu included the booklet as its character creation rules. Greg Stafford and Lynn Willis are credited as the authors. BRP is similar to other generic systems such as GURPS, Hero System or Savage Worlds in that it uses a simple resolution method which can be broadly applied. In this case an attempt to roll under a certain number with percentile dice. Each incarnation of the BRP rules has changed or added to the core ideas and mechanics, so that games are not identical. For example, in Call of Cthulhu, skills may never be over 100%, while in Stormbringer skills in excess of 100% are encouraged for those who follow Law. In 2004, Chaosium published the Basic Roleplaying monographs (the hyphen was dropped in the later products). Books with a quick and inexpensive printed format of tape binding and printed cardstock covers, the four monographs (Players Book, Magic Book, Creatures Book, and Gamemaster Book) were printed in order to assert Chaosium's copyrights in the run-up to the publishing and distribution of Deluxe Basic Roleplaying, a game system that is essentially RuneQuest 3rd Edition but with additions to allow play in other genres. Chaosium released a new version of BRP on June 24th, 2008 as single comprehensive book. Currently they are selling both a printed and pdf version of the game. History The BRP was the RPG industry's first attempt at a generic rule system , preceding GURPS by six years and the d20 System SRD by nearly twenty. The core rules were originally written by Steve Perrin as part of his game RuneQuest. It was Greg Stafford's idea to simplify the rules (eliminating such things as Strike Ranks and Hit Locations) and issue them in a 16 page booklet called Basic Role Playing. Over the years several others, including Sandy Petersen, Lynn Willis, and Steve Henderson, contributed to their final form. The BRP was notable for being the first role-playing game system to introduce a full skill system to characters regardless of their profession. This was developed in RuneQuest but was also later adopted by the more skill-oriented Call of Cthulhu and the dark fantasy saga of Elric in Stormbringer. BRP was conceived of as a genre-generic engine around which any sort of RPG could be played, much like GURPS and the d20 system have become today. In order to underscore this, Chaosium produced the Worlds of Wonder supplement, which contained the generic rules and several specific applications of those rules to given genres. Superworld, specifically, began as a portion of the Worlds of Wonder product. The fantasy game supplement Thieves World, based on the popular series of books by Robert Lynn Asprin, used both the system for Advanced Dungeons & Dragons as well as the RuneQuest variation of the BRP for character statistics, representing the two most popular game systems of the time. Rules System BRP was developed from a core set of attributes similar to the original Dungeons & Dragons (D&D). So Strength, Constitution, Size, Intelligence, Power, Dexterity and Charisma (or Appearance) replaced the D&D norms. From that was evolved a structurally simulationist system. Therefore hit points, which increase with experience in D&D were based on the average of Size and Constitution and were functionally stable for the life of the character. Skills, using a d100, rather than the D&D d20, were used to simulate the way that people learn skills. Experience points were replaced by an experience check, rolling higher than your current skill on a d100. This created a learning curve that leveled out the higher a skill was. Armour, which had been merged with defence in D&D was broken out. The act of parrying was a skill, the ability of the armor to absorb damage was a separate function. The last major element of many BRP games is one that is shared with Tunnels and Trolls (T&T), which originated this, which is that there is no difference between the player character race systems and the monster or opponents. By varying ability scores the same system is used for a human hero as a trollish villain. This approach also led quickly, as it did in T&T, to players often playing a wide range of non-human characters and game worlds that were deeply pluralist. Licensed Games Chaosium was an early adopter of licensing out its BRP system to other companies, something that was unique at the time they began but rather commonplace now thanks to the d20 licenses. This places the BRP in the notable position of being one of the first products to allow other game companies to develop games or game aids for their work. Companies such as Green Knight and Pagan Publishing earliest works were built to support Chaosium's games. Other, non-Chaosium games have used BRP for its core rules. Other Suns, published by Fantasy Games Unlimited (FGU), used them under license. In addition, Corum, a supplement to the Stormbringer rules, was published in the fall of 2001 by Darcsyde Productions. BRP was used (through a special arrangement with Swedish Fredrik Malmberg) as the base for the highly successful Swedish game Drakar och Demoner from Target Games. BRP was also licensed to Oriflam in France to create a French language second edition of the Hawkmoon game called Hawkmoon, Nouvelle Edition. This version updated the original Hawkmoon mechanics to more closely parallel those in the newer Elric! game as well as adding sophisticated new rule systems specific to the setting (e.g. Mutations and 'Weird Science'). BRP was also licensed to Japanese companies. BRP games in Japanese are Houkago Kaiki Club (1997, school life and horror, Hobby Japan), Genom Seed (2004, mutant action, Shinkigensha) and Taitei no Ken RPG (2007, SciFi-jidaigeki, based on movie of the same title, Shinkigensha). Awards The BRP itself has been the recipient, via its games, of many awards. Most notably was the 1981 Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Rules for Call of Cthulhu. Other editions of Call of Cthluhu have also won Origins Awards including the Hall of Fame award. The BRP Character Generation software has also won awards for its design. References External links Chaosium's Basic Role-Playing Catalog Page Basic Roleplaying Central - The community fansite for Chaosium's Basic Roleplaying game system. BRP Central hosts the basic roleplaying forum, a wiki, downloads, an open fan art gallery, freshly updated brp news & a link list. Basic Roleplaying . Net - The unofficial site for Chaosium's d100 Basic Roleplaying game system. Basic Roleplaying . net hosts the Chaos Project, Uncounted Worlds, a d100 Conversion Archive, Scenario Archives, d100 World Forges, Rules Workshop and a Basic Roleplaying Wiki. www.basicrps.com G.O.R.E. - a free, unofficial version of the Basic Role-Playing system. | Basic_Role-Playing |@lemmatized basic:13 role:7 playing:6 brp:23 game:27 system:22 originate:2 fantasy:4 orient:2 runequest:5 rule:14 percentile:2 skill:10 base:5 use:9 basis:1 publish:5 chaosium:11 include:4 stormbringer:4 world:9 wonder:4 call:8 cthulhu:5 superworld:2 ringworld:1 elfquest:1 hawkmoon:4 elric:3 nephilim:1 pendragon:1 acquire:1 green:2 knight:2 publishing:2 white:1 wolf:1 relate:1 sufficiently:1 different:1 mechanic:3 see:1 separate:2 standalone:1 booklet:3 first:5 release:2 two:2 year:3 later:2 become:2 part:2 boxed:1 set:3 edition:5 box:1 character:7 creation:1 greg:2 stafford:2 lynn:3 willis:2 credit:1 author:1 similar:2 generic:4 gurps:3 hero:2 savage:1 simple:1 resolution:1 method:1 broadly:1 apply:1 case:1 attempt:2 roll:2 certain:1 number:1 dice:1 incarnation:1 change:1 add:2 core:4 idea:2 identical:1 example:1 may:1 never:1 excess:1 encourage:1 follow:1 law:1 roleplaying:7 monograph:2 hyphen:1 drop:1 late:1 product:3 book:7 quick:1 inexpensive:1 printed:1 format:1 tape:1 binding:1 print:3 cardstock:1 cover:1 four:1 player:3 magic:1 creature:1 gamemaster:1 order:2 assert:1 copyright:1 run:1 distribution:1 deluxe:1 essentially:1 addition:2 allow:2 play:4 genre:3 new:3 version:4 june:1 single:1 comprehensive:1 currently:1 sell:1 pdf:1 history:1 rpg:3 industry:1 precede:1 six:1 srd:1 nearly:1 twenty:1 originally:1 write:1 steve:2 perrin:1 simplify:1 eliminate:1 thing:1 strike:1 rank:1 hit:2 location:1 issue:1 page:2 several:2 others:1 sandy:1 petersen:1 henderson:1 contribute:1 final:1 form:1 notable:2 introduce:1 full:1 regardless:1 profession:1 develop:3 also:6 adopt:1 dark:1 saga:1 conceive:1 engine:1 around:1 sort:1 could:1 much:1 like:1 today:1 underscore:1 produce:1 supplement:3 contain:1 specific:2 application:1 give:1 specifically:1 begin:2 portion:1 thieve:1 popular:2 series:1 robert:1 asprin:1 advanced:1 dungeon:2 dragon:2 well:2 variation:1 statistic:1 represent:1 time:2 attribute:1 original:2 strength:1 constitution:2 size:2 intelligence:1 power:1 dexterity:1 charisma:1 appearance:1 replace:2 norm:1 evolve:1 structurally:1 simulationist:1 therefore:1 point:2 increase:1 experience:3 average:1 functionally:1 stable:1 life:2 rather:2 simulate:1 way:1 people:1 learn:1 check:1 high:2 current:1 create:2 learning:1 curve:1 level:1 armour:1 merge:1 defence:1 break:1 act:1 parrying:1 ability:2 armor:1 absorb:1 damage:1 function:1 last:1 major:1 element:1 many:2 one:2 share:1 tunnel:1 troll:1 difference:1 race:1 monster:1 opponent:1 vary:1 score:1 human:2 trollish:1 villain:1 approach:1 lead:1 quickly:1 often:1 wide:1 range:1 non:2 deeply:1 pluralist:1 license:6 early:2 adopter:1 company:4 something:1 unique:1 commonplace:1 thank:1 place:1 position:1 aid:1 work:2 pagan:1 build:1 support:1 sun:1 unlimited:1 fgu:1 corum:1 fall:1 darcsyde:1 production:1 special:1 arrangement:1 swedish:2 fredrik:1 malmberg:1 highly:1 successful:1 drakar:1 och:1 demoner:1 target:1 oriflam:1 france:1 french:1 language:1 second:1 nouvelle:1 update:2 closely:1 parallel:1 sophisticated:1 setting:1 e:2 g:2 mutation:1 weird:1 science:1 japanese:2 houkago:1 kaiki:1 club:1 school:1 horror:1 hobby:1 japan:1 genom:1 seed:1 mutant:1 action:1 shinkigensha:2 taitei:1 ken:1 scifi:1 jidaigeki:1 movie:1 title:1 award:6 recipient:1 via:1 notably:1 origin:2 best:1 cthluhu:1 win:2 hall:1 fame:1 generation:1 software:1 design:1 reference:1 external:1 link:2 catalog:1 roleplay:3 central:2 community:1 fansite:1 host:2 forum:1 wiki:2 downloads:1 open:1 fan:1 art:1 gallery:1 freshly:1 news:1 list:1 net:2 unofficial:2 site:1 chaos:1 project:1 uncounted:1 conversion:1 archive:2 scenario:1 forge:1 workshop:1 www:1 basicrps:1 com:1 r:1 free:1 |@bigram greg_stafford:2 basic_roleplaying:6 sandy_petersen:1 dungeon_dragon:2 hall_fame:1 external_link:1 |
2,911 | Cricket_World_Cup | The Cricket World Cup is the premier international championship of men's One Day International (ODI) cricket. The event is organised by the sport's governing body, the International Cricket Council (ICC), with preliminary qualification rounds leading up to a finals tournament which is held every four years. The tournament is the world's third largest and most viewed sporting event. According to the ICC, it is the most important tournament and the pinnacle of achievement in the sport. The first Cricket World Cup contest was organised in England in 1975. A separate Women's Cricket World Cup has been held every four years since 1973. The finals of the Cricket World Cup are contested by all ten Test-playing and ODI-playing nations, together with other nations that qualify through the World Cup Qualifier. Australia has been the most successful of the five teams to have won the tournament, taking four titles. The West Indies have won twice, while India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka have each won once. The 2007 Cricket World Cup finals were held between 13 March and 28 April 2007, in the West Indies. The 2007 tournament had sixteen teams competing in a pool stage (played in round-robin format), then a "super 8" stage, followed by semi-finals and a final. Australia defeated Sri Lanka in the final to retain the championship. History Before the first Cricket World Cup The first ever international cricket match was played between Canada and the United States, on the 24th and 25th of September 1844. However, the first credited Test match was played in 1877 between Australia and England, and the two teams competed regularly for The Ashes in subsequent years. South Africa was admitted to Test status in 1889. Representative cricket teams were selected to tour each other, resulting in bilateral competition. Cricket was also included as an Olympic sport at the 1900 Paris Games, where Great Britain defeated France to win the gold medal. This was the only appearance of cricket at the Summer Olympics. The first multilateral competition at international level was the 1912 Triangular Tournament, a Test cricket tournament played in England between all three Test-playing nations at the time: England, Australia and South Africa. The event was not a success: the summer was exceptionally wet, making play difficult on damp uncovered pitches, and attendances were poor, attributed to a "surfeit of cricket". In subsequent years, international Test cricket has been generally been organised as bilateral series: a multilateral Test tournament was not organised again until the quadrangular Asian Test Championship in 1999. The number of nations playing Test cricket increased gradually over the years, with the addition of West Indies in 1928, New Zealand in 1930, India in 1932, and Pakistan in 1952, but international cricket continued to be played as bilateral Test matches over three, four or five days. In the early 1960s, English county cricket teams began playing a shortened version of cricket which only lasted for one day. Starting in 1962 with a four-team knockout competition known as the Midlands Knock-Out Cup, and continuing with the inaugural Gillette Cup in 1963, one-day cricket grew in popularity in England. A national Sunday League was formed in 1969. The first One-Day International event was played on the fifth day of a rain-aborted Test match between England and Australia at Melbourne in 1971, to fill the time available and as compensation for the frustrated crowd. It was a forty over match with eight balls per over. The success and popularity of the domestic one-day competitions in England and other parts of the world, as well as the early One-Day Internationals, prompted the ICC to consider organising a Cricket World Cup. Prudential World Cups The Prudential Cup trophy The inaugural Cricket World Cup was hosted in 1975 by England, the only nation able to put forward the resources to stage an event of such magnitude at that time. The first three events were held in England and officially known as the Prudential Cup after the sponsors Prudential plc. The matches consisted of 60 six-ball overs per team, played during the daytime in traditional form, with the players wearing cricket whites and using red cricket balls. Browning (1999), pp. 5–9 Eight teams participated in the first tournament: Australia, England, the West Indies, New Zealand, India, and Pakistan (the six Test nations at the time), together with Sri Lanka and a composite team from East Africa. Browning (1999), pp. 26–31 One notable omission was South Africa, who were banned from international cricket due to apartheid. The tournament was won by the West Indies, who defeated Australia by 17 runs in the final at Lord's. The 1979 World Cup saw the introduction of the ICC Trophy competition to select non-Test playing teams for the World Cup, with Sri Lanka and Canada qualifying. Browning (1999), pp. 32–35 West Indies won a second consecutive World Cup tournament, defeating the hosts, England, by 92 runs in the final. At a meeting which followed the World Cup, the International Cricket Conference agreed to make the competition a quadrennial event. The 1983 event was hosted by England for a third consecutive time. By this time, Sri Lanka had become a Test-playing nation, and Zimbabwe qualified through the ICC Trophy. A fielding circle was introduced, away from the stumps. Four fieldsmen needed to be inside it at all times. Browning (1999), pp. 61–62 India, an outsider quoted at 66-1 to win by bookmakers before the competition began, were crowned champions after upsetting the West Indies by 43 runs in the final. Browning (1999), pp. 105–110 1987 – 1996 The 1987 tournament was held in India and Pakistan, the first time that the competition was held outside England. The games were reduced from 60 to 50 overs per innings, the current standard, because of the shorter daylight hours in the Indian subcontinent compared with England's summer. Browning (1999), pp. 111–116 Australia won the championship by defeating England by 7 runs in the final, the closest margin in World Cup final history. Browning (1999), pp. 155–159 The 1992 World Cup, held in Australia and New Zealand, introduced many changes to the game, such as coloured clothing, white balls, day/night matches, and an alteration to the fielding restrictions. The South African cricket team participated in the event for the first time, following the fall of the apartheid regime and the end of the international sports boycott. Browning (1999), pp. 160–161 Pakistan overcame a dismal start to emerge as winners, defeating England by 22 runs in the final. Browning (1999), pp. 211–214 The 1996 championship was held in the Indian subcontinent for a second time, with the inclusion of Sri Lanka as host for some of its group stage matches. Browning (1999), pp. 215–217 In the semi-final, Sri Lanka, heading towards a crushing victory over India at Eden Gardens (Calcutta) after their hosts lost eight wickets while scoring 120 runs in pursuit of 254, were awarded victory by default after riots broke out in protest against the Indian performance. Sri Lanka went on to win their maiden championship by defeating Australia by seven wickets in the final, which was held in Lahore. Browning (1999), pp. 264–274 Australian treble In 1999 the event was hosted by England, with some matches also being held in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and the Netherlands. Browning (1999), p. 274 Australia qualified for the semi-finals after reaching their target in their Super 6 match against South Africa off the final over of the match. Browning (1999), pp. 229–231 They then proceeded to the final with a tied match in the semi-final (also against South Africa) where a mix-up between South African batsmen Lance Klusener and Allan Donald saw Donald drop his bat and stranded mid-pitch to be run out. In the final, Australia dismissed Pakistan for 132 and then reached the target in less than 20 overs, with eight wickets in hand. Browning (1999), pp. 232–238 A large crowd of over 10,000 fans welcome the Australian team on completing the first World Cup hat-trick - Martin Place, Sydney. South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya hosted the 2003 World Cup. The number of teams participating in the event increased from twelve to fourteen. Kenya's victories over Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe, among others — and a forfeit by the New Zealand team, which refused to play in Kenya because of security concerns — enabled Kenya to reach the semi-finals, the best result by an associate. In the final, Australia made 359 runs for the loss of two wickets, the largest ever total in a final, defeating India by 125 runs. In 2007 the tournament was hosted by the West Indies; the Cricket World Cup became the first such tournament to be hosted on all six populated continents. Bangladesh progressed to the second round for the first time, after defeating India, and they later went on to defeat South Africa in the second round. Ireland making their World Cup debut tied with Zimbabwe and defeated Pakistan to progress to the second round, where they went on to defeating Bangladesh to get promoted to the main ODI table. Following their defeat to Ireland, the Pakistani coach Bob Woolmer was found dead in his hotel room; it was later found out that he died of heart failure. Australia defeated Sri Lanka in the final by 53 runs (D/L), in farcical light conditions, extending their undefeated run in the World Cup to 29 matches and winning three straight World Cups. Format Qualification The Test-playing nations and ODI-playing nations qualify automatically for the World Cup finals, while the other teams have to qualify through a series of preliminary qualifying tournaments. Qualifying tournaments were introduced for the second World Cup, where two of the eight places in the finals were awarded to the leading teams in the ICC Trophy. The number of teams selected through the ICC Trophy has varied throughout the years; currently, six teams are selected for the Cricket World Cup. The World Cricket League (administered by the International Cricket Council) is the qualification system provided to allow the Associate and Affiliate members of the ICC more opportunities to qualify. In 2009, the name "ICC Trophy" will be changed to "ICC World Cup Qualifier". Under the current qualifying process, the World Cricket League, all 91 Associate and Affiliate members of the ICC are able to qualify for the World Cup. Associate and Affiliate members must play between two and five stages in the ICC World Cricket League to qualify for the World Cup finals, depending on the Division in which they start the qualifying process. Process summary in chronological order: Regional tournaments: Top teams from each regional tournaments will be promoted to a division depending on the teams' rankings according to the ICC and each division's empty spots. Division One: 6 Teams — All qualify for the World Cup Qualifier. Division Three: 8 Teams — Top 2 promoted to Division Two. Division Two: 6 Teams — Top 4 qualify for the World Cup Qualifier. Division Five: 8 Teams — Top 2 promoted to Division Four. Division Four: 5 Teams — Top 2 promoted to Division Three. Division Three (second edition): 6 Teams — Top 2 qualify for the World Cup Qualifier. World Cup Qualifier: 12 Teams — Top 6 are awarded ODI status and Top 4 qualify for the World Cup. Tournament The captains of the 2007 Cricket World Cup. The format of the Cricket World Cup has changed greatly over the course of its history. Each of the first four tournaments was played by eight teams, divided into two groups of four. There, competition comprised two stages, a group stage and a knock-out stage. The four teams in each group played each other in the round-robin group stage, with the top two teams in each group progressing to the semi-finals. The winners of the semi-finals played against each other in the final. With the return of South Africa in 1992 after the ending of the apartheid boycott, nine teams played each other once in the group phase, and the top four teams progressed to the semi-finals. The tournament was further expanded in 1996, with two groups of six teams. The top four teams from each group progressed to quarter-finals and semi-finals. A new format was used for the 1999 and 2003 World Cups. The teams were split into two pools, with the top three teams in each pool advancing to the Super 6. The "Super 6" teams played the three other teams that advanced from the other group. As they advanced, the teams carried their points forward from previous matches against other teams advancing alongside them, giving them an incentive to perform well in the group stages. The top four teams from the "Super 6" stage progressed to the semi-finals, with winners playing in the final. The last format used in the 2007 World Cup, features 16 teams allocated into four groups of four. Within each group, the teams play each other in a round-robin format. Teams earn points for wins and half-points for ties. The top two teams from each group move forward to the Super 8 round. The "Super 8" teams play the other six teams that progressed from the different groups. Teams earned points in the same way as the group stage, but carrying their points forward from previous matches against the other teams who qualified from the same group to the "Super 8" stage. The top four teams from the "Super 8" round advance to the semi-finals, and the winners of the semi-finals play in the final. The current format, approved by ICC to be used in 2011 World Cup, features 14 teams allocated. Within each group, the teams will play in a round-robin format. The top four teams from each group will proceed to the knock out stage playing quarter-finals. Winners of the quarter-finals will play semi-finals and the winning semi-finalists will play in the final. Trophy The Cricket World Cup trophy which is kept by the ICC. The ICC Cricket World Cup Trophy is presented to the winners of the World Cup finals. The current trophy was created for the 1999 championships, and was the first permanent prize in the tournament's history; prior to this, different trophies were made for each World Cup. The trophy was designed and produced in London by a team of craftsmen from Garrard & Co over a period of two months. The current trophy is made from silver and gild, and features a golden globe held up by three silver columns. The columns, shaped as stumps and bails, represent the three fundamental aspects of cricket: batting, bowling and fielding, while the globe characterises a cricket ball. The trophy is designed with platonic dimensions, so that it can be easily recognised from any angle. It stands 60 cm high and weighs approximately 11 kilograms. The names of the previous winners are engraved on the base of the trophy, with space for a total of twenty inscriptions. The original trophy is kept by the ICC. A replica, which differs only in the inscriptions, is permanently awarded to the winning team. Media coverage Mello The tournament is the world's third largest and most viewed sporting events, being televised in over 200 countries to over 2.2 billion television viewers. Television rights, mainly for the 2011 and 2015 World Cup, were sold for over US$1.1 billion, and sponsorship rights were sold for a further US$500 million. The 2003 Cricket World Cup matches were attended by 626,845 people, while the 2007 Cricket World Cup sold more than 672,000 tickets and recorded the highest ticketing revenue for a Cricket World Cup. World Cup profits boost debt-ridden Windies board Successive World Cup tournaments have generated increasing media attention as One-Day International cricket has become more established. The 2003 World Cup in South Africa was the first to sport a mascot, Dazzler the zebra. An orange raccoon-like creature known as Mello was the mascot for the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Selection of hosts Civic Centre, South Africa honours the 2003 World Cup. The International Cricket Council's executive committee votes for the hosts of the tournament after examining the bids made by the nations keen to hold a Cricket World Cup. England hosted the first three competitions. The ICC decided that England should host the first tournament because it was ready to devote the resources required to organising the inaugural event. India volunteered to host the third Cricket World Cup, but most ICC members believed England to be a more suitable venue because the longer period of daylight in England in June meant that a match could be completed in one day. The 1987 Cricket World Cup was the first hosted outside England, held in India and Pakistan. Many of the tournaments have been jointly hosted by nations from the same geographical region, such as South Asia in 1987 and 1996, Australasia in 1992, Southern Africa in 2003 and West Indies in 2007. India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh are going to host the 2011 World Cup. Pakistan was the 4th country involved to host the 2011 World Cup; however, due to security reasons after the March 3, 2009 Lahore terror attacks on the Sri Lankan cricket team bus, the 14 scheduled matches in Pakistan (including one semi-final) have been reassigned to the remaining 3 countries by the ICC executive board. The final for the 2011 world cup will be in Mumbai. Every Test-playing nation now has hosted or co-hosted a Cricket World Cup at least once, except Bangladesh, the most recent country to achieve Test status. Statistical summaries Results YearHost Nation(s)Final VenueFinalWinnerResultRunner-up1975DetailsEnglandLord's, London291 for 8 (60 overs)WI won by 17 runs Scorecard274 all out (58.4 overs)1979DetailsEngland, Lord's, London286 for 9 (60 overs)WI won by 92 runs Scorecard194 all out (51 overs)1983DetailsEnglandLord's, London183 all out (54.4 overs)Ind won by 43 runs Scorecard140 all out (52 overs)1987Details India, PakistanEden Gardens, Kolkata253 for 5 (50 overs)Aus won by 7 runs Scorecard246 for 8 (50 overs)1992Details Australia, New ZealandMCG, Melbourne249 for 6 (50 overs)Pak won by 22 runs Scorecard227 all out (49.2 overs)1996Details Pakistan, India, Sri LankaGaddafi Stadium, Lahore245 for 3 (46.2 overs)SL won by 7 wickets Scorecard241 for 7 (50 overs)1999Details England, Ireland, Netherlands, ScotlandLord's, London133 for 2 (20.1 overs)Aus won by 8 wickets Scorecard132 all out (39 overs)2003Details Kenya, South Africa, ZimbabweWanderers, Johannesburg359 for 2 (50 overs)Aus won by 125 runs Scorecard234 all out (39.2 overs)2007DetailsWest IndiesKensington Oval, Bridgetown281 for 4 (38 overs)Aus won by 53 runs on D/L Method Scorecard215 for 8 (36 overs)2011Details India, Sri Lanka, BangladeshWankhede Stadium, MumbaiTBDTBDTBD2015Details Australia, New ZealandTBDTBDTBDTBD2019DetailsEnglandLord's, LondonTBDTBDTBD Performance of teams Map of each nation's best results Nineteen nations have qualified for the finals of the Cricket World Cup at least once (excluding qualification tournaments). Seven teams have competed in every finals tournament, five of which have won the title. The West Indies won the first two tournaments, and Australia has won four, while India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have each won once. The West Indies (1975 and 1979) and Australia (1999, 2003 and 2007) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. Australia has played in 6 of the 9 final matches (1975, 1987, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2007) including the finals in the four most recent tournaments. England has yet to win the World Cup, but has been runners-up three times (1979, 1987, 1992). The best result by a non-Test playing nation is the semi-final appearance by Kenya in the 2003 tournament; while the best result by a non-Test playing team on their debut is the Super 8 (second round) by Ireland in 2007. A chart showing each country's historical performance in the Cricket World Cup Sri Lanka, who co-hosted the 1996 Cricket World Cup, is the only host to win the tournament, though the final was held in Pakistan. England is the only other host to have made the final, in 1979. Other countries which have achieved or equaled their best World Cup results while co-hosting the tournament are New Zealand, semi-finalists in 1992; Zimbabwe, reaching the Super Six in 2003; and Kenya, semi-finalists in 2003. In 1987, co-hosts India and Pakistan both reached the semi-finals, but were eliminated by Australia and England respectively. The table below provides an overview of the performances of teams over past World Cups. TeamAppearancesBest resultStatisticsTotalFirstLatestPlayedWonLostTieNR919752007Champions (1987, 1999, 2003, 2007)69511710919752007Champions (1975, 1979)57352101919752007Champions (1983)58322501919752007Champions (1992)56302402919752007Champions (1996)57253011 919752007Runners-up (1979, 1987, 1992)59362201919752007Semifinals (1975, 1979, 1992, 1999, 2007)62352601719832007Super Six (1999, 2003)4583313519922007Semifinals (1992, 1999, 2007)40261220419962007Semifinals (2003)2361601319992007Super 8 (2007)2051401319792007Round 11211100319962007Round 11421200219992007Round 180800120072007Super 8 (2007)92610120072007Round 130300120032003Round 160600119961996Round 151400East Africa119751975Round 130300 Individual awards Since 1992, one player has been declared as "Man of the Tournament" at the end of the World Cup finals: YearPlayerPerformance details1992 Martin Crowe456 runs1996 Sanath Jayasuriya221 runs and 7 wickets1999 Lance Klusener281 runs and 17 wickets2003 Sachin Tendulkar673 runs and 2 wickets2007 Glenn McGrath26 wickets Previously, there was no tournament award, although Man of the Match awards have always been given for individual matches. Winning the Man of the Match in the final is logically noteworthy, as this indicates the player deemed to have played the biggest part in the World Cup final. To date the award has always gone to a member of the winning side. The Man of the Match award in the final of the competition has been awarded to: YearPlayerPerformance details1975 Clive Lloyd102 runs1979 Viv Richards138*1983 Mohinder Amarnath3/12 and 261987 David Boon75 runs1992 Wasim Akram33 and 3/491996 Aravinda de Silva107* and 3/421999 Shane Warne4/332003 Ricky Ponting140*2007 Adam Gilchrist149 Main individual and team records Sachin Tendulkar, the leading run-scorer in World Cup history. World Cup records All records are based on statistics at Cricinfo.com's list of World Cup records BattingMost runs Sachin Tendulkar1796 (1992–2007)Highest average (min. 20 inns.) Viv Richards63.31 (1975–1987)Highest score Gary Kirsten v UAE188* (1996)Highest partnership Rahul Dravid & Sourav Ganguly (2nd wicket) v Sri Lanka318 (1999)Most runs in a tournament Sachin Tendulkar673 (2003) BowlingMost wickets Glenn McGrath71 (1996–2007)Lowest average (min. 1000 balls bowled) Glenn McGrath19.21 (1996–2007)Best bowling figures Glenn McGrath v Namibia7/15 (2003)Most wickets in a tournament Glenn McGrath26 (2007) FieldingMost dismissals (wicket-keeper) Adam Gilchrist39 (1999–2007)Most catches (fielder) Ricky Ponting24 (1996–2007) TeamHighest score v Bermuda413/5 (2007)Lowest score v Sri Lanka36 (2003)Highest win % Australia75% (Played 69, Won 51)Most consecutive wins Australia23 (1999–2007)Most consecutive tournament wins Australia3 (1999–2007) cricinfo.com See also U/19 Cricket World Cup Women's Cricket World Cup References Notes External links Official ICC Cricket World Cup 2007 website Cricinfo's Cricket World Cup 2007 website Official ICC website The Cricket World 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2,912 | IC_342%2FMaffei_Group | The IC 342/Maffei Group (also known as the IC 342 Group or the Maffei 1 Group) is the nearest group of galaxies to the Local Group. The group can be described as a binary group; the member galaxies are mostly concentrated around either IC 342 or Maffei 1, both of which are the brightest galaxies within the group. The group is one of many located within the Virgo Supercluster (i.e. the Local Supercluster). Members The table below lists galaxies that have been identified as associated with the IC342/Maffei 1 Group by I. D. Karachentsev. Note that Karachentsev divides this group into two subgroups centered around IC 342 and Maffei 1. +Members of the IC 342 Subgroup Name Type R.A. (J2000) Dec. (J2000) Redshift (km/s) Apparent Magnitude Camelopardalis A Irr -46 ± 1 14.8 Camelopardalis B Irr 77 16.1 Cassiopeia 1 dIrr 35 16.4 IC 342 SAB(rs)cd 31 ± 3 9.1 KK 35 Irr 105 ± 1 17.2 NGC 1560 SA(s)d -36 ± 5 12.2 UGCA 86 Im 67 ± 4 13.5 UGCA 105 Im 111 ± 5 13.9 +Members of the Maffei 1 Subgroup Name Type R.A. (J2000) Dec. (J2000) Redshift (km/s) Apparent Magnitude Dwingeloo 1 SB(s)cd 110 8.3 Dwingeloo 2 Im 94 ± 1 20.5 KKH 11 dE 310 16.2 KKH 12 Irr 70 17.8 Maffei 1 S0 pec 13 ± 22 11.4 Maffei 2 SAB(rs)bc -17 ± 5 16.0 MB 1 SAB(s)d 20.5 190 ± 1 MB 3 dSph 59 ± 1 19.8 Additionally, KKH 37 is listed as possibly being a members of the IC 342 Subgroup, and KKH 6 is listed as possibly being members of the Maffei 1 Subgroup. Foreground dust obscuration As seen from Earth, the group lies near the plane of the Milky Way (a region sometimes called the zone of avoidance). Consequently, the light from many of the galaxies is severely affected by dust obscuration within the Milky Way. This complicates observational studies of the group, as uncertainties in the dust obscuration also affect measurements of the galaxies' luminosities and distances as well as other related quantities. Moreover, the galaxies within the group have historically been difficult to identify. Many galaxies have only been discovered using late 20th century astronomical instrumentation. For example, while many fainter, more distant galaxies, such as the galaxies in the New General Catalogue, were already identified visually by the end of the nineteenth century, Maffei 1 and Maffei 2 were only discovered in 1968 using infrared photographic images of the region. Furthermore, it is difficult to determine whether some objects near IC 342 or Maffei 1 are galaxies associated with the IC 342/Maffei Group or diffuse foreground objects within the Milky Way that merely look like galaxies. For example, the objects MB 2 and Camelopardalis C were once thought to be dwarf galaxies in the IC 342/Maffei Group but are now known to be objects within the Milky Way. Group formation and possible interactions with the Local Group Since the IC 342/Maffei Group and the Local Group are located physically close to each other, the two groups may have influenced each other's evolution during the early stages of galaxy formation. An analysis of the velocities and distances to the IC 342/Maffei Group as measured by M. J. Valtonen and collaborators suggested that IC 342 and Maffei 1 were moving faster than what could be accounted for in the expansion of the universe. They therefore suggested that IC 342 and Maffei 1 were ejected from the Local Group after a violent gravitational interaction with the Andromeda Galaxy during the early stages of the formation of the two groups. However, this interpretation is dependent on the distances measured to the galaxies in the group, which in turn is dependent on accurately measuring the degree to which interstellar dust in the Milky Way obscures the group. More recent observations have demonstrated that the dust obscuration may have been previously overestimated, so the distances may have been underestimated. If these new distance measurements are correct, then the galaxies in the IC 342/Maffei Group appear to be moving at the rate expected from the expansion of the universe, and the scenario of a collision between the IC 342/Maffei Group and the Local Group would be implausible. References | IC_342%2FMaffei_Group |@lemmatized ic:16 maffei:20 group:29 also:2 know:2 near:3 galaxy:17 local:6 describe:1 binary:1 member:6 mostly:1 concentrate:1 around:2 either:1 bright:1 within:6 one:1 many:4 locate:2 virgo:1 supercluster:2 e:1 table:1 list:3 identify:3 associate:2 karachentsev:2 note:1 divide:1 two:3 subgroup:5 center:1 name:2 type:2 r:4 dec:2 redshift:2 km:2 apparent:2 magnitude:2 camelopardalis:3 irr:4 b:1 cassiopeia:1 dirr:1 sab:3 cd:2 kk:1 ngc:1 sa:1 ugca:2 im:3 dwingeloo:2 sb:1 kkh:4 de:1 pec:1 bc:1 mb:3 dsph:1 additionally:1 possibly:2 foreground:2 dust:5 obscuration:4 see:1 earth:1 lie:1 plane:1 milky:5 way:5 region:2 sometimes:1 call:1 zone:1 avoidance:1 consequently:1 light:1 severely:1 affect:2 complicate:1 observational:1 study:1 uncertainty:1 measurement:2 luminosity:1 distance:5 well:1 related:1 quantity:1 moreover:1 historically:1 difficult:2 discover:2 use:2 late:1 century:2 astronomical:1 instrumentation:1 example:2 fainter:1 distant:1 new:2 general:1 catalogue:1 already:1 visually:1 end:1 nineteenth:1 infrared:1 photographic:1 image:1 furthermore:1 determine:1 whether:1 object:4 diffuse:1 merely:1 look:1 like:1 c:1 think:1 dwarf:1 formation:3 possible:1 interaction:2 since:1 physically:1 close:1 may:3 influence:1 evolution:1 early:2 stage:2 analysis:1 velocity:1 measure:3 j:1 valtonen:1 collaborator:1 suggest:2 move:2 fast:1 could:1 account:1 expansion:2 universe:2 therefore:1 eject:1 violent:1 gravitational:1 andromeda:1 however:1 interpretation:1 dependent:2 turn:1 accurately:1 degree:1 interstellar:1 obscure:1 recent:1 observation:1 demonstrate:1 previously:1 overestimate:1 underestimate:1 correct:1 appear:1 rate:1 expect:1 scenario:1 collision:1 would:1 implausible:1 reference:1 |@bigram ic_maffei:12 apparent_magnitude:2 milky_way:5 nineteenth_century:1 andromeda_galaxy:1 interstellar_dust:1 |
2,913 | Arthur_Miller | Arthur Asher Miller (October 17, 1915 – February 10, 2005) was an American playwright and essayist. He was a prominent figure in American theatre and cinema, writing a wide variety of dramas, including plays such as The Crucible, A View from the Bridge, All My Sons, and Death of a Salesman, which are studied and performed worldwide. ; Miller was often in the public eye, most famously for refusing to give evidence against others to the House Un-American Activities Committee, being the recipient of the Pulitzer Prize for Drama among countless other awards, and for his marriage to Marilyn Monroe. Miller is considered by audiences and scholars as one of America's greatest playwrights and his plays are lauded throughout the world. Biography Early life Miller was born to moderately-affluent Polish-Jewish immigrants, Isidore and Augusta Miller, in Manhattan in 1915. He lived there until the Wall Street Crash of 1929 after which his family moved to humbler quarters in the Gravesend section of Brooklyn. The Times Arthur Miller Obituary, (London: The Times, 2005) He is the older brother of actress Joan Copeland. When interviewed by BBC4 for The Atheism Tapes, he stated that he had been an atheist since his teens. Because of the effects of the Great Depression on his family, Miller did not have money for college after graduating in 1932 from Abraham Lincoln High School. Before securing a place at the University of Michigan, he worked in a number of menial jobs to pay for his tuition. He continued working in Ann Arbor to supplement his income. At the University of Michigan, Miller first majored in journalism, where he became the reporter and night editor on the student paper, the Michigan Daily. It was during this time that he wrote his first work, No Villain. Miller switched his major to English, and subsequently won the Avery Hopwood Award for No Villain. He was mentored by Professor Kenneth Rowe, who instructed him in his early forays into playwriting. Miller retained strong ties to his alma mater throughout the rest of his life, establishing the university's Arthur Miller Award in 1985 and Arthur Miller Award for Dramatic Writing in 1999, and lending his name to the Arthur Miller Theatre in 2000. In 1937, Miller wrote Honors at Dawn, which also received the Avery Hopwood Award. In 1938, Miller received his bachelor's degree in English. After graduation, he joined the Federal Theater Project, a New Deal agency established to provide jobs in the theater. He chose the theater project although he had an offer to work as a scriptwriter for 20th Century Fox. However, Congress, worried about possible Communist infiltration, closed the project. Miller began working in the Brooklyn Navy Yard while continuing to write radio plays, some of which were broadcast on CBS. On August 5, 1940, he married his college sweetheart, Mary Slattery, the Catholic daughter of an insurance salesman. Michael Ratcliffe, Arthur Miller Obituary, (London: The Observer, 2005). The couple had two children, Jane and Robert. Miller was exempted from military service during World War II because of a high-school American football injury to his left kneecap. Robert became a director, writer and producer who was, among other things, producer of the 1996 movie version of The Crucible . Early career In 1940 Miller wrote The Man Who Had All the Luck, which was produced in New Jersey in 1940 and won the Theater Guild's National Award. Royal National Theater: Platform Papers, 7. Arthur Miller (Battley Brothers Printers, 1995). The play closed after four performances and diastrous reviews. In his book Trinity of Passion, author Alan M. Wald conjectures that Miller was "a member of a writer's unit of the Communist Party around 1946", using the pseudonym Matt Wayne, and editing a drama column in the magazine The New Masses. In 1946 Miller's play All My Sons, the writing of which had commenced in 1941, was a success on Broadway and his reputation as a playwright was established. In 1948 Miller built a small studio in Roxbury, Connecticut, a town that was to be his long time home. There, in less than a day, he wrote Act I of Death of a Salesman. Within six weeks, he completed the rest of the play, one of the classics of world theater. Death of a Salesman premiered on Broadway on February 10, 1949 at the Morosco Theatre, directed by Elia Kazan, and starring Lee J. Cobb as Willy Loman, Mildred Dunnock as Linda, Arthur Kennedy as Biff, and Cameron Mitchell as Happy. The play was commercially successful and critically acclaimed, winning a Tony Award for best play, the New York City Drama Circle Critics Award, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. It was the first play to win all three of these major awards. The searing drama ran for 742 performances. In 1952, Kazan appeared before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC); under fear of being blacklisted from Hollywood, Kazan named eight members of the Group Theatre, including Clifford Odets, Paula Strasberg, Lillian Hellman, Joe Bromberg, and John Garfield, who in recent years had been fellow members of the Communist Party. After speaking with Kazan about his testimony Miller traveled to Salem, Massachusetts to research the witch trials of 1692. The Crucible, an allegorical play in which Miller likened the situation with the House Un-American Activities Committee to the witch hunt in Salem, opened at the Beck Theatre on Broadway on January 22, 1953. Though widely considered only somewhat successful at the time of its initial release, today The Crucible is Miller's most frequently produced work throughout the world. Miller and Kazan remained close friends throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, but after Kazan's testimony to HUAC, the pair's friendship ended, and they did not speak to each other for the next ten years. HUAC took an interest in Miller himself not long after The Crucible opened, denying him a passport to attend the play's London opening in 1954. Kazan defended his own actions through his film On the Waterfront, in which a dockworker heroically testifies against a corrupt union boss. Miller's experience with HUAC affected him throughout his life. In the late 1970s he became very interested in the highly publicized Barbara Gibbons murder case, in which Gibbons' son Peter Reilly was convicted of his mother's murder based on what many felt was a coerced confession and little other evidence. City Confidential, an A&E Network program about the murder, postulated that part of the reason Miller took such an active interest (including supporting Reilly's defense and using his own celebrity to bring attention to Reilly's plight) was because he had felt similarly persecuted in his run-in with the HUAC. He sympathized with Reilly, whom he firmly believed to be innocent and to have been railroaded by the Connecticut State Police and the Attorney General who had initially prosecuted the case. 1956 - 1964 In 1956 a one-act version of Miller's verse drama, A View From The Bridge, opened on Broadway in a joint bill with one of Miller's lesser-known plays, A Memory of Two Mondays. The following year, Miller returned to A View from the Bridge, revising it into a two-act prose version, which Peter Brook produced in London. In June 1956 Miller left his first wife Mary Slattery, and on June 29, he married Marilyn Monroe. Miller and Monroe had first met in April 1951, when they had a brief affair, and had remained in contact since then. When Miller applied 1956 for a routine renewal of his passport, the HUAC used this opportunity to subpoena him to appear before the committee. Before appearing, Miller asked the committee not to ask him to name names, to which the chairman agreed. When Miller attended the hearing, to which Monroe accompanied him, risking her own career, he gave the committee a detailed account of his political activities (leaving out the fact that he was a party member). Reneging on the chairman's promise, the committee asked him to reveal the names of friends and colleagues who had partaken in similar activities. Miller refused to comply with the request, saying "I could not use the name of another person and bring trouble on him." As a result a judge found Miller guilty of contempt of Congress in May 1957. Miller was fined $500, sentenced to thirty days in prison, blacklisted, and disallowed a U.S. passport. In 1958 his conviction was overturned by the court of appeals, which ruled that Miller had been misled by the chairman of HUAC. For a period in his life, Arthur Miller changed his name to Jonathan Lovelett as to keep his identity protected from the public. He published under this pen name for a short while in a small newspaper. The serialization of his works became very popular so he decided to change his name back to Arthur Miller. After his conviction was overturned, Miller began work on The Misfits, which starred his wife. Miller said that the filming was one of the lowest points in his life, and shortly before the film's premiere in 1961, the pair divorced. Nineteen months later, Monroe died of an apparent drug overdose. Miller married photographer Inge Morath on February 17, 1962, and the first of their two children, Rebecca, was born that September. Their son Daniel was born with Down Syndrome in November 1966, and was consequently institutionalized and excluded from the Miller's personal life at his insistence. . The couple remained together until Inge's death in 2002. Arthur Miller's son-in-law, actor Daniel Day-Lewis is said to have visited Daniel frequently, and to have persuaded Arthur Miller to reunite with his adult son . Later career In 1964 Miller's next play was produced. After the Fall is a deeply personal view of Miller's own experiences during his marriage to Monroe. The play reunited Miller with his former friend Kazan: they collaborated on both the script and the direction. After the Fall opened on January 23, 1964 at the ANTA Theatre in Washington Square Park amid a flurry of publicity and outrage at putting a Monroe-like character, called Maggie, on stage. That same year, Miller produced Incident at Vichy. In 1965, Miller was elected the first American president of International PEN, a position which he held for four years. During this period Miller wrote the penetrating family drama, The Price, produced in 1968. It was Miller's most successful play since Death of a Salesman. In 1969, Miller's works were banned in the Soviet Union after he campaigned for the freedom of dissident writers. Throughout the 1970s, Miller spent much of his time experimenting with the theatre, producing one-act plays such as Fame and The Reason Why, and traveling with his wife, producing In The Country and Chinese Encounters with her. Both his 1972 comedy The Creation of the World and Other Business and its musical adaptation, Up from Paradise, were critical and commercial failures. In 1983, Miller traveled to the People's Republic of China to produce and direct Death of a Salesman at the People's Art Theatre in Beijing. The play was a success in China and in 1984, Salesman in Beijing, a book about Miller's experiences in Beijing, was published. Around the same time, Death of a Salesman was made into a TV movie starring Dustin Hoffman as Willy Loman. Shown on CBS, it attracted 25 million viewers. The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Post-World War II to the 1990s, page 296 (Cambridge University Press, 2006). In late 1987, Miller's autobiographical work, Timebends, was published. Before it was published, it was well-known that that Miller would not talk about Monroe in interviews; in Timebends Miller talks about his experiences with Monroe in detail. During the early 1990s Miller wrote three new plays, The Ride Down Mt. Morgan (1991), The Last Yankee (1992), and Broken Glass (1994). In 1996, a film of The Crucible starring Daniel Day Lewis and Winona Ryder opened. Miller spent much of 1996 working on the screenplay to the film. Mr. Peters' Connections was staged off-Broadway in 1998, and Death of a Salesman was revived on Broadway in 1999 to celebrate its fiftieth anniversary. The play, once again, was a large critical success, winning a Tony Award for best revival of a play. In 2001 the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) selected Miller for the Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. federal government's highest honor for achievement in the humanities. Jefferson Lecturers at NEH Website (retrieved January 22, 2009). Miller's lecture was entitled "On Politics and the Art of Acting." Arthur Miller, "On Politics and the Art of Acting", text of Jefferson Lecture at NEH website. Miller's lecture analyzed political events (including the recent U.S. presidential election of 2000) in terms of the "arts of performance", and it drew attacks from some conservatives Bruce Craig, "Arthur Miller's Jefferson Lecture Stirs Controversy", in "Capital Commentary", OAH Newsletter [published by Organization of American Historians], May 2001. such as Jay Nordlinger, who called it "a disgrace", Jay Nordlinger, "Back to Plessy, Easter with Fidel, Miller’s new tale, &c." National Review, April 22, 2002. and George Will, who argued that Miller was not legitimately a "scholar". George Will, "Enduring Arthur Miller: Oh, the Humanities!", Jewish World Review, April 10, 2001. On May 1, 2002, Miller was awarded Spain's Principe de Asturias Prize for Literature as "the undisputed master of modern drama". Previous winners include Doris Lessing, Günter Grass and Carlos Fuentes. Later that year, Ingeborg Morath died of lymphatic cancer at the age of 78. The following year Miller won the Jerusalem Prize. In December 2004, the 89-year-old Miller announced that he had been in love with 34-year-old minimalist painter Agnes Barley and had been living with her at his Connecticut farm since 2002, and that they intended to marry. Within hours of her father's death, Rebecca Miller ordered Barley to vacate the premises, having consistently opposed the relationship. Miller's final play, Finishing the Picture, opened at the Goodman Theatre, Chicago, in the fall of 2004, with one character said to be based on Barley. Miller said that the work was based on the experience of filming The Misfits. Miller died of heart failure after a battle against cancer, pneumonia and congestive heart disease at his home in Roxbury, Connecticut. He had been in hospice care at his sister's apartment in New York since his release from hospital the previous month. He died on the evening of February 10, 2005 (the 56th anniversary of the Broadway debut of Death of a Salesman), aged 89, surrounded by Barley, family and friends. Obituary in The Irish Independent (online) Legacy Miller's career as a writer spanned over seven decades, and at the time of his death in 2005, Miller was considered to be one of the greatest dramatists of the twentieth century. After his death, many respected actors, directors, and producers paid tribute to Miller, some calling him the last great practitioner of the American stage, and Broadway theaters darkened their lights in a show of respect. Miller's alma mater, the University of Michigan opened the Arthur Miller Theatre in March, 2007. Per his express wish, it is the only theater in the world that bears Miller's name. Miller's friend, Professor Christopher Bigsbyfinished working on Arthur Miller: The Definitive Biography, based on boxes of papers Miller made available to him before his death in 2005. The book was published in November 2008, and is reported to reveal unpublished works in which Miller "bitterly attack[ed] the injustices of American racism long before it was taken up by the civil rights movement". Works Radio plays The Pussycat and the Plumber Who Was a Man (1941) William Ireland’s Confession (1941) Jed Chandler Harris (1941) Captain Paul (1941) The Battle of the Ovens (1942) Thunder from the Mountains (1942) I Was Married in Bataan (1942) Toward a Farther Star (1942) The Eagle’s Nest (1942) The Four Freedoms (1942) That They May Win (1943) Listen for the Sound of Wings (1943) Bernardine (1944) I Love You (1944) Grandpa and the Statue (1944) The Philippines Never Surrendered (1944) The Guardsman (1944, based on Ferenc Molnár’s play) The Story of Gus (1947) The Reason Why(1970) Stage plays No Villain (1936) They Too Arise (1937, based on No Villain) Honors at Dawn (1938, based on They Too Arise) The Grass Still Grows (1938, based on They Too Arise) The Great Disobedience (1938) Listen My Children (1939, with Norman Rosten) The Golden Years (1940) The Man Who Had All the Luck (1940)[46] The Half-Bridge (1943) All My Sons (1947) Death of a Salesman (1949) An Enemy of the People (1950, based on Henrik Ibsen's play 'An Enemy of the People') The Crucible (1953) A View from the Bridge (1955) A Memory of Two Mondays (1955) After the Fall (1964) Incident at Vichy (1964) The Price (1968) Fame (television play, 1970) The Creation of the World and Other Business (1972) The Archbishop's Ceiling (1977) The American Clock (1980) Playing For Time(television play, 1980) Elegy for a Lady (short play, 1982, first part of Two Way Mirror) Some Kind of Love Story (short play, 1982, second part of Two Way Mirror) I Think About You a Great Deal (1986) Playing for Time (stage version, 1985) I Can’t Remember Anything (1987, collected in Danger: Memory!) Clara (1987, collected in Danger: Memory!) The Last Yankee (1991) The Ride Down Mt. Morgan (1991) Broken Glass (1994) Mr Peter’s Connections (1998) Resurrection Blues (2002) Finishing the Picture (2004) Screenplays The Hook (1947) The Misfits (1961) Everybody Wins (1984) The Crucible (1995) Assorted fiction Focus (novel, 1945) The Misfits (short story, 1957) I Don’t Need You Anymore (short stories, 1967) Homely Girl (short story, 1992, published UK as Plain Girl: A Life 1995) The Performance (short story) Presence: Stories (short stories, 2007) Non-fiction Situation Normal (1944) is based on his experiences researching the war correspondence of Ernie Pyle. In Russia (1969), the first of three books created with his photographer wife Inge Morath, offers Miller's impressions of Russia and Russian society. In the Country (1977), with photographs by Morath and text by Miller, provides insight into how Miller spent his time in Roxbury, Connecticut and profiles of his various neighbors. Chinese Encounters (1979) is a travel journal with photographs by Morath. It depicts the Chinese society in the state of flux which followed the end of the Cultural Revolution. Miller discusses the hardships of many writers, professors, and artists as they try to regain the sense of freedom and place they lost during Mao Zedong's regime. Salesman in Beijing (1984) details Miller's experiences with the 1983 Beijing People's Theatre production of Death of a Salesman. He describes the idiosyncrasies, understandings, and insights encountered in directing a Chinese cast in a decidedly American play. Timebends: A Life, Methuen London (1987) ISBN 0413414809. Like Death of a Salesman, the book follows the structure of memory itself, each passage linked to and triggered by the one before. Collections Kushner, Tony, ed. Arthur Miller, Collected Plays 1944-1961 (Library of America, 2006) ISBN 978-1-93108291-4. Martin, Robert A. (ed.), "The theater essays of Arthur Miller", foreword by Arthur Miller. NY: Viking Press, 1978 ISBN 0140049037. Steven R Centola, ed. Echoes Down the Corridor: Arthur Miller, Collected Essays 1944-2000, Viking Penguin (US)/Methuen (UK), 2000 ISBN 0413756904 See also Hollywood blacklist McCarthyism House Un-American Activities Committee International PEN Christopher Bigsby References Sources Bigsby, Christopher (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Arthur Miller, Cambridge 1997 ISBN 0521559928 Martin Gottfried, Arthur Miller, A Life, Da Capo Press (US)/Faber and Faber (UK), 2003 ISBN 0571219462 Martin, Robert A. (ed.), "The theater essays of Arthur Miller", foreword by Arthur Miller. NY: Viking Press, 1978. Moss, Leonard. Arthur Miller, Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1980. Notes External links Arthur Miller Society Arthur Miller at Monologue Search New York Times Obituary CNN Obituary BBC Obituary PBS: Arthur Miller Miller interview, Humanities, March-April 2001 Miller interview, The Paris Review, summer 1966 A Visit With Castro - Miller's article in The Nation, January 12, 2004 Chronology of Arthur Miller Biography of Arthur Miller Transcript of an extended conversation between Arthur Miller and Jonathan Miller from the BBC TV series, The Atheism Tapes Arthur Miller's papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at The University of Texas at Austin be-x-old:Артур Мілер | Arthur_Miller |@lemmatized arthur:33 asher:1 miller:116 october:1 february:4 american:14 playwright:3 essayist:1 prominent:1 figure:1 theatre:12 cinema:1 write:8 wide:1 variety:1 drama:9 include:5 play:33 crucible:8 view:5 bridge:5 son:7 death:16 salesman:14 study:1 perform:1 worldwide:1 often:1 public:2 eye:1 famously:1 refuse:2 give:2 evidence:2 others:1 house:5 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2,914 | Fujiwara_no_Michinaga | |Fujiwara no Michinaga Fujiwara no Michinaga Fujiwara no Mi-chi-na-ga (藤原 道長, 966-3 January 1028; Japanese calendar: 万寿4年12月4日) represents the highpoint of the Fujiwara regents' control over the government of Japan. Michinaga exerted de facto reign over Japan in the early 11th century. This can be seen from the fact that he was father to four (non-reigning) empresses, uncle to two emperors and grandfather to another three. He was the fourth or fifth son of Fujiwara no Kaneie by his wife Tokihime, daughter of Fujiwara no Nakamasa. There were two regents and two imperial consorts among his brothers and sisters by the same mother. As the youngest son of his father, he was not remarkable in the court until his two brothers died. He started his career in the court when he was 15 years old. In 995 during the reign of Emperor Ichijō, his two elder brothers Michitaka and Michikane died of disease. He struggled with Fujiwara no Korechika, the elder son of Michitaka, for political power. With support of Senshi, his sister and mother of Ichijō, Michinaga succeeded in gaining power as well the support of majority of the court. He was appointed Nairan, the secretary of the emperor and reviewer who reviewed all the document before the emperor himself read them. Though he was not regent yet, he became then substantially the most powerful person in the court. Though Ichijō already had an empress, a daughter of Michitaka, he claimed there were two types of empresshood and therefore it was legal for an emperor to have two empresses at the same time. Michinaga's ambitions led him make his own daughter, Shoshi, a second empress of Ichijō. In 1000 Shoshi was announced as a Chūgū empress and the existing empress Teishi was given the title of Kōgō empress. It was the first time an emperor had two empresses. (In 1006, Michinaga invited Murasaki Shikibu to become Empress Shoshi’s companion and tutor. Michelle Green, "Kyoto Celebrates a 1,000-Year Love Affair", New York Times, January 4, 2009. ) A power struggle between Korechika and Michinaga continued until Teishi's unexpected death, which sealed Michinaga's power since Shoshi became the only empress after Teishi's death. By Shoshi, two princes were born, later both crowned (Emperor Go-Ichijō and Emperor Go-Suzaku). Michinaga's other daughters, Kenshi and Ishi, followed similar fates to Shoshi and further ensured Michinaga's power over the court. After Ichijō retired because of illness, Emperor Sanjō ascended the throne. Though Sanjō was a nephew of Michinaga (the mother of Sanjō was another sister of Michinaga; she had died already in Sanjō's childhood and he was relatively less influenced by his maternal line), Sanjō was already a mature man and had his own political view: he was older than his predecessor Ichijō and in his thirties when he became emperor. Michinaga and Sanjō's opinions often varied. Michinaga pressured Sanjō to retire and finally Sanjō did so in 1016 under a condition made upon Sanjō's succession. Sanjō's elder son was appointed as Go-Ichijō's successor, but Michinaga's political power and influence led to the crown prince's resignation by his will. Michinaga was pleased by this decision and gave his daughter (either Kenshi or Ishi) to this prince as a wife, ensuring that the prince would not be an obstacle in the future. Technically, Michinaga never formally took on the title of kampaku regent, but in reality his word was law, even after he formally retired from public life in 1019. He continued to direct the affairs of his son and successor, Yorimichi. Michinaga is popularly known as the Mido Kampaku, implying that he had usurped the full power of a kampaku without necessarily calling himself that, though he retained the title sesshō regent in a short term from 1016 till 1017. In 1017, he gave this office to his heir Yorimichi. Soon afterwards, a series of emperors started to retire to a monastery early in life, and put their young sons on the throne to run the country from behind the scenes. As it turned out, this tactic briefly allowed the emperors to wrestle power back from the Fujiwara clan, only to see it fall to the Taira warrior clan instead. Michinaga left a diary, Mido Kanpakuki (御堂関白記), that is one of our prime sources of information about Heian-era court life at its height. Fujiwara no Michinaga's quote "This world, I think,Is indeed my world.Like the full moon I shine,Uncovered by any cloud." This poem is known as Mochizuki no Uta (望月の歌) (Full moon Poem). In 1018, his daughter Ishi became Empress (Chūgū) of Emperor Go-Ichijō, Kenshi became Empress Dowager (Kōtaigō), and Shoshi was Grand Empress Dowager (Tai-Kōtaigō). Three of his daughters became Empresses. Furthermore both Emperor Go-Ichijō and Crown Prince Atsunaga were his grandsons. This poem was composed at the party to celebrate his daughter's accession. He expressed his delight to win power in this poem. Career Kanna 2 (986): Sakyō no Daibu (左京大夫) Eien 2, on the 29th day of the 1st month (988) : Gon-no-Chūnagon (権中納言) Shōryaku 2 on the 7th day of the 9th month (991): Gon-no-Dainagon (権大納言) Chōtoku 1, on the 11th day of the 5th month (995): Nairan (内覧) (He got almost the same power as regent) Chōtoku 1, on the 19th day of the 6th month (995): Udaijin (右大臣) Chōtoku 2, on the 20th day of the 7th month (996): Sadaijin (左大臣) Chōwa 5 , on the 29th day of the 1st month (1016): Sesshō for Emperor Go-Ichijō Chōwa 6 , on the 16th day of the 3rd month (1017): retire from Sesshō Kannin 1, on the 4th day of the 12th month (1017): Daijō Daijin (太政大臣) Kannin 2, on the 9th day of the 2nd month (1018): retire from Daijō Daijin Kannin 3, on the 21st day of the 3rd month (1019): He became a priest. Manju 4, on the 4th day of the 12th month (January 3, 1028): Michinaga died at the age of 62. Marriages and children He was married to Minamoto no Rinshi/Michiko (源倫子), daughter of Sadaijin Minamoto no Masanobu. They had six children. Shōshi (彰子) (Jōtōmon-in, 上東門院) (988-1074) - consort of Emperor Ichijō Yorimichi (頼通) (992-1074) - regent for Emperor Go-Ichijō, Emperor Go-Suzaku, and Emperor Go-Reizei Kenshi (妍子) (994-1027) - consort of Emperor Sanjō Norimichi (教通) (996-1075) - regent for Emperor Go-Sanjō and Emperor Shirakawa Ishi (威子) (999-1036) - consort of Emperor Go-Ichijō Kishi (嬉子) (1007-1025) - consort of Crown Prince Atsunaga (later Emperor Go-Suzaku) He was also married to Minamoto no Meishi (源明子), daughter of Sadaijin Minamoto no Takaakira. They had six children. Yorimune (頼宗) (993-1065) - Udaijin Akinobu (顕信) (994-1027) - He became a priest at the age of 19. Yoshinobu (能信) (995-1065) - Gon-no-Dainagon Kanshi (寛子) (999-1025) - consort of Imperial Prince Atsuakira (Ko-Ichijō-in) Sonshi (尊子) (1003?-1087?) - married to Minamoto no Morofusa Nagaie (長家) (1005-1064) - Gon-no-Dainagon Michinaga had one daughter from unknown woman. Seishi (盛子) (?-?) - married to Emperor Sanjō References Owada, T. et al. (2003). Nihonshi Shoka Keizu Jimmei Jiten. Kodansya. (Japanese) Kasai, M. (1991). Kugyō Bunin Nenpyō. Yamakawa Shuppan-sha. (Japanese) Hioki, S. (1990). Nihon Keifu Sōran. Kodansya. (Japanese) Tsuchida, N. (1973). Nihon no Rekishi No.5. Chūō Kōron Sha. (Japanese) Notes Further reading See also Fujiwara no Sanesuke External links Notes from exhibition at Kyoto National Museum | Fujiwara_no_Michinaga |@lemmatized fujiwara:10 michinaga:22 mi:1 chi:1 na:1 ga:1 藤原:1 道長:1 january:3 japanese:5 calendar:1 represent:1 highpoint:1 regent:8 control:1 government:1 japan:2 exert:1 de:1 facto:1 reign:3 early:2 century:1 see:3 fact:1 father:2 four:1 non:1 empress:14 uncle:1 two:9 emperor:25 grandfather:1 another:2 three:2 fourth:1 fifth:1 son:6 kaneie:1 wife:2 tokihime:1 daughter:11 nakamasa:1 imperial:2 consort:6 among:1 brother:3 sister:3 mother:3 young:2 remarkable:1 court:6 die:4 start:2 career:2 year:2 old:2 ichijō:15 elder:3 michitaka:3 michikane:1 disease:1 struggle:2 korechika:2 political:3 power:10 support:2 senshi:1 succeed:1 gain:1 well:1 majority:1 appoint:2 nairan:2 secretary:1 reviewer:1 review:1 document:1 read:1 though:4 yet:1 become:9 substantially:1 powerful:1 person:1 already:3 claim:1 type:1 empresshood:1 therefore:1 legal:1 time:3 ambition:1 lead:2 make:2 shoshi:7 second:1 announce:1 chūgū:2 exist:1 teishi:3 give:3 title:3 kōgō:1 first:1 invite:1 murasaki:1 shikibu:1 companion:1 tutor:1 michelle:1 green:1 kyoto:2 celebrate:2 love:1 affair:2 new:1 york:1 continue:2 unexpected:1 death:2 seal:1 since:1 prince:7 bear:1 later:2 crown:4 go:12 suzaku:3 kenshi:4 ishi:4 follow:1 similar:1 fate:1 far:1 ensure:2 retire:6 illness:1 sanjō:13 ascend:1 throne:2 nephew:1 childhood:1 relatively:1 less:1 influence:2 maternal:1 line:1 mature:1 man:1 view:1 predecessor:1 thirty:1 opinion:1 often:1 vary:1 pressure:1 finally:1 condition:1 upon:1 succession:1 successor:2 resignation:1 please:1 decision:1 either:1 would:1 obstacle:1 future:1 technically:1 never:1 formally:2 take:1 kampaku:3 reality:1 word:1 law:1 even:1 public:1 life:3 direct:1 yorimichi:3 popularly:1 know:2 mido:2 imply:1 usurp:1 full:3 without:1 necessarily:1 call:1 retain:1 sesshō:3 short:1 term:1 till:1 office:1 heir:1 soon:1 afterwards:1 series:1 monastery:1 put:1 run:1 country:1 behind:1 scene:1 turn:1 tactic:1 briefly:1 allow:1 wrestle:1 back:1 clan:2 fall:1 taira:1 warrior:1 instead:1 leave:1 diary:1 kanpakuki:1 御堂関白記:1 one:2 prime:1 source:1 information:1 heian:1 era:1 height:1 quote:1 world:2 think:1 indeed:1 like:1 moon:2 shine:1 uncover:1 cloud:1 poem:4 mochizuki:1 uta:1 望月の歌:1 dowager:2 kōtaigō:2 grand:1 tai:1 furthermore:1 atsunaga:2 grandson:1 compose:1 party:1 accession:1 express:1 delight:1 win:1 kanna:1 sakyō:1 daibu:1 左京大夫:1 eien:1 day:11 month:11 gon:4 chūnagon:1 権中納言:1 shōryaku:1 dainagon:3 権大納言:1 chōtoku:3 内覧:1 get:1 almost:1 udaijin:2 右大臣:1 sadaijin:3 左大臣:1 chōwa:2 kannin:3 daijō:2 daijin:2 太政大臣:1 priest:2 manju:1 age:2 marriage:1 child:3 marry:4 minamoto:5 rinshi:1 michiko:1 源倫子:1 masanobu:1 six:2 shōshi:1 彰子:1 jōtōmon:1 上東門院:1 頼通:1 reizei:1 妍子:1 norimichi:1 教通:1 shirakawa:1 威子:1 kishi:1 嬉子:1 also:2 meishi:1 源明子:1 takaakira:1 yorimune:1 頼宗:1 akinobu:1 顕信:1 yoshinobu:1 能信:1 kanshi:1 寛子:1 atsuakira:1 ko:1 sonshi:1 尊子:1 morofusa:1 nagaie:1 長家:1 unknown:1 woman:1 seishi:1 盛子:1 reference:1 owada:1 et:1 al:1 nihonshi:1 shoka:1 keizu:1 jimmei:1 jiten:1 kodansya:2 kasai:1 kugyō:1 bunin:1 nenpyō:1 yamakawa:1 shuppan:1 sha:2 hioki:1 nihon:2 keifu:1 sōran:1 tsuchida:1 n:1 rekishi:1 chūō:1 kōron:1 note:2 reading:1 sanesuke:1 external:1 link:1 exhibition:1 national:1 museum:1 |@bigram fujiwara_michinaga:3 de_facto:1 daughter_fujiwara:1 emperor_ichijō:2 emperor_sanjō:3 ascend_throne:1 soon_afterwards:1 empress_dowager:2 daijō_daijin:2 sadaijin_minamoto:2 et_al:1 external_link:1 |
2,915 | Gene_Roddenberry | Eugene Wesley "Gene" Roddenberry (August 19, 1921 – October 24, 1991) was an American screenwriter and producer. He is best known as the creator of Star Trek, an American sci-fi series known for its influence on popular culture. Roddenberry was sometimes referred to as the "Great Bird of the Galaxy" in reference to his founding role in Star Trek. He was one of the first people to have his ashes "buried" in space. Personal life Gene Roddenberry was born in El Paso, Texas http://www.camdencounty.org/pinebarrens/roddenberry.html , to Eugene Edward Roddenberry and Caroline "Glen" Golemon Roddenberry. He grew up in Los Angeles, California, where his father worked for the Los Angeles Police Department. He attended Berendo Junior High School (now Berendo Middle School). After graduating from Franklin High School, Roddenberry took classes in Police Studies at Los Angeles City College where he also became the head of the Police Club, acting as a liaison for the FBI. Roddenberry furthered his studies at Columbia University, the University of Miami, and the University of Southern California. http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/R/htmlR/roddenberry/roddenberry.htm Roddenberry developed an interest in aeronautical engineering and soon obtained a pilot's license. He joined the U.S. Army Air Corps in 1941 and flew combat missions in the Pacific theatre with the 394th Bomb Squadron, 5th Bombardment Wing. In all, he flew approximately 89 missions and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal for his service. On 2 August 1943, Roddenberry was piloting B-17E Flying Fortress serial number 41-2463, "Yankee Doodle", from Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides when it crashed on takeoff due to mechanical failure, killing 2 crew. Alexander, David, "Star Trek Creator", ROC Books, an imprint of Dutton Signet, a division of Penguin Books USA, New York, June 1994, ISBN 0-451-54518-9, pages 75-76. Freeman, Roger A., with Osborne, David., "The B-17 Flying Fortress Story", Arms & Armour Press, Wellington House, London, UK, 1998, ISBN 1-85409-301-0, page 74. After World War II After leaving military service, Roddenberry became a commercial pilot for Pan American World Airways. He received a Civil Aeronautics commendation for his rescue efforts following a June 1947 crash in the Syrian desert while on a flight to Istanbul from Karachi. He eventually left Pan Am to pursue television writing in Hollywood. In order to provide for his family, he joined the Los Angeles Police Department on February 1, 1949, and was assigned LAPD badge number 6089. David Alexander.(1994) "Star Trek Creator : The Authorized Biography of Gene Roddenberry," Roc, p.104 During his seven-year service with the LAPD, Roddenberry was promoted to police sergeant. On June 7, 1956, he resigned from the police force to concentrate on his writing career full time. Alexander, p.141 In his brief letter of resignation, Roddenberry wrote: "I find myself unable to support my family at present on anticipated police salary levels in a manner we consider necessary. Having spent slightly more than seven years on this job, during all of which fair treatment and enjoyable working conditions were received, this decision is made with considerable and genuine regret." Alexander, p.141 Family Roddenberry was married twice and had three children. His first marriage was to Eileen Rexroat, which lasted 27 years. They had two daughters, Darlene (1947-1995) and Dawn (1953-). During the 1960s, he was involved in extra-marital affairs with Nichelle Nichols Nichelle Nichols, Beyond Uhura: Star Trek and Other Memories, G.P. Putnam & Sons, New York, 1994. and Majel Barrett (1932-2008). He divorced Rexroat and married Barrett in Japan in a traditional Shinto ceremony on August 6, 1969. They had one child together—his only son, Eugene Wesley, Jr. Roddenberry's marriage to Barrett lasted until his death in 1991. Beliefs Although Roddenberry was raised as a Southern Baptist, he did not embrace the faith; he viewed religion as the cause of many wars and suffering in human history. Roddenberry considered himself a humanist and an agnostic atheist. According to Brannon Braga, "In Gene Roddenberry’s imagining of the future [...] religion is completely gone. Not a single human being on Earth believes in any of the nonsense that has plagued our civilization for thousands of years. This was an important part of Roddenberry’s mythology. He, himself, was a secular humanist and made it well-known to writers of Star Trek and Star Trek: The Next Generation that religion and superstition and mystical thinking were not to be part of his universe. On Roddenberry’s future Earth, everyone is an atheist. And that world is the better for it." This would seem to contradict the Star Trek episodes as aired; in an original series episode, Captain Kirk refers to the fact that mankind is largely monotheistic ; the episode "Data's Day" of The Next Generation refers to a presently occurring Hindu festival. Death and burial Roddenberry died on October 24, 1991, of heart failure at the age of 70. In 1992, a portion of Roddenberry's ashes were carried on board the Space Shuttle Columbia during the STS-52 mission. On April 21, 1997, a lipstick-sized capsule carrying a portion of Roddenberry's ashes, along with those of Timothy Leary and 19 other individuals were launched into orbit aboard an air-launched Pegasus XL rocket near the Canary Islands as part of the Celestis "Founder's Flight" by parent company Space Services International. By 2004, the orbital height of the secondary payload capsule containing the cremains had deteriorated enough that the capsule disintegrated in the atmosphere. Another Space Services' "Voyager Flight" is planned for 2012 to launch more of Roddenberry's ashes into deep space along with his late wife Majel's ashes. Television and film career While Roddenberry was in the LAPD, he wrote scripts, using the pen name Robert Wesley, for television series such as Highway Patrol and Have Gun, Will Travel. (One of the first-season episodes of the latter program, "Helen of Abajinian," won a Writers Guild of America Award.) Norway Corporation Roddenberry's dissatisfaction with his work as a freelance writer for Have Gun, Will Travel and the difficulties he faced in adding anything substantial to his stories led him to produce his own television program. His first attempt, APO 923, was not picked up by the networks. In 1963, he formed a company called Norway Corporation, through which he produced The Lieutenant, a 1963-1964 NBC and MGM Television series about the United States Marine Corps that starred Gary Lockwood as Lieutenant William Rice. NBC refused to broadcast a series that dealt with racism in the military. Its first episode featured Nichelle Nichols, who later became Lt. Uhura in the original Star Trek series. Star Trek Roddenberry developed his idea for Star Trek in 1964 when he thought of combining Buck Rogers and Flash Gordon. Star Trek was picked up by Desilu Studios when Roddenberry sold the premise as a "Wagon Train to the Stars." The original $500,000 pilot received only minor support from NBC and its production went over budget, but the network commissioned an unprecedented second pilot. The series, a Norway Corporation production, premiered on September 8, 1966, and ran for three seasons. Although it was canceled due to low ratings, the series gained wide popularity in syndication. In the third and final season of Star Trek, Roddenberry offered to demote himself to the position of line producer in a final attempt to rescue the show by giving it a desired time slot. He resigned when this was not approved and accepted a staff producer position with MGM. After Star Trek His first project with the studio, Pretty Maids All in a Row, was a sexploitation film adapted from the novel written by Francis Pollini and directed by Roger Vadim. The cast included Rock Hudson, Angie Dickinson, Telly Savalas, and Roddy McDowall alongside Star Trek regulars James Doohan and William J. Campbell. It also featured Gretchen Burrell, the wife of country-rock pioneer Gram Parsons; a pictorial of her was published in an issue of Playboy Magazine at this approximate time. Despite Roddenberry's expectations, the film was not a success. His relationship with MGM studio was strained by this, although he did continue there until 1972. Through the Norway Corporation, Roddenberry pitched pilots for four sci-fi TV series concepts, although none were developed as series: The Questor Tapes, Genesis II, Planet Earth, and Strange New World. He also co-wrote and was executive producer on the made-for-television movie, Spectre (1977), which was designed as a backdoor pilot. Roddenberry feared that he would be unable to provide for his family, as he was unable to find work in the television and film industry and was facing the possible bankruptcy of Norway Corporation. He then heeded the advice of his friend and British sci-fi writer Arthur Charles Clarke and looked for steady employment on the college lecture circuit where contemporaries in similar predicaments (namely William Shatner and Timothy Leary) had both found success. He amused the attendees of his lectures with anecdotes from the Star Trek set and spoke of his visions for the future. He showed the Star Trek Blooper Reels, a collection of outtakes from the original series. These blooper reels drew criticism and ire from Leonard Nimoy, who felt Roddenberry was exploiting them for money. Nimoy eventually sued Roddenberry and Paramount. The matter would not be resolved until production began for Star Trek: The Motion Picture. Roddenberry also exhibited a black and white print of the unaired first series pilot, "The Cage," at several conventions. New Star Trek projects Beginning in 1975, the go-ahead was given by Paramount for Roddenberry to develop a new Star Trek television series, with many of the original cast to be included. It was originally called Phase II. This series would be the anchor show of a new network (the ancestor of UPN, which later became part of The CW Television Network), but plans by Paramount for this network were scrapped and the project was reworked into a feature film. The result, Star Trek: The Motion Picture, received a lukewarm critical response, but it performed well at the box office and saved Norway Corporation. As a result, several motion pictures and a new television series, Star Trek: The Next Generation, were created in the 1980s. When it came time to produce the obligatory theatrical sequel, Roddenberry's story submission of a time-traveling Enterprise crew involved in the John F. Kennedy assassination was rejected. He was removed from direct involvement—effectively hobbling the power of Norway Corporation—and replaced by Harve Bennett. He continued, however, as executive consultant for the next four films: Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, and Star Trek V: The Final Frontier. As consultant, Roddenberry was allowed to view and comment on all scripts and dailies emanating from the production, but the creative team was free to disregard Roddenberry's advice. Roddenberry was deeply involved with creating and producing Star Trek: The Next Generation, although he only had full control over the show's first season. The WGA strike of 1988 prevented him from taking an active role in production of the second season, and forced him to hand control of the series to producer Maurice Hurley. While Roddenberry was free to resume work on the third season, his health was in serious decline, and over the course of the season, he gradually ceded control to Rick Berman and Michael Piller. Star Trek also spawned the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: Voyager, and Star Trek: Enterprise. Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, the last film with the cast from the original Star Trek series, was dedicated to Roddenberry; he reportedly viewed an early version of the film a few days before his death. In Star Trek Movie Memories, which William Shatner dictated and which Chris Kreski transcribed, the chapter in which Shatner told Kreski about the sixth Star Trek motion picture ended with Roddenberry viewing the version in a private screening and promptly drafting a list of changes he wanted made. But by the time his attorney submitted that list, Shatner informed Kreski, Roddenberry himself was dead. In addition to his film and TV work, Roddenberry also wrote the novelization of Star Trek: The Motion Picture. It was published in 1979 and was the first of hundreds of Star Trek-based novels to be published by the Pocket Books unit of Simon & Schuster, whose parent company also owned Paramount Pictures Corporation. Because Alan Dean Foster wrote the original treatment of the Star Trek: The Motion Picture film, there was a rumor that Foster was the ghostwriter of the novel. This has been debunked by Foster on his personal website. (Foster, however, ghostwrote the novelization of George Lucas's Star Wars.) Roddenberry talked of writing a second Trek novel based on his rejected 1975 script of the JFK assassination plot, but he died before he was able to do so. Controversy concerning Roddenberry Writers who worked for Star Trek have charged that ideas they developed were later passed off by Roddenberry as his own, or that he lied about their contributions and involvement to the show. Roddenberry was confronted by these writers, and he apologized to them; but according to his critics, he would continue the behavior. Inside Star Trek: The Real Story (1996) commentary by Star Trek producer Herbert F. Solow, science-fiction convention talks by Star Trek writer Dorothy C. Fontana, and books and articles by Harlan Ellison. Roddenberry is occasionally criticized for his treatment of movie and script royalties related to Star Trek: He alienated composer Alexander Courage by demanding 50 percent of the royalties which Courage received for the show's theme song whenever an episode of Star Trek was aired. Later, while cooperating with Stephen Whitfield for the latter's book The Making of Star Trek, Roddenberry demanded—and received—Whitfield's acquiescence for 50 percent of the book's royalties. As Roddenberry explained to Whitfield in 1968: "I had to get some money somewhere. I'm sure not going to get it from the profits of Star Trek." Herbert F. Solow & Robert H. Justman, Inside Star Trek: the Real Story, Pocket Books, 1996, p.402 Herbert Solow and Robert H. Justman observe that Whitfield never regretted his fifty-fifty deal with Roddenberry since it gave him "the opportunity to become the first chronicler of television's successful unsuccessful series." Solow & Justman, p.402 In her autobiography Beyond Uhura, actress Nichelle Nichols, who played Uhura in the first Star Trek series, reported having had a love affair with Roddenberry. She felt that his strong and controversial effort to get her on the show had a lot to do with their relationship. Roddenberry's life and work has been chronicled in several works. Star Trek Creator: The Authorized Biography of Gene Roddenberry, written by friend David Alexander, is a flattering portrayal of Roddenberry's life that was received favorably by most readers, obscuring many of the troubles Roddenberry encountered in his later years. Much more controversial was Inside Trek: My Secret Life with Star Trek Creator Gene Roddenberry, written by Susan Sackett, his close associate for 17 years. While she displays unwavering affection, respect and admiration for her employer, Sackett's account hardly makes him out to be a saint. Recounted in brutal detail are his elongated dry spells throughout the 1970s, his addiction to cocaine, impotence, inability to finish creative projects and mental and physical decline from roughly 1989 onward. Despite his reduced management of Star Trek and the hobbled power of Norway Corporation near the end of his life, Roddenberry was respected enough that Paramount Pictures, owners of the various Star Trek series, agreed to his request that Star Trek: The Animated Series be stripped of its official recognition as canon by the studio. (In 2007, Star Trek's official site included the animated series to its library section. The Animated Series Gets Real ) According to the reference book, The Star Trek Chronology, Roddenberry also considered elements of the fifth and sixth Trek films to be apocryphal, though there was no indication that he wanted them removed from Trek canon. Legacy Roddenberry's star at 6683 Hollywood Blvd on Hollywood's Walk of Fame, presented in 1986. After his death in 1991 in Santa Monica, California, Roddenberry's estate allowed for the creation of two long-running television series based on his previously unfilmed story ideas and concepts. Earth: Final Conflict and Andromeda were produced under the guidance of Majel Barrett-Roddenberry. A third Roddenberry storyline was adapted in 1995 as the short-lived comic book Gene Roddenberry's Lost Universe (later titled Gene Roddenberry's Xander in Lost Universe). Other projects were developed under the Roddenberry name but never made it to production stage, such as Gene Roddenberry's Starship, a computer-animated series proposed by Majel Barrett and John Semper for Mainframe Entertainment. The asteroid 4659 Roddenberry and an impact crater on Mars are named in his honor. On October 4, 2002, the El Paso Independent School District Planetarium was renamed the Gene Roddenberry Planetarium. Eugene W. Roddenberry Jr. cut the ribbon at the dedication ceremony. In 2002, the Space Foundation awarded the Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award to Roddenberry and his wife, Majel Barrett Roddenberry. http://www.nationalspacesymposium.org/symposium-awards One of the buildings on the Paramount studio lot on Melrose Boulevard is the Gene Roddenberry building that houses production and administrative offices. On June 16, 2007, the Science Fiction Museum in Seattle, Washington inducted Gene Roddenberry into their Science Fiction Hall of Fame, along with director Ridley Scott, artist Ed Emshwiller, and author Gene Wolfe. The presentation was made by actor Wil Wheaton and the dedication was accepted on behalf of the Roddenberry Family by his son, Eugene W. Roddenberry Jr. Relationships with others Patrick Stewart once said in an interview on Michael Parkinson's TV program that a reporter talked to Roddenberry about the choice of Stewart for the captain's role; the reporter said, "Look, it doesn't make sense. You got a bald actor playing this part. Surely, by the 24th century, they have found the cure for baldness." Roddenberry replied, "By the 24th century, no one will care." http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pXOK-ZVJMaU References Further reading Alexander, David. Star Trek Creator: The Authorized Biography of Gene Roddenberry. Engel, Joel. Gene Roddenberry: The Myth and the Man Behind Star Trek. Fern, Yvonne. Gene Roddenberry: The Last Conversation. Gross, Edward and Mark A. Altman. Great Birds of the Galaxy: Gene Roddenberry and the Creators of Star Trek. Sackett, Susan. Inside Trek: My Secret Life with Star Trek Creator Gene Roddenberry. Van Hise, James. The Man Who Created Star Trek: Gene Roddenberry. Cast autobiographies Doohan, James and transcribed by Peter David. Beam Me Up, Scotty: Star Trek's "Scotty" in his own words. ISBN 0-671-52056-3. Koenig, Walter. Warped Factors: A Neurotic's Guide to the Universe. ISBN 0878339914. Nichols, Nichelle. Beyond Uhura: Star Trek and Other Memories. ISBN 1572970111. Published 1995. Nimoy, Leonard. I Am Not Spock. ISBN 9780890871171. Published 1977. Nimoy, Leonard. I Am Spock. ISBN 9780786861828. Published 1995. Shatner, William and transcribed by Chris Kreski. Star Trek Memories. HarperCollins. ISBN 0060177349; ISBN 978-0060177348. Published 1993. Shatner, William and transcribed by Chris Kreski. Star Trek Movie Memories. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-017617-2. Published 1994. Solow, Herbert F. and Robert H. Justman. Star Trek Memories. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-017734-9. Published 1993. Solow, Herbert F. and Robert H. Justman. Inside Star Trek: The Real Story. ISBN 0671896288. Published 1999. Takei, George. To The Stars: The Autobiography of George Takei: Star Trek's Mr Sulu. ISBN 0-671-89008-5. Published 1994. Whitney, Grace Lee and transcribed by Jim Denney. The Longest Trek: My Tour of the Galaxy. Foreword by Leonard Nimoy. ISBN 188495605X; ISBN 9781884956058. Published 1998. External links Official Roddenberry family website Retrieved on 2008-01-24 Retrieved on 2008-01-24 Gene Roddenberry's Funeral Eugene Wesley "Gene" Roddenberry The Museum of Broadcast Communication Originally published in The Humanist, March/April 1991 Strange New Worlds: The Humanist Philosophy of Star Trek by Robert Bowman, Christian Research Journal, Fall 1991, pp. 20 ff. 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2,916 | Ã%89douard_de_Pomiane | Edouard Alexandre de Pomiane, sometimes Edouard Pozerski (20 April 1875 - 26 January 1964) was a French scientist, radio broadcaster and food writer. His parents emigrated from Poland in 1863, changed their name from Pozerski to de Pomiane, and became French citizens. De Pomiane worked as a physician at the Institut Pasteur in Paris, where he gave Félix d'Herelle a place to work on bacteriophages. His best known works to have been translated into English are Cooking in Ten Minutes and Cooking with Pomiane. His writing was remarkable in its time for its directness (he frequently uses a strange second-person voice, telling you—the reader—what you are seeing and smelling as you follow a recipe) and for his general disdain for "traditional" elaborate French cuisine. He travelled widely and quite a few of his recipes are from abroad. His recipes often take pains to demystify cooking by explaining the chemical processes at work. Books French cooking in ten minutes : or, Adapting to the rhythm of modern life (1930) ISBN 0-571-13599-4 Cooking with Pomiane ISBN 0-340-59937-5 External links Biography and picture (French) | Ã%89douard_de_Pomiane |@lemmatized edouard:2 alexandre:1 de:3 pomiane:5 sometimes:1 pozerski:2 april:1 january:1 french:5 scientist:1 radio:1 broadcaster:1 food:1 writer:1 parent:1 emigrate:1 poland:1 change:1 name:1 become:1 citizen:1 work:4 physician:1 institut:1 pasteur:1 paris:1 give:1 félix:1 herelle:1 place:1 bacteriophage:1 best:1 know:1 translate:1 english:1 cook:2 ten:2 minute:2 writing:1 remarkable:1 time:1 directness:1 frequently:1 use:1 strange:1 second:1 person:1 voice:1 tell:1 reader:1 see:1 smell:1 follow:1 recipe:3 general:1 disdain:1 traditional:1 elaborate:1 cuisine:1 travel:1 widely:1 quite:1 abroad:1 often:1 take:1 pain:1 demystify:1 cooking:3 explain:1 chemical:1 process:1 book:1 adapt:1 rhythm:1 modern:1 life:1 isbn:2 external:1 link:1 biography:1 picture:1 |@bigram institut_pasteur:1 external_link:1 |
2,917 | Ferrari | Ferrari S.p.A. is an Italian sports car manufacturer based in Maranello, Italy. Founded by Enzo Ferrari in 1928 as Scuderia Ferrari, the company sponsored drivers and manufactured race cars before moving into production of street-legal vehicles in 1947 as Ferrari S.p.A.. Throughout its history, the company has been noted for its continued participation in racing, especially in Formula One, where it has enjoyed great success. Company structure Ferrari was founded as an independent company by Enzo Ferrari. During the 1960s, the company was in financial difficulty, and Mr Ferrari announced his intention to sell the company to ensure continued financial backing. Interest from the Ford Motor Company was rejected in favour of an offer from the Fiat Group, which took control of the company's sports car division in 1969. Enzo Ferrari retained control of the racing division until his death in 1988 at the age of 90. Ferrari is currently a subsidairy of the Fiat Group. In 2007 the Financial Times put Ferrari at the top of its list of 100 Best Workplaces in Europe. History Enzo Ferrari never intended to produce road cars when he had formed Scuderia Ferrari (literally "Ferrari Stable", and usually used to mean "Team Ferrari", it is correctly pronounced "skoo deh REE ah") in 1929 as a sponsor for amateur drivers headquartered in Modena. Ferrari prepared and successfully raced various drivers in Alfa Romeo cars until 1938, when he was hired by Alfa Romeo to head their motor racing department. In 1941, Alfa Romeo was confiscated by the Fascist government of Benito Mussolini as part of the Axis Powers' war effort. Enzo Ferrari's division was small enough to be unaffected by this. Because he was prohibited by contract from racing for four years, the Scuderia briefly became Auto Avio Costruzioni Ferrari, which ostensibly produced machine tools and aircraft accessories. Also known as SEFAC (Scuderia Enzo Ferrari Auto Corse), Ferrari did in fact produce one race car, the Tipo 815, in the non-competition period. It was the first actual Ferrari car (it debuted at the 1940 Mille Miglia), but due to World War II it saw little competition. In 1943 the Ferrari factory moved to Maranello, where it has remained ever since. The factory was bombed by the Allies in 1944 and rebuilt in 1946, after the war ended, and included a works for road car production. Until Il Commendatore's death, this would remain little more than a source of funding for his first love, racing. 166MM Barchetta 212/225. The first Ferrari road car was the 1947 125 S, powered by a 1.5 L V12 engine; Enzo Ferrari reluctantly built and sold his automobiles to fund Scuderia Ferrari. While his beautiful and fast cars quickly gained a reputation for excellence, Enzo maintained a famous distaste for his customers. In 1988, Enzo Ferrari oversaw the launch of the Ferrari F40, the last new Ferrari to be launched before his death later that year, and arguably one of the most famous supercars ever made. Motorsport For a complete list of Ferrari racing cars, see List of Ferrari competition cars. Ferrari 312T2 Formula One car Since the company's beginnings, Ferrari has been involved in motorsport, competing in a range of categories including Formula One and Sports car racing through its Scuderia Ferrari sporting division as well as supplying cars and engines to other teams. The 1940 AAC 815 was the first racing car to be designed by Enzo Ferrari, although it was not badged as a Ferrari model. Currently, the Ferrari works team only compete in Formula One, and is the only team to have competed in the World Championship since its inception in 1950. Sports car racing A 312PB during the team's final year in the World Sportscar Championship. In 1949, Luigi Chinetti drove a 166M to Ferrari's first win in motorsports, the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Ferrari went on to dominate the early years of the World Sportscar Championship which was created in 1953, winning the Manufacturers Championship seven out of its first nine years. When the championship changed formats in 1962, Ferrari earned championships in at least one class until 1966, then again in 1968. Ferrari would win one final championship in 1972 before Enzo decided to leave sports car racing and concentrate Scuderia Ferrari solely on Formula One. During Ferrari's seasons of the World Sportscar Championship, they also gained more wins at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, with the factory team earning their first in . Another win would come in , followed by five consecutive wins from to . Luigi Chinetti's North American Racing Team (NART) would take Ferrari's final victory at Le Mans in . Although Scuderia Ferrari no longer participated in sports cars after 1973, they have occasionally built various successful sports cars for privateers. These include the 512BB/LM in the 1970s, the 333 SP which won the IMSA GT Championship in the 1990s, and currently the F430 GT2 and GT3 which are currently winning championships in their respective classes. Formula One thumb|Scuderia Ferrari won its most recent Formula One driver's title in , with Kimi Räikkönen. Scuderia Ferrari joined the Formula One World Championship in the first year of its existence,in 1950. José Froilán González gave the team its first victory at the 1951 British Grand Prix. Alberto Ascari gave Ferrari its first Drivers Championship a year later. Ferrari is the oldest team left in the championship, not to mention the most successful: the team holds nearly every Formula One record. , the team's records include 15 World Drivers Championship titles (1952, 1953, 1956, 1958, 1961, 1964, 1975, 1977, 1979, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2007) 16 World Constructors Championship titles 1961, 1964, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2007 and 2008, 209 Grand Prix victories, 4925.27 points, 622 podium finishes, 203 pole positions, and 218 fastest laps in 776 Grands Prix contested. Notable Ferrari drivers include Tazio Nuvolari, José Froilán González, Juan Manuel Fangio, Luigi Chinetti, Alberto Ascari, Wolfgang von Trips, Phil Hill, Olivier Gendebien, Mike Hawthorn, Peter Collins, Giancarlo Baghetti, John Surtees, Lorenzo Bandini, Ludovico Scarfiotti, Jacky Ickx, Mario Andretti, Clay Regazzoni, Niki Lauda, Carlos Reutemann, Jody Scheckter, Gilles Villeneuve, Didier Pironi, Patrick Tambay,Rene Arnoux,Michele Alboreto, Gerhard Berger, Nigel Mansell, Alain Prost, Jean Alesi, Eddie Irvine, Rubens Barrichello, Michael Schumacher, Kimi Räikkönen and Felipe Massa. The Scuderia Ferrari drivers for the 2006 F1 season were Michael Schumacher and Felipe Massa. At the end of the 2006 season the team courted controversy by continuing to allow Marlboro to sponsor them after they, along with the other F1 teams, made a promise to end sponsorship deals with tobacco manufacturers. A five year deal was agreed and although this is not due to end until 2011, in April 2008 Marlboro dropped their on-car branding on Ferrari. The drivers competing for 2008 were Felipe Massa and defending champion Kimi Räikkönen (both retained from 2007). Massa finished the season as runner-up to McLaren's Lewis Hamilton by one point, with Räikkönen third. Massa and Räikkönen have again been signed by Ferrari for the 2009 season to compete in the new Ferrari F60. Other motorsports Ferrari supply cars complete with V8 engines for the A1 Grand Prix series, from the 2008-09 season. The car was designed by Rory Byrne and is styled to resemble the 2004 Ferrari Formula one car. The 599 GTB Fiorano and F430 GT are used in GT racing series. The Ferrari Challenge is a one make racing series for the Ferrari F430. Ferrari's latest supercar, the 2006 FXX is not road legal, and is therefore only used for track events. Road cars For a complete list, including future and concept car models, see List of Ferrari road cars. Ferrari 166 Inter Coupe Touring Ferrari's first vehicle was the 125S sports/racing model. In 1949, the Ferrari 166 Inter, the company's first move into the grand touring market, which continues to make up the bulk of Ferrari sales to the present day. Several early cars featured bodywork customised by a number of coachbuilders such as Pininfarina, Zagato and Bertone. The Dino was the first mid-engined Ferrari. This layout would go on to be used in most Ferraris of the 1980s and 1990s. V6 and V8 Ferrari models make up well over half of the marque's total production. For a time, Ferrari built 2+2 versions of its mid-engined V8 cars. Although they looked quite different from their 2-seat counterparts, both the GT4 and Mondial were closely related to the 308 GTB. The company has also produced front-engined 2+2 cars, culminating in the current 612 Scaglietti and upcoming California. Ferrari entered the mid-engined 12-cylinder fray with the Berlinetta Boxer in 1973. The later Testarossa remains one of the most famous Ferraris. Supercars Enzo Ferrari The company's loftiest efforts have been in the supercar market. The 1962 250 GTO may be considered the first in the line of Ferrari supercars, which extends to the recent Enzo Ferrari and FXX models. Concept cars and specials Ferrari P4/5 Ferrari has produced a number of concept cars, such as the Ferrari Mythos. While some of these were quite radical (such as the Ferrari Modulo and never intended for production, others such as the Ferrari Mythos have shown styling elements which were later incopoprated into production models. The most recent concept car to be produced by Ferrari themselves was the 2005 Ferrari Ascari. A number of one-off special versions of Ferrari road cars have also been produced, some of which have been commissioned by wealthy owners. Naming conventions Until the early 1980s, Ferrari followed a three-number naming scheme based on engine displacement: V6 and V8 models used the total displacement (in decilitres) for the first two digits and the number of cylinders as the third. Thus, the 206 was a 2.0 L V6 powered vehicle, while the 348 used a 3.4 L V8, although, for the F355, the last digit refers to 5 valves per cylinder. Upon introduction of the 360 Modena, the digits for V8 models (which now carried a name as well as a number) refer only to total engine displacement. The numerical indication aspect of this name has carried on to the current V8 model, the F430. V12 models used the displacement (in cubic centimetres) of one cylinder. Therefore, the famed 365 Daytona had a 4390 cc V12. However, some newer V12-engined Ferraris, such as the 599, have three-number designations that refer only to total engine displacement. Flat 12 (boxer) models used the displacement in litres. Therefore, the 512BB was five litre flat 12 (a Berlinetta Boxer, in this case). However, the original Berlinetta Boxer was the 365 GT4 BB, which was named in a similar manner to the V12 models. Some models, such as the 1980 Mondial and the 1984 Testarossa did not follow a three-number naming scheme. 612 Scaglietti Sessanta Edition Most Ferraris were also given designations referring to their body style. In general, the following conventions were used: M ("Modificata"), placed at the end of a model's number, denotes a modified version of its predecessor and not a complete evolution (see F512M and 575M Maranello). GTB ("Gran Turismo Berlinetta") models are closed Berlinettas, or coupes. GTS ("Gran Turismo Spyder") in older models, are open Spyders (spelt "y"), or convertibles (see 365GTS4); however, in more recent models, this suffix is used for targa top models (see Dino 246GTS, and F355 GTS; the exception being the 348 TS, which is the only targa named differently). The convertible models now use the suffix "Spider" (spelt "i") (see F355 Spider, and 360 Spider). This naming system can be confusing, as some entirely different vehicles used the same engine type and body style. Many Ferraris also had other names affixed (like Daytona) to identify them further. Many such names are actually not official factory names. The Daytona name commemorates Ferrari's triple success in the February 1967 24 Hours of Daytona with the 330P4 Race results . Only in the 1973 Daytona 24 Hours, a 365 GTB4 model run by NART, who raced Ferrari's in America) ran second, behind a Porsche 911 Race results . The various Dino models were named for Enzo's son, Dino Ferrari, and were marketed as Dinos by Ferrari and sold at Ferrari dealers -- for all intents and purposes they are Ferraris. In the mid 1990s, Ferrari added the letter "F" to the beginning of all models (a practice abandoned after the F512M and F355, but adopted again with the F430). The "Cavallino Rampante" Prancing Horse Logo Count Francesco Baracca The famous symbol of the Ferrari race team is a black prancing stallion on a yellow shield, usually with the letters S F (for Scuderia Ferrari), with three stripes of green, white and red (the Italian national colors) at the top. The road cars have a rectangular badge on the hood (see picture above), and, optionally, the shield-shaped race logo on the sides of both front wings, close to the door. On June 17, 1923, Enzo Ferrari won a race at the Savio track in Ravenna where he met the Countess Paolina, mother of Count Francesco Baracca, an ace of the Italian air force and national hero of World War I, who used to paint a horse on the side of his planes. The Countess asked Enzo to use this horse on his cars, suggesting that it would bring him good luck. The original "prancing horse" on Baracca's airplane was painted in red on a white cloud-like shape, but Ferrari chose to have the horse in black (as it had been painted as a sign of grief on Baracca's squadron planes after the pilot was killed in action) and he added a canary yellow background as this is the color of the city of Modena, his birthplace. The Ferrari horse was, from the very beginning, markedly different from the Baracca horse in most details, the most noticeable being the tail that in the original Baracca version was pointing downward. Ferrari has used the cavallino rampante on official company stationery since 1929. Since the Spa 24 Hours of July 9, 1932, the cavallino rampante has been used on Alfa Romeos raced by Scuderia Ferrari. Stuttgart Austrian Fuel Stations The motif of a prancing horse is old, it can be found on ancient coins. A similar black horse on a yellow shield is the Coat of Arms of the German city of Stuttgart, home of Mercedes-Benz and the design bureau of Porsche, both being main competitors of Alfa and Ferrari in the 1930s. The city's name derives from Stutengarten, an ancient form of the German word Gestüt, which translates into English as stud farm and into Italian as scuderia. Porsche also includes the Stuttgart sign in its corporate logo, centred in the emblem of the state of Württemberg. Stuttgart's Rössle has both rear legs firmly planted on the soil, like Baracca's horse, but unlike Ferrari's cavallino. Fabio Taglioni used the cavallino rampante on his Ducati motorbikes, as Taglioni was born at Lugo di Romagna like Baracca, and his father too was a military pilot during WWI (although not part of Baracca's squadron, as is sometimes mistakenly reported). As Ferrari's fame grew, Ducati abandoned the horse- perhaps the result of a private agreement between the two companies. The cavallino rampante is now a trademark of Ferrari. Cavallino Magazine uses the name, but not the logo. However, other companies use similar logos: Avanti, an Austrian company operating over 100 filling stations, uses a prancing horse logo which is nearly identical to Ferrari's, as does Iron Horse Bicycles. Many pay homage to the Ferrari logo, e.g. the Jamiroquai album Travelling Without Moving. Racing Red - Rosso Corsa Since the 1920s, Italian race cars of Alfa Romeo, Maserati and later Ferrari and Abarth were (and often still are) painted in "race red" (Rosso Corsa). This was the customary national racing color of Italy, as recommended between the World Wars by the organizations that later would become the FIA. It refers to the nationality of the competing team, not that of the car manufacturer or driver. In that scheme, French-entered cars like Bugatti were blue, German like Benz and Mercedes white (since 1934 also bare sheet metal silver), and British green such as the mid 1960s Lotus and BRM, for instance. Curiously, Ferrari won the 1964 World championship with John Surtees by competing the last two races in North America with cars painted in the US-American race colors white and blue, as these were not entered by the Italian factory themselves, but by the U.S.-based North American Racing Team (NART) team. This was done as a protest concerning arguments between Ferrari and the Italian Racing Authorities regarding the homologation of a new mid-engined Ferrari race car. Merchandising and exhibiton Ferrari also has an internally managed merchandising line that licenses many products bearing the Ferrari brand, including eyewear, pens, pencils, electronic goods, perfume, clothing, high-tech bicycles, watches, cell phones, and even laptop computers. Ferrari also run a museum, the Galleria Ferrari in Maranello, which displays road and race cars and other items from the company's history. Technical Partnerships Ferrari has had a long standing relationship with Shell Oil. It is a technical partnership with Ferrari and Ducati to test as well as supply fuel and oils to the Formula One, MotoGP and World Superbike racing teams. For example, the Shell V-Power premium gasoline fuel has been developed with the many years of technical expertise between Shell and Ferrari. Ferrari have had agreements to supply Formula One engines to a number of other teams over the years, and currently supply Scuderia Torro Rosso. See also List of automobile manufacturers List of Italian companies List of Ferrari engines Galleria Ferrari References External links Ferrari World (official website) Ferrari.mobi (official mobile website) | Ferrari |@lemmatized ferrari:113 p:2 italian:8 sport:9 car:42 manufacturer:5 base:3 maranello:4 italy:2 found:2 enzo:16 scuderia:15 company:18 sponsor:3 driver:10 manufacture:1 race:26 move:4 production:5 street:1 legal:2 vehicle:4 throughout:1 history:3 note:1 continued:2 participation:1 racing:9 especially:1 formula:12 one:21 enjoy:1 great:1 success:2 structure:1 independent:1 financial:3 difficulty:1 mr:1 announce:1 intention:1 sell:3 ensure:1 backing:1 interest:1 ford:1 motor:2 reject:1 favour:1 offer:1 fiat:2 group:2 take:2 control:2 division:4 retain:2 death:3 age:1 currently:5 subsidairy:1 time:2 put:1 top:3 list:8 best:1 workplace:1 europe:1 never:2 intend:2 produce:7 road:9 form:2 literally:1 stable:1 usually:2 use:20 mean:1 team:19 correctly:1 pronounce:1 skoo:1 deh:1 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shell:3 oil:2 test:1 motogp:1 superbike:1 example:1 v:1 premium:1 gasoline:1 develop:1 expertise:1 engines:1 torro:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:2 mobi:1 mobile:1 |@bigram enzo_ferrari:12 scuderia_ferrari:11 financial_backing:1 ford_motor:1 alfa_romeo:5 benito_mussolini:1 mille_miglia:1 sportscar_championship:3 kimi_räikkönen:3 grand_prix:4 alberto_ascari:2 constructor_championship:1 podium_finish:1 juan_manuel:1 manuel_fangio:1 jacky_ickx:1 mario_andretti:1 niki_lauda:1 carlos_reutemann:1 jody_scheckter:1 gilles_villeneuve:1 nigel_mansell:1 alain_prost:1 jean_alesi:1 rubens_barrichello:1 felipe_massa:3 ferrari_ferrari:4 mid_engined:4 closely_relate:1 cubic_centimetre:1 gran_turismo:2 cavallino_rampante:5 coat_arm:1 mercedes_benz:1 pay_homage:1 pen_pencil:1 external_link:1 |
2,918 | Agostino_Carracci | Head of a Faun (c. 1595) 181 x 187 mm Pen and brown ink on laid paper National Gallery of Art, Washington. The Communion of St. Jerome (1592). Pinacoteca Nazionale, Bologna. Agostino Carracci (or Caracci) (August 16, 1557 – March 22, 1602) was an Italian painter and printmaker. He was the brother of the more famous Annibale and cousin of Lodovico Carracci. He posited the ideal in nature, and was the founder of the competing school to the more gritty (for lack of a better term) view of nature as expressed by Caravaggio. He was, along with his brothers, one of the founders of the Accademia degli Incamminati, which helped propel painters of the School of Bologna to prominence. Life Agostino Carracci was born in Bologna, and trained at the workshop of the architect Domenico Tibaldi. Starting from 1574 he worked as a reproductive engraver, copying works of 16th century masters such as Federico Barocci, Tintoretto, Antonio Campi, Veronese and Correggio. He also produced some original prints, including two etchings. He travelled to Venice (1582, 1587–1589) and Parma (1586–1587). Together with Annibale and Ludovico he worked in Bologna on the fresco cycles in Palazzo Fava (Histories of Jason and Medea, 1584) and Palazzo Magnani (Histories of Romulus, 1590–1592). In 1592 he also painted the Communion of St. Jerome, now in the Pinacoteca di Bologna and considered his masterwork. From 1586 is his altarpiece of the Madonna with Child and Saints, in the National Gallery of Parma. In 1598 Carracci joined his brother Annibale in Rome, to collaborate on the decoration of the Gallery in Palazzo Farnese. From 1598–1600 is a triple Portrait, now in Naples, an example of genre painting. In 1600 he was called to Parma by Duke Ranuccio I Farnese to began the decoration of the Palazzo del Giardino, but he died before it was finished. Agostino's son Antonio Carracci was also a painter, and attempted to compete with his father's Academy. Works Head of a Faun in a Concave (drawing in roundel, c. 1595, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC) The Penitent Magdalen (Private collection) The Annunciation , Musée du Louvre, Paris The Lamentation , Hermitage, St. Petersburg Erotic work External links Catholic Encyclopedia: Carracci | Agostino_Carracci |@lemmatized head:2 faun:2 c:2 x:1 mm:1 pen:1 brown:1 ink:1 laid:1 paper:1 national:3 gallery:4 art:2 washington:2 communion:2 st:3 jerome:2 pinacoteca:2 nazionale:1 bologna:5 agostino:3 carracci:6 caracci:1 august:1 march:1 italian:1 painter:3 printmaker:1 brother:3 famous:1 annibale:3 cousin:1 lodovico:1 posit:1 ideal:1 nature:2 founder:2 compete:2 school:2 gritty:1 lack:1 good:1 term:1 view:1 express:1 caravaggio:1 along:1 one:1 accademia:1 degli:1 incamminati:1 help:1 propel:1 prominence:1 life:1 bear:1 train:1 workshop:1 architect:1 domenico:1 tibaldi:1 start:1 work:5 reproductive:1 engraver:1 copy:1 century:1 master:1 federico:1 barocci:1 tintoretto:1 antonio:2 campi:1 veronese:1 correggio:1 also:3 produce:1 original:1 print:1 include:1 two:1 etching:1 travel:1 venice:1 parma:3 together:1 ludovico:1 fresco:1 cycle:1 palazzo:4 fava:1 history:2 jason:1 medea:1 magnani:1 romulus:1 paint:1 di:1 consider:1 masterwork:1 altarpiece:1 madonna:1 child:1 saint:1 join:1 rome:1 collaborate:1 decoration:2 farnese:2 triple:1 portrait:1 naples:1 example:1 genre:1 painting:1 call:1 duke:1 ranuccio:1 begin:1 del:1 giardino:1 die:1 finish:1 son:1 attempt:1 father:1 academy:1 concave:1 draw:1 roundel:1 dc:1 penitent:1 magdalen:1 private:1 collection:1 annunciation:1 musée:1 du:1 louvre:1 paris:1 lamentation:1 hermitage:1 petersburg:1 erotic:1 external:1 link:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram painter_printmaker:1 washington_dc:1 musée_du:1 du_louvre:1 st_petersburg:1 external_link:1 |
2,919 | MV_Wilhelm_Gustloff | The MV Wilhelm Gustloff was a German KdF passenger ship constructed by the Blohm and Voss shipyards. It sank after being hit by three torpedoes fired by the Soviet submarine S-13 on January 30, 1945 with the loss of around 9,000 lives – the greatest loss of life in a maritime disaster in history. The ship was named after Wilhelm Gustloff, the assassinated German leader of the Swiss Nazi party (NSDAP). It was requisitioned into the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) on September 1, 1939 and served as a hospital ship during 1939 and 1940. Beginning on November 20, 1940 it was stripped of her medical equipment and repainted from its hospital ship colors (white with a green stripe) to standard naval grey. The Wilhelm Gustloff was then assigned as a floating barracks for naval personnel at the Baltic port of Gdynia (), near Gdansk (), from 1940 onwards. The Wilhelm Gustloff's final voyage was during Operation Hannibal in January 1945, when it was sunk while participating in the evacuation of civilians and personnel who were surrounded by the Red Army in East Prussia. The Gustloff was hit by three torpedoes from the Soviet submarine S-13 in the Baltic Sea on the night of January 30, 1945 and sank in less than 45 minutes. An estimated 9,400 people were killed in the sinking. Irwin J. Kappes References states 5,348. He does not cite his sources but recommends: A. V. Sellwood, The Damned Don't Drown: The Sinking of the Wilhelm Gustloff (a fiction title about the tragedy); and Alfred-Maurice de Zayas, A Terrible Revenge: The Ethnic Cleansing of the East European Germans 1944-1950. Jason Pipes, References citing Heinz Schon References (no page number) claims the loss of life was 9,343. If accurate, this would be the largest known loss of life occurring during a single ship sinking in recorded maritime history. Construction The Wilhelm Gustloff was constructed by the Blohm and Voss shipyards. The Gustloff was launched on May 5, 1937 measuring long by wide with a capacity of 25,484 gross register tons. Ship history The Wilhelm Gustloff was the first purpose-built cruise liner for the German Labour Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront, DAF) and used by subsidiary organisation Kraft durch Freude (KdF) (Strength Through Joy). Its purposes were to provide recreational and cultural activities for German functionaries and workers, including concerts, cruises, and other holiday trips, and as a public relations tool, to present "a more acceptable image of the Third Reich." Williams, David, Wartime Disasters at Sea, Patrick Stephens Limited, Nr Yeovil, UK, 1997, p.227. The Wilhelm Gustloff was the flagship of the KdF cruise fleet until the spring of 1939. That was her last civilian role. From then on, she served the needs of the German military. Military career During the summer of 1939, she was pressed into service to bring the Condor Legion back from Spain after the victory of the Nationalist forces under General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War. From September 1939 to November 1940, she served as a hospital ship, with her official designation being Lazarettschiff D. Beginning November 20, 1940, the medical equipment was removed from the ship and it was repainted from the hospital ship colors of white with a green stripe to standard naval grey. CONVERSION TO FLOATING U-BOAT BARRACKS As a consequence of the British blockade of the German coastline, she was used as an accommodations ship (barracks) for approximately 1,000 U-boat trainees of the 2nd Submarine Training Division (2. Unterseeboot-Lehrdivision) in the Baltic port of Gotenhafen (Gdynia) – near Danzig (Gdańsk). The Wilhelm Gustloff sat dockside for over four years, until she was put back in service to transport civilians and military personnel as part of Operation Hannibal. Operation Hannibal The ship's final voyage was to evacuate civilians, Kriegsmarine sailors, and German soldiers from Gotenhafen to Kiel. The ship's complement and passenger lists cited 6,050 people on board, but this did not include many civilians who boarded the ship without being recorded in the ship's official embarkation records. Heinz Schön, who carried out extensive research into the sinking during the 1980s and 1990s, concluded that the Wilhelm Gustloff was carrying a crew of 173 (naval armed forces auxiliaries), 918 officers, NCOs, and men of the 2nd Submarine Training Division (2. Unterseeboot-Lehrdivision), 373 female naval auxiliary helpers, 162 wounded soldiers, and 8,956 civilians, for a total of 10,582 passengers and crew. Although the ship was built for 1,465 passengers, she had the capacity to board many more for a short trip by utilizing her public recreation spaces to accommodate people, but she was carrying less than 50% of the rescue equipment necessary for the extra passengers. The ship left Gotenhafen early on 30 January 1945, accompanied by the passenger liner Hansa, also filled with civilians and military personnel, and two torpedo boats. The Hansa and one torpedo boat developed mechanical problems and could not continue, leaving the Wilhelm Gustloff with one torpedo boat escort, the Löwe. Löwe Torpedoboot 1940 - 1959 Sleipner Class The ship had four captains (three civilian and one military) on board, and they could not agree on the best course of action to guard against submarine attacks. Against the advice of the military commander, Lieutenant Commander Wilhelm Zahn (a submariner who argued for a course in shallow waters close to shore and without lights), the senior civilian captain, Friedrich Petersen, decided to head for deep water. When he was informed by radio of an oncoming German minesweeper convoy, he decided to activate his ship's red and green navigation lights so as to avoid a collision in the dark, making the Wilhelm Gustloff easy to spot in the night. As the ship's equipment included antiaircraft weapons, it had been travelling blacked-out, it was not marked as a hospital ship, no notification of it operating in a hospital capacity had been given, and as it was transporting combat troops, it did not have any protection as a hospital ship under the international accords governing this. The Avalon Project - Laws of War: Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention (Hague X); October 18, 1907 The sinking of the Wilhelm Gustloff Map showing where the Wilhelm Gustloff was sunk in the Baltic The ship was soon sighted by the S-13, under the command of Captain Third Class Alexander Marinesko, which launched three torpedoes at the Wilhelm Gustloff'''s port side about offshore between Großendorf and Leba soon after 21:00 (CET), hitting it with all three. The first torpedo struck near the port bow. The second torpedo hit just ahead of midships. The third torpedo struck the engine room in the area below the ship's funnel, cutting off electrical power to the ship. The ship took a list to starboard and was settling by the head. Later, the Wilhelm Gustloff listed to port. In the panic that followed, many of the passengers were trampled in the rush to the lifeboats and life jackets. Some equipment was lost as a result of the panic. The water temperature in the Baltic Sea at this time of year is usually around 4°C; however, this was a particularly cold night, with an air temperature of −10° to −18°C and ice floes covering the surface. Many deaths were caused either directly by the torpedoes or by drowning in the onrushing water. Others were crushed in the initial panic on the stairs and decks, and many jumped into the icy Baltic. There are reports of children clinging onto adults and women trying to save their babies, though constant waves dragged them away from them, most never to be seen again. Small children fitted with life jackets for adults drowned because their heads were under water while their legs were in the air, due to the ill-fitting survival gear. Depiction of the sinking Less than 45 minutes after being struck, the Wilhelm Gustloff went down bow first in of water. German forces were able to rescue some of the survivors from the attack: torpedo boat T-36 rescued 564 people; torpedo boat Löwe, 472; Minesweeper M387, 98; Minesweeper M375, 43; Minesweeper M341, 37; the steamer Gottingen saved 28; torpedo-recovery boat (Torpedofangboot) TF19, seven; the freighter Gotland, two; and Patrol boat (Vorpostenboot) V1703 was able to save one baby. The figures from the research of Heinz Schön make the total lost in the sinking to be about 9,343 men, women, and children. This would make it the largest loss of life in a single sinking in maritime history.. All four captains on the Gustloff survived its sinking, but an official naval inquiry was started only against Wilhelm Zahn. His degree of responsibility was never resolved, however, because of Nazi Germany's problems in 1945. M.S. Wilhelm Gustloff - FACTS - Glossary | Individuals A porthole window from the Wilhelm Gustloff, salvaged in 1988In an article in the popular magazine "Sea Classics", Irwin Kappes mentions that "there were over 6,000 passengers on board." He also states that the escort ship Löwe was alongside within 15 minutes, taking off as many survivors as she could carry, and that when Captain Henigst of the cruiser Admiral Hipper, herself carrying 1,500 evacuees, received reports from her lookouts that she was under torpedo attack, he chose not to stop to pick up survivors. Kappes gives a precise total of those lost in the sinking as 5,348. The source of this information was the German book "Die Gustloff Katastrophe" written by Heinz Schön, who later revised his original numbers. Heinz Schön's more recent research is backed up by estimates made by a different method. The Discovery Channel program Unsolved History undertook a computer analysis (using software called maritime EXODUS) of the sinking, which estimated 9,400 dead −85% (among over 10,600 on board); this analysis considered the load density based on witness reports and a simulation of escape routes and survivability with the timeline of the sinking. "Discovery Channel Unsolved History – Wilhelm Gustloff 2003" maritime EXODUS Michael Leja, References (a source in German) Controversy Many ships carrying civilians were sunk during the war by both the Allies and Axis. George Martin Maritime Disasters of World War II However, based on the latest estimates of passenger numbers and those known to be saved, the Wilhelm Gustloff remains the largest loss of life resulting from the sinking of one vessel in maritime history. Günter Grass, in an interview published in The New York Times on Tuesday April 8, 2003 said, "One of the many reasons I wrote Crabwalk was to take the subject away from the extreme right...They said the tragedy of the Gustloff was a war crime. It wasn’t. It was terrible, but it was a result of war, a terrible result of war." Crabwalk by Günter Grass review on RedDot Books Ltd website. According to Soviet propaganda, more than a thousand German officers, including 70–80 submarine crews, were aboard and died in the sinking of the Gustloff. The women onboard the ship at the time of the sinking were described inaccurately as " personnel from the German concentration camps". Потопленный миф Wreckage A model of the Wilhelm Gustloff at the Laboe Naval Memorial is the resting place of the Gustloff. This is 30 km offshore, east of Łeba ()(17.33E) and west of Władysławowo ( (18.24E). It has been designated as a war memorial site (off-limits to salvage crews). On Polish navigation charts, it is noted as "Obstacle No. 73". Irwin J. Kappes References It is one of the largest shipwrecks on the Baltic sea floor. In 2006, a bell recovered from the wreck and subsequently used as decoration in a Polish fish restaurant, was loaned to the "Forced Paths" exhibition in Berlin. Mark Landler Poles riled by Berlin exhibition originally published in The New York Times, August 30, 2006; republished in the International Herald Tribune In 2007, the ship's bell was placed on display at the Gdańsk Museum in Krantor. Books, Documentaries, and Movies Books in German The most prolific German author and historian on the subject of the Wilhelm Gustloff is Heinz Schön, one of the shipwreck's survivors, whose books (in German) include: Der Untergang der "Wilhelm Gustloff". Tatsachenbericht eines Überlebenden. (The sinking of the "Wilhelm Gustloff". Factual account of a survivor.) Karina-Goltze-Verlag K.-G., Göttingen 1952; SOS Wilhelm Gustloff. Die größte Schiffskatastrophe der Geschichte. (SOS Wilhelm Gustloff. The biggest shipping disaster in history.) Motorbuch Verlag Pietsch, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-61301-900-0; Die Gustloff - Katastrophe. Bericht eines Überlebenden über die größte Schiffskatastrophe im Zweiten Weltkrieg. (The Gustloff catastrophe. Account of a survivor of the biggest shipping disaster in the Second World War.) Motorbuch Verlag, 2002, ISBN 3-61301-027-5; Die letzte Fahrt der Wilhelm Gustloff. Dokumentation eines Überlebenden. (The last trip of the Wilhelm Gustloff. Account of a survivor.) Motorbuch Verlag, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 3-61302-897-2. Books in English Recent years have seen increased interest in the Wilhelm Gustloff disaster in countries outside of Germany, with various books either written in or translated into English, including: A.V. Sellwood: The Damned Don't Drown. The Sinking of the Wilhelm Gustloff. Naval Institute Press, London 1973, ISBN 1-55750-742-2, a work of fiction on the tragedy, as noted in the book itself; Christopher Dobson, John Miller, and Ronald Payne: The Cruellest Night, Hodder & Stoughton, London,1979, ISBN 0-340-22720-6 John Ries: History's Greatest Naval Disasters. The Little-Known Stories of the Wilhelm Gustloff, the General Steuben and the Goya. In the controversial Journal of Historical Review, 1992, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 371–381. Günter Grass: Im Krebsgang, which has been translated into English as Crabwalk. Steidl Verlag, Göttingen 2002, ISBN 3-88243-800-2. A film set for the German 2008 TV movie "Die Gustloff" Dramatized Films Nacht fiel über Gotenhafen (Night fell over Gotenhafen), feature film, 1959; Die Gustloff (The Gustloff), two-part telemovie by Joseph Vilsmaier, 2008 (Ship of No Return: The Last Voyage of the Gustloff, Australian title). Documentaries Killer Submarine, 1999. Die große Flucht. Der Untergang der Gustloff (The Great Escape. The sinking of the Gustloff), 2001. Ghosts of the Baltic Sea, 2006. Wilhelm Gustloff: World's Deadliest Sea Disaster. Unsolved History (television program), 2003. Sinking Hitler's Supership, 2009. See also Maritime disasters Cap Arcona Sunk by the Royal Air Force with an estimated loss of life of approx. 4,600 people, mostly prisoners of the Germans. Thielbek Also sunk in the RAF raid that sank the SS Cap Arcona and SS Deutschland. Over 2,800 lives lost, mostly prisoners of the Germans. Deutschland Sunk together with SS Cap Arcona by RAF aircraft. Unknown number of lives lost, mostly prisoners of the Germans. Goya Torpedoed by a Soviet submarine during the evacuation of troops and civilians, with over 6,000 estimated dead. Steuben Torpedoed by a Soviet submarine evacuating civilians and troops, with over 4,000 estimated dead. HMT Rohna, sunk by the Germans in November, 1943. Over 1,138 estimated deaths, with 1,015 of them being American troops. This still constitutes the largest loss of US troops at sea.Armenia, sunk by German aircraft in November 1941, with over 5,000 deaths estimated.Junyō Maru, sunk by the British in September 1944, with over 5,000 deaths (mostly Asian slave laborers and Allied POWs) estimated.Lancastria, sunk by German aircraft in June, 1940, during the evacuation of Western France with over 4,000 deaths (1,738 known dead) estimated.Laconia, sunk by a German submarine in September, 1942, during the Laconia Incident, giving rise to the Laconia Order.Ukishima Maru suspicious ship explosion, August 24, 1945 killing over 500 Koreans.Arandora Star sunk by a German submarine July 2, 1940.List of shipwrecksFurther reading Bishop, Leigh; Shipwreck Expedition May 2003, led by Mike Boring, 2003 www.wilhelmgustloff.comA bibliography on the Wilhelm Gustloff The submarine that sank the Third Reich Maritimequest Wilhelm Gustloff Photo Gallery Wilhelm Gustloff Cruise Ship History Film about Gustloff survivors "Sinking the Gustloff" ReferencesThe Cruellest Night by Christopher Dobson, John Miller & Ronald Payne (1979, Hodder & Stoughton, London) ISBN 0 340 22720 6 (a book on Germany's Dunkirk, estimates c7,000 dead). Kappes, Irwin J.; The Greatest Marine Disaster in History...and why you probably never heard of it. 2003. Leja, Michael; Die letzte Fahrt der "Wilhelm Gustloff"; ZDF, 1 August 2005 reports that earlier estimates of approximately 6000 drowned have been revised upwards by more recent sources to about 9300. An article in German. Pipes, Jason; A Memorial to the Wilhelm GustloffSchön, Heinz; Die Gustloff Katastrophe (Motorbuch Verlag, Stuttgart, 2002) Williams, David; Wartime Disasters at Sea'' (Patrick Stephens Limited, Nr Yeovil, UK, 1997) ISBN 1 85260 565 0. 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2,920 | Mel_Brooks | Mel Brooks (born June 28, 1926) Parish, pp. 16–17 is an American director, writer, composer, lyricist, comedian, actor and producer, best known as a creator of broad film farces and comic parodies. Brooks is a member of the short list of entertainers with the distinction of having won an Emmy, a Grammy, an Oscar and a Tony award. Three of his films (Blazing Saddles, The Producers and Young Frankenstein) ranked in the Top 20 on the American Film Institute's list of the Top 100 comedy films of all-time. AFI's list Biography Early life Brooks was born Melvin Kaminsky in Brooklyn, New York, the son of Kate (née Brookman), a garment worker, and Maximilian Kaminsky, a process server. "Mel Brooks Biography (1926-)" at Filmreference.com Brooks' family was Jewish; his maternal grandparents emigrated from outside Kiev and his paternal family was from Danzig in the German Empire. His father died of kidney disease at age 34. As a child, Brooks was a small and sickly boy. He was bullied and picked on by his peers. By taking on the comically aggressive job of Tummler in various Catskills resorts, he overcame his childhood of bullying and name calling. Brooks was educated in Brooklyn at elementary Public School 19 (Williamsburg, Brooklyn), Francis Scott Key Junior High (Williamsburg) and Abraham Lincoln High School. In June 1944, he enlisted in the Army. "Office of History" (US Ace) After basic training at the Virginia Military Institute, he finished up at Fort Sill in Oklahoma and was shipped off to war in February 1945. He served briefly as a forward observer for the artillery, and was then reassigned to the 1104th Combat Engineers Group. Several months later, Germany surrendered and Brooks was promoted to corporal. He continued to serve in Germany for another four months in Special Services (entertainment). Brooks completed his service at Fort Dix in New Jersey. Early career Brooks started out in show business as a stand-up comic, telling jokes and doing movie-star impressions. He found more rewarding work behind the scenes, becoming a comedy writer for television. He joined the hit comedy series Your Show of Shows with Sid Caesar and Carl Reiner. Reiner, as creator of The Dick Van Dyke Show, based Morey Amsterdam's character Buddy Sorell on Brooks. Brooks later moved into film, working as an actor, director, writer, and producer. Brooks' first film was The Critic (1963), an animated satire of arty, esoteric cinema, conceived by Brooks and directed by Ernest Pintoff. Brooks supplied running commentary as the baffled moviegoer trying to make sense of the obscure visuals. The short film won an Academy Award. With Buck Henry, Brooks created the successful TV series Get Smart, starring Don Adams as a bumbling secret agent. This series added to Brooks' reputation as a clever satirist. Brooks' first feature film, The Producers, was a dark comedy about two theatrical partners who deliberately contrive the worst possible Broadway show. The film was so brazen in its satire (its big production number was "Springtime for Hitler") that the major studios wouldn't touch it, nor would many exhibitors. Brooks finally found an independent distributor, which released it like an art film, as a specialized attraction. The film received an Oscar for Best Original Screenplay. The film became a smash underground hit, first on the nationwide college circuit, then in revivals and on home video. Brooks later turned it into a musical, which became hugely successful on Broadway, receiving an unprecedented twelve Tony awards. His two most financially successful films were released in 1974: Blazing Saddles (co-written with Richard Pryor, Andrew Bergman, Norman Steinberg and Alan Uger), and Young Frankenstein (co-written with Gene Wilder). He followed these up with an audacious idea: the first feature-length silent comedy in four decades. Silent Movie (co-written with Ron Clark, 1976) featured Brooks in his first leading role, with Dom DeLuise and Marty Feldman as his sidekicks. The following year he released his Hitchcock parody High Anxiety (also witten with Clark), which was the first movie produced by Brooks himself. Brooks developed a repertory company of sorts for his film work: performers with three or more of Brooks' films, (The Producers, The Twelve Chairs, Blazing Saddles, Young Frankenstein, Silent Movie, High Anxiety, History of the World: Part I, To Be or Not to Be, Spaceballs, Life Stinks, Robin hood: Men in Tights, and Dracula: Dead and Loving it), to their credit include Gene Wilder, Dom DeLuise, Madeline Kahn, Harvey Korman, Cloris Leachman, Ron Carey and Andréas Voutsinas. Dom DeLuise appeared in six of Brooks' 12 films, the only person with more appearances being Brooks himself. In 1975, at the height of his movie career, Brooks tried TV again with When Things Were Rotten, a Robin Hood parody that lasted only 13 episodes. Nearly 20 years later, Brooks mounted another Robin Hood parody with Robin Hood: Men in Tights. Later career In 1980, Brooks became interested in producing the dramatic film The Elephant Man (directed by David Lynch). Knowing that anyone seeing a poster reading "Mel Brooks presents The Elephant Man''' would expect a comedy, he set up the company Brooksfilms. Brooksfilms has since produced a number of non-comedy films, including David Cronenberg's The Fly, Frances, and 84 Charing Cross Road, starring Anthony Hopkins and Anne Bancroft, as well as comedies, including Richard Benjamin's My Favorite Year. The 1980s saw Brooks produce and direct only two films, the first being History of the World Part I in 1981, a tongue-in-cheek look at human culture from the Dawn of Man to the French Revolution. As part of the film's soundtrack, Brooks, then aged 55, recorded a rap entitled "It's Good to Be the King", a parody of Louis XVI and the French Revolution; it was released as a single, and became an unlikely US dance hit. His second movie release of the decade came in 1987 in the form of Spaceballs, a parody of science fiction, mainly Star Wars. Both films featured him in multiple roles. He also starred in the 1983 remake To Be or Not to Be, which even spawned a highly controversial single, "To Be Or Not To Be (The Hitler Rap)". It was only part of the soundtrack (but not part of the movie) and made fun of the German society in the 1940s and showed Mel Brooks himself as Hitler. The single got banned from both radio airplay and television in Germany due to its controversial lyrics and video footage. In the U. S., it peaked at #12 on the Billboard charts in February 1984. Brooks' most recent success has been a transfer of his film The Producers to the Broadway stage. Brooks also had a vocal role in the 2005 animated film Robots. He is currently working on an animated series sequel to Spaceballs. Spaceballs: The TV Series premiered on September 21, 2008 on G4 TV. Brooks is one of the few artists who have received an Oscar, Emmy, Tony, and Grammy. He was awarded his first Grammy award for Best Spoken Comedy Album in 1999 for his recording of The 2000 Year Old Man in the Year 2000 with Carl Reiner. His two other Grammys came in 2002 for Best Musical Show Album, for the soundtrack to The Producers, and for Best Long Form Music Video for the DVD "Recording the Producers - A Musical Romp with Mel Brooks". He won his first of four Emmy awards in 1967 for Outstanding Writing Achievement in Variety for a Sid Caesar special. He went on to win three consecutive Emmys in 1997, 1998, and 1999 for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his role of Uncle Phil on Mad About You. He won his three Tony awards in 2001 for his work on the musical, The Producers. He won Tonys for Best Musical, Best Original Musical Score, and Best Book of a Musical. Additionally, he won a Hugo Award and a Nebula Award for Young Frankenstein. In a 2005 poll to find The Comedian's Comedian, he was voted #50 of the top 50 comedy acts ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders. Three of Brooks' films are on the American Film Institute's list of funniest American films: Blazing Saddles (#6), The Producers (#11), and Young Frankenstein (#13). Brooks and his wife Anne Bancroft acted together in Silent Movie and To Be or Not to Be, and Bancroft also had a bit part in the 1995 film Dracula: Dead and Loving It. Years later, the Brookses appeared as themselves in the fourth season finale of Curb Your Enthusiasm, spoofing the finale of The Producers. It is reported that Bancroft encouraged Brooks (after an idea suggested by David Geffen) to take The Producers to Broadway where it became an enormous success, as the show broke the Tony record with 12 wins, a record that had previously been held for 37 years by Hello, Dolly! at 10 wins. Such success has translated to a big-screen version of the Broadway adaptation/remake with actors Matthew Broderick and Nathan Lane reprising their stage roles, in addition to new cast members Uma Thurman and Will Ferrell. As of early April 2006, Brooks had begun composing the score to a Broadway musical adaptation of Young Frankenstein, which he says is "perhaps the best movie [he] ever made." The world premiere was performed at Seattle's most historic theatre (originally built as a movie palace), The Paramount Theatre, between August 7, 2007, and September 1, 2007 after which it opened on Broadway at the Hilton Theatre, New York, on October 11, 2007. It has since earned moderate to poor reviews from the critics. TIME reports, "Mel Brooks is no longer the inspired amateur. Now he's a Broadway monster, repeating himself." In interviews broadcast on WABC radio, Brooks has discussed with NYC radio personality Mark Simone the possibilities of turning other works from his creative oeuvre (such as the movie Blazing Saddles) into future musical productions. Specifically, in a conversation airing March 1, 2008, he and Simone speculated on what show tunes might be incorporated into a theatrical adaptation of the Get Smart property. Personal life Brooks was married to Florence Baum from 1951 to 1961. Their marriage ended in divorce. Mel and Florence had three children, Stephanie, Nicky, and Eddie. Brooks was married to the actress Anne Bancroft from 1964 until her death from uterine cancer on June 6, 2005. They met on rehearsal for the Perry Como Variety Show in 1961 and married three years later, August 5, at the Manhattan Marriage Bureau. They had one son, Maximillian, in 1972. Work Writer/directorThe Producers (1968) (Academy Award, best original screenplay)The Twelve Chairs (1970) (also actor) Blazing Saddles (1974) (also actor)Young Frankenstein (1974)Silent Movie (1976) (also actor)High Anxiety (1977) (also actor)History of the World, Part I (1981) (also actor/producer)Spaceballs (1987) (also actor/producer)Life Stinks (1991) (also actor/producer)Robin Hood: Men in Tights (1993) (also actor/producer)Dracula: Dead and Loving It (1995) (also actor/producer) TheatreLeonard Sillman's New Faces of 1952 (1952) (sketches for a revue)Shinbone Alley (1957) (co-book-writer) All-American (1962) (book-writer)The Producers (2001) (composer, lyricist, co-book-writer, producer; Tony Award for Best Musical, Tony Award for Best Book of a Musical, Tony Award for Best Original Score, Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics, Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Book of a Musical)Young Frankenstein (2007) (composer, lyricist, co-book-writer, producer) Other worksNew Faces of 1952 (Broadway) (1952) (writer) and "New Faces", the 1954 film version (writer)Your Show of Shows (TV) (1950-1954) (writer)The Critic (short film, Academy Award winner for Short Subjects (Cartoons) (1963) (created and narrated)Get Smart (TV) (1965-1970) (co-creator, writer)When Things Were Rotten (1975) (co-created, writer)The Electric Company (TV) (1971-1977) (voice of recurring little cartoon man who asks: "Who's the dummy writing this show?!")The Muppet Movie (1979) (actor-Prof. Max Krassman)The Elephant Man (1980) (uncredited executive producer)To Be or Not to Be (1983) (actor, producer)The Fly (1986) (uncredited producer) The Fly II (1989) (uncredited producer)The Tracy Ullman Show (1990) (actor-Buzz Schlanger) Look Who's Talking Too (voice of Mr. Toilet Man) Frasier (1993) (voice of Tom) The Little Rascals (1994) (actor-Mr. Welling) Silence of the Hams (1994) (actor-Checkout Guest) The Prince of Egypt (1998) (uncredited, additional voices) Svitati (AKA Screw Loose) (1999) (actor-Jake Gordon) Mad About You (TV) (1996-1999) (actor-Uncle Phil) It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie (TV) (2002) (voice of Joe Snow) The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius: Season 2 (voice of Santa Claus) Jakers! The Adventures of Piggley Winks (2003-present) (voice of Wiley the Sheep) Curb Your Enthusiasm: Season 4 (actor) Robots (2005) (voice of Bigweld) The Producers (2005) (writer, producer) Spaceballs: The Animated Series (2008) (writer, producer, voice) See also List of persons who have won Academy, Emmy, Grammy, and Tony Awards Further reading Jeff Rovin. Cat Angels, Harper Paperbacks, ISBN 0-06-100972-5 Parish, James Robert. It's Good to Be the King: The Seriously Funny Life of Mel Brooks (2007) Wiley ISBN 0471752673 References External links Mel Brooks - Box Office Data Movie Director at The Numbers Mel Brooks - Box Office Data Movie Star at The Numbers Interview with Brooks on NPR's Fresh Air (March 16, 2005) TonyAwards.com Interview with Mel Brooks at Tony Awards site Interview with Mel Brooks biographer James Robert Parish | Mel_Brooks |@lemmatized mel:12 brook:50 bear:2 june:3 parish:3 pp:1 american:5 director:3 writer:15 composer:3 lyricist:3 comedian:4 actor:21 producer:28 best:13 know:1 creator:3 broad:1 film:29 farce:1 comic:2 parody:6 member:2 short:4 list:5 entertainer:1 distinction:1 win:10 emmy:5 grammy:4 oscar:3 tony:10 award:18 three:7 blaze:2 saddle:6 young:8 frankenstein:8 rank:1 top:3 institute:3 comedy:12 time:2 afi:1 biography:2 early:3 life:5 melvin:1 kaminsky:2 brooklyn:3 new:6 york:2 son:2 kate:1 née:1 brookman:1 garment:1 worker:1 maximilian:1 process:1 server:1 filmreference:1 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2,921 | Latin_America | Latin America Area 21,069,501 km² Population 569 million Countries 21 Dependencies 10 GDP $3.33 Trillion (exchange rate) $5.62 Trillion (purchasing power parity) Languages Spanish58%, Portuguese40%, French1%, Quechua, Aymara, Nahuatl, Mayan languages, Guaraní, English, Haitian Creole, Papiamentu, Dutch, and many others Time Zones UTC-2 (Brazil) to UTC-8 (Mexico) Largest Urban Agglomerations http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/Latin_America.htm 1. Mexico City2. São Paulo3. Buenos Aires4. Rio de Janeiro5. Lima6. Bogotá7. Santiago8. Belo Horizonte9. Caracas10. Porto Alegre Latin America ( or Latinoamérica; ; ) is a region of the Americas where Romance languages (i.e., those derived from Latin) – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. <ref>"Latin America." The New Oxford Dictionary of English. Pearsall, J., ed. 2001. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; p. 1040: "The parts of the American continent where Spanish or Portuguese is the main national language (i.e. Mexico and, in effect, the whole of Central and South America including many of the Caribbean islands)."</ref> Etymology of the term and definitions The idea that a part of the Americas has a cultural affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s, in particular in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier, who postulated that this part of the Americas were inhabited by people of a "Latin race," and that it could, therefore, ally itself with "Latin Europe" in a struggle with "Teutonic Europe," "Anglo-Saxon America" and "Slavic Europe." The idea was later taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France. McGuiness, Aims (2003). "Searching for 'Latin America': Race and Sovereignty in the Americas in the 1850s" in Appelbaum, Nancy P. et al. (eds.). Race and Nation in Modern Latin America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 87-107. ISBN 0-8078-5441-7 The actual term "Latin America" was coined in France under Napoleon III and played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship with France, transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area and install Maximilian as emperor of Mexico. In contemporary usage: In one sense, Latin America refers only to those territories in the Americas where the Spanish or Portuguese languages prevail: Mexico, most of Central and South America, and in the Caribbean, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. Latin America is, therefore, defined as all those parts of the Americas that were once part of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires. The term may is often used, particularly in the United States, to refer to all of the Americas south of the United States, thus including (in addition to the above areas) English-speaking countries such as Belize, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Antigua and Barbuda, St. Lucia, Dominica, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and the Bahamas, as well as Haiti and Martinique, Guadeloupe, French Guiana, the Netherlands Antilles, Aruba and Suriname. In this context, it is noted that in the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba, Papiamento – a predominantly Iberian–derived creole language – is spoken by the majority of the population. Given that the non-Latin territories about the Caribbean share a common sociopolitical history with their Latin neighbours in the region, the term Latin America and the Caribbean may be used. Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings, UN Statistics Division. Accessed on line 23 May, 2009. (French) In a more literal definition, which remains faithful to the original usage, Latin America designates all of those countries and territories in the Americas where a Romance language (i.e., languages derived from Latin, and hence the name of the region) is spoken: Spanish, Portuguese, and French, and the creole languages based upon these. Although French-influenced areas of the Americas would include Quebec, this region is hardly ever considered part of Latin America, since its history is too closely intertwined with Canada. The distinction between Latin America and Anglo-America, which can be criticized for stressing only the European heritage of these regions (that is, for Eurocentrism), is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance-language and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. There are, of course, many places in the Americas (e.g., highland Ecuador, Bolivia, Guatemala, and Paraguay) where American Indian cultures and, to a lesser extent, Amerindian languages, are predominant, as well as areas in which the influence of African cultures is strong (e.g. the Caribbean basin—including parts of Colombia and Venezuela—and coastal Ecuador, and coastal Brazil). The United States has also shaped the cultures of Latin America, especially those of Mexico, Cuba and Puerto Rico, which is a United States territory. In addition, the United States held a territory in a swath of land in Panama over the 20-mile-long Panama Canal from 1903 (the canal opened to transoceanic freight traffic in 1914) to 1979 when the U.S. government agreed to give the territory back to Panama. History A view of Machu Picchu, a pre-Columbian Inca site in Peru. The Americas were thought to have been first inhabited by people crossing the Bering Land Bridge, now known as the Bering strait, from northeast Asia into Alaska more than 10,000 years ago. The earliest known settlement, however, was identified at Monte Verde, near Puerto Montt in Southern Chile. Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is some disputed evidence of even earlier occupation. Over the course of millennia, people spread to all parts of the continents. By the first millennium AD/CE, South America’s vast rainforests, mountains, plains and coasts were the home of tens of millions of people. The earliest settlements in the Americas are of the Las Vegas Culture from about 8000 BC and 4600 BC, a sedentary group from the coast of Ecuador, the forefathers of the more known Valdivia culture, of the same era. Some groups formed more permanent settlements such as the Chibchas (or "Muiscas" or "Muyscas") and the Tairona groups. The Chibchas of Colombia, the Quechuas and Aymaras of Bolivia and Perú were the three Indian groups that settled most permanently. The region was home to many indigenous peoples and advanced civilizations, including the Aztecs, Toltecs, Caribs, Tupi, Maya, and Inca. The golden age of the Maya began about 250, with the last two great civilizations, the Aztecs and Incas, emerging into prominence later on in the early fourteenth century and mid-fifteenth centuries, respectively. Archaelogical sites of Chichén-Itzá in Yucatán Mexico. With the arrival of the Europeans following Christopher Columbus's voyages, the indigenous elites, such as the Incans and Aztecs, lost power to the Europeans. Hernán Cortés destroyed the Aztec elite's power with the help of local groups who disliked the Aztec elite, and Francisco Pizarro eliminated the Incan rule in Western South America. European powers, most notably Spain and Portugal, colonized the region, which along with the rest of the uncolonized world was divided into areas of Spanish and Portuguese control by the line of demarcation in 1493, which gave Spain all areas to the west, and Portugal all areas to the east (the Portuguese lands in South America subsequently becoming Brazil). By the end of the sixteenth century, Europeans occupied large areas of North, Central and South America, extending all the way into the present southern United States. European culture and government was imposed, with the Roman Catholic Church becoming a major economic and political power, as well as the official religion of the region. Diseases brought by the Europeans, such as smallpox and measles, wiped out a large proportion of the indigenous population, with epidemics of diseases reducing them sharply from their prior populations. Historians cannot determine the number of natives who died due to European diseases, but some put the figures as high as 85% and as low as 20%. Due to the lack of written records, specific numbers are hard to verify. Many of the survivors were forced to work in European plantations and mines. Intermixing between the indigenous peoples and the European colonists was very common, and, by the end of the colonial period, people of mixed ancestry (mestizos) formed majorities in several colonies. Moai at Rano Raraku, Easter Island By the end of the eighteenth century, Spanish and Portuguese power waned on the global scene as other European powers took their place, notably Britain and France. In Latin America resentment grew among the majority of the population over the restrictions imposed by the Spanish government, as well as the dominance of native Spaniards (Iberian-born Peninsulares) in the major social and political institutions. Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 marked a turning point, compelling Criollo elites to form juntas that advocated independence. Also, the newly independent Haiti, the second oldest nation in the New World after the United States and the oldest independent nation in Latin America, further fueled the independence movement by inspiring the leaders of the movement, such as Simón Bolívar and José de San Martin, and by providing them with considerable munitions and troops. Fighting soon broke out between juntas and the Spanish colonial authorities, with initial victories for the advocates of independence. Eventually these early movements were crushed by the royalist troops by 1812, including those of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in Mexico and Francisco de Miranda in Venezuela. Under the leadership of a new generation of leaders, such as Simón Bolívar, José de San Martin and other Libertadores in South America, the independence movement regained strength, and by 1825, all Spanish America, except for Puerto Rico and Cuba, had gained independence from Spain. Brazil achieved independence with a constitutional monarchy established in 1822. In the same year in Mexico, a military officer, Agustín de Iturbide, led a coalition of conservatives and liberals who created a constitutional monarchy, with Iturbide as emperor. This First Mexican Empire was short-lived and was followed by the creation of a republic in 1823. Demographics Racial groups The This website blows. It's horrible population of Latin America is a composite of ancestries, ethnic groups, and races, making the region one of the most diverse in the world. The specific composition varies from country to country: Some have a predominance of a mixed population; in others, Amerindians are a majority; some are dominated by inhabitants of European ancestry; and some countries' populations are primarily of African descent. Most or all Latin American countries have Asian minorities. Europeans are the largest single group, and they and people of part-European ancestry combine for approximately 80% of the population. In addition to the following groups, Latin America also has millions of triracial people of African, Amerindian, and European ancestry. Most are found in Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil, with a much smaller presence in a number of other countries. Amerindians Amerindians make up the majority of the population in Bolivia and Peru. The aboriginal population of Latin America, the Amerindians, experienced tremendous population decline, particularly in the early decades of colonization. They have since recovered in numbers, surpassing sixty million, though they compose a majority in only two countries: Bolivia and Peru. In both Ecuador and Guatemala, Amerindians are large minorities comprising two–fifths of the population, while the next largest minority is in Mexico, with more than one–sixth the population. Most of the remaining countries have Amerindian minorities, in every case making up one–tenth or less of the population. In many countries, people of mixed Amerindian and European ancestry make up the majority of the population (see Mestizo). Asians Film maker Tizuka Yamasaki, one of over a million Japanese-Brazilians. People of Asian descent number several million in Latin America. The first Asians to settle in the region were Filipino, as a result of Spain's trade involving Asia and the Americas. The majority of Asian Latin Americans are of Japanese or Chinese ancestry and reside mainly in Brazil and Peru. Brazil is home to 1.49 million people of Asian descent, http://www.pucsp.br/rever/rv3_2004/p_shoji.pdf http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/latin/index.html MOFA: Japan-Brazil Relations which includes the largest ethnic Japanese community outside of Japan itself, numbering 1.5 million. Peru, with 1.47 million people of Asian descent, http://www.ocac.gov.tw/english/public/public.asp?selno=1163&no=1163&level=B http://www.universia.edu.pe/noticias/principales/destacada.php?id=65889 has one of the largest Chinese communities in the world, with nearly 1 million Peruvians being of Chinese ancestry. The Japanese community also maintains a strong presence in Peru, and a past President and a number of politicians are of Japanese descent in Peru. MOFA: Japan-Brazil Relations Indians, Koreans, and Vietnamese are also among the largest ethnic Asian communities in the region. In the Panama Canal zone there is also a Chinese minority, who are mostly the descendants of migrant workers who built the Panama Canal. Blacks or Africans A significant percentage of Latin Americans are of African ancestry. Millions of African slaves were brought to Latin America from the sixteenth century onward, the majority of whom were sent to the Caribbean region and Brazil. Today, people identified as black compose a majority in Haiti, with significant population in the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Brazil, Colombia, Belize, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Honduras, Panama, Puerto Rico, Guatemala, and Peru. Mestizos A representation of a Mestizo, in a Pintura de Castas during the Spanish colonial period of the Americas. Intermixing between Europeans and Amerindians began early and was extensive. The resulting people, known as mestizos, make up the majority of the population in half of the countries of Latin America: Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, and Venezuela. Additionally, mestizos compose large minorities in nearly all the other mainland countries. Mulattoes Salsa dancers of Mulatto heritage, Camagüey, Cuba. Mulattoes are biracial descendants of mixed European and African ancestry, mostly descended from Spanish or Portuguese settlers on one side and African slaves on the other during the colonial period. The vast majority of mulattoes are found in Brazil, and mulattoes form the majority in the Dominican Republic. Cuba and Colombia are the other countries with large numbers of mulattoes. There is also a small presence of mulattoes in other Latin American countries. Whites or Europeans Beginning in the late fifteenth century, large numbers of Iberian colonists settled in what became Latin America — Portuguese in Brazil and Spaniards elsewhere in the region — and at present most white Latin Americans are of Spanish or Portuguese origin. Iberians brought the Spanish and Portuguese languages, the Catholic faith, and many Iberian traditions. In absolute numbers, Brazil has the largest population of whites in Latin America, followed by Argentina and Mexico (see White Latin American). Millions of Europeans have immigrated to Latin America since most countries gained independence in the 1810s and 1820s, with most of the immigration occurring in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and the bulk of the immigrants settling in Argentina, Uruguay, Chile Social Identity Marta Fierro Social Psychologist. massive immigration of European Argentina Uruguay Chile Brazil Latinoamerica. (Southern Cone) and Brazil. Italians formed the largest group of immigrants, and next were Spaniards and Portuguese. Many others arrived, such as French, Germans, Greeks, Poles, Ukrainians, Russians, Jews, Irish, and Welsh. Latin American countries attracted European immigrants to work in agriculture, commerce and industry. Many Latin American governments encouraged immigrants from Europe to 'civilize' the region. As políticas públicas de imigração européia não-portuguesa para o Brasil – de Pombal à República Despite their different origins, these immigrants integrated in the local societies and most of their descendants only speak Spanish or, in Brazil, Portuguese. For example, people of Italian descent make up half of Argentina's and Uruguay's populations, but only relatively small percentages of them are able to speak Italian. However, in Venezuela, where the population of Italian descent makes up about 400,000, about 1.5% of the total, italianos. there is still a tendency of the communities to preserve the language, as do Germans and Portuguese. Also there are some communities of Germans and In Brazil, which has the biggest population of Italians outside of Italy italplanet Gli italiani in Brasile (São Paulo city alone has more Italians than Rome, the most populous Italian city), Especiais - Agência Brasil Biggest Cities Italy Italians in the country's predominantly white south still preserve their languages. Immigration from the Middle East took place also since the 19th century and consisted largely of Christians of Lebanese, Syrian, and Palestinian origin. Some countries have populations of Iranian and Pashtun descent (see Pashtun diaspora). Middle Easterners have generally assimilated into the European-descended population. Zambos Slaves often ran away (cimarrones) and were taken in by Amerindian villagers. Intermixing between Africans and Amerindians produced descendants known as Zambos or (in Central America) Garinagu. This was especially prevalent in Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil. Racial distribution The following table shows the different racial groups and their percentages for all Latin American countries and territories. For some countries, like Chile and Costa Rica, the white and mestizo percentages are combined in some sources. Country Population White Mestizo Mulatto Amerindian Black Mixed Other1 Argentina 40,301,927 86.4% 6.5% 3.4% 0.4% Aruba 100,018 80.0% 20.0% Belize 2 311,500 4.3% 33.8% 24.9% 10.6% 0.3% 6.1% 20.0% Bolivia 9,119,152 10.0% 28.0% 62.0% Brazil3 190,010,647 53.7% 42.3% 7.4% 0.8% Chile4 16,800,000 52.7%-22 42.7% 4.6% Colombia 44,379,598 25.0% 47.3% 23.0% 2.0% 1.7% 1.0% Costa Rica 4,133,884 77.0% 17.0% 3.0% 1.0% 2.0% Cuba 11,177,743 65.1% 24.8% 10.1% Dominican Republic 9,365,818 17.0% 69.5% 11.8% 1.7% Ecuador 13,755,680 10.6% 42.0% 40.8% 5.0% 1.6% El Salvador 6,948,073 1.6% 88.3% 9.1% 1.0% French Guiana 199,509 8.0% 37.9% 8.0% 37.1% 9.0% Guadeloupe 452,776 2.0% 76.7% 10.0% 10.0% 1.3% Guatemala 12,728,111 5.0% 54.4% 40.5% 0.1% Guyana 858,863 2.0% 9.4% 30.2% 16.7% 43.5% Haiti 8,706,497 94.2% 5.4% 0.4% Honduras 7,483,763 2.3% 86.6% 5.5% 4.3% 1.3% Martinique 436,131 3.0% 93.4% 3.6% Mexico 108,700,891 16.5% 64.3% 18.0% 0.5% 0.7% Netherlands Antilles 223,652 5.3% 81.1% 13.6% Nicaragua 5,675,356 14.0% 63.1% 4.0% 8.0% 5.0% 5.9% Panama 3,309,679 17.0% 70 % 14.0% 6.7% 11.0% 5.0% 12.6% Paraguay 6,669,086 9.3% 85.6% 1.8% 1.0% 2.3% Peru5 28,674,757 12.0% 31.9% 52.4% 3.7% Puerto Rico 3,944,259 74.3% 10.0% 15.0% 0.7% Saint Martin 33,102 100.0% Saint Pierre and Miquelon 7,036 100.0% Uruguay 3,460,607 87.4% 3% 8.4% 0.4% Venezuela6 26,023,528 21.0% 2.0% 10.0% 67.0% Total 562,461,667 34.8% 27.5% 17.4% 10.1% 5.4% 3.4% 1.4% 1 May include one or more of the previous groups. 2 "Other" includes census answer of Spanish which does not specify race; "mixed" includes the Garifuna (mixed Amerindian/black). 3According to data from PNAD 2007. The survey uses the term "Pardos", which includes Mullato and Mestizo. http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/trabalhoerendimento/pnad2007/graficos_pdf.pdf 4<small>Various figures exist for the white population of Chile: 22%, 30%–35%, and 52.7%. The white and mestizo percentages (the latter group said to be predominantly white and estimated to make up 65% of Chile's population) are sometimes combined, so that Chile's population is classified as 95% white and mestizo in some sources. The Amerindian population was 4.6% in the 2002 census. Pueblos Indígenas en Chile - Censo 2002 - Instituto Nacional de Estadística INE <small> 5The CIA World Factbook gives slightly different figures: "Amerindian 45%, mestizo (mixed Amerindian and white) 37%, white 15%, black, Japanese, Chinese, and other 3%". 6Venezuela 2005 census includes both mulatto and mestizo in "mixed" Oficinas Comerciales Language Portuguese and Spanish are the predominant languages of Latin American. Portuguese is spoken primarily in Brazil, the most populous country in the region , . French is spoken in some countries of the Caribbean, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and French Guiana and Haiti. Dutch is the official language of some Caribbean islands and in Suriname on the continent; however, as Dutch is a Germanic language, these territories are not considered part of Latin America. Other European languages spoken in Latin America include: English, by some groups in Argentina, Belize, Nicaragua, Panama, and Puerto Rico; German, in southern Brazil, southern Chile, Argentina, and German-speaking villages in northern Venezuela and Paraguay; Italian, in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Venezuela; and Welsh, in southern Argentina. Most widely spoken Pre-contact languages distribution area in Latin America, at the beginning of 21st century: Quechua, Guarani, Aymara, Nahuatl, Mayan languages, <font color="#000000">Mapuche In several nations, especially in the Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken. The most widely spoken creole language in the Caribbean and Latin America in general is Haitian Creole, the predominant language of Haiti; it is derived primarily from French and certain West African tongues with some Amerindian and Spanish influences as well. Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues. Native American languages are widely spoken in Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay, and to a lesser degree, in Mexico, Ecuador, and Chile. In absolute numbers, Mexico contains the largest population of indigenous-language speakers of any country in the Americas, surpassing those of the Amerindian-majority countries of Guatemala, Bolivia and the Amerindian-plurality country of Peru. In Latin American countries not named above, the population of speakers of indigenous languages is small or non-existent. In Peru, Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and any other indigenous language in the areas where they predominate. In Ecuador, while holding no official status, the closely related Quichua is a recognized language of the indigenous people under the country's constitution; however, it is only spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia, Aymara, Quechua and Guaraní hold official status alongside Spanish. Guarani is, along with Spanish, an official language of Paraguay, and is spoken by a majority of the population (who are, for the most part, bilingual), and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes. In Nicaragua, Spanish is the official language, but on the country's Caribbean coast English and indigenous languages such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama also hold official status. Colombia recognizes all indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these. Nahuatl is one of the 62 native languages spoken by indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by the government as "national languages" along with Spanish. Religion Christ the Redeemer (Cristo Redentor) atop Corcovado mountain, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The vast majority of Latin Americans are Christians, mostly Roman Catholics. Membership in other denominations, like Protestantism, is increasing, particularly in countries such as Guatemala, Brazil, and Puerto Rico. Indigenous creeds and rituals are still practiced in countries with large percentages of Amerindians, such as Bolivia, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. Various Afro-Latin American traditions such as Santería, Candomblé, Umbanda, Macumba, and tribal-voodoo religions are also practiced, mainly in Cuba, Brazil, and Haiti. Brazil has an active quasi-socialist Roman Catholic movement known as Liberation Theology, and Brazil is also the country with more practitioners in the world of Allan Kardec's Spiritism. Practitioners of the Jewish, Mormonism, Jehovah's Witnesses, Buddhist, Islamic, Hindu, Bahá'í, and Shinto denominations and religions exist. Emigration Due to economic, social and security developments that are affecting the region in recent decades, the focus is now the change from net immigration to net emigration. About 10 million Mexicans live in the United States. Watching Over Greater Mexico: Mexican Migration Policy and Governance of Mexicanos Abroad 28.3 million Americans listed their ancestry as Mexican as of 2006. According to the 2005 Colombian census or DANE, about 3,331,107 Colombians currently live abroad. http://www.pstalker.com/migration/index.htm The number of Brazilians living overseas is estimated at about 2 million people. Brasileiros no Exterior — Portal da Câmara dos Deputados An estimated 1.5 to two million Salvadorans reside in the United States. Country Overview: El Salvador, United States Agency for International Development At least 1.5 million Ecuadorians have gone abroad, mainly to the United States and Spain. Chavistas in Quito, Forbes.com, January 7, 2008 . Approximately 1.5 million Dominicans live abroad, mostly in the US. Dominican Republic: Remittances for Development More than 1.3 million Cubans live abroad, most of them in the US. Cubans Abroad, Radiojamaica.com It is estimated that over 800,000 Chileans live abroad, mainly in Argentina, Canada and Sweden. Chile: Moving Towards a Migration Policy, Migration Information Source An estimated 700,000 Bolivians were living in Argentina as of 2006. Migration News Remittances to Mexico rose from $6.6 billion to $24 billion between 2000 and 2006, but stabilized in 2007. Much of the reported increase between 2000 and 2006 may reflect better accounting, but the slowdown in 2007 may reflect tougher U.S. border and interior enforcement. Economy Inequality and poverty Inequality and poverty continue to be the region's main challenges; according to the ECLAC Latin America is the most unequal region in the world. La región sigue siendo la más desigual del mundo, según Cepal América Economía Moreover, according to the World Bank, nearly 25% of the population lives on less than 2 USD a day. The countries with the highest inequality in the region (as measured with the Gini index in the UN Development Report) in 2006 were Bolivia (60.1), Haiti (59.2), Colombia (58.6), Paraguay (58.4), Brazil (57.0) and Panama (56.1), while the countries with the lowest inequality in the region were Nicaragua (43.1), Uruguay (44.9) and Mexico (46.1). One aspect of inequality and poverty in Latin America is unequal access to basic infrastructure. For example, access to water and sanitation in Latin America and the quality of these services remain low. The only immigration problem is that of drug smugglers from South America passing thru to get their deliveries to the United States. Crime and Violence Crime and violence prevention and public security have become key social issues of concern to public policy makers and citizens in the Latin American and Caribbean region. In Latin America, violence is now among the five main causes of death and is the principal cause of death in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela and Mexico. Homicide rates in Latin America are among the highest of any region in the world. From the early 1980s through the mid-1990s, intentional homicide rates in Latin America increased by 50 percent. The major victims of such homicides are young men, 69 percent of whom are between the ages of 15 and 19 years old. World Bank Group - 404 error Many analysts agree that the prison crisis will not be resolved until the gap between rich and poor is addressed. They say that growing social inequality is fuelling crime in the region. But there is also no doubt that, on such an approach, Latin American countries have still a long way to go. BBC NEWS | Americas | Latin America: Crisis behind bars Countries with the highest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants were; El Salvador 55.3, Honduras 49.9, Venezuela 48, Guatemala 45.2, Colombia 37, Belize 30.8, Brazil 25.7, and Mexico 25. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_intentional_homicide_rate More than 500,000 people have been killed by firearms in Brazil between 1979 and 2003. UN highlights Brazil gun crisis. BBC News, June 27, 2005. Trade blocs The major trade blocs (or agreements) in the region are the Union of South American Nations, composed of the integrated Mercosur and Andean Community of Nations (CAN). Minor blocs or trade agreements are the G3 Free Trade Agreement, the Dominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA) and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). However, major reconfigurations are taking place along opposing approaches to integration and trade; Venezuela has officially withdrawn from both the CAN and G3 and it has been formally admitted into the Mercosur (pending ratification from the Brazilian and Paraguayan legislatures). The president-elect of Ecuador has manifested his intentions of following the same path. This bloc nominally opposes any Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States, although Uruguay has manifested its intention otherwise. On the other hand, Mexico is a member of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Chile has already signed an FTA with Canada, and along with Peru are the only two South American nations that have and FTA with the United States. Colombia's government is currently awaiting its ratification by the U.S. Senate. Standard of living, consumption, and the environment According to Goldman Sachs BRIMC review of emerging economies, by 2050 the largest economies in the world will be as follows: China, USA, India, Japan, Brazil, and Mexico; Two of the top five economies in the world being from Latin America. The following table lists all the countries in Latin America indicating a valuation of the country's GDP (Gross domestic product) based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP), GDP per capita also adjusted to the (PPP), a measurement of inequality through the Gini index (the higher the index the more unequal the income distribution is), the Human Development Index (HDI), the Environmental Performance Index (EPI), and the Quality-of-life index. GDP and PPP GDP statistics come from the International Monetary Fund with data as of 2006. Gini index, the Human Poverty Index HDI-1, the Human Development Index, and the number of internet users per capita come from the UN Development Program. The number of motor vehicles per capita come from the UNData base on-line. The EPI index comes from the Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy and the Quality-of-life index from The Economist Intelligence Unit. Green cells indicate the 1st rank in each category, while yellow indicate the last rank. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" |- bgcolor=#ececec Summary of socio-economic performance indicators for Latin American countries ! Country ! GDP valuation based onPPP International Monetary Fund [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=22&pr.y=6&sy=2008&ey=2008&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512,941,914,446,612,666,614,668,311,672,213,946,911,137,193,962,122,674,912,676,313,548,419,556,513,678,316,181,913,682,124,684,339,273,638,921,514,948,218,943,963,686,616,688,223,518,516,728,918,558,748,138,618,196,522,278,622,692,156,694,624,142,626,449,628,564,228,283,924,853,233,288,632,293,636,566,634,964,238,182,662,453,960,968,423,922,935,714,128,862,611,716,321,456,243,722,248,942,469,718,253,724,642,576,643,936,939,961,644,813,819,199,172,184,132,524,646,361,648,362,915,364,134,732,652,366,174,734,328,144,258,146,656,463,654,528,336,923,263,738,268,578,532,537,944,742,176,866,534,369,536,744,429,186,433,925,178,746,436,926,136,466,343,112,158,111,439,298,916,927,664,846,826,299,542,582,443,474,917,754,544,698&s=PPPPC&grp=0&a= (2008)CurrentBillions USD ! GDP percapita(PPP)(2008)USD ! Incomeequality Human Development Report, UNDP (2001-06)Gini index ! Poverty Index page 238-240 (2005)HPI-1 % ! Human Develop. page 25-26 (2006)HDI ! Envirnm. Perfrm. (2008)EPI ! Qualityof life (2005)index ! Annualeconomic growth (2008)% ! Emissionsper capita page 310-313 (2004)ton CO2 |- | || 570.526 || 14,413 || 51.3 || 4.1 || 0.860 (H) || 81.8 || 6.469 || 7.0 || 3.7 |- | || 43.446 || 4,330 || bgcolor=#ffffcc| 60.1 || 13.6 || 0.723 (M) || 64.7 || 5.492 || 5.9 || 0.8 |- | || bgcolor=#ccffcc| 1,975.904<font color="#009900"> || 10,325 || 57.0 || 9.7 || 0.807 (H) || 82.7 || 6.470 || 5.1 || 1.8 |- | || 246.482 || | 14,510 <font color="#009900"> || 54.9 || 3.7 || bgcolor=#ccffcc| 0.874 (H) || 83.4 || bgcolor=#ccffcc| 6.789 || 3.2 || 3.9 |- | || 402.458 || 8,215 || 58.6 || 7.9 || 0.787 (M) || 88.3 || 6.176 || 2.5 || 1.2 |- | || 48.918 || 10,752 || 49.8 || 4.4 || 0.847 (H) || bgcolor=#ccffcc| 90.5 || 6.624 || 2.9 || 1.5 |- | The IMF does not report statistics for Cuba. Data from the CIA World Factbook is used || || || || 4.7 || 0.855 (H) || 80.7 || || || 2.3 |- | || 76.194 || 8,571 || 51.6 || 10.5 || 0.768 (M) || 83.0 || 5.630 || 4.8 || 2.2 |- | || 104.669 || 7,7685 || 53.6 || 8.7 || 0.807 (H) || 84.4 || 6.272 || 5.3 || 2.2 |- | || 43.885 || 7,551 || 52.4 || 15.1 || 0.747 (M) || 77.2 || 6.164 || 2.5 || 0.9 |- | || 66.839 || 4,898 || 55.1 || 22.5 || 0.696 (M) || 76.7 || 5.321 || 4.0 || 1.0 |- | || bgcolor=#ffffcc| 11.681 || bgcolor=#ffffcc| 1,316 || 59.2 || bgcolor=#ffffcc| 59.2 || bgcolor=#ffffcc| 0.521 (M) || bgcolor=#ffffcc| 60.7 || bgcolor=#ffffcc| 4.090 ||bgcolor=#ffffcc|1.3|| bgcolor=#ccffcc| 0.2 |- | || 32.670 || 4,268 || 53.8 || 16.5 || 0.714 (M) || 75.4 || 5.250 || 4.0 || 1.1 |- | || 1,550.257 ||bgcolor=#ccffcc|14,560 || 46.1 || 6.8 || 0.842 (H) || 79.8 || 6.766 ||bgcolor=#ffffcc|1.3 || 5.2 |- | || 16.751 || 2,688 ||bgcolor=#ccffcc| 43.1 || 17.9 || 0.710 (M) || 73.4 || 5.663 || 3.0 || 0.7 |- | || 38.305 || 11,343 || 56.1 || 8.0 || 0.832 (H) || 83.1 || 6.361 ||9.2|| 1.8 |- | || 29.336 || 4,778 || 58.4 || 8.8 || 0.752 (M) || 77.7 || 5.756 || 5.8 || 0.7 |- | || 244.693 || 8,580 || 52.0 || 11.6 || 0.788 (M) || 78.1 || 6.216 ||bgcolor=#ccffcc|9.8|| 1.1 |- | || 40.663 || 13,294 || 44.9 || bgcolor=#ccffcc| 3.5 || 0.859 (H) || 82.3 || 6.368 || 8.9 || 1.6 |- | || 362.772 || 12,785 || 48.2 || 8.8 || 0.826 (H) || 80.0 || 6.089 || 4.8 || bgcolor=#ffffcc| 6.6 |} Notes: (H) High human development; (M) Medium human development Largest economic cities The following table provides GDP figures for the largest Latin American cities and their surrounding urban areas in 2005. GDP figures are estimated and expressed in USD, using purchasing power parity exchange rates: 150 Richest Cities in the World, 2005 Ten largest Latin American metropolitan areas RankMetropolitan areaCountryGDP (Billions PPP)Population (Millions)GDP Per Capita (Thousands PPP)1Mexico City 315 19.4$16,2372Buenos Aires24512.6$19,4443São Paulo22518.3$12,2954Rio de Janeiro14111.5$12,2605Santiago917.0$13,0006Bogota867.8$11,0257Monterrey783.9 $20,000 8Lima678.5$7,8829Belo Horizonte655.6$11,60710Guadalajara604.1$14,634 Tourism Income from tourism its key to the economy of several Latin American countries. Mexico receives the largest number of international tourists, with 21.4 million visitors in 2007, followed by Brazil, with 5.0 million; Argentina, with 4.6 million; Dominican Republic, with 4.0 million; and Puerto Rico, with 3.7 million. Data corresponds to 2007 Places such as Cancun, Galapagos Islands, Machu Pichu, Chichen Itza, Cartagena de Indias, Cabo San Lucas, Acapulco, Rio de Janeiro, Margarita Island, São Paulo, Salar de Uyuni, Punta del Este, Santo Domingo, Labadee, San Juan, La Habana, Panama City, Iguazu Falls, Puerto Vallarta, Poás Volcano National Park, Punta Cana, Viña del Mar, Mexico City, Quito, Bogota, Buenos Aires, Lima, La Paz and Patagonia are popular among international visitors in the region. Performance indicators for international tourism in Latin America Latin American countries Internl. touristarrivals2007 (x1000) Internl. tourism receipts<small>2007(millionUSD) Receipts per arrival 2007(col 2)/(col 1)(USD) Arrivalspercapitaper 1000 pop.(estimated)2007 Population estimated for 2007 (search values for each country profile) Receipts per capita2005 Data corrresponds to 2005. USD <small>Revenues as % of exportsgoods andservices2003 Tourismrevenues as % GDP 2003 <small>% Direct & indirectemploymentin tourism2005 WorldRankingTourismCompet.TTCI<small>2009 Indexvalue TTCI 2009 4,562 4,313 945 115 57 7.4 1.8 9.1 65 4.08 * 556 205* 475* 58 22 9.4 2.2 7.6 114 3.33 5,026 4,953 985 26 18 3.2 0.5 7.0 45 4,35 2,507 1,419 566 151 73 5.3 1.9 6.8 57 4,18 1,193 1,669 1,399 26 25 6.6 1.4 5.9 72 3.89 1,973 1,974 1,000 442 343 17.5 8.1 13.3 42 4.42 2,119 1,982 935 188 169 n/d n/d n/d n/d n/d 3,980 4,026 1,012 408 353 36.2 18.8 19.8 67 4,03 953 637 668 71 35 6.3 1.5 7.4 96 3.62 1,339 847 633 195 67 12.9 3.4 6.8 94 3.63 1,448 1,199 828 108 66 16.0 2.6 6.0 70 3.90 * n/d n/d 685* n/d 12* 19.4 3.2 4.7 n/d n/d 831 557 670 117 61 13.5 5.0 8.5 83 3.77 21,424 12,901 602 201 103 5.7 1.6 14.2 51 4.29 800 255 319 143 36 15.5 3.7 5.6 103 3.49 1,103 1,185 1,074 330 211 10.6 6.3 12.9 55 4.23 416 102 245 68 11 4.2 1.3 6.4 115 3.24 1,812 1,938 1,070 65 41 9.0 1.6 7.6 74 3.88 1,752 809 462 525 145 14.2 3.6 10.7 63 4.09 771 817 1,060 28 19 1.3 0.4 8.1 104 3.46 Note (1): Countries marked with * do not have all statistical data available for 2006 or 2007. Data shown is for reference purposes only (2003 for Haiti and 2005 for Bolivia. Note (2): Green shadow denotes the country with the best indicator. Yellow shadow denotes the country with the lowest performance for that indicator. Culture Latin American culture is a mixture of many cultural expressions worldwide. It is the product of many diverse influences: Indian and native cultures of the people who inhabited the continent prior to the arrival of the Europeans. Ancient and very advanced civilizations developed their own politic, social and religious systems. Civilizations as the Maya, the Aztecs and the Incas are examples of these. The Western civilization and European culture, brought mainly by the Spanish, the Portuguese and the French between the 16th and 19th centuries. Most recently, cultural influence from the American in northern Latin America, and from the Italian and the German in South America can also be found. This can be seen in any expression of the region's artistic traditions, including painting, literature and music, and in the realms of science and politics. The most enduring European colonial influence is language and Christianity. African cultures, whose presence derives from a long history of New World slavery. Peoples of African descent have influenced the ethno-scapes of Latin America and the Caribbean. This is manifest for instance in dance and religion, especially in countries such as Belize, Brazil, Honduras, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Haiti, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, and Cuba. Literature Colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez signing a copy of One Hundred Years of Solitude in Havana, Cuba. Pre-Columbian cultures were primarily oral, though the Aztecs and Mayans, for instance, produced elaborate codices. Oral accounts of mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers, as was the case with the Popol Vuh. Moreover, a tradition of oral narrative survives to this day, for instance among the Quechua-speaking population of Peru and the Quiché of Guatemala. From the very moment of Europe's "discovery" of the continent, early explorers and conquistadores produced written accounts and crónicas of their experience--such as Columbus's letters or Bernal Díaz del Castillo's description of the conquest of Mexico. During the colonial period, written culture was often in the hands of the church, within which context Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz wrote memorable poetry and philosophical essays. Towards the end of the 18th Century and the beginning of the 19th, a distinctive criollo literary tradition emerged, including the first novels such as Lizardi's El Periquillo Sarniento (1816). Chilean poet Pablo Neruda, interviewed in 1971. The 19th Century was a period of "foundational fictions" (in critic Doris Sommer's words), novels in the Romantic or Naturalist traditions that attempted to establish a sense of national identity, and which often focussed on the indigenous question or the dichotomy of "civilization or barbarism" (for which see, say, Domingo Sarmiento's Facundo (1845), Juan León Mera's Cumandá (1879), or Euclides da Cunha's Os Sertões (1902)). At the turn of the 20th century, modernismo emerged, a poetic movement whose founding text was Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío's Azul (1888). This was the first Latin American literary movement to influence literary culture outside of the region, and was also the first truly Latin American literature, in that national differences were no longer so much at issue. José Martí, for instance, though a Cuban patriot, also lived in Mexico and the U.S. and wrote for journals in Argentina and elsewhere. Mexican writer Carlos Fuentes However, what really put Latin American literature on the global map was no doubt the literary boom of the 1960s and 1970s, distinguished by daring and experimental novels (such as Julio Cortázar's Rayuela (1963)) that were frequently published in Spain and quickly translated into English. The Boom's defining novel was Gabriel García Márquez's Cien años de soledad (1967), which led to the association of Latin American literature with magic realism, though other important writers of the period such as the Peruvian Mario Vargas Llosa and Carlos Fuentes do not fit so easily within this framework. Arguably, the Boom's culmination was Augusto Roa Bastos's monumental Yo, el supremo (1974). In the wake of the Boom, influential precursors such as Juan Rulfo, Alejo Carpentier, and above all Jorge Luis Borges were also rediscovered. Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges. Contemporary literature in the region is vibrant and varied, ranging from the best-selling Paulo Coelho and Isabel Allende to the more avant-garde and critically acclaimed work of writers such as Diamela Eltit, Ricardo Piglia, or Roberto Bolaño. There has also been considerable attention paid to the genre of testimonio, texts produced in collaboration with subaltern subjects such as Rigoberta Menchú. Finally, a new breed of chroniclers is represented by the more journalistic Carlos Monsiváis and Pedro Lemebel. The region boasts five Nobel Prizewinners: in addition to the two Chilean poets Gabriela Mistral (1945) and Pablo Neruda (1971), there is also the Colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez (1982), the Guatemalan novelist Miguel Ángel Asturias (1967), and the Mexican poet and essayist Octavio Paz (1990). Art Palace of Fine Arts, built in the early 20th century in Mexico City. Beyond the rich tradition of indigenous art, the development of Latin American visual art owed much to the influence of Spanish, Portuguese and French Baroque painting, which in turn often followed the trends of the Italian Masters. In general, this artistic Eurocentrism began to fade in the early twentieth century, as Latin-Americans began to acknowledge the uniqueness of their condition and started to follow their own path. From the early twentieth century, the art of Latin America was greatly inspired by the Constructivist Movement. The Constructivist Movement was founded in Russia around 1913 by Vladimir Tatlin. The Movement quickly spread from Russia to Europe and then into Latin America. Joaquin Torres Garcia and Manuel Rendón have been credited with bringing the Constructivist Movement into Latin America from Europe. Presencia de América Latina (Presence of Latin America), by Mexican muralist Jorge González Camarena. Located in the lobby of the Casa del Arte, University of Concepción in Concepción, Chile. An important artistic movement generated in Latin America is Muralismo represented by Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco and Rufino Tamayo in Mexico and Santiago Martinez Delgado and Pedro Nel Gómez in Colombia. Some of the most impressive Muralista works can be found in Mexico, Colombia, New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Philadelphia. Mexican painter Frida Kahlo is one of the most known and famous Latin American artists. She painted about her own life and the Mexican culture in a style combining Realism, Symbolism and Surrealism. Kahlo's work commands the highest selling price of all Latin American paintings. Colombian sculptor and painter Fernando Botero is also widely known by his works which, on first examination, are noted for their exaggerated proportions and the corpulence of the human and animal figures. Music and dance Latin America has produced many successful worldwide artists in terms of recorded global music sales. The most successful have been Roberto Carlos who has sold over 100 million records, Carlos Santana with over 75 million, Luis Miguel, Shakira and Vicente Fernandez with over 50 million records sold worldwide. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_best-selling_music_artists One of the main characteristics of Latin American music is its diversity, from the lively rhythms of Central America and the Caribbean to the more austere sounds of the Andes and the Southern Cone. Another feature of Latin American music is its original blending of the variety of styles that arrived in The Americas and became influential, from the early Spanish and European Baroque to the different beats of the African rhythms. Caribbean Hispanic music, such as merengue, bachata, salsa, and more recently reggaeton, from such countries as the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Panama has been strongly influenced by African rhythms and melodies. Haiti's compas is a genre of music that draws influence and is thus similar to its Caribbean Hispanic counterparts, with an element of jazz and modern sound as well. Another well-known Latin American musical genre includes the Argentine and Uruguayan tango, as well as the distinct nuevo tango, a fusion of tango, acoustic and electronic music popularized by bandoneón virtuoso Ástor Piazzolla. Equally renown, the samba, North American jazz, European classical music and choro combined to form bossa nova in Brazil, popularized by guitarrist João Gilberto and pianist Antonio Carlos Jobim. Other influential Latin American sounds include the Antillean Soca and Calypso, the Central American (Garifuna) Punta, the Colombian cumbia and vallenato, the Chilean Cueca, the Ecuadorian Boleros, and Rockoleras, the Mexican ranchera, the Nicaraguan Palo de Mayo, the Peruvian Marinera and Tondero, the Uruguayan Candombe, the French Antillean Zouk (Derived from Haitian Compas) and the various styles of music from Pre-Columbian traditions that are widespread in the Andean region. A couple dances Argentine Tango. The classical composer Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887-1959) worked on the recording of native musical traditions within his homeland of Brazil. The traditions of his homeland heavily influenced his classical works. Also notable is the recent work of the Cuban Leo Brouwer and guitar work of the Venezuelan Antonio Lauro and the Paraguayan Agustín Barrios. Latin America has also produced world-class classical performers such as the Chilean pianist Claudio Arrau, Brazilian pianist Nelson Freire and the Argentine pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim. Arguably, the main contribution to music entered through folklore, where the true soul of the Latin American and Caribbean countries is expressed. Musicians such as Yma Súmac, Chabuca Granda, Atahualpa Yupanqui, Violeta Parra, Victor Jara, Mercedes Sosa, Jorge Negrete, Luiz Gonzaga, Caetano Veloso, Susana Baca, Chavela Vargas, Simon Diaz, Julio Jaramillo, Toto la Momposina as well as musical ensembles such as Inti Illimani and Los Kjarkas are magnificent examples of the heights that this soul can reach. Latin pop, including many forms of rock, is popular in Latin America today (see Spanish language rock and roll). More recently, Reggaeton, which blends Jamaican reggae and dancehall with Latin America genres such as bomba and plena, as well as that of hip hop, is becoming more popular, in spite of the controversy surrounding its lyrics, dance steps (Perreo) and music videos. It has become very popular among populations with a "migrant culture" influence - both Latino populations in the U.S., such as southern Florida and New York City, and parts of Latin America where migration to the U.S. is common, such as Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, and Mexico. Film Latin American film is both rich and diverse. Historically, the main centers of production have been México, Brazil, Cuba, and Argentina. Latin American cinema flourished after the introduction of sound, which added a linguistic barrier to the export of Hollywood film south of the border. The 1950s and 1960s saw a movement towards Third Cinema, led by the Argentine filmmakers Fernando Solanas and Octavio Getino. More recently, a new style of directing and stories filmed has been tagged as "New Latin American Cinema." Argentine cinema has been prominenent since the first half of the 20th century and today averages over 60 full-length titles yearly. The industry suffered during the 1976-1983 military dictatorship; but re-emerged to produce the Academy Award winner The Official Story in 1985. A wave of imported U.S. films again damaged the industry in the early 1990s, though it soon recovered, thriving even during the Argentine economic crisis around 2001. Many Argentine movies produced during recent years have been internationally acclaimed, including Nueve reinas (2000), El abrazo partido (2004) and El otro (2007). In Brazil, the Cinema Novo movement created a particular way of making movies with critical and intellectual screenplays, a clearer photography related to the light of the outdoors in a tropical landscape, and a political message. The modern Brazilian film industry has become more profitable inside the country, and some of its productions have received prizes and recognition in Europe and the United States, with movies such as Central do Brasil (1999), Cidade de Deus (2003) and Tropa de Elite (2007). Cuban cinema has enjoyed much official support since the Cuban revolution and important film-makers include Tomás Gutiérrez Alea. Mexican cinema in the Golden Era of the 1940s boasted a huge industry comparable to Hollywood at the time. Stars included María Félix, Dolores del Rio and Pedro Infante. In the 1970s Mexico was the location for many cult horror and action movies. More recently, films such as Amores Perros (2000) and Y tu mamá también (2001) enjoyed box office and critical acclaim and propelled Alfonso Cuarón and Alejandro González Iñarritu to the front rank of Hollywood directors. Alejandro González Iñárritu directed in (2006) Babel and Alfonso Cuarón directed (Children of Men in (2006), and Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban in (2004)). Guillermo del Toro close friend and also a front rank Hollywood director in Hollywood and Spain, directed Pan's Labyrinth (2006) and produce El Orfanato (2007). Carlos Carrera (The Crime of Father Amaro), and screenwriter Guillermo Arriaga are also some of the most known present-day Mexican film makers. Rudo y Cursi released in December (2008) in Mexico directed by Carlos Cuarón. It is also worth noting that many Latin Americans have achieved significant success within Hollywood, for instance Carmen Miranda and Salma Hayek, while Mexican Americans such as Robert Rodriguez have also made their mark. See also Anglo-America Crime and Violence in Latin America Southern Cone Hispanic America Ibero-America United States-Latin American relations Americas (terminology) Use of the word American America (disambiguation) Free Trade Area of the Americas Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas Caribbean Association of Caribbean States Caribbean Community Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States Central America Central American Common Market North America North American Free Trade Agreement South America Andean Community Mercosur Union of South American Nations Latin Union, Latin Europe, Romance-speaking African countries Latino, Latin American Canadian, Afro-Latin American, Asian Latin American, White Latin American, Latin American British List of Latin Americans List of Latin American artists List of Latin American writers List of Latin American subnational entities by Human Development Index Latin American culture Latin American studies Agroecology in Latin America Notes and references Julio Miranda Vidal: (2007) Ciencia y tecnología en América Latina Edición electrónica gratuita. Texto completo en http://www.eumed.net/libros/2007a/237/ External links Latin Intelligence Service Latin American Network Information Center Washington Office on Latin America Council on Hemispheric Affairs Infolatam. 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2,922 | Oliver_North | Oliver Laurence North (born October 7, 1943) is an American best known for his role in the Iran-Contra scandal. Currently, he is a political commentator, host of "War Stories with Oliver North" on Fox News Channel, and a New York Times best-selling author. His latest book, American Heroes, offers a first-hand account of his extensive coverage of U.S. military units engaged in Afghanistan, Iraq, and the Philippines. He is a 1968 graduate of the United States Naval Academy and was a career officer in the Marine Corps, retiring at the rank of Lieutenant Colonel after twenty years of service. North was at the center of national attention during the Iran-Contra affair, a political scandal of the late 1980s. North was a National Security Council member involved in the clandestine sale of weapons to Iran, which served to encourage the release of U.S. hostages from Lebanon. North formulated the second part of the plan: diverting proceeds from the arms sales to support the Contra rebel group in Nicaragua. North was charged with several felonies, but the charges were later dismissed in 1991. North is married to Betsy North (née Stuart), whom he met while attending the United States Naval Academy. They married on November 13, 1968 (after North was commissioned and finished the Basic School at Quantico, Virginia) and have four children. Early life and career North was born in San Antonio, Texas, Official biography on OliverNorth.com and grew up in Philmont, New York, and graduated from Ockawamick High School in 1961. He attended State University of New York at Brockport in Brockport, New York, for two years. While there, he spent a summer at the United States Marine Corps Platoon Leaders Class and Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia, and gained an appointment to the United States Naval Academy in 1963. He received his commission as Second Lieutenant in 1968 (he missed a year due to injuries from an auto accident). One of North's classmates at the Academy was former Secretary of the Navy and current U.S. Senator Jim Webb. North beat Webb in a championship boxing match at Annapolis. North served as a platoon leader in Vietnam where, during combat service, he was awarded the Silver Star, Bronze Star and two Purple Heart medals. NY Times: Washington Talk, July 7, 1987 North then became an instructor at The Basic School in Quantico. In 1970, North returned to Vietnam to testify at the trial of Corporal Randy Herrod, a former Marine under his command who had been charged with a mass killing of Vietnamese civilians. North was promoted to Captain in 1971 and served as commanding officer of the Marine Corps Northern Training Area in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan. After Okinawa, North was assigned to Marine Headquarters in Arlington, Virginia, for four years, was promoted to Major, and then served two years as operations officer of 3rd Battalion, 8th Marine Regiment, commanded by then LtCol John Southy Grinalds, 2nd Marine Division in Camp Lejeune in Jacksonville, North Carolina. It was through LtCol Grinalds that North developed a deep personal commitment to the Christian faith. He next attended the Command and Staff Course at the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island, and graduated in 1981. After Newport, North began his now-famous assignment to the National Security Council (NSC) in Washington, D.C., where he served as the deputy director for political-military affairs Time Magazine: Washington's Cowboys from 1981 until his reassignment in 1986. In 1983, North received his promotion to Lieutenant Colonel, which would be his last. During his tenure at the NSC, North managed a number of highly sensitive missions. This included leading the hunt for those responsible for the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing that killed 241 U.S. Marines, an effort that included North arranging a midair interception of an EgyptAir jet carrying those responsible for the Achille Lauro hijacking. Also while at the NSC, he helped plan the U.S. invasion of Grenada and the 1986 Bombing of Libya. During his trial, Oliver North spent his last two years in the Corps reassigned to Headquarters Marine Corps in Arlington, Virginia. Iran-Contra affair North's mugshot, after his arrest North came into the public spotlight as a result of his participation in the Iran-Contra affair, a political scandal of the late 1980s, in which he claimed partial responsibility for the sale of weapons via intermediaries to Iran, with the profits being channeled to the Contras in Nicaragua. He was reportedly responsible for the establishment of a covert network used for the purposes of aiding the Contras. U.S. funding of the Contras by appropriated funds spent by intelligence agencies had been prohibited by the Boland Amendment. Funding was facilitated through Palmer National Bank of Washington, D.C. It was founded in 1983 by Harvey McLean, Jr., a businessman from Shreveport, Louisiana. It was initially funded with $2.8 million dollars to McLean from Herman K. Beebe. Oliver North supposedly used this bank during the Iran-Contra scandal by funneling money from his shell organization, the "National Endowment for the Preservation of Liberty", through Palmer National Bank to the Contras. According to the National Security Archive, in an August 23, 1986 e-mail to John Poindexter, Oliver North described a meeting with a representative of Panamanian President Manuel Noriega: "You will recall that over the years Manuel Noriega in Panama and I have developed a fairly good relationship", North writes before explaining Noriega's proposal. If U.S. officials can "help clean up his image" and lift the ban on arms sales to the Panamanian Defense Force, Noriega will "'take care of' the Sandinista leadership for us." North tells Poindexter that Noriega can assist with sabotage against the Sandinistas, and supposedly suggests paying Noriega a million dollars cash; from "Project Democracy" funds raised from the sale of U.S. arms to Iran – for the Panamanian leader's help in destroying Nicaraguan economic installations. The Oliver North File In November 1986 as the sale of weapons was made public, North was fired by President Ronald Reagan, and in July 1987 he was summoned to testify before televised hearings of a joint Congressional committee formed to investigate Iran-Contra. The image of North taking the oath became iconic, and similar photographs made the cover of Time and Newsweek, and helped define him in the eyes of the public. During the hearings, North admitted that he had lied to Congress, for which he was later charged among other things. He defended his actions by stating that he believed in the goal of aiding the Contras, whom he saw as freedom fighters, and said that he viewed the Iran-Contra scheme as a "neat idea." A Perfect Candidate (1996) North was tried in 1988 in relation to his activities while at the National Security Council. He was indicted on sixteen felony counts and on May 4, 1989, he was initially convicted of three: accepting an illegal gratuity, aiding and abetting in the obstruction of a congressional inquiry, and destruction of documents (by his secretary, Fawn Hall, on his instructions). He was sentenced by U.S. District Judge Gerhard A. Gesell on July 5, 1989, to a three-year suspended prison term, two years probation, $150,000 in fines, and 1,200 hours community service. However, on July 20, 1990, with the help of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), New York Times North's convictions were vacated, after the appeals court found that witnesses in his trial might have been impermissibly affected by his immunized congressional testimony. Walsh Iran / Contra Report - Chapter 2 United States v. Oliver L. North Because North had been granted limited immunity for his Congressional testimony, the law prohibited the independent counsel (or any prosecutor) from using that testimony as part of a criminal case against him. To prepare for the expected defense challenge that North's testimony had been used, the prosecution team had - before North's congressional testimony had been given - listed and isolated all its evidence; further, the individual members of the prosecution team had isolated themselves from news reports and discussion of North's testimony. While the defense could show no specific instance where any part of North's congressional testimony was used in his trial, the Court of Appeals ruled that the trial judge had made an insufficient examination of the issue, and ordered North's convictions reversed. The Supreme Court declined to review the case. After further hearings on the immunity issue, Judge Gesell dismissed all charges against North on September 16, 1991, on the motion of the independent counsel. Allegations of involvement with drug trafficking During the early and mid 1980s, Lt. Colonel North was alleged to participate in organizing the transportation of cocaine and marijuana from the various sites in Central and South America into the United States as a means of funding the Contra rebels. Congressional records show North was tasked with finding funding “outside the CIA” after the Boland Amendment cut off funding for the Contras in October, 1984. FBI 302 report by agents Bruce A. Burroughs and Don A. Allen, May 5, 1992, file 245B-SF-96287. On February 10, 1986, Robert Owen, North’s liaison with the Contras, wrote North regarding a plane being used to carry "humanitarian aid" to the Contras that was previously used to transport drugs. The plane belonged to the Miami-based company Vortex, which is run by Michael Palmer, one of the largest marijuana traffickers in the United States. Despite Palmer's long history of drug smuggling, Palmer receives over $300,000 from the Nicaraguan Humanitarian Aid Office (NHAO) -- an office overseen by Oliver North, Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs Elliott Abrams, and CIA officer Alan Fiers -- to ferry supplies to the Contras. Deposits arranged by… Oliver North: Kerry Report, 47-48. During Manuel Noriega’s trial in 1991, pilot Floyd Carlton testified that his smuggling operation was flying weapons to the Contras at the same time he was flying dope to the United States. When Carlton’s lawyer asked about Oliver North’s knowledge of these flights, federal prosecutors vehemently objected, and U.S. judge William Hoeveler became angry. “Just stay away from it,” the judge snapped, refusing to allow any more questions on the topic. DEA records concerning DIACSA are reprinted in the Kerry Report, 342-61 Investigations into Lt. Col North’s involvement have not been limited to the United States. One notable example is the second report of the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly’s Commission on Narcotics Trafficking, which examined the explosion of cocaine trafficking in that country during the 1980’s. After studying the involvement of Contras and U.S. officials with illegal arms running and drug trafficking, the commission recommended that former ambassador Lewis Tambs, CIA station chief Joseph F. Fernandez, and Lt. Col. Oliver North be forever denied entry in Costa Rica, a recommendation adopted by Costa Rican President Oscar Arias. CR Assy 2-Segundo Informe de la Comision sobre el Narcotrafico Asamblea Legislative, August 1989. North has consistently denied any involvement with drug trafficking, stating on Fox’s Hannity and Colmes, “…nobody in the U.S. government, going all the way back to the earliest days of this under Jimmy Carter, ever had anything to do with running drugs.”. Despite North's claims Senator John Kerry's 1988 Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations found numerous references to drug trafficking within Mr. North's own notebooks (that North and the White House had substantially edited and censored). The Subcommittee reviewed 2,848 pages of spiral-bound notes taken by Mr. North between September, 1984 through November 1986 and concluded: "In reviewing these note-books, the Committee staff found a number of references to narcotics, terrorism and related matters which appeared relevant and material to the Subcommittee's inquiry.... the Notebooks do contain numerous reference to drugs, terrorism, and to the attempts of the Committee itself to investigate what North was doing in connection with his secret support of the Contras." Pages 145-147 of the Subcommittee's report directly quote 15 North notebook entries related to drug trafficking. An entry from July 12, 1985 states "$14 million to finance came from drugs". Drugs, Law Enforcement And Foreign Policy: Report By The Committee On Foreign Relations, U.s. Senate, DIANE Publishing Company, (2004) ISBN 0788129848 Shredding government documents North admitted shredding government documents related to his Contra and Iranian activities - at William Casey's suggestion - when the Iran Contra scandal became public. He testified that Robert McFarlane had asked him to alter official records to delete references to direct assistance to the contras and that he'd helped. Hostile Witnesses (Page Three)- The Washington Post Later life and career Oliver North signing one of his books Politics In 1994, North unsuccessfully ran for the Senate as the Republican candidate in Virginia. Republican Senator John Warner of Virginia endorsed Marshall Coleman, a Republican who ran as an independent, instead of North. On the eve of the election, former first lady Nancy Reagan told a reporter that North had lied to her husband when discussing Iran-Contra with the former president. North lost by a 46% to 43% margin to incumbent Democrat Charles Robb Statistics Of The Congressional Election Of November 8, 1994 , a son-in-law of Lyndon B. Johnson. Coleman received 11%. North's candidacy was documented in the 1996 film A Perfect Candidate. International Movie Database: A Perfect candidate Oliver North pictured with Clinton Township, Franklin County, Ohio Assistant Fire Chief John Harris and Lieutenant Douglas Brown at a public speaking event.In his failed bid to unseat Robb, North raised $20.3 million in a single year through nationwide direct mail solicitations, telemarketing, fundraising events, and contributions from major donors. About $16 million of that amount was from direct mail alone. This was the biggest accumulation of direct mail funds for a statewide campaign to that date, and it made North the top direct mail political fundraiser in the country in 1994. Books and media North has written several best-selling books including Under Fire, One More Mission, War Stories — Operation Iraqi Freedom, Mission Compromised, The Jericho Sanction, and The Assassins. His latest book, American Heroes, was released nationally in the U.S. on May 6, 2008. In this book, North addresses issues of defense against global terrorism, Jihad, and radical Islam from his perspective as a military officer and national security advisor and current Middle East war correspondent. author Oliver North & editor Chuck Holton's American Heroes Book blog North is also a syndicated columnist. Oliver North's TownHall.com column From 1995 to 2003, North was host of his own nationally-syndicated radio program known as the Oliver North Radio Show or Common Sense Radio. He also served as co-host of Equal Time on MSNBC for a couple of years starting in 1999. North is currently the host of the television show War Stories with Oliver North, and a regular commentator on Hannity, both on the Fox News Channel. North appeared as himself on many television shows including the sitcom Wings and three episodes of the TV military drama JAG in 1995, 1996 and 2002. Internet Movie Database: Oliver north In addition, he regularly speaks at both public and private events. Other In 1990 North founded the Freedom Alliance, a 501(c)(3) foundation "...to advance the American heritage of freedom by honoring and encouraging military service, defending the sovereignty of the United States and promoting a strong national defense." The foundation's primary activities include providing support for wounded combat soldiers, and scholarships for the sons and daughters of service members killed in action. the Freedom Alliance Website Pictures of North in the NSA buildings with former British Intelligence Officer John P. Lawrence were flashed around the world, when the two former colleagues were asked to help the Senate Intelligence Committee. Although raised a Roman Catholic, he has long attended Protestant evangelical services with his family. North is a board member in the National Rifle Association, and appeared at their national conventions in 2007 Bolton, Oliver North among speakers at NRA conference and 2008. NRA’S ANNUAL MEETINGS & EXHIBITS 2008 In 1995, Sliders, a Sci-fi channel produced television show, aired an episode that depicted a parallel universe in which Oliver North was elected President of the United States. North's role in the Contra scandal was echoed in the story of "Colonel Oliver Southern," in the 2005 film about Soviet arms dealer Yuri Orlov entitled Lord of War. In 2008, American Dad!, an animated TV show produced by Seth McFarlane, aired an episode that had the Iran-Contra affair as the main storyline called "Stanny Slickers II: The Legend of Ollie's Gold" in which the main character, Stan Smith, looks for a crate full of gold that Ollie North had to hide before the Iran-Contra affair blew up. Political and historical legacy North is considered a figure of great controversy. North remains a largely popular figure among conservatives. Many conservatives sympathize with the basis of North's activities within the Reagan administration, due to the fact they believe the "Boland Amendment" — a Congressional act specifically barring the U.S. government from providing material support to the Contras in Nicaragua — infringed on the constitutional power of the executive branch to conduct foreign policy. Some believe that North was used as a scapegoat for the Iran-Contra affair, and that other top government officials in the Reagan administration disproportionately laid the blame on him. North's critics argue that in a democracy and a nation of laws, one cannot act above the law. Some point out that his activities substantially contributed to an attempted overthrow of a sovereign, democratically elected government and to terrorism in Nicaragua, and that they aided Iran, a nation that has been militarily hostile to the United States since 1979. They mention that along with other Reagan administration players, North has been banned from Central America's leading democracy, Costa Rica, for drug running. Censored News: Oliver North & Co. Banned from Costa Rica North's supporters argue that Nicaragua was anything but sovereign at the time, being supported by thousands of Cuban and East Bloc military advisers, and importing hundreds of millions of dollars a year in Soviet armament including Mil Mi-24 Hind D "Flying Tank" helicopters to support the Ortega government. The Contras waged a highly successful military campaign Brown, Timothy C. The Real Contra War, Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua. University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. Meara, William R. Contra Cross: Insurgency And Tyranny in Central America, 1979-1989. US Naval Institute Press, 2006. which peaked in late 1987. After a cutoff in US military support and with both sides facing international pressure to bring an end to the conflict the Contras agreed to negotiations with the FSLN. This had the short term effect of allowing opposition candidate Violeta Chamorro to win a landslide victory over Daniel Ortega. The long term effect was to allow the FSLN to survive and regroup, eventually establishing complete dominance over the legislative, judicial and executive branches of government following the 2006 election of Ortega. In October 2006, North revisited Nicaragua in the run-up to the nation's presidential elections. Claiming he was invited in a private capacity to Nicaragua by friends, he warned against his old foe, Sandinista leader, Daniel Ortega's possible return to power. During his visit, he expressed support for the PLC candidate, Jose Rizo, rather than the United States government's preferred candidate, Eduardo Montealegre, a dissident PLC candidate. Despite this, Ortega did win Nicaragua's presidency without the need of a runoff with 38% of the vote. This percentage was enough to win the presidency outright, due to a change in electoral law which lowered the percentage required to avoid a runoff election from 45% to 35% (with a 5% margin of victory). Group: Sandinista Leader Ortega Wins Nicaragua Presidency References External links Podcasts of North's recent articles Freedom Alliance Oliver North's political donations Oliver North's Website Publisher's website featuring Oliver North's latest book American Heroes | Oliver_North |@lemmatized oliver:25 laurence:1 north:101 born:1 october:3 american:9 best:3 know:2 role:2 iran:17 contra:35 scandal:6 currently:2 political:7 commentator:2 host:4 war:7 story:4 fox:3 news:4 channel:4 new:5 york:5 time:8 selling:2 author:2 late:6 book:9 hero:4 offer:1 first:2 hand:1 account:1 extensive:1 coverage:1 u:18 military:8 unit:1 engage:1 afghanistan:1 iraq:1 philippine:1 graduate:3 united:13 state:17 naval:5 academy:4 career:3 officer:6 marine:10 corp:5 retire:1 rank:1 lieutenant:4 colonel:4 twenty:1 year:12 service:6 center:1 national:12 attention:1 affair:8 security:5 council:3 member:4 involve:1 clandestine:1 sale:6 weapon:4 serve:6 encourage:2 release:2 hostage:1 lebanon:1 formulate:1 second:3 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2,923 | Horn_(instrument) | The horn is a brass instrument consisting of about of tubing wrapped into a coil with a flared bell. It is descended from the natural horn and is informally known as the French horn. Horns have valves, operated with the left hand, to route the air into extra tubing to change the pitch. Most horns have lever-operated rotary valves, but some horns like the Vienna horn use piston valves (similar to trumpet valves). A horn without valves is known as a natural horn, changing pitch along the natural harmonics of the instrument (similar to a bugle), but with a wide range of notes due to the long tubing. Three valves control the flow of air in the single horn, which is tuned to F or less commonly, B-flat. The more common double horn has a fourth valve, usually operated by the thumb, which routes the air to one set of tubing tuned to F or the second set of tubing tuned to B-flat. Triple horns with five valves are also made, tuned in F, B-flat, and a descant E-flat or F. A musician who plays the horn is called a horn player (or less frequently, a hornist). The International Horn Society has recommended since 1971 that the instrument itself be properly referred to solely as the horn. General characteristics The horn is the second highest sounding instrument group in the brass family. Horns are mostly tuned in B-flat or F, or a combination of those. In some traditions, novice players use a single horn in F, while others prefer the B-flat horn. Compared to the other brass instruments in the orchestra, it has a very different mouthpiece, but has the widest usable range - approximately four octaves, depending on the ability of the player. To produce different notes on the horn, one must do many things - the four most important are pressing the valves, holding the appropriate amount of lip tension, blowing air into the instrument, and placing the hand in the bell. More lip tension and faster air produces higher notes. Less lip tension and slower air produces lower notes. The right hand, usually cupped at a "three o-clock" position in the bell, can lower the pitch, depending on how far into the bell the player puts it, by as much as a semitone in the instrument's midrange. The horn plays in a higher portion of its overtone series compared to most brass instruments. Its conical bore (as opposed to the cylindrical bore of the trumpet or trombone) is largely responsible for its characteristic tone, often described as "mellow". Today, music for the horn is typically written in F (or sometimes, notably in British bands, in E-flat), and sounds a perfect fifth lower than written (or a major sixth lower for the E-flat horn). The limitations on the range of the instrument are primarily governed by the available valve combinations for the first four octaves of the overtone series and after that by the ability of the player to control the pitch through their air supply and embouchure. The typical written ranges for the horn start at either the F-sharp immediately below the bass clef or the C an octave below middle C. The standard range starting from a low F-sharp is based on the characteristics of the single horn in F. However, there is a great deal of music written beyond this range on the assumption that players are using a double horn in F/B-flat. This is the standard orchestral instrument and its valve combinations allow for the production of every chromatic tone from two octaves on either side of the horn's written middle-C (sounding F two octaves below the bass clef to F at the top of the treble clef). Although the upper range of the horn repertoire rarely exceeds high C (two octaves above the horn's middle C, sounding F at the top of the treble clef), skilled players can achieve yet higher pitches. Also important to note is that many pieces from the Baroque to Romantic periods are written in keys other than F. This practice began in the early days of the horn before valves, when the composer would indicate the key the horn should be in (horn in D, horn in C, etc.) and the part would be notated as if it were in C. For a player with a valveless horn that is a help, showing where in the harmonic series a particular note is. A player with a modern instrument must provide the final transposition to the correct pitch. For example, a written C for horn in D must be transposed down a minor third and played as an A on F horn. History Horn with three Perinet valves "How to shout and blow Horns."—Facsimile of a miniature in a manuscript of the hunting manual of Gaston Phoebus (15th century) Early horns were much simpler than modern horns. These early horns were brass tubes with a slightly flared opening (the bell) wound around a few times. These early "hunting" horns were originally played on a hunt, often while mounted, and the sound they produced was called a recheat. Change of pitch was effected entirely by the lips (the horn not being equipped with valves until the 19th century). Without valves, only the notes within the harmonic series are available. The horn was used, among other reasons, to call hounds on a hunt and created a sound most like a human voice, but carried much farther. In orchestral settings, the horn (or, more often, pairs of horns) often invoked the idea of the hunt, or, beginning in the later baroque, determined the character of the key being played or represented nobility, royalty, or divinity. Early horns were commonly pitched in B-flat alto, A, A-flat, G, F, E, E-flat, D, C, and B-flat basso. Since the only notes available were those on the harmonic series of one of those pitches, they had no ability to play in different keys. The remedy for this limitation was the use of crooks, i.e. sections of tubing of differing length that, when inserted, altered the length of the instrument, and thus its pitch. Orchestral horns are traditionally grouped into "high" horn and "low" horn pairs. Players specialize to negotiate the unusually wide range required of the instrument. Formerly, in certain situations, composers would call for two pairs of horns in two different keys; for example, a composer might call for two horns in C and two in E-flat for a piece in c minor, in order to gain harmonics of the relative major unavailable on the C horns. Eventually, two pairs of horns became the standard, and from this tradition of two independent pairs, each with its own "high" and "low" horn, came the modern convention of writing the 1st and 3rd parts above 2nd and 4th. In the mid-18th century, horn players began to insert the right hand into the bell to change the length of the instrument, adjusting the tuning up to the distance between two adjacent harmonics depending on how much of the opening was covered. This technique, known as hand-stopping, is generally credited to Anton Joseph Hampel around 1750, and was refined and carried to much of Europe by the influential Giovanni Punto. This offered more possibilities for playing notes not on the harmonic series. By the early classical period, the horn had become an instrument capable of much melodic playing. A notable example of this are the four Mozart Horn Concerti and Concert Rondo (K. 412, 417, 477, 495, 371), wherein melodic chromatic tones are used, owing to the growing prevalence of hand-stopping and other newly-emerging techniques. Around 1815 the use of pistons (later rotary valves) was introduced, initially to overcome problems associated with changing crooks during a performance. At first, however, valves were slowly adopted in the mainstream because of unreliability, musical taste, and players' distrust, among other reasons. Many traditional conservatories and players refused to transition at first, claiming that the valveless horn, or "natural horn", was a better instrument. Some musicians, specializing in period instruments, still use a natural horn when playing in original performance styles, seeking to recapture the sound and tenor in which an older piece was written. However, the use of valves opened up a great deal more flexibility in playing in different keys; in effect, the horn became an entirely different instrument, fully chromatic for the first time. Although, valves were originally used primarily as a means to play in different keys without crooks, not for harmonic playing. That is reflected in compositions for horns, which only began to include chromatic passages in the late 19th century. When valves were invented, generally, the French made smaller horns with piston valves and the Germans made larger horns with rotary valves. It is the German horn that is erroneously referred to in the English language (and more commonly in the United States and Canada) as the French horn. There is not a clear consensus on the reason or reasons for this nomenclature, and, as there are conflicting proposals, more research is necessary. Types of horns A naturnal horn has no valves, but can be tuned to a different key by inserting different tubing, as during a rest period. Natural horn The natural horn is the ancestor of the modern horn. It is essentially descended from hunting horns, with its pitch controlled by air speed, aperture (opening of the lips through which the air passes) and the use of the right hand moving in and out of the bell. Today it is played as a period instrument. The natural horn can only play from a single harmonic series at a time because there is only one length of tubing available to the horn player. The player has a choice of key through changing the length of tubing with crooks. Single horn Single horns use a single set of tubes connected to the valves. This allows for simplicity of use and a much lighter weight. They are usually in the keys of F or B-flat, although many F horns have longer slides to tune them to E-flat, and almost all B-flat horns have a valve to put them in the key of A. The problem with single horns is the inevitable choice between accuracy or tone - while the F horn has the "typical" horn sound, above third-space C accuracy is concern for the majority of players because, by its nature, one plays high in the horn's harmonic series where the overtones are closer together. This led to the development of the B-flat horn, which, although easier to play accurately, has a less desirable sound in the mid and especially the low register where it is not able to play all of the notes. The solution has been the development of the double horn which combines the two into one horn with a single lead pipe and bell. Both main types of single horns are still used today as student models because they are cheaper and lighter than double horns. In addition, the single B-flat horns are sometimes used in solo and chamber performances and the single F survives orchestrally as the Vienna horn. Additionally, single F alto and B-flat alto descants are used in the performance of some baroque horn concertos and F, B-flat and F alto singles are occasionally used by jazz performers. Dennis Brain's benchmark recordings of the Mozart Horn Concerti were made on a single B-flat instrument by Gebr. Alexander, now on display at the Royal Academy of Music in London. Double horn The valves of a Conn 6D double horn. The 3 lever keys (above the large valves) can be depressed to the large outer tube. The thumb key (near the left valve) moves inward toward the 3 finger keys. Scheme of a double horn (view from underneath) Despite the introduction of valves, the single F horn proved difficult for use in the highest range, where the partials grew closer and closer, making accuracy a great challenge. An early solution was simply to use a horn of higher pitch—usually B-flat. The use of the F versus the B-flat horn was a hotbed of debate between horn players of the late nineteenth century, until the German horn maker Ed. Kruspe produced a prototype of the "double horn" in 1897. The double horn also combines two instruments into a single frame: the original horn in F, and a second, higher horn keyed in B-flat. By using a fourth valve (usually operated by the thumb), the horn player can quickly switch from the deep, warm tones of the F horn to the higher, brighter tones of the B-flat horn. The two sets of tones are commonly called "sides" of the horn. Using the fourth valve not only changes the basic length (and thus the harmonic series and pitch) of the instrument, it also causes the three main valves to use proportionate slide lengths. Backus, John, The Acoustical Foundations of Music, 2nd ed., 1977, ISBN 0-393-09096-5 In the USA, the two most common styles ("wraps") of double horns are named Kruspe and Knopf, after the first instrument makers who developed and standardized them. The Kruspe wrap locates the B-flat change valve above the first valve, near the thumb. The Knopf wrap has the change valve behind the third valve, near the pinky finger (although the valve's trigger is still played with the thumb). In effect, the air flows in a completely different direction on the other model. Kruspe wrap horns tend to be larger in the bell throat than the Knopf type. Typically, Kruspe models are constructed from nickel silver or German Silver, while Knopf type horns tend to be of yellow brass. Both models have their own strengths and weaknesses, and while the choice of instrument is very personal, an orchestral horn section is usually found to have either one or the other, owing to the differences in tone color, response, and projection of the two different styles. In the UK and Europe the most popular horns are arguably those made by Gebr. Alexander, of Mainz (particularly the Alexander 103), and those made by Paxman in London. In Germany and the Benelux countries, the Alex. 103 is extremely popular. These horns do not fit strictly into the Kruspe or Knopf camps, but have features of both. Alexander prefers the traditional medium bell size, which they have produced for many years, whereas Paxman do offer their models in a range of bell throat sizes. In the United States, the Conn 8D, a mass produced instrument based on the Kruspe design, has been extremely popular in many areas (New York, Los Angeles, Cleveland, Philadelphia). Since roughly the early 1990s, however, for reasons ranging from changing tastes to a general dislike of Conn's newer 8Ds, orchestras have been moving away from the popular Conn 8D. Knopf model horns (by Geyer, Karl Hill, Keith Berg, Steve Lewis, Dan Rauch, and Ricco-Kuhn) are used in other areas (San Francisco, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Boston, Houston). Compensating double horn The first design of double horn did not have a separate set of slides pitched in F. Rather, the main key of the horn was B-flat (the preference of German horn players) and it could be played in F by directing air through the B flat slides, an F extension, and another set of tiny slides. This "compensated" for the longer length of the F slides, producing a horn now called the "compensating double". It was, and still is, widely used by European horn players because of its light weight and ease of playing, especially in the high register. Triple horn This relatively new design was created to afford the player even more security in the high register. It employs not only the F and B-flat horns, but also a third, descant horn. This descant horn is usually pitched an octave above the F horn, though it can be alternatively pitched in E-flat. It is activated through the use of a second thumb valve. The triple horn was met with considerable resistance when it first appeared. Horn players were reluctant to spend far more money for a triple horn than they would for a double horn, and a feeling that using a triple horn to help with the high register was "cheating" was rampant amongst prominent horn players. Also, the horns were much heavier than the average double horn. Players noted that their arms became fatigued much faster. Moreover, the combination of three different horns creates issues with sonority because the piping which is shared between all three sides (that is, the lead pipe and bell) are mathematically disproportional to two or all three horn lengths. Horn makers have had to make concessions to "even out" the sound between all three, often to the loss of sound quality of each side or entire ranges of the instrument. However, advances in horn production are gradually eliminating these drawbacks, and the triple horn is gaining in popularity. They are rarely available in anything lower than professional quality. Like double horns, triple horns can come in both full and compensating wraps. Today, they are found being played in many professional orchestras. Europe seems to have more openly accepted the triple horn than the United States. Their popularity continues to grow, and their impact on the modern horn scene still remains to be realized. Vienna horn Vienna horn The Vienna horn is a special horn used primarily in Vienna, Austria. Instead of using rotary valves or piston valves, it uses the Pumpenvalve (or Vienna Valve), which is a double-piston operating inside of the valve slides, and usually situated on the opposite side of the corpus from the player's left hand, and operated by a long pushrod. Unlike the modern horn, which has grown considerably larger internally (for a bigger, broader, and louder tone), and considerably heavier (with the addition of valves and tubing in the case of the double horn) the Vienna horn very closely mimics the size and weight of the natural horn, (although the valves do add some weight, they are lighter than rotary valves) even using crooks in the front of the horn, between the mouthpiece and the instrument. Although instead of the full range of keys, Vienna horn players usually use an F crook for most music, switching to an A or B-flat crook for higher pitched music (Beethoven 7th symphony, Bach, various Mozart and Haydn, etc). Vienna horns are often used with funnel shaped mouthpieces similar to those used on the natural horn, with very little (if any) backbore and a very thin rim. The Viennese horn requires very specialized technique and can be quite challenging to play, even for accomplished players of modern horns. Marching horn The marching horn is quite similar to the mellophone in shape and appearance, but is pitched in the key of B-flat (the same as the B-flat side of a regular double horn). It is also available in F alto (one octave above the F side of a regular double horn). The marching horn is also normally played with a horn mouthpiece (unlike the mellophone, which needs an adapter to fit the horn mouthpiece). These instruments are primarily used in marching bands, but in many colleges and drum corps they are being replaced with mellophones, which can better balance the tone of the trumpets and trombones. Mellophone Sometimes, a derivative of the F alto horn, commonly used in brass bands and marching bands, called a mellophone is used. It is shaped like a cornet, with piston valves played with the right hand and a forward-pointing bell. These horns are generally considered better marching instruments than regular horns because their position is more stable on the mouth, they project better, and they weigh less. Though they are usually played with a trumpet like mouthpiece, their range overlaps the common playing range of the horn. This mouthpiece switch makes the mellophone louder, less mellow, and more brassy and brilliant, making it more appropriate for marching bands. It is a sound similar to that of the bass trumpet. As they are pitched in F and their range overlaps that of the horn, mellophones can be used in place of the horn in brass and marching band settings. Sometimes, however, mellophones are unpopular with horn players because the mouthpiece change can be difficult and requires a different embouchure. Mouthpiece adapters are available so that a horn mouthpiece can fit into the mellophone lead pipe, but this does not compensate for the many differences that a horn player must adapt to. The bore is generally cylindrical as opposed to the more conical horn; thus, the "feel" of the mellophone can be foreign to a horn player. Another unfamiliar aspect of the mellophone is that it is played with the right hand instead of the left. Intonation can also be an issue when playing the mellophone. In orchestral concerts, regular concert horns are normally preferred to mellophones because of their tone, which blends better with woodwinds and strings, and their greater intonational subtlety—since the player can adjust the tuning by hand. For these reasons, mellophones are played more usually in marching bands and brass band ensembles, occasionally in jazz bands, and almost never in orchestral settings. Mellophones are used in marching band because a regular horn would be difficult to march with. While horn players may be asked to play the mellophone, it is unlikely that the instrument was ever intended to be used as a substitute for the horn, mainly because of the fundamental differences described. Wagner tuba The Wagner tuba is a rare brass instrument that is essentially a horn modified to have a larger bell throat and a vertical bell. Contrary to intuition, it is generally not considered part of the tuba family. Invented for Richard Wagner specifically for his work Der Ring des Nibelungen, it has since been written for by various other composers, including Bruckner and R. Strauss. It uses a horn mouthpiece and is available as a single tuba in B-flat or F, or, more recently, as a double tuba similar to the double horn. Its common range is similar to that of the euphonium, but its possible range is the same as that of the horn, extending from low F sharp, below the bass clef staff to high C above the treble staff when read in F. These low pedals are substantially easier to play on the Wagner tuba than on the horn. Other modifications The horn, although not large, is awkward in its shape and does not lend itself well to transport, especially transport on commercial airlines. To compensate, horn makers can make the bell detachable. This allows for smaller and more manageable horn cases. The player can attach the bell when performing. This also allows for different bells to be used on the same horn, somewhat alleviating the need for multiple horns for different styles. Repertoire Orchestral The horn is most often used as an orchestral instrument, with its singular tone being employed by composers to achieve specific effects. Leopold Mozart, for example, used horns to signify the hunt, as in his Jagdsinfonie (hunting symphony). Once the technique of hand-stopping had been developed, allowing fully chromatic playing, composers began to write seriously for the horn. Telemann wrote much for the horn, and it features prominently in the work of Handel and in Bach's Brandenburg Concerto no. 1. Gustav Mahler made great use of the horn's uniquely haunting and distant sound in his symphonies, notably the famous Nachtmusik (night music) section of his Symphony No. 7. Many composers have written just one or a few notable works which have become established as favorites in the horn repertoire; this includes Poulenc (Elegie) and Saint-Saëns (Concertpiece for horn and orchestra, op. 94 and Romance). Others, particularly Mozart, whose friend Joseph Leutgeb was a noted horn player, wrote extensively for the instrument including concerti and other solo works. Mozart's A Musical Joke satirizes the limitations of contemporary horn playing, including the risk of selecting the wrong crook by mistake. By the end of the 18th Century the horn was sufficiently established as a solo instrument that the horn player Giovanni Punto became an international celebrity, touring Europe and inspiring works by composers as significant as Beethoven. The development of the valve horn was exploited by romantic composers such as Richard Strauss, Bruckner and Mahler. Strauss's Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks contains one of the best known horn solos from this period, relying on the chromatic facility of the valved horn. Horn music in Britain had something of a renaissance in the mid 20th Century when Dennis Brain inspired works such as Britten's Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings and other works from contemporary composers such as Michael Tippett, who stretches horn ensemble playing to its technical limits in his Sonata for Four Horns. Peter Maxwell Davies was commissioned by 50 amateur and professional UK horn players to write a horn piece to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Brain's death. Much of the repertoire is scored as featured parts for the orchestral players, especially the principal horn. It is common for leading horn players to move from principal positions in the great orchestras to distinguished solo careers, a path followed by Brain and many since. Chamber music There is an abundance of chamber music repertoire for horn. It is a standard member of the wind quintet and often appears in other configurations, such as Brahms' "Horn Trio" for violin, horn and piano. Also, the horn can be used by itself in a horn ensemble or "horn choir." The horn choir is especially practical because the extended range of the horn provides the composer or arranger with more possibilities, registerally, sonically, contrapuntally, etc. Orchestral horns A classical orchestra usually contained two horns. Typically, the 1st horn played a high part and the 2nd horn played a low part. Composers from Beethoven onwards commonly used four horns. Here, the 1st and 2nd horns played as a pair (1st horn being high, 2nd horn being low), and the 3rd and 4th horns played as another pair (3rd horn being high, 4th horn being low). In music written for the modern horn follows a similar pattern with 1st and 3rd horns being high and 2nd and 4th horns being low. This setup of high-low-high-low has many reasons: Firstly, it makes it easier to play a high part if you have someone on your left playing a low part, but it makes it easier to play a low part if you have your high player (from your pair) to your left. Secondly, pairing makes it easier to write for horns, seeing as the 3rd and 4th horns can take over from the 1st & 2nd horns, or play a contrasting part. Thirdly, when music was first written, it was for the natural horn, which meant that the horns could only easily play certain notes. Because of this, the 1st and 2nd horns had to be in a different key from the 3rd and 4th horns so that more of the notes can be played. For example, if the piece is in C minor, the 1st and 2nd horns might be in C, the tonic major key, which could get most of the notes, and the 3rd and 4th horns might be in E flat, the relative major key, to fill in the gaps. Most horn sections today also have an assistant who doubles the 1st horn part for selected passages joining in loud parts, playing instead of the principal if there is a 1st horn solo approaching, or alternating with the principal if the part is tiring to play. Playing assistant is usually overlooked, but it is harder than it seems, and takes experience to do it well. Often the assistant is asked to play a passage after resting a long time. Also, he or she may be asked to enter in the middle of a passage, exactly matching the sound, articulation, and overall interpretation of the principal. The assistant is occasionally referred to as a "bumper". Some pieces (like Rachmaninov's Isle of the Dead, Britten's Sinfonia da Requiem, Holst's The Planets and Richard Strauss' Don Quixote) have called for 6 horns, or as many as 20 horns, as found in Eine Alpinesinfonie, by Richard Strauss . Here the pairing remains the same, with the odd horns being high parts and the even horns being low parts. Notable horn players Hermann Baumann – 1964 winner of the ARD International Music Competition and first horn in various orchestras, including the Stuttgart Radio Symphony Orchestra. Dennis Brain – principal horn of the Philharmonia and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra—with whom he and Karajan made what many consider the definitive recordings of Mozart's horn concerti. Dale Clevenger – current principal of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and one of the foremost recording horn players today. Vincent DeRosa – probably the most recorded and wealthy horn player in history, having been principal horn for a number of Hollywood studios and composers including John Williams. Philip Farkas – former principal of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, developer of the Holton Farkas horn, and author of several books on horn and brass playing. Giovanni Punto – horn virtuoso and hand-stopping pioneer, after whom the International Horn Society's annual horn playing award was named; also a violinist, concertmaster, and composer. David Pyatt – youngest winner of the BBC Young Musician of the Year competition in 1988 and principal horn of the London Symphony Orchestra. Barry Tuckwell – former principal horn of the London Symphony Orchestra and author of The French Horn, in the Yehudi Menuhin Music Guides series of books. Radovan Vlatković – 1983 winner of the ARD International Music Competition, former principal and soloist of the Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra, and professor at the Mozarteum University of Salzburg. People who became more notable for their other achievements, but who also played the horn, include the actor Ewan McGregor, Jon Stewart, host of the popular comedy show, the Daily Show with Jon Stewart, and John Entwistle, bassist and singer of The Who. Gallery See also List of Horn Makers List of compositions for horn References External links Homepage of the International Horn Society, one of the largest organizations of horn players in the world. British Horn Society, UK-based organisation for horn playing First steps of making a horn by hand (QuickTime Movie) at Finke Horns From mines to music: The venerable valve, by musicologist Edmund A. 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2,924 | Demon | St. Anthony plagued by demons, as imagined by Martin Schongauer, in the 1480s. In religion, folklore, mythology and spirituality a demon (or daemon, dæmon, daimon from Greek: δαίμων daimōn) is a supernatural being that is generally described as a malevolent spirit. In Christian terms demons are generally understood as fallen angels, formerly of God. A demon is frequently depicted as a force that may be conjured and insecurely controlled. The "good" demon in recent use is largely a literary device (e.g., Maxwell's demon), though references to good demons can be found in Hesiod and Shakespeare. http://books.google.com/books?id=kdsOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA409&lpg=PA409&dq=holy+demons+made+hesiod&source=web&ots=ddUSAdcNj6&sig=CBHwkS6DTVkgVFKf-aHf3_1hEKU ; Antony and Cleopatra Act II, Scene 3 In colloquial parlance, to "demonize" a person means to characterize or portray them as evil, or as a source of evil. The mythical Sweeney Todd was accorded the title Demon Barber of Fleet Street in a 1936 film. The 19th-century Australian cricketer Fred Spofforth was nicknamed "the Demon (Bowler)", partly because of his tactic of inspiring fear in batsmen. History The Greek conception of a daemon (< δαίμων daimōn) appears in the works of Plato and many other ancient authors, but without the evil connotations which are apparent in the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible and in the Greek originals of the New Testament. The medieval and neo-medieval conception of a "demon" in Western civilization (see the Medieval grimoire called the Ars Goetia) derives seamlessly from the ambient popular culture of Late (Roman) Antiquity. Greco-Roman concepts of daemons that passed into Christian culture are discussed in the entry daemon, though it should be duly noted that the term referred only to a spiritual force, not a malevolent supernatural being. The Hellenistic "daemon" eventually came to include many Semitic and Near Eastern gods as evaluated by Christianity. The supposed existence of demons is an important concept in many modern religions and occultist traditions. In some present-day cultures, demons are still feared in popular superstition, largely due to their alleged power to possess living creatures. In the contemporary Western occultist tradition (perhaps epitomized by the work of Aleister Crowley), a demon, such as Choronzon, the "Demon of the Abyss", is a useful metaphor for certain inner psychological processes, though some may also regard it as an objectively real phenomenon. Some scholars Boyce, 1987; Black and Rowley, 1987; Duchesne-Guillemin, 1988. believe that large portions of the demonology (see Asmodai) of Judaism, a key influence on Christianity and Islam, originated in Zoroastrianism, and were transferred to Judaism during the Persian era. Etymology The idea of demons is as old as religion itself, and the word demon seems to have ancient origins. The Merriam-Webster dictionary gives the etymology of the word as Greek daimon, probably from the verb daiesthai meaning "to divide, distribute." The Proto-Indo-European root *deiwos for god, originally an adjective meaning "celestial" or "bright, shining" has retained this meaning in many related Indo-European languages and cultures (Sanskrit deva, Latin deus, German Tiw, Welsh [Duw],]), but also provided another other common word for demon in Avestan daeva. In modern Greek, the word daimon () has the same meaning as the modern English demon. But in Ancient Greek, δαίμων meant "spirit" or "higher self", much like the Latin genius. This should not, however, be confused with the word genie, which is a false friend or false cognate of genius. Psychological history Psychologist Wilhelm Wundt remarks that "among the activities attributed by myths all over the world to demons, the harmful predominate, so that in popular belief bad demons are clearly older than good ones." Freud (1950, 65), quoting Wundt (1906, 129). Sigmund Freud develops on this idea and claims that the concept of demons was derived from the important relation of the living to the dead: "The fact that demons are always regarded as the spirits of those who have died recently shows better than anything the influence of mourning on the origin of the belief in demons." Hebrew Bible Demons as described in the Tanakh are the same as "demons" commonly known in popular or Christian culture. Those in the Hebrew Bible are of two classes, the se'irim and the shedim. The se'irim ("hairy beings"), to which some Israelites offered sacrifices in the open fields, are satyr-like creatures, described as dancing in the wilderness Isaiah 13:21, 34:14 , and which are identical with the jinn, such as Dantalion, the 71st spirit of Solomon. (But compare the completely European woodwose.) Possibly to the same class belongs Azazel, the goat-like demons of the wilderness Leviticus 16:10ff , probably the chief of the se'irim, and Lilith Isaiah 34:14 - where the KJV Bible translates the Hebrew word 'lilith' as "screech owl" . Possibly "the roes and hinds of the field", by which Shulamit conjures the daughters of Jerusalem to bring her back to her lover Canticles 2:7, 3:5 , are faunlike spirits similar to the se'irim, though of a harmless nature. The evil spirit that troubled Saul (I Samuel 16:14 et seq.) may have been a demon, though the Masoretic text suggests the spirit was sent by God. Some benevolent shedim were used in kabbalistic ceremonies (as with the golem of Rabbi Yehuda Loevy), and malevolent shedim (mazikin, from the root meaning to damage) are often responsible in instances of possession. Instances of idol worship were often the result of a shed inhabiting an otherwise worthless statue; the shed would pretend to be a God with the power to send pestilence, although such events were not actually under his control. Influences from Chaldean mythology In Chaldean mythology the seven evil deities were known as shedu, meaning storm-demons. They were represented in winged bull form, derived from the colossal bulls used as protective genii of royal palaces, the name "shed" assumed also the meaning of a propitious genius in Babylonian magic literature. See Delitzsch, Assyrisches Handwörterbuch. pp. 60, 253, 261, 646; Jensen, Assyr.-Babyl. Mythen und Epen, 1900, p. 453; Archibald Sayce, l.c. pp. 441, 450, 463; Lenormant, l.c. pp. 48-51. It was from Chaldea that the name "shedu" came to the Israelites, and so the writers of the Tanach applied the word as a dylogism to the Canaanite deities in the two passages quoted. But they also spoke of "the destroyer" (Exodus xii. 23) as a demon whose malignant effect upon the houses of the Israelites was to be warded off by the blood of the paschal sacrifice sprinkled upon the lintel and the door-post (a corresponding pagan talisman is mentioned in Isaiah lvii. 8). In II Samuel xxiv; 16 and II Chronicles xxi. 15 the pestilence-dealing demon is called "the destroying angel" (compare "the angel of the Lord" in II Kings xix. 35; Isaiah xxxvii. 36), because, although they are demons, these "evil messengers" (Psalms lxxviii. 49; A. V. "evil angels") do only the bidding of God; they are the agents of His divine wrath. There are indications that popular Hebrew mythology ascribed to the demons a certain independence, a malevolent character of their own, because they are believed to come forth, not from the heavenly abode of God, but from the nether world compare Isaiah xxxviii. 11 with Job xiv. 13; Psalms xvi. 10, xlix. 16, cxxxix. 8 . Hebrew demons were workers of harm. To them were ascribed the various diseases, particularly such as affect the brain and the inner parts. Hence there was a fear of "Shabriri" (lit. "dazzling glare"), the demon of blindness, who rests on uncovered water at night and strikes those with blindness who drink of it; Pesachim 112a; Avodah Zarah 12b also mentioned were the spirit of catalepsy and the spirit of headache, the demon of epilepsy, and the spirit of nightmare. These demons were supposed to enter the body and cause the disease while overwhelming or "seizing" the victim (hence "seizure"). To cure such diseases it was necessary to draw out the evil demons by certain incantations and talismanic performances, in which the Essenes excelled. Josephus, who speaks of demons as "spirits of the wicked which enter into men that are alive and kill them", but which can be driven out by a certain root, Bellum Judaeorum vii. 6, § 3 witnessed such a performance in the presence of the Emperor Vespasian, "Antiquities" viii. 2, § 5 and ascribed its origin to King Solomon. King and queen In some rabbinic sources, the demons were believed to be under the dominion of a king or chief, either Asmodai Targ. to Eccl. i. 13; Pes. 110a; Yer. Shek. 49b or, in the older Haggadah, Samael ("the angel of death"), who kills by his deadly poison, and is called "chief of the devils". Occasionally a demon is called "satan": "Stand not in the way of an ox when coming from the pasture, for Satan dances between his horns" Pes. 112b; compare B. Ḳ. 21a . According to some texts, the queen of demons is Lilith, pictured with wings and long flowing hair, and called the "mother of Ahriman" B. B. 73b; 'Er. 100b; Nid. 24b . "When Adam, doing penance for his sin, separated from Eve for 130 years, he, by impure desire, caused the earth to be filled with demons, or shedim, lilin, and evil spirits." Gen. R. xx.; 'Er. 18b Demonology never became an essential feature of Jewish theology. The reality of demons was never questioned by the Talmudists and late rabbis; most accepted their existence as a fact. Nor did most of the medieval thinkers question their reality. Only rationalists like Maimonides and Abraham ibn Ezra, clearly denied their existence. Their point of view eventually became the mainstream Jewish understanding. Jewish rabbinic literature Rabbinical demonology has three classes of, demons, though they are scarcely separable one from another. There were the shedim, the ("harmers"), and the ("spirits"). Besides these there were lilin ("night spirits"), ("shade", or "evening spirits"), ("midday spirits"), and ("morning spirits"), as well as the "demons that bring famine" and "such as cause storm and earthquake" (Targ. Yer. to Deuteronomy xxxii. 24 and Numbers vi. 24; Targ. to Cant. iii. 8, iv. 6; Eccl. ii. 5; Ps. xci. 5, 6.) New Testament and Christianity "Demon" has a number of meanings, all related to the idea of a spirit that inhabited a place, or that accompanied a person. Whether such a daemon was benevolent or malevolent, the Greek word meant something different from the later medieval notions of 'demon', and scholars debate the time in which first century usage by Jews and Christians in its original Greek sense became transformed to the later medieval sense. It should be noted that some denominations asserting Christian faith also include, exclusively or otherwise, fallen angels as de facto demons; this definition also covers the "sons of God" described in Genesis who abandoned their posts in heaven to mate with human women on Earth before the Deluge Genesis 6:2, 4, also see Nephilim . In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus casts out many demons, or evil spirits, from those who are afflicted with various ailments. Jesus is far superior to the power of demons over the beings that they inhabit, and he is able to free these victims by commanding and casting out the demons, by binding them, and forbidding them to return. Jesus also apparently lends this power to some of his disciples, who rejoice at their new found ability to cast out all demons. By way of contrast, in the book of Acts a group of Judaistic exorcists known as the sons of Sceva try to cast out a very powerful spirit without believing in or knowing Jesus, but fail with disastrous consequences. However Jesus himself never fails to vanquish a demon, no matter how powerful (see the account of the demon-possessed man at Gerasim), and even defeats Satan in the wilderness (see Gospel of Matthew). There is a description in the Book of Revelation 12:7-17 of a battle between God's army and Satan's followers, and their subsequent expulsion from Heaven to earth to persecute humans — although this event is related as being foretold and taking place in the future. In Luke 10:18 it is mentioned that a power granted by Jesus to control demons made Satan "fall like lightning from heaven." Augustine of Hippo's reading of Plotinus, in City of God (ch.11) is ambiguous as to whether daemons had become 'demonized' by the early 5th century: "He [Plotinus] also states that the blessed are called in Greek eudaimones, because they are good souls, that is to say, good demons, confirming his opinion that the souls of men are demons. Augustine of Hippo, City of God, ch. 11: Of the Opinion of the Platonists, that the Souls of Men Become Demons When Disembodied. The contemporary Roman Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demons are real personal beings, not just symbolic devices. The Catholic Church has a cadre of officially sanctioned exorcists which perform many exorcisms each year. The exorcists of the Catholic Church teach that demons attack humans continually but that afflicted persons can be effectively healed and protected either by the formal rite of exorcism, authorized to be performed only by bishops and those they designate, or by prayers of deliverance which any Christian can offer for themselves or others. Christianity Building upon the few references to daemons in the New Testament, especially the visionary poetry of the Apocalypse of John, Christian writers of apocrypha from the 2nd century onwards created a more complicated tapestry of beliefs about "demons" that was largely independent of Christian scripture. Origin According to the Bible, the fall of the Adversary is portrayed in Isaiah 14:12-14 and Ezekiel 28:12-19. However, the connection between Isaiah 14:12-14 and the fall is mostly based on mistranslation and tradition. The King James Version (KJV), popular among most Christian sects, reads: "How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning! [how] art thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations! For thou hast said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God: I will sit also upon the mount of the congregation, in the sides of the north: I will ascend above the heights of the clouds; I will be like the most High" (Isaiah 14:12:-14). The word "Lucifer" was inspired by the Latin Vulgate, a translation that the authors of the KJV adhered to in several occasions to elucidate Christian traditions (see KJV, "The Project"). Lucifer is a Latin word meaning "light-bearer" (from lux, lucis, "light", and ferre, "to bear, bring"), a Roman astrological term for the "Morning Star", the planet Venus. The word Lucifer was the direct translation of the Septuagint Greek heosphoros, ("dawn-bearer"); (cf. Greek phosphoros, "light-bearer") and the Hebrew Helel, ("Bright one"). The word does not specifically refer to Satan. To the contrary, in context, Isaiah 14:12-14 actually refers to one of the popular honorific titles of a Babylonian king (see Isaiah 14:4 for context); however, later interpretations of the text, and the influence of embellishments in works such as Dante's The Divine Comedy and Milton's Paradise Lost, led to the common idea in Christian mythology and folklore that Lucifer was a poetic appellation of Satan (see Lucifer for more information). Ezekiel 28:12-19, in context, refers to the King of Tyrus (see Ezekiel 28:2 for context). The passage, however, is popularly attributed as a reference to, or allegory of, Satan, and even by some commentators, an allegory of the fall of Adam. Many Christian teachings are built upon later Jewish traditions that the Adversary and the Adversary's host declared war with God, but that God's army, commanded by the archangel Michael, defeated the rebels. Their defeat was never in question, since God is by nature omnipotent, but Michael was given the honour of victory in the natural order; thus the rise of Christian veneration of the archangel Michael, beginning at Monte Gargano in 493, reflects the full incorporation of demons into Christianity. According to tradition, God then cast God's enemies from Heaven to the abyss, into a newly created prison called Hell, where all God's enemies should be sentenced to an eternal existence of pain and misery. This pain is not all physical; for their crimes, these angels, now called demons, would be deprived of the sight of God, this being the worst possible punishment. An indefinite time later (some biblical scholars believe that the angels fell sometime after the creation of living things), when God created the earth and life, the Adversary and the other demons were allowed to tempt humans or induce them to sin by other means. The first time the Adversary did this was as a serpent in the earthly paradise called the "Garden of Eden" to tempt Eve, who became deceived by Satan's evil trickery. Eve then gave Adam some of the forbidden fruit and both of their eyes were opened to the knowledge of good and evil. Demonologies At various times in Christian history, attempts have been made to classify these beings according to various proposed demonic hierarchies. According to most Christian demonology demons will be eternally punished and never reconciled with God. Other theories postulate a Universal reconciliation, in which Satan, the fallen angels, and the souls of the dead that were condemned to Hell are reconciled with God. This doctrine is today often associated with the Unification Church. Origen, Jerome and Gregory of Nyssa also mentioned this possibility. In contemporary Christianity, demons are generally considered to be angels who fell from grace by rebelling against God. Some contest that this view, championed by Origen, Augustine and John Chrysostom, arose during the 6th century. Another theory that may have preceded or co-existed with the hypothesis of fallen angels was that demons were ostracized from Heaven for the primary sin of mating with mortal women, giving rise to a race of half-human giants known as the Nephilim. That theory is accepted by some contemporary Christian sects. There are still others who say that the sin of the angels was pride and disobedience. It seems quite certain that these were the sins that caused Satan's downfall (Ezek. 28). If this be the true view then we are to understand the words, "estate" or "principality" in Deuteronomy 32:8 and Jude 6 ("And the angels which kept not their first estate, but left their own habitation, he hath reserved in everlasting chains under darkness unto the judgment of the great day.") as indicating that instead of being satisfied with the dignity once for all assigned to them under the Son of God, they aspired higher. Hinduism Hindu mythology include numerous varieties of anthropomorphic beings that might be classified as demons, including Rakshasas (belligerent, shapechanging terrestrial demons), Asuras (demigods), Vetalas (bat-like spirits), and Pishachas (cannibalistic demons). Asuras Originally, Asura, in the earliest hymns of the Rig Veda, meant any supernatural spirit—good or bad. Hence even some of the devas (demigods), especially Varuna, have the epithet of Asura. In fact, since the /s/ of the Indic linguistic branch is cognate with the /h/ of the Early Iranian languages, the word Asura, representing a category of celestial beings, became the word Ahura (Mazda), the Supreme God of the monotheistic Zoroastrians. But very soon, among the Indo-Aryans, Asura came to exclusively mean any of a race of anthropomorphic but hideous demons. All words such as Asura, Daitya (lit., sons of the demon-mother "Diti"), Rakshasa (lit. from "harm to be guarded against") are translated into English as demon. These demons are inherently evil and are in a constant battle against the demigods. Hence in Hindu iconography, the gods and demigods are shown to carry weapons to kill the asuras. Unlike Christianity, the demons are not the cause of the evil and unhappiness in present mankind (which occurs on the account of ignorance from recognizing one's true self). In later Puranic mythology, exceptions do occur in the demonic race to produce god-fearing Asuras like Prahalada. Also, many Asuras are said to have been granted boons from one of the members of the Hindu trinity, viz., Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva when the latter had been appeased from penances. All Asuras, unlike the devas, are said to be mortals (though they vehemently wish to become immortal). Many people metaphorically interpret these demons as manifestations of the ignoble passions in human mind. Evil spirits On the account of the Hindu theory of reincarnation and transmigration of souls according to one's Karma, other kinds of demons can also be enlisted. If a human does extremely horrible and sinful karmas in his life, his soul (Atman) will, upon his death, directly turn into an evil ghostly spirit, many kinds of which are recognized in the later Hindu texts. These demons could be Grimnex Vetalas, Pishachas, Bhūtas etc. VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online - Vedic Encyclopedia, Bhakti-yoga in vedas, Library Pre-Islamic Arab culture Pre-Islamic mythology does not discriminate between gods and demons. The jinn are considered as divinities of inferior rank, having many human attributes: they eat, drink, and procreate their kind, sometimes in conjunction with human beings. The jinn smell and lick things, and have a liking for remnants of food. In eating they use the left hand. Usually they haunt waste and deserted places, especially the thickets where wild beasts gather. Cemeteries and dirty places are also favorite abodes. When appearing to man, jinn sometimes assume the forms of beasts and sometimes those of men. Generally, jinn are peaceable and well disposed toward men. Many a pre-Islamic poet was believed to have been inspired by good jinn, but there are also evil jinn, who contrive to injure men. Islam Islam recognizes the existence of the jinn. Jinns are not the "genies" of modern lore, and they are not all evil, as demons are described in Christianity, but as creatures that co-exist with humans. In Islam the evil jinns are referred to as the shayātīn, or devils, and Iblis (Satan) is their chief. Iblis was the first Jinn who disobeyed Allah. According to Islam, the jinn are made from the light of flame of fire (ناَر [nɛ:r] deviation of نور [nu:r] "light") (and mankind is made of clay). According to the Qur'an, Iblis was once a pious servant of Allah, but when Allah created Adam from clay, Iblis became very jealous, and arrogant and disobeyed Allah. Adam was the first man, and man was the greatest creation of Allah. Iblis could not stand this, and refused to acknowledge a creature made of "dirt" (man). Allah condemned Iblis to be punished after death eternally in the hellfire. Allah had created hell. Iblis asked Allah if he may live to the last day and have the ability to mislead mankind and jinns, Allah said that Iblis may only mislead those whom have forsaken Allah. Allah then turned Iblis's countenance into horridness and condemned him to only have powers of trickery. Adam and Eve (Hawwa in Arabic) were both together misled by Iblis into eating the forbidden fruit, and consequently fell from the garden of Eden to Earth. The word "genie" comes from the Arabic jinn. This is not surprising considering the story of `Alā' ad-Dīn, (anglicized as Aladdin), passed through Arabian merchants en route to Europe. New Age / Shamanism Carlos Castaneda referred to demonic predators called "flyers" which have the appearance of frightening dark shadows and which vampirize human energy. According to this view ancient humans were complete, with much greater energetic resources than effete, decadent, modern humans possess. At the time when agriculture was invented the flyers gave human beings their mind (constant internal dialogue of beliefs, ideas, social mores, expectations, and dreams of success or failure). By playing on this self-reflection, sucking the angry and worried energy it generates, the flyers began to farm human beings for energy, just as humans began farming animals. Modern humans are the hypnotized slaves of these flyers; and the pseudoconcerns of modern society are a flyer mechanism of mind control. Science In thought experiments scientists occasionally imagine entities with special abilities in order to pose tough intellectual challenges or to highlight apparent paradoxes. Examples include: Descartes’ malicious demon - Cartesian skepticism (also called methodological skepticism) advocates the doubting of all things which cannot be justified through logic. Descartes uses three arguments to cast doubt on our ability to objectively know: The dream argument, the deceiving God argument, and the malicious demon argument. Important Arguments from Descartes' Meditations by David Banach Department of Philosophy, St. Anselm College (retrieved 8-24-2007) Since our senses cannot put us in contact with external objects themselves, but only with our mental images of such objects, we can have no absolute certainty that anything exists in the external world. In the evil demon argument Descartes proposes an entity who is capable of deceiving us to such a degree that we have reason to doubt the totality of what our senses tell us. Laplace's demon - A hypothetical all-knowing entity (later called "Laplace's Demon") who knows the precise location and momentum of every atom in the universe, and therefore could use Newton's laws to reveal the entire course of cosmic events, past and future. Based upon the philosophical proposition of causal determinism. (See also causality). Maxwell's demon - A demon able to distinguish between fast and slow moving molecules. If this demon only let fast moving molecules through a trapdoor to a container, the temperature inside the container would increase without any work being applied. Such a scenario would violate the second law of thermodynamics. Morton's demon - A demon who stands at the gateway of a person's senses and lets in facts that agree with that person's beliefs while deflecting those which do not. Used to explain the phenomenon of confirmation bias. Psychiatry M. Scott Peck, an American psychiatrist, wrote two books on the subject. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0671528165 People of the Lie: The Hope For Healing Human Evil] by M. Scott Peck (Simon & Schuster, 1983) ;;Glimpses of the Devil: A Psychiatrist's Personal Accounts of Possession, Exorcism, and Redemption;; by M. Scott Peck (Free Press, January 19, 2005) . Peck describes in some detail several cases involving his patients. In People of the Lie: The Hope For Healing Human Evil he gives some identifying characteristics for evil persons whom he classifies as having a character disorder. In Glimpses of the Devil, A Psychiatrist's Personal Accounts of Possession, Exorcism, and Redemption Peck goes into significant detail describing how he became interested in exorcism in order to debunk the "myth" of possession by evil spirits – only to be convinced otherwise after encountering two cases which did not fit into any category known to psychology or psychiatry. Peck came to the conclusion that possession was a rare phenomenon related to evil. Possessed people are not actually evil; they are doing battle with the forces of evil. The exorcist, an interview with M. Scott Peck by Rebecca Traister published in Salon His observations on these cases are listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (IV) of the American Psychiatric Association. Although Peck's earlier work was met with widespread popular acceptance, his work on the topics of evil and possession has generated significant debate and derision. Much was made of his association with (and admiration for) the controversial Malachi Martin, a Roman Catholic priest and a former Jesuit, despite the fact that Peck consistently called Martin a liar and manipulator. The Patient Is the Exorcist, an interview with M. Scott Peck by Laura Sheahen Other criticisms leveled against Peck include misdiagnoses based upon a lack of knowledge regarding dissociative identity disorder (formerly known as multiple personality disorder), and a claim that he had transgressed the boundaries of professional ethics by attempting to persuade his patients into accepting Christianity. The devil you know, a commentary on Glimpses of the Devil by Richard Woods See also Archdemon Classification of demons Christian demonology Demonic possession Demonolatry Folk devil Imp List of theological demons List of fictional demons Names of the demons Oni Saint Michael Satanism Spiritual warfare Vampire Notes References Wundt, W. (1906). Mythus und Religion, Teil II (Völkerpsychologie, Band II). Leipzig. Castaneda, Carlos (1998). The Active Side of Infinity. HarperCollins NY ISBN 0-06-019220-8 Further reading External links Demons in the Catechism of the Catholic Church: Hyperlinked references to demons in the online Catechism of the Catholic Church Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Demonology Profile of William Bradshaw, American demonologist Riverfront Times, St. Louis, Missouri, USA. 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2,925 | Politics_of_Mali | Politics of Mali takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Mali is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 160 members, elected for a five year term, 147 members elected in single-seat constituencies and 13 members elected by the Malinese abroad. The National Assembly is the sole legislative arm of the government. Representation is apportioned according to the population of administrative districts. Election is direct and by party list. The term of office is 5 years. The Assembly meets for two regular sessions each year. It debates and votes on legislation proposed either by one of its members or by the government and has the right to question government ministers about government actions and policies. Eight political parties, aggregated into four parliamentary groups, are represented in the Assembly. ADEMA currently holds the majority; minority parties are represented in all committees and in the Assembly directorate. Political parties and elections Mali's constitution provides for a multi-party democracy, with the only restriction being a prohibition against parties based on ethnic, religious, regional, or gender lines. In addition to those political parties represented in the National Assembly, others are active in municipal councils. Judicial branch Mali's legal system is based on codes inherited at independence from France. New laws have been enacted to make the system conform to Malian life, but French colonial laws not abrogated still have the force of law. The constitution provides for the independence of the judiciary. However, the Ministry of Justice appoints judges and supervises both law enforcement and judicial functions. The Supreme Court has both judicial and administrative powers. Under the constitution, there is a separate constitutional court and a high court of justice with the power to try senior government officials in cases of treason. Administrative divisions Administratively, Mali is divided into eight regions (Gao, Kayes, Kidal, Koulikoro, Mopti, Segou, Sikasso, Tombouctou) and the capital district of Bamako, each under the authority of an elected governor. Each region consists of five to nine districts (or Cercles), administered by Prefects. Cercles are divided into communes, which, in turn, are divided into villages or quarters. A decentralisation and democratisation process began in the 1990s with the establishment of 702 elected municipal councils, headed by elected mayors, and previously appointed officials have been replaced with elected officials, which culminates in a National council of local officials. Other changes included greater local control over finances, and the reduction of administrative control by the central government. International organization participation Mali is member of ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO References External links Official portal of the Government of Mali Official portal of the President of Mali Government Decree 4-141, May 2004 - Official list of the Ministers and Ministries of the Government of Mali, at the official portal of the President of Mali | Politics_of_Mali |@lemmatized politics:1 mali:10 take:1 place:1 framework:1 presidential:1 representative:1 democratic:1 republic:1 whereby:1 president:3 head:3 state:1 government:12 multi:2 party:8 system:3 executive:2 power:4 exercise:1 legislative:3 vest:1 national:5 assembly:7 judiciary:2 independent:1 legislature:1 branch:2 assemblée:1 nationale:1 member:5 elect:4 five:2 year:3 term:2 single:1 seat:1 constituency:1 malinese:1 abroad:1 sole:1 arm:1 representation:1 apportion:1 accord:1 population:1 administrative:4 district:3 election:2 direct:1 list:2 office:1 meet:1 two:1 regular:1 session:1 debate:1 vote:1 legislation:1 propose:1 either:1 one:1 right:1 question:1 minister:2 action:1 policy:1 eight:2 political:3 aggregate:1 four:1 parliamentary:1 group:1 represent:3 adema:1 currently:1 hold:1 majority:1 minority:1 committee:1 directorate:1 constitution:3 provide:2 democracy:1 restriction:1 prohibition:1 base:2 ethnic:1 religious:1 regional:2 gender:1 line:1 addition:1 others:1 active:1 municipal:2 council:3 judicial:3 legal:1 code:1 inherit:1 independence:2 france:1 new:1 law:4 enact:1 make:1 conform:1 malian:1 life:1 french:1 colonial:1 abrogate:1 still:1 force:1 however:1 ministry:2 justice:2 appoints:1 judge:1 supervise:1 enforcement:1 function:1 supreme:1 court:3 separate:1 constitutional:1 high:1 try:1 senior:1 official:8 case:1 treason:1 division:1 administratively:1 divide:3 region:2 gao:1 kayes:1 kidal:1 koulikoro:1 mopti:1 segou:1 sikasso:1 tombouctou:1 capital:1 bamako:1 authority:1 governor:1 consist:1 nine:1 cercles:2 administer:1 prefect:1 commune:1 turn:1 village:1 quarter:1 decentralisation:1 democratisation:1 process:1 begin:1 establishment:1 elected:3 mayor:1 previously:1 appoint:1 replace:1 culminate:1 local:2 change:1 include:1 great:1 control:2 finance:1 reduction:1 central:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 acct:1 acp:1 afdb:1 ccc:1 eca:1 ecowas:1 fao:1 fz:1 g:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 itu:1 miponuh:1 monuc:1 nam:1 oau:1 oic:1 opcw:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wadb:1 waemu:1 wcl:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 portal:3 decree:1 may:1 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 legislative_branch:1 assembly_assemblée:1 assemblée_nationale:1 seat_constituency:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 acct_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 ccc_eca:1 eca_ecowas:1 fao_fz:1 fz_g:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_icftu:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 monuc_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_oic:1 oic_opcw:1 opcw_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 wcl_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 external_link:1 |
2,926 | Fred_Savage | Fredrick Aaron Savage (born July 9, 1976) is an American actor and television and film director, and producer. He is best known for his role as Kevin Arnold in the television series The Wonder Years. In later years, he has directed and produced numerous episodes of children's programs, such as Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide, Hannah Montana, and Phil of the Future, as well as the primetime series Ugly Betty and It's Always Sunny In Philadelphia. He also appeared in Family Guy. Biography Personal life Savage was born near Chicago, Illinois, the son of Joanne, a consultant, and Lewis Savage, an industrial real estate broker and consultant. Fred Savage Biography (1976-) His brother is actor Ben Savage and his sister is actress/musician Kala Savage. His grandparents were Jewish immigrants from Latvia, Ukraine, Germany, and Poland, and Savage was raised as a Reform Jew. LA Times: Theater; Not Just Acting Like an Adult; Fred Savage contemplates his roots – as a performer and a Jew – for 'Last Night of Ballyhoo. In 1999, he graduated from Stanford University, where he was a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity, with a degree in English. On August 7, 2004, Savage married Jennifer Lynn Stone. They have a son named Oliver Philip Savage, who was born on August 5, 2006, and a daughter Lily Aerin Savage, who was born on May 3, 2008. Fred Savage & Wife Expecting Second Child - Babies, Fred Savage : People.com Acting career Savage's first recorded performance was in the 1987 video Dinosaurs!. He then appeared onscreen in The Boy Who Could Fly and several television shows, including The Twilight Zone and Crime Story before gaining national attention as the grandson in the 1987 film The Princess Bride opposite Peter Falk. In 1988, Savage appeared as Kevin Arnold on The Wonder Years, the role for which he is best known. His tenure in the show resulted in two Golden Globe nominations and two Emmy nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor In A Comedy Series; at the age of 13 he would be the youngest actor ever to receive these honors. He would remain on the show until it ended in 1993. During this period, he appeared in several movies, most notably Little Monsters, Vice Versa, and The Wizard. After The Wonder Years, Savage primarily did guest and supporting roles, such as the show Boy Meets World (which starred his brother Ben) and in the film Austin Powers in Goldmember as Number Three. He has lent his voice to several animated projects, including Family Guy, Kim Possible, Justice League Unlimited, Oswald, and Holidaze: The Christmas That Almost Didn't Happen. His two lead roles since The Wonder Years were on the short-lived sitcoms Working and Crumbs. Savage appeared as a serial rapist on Law and Order: Special Victims Unit and as a womanizing professor on Boy Meets World. He ranked at #27 on VH1's 100 Greatest Kid Stars. In July 2008, Savage guest-starred on the web series The Rascal on Crackle. Behind-the-scenes career Beginning with episodes of Boy Meets World in 1999, Savage began a directing career in which he helmed episodes of over a dozen youth-oriented series. His credits include Drake & Josh and Ned's Declassified for Nickelodeon, as well as That's So Raven, Hannah Montana and Wizards of Waverly Place for the Disney Channel. Besides directing several episodes, Savage co-produced the Disney Channel Original Series Phil of the Future. In 2007, he was nominated for a Directors Guild award for the Phil episode "Not-So-Great-Great Grandpa". Filmography The Boy Who Could Fly (1986) as Louis Michaelson Dinosaurs! - A Fun-Filled Trip Back in Time! (1987) The Princess Bride (1987) Vice Versa (1988) The Wizard (1989) as Corey Woods Little Monsters (1989) No One Would Tell(1996) as Bobby Tennison A Guy Walks Into a Bar (1997) The Jungle Book: Mowgli's Story (1998) The Rules of Attraction (2002) Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002) The Last Run (2004) Welcome to Mooseport (2004) Fresh Tomato For Sauce (2007) Acting Credits: TV Morningstar/Eveningstar (1986-1987) (TV) Convicted: A Mother's Story (1987) (TV) Runaway Ralph (1988) (TV) Run Till You Fall (1988) (TV) The Wonder Years (1988-1993) (TV) When You Remember Me (1990) (TV) Christmas on Division Street (1991) (TV) Seinfeld ("The Trip") (1992) (TV) No One Would Tell (1996) (TV) How Do You Spell God? (1996) (TV) Working (1997) (TV) Area 52 (2001) (TV) Oswald (2001) (TV) (Animated-Voice of Oswald) Crumbs (2006) (TV) Holidaze: The Christmas that Almost Didn't Happen (2006) (TV & DVD) It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia (2007) (TV) Single White Millionaire (2008) (TV) Family Guy (2009) (TV) Director Boy Meets World (1999-2000) 2 Episodes All About Us (2001) 2 Episodes Even Stevens (2001-2002) 2 Episodes Drake & Josh (2004) 1 Episode Kitchen Confidential (2005) 1 Episode Zoey 101 (2005) 2 Episodes What I Like About You (2005) 1 Episode That's So Raven (2003-2005) 2 Episodes Stephen's Life (2005) TV movie Unfabulous (2004-2005) 5 EpisodesPhil of the Future (2004-2006) 9 EpisodesCavemen (2007) 1 EpisodeHannah Montana (2006-2007) 2 EpisodesNed's Declassified School Survival Guide (2004-2007) 6 EpisodesDaddy Day Camp (2007) Tristar PicturesAliens in America (2007-2008) 4 EpisodesWizards of Waverly Place (2007-2008) 3 EpisodesUgly Betty (2008) 1 EpisodeIt's Always Sunny in Philadelphia (2007-2008) 12 EpisodesWorst Week (2008) 1 EpisodeParty Down'' (2009) 5 Episodes References External links Fred Savage at NNDB World Poker Tour Profile eFilmCritic Interviews Fred Savage | Fred_Savage |@lemmatized fredrick:1 aaron:1 savage:22 bear:4 july:2 american:1 actor:4 television:3 film:3 director:3 producer:1 best:2 know:2 role:4 kevin:2 arnold:2 series:6 wonder:5 year:6 late:1 direct:3 produce:2 numerous:1 episode:14 child:2 program:1 ned:2 declassify:3 school:2 survival:2 guide:2 hannah:2 montana:3 phil:3 future:3 well:2 primetime:1 ugly:1 betty:2 always:3 sunny:3 philadelphia:3 also:1 appear:5 family:3 guy:4 biography:2 personal:1 life:2 near:1 chicago:1 illinois:1 son:2 joanne:1 consultant:2 lewis:1 industrial:1 real:1 estate:1 broker:1 fred:6 brother:2 ben:2 sister:1 actress:1 musician:1 kala:1 grandparent:1 jewish:1 immigrant:1 latvia:1 ukraine:1 germany:1 poland:1 raise:1 reform:1 jew:2 la:1 time:2 theater:1 act:3 like:2 adult:1 contemplate:1 roots:1 performer:1 last:2 night:1 ballyhoo:1 graduate:1 stanford:1 university:1 member:1 sigma:1 alpha:1 epsilon:1 fraternity:1 degree:1 english:1 august:2 marry:1 jennifer:1 lynn:1 stone:1 name:1 oliver:1 philip:1 daughter:1 lily:1 aerin:1 may:1 wife:1 expect:1 second:1 baby:1 people:1 com:1 career:3 first:1 record:1 performance:1 video:1 dinosaur:2 onscreen:1 boy:6 could:2 fly:2 several:4 show:4 include:3 twilight:1 zone:1 crime:1 story:3 gain:1 national:1 attention:1 grandson:1 princess:2 bride:2 opposite:1 peter:1 falk:1 tenure:1 result:1 two:3 golden:1 globe:1 nomination:2 emmy:1 outstanding:1 lead:2 comedy:1 age:1 would:4 young:1 ever:1 receive:1 honor:1 remain:1 end:1 period:1 movie:2 notably:1 little:2 monster:2 vice:2 versa:2 wizard:3 primarily:1 guest:2 support:1 meet:4 world:5 star:3 austin:2 power:2 goldmember:2 number:1 three:1 lend:1 voice:2 animated:1 project:1 kim:1 possible:1 justice:1 league:1 unlimited:1 oswald:3 holidaze:2 christmas:3 almost:2 happen:2 since:1 short:1 live:1 sitcom:1 work:1 crumb:2 serial:1 rapist:1 law:1 order:1 special:1 victim:1 unit:1 womanizing:1 professor:1 rank:1 great:3 kid:1 web:1 rascal:1 crackle:1 behind:1 scene:1 begin:2 helm:1 dozen:1 youth:1 orient:1 credit:2 drake:2 josh:2 nickelodeon:1 raven:2 waverly:2 place:2 disney:2 channel:2 besides:1 co:1 original:1 nominate:1 guild:1 award:1 grandpa:1 filmography:1 louis:1 michaelson:1 fun:1 fill:1 trip:2 back:1 corey:1 wood:1 one:2 tell:2 bobby:1 tennison:1 walk:1 bar:1 jungle:1 book:1 mowgli:1 rule:1 attraction:1 run:2 welcome:1 mooseport:1 fresh:1 tomato:1 sauce:1 tv:20 morningstar:1 eveningstar:1 convict:1 mother:1 runaway:1 ralph:1 till:1 fall:1 remember:1 division:1 street:1 seinfeld:1 spell:1 god:1 working:1 area:1 animate:1 dvd:1 single:1 white:1 millionaire:1 u:1 even:1 stevens:1 kitchen:1 confidential:1 zoey:1 stephen:1 unfabulous:1 episodesphil:1 episodescavemen:1 episodehannah:1 episodesned:1 episodesdaddy:1 day:1 camp:1 tristar:1 picturesaliens:1 america:1 episodeswizards:1 episodesugly:1 episodeit:1 episodesworst:1 week:1 episodeparty:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 nndb:1 poker:1 tour:1 profile:1 efilmcritic:1 interview:1 |@bigram hannah_montana:2 chicago_illinois:1 real_estate:1 fred_savage:6 sigma_alpha:1 alpha_epsilon:1 twilight_zone:1 princess_bride:2 golden_globe:1 globe_nomination:1 emmy_nomination:1 vice_versa:2 power_goldmember:2 drake_josh:2 tomato_sauce:1 external_link:1 |
2,927 | Kent_State_University | Kent State University (also known as Kent, Kent State, or KSU) is one of America's largest university systems, the third largest university in Ohio and the largest residential university in northeast Ohio. Kent State is a traditional, selective, residential public research university and its seven regional campuses serve multicounty regions of Northeast Ohio. The eight campuses offer degree programs from the associate to doctoral degrees. The university has students, faculty, and visitors from the entire USA and other countries. Kent State is centered in Kent, Ohio, United States, about southeast of Cleveland, northeast of Akron, and northwest of Youngstown. Kent State has 34,056 students across eight campuses, and is one of the largest employers in northeast Ohio. History Early history Kent Hall Front In 1910, the Kent State Normal School was established as a college for training public school teachers as part of the Lowry bill which also created a sister school in Bowling Green, Ohio, now known as Bowling Green State University. The new school was constructed on land donated by William S. Kent (son of Marvin Kent, the namesake for the city of Kent, Ohio) in what was then the eastern edge of Kent, Ohio. The first president was John Edward McGilvrey, who served from 1912 to 1926. By 1915, the school was named Kent State Normal College Special Collections FAQ , then Kent State College (after it was authorized to issue Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees), and Kent State University in 1935 when it received university status by Governor Martin L. Davey, a native of Kent. In 1967, Kent State became the first university to run an independent, student-operated Campus Bus Service. It was unique in that it provided jobs for students, receiving funding from student fees rather than bus fares. Campus Bus Service was the largest such operation in the country until it merged with the local transit authority (Portage Area Regional Transportation Authority (PARTA)) in 2004. In 1965, Chemistry professor Glenn H. Brown established the Liquid Crystal Institute, a world leader in the development the multibillion-dollar liquid crystal industry, named by Forbes magazine as one of 85 innovations that changed the way we live today. Memorial Markers in Taylor Parking Lot Kent State Shootings Kent State gained international attention on May 4, 1970 when an Ohio Army National Guard unit fired at students during a war protest on campus, killing four and wounding nine. The event caused an immediate closure of the campus as well as many other college campuses around the nation. The Guard had been called into Kent after several protests in and around campus had become violent, including the rioting of downtown Kent and the burning of the ROTC building. The main cause of the protests was the United States' invasion of Cambodia during the Vietnam War. Recent history Kent State was again in the national spotlight in 1977 when construction was set to begin on the Memorial Gym Annex, adjacent to the area where the shootings had occurred in 1970. Protesters organized a tent city in May, which lasted into July. Several attempts were made to block construction even after the end of the tent city, including an appeal to Congress to have the area declared a national historic landmark, but these attempts failed. Construction finally began on September 19, and finished in 1979. Presidents of Kent State University Cartwright Hall, Named after President Carol A. Cartwright John Edward McGilvrey (1911-1926); (b.1867-d.1945) David Allen Anderson (1926-1928); (b.1874-d.?) James Ozro Engleman (1928-1938); (b. 1873-d.1943) Karl Clayton Leebrick (1938-1943); (b. 1885-d.1982) George A. Bowman (1944-1963); (b.1893-d.1976) Robert I. White (1963-1971); (b.1909-d.1990) Glenn A. Olds (1971-1977); (b.1921-d.2006) Brage Golding (1977-1982); (b.1920-) Michael Schwartz (1982-1991); (b.1938-) Carol A. Cartwright (1991-July 2006); (b.1941-) Lester Lefton (July 2006-present); (b. 1942-) Campuses Main library Kent State University is an eight-campus system in northeastern Ohio, with the main administrative center in Kent. Within the Kent State University system, the main campus is officially referred to as the "Kent Campus", . The Kent Campus is a landscaped suburban environment, making up approximately which house over 100 buildings, gardens, bike trails, and open greenery. There are also thousands of additional acres of bogs, marshes, and wildlife refuges adjacent to or near the campus. While the university's official mascot is Flash the Golden Eagle, the campus also has an unofficial mascot in the Black Squirrel, which were brought to Kent in 1961 and can be found on and around the campus. The campus is divided into North, South, and East sections but many areas have come to be referred to as Front Campus, Residential Campus, and Science Row. The main hub of activity and central point is the Student Center and Risman Plaza, which is adjacent to the twelve-story main library. The university also operates the 18-hole Kent State Golf Course and Centennial Research Park just east of campus in Franklin Township and the Kent State University Airport in Stow. Regional Campuses Map of KSU campuses. In addition to the Kent Campus, there are seven regional campuses. The system is one of the largest and oldest regional campus systems in the United States. The regional campuses provide a small, liberal-arts college feel as opposed to the large university feel of the Kent Campus. Students at the regional campuses can begin any of Kent State's majors at their respective campus and each campus offers its own unique programs and opportunities that may or may not be available in Kent. Regional campuses include: Ashtabula The Ashtabula Campus is made up of three buildings: Main Hall, a library, and a technology and art building. It is on a site along the shores of Lake Erie in Ashtabula, Ohio. Kent State-Ashtabula is noted locally for its nursing program. Seventy-five percent (75%) of registered nurses working in Ashtabula County graduated with an Associate's degree in nursing from Kent State-Ashtabula. On July 17, 2007, ground was broken for a new Health and Science building, which is being constructed for use mainly by the growing nursing and allied health programs. East Liverpool The East Liverpool Campus occupies a downtown site overlooking the Ohio River. It is composed of the Main Building, Memorial Auditorium, Mary Patterson Building, and a Commons area. Geauga Located in Burton, Ohio, Kent State's Geauga Campus is at the heart of Ohio's maple syrup country in Geauga County. The campus provides easy access to urban, suburban and rural areas. The Geauga Campus also includes the Twinsburg Center, a small extension located in Twinsburg, Ohio. Salem Kent State's Salem Campus is located just south of the city. It features a lake, an outdoor classroom, and nature walk. In addition to the Salem Campus, Kent State University Salem owns and operates the old Salem Middle School called the "City Center" in which administrative offices, classes, and student services are located. Stark The Stark Campus is the largest regional campus of Kent State University, serving around 10,300 students each year (5,300 in academic programs, 5,000 in executive and graduate education). It is located on in Jackson Township just five minutes from the Akron-Canton Regional Airport. It is composed of seven major buildings and a natural pond and offers three masters and 12 complete bachelor degree programs. Baccalaureate programs include: applied communication, business management, English, general studies, history, justice studies, mathematics, middle childhood education, and nursing, as well as pre-law, technology and psychology degrees. Additionally, there are three associate degrees offered: arts, justice studies, and science. The campus also offers three masters level programs: a professional M.B.A degree and a M.A. or M.Ed. in Curriculum and Teaching Studies. Ninety percent of Kent State Stark's full-time faculty hold the highest academic credentials in their field. The Stark campus includes the Professional Education and Conference Center; an advanced meeting, training, and events facility that is one of only ten such centers in the state of Ohio affiliated with the International Association of Conference Centers. The Center also serves as a home to the Office of Corporate and Community Services, which provides intense training and learning exercises for area businesses and organizations. Trumbull Kent State's Trumbull Campus is located in Warren, Ohio just north of the SR 5 bypass on SR 45. It offers programs in 170 majors at the freshman and sophomore level, as well as 18 certificates and 15 associate degree programs. In addition, there is upper division coursework for baccalaureate degree completion in nursing, justice studies, technology, business management, and English, as well as general studies and psychology degrees. In 2004 the campus opened a Technology Building that includes the Workforce Development and Continuing Studies Center and an Adaptive Technology Lab for individuals with special needs. Tuscarawas The Tuscarawas Campus in New Philadelphia, Ohio offers 19 associate degrees, six bachelor's, and the Master of Technology Degree. Bacelors degrees are offered in business management, general studies, justice studies, industrial technology, nursing and technology 2+2. The Science and Advanced Technology Center provides of laboratory and classroom space for science, nursing and workforce development. The Tuscarawas Campus plans to construct a , $13.5 million Fine and Performing Arts center that will enable the campus to expand academic and cultural programming. Additional Facilities In addition to the eight campuses in northeast Ohio, Kent State operates facilities for study-abroad programs in Florence, Italy; New York City; and downtown Cleveland, Ohio. Florence Center KSU-Florence opened its doors to International Studies Abroad in a collaboration that grants students the opportunity to study in historic Florence at its newly-renovated Palazzo dei Cerchi. Palazzo dei Cerchi is a prestigious and ancient building located in the heart of Florence, at the corner of Via della Condotta and Vicolo dei Cerchi, next to the famous Piazza della Signoria and the birthplace of literary genius Dante Alighieri. Kent State acquired this facility in 2003 and undertook its complete renovation. The original exterior was maintained and reflects Florence as it was in the 13th century. The restoration carefully preserved the original structure while creating an efficient space for academic purposes, with an interior that houses state-of-the art classrooms. New York City Studio The New York City Studio is located in the heart of New York City's Garment District. Surrounded by fabric and accessory shops, fashion showrooms, and designer studios; one-third of all clothing manufactured in the USA is designed and produced in this neighborhood. The District is home to America's world-renowned fashion designers, including Oscar de la Renta, Calvin Klein, Donna Karan, Liz Claiborne, and Nicole Miller. The facility is a state-of-the art, space and includes a 50-person lecture room, 12-station computer lab with instructor station, and a fashion design studio fully outfitted with professional equipment. The NYC studio gives Kent State students the advantage of working within the heart of the fashion, dance and theater industry. Cleveland Urban Design Center Kent State's Cleveland Urban Design Center is located at 820 Prospect Avenue in downtown Cleveland's historic Gateway neighborhood, just off of East 9th Street. The Urban Design Center was created in 1983 under the sponsorship of the Urban University Program, which supports the outreach and community service efforts of Ohio's state universities working in urban areas. Under its founding director, Foster Armstrong, the Center expanded on the existing outreach and public service activities of Kent State's architecture school, focusing primarily on historic preservation and the problems of Northeast Ohio's smaller towns and cities. In 2003, the CUDC began a collaboration with the Dresden University of Technology, Kent State's sister university in Germany, with a joint vision on the revitalization of the lower Cuyahoga Valley in Cleveland. Since then, there have been a number of faculty exchanges as the two universities seek to pool their expertise both to enhance students’ experiences and to better serve their respective regions. Academic divisions Front Campus at Night Kent State has colleges of: Architecture and Environmental Design Arts (focusing on fine/performing arts and fashion-related studies) Arts and Sciences Business Administration Communication and Information Education, Health, and Human Services Nursing Technology The university has an Honors College and interdisciplinary programs in Biomedical Sciences, Financial Engineering, and Information Architecture and Knowledge Management. Notable programs KSU Water Tower, part of the Kent campus "City within a City" system The Shannon Rodgers and Jerry Silverman School of Fashion Design and Merchandising is in the top tier of fashion education in the nation by the Council of Fashion Designers of America, with programs in Florence, Hong Kong, and New York City, and affiliations in Paris and London. The Hugh A Glauser School of Music offers degrees in music education, music performance, music theory and composition, and ethnomusicology. The School of Music is one of the few colleges in the US that offer a BM, a MM, and a PhD in music education. The Kent/Blossom Music program partners with the Cleveland Orchestra each summer for one of the nation's major classical music festivals. The Center for the Study of World Musics is one of the primary centers for ethnomusicology in the United States. The School Psychology Program (SPSY is the only program in the state accredited by APA and NASP. The SPSY program is a 'flagship' training program in Ohio (graduates comprise about 18% of all SPSY professionals in the state). The Visual Communication Design Program (VCD) is one of the most respected in the US. Kent State University is one of few universities with graduate programs in Information Architecture and Knowledge Management (IAKM ) and an online certificate program in Knowledge Management. The only institution in Ohio to offer a degree in Library and Information Science, Kent is ranked 19th by U.S. News & World Report. Kent's Business School is nationally known and the Financial Engineering program is ranked 13th in the country. The College of Technology offers three aeronautics degrees; Flight Technology, Aviation Management and Aeronautical Engineering. See also: Kent State University Airport. The College of Architecture offers one of the most demanding undergraduate programs in the country. The interior design program is one of the top twelve in the nation. Kent State Math and Computer Science Building Kent State has a complete undergraduate, master's, and doctoral sequence in translation and the only dual masters degree program in the nation. Faculty, staff and students collaborate at The Institute for the Study and Prevention of Violence (ISPV), bringing together local and national expertise to develop multidisciplinary research that informs the development and implementation of best practices and policy. The Center for Peaceful Change, a response to the Kent State shootings of 1970, was established in 1971 "as a living memorial to the events of May 4, 1970." Now known as The Center for Applied Conflict Management (CACM), it developed one of the earliest conflict resolution undergraduate degree programs in the United States. Pan-African Studies is one of the oldest African American programs in the nation. Kent State offers the only B.A. in American Sign Language in the U.S. east of the Mississippi River. The Wick Poetry Center is one of only ten poetry centers in the nation. In conjunction with the University of Akron and Youngstown State University, Kent State is a member of the Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine and Pharmacy program, a six year medical program, one of only 17 combine BS/MD programs in the country. Student life The university offers a large number of opportunities for student involvement at all its campuses, including student and professional associations, service organizations, performing ensembles, student publications, student government, and intramural and club athletics. Social fraternities Alpha Tau Omega Alpha Epsilon Pi Delta Chi Delta Lambda Phi Delta Sigma Phi Delta Tau Delta Delta Upsilon Lambda Chi AlphaPhi Delta Theta Phi Sigma Kappa Sigma Chi Sigma Alpha Epsilon Sigma Phi Epsilon Sigma Nu Sigma Tau Gamma Tau Kappa Epsilon Social Sororities Alpha Phi Alpha Xi Delta Delta Gamma Delta Zeta Chi Omega Sigma Sigma Sigma Phi Gamma Pi (local sorority) African American Fraternities Kappa Alpha Psi Phi Beta Sigma Omega Psi Phi African American Sororities Delta Sigma Theta Sigma Gamma Rho Zeta Phi Beta Service & Honorary Fraternities/Sororities Alpha Kappa Delta Alpha Phi Sigma Alpha Phi Omega Beta Alpha Psi Chi Sigma Iota Delta Sigma Pi Eta Sigma Gamma Kappa Kappa Psi Kappa Phi Lambda Pi EtaPi Mu Epsilon Phi Alpha Theta Phi Delta Epsilon Phi Sigma Iota Phi Sigma Pi Sigma Alpha Lambada Sigma Tau Delta Tau Beta Sigma Tau Sigma Psi Chi Performing arts Through the Hugh A. Glauser School of Music and the School of Theatre and Dance, the university offers numerous performance opportunities in the performing arts, including five concert bands (Wind Ensemble, Symphonic Band, Concert Band, University Band, and Communiversity Band), Athletic Bands (Marching Golden Flashes and Flasher Brass), three jazz ensembles (Jazz Ensemble I, Jazz Ensemble II, and Jazz Lab Band), six choral ensembles (Kent Chorus, KSU Chorale, Women's Chorus, Men's Chorus, Gospel Choir, and Ars Nova Singers), Orchestra, World Music Ensembles, as well as theater and dance opportunities. Each regional campus also offers their own performing arts opportunitites. Student events and programming Kent State Student Center Programming offers a variety of programs and events that are free for students across campus. The Black Squirrel Festival, Rock the Runway, Jack Hanna's Animals are just a few of the larger events that take place throughout the year. Karaoke is held every Thursday in the Rathskellar and various tournaments (8-ball, Euchre, Poker) are held at various times throughout the semester. Student government Kent Interhall Council (KIC) Undergraduate Student Government (USG) Graduate Student Senate (GSS) Student media Tri-Towers Residence Hall Complex Eastway Dining Hall at Night Centennial Court A at Night The Daily Kent Stater, colloquially known as the "Stater", is a student newspaper publishing student and guests editorials Monday-Friday during the fall and spring semesters and weekly as the Summer Kent Stater during the summer. Stater staff is entirely students, primarily in the journalism. Most editors hold their positions for one semester. Black Squirrel Radio is Kent State's student-run radio station, which has nearly 120 students on its staff. The station streams constantly online and is also available through iTunes and on campus TV. The station plays urban, rock, and local music, and also broadcasts KSU basketball and football home games live. Fusion Magazine (Kent State University) is published twice a year by KSU students in print and on the Internet. The magazine strives to unify people of different backgrounds through education and awareness. Fusion Magazine (Kent State University) addresses sexual minority issues within the general population using illustrative photo essays and in-depth feature articles. TV2 is Kent State's student-run television station, produced solely by students with live M-F 5:30 pm news. Other student-created shows include Sportscorner, a music video show, talk shows and more. News broadcasts are available on KSU cable channel 2, Portage County Time Warner channel 16 and on-demand online. Campus living Kent State operates thirty-five on-campus residence halls and a twelve-building apartment complex, all of which are located on the main campus in Kent. Each hall is a part of a larger group, usually bound by a common name or a common central area. They are: Twin Towers: Beall and McDowell Tri-Towers: Koonce, Leebrick, Wright and Korb Loop Road: Heer, Harbourt, and Van Campen. These were no longer in use as of Fall 2008 and are being torn down as of Spring 2009. First Year Experience: Apple, Altmann, Humphrey, McSweeney, Metcalf (named after former band director Roy D. Metcalf), Munzenmayer, Musselman, and Stewart (also known as "Small Group" dorms). These were no longer in use as of Fall 2008 and are being torn down as of Spring 2009. Eastway: Allyn, Clark, Fletcher, and Manchester. These are the new First Year Experience dorms. New Front: Prentice, Verder, Dunbar, and Engleman Centennial Court: Six buildings lettered A - F Quad: Lake, Olson, Johnson, and Stopher Allerton: Twelve apartment buildings for family student housing Dining halls are in Eastway, Tri-Towers, Stewart in First Year Experience and Prentice, as well as multiple locations in the Student Center. Each of the residence hall dining locations also houses small grocery stores where students may use their board plan. Learning communities Within the dorms are 15 Learning Communities based on area of study: Accelerated Bachelor of Business Administration (A-BBA) Accounting Freshman Interest Group (AFIG) A Community of Entrepreneurs (ACE) College of Business Colleagues (CBC) CCI Commons Centennial Leadership Academy Education Learning Community (ELC) EXCEL Global Passport Community Honors Hall Literacy and Independence for Family Education (LIFE) Pathways Physical Education Professional Learning Community (PEPLC) Science Learning Community (SLC) Quest Athletics The current Kent State athletic logo Kent State's athletic teams are called the Golden Flashes. Their colors are Navy Blue and Gold. They compete in the NCAA's Division I (Bowl Subdivision for football), and the Mid-American Conference East division. Kent State fields 16 varsity athletic teams and one club team. The Kent defense lines up against Akron at Dix Stadium on September 30, 2006 The Flashes had success in the Mid-American Conference, earned the Mid-American Conference's Reese Cup for best men's athetic program in 2000, 2002 and 2006 and the Jacoby Cup for best women's athletic program in 1989, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2004 and 2005.. In 2002 the Men's Basketball team advanced to NCAA "Elite Eight", while the baseball team, women's basketball, gymnastics, men's golf, and women's golf teams have won numerous MAC titles and advanced to NCAA tournament play. Some notable athletic alumni include: Missouri Tigers head football coach Gary Pinkel, 2003 British Open Champion and current PGA member Ben Curtis, former New York Yankees catcher Thurman Munson, former Pittsburgh Steelers linebacker Jack Lambert, ESPN Analyst and former college football coach Lou Holtz, San Diego Chargers tight end Antonio Gates, Cleveland Browns return specialist Joshua Cribbs, former San Diego Padres pitcher Dustin Hermanson, Tampa Bay Rays pitcher Andy Sonnanstine, Minnesota Twins pitcher Matt Guerrier, and Alabama Crimson Tide head football coach Nick Saban. The Golden Flashes compete in the following sports: Fall Sports Men's Cross Country Women's Cross Country Men's Rugby (club team) Women's Rugby (club team) Field Hockey Football Men's Golf* Women's Golf* Women's Soccer Women's Volleyball Winter Sports Men's Basketball Women's Basketball Women's Gymnastics Men's Ice hockey (club team) Men's Track and Field (Indoor season) Women's Track and Field (Indoor season) Wrestling Spring Sports Baseball Men's Golf* Women's Golf* Softball Men's Track and Field (Outdoor season) Women's Track and Field (Outdoor season) *=the golf teams' season begins in the fall, but continues through most of the school year, culminating in the league and NCAA tournaments in the spring. City of Kent, Ohio Aerial of Kent Campus. Kent State's main campus is located in Kent, Ohio. Historically, Kent's growth was influenced by the canals and rail and the city was known as a strong location for the Underground Railroad. Known as the Tree City, Kent is home to the Davey Tree Expert Company, a leader in tree sales and growth. With a population of 27,906 Kent, Ohio Kent offers a suburban, accessible setting. Nearby cities include Streetsboro, Stow, Hudson, Ravenna and Akron. Alma Mater & Fight Song Cement Kent on Front Campus Alma Mater: From the beauty land Ohio comes a universal praise, 'Tis the song of Alma Mater that her sons and daughters raise. 'Tis a Hail to Kent forever, on the Cuyahoga shore, Now we join the loving thousands as they sing it o'er and o'er. Hail to Thee, our Alma Mater. O, how beautiful Thou art, High enthroned upon the hilltop, Reigning over every heart. Fight Song: Fight on for KSU Fight for the Blue and Gold! We're out to beat the foe; Fight on brave and bold! Fight on for victory, Don't stop until we're through. We're all together, Let's go forward, K-S-U! University Press May 4 Memorial at Night The Kent State University Press is the publishing arm of Kent State University. Their mission is "to advance knowledge through publishing" and is controlled by an Editorial Board of Kent faculty. As a member of the Association of American University Presses, it is included in the select group of more than 100 university-sponsored scholarly presses, whose outstanding programs make them an important segment of the publishing and academic community. The Press began in 1965 under the direction of Howard Allen and published in the University faculty strengths in literary criticism. In 1972 Paul Rohmann became the Press's second director and expanded the Press's publishing program to include regional studies and ethnomusicology. In 1985 historian John Hubbell assumed the directorship and for fifteen years saw the staff and publishing program grow to include widely regarded lists in Civil War history and Ohio history. Today, under director Will Underwood, the Press publishes 30 to 35 titles a year and reaches a large and appreciative audience. Notable alumni Rockwell Hall, Fashion Museum and School of Fashion Tom Batiuk, comic strip author of Funky Winkerbean and Crankshaft Bob Borden, writer and frequent contributor, Late Show with David Letterman Bertice Berry, sociologist, author, lecturer, comedian, educator, and former talk show host John Caparulo, comedian Michael Capellas, president of Hewlett-Packard, president and CEO of WorldCom (later MCI), and acting CEO of Serena Software Vincent J. Cardinal, playwright and director Drew Carey, actor, comedian, host of TV's Price is Right Carol Costello, anchor and reporter for CNN Joshua Cribbs, professional football player for the Cleveland Browns Ben Curtis, professional golfer John de Lancie, actor John Dennis, radio talk show personality and television sportscaster Stephen R. Donaldson, author Donald Erb, composer John Filo, photographer Quinton Flynn, voice actor Angela Funovits, mentalist/illusionist, star of NBC's Phenomenon Antonio Gates Tight End for the San Diego Chargers Matt Guerrier, professional baseball player Arsenio Hall, talk show host James Harrison, linebacker for the Pittsburgh Steelers Dustin Hermanson, professional baseball pitcher for the Chicago White Sox Dave Holmes (sportscaster), winner of ESPN's Dream Job Lou Holtz, college football coach, television sportscaster Chrissie Hynde, lead singer for the The Pretenders Daniel Johnston, singer-songwriter Michael Keaton, actor Vic Ketchman, sport journalist Don King, boxing promoter Jack Lambert, former Pittsburgh Steelers linebacker and a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame Mike Lebowitz, attorney, pioneer in military free speech, military law Hal McCoy, Cincinnati Reds Beat Writer, Baseball Hall of Fame Member Ben McDaniels, assistant coach for the Denver Broncos Nigel McGuinness professional wrestler, currently working for Ring of Honour Gene Michael, Major League Baseball professional baseball player, mananger, and scout Mark Mothersbaugh, Gerald Casale, and Bob Lewis, founders of the new wave band Devo Thurman Munson, professional baseball player with the New York Yankees, Rookie of the Year, and MLB Most Valuable Player Award winner Dav Pilkey, children's author, Captain Underpants Jeff Richmond, composer and producer, 30 Rock Alice Ripley, actress and singer Nick Saban, head football coach at the University of Alabama Paul Sahre, graphic designer, illustrator, author, educator David Sedaris, author, humorist Connie Schultz, columnist for The Plain Dealer, 2005 Pulitzer Prize winner Andy Sonnanstine, starting pitcher for the Tampa Bay Rays Steve Stone (baseball player), baseball pitcher, winner of the Cy Young Award, sportscaster Harry Stout, religious historian, endowed scholar at Yale University (Ph.D. in history) Betty Sutton, congresswoman for Ohio's 13th congressional district Bonnie Turner, writer/creator, 3rd Rock from the Sun and That '70s Show Crista Nicole Wagner, swimsuit model, Playboy Playmate Joe Walsh, rock and roll guitarist, the Eagles (received honorary doctorate in 2001) Jack Williams, defensive back for the Denver Broncos De'Angelo Wilson, actor Brian Windhurst, Cleveland Cavaliers beat writer Amy Young, owner of Perihelion Arts Contemporary Gallery Usama Young, defensive back for the New Orleans Saints Kevin Stewart-Magee fine art muralist and painter Abram Elam, safety for the Cleveland Browns, traded from New York Jets Jim Corrigall, former defensive end for the Toronto Argonauts and former KSU head football coach Campus and buildings Further reading External links Official website References | Kent_State_University |@lemmatized kent:90 state:66 university:44 also:14 know:8 ksu:10 one:19 america:3 large:12 system:6 third:2 ohio:31 residential:3 northeast:6 traditional:1 selective:1 public:3 research:3 seven:3 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2,928 | Johnson_solid | The elongated square gyrobicupola (J37), a Johnson solid This 24 equilateral triangle example is not a Johnson solid because it is not convex. (This particular regular polyhedron is actually a stellation, the only possible one for the octahedron.) This 24-square example is not a Johnson solid because it is not strictly convex (has 180° dihedral angles.) In geometry, a Johnson solid is a strictly convex polyhedron, each face of which is a regular polygon, but which is not uniform, i.e., not a Platonic solid, Archimedean solid, prism or antiprism. There is no requirement that each face must be the same polygon, or that the same polygons join around each vertex. An example of a Johnson solid is the square-based pyramid with equilateral sides (J1); it has 1 square face and 4 triangular faces. As in any strictly convex solid, at least three faces meet at every vertex, and the total of their angles is less than 360 degrees. Since a regular polygon has angles at least 60 degrees, it follows that at most five faces meet at any vertex. The pentagonal pyramid (J2) is an example that actually has a degree-5 vertex. Although there is no obvious restriction that any given regular polygon cannot be a face of a Johnson solid, it turns out that the faces of Johnson solids always have 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, or 10 sides. In 1966, Norman Johnson published a list which included all 92 solids, and gave them their names and numbers. He did not prove that there were only 92, but he did conjecture that there were no others. Victor Zalgaller in 1969 proved that Johnson's list was complete. Of the Johnson solids, the elongated square gyrobicupola (J37) is unique in being locally vertex-uniform: there are 4 faces at each vertex, and their arrangement is always the same: 3 squares and 1 triangle. However, it is not vertex-transitive, as it has different isometry at different vertices, making it a Johnson solid rather than an Archimedean solid. Names The names are listed below and are more descriptive than they sound. Most of the Johnson solids can be constructed from the first few (pyramids, cupolae, and rotundae), together with the Platonic and Archimedean solids, prisms, and antiprisms. Bi- means that two copies of the solid in question are joined base-to-base. For cupolae and rotundae, they can be joined so that like faces (ortho-) or unlike faces (gyro-) meet. In this nomenclature, an octahedron would be a square bipyramid, a cuboctahedron would be a triangular gyrobicupola, and an icosidodecahedron would be a pentagonal gyrobirotunda. Elongated means that a prism has been joined to the base of the solid in question or between the bases of the solids in question. A rhombicuboctahedron would be an elongated square orthobicupola. Gyroelongated means that an antiprism has been joined to the base of the solid in question or between the bases of the solids in question. An icosahedron would be a gyroelongated pentagonal bipyramid. Augmented means that a pyramid or cupola has been joined to a face of the solid in question. Diminished means that a pyramid or cupola has been removed from the solid in question. Gyrate means that a cupola on the solid in question has been rotated so that different edges match up, as in the difference between ortho- and gyrobicupolae. The last three operations — augmentation, diminution, and gyration — can be performed more than once on a large enough solid. We add bi- to the name of the operation to indicate that it has been performed twice. (A bigyrate solid has had two of its cupolae rotated.) We add tri- to indicate that it has been performed three times. (A tridiminished solid has had three of its pyramids or cupolae removed.) Sometimes, bi- alone is not specific enough. We must distinguish between a solid that has had two parallel faces altered and one that has had two oblique faces altered. When the faces altered are parallel, we add para- to the name of the operation. (A parabiaugmented solid has had two parallel faces augmented.) When they are not, we add meta- to the name of the operation. (A metabiaugmented solid has had 2 oblique faces augmented.) Enumeration Prismatoids and rotundae Pyramids Cupolas Rotunda JnSolid nameNetImageVEFF3F4F5F6F8F10Symmetry 1 Square pyramid 5 8 5 4 1 C4v 2 Pentagonal pyramid 6 10 6 5 1 C5v 3 Triangular cupola 9 15 8 4 3 1 C3v 4 Square cupola 12 20 10 4 5 1 C4v 5 Pentagonal cupola 15 25 12 5 5 1 1 C5v 6 Pentagonal rotunda 20 35 17 10 6 1 C5v Modified pyramids and dipyramids elongated pyramid gyroelongated pyramid bipyramid elongated dipyramid gyroelongated dipyramid JnSolid nameNetImageVEFF3F4F5F6F8F10Symmetry 7 Elongated triangular pyramid (or elongated tetrahedron) 7 12 7 4 3 C3v 8 Elongated square pyramid (or augmented cube) 9 16 9 4 5 C4v 9 Elongated pentagonal pyramid 11 20 11 5 5 1 C5v 10 Gyroelongated square pyramid 9 20 13 12 1 C4v 11 Gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid (or diminished icosahedron) 11 25 16 15 1 C5v 12 Triangular dipyramid 5 9 6 6 D3h 13 Pentagonal dipyramid 7 15 10 10 D5h 14 Elongated triangular dipyramid 8 15 9 6 3 D3h 15 Elongated square dipyramid(or biaugmented cube) 10 20 12 8 4 D4h 16 Elongated pentagonal dipyramid 12 25 15 10 5 D5h 17 Gyroelongated square dipyramid 10 24 16 16 D4d Modified cupolas and rotunda elongated cupola elongated rotunda elongated birotunda elongated cupolarotunda elongated bicupola gyroelongated cupola gyroelongated rotunda bicupola cupolarotunda gyroelongated bicupola gyroelongated birotunda gyroelongated cupolarotunda JnSolid nameNetImageVEFF3F4F5F6F8F10Symmetry 18 Elongated triangular cupola 15 27 14 4 9 1 C3v 19 Elongated square cupola(diminished rhombicuboctahedron) 20 36 18 4 13 1 C4v 20 Elongated pentagonal cupola 25 45 22 5 15 1 1 C5v 21 Elongated pentagonal rotunda 30 55 27 10 10 6 1 C5v 22 Gyroelongated triangular cupola 15 33 20 16 3 1 C3v 23 Gyroelongated square cupola 20 44 26 20 5 1 C4v 24 Gyroelongated pentagonal cupola 25 55 32 25 5 1 1 C5v 25 Gyroelongated pentagonal rotunda 30 65 37 30 6 1 C5v 26 Gyrobifastigium 8 14 8 4 4 D2d 27 Triangular orthobicupola(gyrate cuboctahedron) 12 24 14 8 6 D3h 28 Square orthobicupola 16 32 18 8 10 D4h 29 Square gyrobicupola 16 32 18 8 10 D4d 30 Pentagonal orthobicupola 20 40 22 10 10 2 D5h 31 Pentagonal gyrobicupola 20 40 22 10 10 2 D5d 32 Pentagonal orthocupolarotunda 25 50 27 15 5 7 C5v 33 Pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda 25 50 27 15 5 7 C5v 34 Pentagonal orthobirotunda(gyrate icosidodecahedron) 30 60 32 20 12 D5h 35 Elongated triangular orthobicupola 18 36 20 8 12 D3h 36 Elongated triangular gyrobicupola 18 36 20 8 12 D3d 37 Elongated square gyrobicupola(gyrate rhombicuboctahedron) 24 48 26 8 18 D4d 38 Elongated pentagonal orthobicupola 30 60 32 10 20 2 D5h 39 Elongated pentagonal gyrobicupola 30 60 32 10 20 2 D5d 40 Elongated pentagonal orthocupolarotunda 35 70 37 15 15 7 C5v 41 Elongated pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda 35 70 37 15 15 7 C5v 42 Elongated pentagonal orthobirotunda 40 80 42 20 10 12 D5h 43 Elongated pentagonal gyrobirotunda 40 80 42 20 10 12 D5d 44 Gyroelongated triangular bicupola(2 chiral forms) 18 42 26 20 6 D3 45 Gyroelongated square bicupola(2 chiral forms) 24 56 34 24 10 D4 46 Gyroelongated pentagonal bicupola(2 chiral forms) 30 70 42 30 10 2 D5 47 Gyroelongated pentagonal cupolarotunda(2 chiral forms) 35 80 47 35 5 7 C5 48 Gyroelongated pentagonal birotunda(2 chiral forms) 40 90 52 40 12 D5 Augmented prisms JnSolid nameNetImageVEFF3F4F5F6F8F10Symmetry 49 Augmented triangular prism 7 13 8 6 2 C2v 50 Biaugmented triangular prism 8 17 11 10 1 C2v 51 Triaugmented triangular prism 9 21 14 14 D3h 52 Augmented pentagonal prism 11 19 10 4 4 2 C2v 53 Biaugmented pentagonal prism 12 23 13 8 3 2 C2v 54 Augmented hexagonal prism 13 22 11 4 5 2 C2v 55 Parabiaugmented hexagonal prism 14 26 14 8 4 2 D2h 56 Metabiaugmented hexagonal prism 14 26 14 8 4 2 C2v 57 Triaugmented hexagonal prism 15 30 17 12 3 2 D3h Modified Platonic solids Augmented dodecahedrons Diminished icosahedrons JnSolid nameNetImageVEFF3F4F5F6F8F10Symmetry 58 Augmented dodecahedron 21 35 16 5 11 C5v 59 Parabiaugmented dodecahedron 22 40 20 10 10 D5d 60 Metabiaugmented dodecahedron 22 40 20 10 10 C2v 61 Triaugmented dodecahedron 23 45 24 15 9 C3v 62 Metabidiminished icosahedron 10 20 12 10 2 C2v 63 Tridiminished icosahedron 9 15 8 5 3 C3v 64 Augmented tridiminished icosahedron 10 18 10 7 3 C3v Modified Archimedean solids augmented truncated tetrahedron augmented truncated cube augmented truncated dodecahedron gyrate rhombicosadodecahedron diminished rhombicosadodecahedron gyrate diminished rhombicosadodecahedron diminished rhombicosadodecahedron gyrate diminished rhombicosadodecahedron diminished rhombicosadodecahedron JnSolid nameNetImageVEFF3F4F5F6F8F10Symmetry 65 Augmented truncated tetrahedron 15 27 14 8 3 3 C3v 66 Augmented truncated cube 28 48 22 12 5 5 C4v 67 Biaugmented truncated cube 32 60 30 16 10 4 D4h 68 Augmented truncated dodecahedron 65 105 42 25 5 1 11 C5v 69 Parabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron 70 120 52 30 10 2 10 D5d 70 Metabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron 70 120 52 30 10 2 10 C2v 71 Triaugmented truncated dodecahedron 75 135 62 35 15 3 9 C3v 72 Gyrate rhombicosidodecahedron 60 120 62 20 30 12 C5v 73 Parabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron 60 120 62 20 30 12 D5d 74 Metabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron 60 120 62 20 30 12 C2v 75 Trigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron 60 120 62 20 30 12 C3v 76 Diminished rhombicosidodecahedron 55 105 52 15 25 11 1 C5v 77 Paragyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron 55 105 52 15 25 11 1 C5v 78 Metagyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron 55 105 52 15 25 11 1 Cs 79 Bigyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron 55 105 52 15 25 11 1 Cs 80 Parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron 50 90 42 10 20 10 2 D5d 81 Metabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron 50 90 42 10 20 10 2 C2v 82 Gyrate bidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron 50 90 42 10 20 10 2 Cs 83 Tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron 45 75 32 5 15 9 3 C3v Miscellaneous JnSolid nameNetImageVEFF3F4F5F6F8F10Symmetry 84 Snub disphenoid(Siamese dodecahedron) 8 18 12 12 D2d 85 Snub square antiprism 16 40 26 24 2 D4d 86 Sphenocorona 10 22 14 12 2 C2v 87 Augmented sphenocorona 11 26 17 16 1 Cs 88 Sphenomegacorona 12 28 18 16 2 C2v 89 Hebesphenomegacorona 14 33 21 18 3 C2v 90 Disphenocingulum 16 38 24 20 4 D2d 91 Bilunabirotunda 14 26 14 8 2 4 D2h 92 Triangular hebesphenorotunda 18 36 20 13 3 3 1 C3v See also Near-miss Johnson solid References Norman W. Johnson, "Convex Solids with Regular Faces", Canadian Journal of Mathematics, 18, 1966, pages 169–200. Contains the original enumeration of the 92 solids and the conjecture that there are no others. The first proof that there are only 92 Johnson solids. External links Sylvain Gagnon, "Convex polyhedra with regular faces", Structural Topology, No. 6, 1982, 83-95. Paper Models of Polyhedra Many links Johnson Solids by George W. Hart. Images of all 92 solids, categorized, on one page VRML models VRML models of Johnson Solids by Vladimir Bulatov | Johnson_solid |@lemmatized elongated:2 square:21 gyrobicupola:8 johnson:17 solid:39 equilateral:2 triangle:2 example:4 convex:6 particular:1 regular:6 polyhedron:3 actually:2 stellation:1 possible:1 one:3 octahedron:2 strictly:3 dihedral:1 angle:3 geometry:1 face:19 polygon:5 uniform:2 e:1 platonic:3 archimedean:4 prism:13 antiprism:3 requirement:1 must:2 join:6 around:1 vertex:8 base:7 pyramid:17 side:2 triangular:16 least:2 three:4 meet:3 every:1 total:1 less:1 degree:3 since:1 follow:1 five:1 pentagonal:30 although:1 obvious:1 restriction:1 give:2 cannot:1 turn:1 always:2 norman:2 publish:1 list:3 include:1 name:6 number:1 prove:2 conjecture:2 others:2 victor:1 zalgaller:1 complete:1 elongate:29 unique:1 locally:1 arrangement:1 however:1 transitive:1 different:3 isometry:1 make:1 rather:1 descriptive:1 sound:1 construct:1 first:2 cupolae:4 rotundae:3 together:1 antiprisms:1 bi:3 mean:6 two:5 copy:1 question:8 like:1 ortho:2 unlike:1 gyro:1 nomenclature:1 would:5 bipyramid:3 cuboctahedron:2 icosidodecahedron:2 gyrobirotunda:2 rhombicuboctahedron:3 orthobicupola:6 gyroelongated:21 icosahedron:6 augment:18 cupola:15 diminish:12 remove:2 gyrate:9 rotate:2 edge:1 match:1 difference:1 gyrobicupolae:1 last:1 operation:4 augmentation:1 diminution:1 gyration:1 perform:3 large:1 enough:2 add:4 indicate:2 twice:1 bigyrate:2 tri:1 time:1 tridiminished:4 sometimes:1 alone:1 specific:1 distinguish:1 parallel:3 alter:3 oblique:2 para:1 parabiaugmented:4 meta:1 metabiaugmented:4 enumeration:2 prismatoid:1 cupolas:1 rotunda:7 jnsolid:7 modify:4 dipyramids:1 dipyramid:8 tetrahedron:3 cube:5 biaugmented:4 birotunda:3 cupolarotunda:4 bicupola:6 diminished:1 gyrobifastigium:1 orthocupolarotunda:2 gyrocupolarotunda:2 orthobirotunda:2 chiral:5 form:5 triaugmented:4 hexagonal:4 dodecahedron:11 metabidiminished:2 truncated:3 rhombicosadodecahedron:6 truncate:7 rhombicosidodecahedron:12 parabigyrate:1 metabigyrate:1 trigyrate:1 paragyrate:1 metagyrate:1 c:4 parabidiminished:1 bidiminished:1 miscellaneous:1 snub:2 disphenoid:1 siamese:1 sphenocorona:2 sphenomegacorona:1 hebesphenomegacorona:1 disphenocingulum:1 bilunabirotunda:1 hebesphenorotunda:1 see:1 also:1 near:1 miss:1 reference:1 w:2 canadian:1 journal:1 mathematics:1 page:2 contain:1 original:1 proof:1 external:1 link:2 sylvain:1 gagnon:1 structural:1 topology:1 paper:1 model:3 polyhedra:1 many:1 george:1 hart:1 image:1 categorize:1 vrml:2 vladimir:1 bulatov:1 |@bigram equilateral_triangle:1 regular_polyhedron:1 dihedral_angle:1 convex_polyhedron:2 regular_polygon:3 platonic_solid:2 archimedean_solid:4 pentagonal_pyramid:4 vertex_transitive:1 prism_antiprisms:1 gyroelongated_pentagonal:7 pentagonal_cupola:3 elongate_triangular:5 elongate_pentagonal:10 triangular_orthobicupola:2 triangular_prism:3 hexagonal_prism:4 diminish_rhombicosadodecahedron:5 truncate_dodecahedron:4 external_link:1 vrml_model:2 |
2,929 | History_of_geometry | Table of Geometry, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. Geometry (Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth, metria = measure) arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships. Geometry was one of the two fields of pre-modern mathematics, the other being the study of numbers. Classic geometry was focused in compass and straightedge constructions. As they are the composition of five elemental constructions over a set of elements, as an algebra over an axiomatic system, the barrier between algebra and geometry began to fade out. In modern times, geometric concepts have been generalized to a high level of abstraction and complexity, and have been subjected to the methods of calculus and abstract algebra, so that many modern branches of the field are barely recognizable as the descendants of early geometry. (See areas of mathematics and algebraic geometry.) Early geometry The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to cavemen, who discovered obtuse triangles in the ancient Indus Valley (see Harappan Mathematics), and ancient Babylonia (see Babylonian mathematics) from around 3000 BC. Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles concerning lengths, angles, areas, and volumes, which were developed to meet some practical need in surveying, construction, astronomy, and various crafts. Among these were some surprisingly sophisticated principles, and a modern mathematician might be hard put to derive some of them without the use of calculus. For example, both the Egyptians and the Babylonians were aware of versions of the Pythagorean theorem about 1500 years before Pythagoras; the Egyptians had a correct formula for the volume of a frustum of a square pyramid; the Babylonians had a trigonometry table. Egyptian geometry The ancient Egyptians knew that they could approximate the area of a circle as follows: Ray C. Jurgensen, Alfred J. Donnelly, and Mary P. Dolciani. Editorial Advisors Andrew M. Gleason, Albert E. Meder, Jr. Modern School Mathematics: Geometry (Student's Edition). Houghlin Mifflin Company, Boston, 1972, p. 52. ISBN 0-395-13102-2. Teachers Edition ISBN 0-395-13103-0. Area of Circle ≈ [ (Diameter) x 8/9 ]2. Problem 50 of the Ahmes papyrus uses these methods to calculate the area of a circle, according to a rule that the area is equal to the square of 8/9 of the circle's diameter. This assumes that is 4×(8/9)² (or 3.160493...), with an error of slightly over 0.63 percent. This value was slightly less accurate than the calculations of the Babylonians (25/8 = 3.125, within 0.53 percent), but was not otherwise surpassed until Archimedes' approximation of 211875/67441 = 3.14163, which had an error of just over 1 in 10,000). Interestingly, Ahmes knew of the modern 22/7 as an approximation for pi, and used it to split a hekat, hekat x 22/x x 7/22 = hekat; however, Ahmes continued to use the traditional 256/81 value for pi for computing his hekat volume found in a cylinder. Problem 48 involved using a square with side 9 units. This square was cut into a 3x3 grid. The diagonal of the corner squares were used to make an irregular octagon with an area of 63 units. This gave a second value for of 3.111... The two problems together indicate a range of values for Pi between 3.11 and 3.16. Problem 14 in the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus gives the only ancient example finding the volume of a frustum of a pyramid, describing the correct formula: Babylonian geometry The Babylonians may have known the general rules for measuring areas and volumes. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if π is estimated as 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. The Pythagorean theorem was also known to the Babylonians. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used π as 3 and 1/8. The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven miles today. This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. Eves, Chapter 2. Indian geometry Vedic period Rigveda manuscript in Devanagari. The Vedas, composed during the Vedic period (late 2nd to early 1st millennia BCE), mostly contain mentions of numbers related to ritual, including powers of 10. Mesopotamian influence is possible in the form of the sexagesimal system. The Satapatha Brahmana (9th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras. A. Seidenberg, 1978. The origin of mathematics. Archive for the history of Exact Sciences, vol 18. The Śulba Sūtras (literally, "Aphorisms of the Chords" in Vedic Sanskrit) (c. 700-400 BCE) list rules for the construction of sacrificial fire altars. Most mathematical problems considered in the Śulba Sūtras spring from "a single theological requirement," that of constructing fire altars which have different shapes but occupy the same area. The altars were required to be constructed of five layers of burnt brick, with the further condition that each layer consist of 200 bricks and that no two adjacent layers have congruent arrangements of bricks. According to , the Śulba Sūtras contain "the earliest extant verbal expression of the Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known to the Old Babylonians." The diagonal rope () of an oblong (rectangle) produces both which the flank (pārśvamāni) and the horizontal () <ropes> produce separately." Since the statement is a sūtra, it is necessarily compressed and what the ropes produce is not elaborated on, but the context clearly implies the square areas constructed on their lengths, and would have been explained so by the teacher to the student. They contain lists of Pythagorean triples, Pythagorean triples are triples of integers with the property: . Thus, , , etc. which are particular cases of Diophantine equations. : "The arithmetic content of the Śulva Sūtras consists of rules for finding Pythagorean triples such as (3, 4, 5), (5, 12, 13), (8, 15, 17), and (12, 35, 37). It is not certain what practical use these arithmetic rules had. The best conjecture is that they were part of religious ritual. A Hindu home was required to have three fires burning at three different altars. The three altars were to be of different shapes, but all three were to have the same area. These conditions led to certain "Diophantine" problems, a particular case of which is the generation of Pythagorean triples, so as to make one square integer equal to the sum of two others." They also contain statements (that with hindsight we know to be approximate) about squaring the circle and "circling the square." : "The requirement of three altars of equal areas but different shapes would explain the interest in transformation of areas. Among other transformation of area problems the Hindus considered in particular the problem of squaring the circle. The Bodhayana Sutra states the converse problem of constructing a circle equal to a given square. The following approximate construction is given as the solution.... this result is only approximate. The authors, however, made no distinction between the two results. In terms that we can appreciate, this construction gives a value for π of 18 (3 − 2√2), which is about 3.088." Baudhayana (c. 8th century BCE) composed the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, the best-known Sulba Sutra, which contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such as: , , , , and as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: "The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square." It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): "The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together." Baudhayana gives a formula for the square root of two, The formula is accurate up to five decimal places, the true value being The value of this approximation, 577/408, is the seventh in a sequence of increasingly accurate approximations 3/2, 7/5, 17/12, ... to √2, the numerators and denominators of which were known as "side and diameter numbers" to the ancient Greeks, and in modern mathematics are called the Pell numbers. If x/y is one term in this sequence of approximations, the next is (x+2y)/(x+y). These approximations may also be derived by truncating the continued fraction representation of √2. This formula is similar in structure to the formula found on a Mesopotamian tablet Neugebauer, O. and A. Sachs. 1945. Mathematical Cuneiform Texts, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press. p. 45. from the Old Babylonian period (1900-1600 BCE): which expresses in the sexagesimal system, and which too is accurate up to 5 decimal places (after rounding). According to mathematician S. G. Dani, the Babylonian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 written ca. 1850 BCE Mathematics Department, University of British Columbia, The Babylonian tabled Plimpton 322. "contains fifteen Pythagorean triples with quite large entries, including (13500, 12709, 18541) which is a primitive triple, Three positive integers form a primitive Pythagorean triple if and if the highest common factor of is 1. In the particular Plimpton322 example, this means that and that the three numbers do not have any common factors. However some scholars have disputed the Pythagorean interpretation of this tablet; see Plimpton 322 for details. indicating, in particular, that there was sophisticated understanding on the topic" in Mesopotamia in 1850 BCE. "Since these tablets predate the Sulbasutras period by several centuries, taking into account the contextual appearance of some of the triples, it is reasonable to expect that similar understanding would have been there in India." Dani goes on to say: "As the main objective of the Sulvasutras was to describe the constructions of altars and the geometric principles involved in them, the subject of Pythagorean triples, even if it had been well understood may still not have featured in the Sulvasutras. The occurrence of the triples in the Sulvasutras is comparable to mathematics that one may encounter in an introductory book on architecture or another similar applied area, and would not correspond directly to the overall knowledge on the topic at that time. Since, unfortunately, no other contemporaneous sources have been found it may never be possible to settle this issue satisfactorily." In all, three Sulba Sutras were composed. The remaining two, the Manava Sulba Sutra composed by Manava (fl. 750-650 BCE) and the Apastamba Sulba Sutra, composed by Apastamba (c. 600 BCE), contained results similar to the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra. Classical period Statue of Aryabhata on the grounds of IUCAA, Pune. In the Bakhshali manuscript, there is a handful of geometric problems (including problems about volumes of irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript also "employs a decimal place value system with a dot for zero." Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya (499 CE) includes the computation of areas and volumes. Brahmagupta wrote his astronomical work in 628 CE. Chapter 12, containing 66 Sanskrit verses, was divided into two sections: "basic operations" (including cube roots, fractions, ratio and proportion, and barter) and "practical mathematics" (including mixture, mathematical series, plane figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber, and piling of grain). In the latter section, he stated his famous theorem on the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral: Brahmagupta's theorem: If a cyclic quadrilateral has diagonals that are perpendicular to each other, then the perpendicular line drawn from the point of intersection of the diagonals to any side of the quadrilateral always bisects the opposite side. Chapter 12 also included a formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral (a generalization of Heron's formula), as well as a complete description of rational triangles (i.e. triangles with rational sides and rational areas). Brahmagupta's formula: The area, A, of a cyclic quadrilateral with sides of lengths a, b, c, d, respectively, is given by where s, the semiperimeter, given by: Brahmagupta's Theorem on rational triangles: A triangle with rational sides and rational area is of the form: for some rational numbers and . Kerala period The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics was founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kerala, South India and included among its members: Parameshvara, Neelakanta Somayaji, Jyeshtadeva, Achyuta Pisharati, Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri and Achyuta Panikkar. It flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries and the original discoveries of the school seems to have ended with Narayana Bhattathiri (1559-1632). The results obtained by the Kerala school include the (infinite) geometric series: for Singh, A. N. Singh. 1936. "On the Use of Series in Hindu Mathematics." Osiris 1:606-628. This formula was already known, for example, in the work of the 10th century Arab mathematician, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen, 965-1039). Edwards, C. H., Jr. 1979. The Historical Development of the Calculus. New York: Springer-Verlag. Chinese geometry The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, first compiled in 179 AD, with added commentary in the 3rd century by Liu Hui. In ancient China, the earliest simple mathematical work stemmed back to the court records of divination for the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC-1050 BC), while the famous philosophical and cosmological work of the I Ching during the Zhou Dynasty (1050 BC-256 BC) had a complex arrangement of mathematical hexagrams. However, the first definitive work (or at least oldest existent) on geometry in China was the Mo Jing, the Mohist canon of the early utilitarian philosopher Mozi (470 BC-390 BC). It was compiled years after his death by his later followers around the year 330 BC. Although the Mo Jing is the oldest existent book on geometry in China, there is the possibility that even older written material exists. However, due to the infamous Burning of the Books in the political maneauver by the Qin Dynasty ruler Qin Shihuang (r. 221 BC-210 BC), multitudes of written literature created before his time was purged. In addition, the Mo Jing presents geometrical concepts in mathematics that are perhaps too advanced not to have had a previous geometrical base or mathematic background to work upon. The Mo Jing described various aspects of many fields associated with physical science, and provided a small wealth of information on mathematics as well. It provided an 'atomic' definition of the geometric point, stating that a line is separated into parts, and the part which has no remaining parts (i.e. cannot be divided into smaller parts) and thus forms the extreme end of a line is a point. Needham, Volume 3, 91. Much like Euclid's first and third definitions and Plato's 'beginning of a line', the Mo Jing stated that "a point may stand at the end (of a line) or at its beginning like a head-presentation in childbirth. (As to its invisibility) there is nothing similar to it." Needham, Volume 3, 92. Similar to the atomists of Democritus, the Mo Jing stated that a point is the smallest unit, and cannot be cut in half, since 'nothing' cannot be halved. It stated that two lines of equal length will always finish at the same place, while providing definitions for the comparison of lengths and for parallels, Needham, Volume 3, 92-93. along with principles of space and bounded space. Needham, Volume 3, 93. It also described the fact that planes without the quality of thickness cannot be piled up since they cannot mutually touch. Needham, Volume 3, 93-94. The book provided definitions for circumference, diameter, and radius, along with the definition of volume. Needham, Volume 3, 94. The Sea Island Mathematical Manual, Liu Hui, 3rd century. The Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) period of China witnessed a new flourishing of mathematics. One of the oldest Chinese mathematical texts to present geometric progressions was the Suàn shù shū of 186 BC, during the Western Han era. The mathematician, inventor, and astronomer Zhang Heng (78-139 AD) used geometrical formulas to solve mathematical problems. Although rough estimates for (π) were given in the Zhou Li (compiled in the 2nd century BC), Needham, Volume 3, 99. it was Zhang Heng who was the first to make a concerted effort at creating a more accurate formula for pi. This in turn would be made more accurate by later Chinese such as Zu Chongzhi (429-500 AD). Zhang Heng approximated pi as 730/232 (or approx 3.1466), although he used another formula of pi in finding a spherical volume, using the square root of 10 (or approx 3.162) instead. Zu Chongzhi's best approximation was between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927, with 355⁄113 (密率, Milü, detailed approximation) and 22⁄7 (约率, Yuelü, rough approximation) being the other notable approximation. Needham, Volume 3, 101. In comparison to later works, the formula for pi given by the French mathematician François Viète (1540-1603) fell halfway between Zu's approximations. The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, the title of which first appeared by 179 AD on a bronze inscription, was edited and commented on by the 3rd century mathematician Liu Hui from the Kingdom of Cao Wei. This book included many problems where geometry was applied, such as finding surface areas for squares and circles, the volumes of solids in various three dimensional shapes, and included the use of the Pythagorean theorem. The book provided illustrated proof for the Pythagorean theorem, Needham, Volume 3, 22. contained a written dialogue between of the earlier Duke of Zhou and Shang Gao on the properties of the right angle triangle and the Pythagorean theorem, while also referring to the astronomical gnomon, the circle and square, as well as measurements of heights and distances. Needham, Volume 3, 21. The editor Liu Hui listed pi as 3.141014 by using a 192 sided polygon, and then calculated pi as 3.14159 using a 3072 sided polygon. This was more accurate than Liu Hui's contemporary Wang Fan, a mathematician and astronomer from Eastern Wu, would render pi as 3.1555 by using 142⁄45. Needham, Volume 3, 100. Liu Hui also wrote of mathematical surveying to calculate distance measurements of depth, height, width, and surface area. In terms of solid geometry, he figured out that a wedge with rectangular base and both sides sloping could be broken down into a pyramid and a tetrahedral wedge. Needham, Volume 3, 98–99. He also figured out that a wedge with trapezoid base and both sides sloping could be made to give two tetrahedral wedges separated by a pyramid. Furthermore, Liu Hui described Cavalieri's principle on volume, as well as Gaussian elimination. From the Nine Chapters, it listed the following geometrical formulas that were known by the time of the Former Han Dynasty (202 BCE–9 CE). Areas for the Needham, Volume 3, 98. Square Rectangle Circle Isosceles triangle Trapezium Rhomboid Trapezoid Double trapezium Segment of a circle Annulus (annular space between two circles) Volumes for the Needham, Volume 3, 98-99. Parallel-piped with two square surfaces Parallel-piped with no square surfaces Pyramid Frustum of pyramid with square base Frustum of pyramid with rectangular base of unequal sides Cube Prism Wedge with rectangular base and both sides sloping Wedge with trapezoid base and both sides sloping Tetrahedral wedge Frustum of a wedge of the second type (used for applications in engineering) Cylinder Cone with circular base Frustum of a cone Sphere Continuing the geometrical legacy of ancient China, there were many later figures to come, including the famed astronomer and mathematician Shen Kuo (1031-1095 AD), Yang Hui (1238-1298 AD) who discovered Pascal's Triangle, Xu Guangqi (1562-1633 AD), and many others. Greek geometry Classical Greek geometry For the ancient Greek mathematicians, geometry was the crown jewel of their sciences, reaching a completeness and perfection of methodology that no other branch of their knowledge had attained. They expanded the range of geometry to many new kinds of figures, curves, surfaces, and solids; they changed its methodology from trial-and-error to logical deduction; they recognized that geometry studies "eternal forms", or abstractions, of which physical objects are only approximations; and they developed the idea of an "axiomatic theory", which, for more than 2000 years, was regarded to be the ideal paradigm for all scientific theories. Thales and Pythagoras Pythagorean theorem: a2 + b2 = c2 Thales (635-543 BC) of Miletus (now in southwestern Turkey), was the first to whom deduction in mathematics is attributed. There are five geometric propositions for which he wrote deductive proofs, though his proofs have not survived. Pythagoras (582-496 BC) of Ionia, and later, Italy, then colonized by Greeks, may have been a student of Thales, and traveled to Babylon and Egypt. The theorem that bears his name may not have been his discovery, but he was probably one of the first to give a deductive proof of it. He gathered a group of students around him to study mathematics, music, and philosophy, and together they discovered most of what high school students learn today in their geometry courses. In addition, they made the profound discovery of incommensurable lengths and irrational numbers. (There is no evidence that Thales provided any deductive proofs, and in fact, deductive mathematical proofs did not appear until after Parmemides. At best, all that we can say about Thales is that he introduced various geometric theorems to the Greeks. The idea that mathematics was from its inception deductive is false. At the time of Thales, mathematics was inductive. This means that Thales would have "provided" empirical and direct proofs, but not deductive proofs.) Plato Plato (427-347 BC), the philosopher most esteemed by the Greeks, had inscribed above the entrance to his famous school, "Let none ignorant of geometry enter here." Though he was not a mathematician himself, his views on mathematics had great influence. Mathematicians thus accepted his belief that geometry should use no tools but compass and straightedge – never measuring instruments such as a marked ruler or a protractor, because these were a workman’s tools, not worthy of a scholar. This dictum led to a deep study of possible compass and straightedge constructions, and three classic construction problems: how to use these tools to trisect an angle, to construct a cube twice the volume of a given cube, and to construct a square equal in area to a given circle. The proofs of the impossibility of these constructions, finally achieved in the 19th century, led to important principles regarding the deep structure of the real number system. Aristotle (384-322 BC), Plato’s greatest pupil, wrote a treatise on methods of reasoning used in deductive proofs (see Logic) which was not substantially improved upon until the 19th century. Hellenistic geometry Euclid Statue of Euclid in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. Woman teaching geometry. Illustration at the beginning of a medieval translation of Euclid's Elements, (c. 1310) Euclid (c. 325-265 BC), of Alexandria, probably a student of one of Plato’s students, wrote a treatise in 13 books (chapters), titled The Elements of Geometry, in which he presented geometry in an ideal axiomatic form, which came to be known as Euclidean geometry. The treatise is not a compendium of all that the Hellenistic mathematicians knew at the time about geometry; Euclid himself wrote eight more advanced books on geometry. We know from other references that Euclid’s was not the first elementary geometry textbook, but it was so much superior that the others fell into disuse and were lost. He was brought to the university at Alexandria by Ptolemy I, King of Egypt. The Elements began with definitions of terms, fundamental geometric principles (called axioms or postulates), and general quantitative principles (called common notions) from which all the rest of geometry could be logically deduced. Following are his five axioms, somewhat paraphrased to make the English easier to read. Any two points can be joined by a straight line. Any finite straight line can be extended in a straight line. A circle can be drawn with any center and any radius. All right angles are equal to each other. If two straight lines in a plane are crossed by another straight line (called the transversal), and the interior angles between the two lines and the transversal lying on one side of the transversal add up to less than two right angles, then on that side of the transversal, the two lines extended will intersect (also called the parallel postulate). It was soon observed, and no doubt Euclid himself knew, that his fifth axiom could be replaced by the shorter statement “Given a line and a point not on the line, there is only one line through the given point and in the same plane with the given line that does not intersect the given line.” This is called Playfair’s Axiom, after the British teacher who proposed to make the replacement in all the school textbooks. The axioms, according to Plato, should be simple and self-evident principles, so clearly true that they need no proof. Euclid’s first four axioms meet this criterion, but the fifth, even if replaced by Playfair’s Axiom, is not simple, and most would say not self-evident like the first four. The fifth resembled more the theorems that Euclid proved from the axioms. Furthermore, Euclid developed a substantial part of his theory of triangles without using the Fifth Axiom. The speculation arose, probably during Euclid’s lifetime, that the Fifth Axiom can and should be proved as a theorem from the first four, and thus is unnecessary as an axiom. Thus began many centuries of attempts to prove the Fifth Axiom, and the question was not settled until the 19th century. Archimedes Archimedes (287-212 BC), of Syracuse, Sicily, when it was a Greek city-state, is often considered to be the greatest of the Greek mathematicians, and occasionally even named as one of the three greatest of all time (along with Isaac Newton and Carl Friedrich Gauss). Had he not been a mathematician, he would still be remembered as a great physicist, engineer, and inventor. In his mathematics, he developed methods very similar to the coordinate systems of analytic geometry, and the limiting process of integral calculus. The only element lacking for the creation of these fields was an efficient algebraic notation in which to express his concepts. After Archimedes Geometry was connected to the divine for most medieval scholars. The compass in this 13th Century manuscript is a symbol of God's act of Creation. After Archimedes, Hellenistic mathematics began to decline. There were a few minor stars yet to come, but the golden age of geometry was over. Proclus (410-485), author of Commentary on the First Book of Euclid, was one of the last important players in Hellenistic geometry. He was a competent geometer, but more importantly, he was a superb commentator on the works that preceded him. Much of that work did not survive to modern times, and is known to us only through his commentary. The Roman Republic and Empire that succeeded and absorbed the Greek city-states produced excellent engineers, but no mathematicians of note. The great Library of Alexandria was later burned. There is a growing consensus among historians that the Library of Alexandria likely suffered from several destructive events, but that the destruction of Alexandria's pagan temples in the late 4th century was probably the most severe and final one. The evidence for that destruction is the most definitive and secure. Caesar's invasion may well have led to the loss of some 40,000-70,000 scrolls in a warehouse adjacent to the port (as Luciano Canfora argues, they were likely copies produced by the Library intended for export), but it is unlikely to have affected the Library or Museum, given that there is ample evidence that both existed later. Civil wars, decreasing investments in maintenance and acquisition of new scrolls and generally declining interest in non-religious pursuits likely contributed to a reduction in the body of material available in the Library, especially in the fourth century. The Serapeum was certainly destroyed by Theophilus in 391, and the Museum and Library may have fallen victim to the same campaign. Islamic geometry Page from the Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah The Islamic Caliphate (Islamic Empire) established across the Middle East, North Africa, Spain, Portugal, Persia and parts of Persia, began around 640 CE. Islamic mathematics during this period was primarily algebraic rather than geometric, though there were important works on geometry. Scholarship in Europe declined and eventually the Hellenistic works of antiquity were lost to them, and survived only in the Islamic centers of learning. Although the Muslim mathematicians are most famed for their work on algebra, number theory and number systems, they also made considerable contributions to geometry, trigonometry and mathematical astronomy, and were responsible for the development of algebraic geometry. Geometrical magnitudes were treated as "algebraic objects" by most Muslim mathematicians however. The successors of Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī who was Persian Scholar, mathematician and Astronomer who invented the Algorithm in Mathematics which is the base for Computer Science (born 780) undertook a systematic application of arithmetic to algebra, algebra to arithmetic, both to trigonometry, algebra to the Euclidean theory of numbers, algebra to geometry, and geometry to algebra. This was how the creation of polynomial algebra, combinatorial analysis, numerical analysis, the numerical solution of equations, the new elementary theory of numbers, and the geometric construction of equations arose. Al-Mahani (born 820) conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra. Al-Karaji (born 953) completely freed algebra from geometrical operations and replaced them with the arithmetical type of operations which are at the core of algebra today. An engraving by Albrecht Dürer featuring Mashallah, from the title page of the De scientia motus orbis (Latin version with engraving, 1504). As in many medieval illustrations, the compass here is an icon of religion as well as science, in reference to God as the architect of creation Thabit family and other early geometers Although Thabit ibn Qurra (known as Thebit in Latin) (born 836) contributed to a number of areas in mathematics, where he played an important role in preparing the way for such important mathematical discoveries as the extension of the concept of number to (positive) real numbers, integral calculus, theorems in spherical trigonometry, analytic geometry, and non-Euclidean geometry. In astronomy Thabit was one of the first reformers of the Ptolemaic system, and in mechanics he was a founder of statics. An important geometrical aspect of Thabit's work was his book on the composition of ratios. In this book, Thabit deals with arithmetical operations applied to ratios of geometrical quantities. The Greeks had dealt with geometric quantities but had not thought of them in the same way as numbers to which the usual rules of arithmetic could be applied. By introducing arithmetical operations on quantities previously regarded as geometric and non-numerical, Thabit started a trend which led eventually to the generalisation of the number concept. In some respects, Thabit is critical of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, particularly regarding motion. It would seem that here his ideas are based on an acceptance of using arguments concerning motion in his geometrical arguments. Another important contribution Thabit made to geometry was his generalization of the Pythagorean theorem, which he extended from special right triangles to all triangles in general, along with a general proof. Aydin Sayili (1960). "Thabit ibn Qurra's Generalization of the Pythagorean Theorem", Isis 51 (1), p. 35-37. Ibrahim ibn Sinan ibn Thabit (born 908), who introduced a method of integration more general than that of Archimedes, and al-Quhi (born 940) were leading figures in a revival and continuation of Greek higher geometry in the Islamic world. These mathematicians, and in particular Ibn al-Haytham, studied optics and investigated the optical properties of mirrors made from conic sections. Astronomy, time-keeping and geography provided other motivations for geometrical and trigonometrical research. For example Ibrahim ibn Sinan and his grandfather Thabit ibn Qurra both studied curves required in the construction of sundials. Abu'l-Wafa and Abu Nasr Mansur both applied spherical geometry to astronomy. Ibn al-Haytham, Omar Khayyám, and Sharafeddin Tusi Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), author of the Book of Optics. In the early 11th century, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) made the first attempt at proving the Euclidean parallel postulate, the fifth postulate in Euclid's Elements, using a proof by contradiction, where he introduced the concept of motion and transformation into geometry. : He formulated the Lambert quadrilateral, which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names the "Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral", and his attempted proof also shows similarities to Playfair's axiom. Omar Khayyám (born 1048) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, philosopher and poet who described his philosophy through poems known as quatrains in the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. Along with his fame as a poet, he was also famous during his lifetime as a mathematician, well known for inventing the general method of solving cubic equations by intersecting a parabola with a circle. In addition he discovered the binomial expansion, and authored criticisms of Euclid's theories of parallels which made their way to England, where they contributed to the eventual development of non-Euclidean geometry. Omar Khayyam also combined the use of trigonometry and approximation theory to provide methods of solving algebraic equations by geometrical means. He was mostly responsible for the development of algebraic geometry. Illustration by Arthur Szyk for the 1940 edition of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. In a paper written by Khayyam before his famous algebra text Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, he considers the problem: "Find a point on a quadrant of a circle in such manner that when a normal is dropped from the point to one of the bounding radii, the ratio of the normal's length to that of the radius equals the ratio of the segments determined by the foot of the normal." Khayyam shows that this problem is equivalent to solving a second problem: "Find a right triangle having the property that the hypotenuse equals the sum of one leg plus the altitude on the hypotenuse." This problem in turn led Khayyam to solve the cubic equation x3 + 200x = 20x2 + 2000 and he found a positive root of this cubic by considering the intersection of a rectangular hyperbola and a circle. An approximate numerical solution was then found by interpolation in trigonometric tables. Perhaps even more remarkable is the fact that Khayyam states that the solution of this cubic requires the use of conic sections and that it cannot be solved by compass and straightedge, a result which would not be proved for another 750 years. His Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra contained a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections. In fact Khayyam gives an interesting historical account in which he claims that the Greeks had left nothing on the theory of cubic equations. Indeed, as Khayyam writes, the contributions by earlier writers such as al-Mahani and al-Khazin were to translate geometric problems into algebraic equations (something which was essentially impossible before the work of Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī). However, Khayyam himself seems to have been the first to conceive a general theory of cubic equations. In Commentaries on the difficult postulates of Euclid's book Khayyam made a contribution to non-Euclidean geometry, although this was not his intention. In trying to prove the parallel postulate he accidentally proved properties of figures in non-Euclidean geometries. Khayyam also gave important results on ratios in this book, extending Euclid's work to include the multiplication of ratios. The importance of Khayyam's contribution is that he examined both Euclid's definition of equality of ratios (which was that first proposed by Eudoxus) and the definition of equality of ratios as proposed by earlier Islamic mathematicians such as al-Mahani which was based on continued fractions. Khayyam proved that the two definitions are equivalent. He also posed the question of whether a ratio can be regarded as a number but leaves the question unanswered. The Khayyam-Saccheri quadrilateral was first considered by Omar Khayyam in the late 11th century in Book I of Explanations of the Difficulties in the Postulates of Euclid. Boris Abramovich Rozenfelʹd (1988), A History of Non-Euclidean Geometry: Evolution of the Concept of a Geometric Space, p. 65. Springer, ISBN 0387964584. Unlike many commentators on Euclid before and after him (including of course Saccheri), Khayyam was not trying to prove the parallel postulate as such but to derive it from an equivalent postulate he formulated from "the principles of the Philosopher" (Aristotle): Two convergent straight lines intersect and it is impossible for two convergent straight lines to diverge in the direction in which they converge. Boris A Rosenfeld and Adolf P Youschkevitch (1996), Geometry, p.467 in Roshdi Rashed, Régis Morelon (1996), Encyclopedia of the history of Arabic science, Routledge, ISBN 0415124115. Khayyam then considered the three cases right, obtuse, and acute that the summit angles of a Saccheri quadrilateral can take and after proving a number of theorems about them, he (correctly) refuted the obtuse and acute cases based on his postulate and hence derived the classic postulate of Euclid. It wasn't until 600 years later that Giordano Vitale made an advance on the understanding of this quadrilateral in his book Euclide restituo (1680, 1686), when he used it to prove that if three points are equidistant on the base AB and the summit CD, then AB and CD are everywhere equidistant. Saccheri himself based the whole of his long, heroic and ultimately flawed proof of the parallel postulate around the quadrilateral and its three cases, proving many theorems about its properties along the way. Persian mathematician Sharafeddin Tusi (born 1135) did not follow the general development that came through al-Karaji's school of algebra but rather followed Khayyam's application of algebra to geometry. He wrote a treatise on cubic equations, which represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the study of algebraic geometry. Other contributions to non-Euclidean geometry Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī commemorated on an Iranian stamp upon the 700th anniversary of his death. In 1250, Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, in his Al-risala al-shafiya'an al-shakk fi'l-khutut al-mutawaziya (Discussion Which Removes Doubt about Parallel Lines), wrote detailed critiques of the Euclidean parallel postulate and on Omar Khayyám's attempted proof a century earlier. Nasir al-Din attempted to derive a contradiction of the parallel postulate. His son, Sadr al-Din wrote a book on the subject in 1298, based on Nasir al-Din's later thoughts, which presented an argument for a hypothesis equivalent to the parallel postulate. Sadr al-Din's work was published in Rome in 1594 and was studied by European geometers. This work marked the starting point for Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri's work on the subject, and eventually the discovery of non-Euclidean geometry. Victor J. Katz (1998). History of Mathematics: An Introduction, p. 270-271. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0321016181. A proof from Sadr al-Din's work was quoted by John Wallis and Saccheri in the 17th and 18th centuries. They both derived their proofs of the parallel postulate from Sadr al-Din's work, while Saccheri also derived his Saccheri quadrilateral from Sadr al-Din, who himself based it on his father's work. Boris A. Rosenfeld and Adolf P. Youschkevitch (1996), "Geometry", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 2, p. 447-494 [469], Routledge, London and New York: The theorems of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Omar Khayyam and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi on quadrilaterals, including the Lambert quadrilateral and Saccheri quadrilateral, were the first theorems on elliptical geometry and hyperbolic geometry, and along with their alternative postulates, such as Playfair's axiom, these works marked the beginning of non-Euclidean geometry and had a considerable influence on its development among later European geometers, including Witelo, Levi ben Gerson, Alfonso, John Wallis, and Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri. Boris A. Rosenfeld and Adolf P. Youschkevitch (1996), "Geometry", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 2, p. 447-494 [470], Routledge, London and New York: Geometric architecture Recent discoveries have shown that geometrical quasicrystal patterns were first employed in the girih tiles found in medieval Islamic architecture dating back over five centuries ago. In 2007, Professor Peter Lu of Harvard University and Professor Paul Steinhardt of Princeton University published a paper in the journal Science suggesting that girih tilings possessed properties consistent with self-similar fractal quasicrystalline tilings such as the Penrose tilings, predating them by five centuries. Supplemental figures Modern geometry The 17th century When Europe began to emerge from its Dark Ages, the Hellenistic and Islamic texts on geometry found in Islamic libraries were translated from Arabic into Latin. The rigorous deductive methods of geometry found in Euclid’s Elements of Geometry were relearned, and further development of geometry in the styles of both Euclid (Euclidean geometry) and Khayyam (algebraic geometry) continued, resulting in an abundance of new theorems and concepts, many of them very profound and elegant. Discourse on Method by René Descartes In the early 17th century, there were two important developments in geometry. The first and most important was the creation of analytic geometry, or geometry with coordinates and equations, by René Descartes (1596-1650) and Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). This was a necessary precursor to the development of calculus and a precise quantitative science of physics. The second geometric development of this period was the systematic study of projective geometry by Girard Desargues (1591-1661). Projective geometry is the study of geometry without measurement, just the study of how points align with each other. There had been some early work in this area by Hellenistic geometers, notably Pappus (c. 340). The greatest flowering of the field occurred with Jean-Victor Poncelet (1788-1867). In the late 17th century, calculus was developed independently and almost simultaneously by Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716). This was the beginning of a new field of mathematics now called analysis. Though not itself a branch of geometry, it is applicable to geometry, and it solved two families of problems that had long been almost intractable: finding tangent lines to odd curves, and finding areas enclosed by those curves. The methods of calculus reduced these problems mostly to straightforward matters of computation. The 18th and 19th centuries Non-Euclidean geometry The old problem of proving Euclid’s Fifth Postulate, the "Parallel Postulate", from his first four postulates had never been forgotten. Beginning not long after Euclid, many attempted demonstrations were given, but all were later found to be faulty, through allowing into the reasoning some principle which itself had not been proved from the first four postulates. Though Omar Khayyám was also unsuccessful in proving the parallel postulate, his criticisms of Euclid's theories of parallels and his proof of properties of figures in non-Euclidean geometries contributed to the eventual development of non-Euclidean geometry. By 1700 a great deal had been discovered about what can be proved from the first four, and what the pitfalls were in attempting to prove the fifth. Saccheri, Lambert, and Legendre each did excellent work on the problem in the 18th century, but still fell short of success. In the early 19th century, Gauss, Johann Bolyai, and Lobatchewsky, each independently, took a different approach. Beginning to suspect that it was impossible to prove the Parallel Postulate, they set out to develop a self-consistent geometry in which that postulate was false. In this they were successful, thus creating the first non-Euclidean geometry. By 1854, Bernhard Riemann, a student of Gauss, had applied methods of calculus in a ground-breaking study of the intrinsic (self-contained) geometry of all smooth surfaces, and thereby found a different non-Euclidean geometry. This work of Riemann later became fundamental for Einstein's theory of relativity. William Blake's "Newton" is a demonstration of his opposition to the 'single-vision' of scientific materialism; here, Isaac Newton is shown as 'divine geometer' (1795) It remained to be proved mathematically that the non-Euclidean geometry was just as self-consistent as Euclidean geometry, and this was first accomplished by Beltrami in 1868. With this, non-Euclidean geometry was established on an equal mathematical footing with Euclidean geometry. While it was now known that different geometric theories were mathematically possible, the question remained, "Which one of these theories is correct for our physical space?" The mathematical work revealed that this question must be answered by physical experimentation, not mathematical reasoning, and uncovered the reason why the experimentation must involve immense (interstellar, not earth-bound) distances. With the development of relativity theory in physics, this question became vastly more complicated. Introduction of mathematical rigor All the work related to the Parallel Postulate revealed that it was quite difficult for a geometer to separate his logical reasoning from his intuitive understanding of physical space, and, moreover, revealed the critical importance of doing so. Careful examination had uncovered some logical inadequacies in Euclid's reasoning, and some unstated geometric principles to which Euclid sometimes appealed. This critique paralleled the crisis occurring in calculus and analysis regarding the meaning of infinite processes such as convergence and continuity. In geometry, there was a clear need for a new set of axioms, which would be complete, and which in no way relied on pictures we draw or on our intuition of space. Such axioms were given by David Hilbert in 1894 in his dissertation Grundlagen der Geometrie (Foundations of Geometry). Some other complete sets of axioms had been given a few years earlier, but did not match Hilbert's in economy, elegance, and similarity to Euclid's axioms. Analysis situs, or topology In the mid-18th century, it became apparent that certain progressions of mathematical reasoning recurred when similar ideas were studied on the number line, in two dimensions, and in three dimensions. Thus the general concept of a metric space was created so that the reasoning could be done in more generality, and then applied to special cases. This method of studying calculus- and analysis-related concepts came to be known as analysis situs, and later as topology. The important topics in this field were properties of more general figures, such as connectedness and boundaries, rather than properties like straightness, and precise equality of length and angle measurements, which had been the focus of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry. Topology soon became a separate field of major importance, rather than a sub-field of geometry or analysis. The 20th century Developments in algebraic geometry included the study of curves and surfaces over finite fields as demonstrated by the works of among others Anndre Weil, Alexander Grothendieck, and Jean-Pierre Serre as well as over the real or complex numbers. Finite geometry itself, the study of spaces with only finitely many points, found applications in coding theory and cryptography. With the advent of the computer, new disciplines such as computational geometry or digital geometry deal with geometric algorithms, discrete representations of geometric data, and so forth. See also List of geometry topics Important publications in geometry. Interactive geometry software History of mathematics Flatland, Book written by " A2 " about two and three-dimensional space, to understand the concept of four dimensions Notes References Needham, Joseph (1986), Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth, Taipei: Caves Books Ltd External links Islamic Geometry Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Finitism in Geometry Geometry in the 19th Century Arabic mathematics : forgotten brilliance? | History_of_geometry |@lemmatized table:4 geometry:107 cyclopaedia:1 greek:14 γεωμετρία:1 geo:1 earth:3 metria:1 measure:6 arise:2 field:11 knowledge:3 deal:5 spatial:1 relationship:1 one:17 two:24 pre:1 modern:9 mathematics:30 study:16 number:21 classic:3 focus:2 compass:6 straightedge:4 construction:13 composition:2 five:7 elemental:1 set:4 element:7 algebra:19 axiomatic:3 system:8 barrier:1 begin:9 fade:1 time:12 geometric:23 concept:11 generalize:1 high:4 level:1 abstraction:2 complexity:1 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2,930 | Bifröst | Bifröst (Old Norse bifrǫst, literally the "tremulous way", from bifask "to tremble" and rǫst "a distance") in Norse mythology is the bridge leading from Midgard, the realm of mortals, to Asgard, the realm of the gods, which the gods travel daily to hold their councils and pass judgments at Urdarbrunn (Well of Urd) under the shade of the tree Yggdrasill. The bridge itself is the rainbow and its guardian is the god Heimdallr, whose hall of Himinbjorg is located at the upper end of the bridge. The red color was the flaming fire, which served as a defense against the giants. The bridge is destroyed at the end of the world, Ragnarök. It was built by the Æsir. Much of what we know concerning Bifröst comes from Snorri (quoted below), but mention of it is also made in the Poetic Edda. For example, in Grímnismál, stanza 29 mentions Thor crossing over rivers (such as the Körmt and Örmt and the "Kerlaugs twain") which boil from the fire of Bifröst each day on his way to the judgement place at Yggdrasil, and later in stanza 44 it is named as the best of bridges in a list of the foremost of things (including Yggdrasil of trees, Sleipnir of horses, etc). In Fáfnismál, stanza 15 (as well as Snorri) indicates that it will collapse when ridden upon by the fire giants during the destruction of Ragnarök. Some scholars, including Åke Ohlmarks and Franz Rolf Schröder thought that Bifröst may have originally represented the Milky Way and was reinterpreted by Snorri as a rainbow when confronted with variations in terminology; some think that Bifröst is the aurora borealis. Its alternative names include Bilröst, Ásbrú, Bifrost (Danish, Norwegian and Swedish form). The Prose Edda Bifrost by Arthur Rackham. In the Gylfaginning part of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, there is a description of Bifröst: Þá mælti Gangleri: "Hver er leið til himins af jörðu?" Þá svarar Hár ok hló við: "Eigi er nú fróðliga spurt. Er þér eigi sagt þat at guðin gerðu brú til himins af jörðu, ok heitir Bifröst? Hana muntu sét hafa, kann vera at þat kallir þú regnboga. Hon er með þrim litum ok mjök sterk ok ger með list ok kunnáttu meiri en aðrar smíðir. Ok svá sem hon er sterk, þá mun hon brotna þá er Muspells megir fara ok ríða hana, ok svima hestar þeira yfir stórar ár. Svá koma þeir fram." Þá mælti Gangleri: "Eigi þótti mér goðin gera af trúnaði brúna, er hon skal brotna mega, er þau megu gera sem þau vilja." Þá mælti Hár: "Eigi eru goðin hallmælis verð fyrir þessa smíð. Góð brú er Bifröst, en engi hlutr er sá í þessum heimi er sér megi treystask þá er Muspells synir herja." - Eysteinn Björnsson's editionThen said Gangleri: "What is the way to heaven from earth?" Then Hárr answered, and laughed aloud: "Now, that is not wisely asked; has it not been told thee, that the gods made a bridge from earth to heaven, called Bifröst? Thou must have seen it; it may be that ye call it 'rainbow.' It is of three colors, and very strong, and made with cunning and with more magic art than other works of craftsmanship. But strong as it is, yet must it be broken, when the sons of Múspell shall go forth harrying and ride it, and swim their horses over great rivers; thus they shall proceed." Then said Gangleri: "To my thinking the gods did not build the bridge honestly, seeing that it could be broken, and they able to make it as they would." Then Hárr replied : "The gods are not deserving of reproof because of this work of skill: a good bridge is Bifröst, but nothing in this world is of such nature that it may be relied on when the sons of Múspell go a-harrying." - Brodeur's translation | Bifröst |@lemmatized bifröst:10 old:1 norse:2 bifrǫst:1 literally:1 tremulous:1 way:4 bifask:1 tremble:1 rǫst:1 distance:1 mythology:1 bridge:8 lead:1 midgard:1 realm:2 mortal:1 asgard:1 god:6 travel:1 daily:1 hold:1 council:1 pas:1 judgment:1 urdarbrunn:1 well:2 urd:1 shade:1 tree:2 yggdrasill:1 rainbow:3 guardian:1 heimdallr:1 whose:1 hall:1 himinbjorg:1 locate:1 upper:1 end:2 red:1 color:2 flaming:1 fire:3 serve:1 defense:1 giant:2 destroy:1 world:2 ragnarök:2 build:2 æsir:1 much:1 know:1 concern:1 come:1 snorri:4 quote:1 mention:2 also:1 make:4 poetic:1 edda:3 example:1 grímnismál:1 stanza:3 thor:1 cross:1 river:2 körmt:1 örmt:1 kerlaugs:1 twain:1 boil:1 day:1 judgement:1 place:1 yggdrasil:2 later:1 name:2 best:1 list:2 foremost:1 thing:1 include:3 sleipnir:1 horse:2 etc:1 fáfnismál:1 indicate:1 collapse:1 ridden:1 upon:1 destruction:1 scholar:1 åke:1 ohlmarks:1 franz:1 rolf:1 schröder:1 think:3 may:3 originally:1 represent:1 milky:1 reinterpret:1 confront:1 variation:1 terminology:1 aurora:1 borealis:1 alternative:1 bilröst:1 ásbrú:1 bifrost:2 danish:1 norwegian:1 swedish:1 form:1 prose:2 arthur:1 rackham:1 gylfaginning:1 part:1 sturluson:1 description:1 þá:7 mælti:3 gangleri:4 hver:1 er:12 leið:1 til:2 himins:2 af:3 jörðu:2 svarar:1 hár:2 ok:8 hló:1 við:1 eigi:4 nú:1 fróðliga:1 spurt:1 þér:1 sagt:1 þat:2 guðin:1 gerðu:1 brú:2 heitir:1 hana:2 muntu:1 sét:1 hafa:1 kann:1 vera:1 kallir:1 þú:1 regnboga:1 hon:4 með:2 þrim:1 litum:1 mjök:1 sterk:2 ger:1 kunnáttu:1 meiri:1 en:2 aðrar:1 smíðir:1 svá:2 sem:2 mun:1 brotna:2 muspells:2 megir:1 fara:1 ríða:1 svima:1 hestar:1 þeira:1 yfir:1 stórar:1 ár:1 koma:1 þeir:1 fram:1 þótti:1 mér:1 goðin:2 gera:2 trúnaði:1 brúna:1 skal:1 mega:1 þau:2 megu:1 vilja:1 eru:1 hallmælis:1 verð:1 fyrir:1 þessa:1 smíð:1 góð:1 engi:1 hlutr:1 sá:1 í:1 þessum:1 heimi:1 sér:1 megi:1 treystask:1 synir:1 herja:1 eysteinn:1 björnsson:1 editionthen:1 say:2 heaven:2 earth:2 hárr:2 answer:1 laugh:1 aloud:1 wisely:1 ask:1 tell:1 thee:1 call:2 thou:1 must:2 see:2 ye:1 three:1 strong:2 cunning:1 magic:1 art:1 work:2 craftsmanship:1 yet:1 break:2 son:2 múspell:2 shall:2 go:2 forth:1 harrying:2 ride:1 swim:1 great:1 thus:1 proceed:1 honestly:1 could:1 able:1 would:1 reply:1 deserve:1 reproof:1 skill:1 good:1 nothing:1 nature:1 rely:1 brodeur:1 translation:1 |@bigram norse_mythology:1 poetic_edda:1 milky_way:1 aurora_borealis:1 prose_edda:2 arthur_rackham:1 snorri_sturluson:1 sturluson_prose:1 þá_mælti:3 hon_er:2 þá_er:2 eysteinn_björnsson:1 brodeur_translation:1 |
2,931 | Glucose | Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar) also known as grape sugar, blood sugar, or corn sugar, is a very important carbohydrate in biology. The living cell uses it as a source of energy and metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and starts cellular respiration in both prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) and eukaryotes (animals, plants, fungi, and protists). The name "glucose" comes from the Greek word glukus (), meaning "sweet", and the suffix "-ose," which denotes a sugar. Two stereoisomers of the aldohexose sugars are known as glucose, only one of which (D-glucose) is biologically active. This form (D-glucose) is often referred to as dextrose monohydrate, or, especially in the food industry, simply dextrose (from dextrorotatory glucose dextrose - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary ). This article deals with the D-form of glucose. The mirror-image of the molecule, L-glucose, cannot be metabolized by cells in the biochemical process known as glycolysis. Structure Glucose (C6H12O6) contains six carbon atoms, one of which is part of an aldehyde group and is therefore referred to as an aldohexose. In solution, the glucose molecule can exist in an open-chain (acyclic) form and a ring (cyclic) form (in equilibrium). The cyclic form is the result of a covalent bond between the aldehyde C atom and the C-5 hydroxyl group to form a six-membered cyclic hemiacetal. At pH 7 the cyclic form is predominant. In the solid phase, glucose assumes the cyclic form. Because the ring contains five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom (like pyran), the cyclic form of glucose is also referred to as glucopyranose. In this ring, each carbon is linked to a hydroxyl side group with the exception of the fifth atom, which links to a sixth carbon atom outside the ring, forming a CH2OH group. Glucose is commonly available in the form of a white substance or as a solid crystal. It can also be dissolved in water as an aqueous solution. Isomers Aldohexose sugars have four chiral centers, giving 24 = 16 stereoisomers. These are split into two groups, L and D, with eight sugars in each. Glucose is one of these sugars, and L-glucose and D-glucose are two of the stereoisomers. Only seven of these are found in living organisms, of which D-glucose (Glu), D-galactose (Gal) and D-mannose (Man) are the most important. These eight isomers (including glucose itself) are related as diastereoisomers and belong to the D series. An additional asymmetric center at C-1 (called the anomeric carbon atom) is created when glucose cyclizes and two ring structures called anomers are formed as α-glucose and β-glucose. These anomers differ structurally by the relative positioning of the hydroxyl group linked to C-1 and the group at C-6, which is termed the reference carbon. When D-glucose is drawn as a Haworth projection or in the standard chain conformation, the designation α means that the hydroxyl group attached to C-1 is positioned trans to the -CH2OH group at C-5, while β means that it is cis. An inaccurate but superficially attractive alternative method of distinguishing α from β is observing whether the C-1 hydroxyl is below or above the plane of the ring; this may fail if the glucose ring is drawn upside down or in an alternative chair conformation. The α and β forms interconvert over a timescale of hours in aqueous solution, to a final stable ratio of α:β 36:64, in a process called mutarotation. The ratio would be α:β 11:89 if it were not for the influence of the anomeric effect. L-glucose Since L-glucose is sweet (albeit less sweet than D-glucose http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117888760/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 ), but cannot be used as source of energy, it had been proposed as a low-calorie sweetener http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/Spinoff2004/ch_4.html . Its derivative, L-glucose pentaacetate, was found to stimulate insulin release http://www.biomedexperts.com/Abstract.bme/9857221/The_riddle_of_L-glucose_pentaacetate_insulinotropic_action_review . L-glucose was also found to be a laxative, and proposed as a colon-cleansing agent. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S001651070301304X Rotamers Within the cyclic form of glucose, rotation may occur around the O6-C6-C5-O5 torsion angle, termed the ω-angle, to form three rotamer conformations as shown in the diagram below. In referring to the orientations of the ω-angle and the O6-C6-C5-C4 angle, the three stable staggered rotamer conformations are termed gauche-gauche (gg), gauche-trans (gt) and trans-gauche (tg). For methyl α-D-glucopyranose at equilibrium the ratio of molecules in each rotamer conformation is reported as 57:38:5 gg:gt:tg. This tendency for the ω-angle to prefer to adopt a gauche conformation is attributed to the gauche effect. Rotamer conformations of α-D-glucopyranose Properties and energy content The Gibbs free energy of formation of solid glucose is -909 /mol, and the enthalpy of formation is -1271.1 kJ/mol. The heat of combustion (with liquid water in the product) is about 2803 kJ/mol, or 3.72 kcal per gram. The ΔG (change of Gibbs free energy) for this combustion is about -2880 kJ/mol. Upon heating, glucose, like any carbohydrate, will undergo caramelization, followed by pyrolysis (carbonization) yielding steam and a char consisting mostly of carbon. This reaction is exothermic, releasing about 0.237 kcal per gram. Production Natural Glucose is one of the products of photosynthesis in plants and some prokaryotes. In animals and fungi, glucose is the result of the breakdown of glycogen, a process known as glycogenolysis. In plants the breakdown substrate is starch. In animals, glucose is synthesized in the liver and kidneys from non-carbohydrate intermediates, such as pyruvate and glycerol, by a process known as gluconeogenesis. In some deep-sea bacteria glucose is produced by chemosynthesis. Commercial Glucose is produced commercially via the enzymatic hydrolysis of starch. Many crops can be used as the source of starch. Maize, rice, wheat, cassava, corn husk and sago are all used in various parts of the world. In the United States, cornstarch (from maize) is used almost exclusively. Function Scientists can speculate on the reasons why glucose, and not another monosaccharide such as fructose (Fru), is so widely used in organisms. One reason might be that glucose has a lower tendency, as compared to other hexose sugars, to non-specifically react with the amino groups of proteins. This reaction (glycation) reduces or destroys the function of many enzymes. The low rate of glycation is due to glucose's preference for the less reactive cyclic isomer. Nevertheless, many of the long-term complications of diabetes (e.g., blindness, renal failure, and peripheral neuropathy) are probably due to the glycation of proteins or lipids. In contrast, enzyme-regulated addition of glucose to proteins by glycosylation is often essential to their function. citation needed As an energy source Glucose is a ubiquitous fuel in biology. It is used as an energy source in most organisms, from bacteria to humans. Use of glucose may be by either aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, or fermentation. Carbohydrates are the human body's key source of energy, through aerobic respiration, providing approximately 3.75 kilocalories (16 kilojoules) of food energy per gram. CHAPTER 3: CALCULATION OF THE ENERGY CONTENT OF FOODS - ENERGY CONVERSION FACTORS Breakdown of carbohydrates (e.g. starch) yields mono- and disaccharides, most of which is glucose. Through glycolysis and later in the reactions of the citric acid cycle (TCAC), glucose is oxidized to eventually form CO2 and water, yielding energy sources, mostly in the form of ATP. The insulin reaction, and other mechanisms, regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood. A high fasting blood sugar level is an indication of prediabetic and diabetic conditions. Glucose is a primary source of energy for the brain, and hence its availability influences psychological processes. When glucose is low, psychological processes requiring mental effort (e.g., self-control, effortful decision-making) are impaired. Glucose in glycolysis Use of glucose as an energy source in cells is via aerobic or anaerobic respiration. Both of these start with the early steps of the glycolysis metabolic pathway. The first step of this is the phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase to prepare it for later breakdown to provide energy. The major reason for the immediate phosphorylation of glucose by a hexokinase is to prevent diffusion out of the cell. The phosphorylation adds a charged phosphate group so the glucose 6-phosphate cannot easily cross the cell membrane. Irreversible first steps of a metabolic pathway are common for regulatory purposes. As a precursor Glucose is critical in the production of proteins and in lipid metabolism. In plants and most animals, it is also a precursor for vitamin C (ascorbic acid) production. It is modified for use in these processes by the glycolysis pathway. Glucose is used as a precursor for the synthesis of several important substances. Starch, cellulose, and glycogen ("animal starch") are common glucose polymers (polysaccharides). Lactose, the predominant sugar in milk, is a glucose-galactose disaccharide. In sucrose, another important disaccharide, glucose is joined to fructose. These synthesis processes also rely on the phosphorylation of glucose through the first step of glycolysis. Industrial use In the industry glucose is used as a precursor to make vitamin C in the Reichstein process, to make citric acid, gluconic acid, bio-ethanol, polylactic acid, sorbitol. Sources and absorption Most dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block, as in starch and glycogen, or together with another monosaccharide, as in sucrose and lactose. Crystalline fructose, for example, does not contain glucose and is about ninety-eight percent fructose. In the lumen of the duodenum and small intestine, the glucose oligo- and polysaccharides are broken down to monosaccharides by the pancreatic and intestinal glycosidases. Other polysaccarhides cannot be processed by the human intestine and require assistance by intestinal flora if they are to be broken down; the most notable exceptions are sucrose (fructose-glucose) and lactose (galactose-glucose). Glucose is then transported across the apical membrane of the enterocytes by SLC5A1, and later across their basal membrane by SLC2A2. Some of the glucose is directly utilized as an energy source by brain cells, intestinal cells and red blood cells, while the rest reaches the liver, adipose tissue and muscle cells, where it is absorbed and stored as glycogen (under the influence of insulin). Liver cell glycogen can be converted to glucose and returned to the blood when insulin is low or absent; muscle cell glycogen is not returned to the blood because of a lack of enzymes. In fat cells, glucose is used to power reactions that synthesize some fat types and have other purposes. Glycogen is the body's 'glucose energy storage' mechanism because it is much more 'space efficient' and less reactive than glucose itself. History Because glucose is a basic necessity of many organisms, a correct understanding of its chemical makeup and structure contributed greatly to a general advancement in organic chemistry. This understanding occurred largely as a result of the investigations of Emil Fischer, a German chemist who received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry as a result of his findings. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.html Nobel Prize website The synthesis of glucose established the structure of organic material and consequently formed the first definitive validation of Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff's theories of chemical kinetics and the arrangements of chemical bonds in carbon-bearing molecules. van't Hoff's Glucose, Bert Fraser-Reid, Chemical & Engineering News, 77, 39, 8 Between 1891 and 1894, Fischer established the stereochemical configuration of all the known sugars and correctly predicted the possible isomers, applying van't Hoff's theory of asymmetrical carbon atoms. See also Blood glucose or Blood sugar HbA1c DMF (potential glucose-based biofuel) Glycation Glycosylation Photosynthesis Fructose Beriberi - vitamin deficiency affecting ability to convert carbohydrates into glucose Sugars in wine Trinder glucose activity test Glucose transporter (GLUT): GLUT1, GLUT2 References External links D-glucose L-glucose (D-glucose) (L-glucose) Computational Chemistry Wiki What is Glucose be-x-old:Глюкоза | Glucose |@lemmatized glucose:84 glc:1 monosaccharide:4 simple:1 sugar:15 also:7 know:6 grape:1 blood:8 corn:2 important:4 carbohydrate:7 biology:2 living:2 cell:12 use:14 source:11 energy:17 metabolic:3 intermediate:2 one:7 main:1 product:3 photosynthesis:3 start:2 cellular:1 respiration:5 prokaryote:2 bacteria:3 archaea:1 eukaryotes:1 animal:5 plant:4 fungi:2 protist:1 name:1 come:1 greek:1 word:1 glukus:1 meaning:1 sweet:3 suffix:1 ose:1 denote:1 two:4 stereoisomers:3 aldohexose:3 biologically:1 active:1 form:18 often:2 refer:3 dextrose:3 monohydrate:1 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2,932 | Munich_massacre | The Munich Massacre occurred during the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, West Germany, when members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage and eventually murdered by Black September, a militant group with ties to Yasser Arafat’s Fatah organization. By the end of the ordeal, the terrorist group had killed eleven Israeli athletes and coaches and one West German police officer. Five of the eight members of Black September were killed by police officers during an abortive rescue attempt. The three surviving terrorists were captured, and were later released by West Germany following the hijacking by Black September of a Lufthansa airliner, a release that led to speculation that West Germany helped stage the hijacking. Samuel Katz, Jerusalem Or Death: Palestinian Terrorism, p. 34 Reeve, pgs. 157-158 Israel responded to the massacre with Operation Spring of Youth and Operation Wrath of God, a series of airstrikes and assassinations of those suspected of planning the killings. Prelude The participation of an Israeli team in an Olympic Games held in Germany was significant, in that only 27 years had passed since the end of World War II, and the horrors of the Nazi Holocaust were still fresh in people's minds. Many of the members of the Israeli team had lost relatives in the Holocaust, but those interviewed prior to the event looked on the Games as a way of making a statement of defiance to the Nazi murderers of the past by showing the resilience of the Jewish people. There was an additional point of particular poignance and symbolic resonance with the past in the fact that the Olympic facilities were less than ten miles (16 km) from the site of the Dachau concentration camp. The Israeli team visited Dachau just prior to the opening of the Games, and fencing coach Andre Spitzer was chosen to lay a wreath at the concentration camp. Members of the 1972 Israeli Olympic team, photographed just before their departure for Munich. The 11 team members taken hostage and subsequently murdered were: 1) wrestling referee Yossef Gutfreund (inset), age 40; 2) wrestling coach Moshe Weinberg, 33; 3) weightlifter Yossef Romano, 31; 4) weightlifter David Berger, 28; 5) weightlifter Ze'ev Friedman, 28; 6) wrestler Eliezer Halfin, 24; 7) track coach Amitzur Shapira, 40; 8) shooting coach Kehat Shorr, 53; 9) wrestler Mark Slavin, 18; 10) fencing coach Andre Spitzer, 27; and 11) weightlifting judge Yakov Springer, 51. Prior to the hostage-taking, the 1972 Munich Olympic Games were well into their 2nd week and there was a joyous mood. The West German Olympic Organising Committee had encouraged an open and friendly atmosphere in the Olympic Village to help erase memories of the militaristic image of wartime Germany, and, specifically, of the 1936 Berlin Olympics, which had been exploited by Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler for propaganda purposes. The documentary film One Day in September claims that security in the athletes' village was intentionally lax, and that athletes often came and went from the village without presenting proper identification. Many athletes bypassed security checkpoints and climbed over the chain-link fence surrounding the village. There were no armed security guards anywhere, a fact that had worried Israeli delegation head Shmuel Lalkin even before his team had arrived in Munich. In later interviews with journalists Serge Groussard and Aaron Klein, Lalkin said that he had also expressed concern with the relevant authorities about his team's lodgings. They were housed in a relatively isolated part of the Olympic Village, in a small building close to a gate, which he felt made his team particularly vulnerable to an outside assault. The German authorities apparently assured Lalkin that extra security would look after the Israeli team, but Lalkin doubts that these additional measures were ever taken. A West German forensic psychologist, Dr. Georg Sieber, had been asked by Olympic security experts to come up with 26 "worst-case" scenarios to aid them in planning Olympic security. His Situation 21 predicted with almost eerie accuracy the events of September 5, but it was dismissed by the security specialists as preposterous. TIME article, part 1, 5 August 2002 The hostage-taking The building where the hostage-taking took place is almost unchanged today. The window of Apartment 1 is to the left of and below the balcony. On the evening of 4 September, the Israeli athletes enjoyed a night out, watching a performance of Fiddler On The Roof and dining with the play's star, Israeli actor Shmuel Rodensky, before returning to the Olympic Village. Reeve, Klein and Groussard On the return trip in the team bus, Lalkin denied his 13-year-old son, who had befriended weightlifter Yossef Romano and wrestler Eliezer Halfin, permission to spend the night in their apartment - an innocent refusal that undoubtedly saved the boy's life. Klein, pgs. 35-36 At 4:30 A.M. local time on 5 September, as the athletes slept, eight tracksuit-clad Black September members carrying duffel bags loaded with AK-47 assault rifles, Tokarev pistols, and grenades scaled a two-meter chain-link fence with the assistance of unsuspecting athletes who were also sneaking into the Olympic Village. Once inside, they used stolen keys to enter two apartments being used by the Israeli team at 31 Connollystraße. Yossef Gutfreund, a wrestling referee, was awakened by a faint scratching noise at the door of Apartment 1, which housed the Israeli coaches and officials. When he investigated, he saw the door begin to open and masked men with guns on the other side. He shouted a warning to his sleeping roommates and threw his nearly 300 lb. (135 kg.) weight against the door in a futile attempt to stop the intruders from forcing their way in. Gutfreund's actions gave his roommate, weightlifting coach Tuvia Sokolovsky, enough time to smash a window and escape. Wrestling coach Moshe Weinberg fought back against the intruders, who shot him through his cheek and then forced him to help them find more hostages. Leading the kidnappers past Apartment 2, Weinberg lied to the kidnappers by telling them that the residents of the apartment were not Israelis. Instead, Weinberg led them to Apartment 3, where the terrorists corralled six wrestlers and weightlifters as additional hostages. It is possible that Weinberg thought that the stronger men might have a better chance of fighting off the attackers, but they were all surprised in their sleep. As the athletes from Apartment 3 were marched back to the coaches’ apartment, the wounded Weinberg again attacked the kidnappers, allowing one of his wrestlers, Gad Tsobari, to escape via the underground parking garage. Article on CBC Archives The burly Weinberg knocked one of the intruders unconscious and slashed another with a fruit knife before being shot to death. Weightlifter Yossef Romano, a veteran of the Six-Day War, also attacked and wounded one of the intruders before being shot and killed. The terrorists were left with nine living hostages. Gutfreund, physically the largest of the hostages, was bound to a chair (Groussard describes him as being tied up like a mummy). The rest were lined up four apiece on the two beds in Springer and Shapira's room and tied at the wrists and ankles, and then to each other. Romano's bullet-riddled corpse was left at the feet of his bound comrades as a warning. Of the other members of Israel's team, racewalker Prof. Shaul Ladany had been jolted awake in Apartment 2 by Gutfreund’s screams and escaped by jumping off a balcony and running through the rear garden of the building. The other four residents of Apartment 2 (marksmen Henry Hershkowitz and Zelig Stroch and fencers Dan Alon and Moshe Yehuda Weinstain), plus Lalkin and the two team doctors, managed to hide and later fled the besieged building. The two female members of Israel's Olympic team, sprinter and hurdler Esther Shachamarov and swimmer Shlomit Nir, were housed in a separate part of the Olympic Village inaccessible to the terrorists. Three more members of Israel's Olympic team, two sailors and an official, were housed in Kiel, from Munich. Black September's demands The attackers were subsequently reported to be part of the Palestinian fedayeen from refugee camps in Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. They were identified as Luttif Afif (Issa), the leader (three of Issa's brothers were also reportedly members of Black September, two of them in Israeli jails), his deputy Yusuf Nazzal (Tony), and junior members Afif Ahmed Hamid (Paolo), Khalid Jawad (Salah), Ahmed Chic Thaa (Abu Halla), Mohammed Safady (Badran), Adnan Al-Gashey (Denawi), and his cousin Jamal Al-Gashey (Samir). According to Simon Reeve, Afif, Nazzal and one of their confederates had all worked in various capacities in the Olympic Village, and had spent a couple of weeks scouting out their potential target. A member of the Uruguayan Olympic delegation, which shared housing with the Israelis, claims that he found Nazzal actually inside 31 Connollystraße less than 24 hours before the attack, but since he was recognised as a worker in the Village, nothing was thought of it at the time. The other members of the hostage-taking group entered Munich via train and plane in the days before the attack. All of the members of the Uruguay and Hong Kong Olympic teams, which also shared the building with the Israelis, were released unharmed during the crisis. The attackers demanded the release and safe passage to Egypt of 234 Palestinians and non-Arabs jailed in Israel, along with two German radicals held by the German penitentiary system, Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof, who were founders of the German Red Army Faction. The hostage-takers threw the body of Weinberg out the front door of the residence to demonstrate their resolve. Israel's response was immediate and absolute: there would be no negotiation. It has been claimed that the German authorities, under the leadership of Chancellor Willy Brandt and Minister for the Interior Hans-Dietrich Genscher, rejected Israel’s offer to send an Israeli special forces unit to Germany. Reeve, Simon. One Day in September, 2001. The Bavarian interior minister Bruno Merk, who headed the crisis centre jointly with Genscher and Munich's police chief Manfred Schreiber, denies that such an Israeli offer ever existed. One consequence was that the German police who took part in the attempted rescue operation, with no special training in hostage crisis operations, were deprived of specialised technical assistance. According to journalist John K. Cooley, the hostage situation presented an extremely difficult political situation for the Germans because the hostages were Jewish. Cooley reported that the Germans offered the Palestinians an unlimited amount of money for the release of the athletes, as well as the substitution of high-ranking Germans. However, the kidnappers refused both offers. Cooley Munich police chief Manfred Schreiber and Bruno Merk, interior minister for the Free State of Bavaria, negotiated directly with the kidnappers, repeating the offer of an unlimited amount of money. According to Cooley, the reply was that "money means nothing to us; our lives mean nothing to us." Magdi Gohary and Mohammad Khadif, both Egyptian advisors to the Arab League, and A.D. Touny, an Egyptian member of the International Olympic Committee, also helped try to win concessions from the kidnappers, but to no avail. However, the negotiators apparently were able to convince the kidnappers that their demands were being considered, as Issa granted a total of five extensions to their deadlines. Elsewhere in the village, athletes carried on as normal, seemingly oblivious of the events unfolding nearby. The Games continued until mounting pressure on the IOC forced a suspension of activities some 12 hours after the first athlete had been murdered. American marathon runner Frank Shorter, observing the unfolding events from the balcony of his nearby lodging, was quoted as saying, "Imagine those poor guys over there. Every five minutes a psycho with a machine gun says, 'Let's kill 'em now,' and someone else says, 'No, let's wait a while.' How long could you stand that?" A small squad of German police was dispatched to the Olympic village. Dressed in Olympic sweatsuits and carrying submachine guns, these were members of the German border-police, poorly-trained, and without specific operational plans in place for the rescue. The police took up positions awaiting orders that never came. In the meantime, camera crews filmed the actions of the police from German apartments, and broadcast the images live on television. The kidnappers were therefore able to watch the police as they prepared to attack. Footage shows the kidnappers leaning over to look at the police who were in hiding on the roof. In the end, after Issa threatened to kill two of the hostages, the police left the premises. Israeli hostages Kehat Shorr (left) and Andre Spitzer (right) talk to German officials during the hostage crisis. At one point during the crisis, the negotiators demanded direct contact with the hostages to satisfy themselves the Israelis were still alive. Fencing coach Andre Spitzer, who spoke fluent German, and shooting coach Kehat Shorr, the senior member of the Israeli delegation, had a brief conversation with German officials while standing at the second-floor window of the besieged building, with two kidnappers holding guns on them. When Spitzer attempted to answer a question, the coach was clubbed with the butt of an AK-47 in full view of international television cameras and pulled away from the window. A few minutes later, Genscher and Walter Tröger, the mayor of the Olympic Village, were briefly allowed into the apartments and spoke with the hostages. Tröger spoke of being very moved by the dignity with which the Israelis held themselves, and that they seemed resigned to their fate. He also noticed that several of the hostages, especially Gutfreund, showed signs of having suffered physical abuse at the hands of the kidnappers, and that David Berger had been shot in his left shoulder. While being debriefed by the crisis team, Genscher and Tröger told them that they had seen "four or five" terrorists inside the apartment. Crucially, these numbers were accepted as definitive. Unsuccessful rescue Relocation to Fürstenfeldbruck While Genscher and Tröger were talking with the hostages, shooting coach Kehat Shorr, speaking for his captive teammates, had told the Germans that the Israelis would not object to being flown to an Arab country, provided that strict guarantees for their safety were made by the Germans and whichever nation they landed in. At 6 p.m. Munich time, the terrorists issued a new dictate, demanding transportation to Cairo. The authorities feigned agreement (although Egyptian Prime Minister Aziz Sedki had already told the German authorities that the Egyptians did not wish to become involved in the hostage crisis), Groussard and at 10:10 p.m. a bus carried the terrorists and their hostages from 31 Connollystraße to two military helicopters, which were to transport them to nearby Fürstenfeldbruck, a NATO airbase. Initially, the terrorists had wanted to go to Riem, the international airport near Munich at that time, but the negotiators convinced them that Fürstenfeldbruck would be more practical. The authorities, who preceded the Black Septemberists and hostages in a third helicopter, had an ulterior motive: they planned an armed assault on the terrorists at the airport. The five German snipers who were chosen to ambush the kidnappers had been selected because they shot competitively on weekends. TIME article, part 5, 5 August 2002 During a subsequent German investigation, an officer identified as “Sniper No. 2” stated: “I am of the opinion that I am not a sharpshooter.” CBS News article on 2002 comemoration of the massacre, 5 September 2002 The five snipers were deployed around the airport - three on the roof of the control tower, one hidden behind a service truck and one behind a small signal tower at ground level - but none of them had any special training. The members of the crisis team - Schreiber, Genscher, Merk and Schreiber's deputy Georg Wolf - supervised and observed the attempted rescue from the airport control tower. Cooley, Reeve and Groussard all place Mossad chief Zvi Zamir and Victor Cohen, one of Zamir's senior assistants, at the scene as well, but as observers only. Zamir has stated repeatedly in interviews over the years that he was never consulted by the Germans at any time during the rescue attempt, and that he thought that his presence actually made the Germans uncomfortable. A Boeing 727 jet was positioned on the tarmac, with five or six armed German police inside, dressed as flight crew. It was agreed that Issa and Tony would inspect the plane. The plan was that the Germans would overpower the two terrorists as they boarded, giving the snipers a chance to kill the remaining terrorists at the helicopters. These were believed to number no more than two or three, according to what Genscher and Tröger had seen inside 31 Connollystraße. However, during the transfer from the bus to the helicopters, the crisis team discovered that there were actually eight terrorists. At the last minute, as the helicopters were arriving at Fürstenfeldbruck, the German police aboard the airplane voted to abandon their mission, without consulting the central command. This left only the five sharpshooters to try to overpower a larger and more heavily armed group of terrorists. At that point, General Ulrich Wegener, Genscher's senior aide and later the founder of the elite German counter-terrorist unit GSG 9, said "I'm sure this will blow the whole affair!" Gunfire commences The helicopters landed just after 10:30 p.m., and the four pilots and six of the kidnappers emerged. While four of the Black September members held the pilots at gunpoint (breaking an earlier promise that they would not take any Germans hostage), Issa and Tony walked over to inspect the jet, only to find it empty. Realizing they had been lured into a trap, the two fedayeen sprinted back toward the helicopters. As they ran past the control tower, Sniper 3 took one last opportunity to eliminate Issa, which would have left the terrorists leaderless. However, due to the poor lighting, he struggled to see his target and missed, hitting Tony in the thigh instead. Meanwhile, the German authorities gave the order for snipers positioned nearby to open fire, which occurred around 11:00 p.m. In the ensuing chaos, two of the kidnappers holding the helicopter pilots (Ahmed Chic Thaa and Afif Ahmed Hamid) were killed, and the remaining terrorists (one or two of whom may have already been wounded) scrambled to safety, returning fire from behind and beneath the helicopters, out of the snipers’ line of sight, and shooting out many of the airport lights. A German policeman in the control tower, Anton Fliegerbauer, was killed by the gunfire. The helicopter pilots fled, but the hostages, who were tied up inside the craft, could not. During the gun battle, the hostages secretly worked on loosening their bonds, and teeth marks were found on some of the ropes after the gunfire had ended. Frustrated at the Germans’ seeming indifference to the gravity of the situation, Zamir and Cohen went up on the roof of the control tower with a megaphone and tried to talk the kidnappers into surrendering. The terrorists replied by firing upon the two Israelis, making it clear that the time for negotiation had long since passed. Death of hostages The Germans had not arranged for armored personnel carriers ahead of time, and only at this point were they called in to break the deadlock. Since the roads to the airport had not been cleared, the carriers became stuck in traffic and finally arrived around midnight. With their appearance, the terrorists felt the shift in the status quo, and possibly panicked at the thought of the failure of their operation. At four minutes past midnight of September 6, one of the terrorists (likely Issa) turned on the hostages in the eastern helicopter and fired at them from point-blank range. Springer, Halfin, and Friedman were killed instantly; Berger, shot twice in the leg, survived the initial onslaught. The terrorist then pulled the pin on a hand grenade and tossed it into the cockpit; the ensuing explosion destroyed the helicopter and incinerated the bound Israelis inside. Issa then dashed across the tarmac and began firing at the police, who killed the fedayeen leader with return fire. Another terrorist, Khalid Jawad, attempted to escape and was gunned down by one of the snipers. What happened to the remaining hostages is still a matter of dispute. A German police investigation indicated that one of their snipers and a few of the hostages may have been shot inadvertently by the police. However, a Time Magazine reconstruction of the long-suppressed Bavarian prosecutor’s report indicates that a third kidnapper (Reeve identifies Adnan Al-Gashey) stood at the door of the helicopter and raked the remaining five hostages with fatal gunfire; Gutfreund, Shorr, Slavin, Spitzer and Shapira were shot an average of four times each. Of the four hostages in the eastern helicopter, only Ze'ev Friedman’s body was relatively intact; he had been blown clear of the helicopter by the explosion. In some cases, the exact cause of death for the hostages in the eastern helicopter was difficult to establish because the rest of the corpses were burned almost beyond recognition in the explosion and subsequent fire. It is believed that Berger was the last hostage to die, succumbing to smoke inhalation. Aftermath of unsuccessful rescue Three of the remaining terrorists lay on the ground, two of them feigning death, and were captured by police. Jamal Al-Gashey had been shot through his right wrist, and Mohammed Safady had sustained a flesh wound to his leg. Groussard Adnan Al-Gashey had escaped injury completely. Tony, the final terrorist, escaped the scene, but was tracked down with police dogs 40 minutes later in an airbase parking lot. Cornered and bombarded with tear gas, he was shot dead after a brief gunfight. By around 1:30 a.m. (German time), the battle was over. Initial news reports, published all over the world, indicated that all the hostages were alive, and that all the terrorists had been killed. Only later did a representative for the International Olympic Committee (IOC) suggest that "initial reports were overly optimistic." Jim McKay, who was covering the Olympics that year for ABC, had taken on the job of reporting the events as Roone Arledge fed them into his earpiece. At 3:24 a.m. (German Time), McKay received the official confirmation: American Sportscasters Online interview with Jim McKay Criticisms of West German rescue attempt Author Simon Reeve, among others, writes that the shootout with the well-trained Black September members showed an egregious lack of preparation on the part of the German authorities. They were not prepared to deal with this sort of situation, and this hard-won awareness led directly to the founding, less than two months later, of GSG 9. In the early 1970s, most Western countries did not have any special anti-terrorist units to deal with this sort of attack. The authors argue that German authorities made a number of mistakes. First, because of complications in the post-war West German constitution, the army could not participate in the attempted rescue, as the German armed forces are not allowed to operate inside Germany during peacetime. The responsibility was entirely in the hands of the Munich police and the Bavarian authorities. Interview with Ulrich Wegener in One Day in September It was known a full half-hour before the terrorists and hostages had even arrived at Fürstenfeldbruck that the number of terrorists was larger than first believed. Despite this new information, Schreiber stubbornly decided to continue with the rescue operation as originally planned, and the new information could not reach the snipers since they had no radios. Reeve, pgs. 103 and 107 It is a basic tenet of sniping operations that enough snipers (at least two for each known target, or in this case a minimum of ten) should have been deployed to neutralize as many of the terrorists as possible with the first volley of shots. Groussard, pg. 349 It was this most basic failure of experience and technical foresight that led to the subsequent disaster. The 2006 National Geographic Channel's Seconds From Disaster profile on the massacre stated that the helicopters were supposed to land sideways and to the west of the control tower, a manoeuvre which would have allowed the snipers clear shots into them as the kidnappers threw open the helicopter doors. Instead, the helicopters were landed facing the control tower and at the centre of the airstrip. This not only gave the terrorists a place to hide after the gunfight began, but put Snipers 1 and 2 in the line of fire of the other three snipers on the control tower. The snipers were denied valuable shooting opportunities as a result of the positioning of the helicopters, as well as the fact that the fight effectively became a clearly untenable three snipers versus eight heavily armed terrorists. According to the same program, the crisis committee delegated to make decisions on how to deal with the incident consisted of Bruno Merk (the Bavarian interior minister), Hans-Dietrich Genscher (the West German interior minister) and Manfred Schreiber (Munich's Chief of Police); in other words, two politicians and only one tactician. The program mentioned that a year before the Games, Schreiber had participated in another hostage crisis (a failed bank robbery) in which he ordered a marksman to shoot one of the perpetrators, who was only wounded. As a result, the robbers shot dead an innocent woman and Schreiber had been charged with involuntary manslaughter. An investigation ultimately cleared him of any wrongdoing, but the program suggested that the prior incident affected his judgement in the subsequent Olympic hostage crisis. Had the committee been made up of more experienced people, the situation might well have been handled differently. As mentioned earlier, the five German snipers at Fürstenfeldbruck did not have radio contact with one another (nor with the German authorities conducting the rescue operation) and therefore were unable to coordinate their fire. The only contact the snipers had with the operational leadership was with Georg Wolf, who was lying next to the three snipers on the control tower giving orders directly to them. Reeve, pgs. 115-116 The two snipers at ground level had been given vague instructions to shoot when the other snipers began shooting, and were basically left to fend for themselves. Reeve, pgs. 106-107 In addition, the snipers did not have the proper equipment for this anti-terrorism operation. The Heckler & Koch G3 battle rifles used were considered by several experts to be inadequate for the distance at which the snipers were trying to shoot the terrorists. The G3, the standard service rifle of the Bundeswehr at that time, had a 20-inch barrel; at the distances the snipers were required to shoot, a 27-inch barrel would have ensured far greater accuracy. Groussard, pgs. 354-355 None of the rifles were equipped with telescopic or infrared sights. Additionally, none of the snipers was equipped with steel helmets or bullet-proof vests. Reeve, pg. 116 No armored vehicles were at the scene at Fürstenfeldbruck, and were only called in after the gunfight was well underway. Reeve, pgs. 118 and 120 There were also numerous tactical errors. As mentioned earlier, "Sniper 2," stationed behind the signal tower, wound up directly in the line of fire of his fellow snipers on the control tower, without any protective gear and without any other police being aware of his location. Because of this, "Sniper 2" didn't fire a single shot until late in the gunfight, when hostage-taker Khalid Jawad attempted to escape on foot and ran right at the exposed sniper. "Sniper 2" killed the fleeing terrorist but was in turn wounded heavily by one of his fellow policemen, who was unaware that he was shooting at one of his own men. One of the helicopter pilots, Ganner Ebel, was lying near "Sniper 2" and was also wounded by friendly fire. Both Ebel and the sniper recovered from their injuries. Reeve, pgs. 121-122 None of the police officers posing as the fake crew on the Boeing 727 were prosecuted or reprimanded for abandoning their posts. Many of the police officers and border guards who were approached for interviews by the One Day in September production team were threatened with the loss of their pension rights if they talked for the film. Some authors argue that this suggests an attempt at cover-up by the German authorities. Many of the errors made by the Germans during the rescue attempt were ultimately detailed by Heinz Hohensinn, who had participated in the operation, but had taken early retirement and had no pension to lose. Reeve, pgs. 236-237 Effect on the Games For the first time in modern Olympic history, competition was suspended in the wake of the hostage-taking. On September 6, a memorial service attended by 80,000 spectators and 3,000 athletes was held in the Olympic Stadium. IOC President Avery Brundage made little reference to the murdered athletes during a speech praising the strength of the Olympic movement and equating the attack on the Israeli sportsmen with the recent arguments about encroaching professionalism and disallowing Rhodesia's participation in the Games, which outraged many listeners. The victims' families were represented by Andre Spitzer's widow Ankie, Moshe Weinberg's mother, and a cousin of Weinberg's, Carmel Eliash. During the memorial service, Eliash collapsed and died of a heart attack. Athletics: Memories stirred of Olympic hostage horror Many of the 80,000 people who filled the Olympic Stadium for West Germany's football match with Hungary carried noisemakers and waved flags, but when several spectators unfurled a banner reading “17 dead, already forgotten?” security officers removed the sign and expelled the offenders from the grounds. TIME article, part 6, 5 August 2002 During the memorial service, the Olympic Flag was flown at half-staff, along with the flags of most of the other competing nations at the request of Willy Brandt. Ten Arab nations objected to their flags being lowered to honor murdered Israelis; their flags were restored to the tops of their flagpoles almost immediately. Willi Daume, president of the Munich organizing committee, initially sought to cancel the remainder of the Games, but in the afternoon Brundage and others who wished to continue the Games prevailed, stating that they could not let the incident halt the games. Brundage stated "The games must go on, and we must... and we must continue our efforts to keep them clean, pure and honest." http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1972/1972-Election/12305688736666-2/#title "Munich Crisis" The decision was endorsed by the Israeli government and Israeli Olympic team chef de mission Shmuel Lalkin. Encarta article on the Olympic Games On September 6, after the memorial service, the remaining members of the Israeli team withdrew from the Games and left Munich. All Jewish sportsmen were placed under guard. Mark Spitz, the American swimming star who had already completed his competitions, left Munich during the hostage crisis (it was feared that as a prominent Jew, Spitz might now be a kidnapping target). The Egyptian team left the Games on 7 September, stating they feared reprisals. Guardian article on the massacre, 7 September 1972 The Philippine and Algerian teams also left the Games, as did some members of the Dutch and Norwegian teams. American marathon runner Kenny Moore, who wrote about the incident for Sports Illustrated, quoted Dutch distance runner Jos Hermens as saying, “You give a party, and someone is killed at the party, you don’t continue the party. I'm going home.” Many athletes, dazed by the tragedy, similarly felt that their desire to compete had been destroyed, although they stayed at the Games. The families of some victims have asked the IOC to establish a permanent memorial to the athletes, but the IOC has declined, saying that to introduce a specific reference to the victims could “alienate other members of the Olympic community,” according to the BBC. BBC News article on commemoration at 2004 Olympics, 20 August 2004 Alex Gilady, an Israeli IOC official, told the BBC: “We must consider what this could do to other members of the delegations that are hostile to Israel.” There is, however, a memorial outside the Olympic stadium in Munich, in the form of a stone tablet at the bridge linking the stadium to the former Olympic village. There is also a memorial tablet to the slain Israelis outside the front door of their former lodging at 31 Connollystraße. On 15 October 1999 (almost a year before the Sydney 2000 Games) a memorial plaque was unveiled in one of the large light towers (Tower 14) outside the Sydney Olympic Stadium, and remains there today. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs article on Sydney 2000 Olympics and Plaque Simon Reeve’s article in 2000: Munich massacre’s echoes heard amid Sydney’s jubilee Aftermath On September 5, Golda Meir, then-Prime Minister of Israel, appealed to other countries to "save our citizens and condemn the unspeakable criminal acts committed." King Hussein of Jordan - the only leader of an Arab country to publicly denounce the Olympic attack - called it a "savage crime against civilization… perpetrated by sick minds." Cooley The bodies of the five Palestinians — Afif, Nazzal, Chic Thaa, Hamid and Jawad — killed during the Fürstenfeldbruck gun battle were delivered to Libya, where they received heroes’ funerals and were buried with full military honors. On September 9, Israeli planes bombed Palestinian targets in Syria and Lebanon. The Jewish Agency for Israel Timeline On October 29, hijackers of a German Lufthansa passenger jet demanded the release of the three surviving terrorists, who had been arrested after the Fürstenfeldbruck gunfight and were being held for trial. Safady and the Al-Gasheys were immediately released by Germany, receiving a tumultuous welcome when they touched down in Libya and giving their own firsthand account of their operation at a press conference broadcast worldwide. In both ESPN/ABC's documentary The Tragedy of the Munich Games and in Kevin Macdonald's Academy Award-winning documentary One Day in September, it is claimed that the whole Lufthansa hijacking episode was a sham, concocted by the West Germans and Black September so that the Germans could be rid of the three Munich perpetrators. The view is that the Germans were fearful that their mishandling of the rescue attempt would be exposed to the world if the three Fürstenfeldbruck survivors had ever stood trial. Horst Mahler, one of the founders of the RAF (Baader Meinhof gang) published a document from prison expressing support for the massacre. See note 3 at http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2005/karmon.html#_edn4 Years later, Mahler became a militant Holocaust denier. See the article in German Lecture Series on the Final Solution of the Jewish Question at www.regmeister.net/h_mahler.htm. Operations Wrath of God and Spring of Youth Golda Meir and the Israeli Defense Committee secretly authorized the Mossad to track down and kill those allegedly responsible for the Munich massacre, Morris a claim which was disputed by Zvi Zamir, which describes this as “putting an end to the type of terror that was perpetrated” (in Europe). Melman To this end the Mossad set up a number of special teams to locate and kill these terrorists, aided by the agency’s stations in Europe. “Munich: Mossad breaks cover” by Ewen MacAskill and Ian Black, The Guardian, January 26, 2006 In a February 2006 interview, former Mossad chief Zvi Zamir is answering a direct question: Was there no element of vengeance in the decision to take action against the terrorists? No. We were not engaged in vengeance. We are accused of having been guided by a desire for vengeance. That is nonsense. What we did was to concretely prevent in the future. We acted against those who thought that they would continue to perpetrate acts of terror. I am not saying that those who were involved in Munich were not marked for death. They definitely deserved to die. But we were not dealing with the past; we concentrated on the future. Did you not receive a directive from Golda Meir along the lines of “take revenge on those responsible for Munich”? Golda abhorred the necessity that was imposed on us to carry out the operations. Golda never told me to ‘take revenge on those who were responsible for Munich.’ No one told me that. The Israeli mission later became known as Operation Wrath of God or Mivtza Za'am Ha'El. Reeve quotes General Aharon Yariv — who, he writes, was the general overseer of the operation — as stating that after Munich the Israeli government felt it had no alternative but to exact justice. We had no choice. We had to make them stop, and there was no other way… we are not very proud about it. But it was a question of sheer necessity. We went back to the old biblical rule of an eye for an eye… I approach these problems not from a moral point of view, but, hard as it may sound, from a cost-benefit point of view. If I’m very hard-headed, I can say, what is the political benefit in killing this person? Will it bring us nearer to peace? Will it bring us nearer to an understanding with the Palestinians or not? In most cases I don’t think it will. But in the case of Black September we had no other choice and it worked. Is it morally acceptable? One can debate that question. Is it politically vital? It was. Benny Morris writes that a target list was created using information from “turned” PLO personnel and friendly European intelligence services. Once complete, a wave of assassinations of suspected Black September operatives began across Europe. On 9 April 1973, Israel launched Operation Spring of Youth, a joint Mossad-IDF operation in Beirut. The targets were Mohammad Yusuf al-Najjar (Abu Yusuf), head of Fatah’s intelligence arm, which ran Black September, according to Morris; Kamal Adwan, who headed the PLO's so-called Western Sector, which controlled PLO action inside Israel; and Kamal Nassir, the PLO spokesman. A group of Sayeret commandos were taken in nine missile boats and a small fleet of patrol boats to a deserted Lebanese beach, before driving in two cars to downtown Beirut, where they killed Najjar, Adwan and Nassir. Two further detachments of commandos blew up the PFLP’s headquarters in Beirut and a Fatah explosives plant. The leader of the commando team that conducted the operations was Ehud Barak. On 21 July 1973, in the so-called Lillehammer affair, a team of Mossad agents killed Ahmed Bouchiki, a Moroccan man unrelated to the Munich attack, in Lillehammer, Norway, after an informant mistakenly said Bouchiki was Ali Hassan Salameh, the head of Force 17 and a Black September operative. Five Mossad agents, including two women, were captured by the Norwegian authorities, while others managed to slip away. The five were convicted of the killing and imprisoned, but were released and returned to Israel in 1975. The Mossad later found Ali Hassan Salameh in Beirut and killed him on 22 January 1979 with a remote-controlled car bomb. Simon Reeve writes that the Israeli operations continued for more than 20 years. He details the assassination in Paris in 1992 of the PLO’s head of intelligence, and says that an Israeli general confirmed there was a link back to Munich. Reeve also writes that while Israeli officials have stated Operation Wrath of God was intended to exact vengeance for the families of the athletes killed in Munich, “few relatives wanted such a violent reckoning with the Palestinians”. Reeve states the families were instead desperate to know the truth of the events surrounding the Munich massacre. Reeve outlines what he sees as a lengthy cover-up by German authorities to hide the truth. After 20 years of fighting the German government, the families, led by Ankie Spitzer and Ilana Romano (widows of fencing coach Andre and weightlifter Yossef, respectively), acquired official documentation proving the depth of the cover-up. After a lengthy court fight, in 2004 the families of the Munich victims reached a financial settlement with the German government. Surviving hostage-takers After many years, the fate of the three Fürstenfeldbruck survivors is in dispute. It has long been claimed that both Mohammed Safady and Adnan Al-Gashey were killed by the Mossad as part of Operation Wrath of God. According to the Klein book, Adnan Al-Gashey actually died of heart failure in the 1970s, not as a result of an attack by the Israeli hit squads. Additionally, in the summer of 2004, PLO veteran Tawfiq Tirawi told Klein that his friend Mohammed Safady was "as alive as you are." He did not go beyond that rather cryptic comment. No additional evidence has come to light regarding Safady's survival. The prevailing belief is that Jamal Al-Gashey is the sole remaining hostage-taker alive today (June 2009), living underground, claiming to still fear retribution from Israeli authorities. He is the only one of the surviving terrorists to consent to interviews since 1972, having granted an interview in 1992 to a Palestinian newspaper, and having briefly emerged from hiding in 1999 to participate in an interview for the film One Day in September, during which he was disguised and his face shown only in blurry shadow. Abu Daoud Of those believed to have planned the Munich massacre, only Abu Daoud, the man who claims that the attack was his idea, is known to be alive, and is believed to be in hiding somewhere in the Middle East or in Africa. In January 1977, Daoud was intercepted by French police in Paris while traveling from Beirut under an assumed name. Under protest from the PLO, Iraq, and Libya, who claimed that because Daoud was traveling to a PLO comrade's funeral he should receive diplomatic immunity, the French government refused a West German extradition request on grounds that forms had not been filled in properly and put him on a plane to Algeria before Germany could submit another request. On 27 July 1981, he was shot 13 times from a distance of around two meters in a Warsaw Victoria (now Sofitel) hotel coffee shop, but surprisingly survived the attack, chasing his would-be assassin down to the front entrance before collapsing. Abu Daoud was allowed safe passage through Israel in 1996 so he could attend a PLO meeting convened in the Gaza Strip for the purpose of rescinding an article in its charter that called for Israel’s eradication. In his autobiography, From Jerusalem to Munich, first published in France in 1999, and later in a written interview with Sports Illustrated, Sports Illustrated on Abu Daoud Abu Daoud, now in his seventies, writes that funds for Munich were provided by Mahmoud Abbas, Chairman of the PLO since 11 November 2004 and President of the Palestinian National Authority since 15 January 2005. WorldNetDaily on Mahmoud Abbas Israel Law Center on Abu Mazen Jewish Virtual Library on Mahmoud Abbas Though he claims he didn’t know what the money was being spent for, longtime Fatah official Mahmoud Abbas, aka Abu Mazen, was responsible for the financing of the Munich attack. Daoud Abu Daoud, who lives with his wife on a pension provided by the Palestinian Authority, has said that “the [Munich] operation had the endorsement of Arafat,” although Arafat was not involved in conceiving or implementing the attack. In his autobiography, Daoud writes that Arafat saw the team off on the mission with the words “Allah protect you.” Conservative News Station on involvement of PLO in the massacre Arafat rejected this claim. Ankie Spitzer, widow of fencing coach Andre, has refused several offers of meetings with Abu Daoud, saying that the only place she wants to meet him is in a courtroom. According to Spitzer, “He [Abu Daoud] didn’t pay the price for what he did.” The dead of the Munich massacre Memorial plaque in front of the Israeli athletes' quarters. The inscription, in German and Hebrew, reads: The team of the State of Israel stayed in this building during the 20th Olympic Summer Games from 21 August to 5 September 1972. On 5 September, [list of victims] died a violent death. Honor to their memory. Memorial panel for the victims of the attack on the site of the Munich Olympic Park Shot during the initial break-in Moshe Weinberg (wrestling coach) Yossef Romano (weightlifter) Shot and blown up by grenade in D-HAQO (eastern) helicopter (according to the order in which they were seated, from left to right) Ze'ev Friedman (weightlifter) David Berger (weightlifter) Yakov Springer (weightlifting judge) Eliezer Halfin (wrestler) Shot in D-HADU (western) helicopter (according to the order in which they were seated, from left to right) Yossef Gutfreund (wrestling referee) Kehat Shorr (shooting coach) Mark Slavin (wrestler) Andre Spitzer (fencing coach) Amitzur Shapira (track coach) Shot on airstrip Anton Fliegerbauer (German police officer) Terrorists shot dead by German police Luttif Afif (known as Issa) Yusuf Nazzal (Tony) Afif Ahmed Hamid (Paolo) Khalid Jawad (Salah) Ahmed Chic Thaa (Abu Halla) See also Black September (group) Olympics with significant incidents 1968 Summer Olympics – Mexico City, Mexico — 1968 Olympics Black Power Salute 1972 Summer Olympics – Munich, Bavaria, West Germany — Munich Massacre 1996 Summer Olympics – Atlanta, Georgia, United States — Centennial Olympic Park bombing 2008 Summer Olympics – Beijing, China — 2008 Beijing Drum Tower stabbings Media Munich 21 Hours at Munich One Day in September Sword of Gideon National Geographic Seconds From Disaster episodes References Further reading Calahan, A. B. (1995 Thesis) "The Israeli Response to the 1972 Munich Olympic Massacre and the Development of Independent Covert Action Teams" Cooley, John K. (London 1973), Green March Black September: The Story of the Palestinian Arabs ISBN 0-7146-2987-1 Dahlke, Matthias (Munich 2006), Der Anschlag auf Olympia '72. Die politischen Reaktionen auf den internationalen in Deutschland Martin Meidenbauer ISBN 3-89975-583-9 (German text) Daoud, M. (Abu Daoud) (New York, 2002) ISBN 1-55970-429-2 Groussard, Serge (New York, 1975), The Blood of Israel: the massacre of the Israeli athletes, the Olympics, 1972 ISBN 0-688-02910-8 Jonas, George. (New York, 2005), Vengeance: The True Story of an Israeli Team.", Simon & Schuster Khalaf, Salah (Abu Iyad) (Tel Aviv, 1983) Without a Homeland: Conversations with Eric Rouleau Klein, A. J. (New York, 2005), Striking Back: The 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre and Israel's Deadly Response, Random House ISBN 1-920769-80-3 Morris, Benny. (New York, 1999 and 2001), Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist–Arab conflict, 1881–2000, Vintage Books edition ISBN 0-679-74475-4 Reeve, Simon. (New York, 2001), One Day in September: the full story of the 1972 Munich Olympic massacre and Israeli revenge operation "Wrath of God" ISBN 1-55970-547-7 Tinnin, David B. & Dag Christensen. (1976), The Hit Team'' ISBN 0-440-13644-X Yossi Melman (February 17 2006), Interview with Head of Mossad, "Preventive measures" By Yossi Melman "Haaretz.com" Movies “Munich: Mossad’s Revenge”, Other resources The Israeli Response to the 1972 Munich Massacre — Includes an extensive overview of the Munich Massacre A Tribute to the 1972 Israeli Olympic Athletes — Includes biographies and photographs for each of the 11 Israeli athletes who died at the hands of Palestinian terrorists Munich Attack Mastermind Feels No Regret Time Magazine, 4 December 2005 Ankie Spitzer speech Overview of Israeli retaliation actions The Disaster Backgrounds of the assault at the Olympic Games ´72 | Munich_massacre |@lemmatized munich:51 massacre:19 occur:2 summer:7 olympics:13 west:14 germany:11 member:24 israeli:49 olympic:44 team:34 take:17 hostage:45 eventually:1 murder:4 black:18 september:36 militant:2 group:6 tie:4 yasser:1 arafat:5 fatah:4 organization:1 end:6 ordeal:1 terrorist:38 kill:22 eleven:1 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2,933 | Computer_hardware | REDIRECT Personal computer hardware | Computer_hardware |@lemmatized redirect:1 personal:1 computer:1 hardware:1 |@bigram |
2,934 | Lambda_phage | Lysis plaques of lambda phage on E. coli bacteria. Enterobacteria phage λ (lambda phage, coliphage λ) is a temperate bacteriophage that infects Escherichia coli. Lambda phage is a virus particle consisting of a head, containing double-stranded linear DNA as its genetic material, and a tail that can have tail fibers. The phage particle injects its DNA into its host through the tail, and the phage will then usually enter the lytic pathway where it replicates its DNA, degrades the host DNA and hijacks the cell's replication, transcription and translation mechanisms to produce as many phage particles as cell resources allow. When cell resources are depleted, the phage will lyse (break open) the host cell, releasing the new phage particles. However, under certain conditions, the phage DNA may integrate itself into the host cell chromosome in the lysogenic pathway. In this state, the λ DNA is called a prophage and stays resident within the host's genome without apparent harm to the host, which can be termed a lysogen when a prophage is present. The prophage is duplicated with every subsequent cell division of the host. The phage genes expressed in this dormant state code for proteins that repress expression of other phage genes. These proteins are broken down when the host cell is under stress, resulting in the expression of the repressed phage genes. Stress can be from starvation, poisons (like antibiotics), or other factors that can damage or destroy the host. In response to stress, the activated prophage is excised from the DNA of the host cell by one of the newly expressed gene products and enters its lytic pathway. Lambda phage was discovered by Esther Lederberg in 1950. Esther Lederberg, "Lysogenicity in Eescherichia coli strain K-12, Microbial Genetics Bulletin, v.1, pp. 5-8 (January 1950); followed by "Lysogenicity in E. coli K-12", Genetics, v.36, p. 560 (1951) (abstract). It has been used heavily as a model organism, and has been a rich source for useful tools in molecular biology. Uses include its application as a vector for the cloning of recombinant DNA, the use of its site specific recombinase, int, for the shuffling of cloned DNAs by the 'Gateway' method, and the application of its Red operon, including the proteins Red alpha (also called 'exo'), beta and gamma in the DNA engineering method called recombineering. In the following page, we will write genes in italics and their associated proteins in Roman. For instance, cI refers to the gene, while cI is the resulting protein encoded by that gene. Anatomy The virus particle consists of a head and a tail that can have tail fibres. The head contains 48,490 base pairs of double-stranded, linear DNA flanked by 12-base-pair, single-stranded segments that make up the two strands of the cos site. In its circular form in the host cytoplasm, the phage genome therefore is 48,502 base pairs in length. The prophage exists as a linear section of DNA inserted into the host chromosome. Lifecycle Schematic representation of the genome of the bacteriophage lambda. Infection Bacteriophage Lambda binds to the target E. coli cell, the J protein in the tail tip interacting with the lamB gene product of E. coli, a porin molecule which is part of the maltose operon. The linear phage genome is injected past the cell outer membrane. The DNA passes through a separate sugar transport protein (ptsG) in the inner membrane, and immediately circularises using the cos sites, 12-base G-C rich cohesive "sticky ends". The single-stranded nicks are ligated by host DNA ligase. Host DNA gyrase puts negative supercoils in the circular chromosome, causing A-T rich regions to unwind and drive transcription. Transcription starts from the constitutive PL, PR and PR' promoters producing the 'immediate early' transcripts. Initially these express the N and cro genes, producing N, Cro and a short inactive protein. Cro binds to OR3 preventing access to the PRM promoter preventing expression of the cI gene. N binds to the two Nut (N utilisation) sites, one in the N gene in the PL reading frame, and one in the cro gene in the PR reading frame. The N protein is an antiterminator, and functions to extend the reading frames that it is bound to. When RNA polymerase transcribes these regions, it recruits the N and forms a complex with several host Nus proteins. This complex skips through most termination sequences. The extended transcripts (the 'late early' transcripts) include the N and cro genes along with cII and cIII genes, and xis, int, OP and Q genes discussed later. The cIII protein acts to protect the cII protein from proteolysis by FtsH (a membrane-bound essential E. coli protease) by acting as a competitive inhibitor. This inhibition can induce a bacteriostatic state, which favours lysogeny. cIII also directly stabilises the cII protein Kobiler, O. et al., 2007, PLoS ONE. 2007; 2(4): e363 . On initial infection, the stability of cII determines the lifestyle of the phage; stable cII will lead to the lysogenic pathway, whereas if cII is degraded the phage will go into the lytic pathway. Low temperature, starvation of the cells and high multiplicity of infection (MOI) are known to favor lysogeny (see later discussion). N Antitermination This occurs without the N protein interacting with the DNA; the protein instead binds to the freshly transcribed mRNA. Nut sites contain 3 conserved "boxes," of which only BoxB is essential. The boxB RNA sequences are located close to the 5' end of the pL and pR transcripts. When transcribed, each sequence forms a hairpin loop structure that the N protein can bind to. N protein binds to boxB in each transcript, and contacts the transcribing RNA polymerase via RNA looping. The N-RNAP complex is stabilized by subsequent binding of several host Nus (N utilisation substance) proteins (which include transcription termination/antitermination factors and, bizarrely, a ribosome subunit). The entire complex (including the bound Nut site on the mRNA) continues transcription, and can skip through termination sequences. Lytic Lifestyle This is the lifecycle that the phage follows following most infections, where the cII protein does not reach a high enough concentration due to degradation, so does not activate its promoters. The 'late early' transcripts continue being written, including xis, int, Q and genes for replication of the lambda genome (OP). Cro dominates the repressor site (see "Repressor"), repressing synthesis from the PRM promoter. The O and P proteins initiate replication of the phage chromosome (see "Lytic Replication"). Q, another antiterminator, binds to Qut sites. Transcription from the PR' promoter can now extend to produce mRNA for the lysis and the head and tail proteins. Structural proteins and phage genomes self assemble into new phage particles. Products of the lysis genes R and S, cause cell lysis at high enough concentrations. S is a holin which makes holes in the membrane. R is an endolysin which cleaves the cell wall. Around 100 new phage are released. Rightward Transcription Rightward transcription expresses the O, P and Q genes. O and P are responsible for initiating replication, and Q is another antiterminator which allows the expression of head, tail and lysis genes from PR’. Lytic Replication For the first few replication cycles, the lambda genome undergoes θ replication (circle-to-circle). This is initiated at the ori site located in the O gene. O protein binds the ori site, and P protein binds the DnaB subunit of the host replication machinery as well as binding O. This effectively commandeers the host DNA polymerase. Soon, the phage switches to a rolling-circle type of replication similar to that used by phage M13. The DNA is nicked and the 3’ end serves as a primer. Notably, this doesn’t release single copies of the phage genome, but rather one long molecule with many copies of the genome: a concatemer. These concatemers are cleaved at their cos sites as they are packaged. Packaging cannot occur from circular phage DNA, only from concatomeric DNA. Q Antitermination Q is similar to N in its effect: Q binds to RNA polymerase in Qut sites and the resulting complex can ignore terminators, however the mechanism is very different; the Q protein first associates with a DNA sequence rather than an mRNA sequence . The Qut site is very close to the PR’ promoter, close enough that the σ factor has not been released from the RNA polymerase holoenzyme. Part of the Qut site resembles the -10 Pribnow box, causing the holoenzyme to pause. Q protein then binds and displaces part of the σ factor and transcription re-initiates. The head and tail proteins are transcribed and self-assemble. Leftward transcription Leftward transcription expresses the gam, red, xis and int genes. Gam and red proteins are involved in recombination. Gam is also important in that it inhibits the host RecBCD nuclease from degrading the 3’ ends in rolling circle replication. Int and xis are integration and excision proteins which are vital to lysogeny. xis and int regulation of insertion and excision xis and int are found on the same piece of mRNA, so approximately equal concentrations of xis and int proteins are produced. This results (initially) in the excision of any inserted genomes from the host genome. The mRNA from the PL promoter forms a stable secondary structure with a bobby pin loop in the sib section of the mRNA. This targets the 3' (sib) end of the mRNA for RNAaseIII degradation, which results in a lower effective concentration of int mRNA than xis mRNA (as the int cistron is nearer to the sib sequence than the xis cistron is to the sib sequence), so a higher concentrations of xis than int is observed. Higher concentrations of xis than int result in no insertion or excision of phage genomes, the evolutionarily favoured action - leaving any pre-insterted phage genomes inserted (so reducing competition) and preventing the insertion of the phage genome into the genome of a doomed host. Lysogenic (or Lysenogenic) Lifestyle This is the lifecycle that the phage follows after a small number of infections in specific conditions, where the cII protein reaches a high enough concentration due to stabilisation and lack of degradation, and so activates its promoters. The 'late early' transcripts continue being written, including xis, int, Q and genes for replication of the lambda genome. The stabilized cII acts to promote transcription from the PRE, PI and Pantiq promoters. The Pantiq promoter produces antisense mRNA to the Q gene message of the PR promoter transcript, thereby switching off Q production. The PRE promoter produces antisense mRNA to the cro section of the PR promoter transcript, turning down cro production, and has a transcript of the cI gene. This is expressed, turning on cI repressor production. The PI promoter expresses the int gene, resulting in high concentrations of int protein. This int protein integrates the phage DNA into the host chromosome (see "Prophage Integration"). No Q results in no extension of the PR' promoter's reading frame, so no lytic or structural proteins are made. Elevated levels of int (much higher than that of xis) result in the insertion of the lambda genome into the hosts genome (see diagram). Production of cI leads to the binding of cI to the OR1 and OR2 sites in the PR promoter, turning off cro and other early gene expression. cI also binds to the PL promoter, turning off transcription there too. Lack of cro leaves the OR3 site unbound, so transcription from the PRM promoter may occur, maintaining levels of cI. Lack of transcription from the PL and PR promoters leads to no further production of cII and cIII. As cII and cIII concentrations decrease, transcription from the Pantiq, PRE and PI stop being promoted since they are no longer needed. Only the PRM and PR' promoters are left active, the former producing cI protein and the latter a short inactive transcript. The genome remains inserted into the host genome in a dormant state. Prophage Integration The integration of phage λ takes place at a special attachment site in the bacterial and phage genomes, called attλ. The sequence of the bacterial att site is called attB, between the gal and bio operons, and consists of the parts B-O-B', whereas the complementary sequence in the circular phage genome is called attP and consists of the parts P-O-P'. The integration itself is a sequential exchange (see genetic recombination) via a Holliday junction and requires both the phage protein Int and the bacterial protein IHF (integration host factor). Both Int and IHF bind to attP and form an intasome, a DNA-protein-complex designed for site-specific recombination of the phage and host DNA. The original B-O-B' sequence is changed by the integration to B-O-P'-phage DNA-P-O-B'. The phage DNA is now part of the host's genome. Maintenance of Lysogeny Lysogeny is maintained solely by cI. cI represses transcription from PL and PR while upregulating and controlling its own expression from PRM. It is therefore the only protein expressed by lysogenic phage. This is coordinated by the PL and PR operators. Both operators have three binding sites for cI: OL1, OL2, and OL3 for PL, and OR1, OR2 and OR3 for PR. cI binds most favorably to OR1; binding here inhibits transcription from PR. As cI easily dimerises, the binding of cI to OR1 greatly increases the affinity of the binding of cI to OR2, and this happens almost immediately after OR1 binding. This activates transcription in the other direction from PRM, as the N terminal domain of cI on OR2 tightens the binding of RNA polymerase to PRM and hence cI stimulates its own transcription. When it is present at a much higher concentration, it also binds to OR3, inhibiting transcription from PRM, thus regulating its own levels in a negative feedback loop. cI binding to the PL operator is very similar, except that it has no direct effect on cI transcription. As an additional repression of its own expression, however, cI dimers bound to OR3 and OL3 bend the DNA between them to tetramerise. The presence of cI causes immunity to superinfection by other lambda phages, as it will inhibit their PL and PR promoters. Induction The classic induction of a lysogen involved irradiating the infected cells with UV light. Any situation where a lysogen undergoes DNA damage or the SOS response of the host is otherwise stimulated leads to induction. The host cell, containing a dormant phage genome, experiences DNA damage due to a high stress environment, and starts to undergo the SOS response. RecA (a cellular protein) detects DNA damage and becomes activated. It is now RecA*, a highly specific co-protease. Normally RecA* binds LexA (a transcription repressor), activating LexA auto-protease activity,which destroys LexA repressor allowing production of DNA repair proteins. In lysogenic cells this response is hijacked, and RecA* stimulates cI autocleavage. This is because cI mimics the structure of LexA at the autocleavage site. Cleaved cI can no longer dimerise, and loses its affinity for DNA binding. The PR and PL promoters are no longer repressed and switch on, and the cell returns to the lytic sequence of expression events (note that cII is not stable in cells undergoing the SOS response). There is however one notable difference. Control of phage genome excision in induction Schematic representation of the insertion of the bacteriophage lambda. Note how sib is displaced by the recombination event from the N extended PL promoter open reading frame. The phage genome is still inserted in the host genome and needs excision for DNA replication to occur. The sib section beyond the normal PL promoter transcript is, however, no longer included in this reading frame (see diagram). No sib domain on the PL promoter mRNA results in no hairpin loop on the 3' end, and the transcript is no longer targeted for RNAaseIII degradation. The new intact transcript has one copy of both xis and int, so approximately equal concentrations of xis and int proteins are produced. Equal concentrations of xis and int result in the excision of the inserted genome from the host genome for replication and later phage production. Genome Structure Protein Function Overview cro; (Control of Repressor's Operator) Transcription inhibitor, binds OR3, OR2 and OR1 (affinity OR3 > OR2 = OR1, ie. preferentially binds OR3). At low concentrations blocks the pRM promoter (preventing cI production). At high concentrations downregulates its own production through OR2 and OR1 binding. No cooperative binding (c.f. below for cI binding) cI; (Clear 1) Transcription inhibitor, binds OR1, OR2 and OR3 (affinity OR1 > OR2 = OR3, ie. preferentially binds OR1). At low concentrations blocks the pR promoter (preventing cro production). At high concentrations downregulates its own production through OR3 binding. Binding of cI at OR1 stimulates an almost simultaneous cI binding to OR2 via cooperative binding (via cI C terminal domain interactions) N terminal domain of cI on OR2 tightens the binding of RNA polymerase to pRM and hence stimulate its own transcription. Repressor also inhibits transcription from the pL promoter. Susceptible to cleavage by RecA* in cells undergoing the SOS response. cII; (Clear 2) Transcription activator. Activates transcription from the pAQ, pRE and pI promoters. Low stability due to susceptibility to cellular HflB (FtsH) proteases (especially in healthy cells and cells undergoing the SOS response). cIII;(Clear 3) HflB (FtsH) binding protein, protects cII from degradation by proteases. N; (aNtiterminator) RNA binding protein and RNA polymerase cofactor, binds RNA (at Nut sites) and transfers onto the nascent RNApol that just transcribed the nut site. This RNApol modification prevents its recognition of termination sites, so normal RNA polymerase termination signals are ignored and RNA synthesis continues into distal phage genes. Q; DNA binding protein and RNApol cofactor, binds DNA (at Qut sites) and transfers onto the initiating RNApol. This RNApol modification alters its recognition of termination sequences, so normal ones are ignored; special Q termination sequences some 20,000 bp away are effective. xis; (eXcISion) excisionase and Int protein regulator, manages excision and insertion of phage genome into the host's genome. int; (INTegration) Int protein, manages insertion of phage genome into the host's genome. In Conditions of low int concentration there is no effect. If xis is low in concentration and int high then this leads to the insertion of the phage genome. If xis and int have high (and approximately equal) concentrations this leads to the excision of phage genomes from the host's genome. A, B, C, D, E, F, Z, U, V, G, T, H, M, L, K, I, J [Shown on diagram as head and tail, A-F code for phage head genes, Z-J code for phage tail genes. The order shown here is as found on the genome, reading in a clockwise direction]; structural proteins, self assemble with the phage genome into daughter phage particles. S, R [Shown on diagram as lysis. The order shown here is as found on the genome, reading in a clockwise direction]; cause the host cell to undergo lysis at high enough concentrations. OP [Shown on diagram as O replication P]; DNA replication functions, promotes the specific replication of only the phage genome. sib [not a protein, but a vital conserved DNA sequence]; Forms a stable hairpin loop structure in transcribed mRNA beyond int. Attracts degradation of mRNA by RNAaseIII. attP [not a protein, but a conserved DNA sequence]; point of action of Int and Xis in integration and excision of the phage genome into the host's genome. Corresponding attB found in the host's genome at the point of insertion. Repressor The repressor found in the phage lambda is a notable example of the level of control possible over gene expression by a very simple system. It forms a 'binary switch' with two genes under mutually exclusive expression, as discovered by Barbara J. Meyer.<ref>"Barbara J. Meyer", HHMI Interactive.</ref> The lambda repressor gene system consists of (from left to right on the chromosome):cI gene OR3 OR2 OR1cro gene The lambda repressor is a dimer also known as the cI protein. It regulates the transcription of the cI protein and the Cro protein. The life cycle of lambda phages is controlled by cI and Cro proteins. The lambda phage will remain in the lysogenic state if cI proteins predominate, but will be transformed into the lytic cycle if cro proteins predominate. The cI dimer may bind to any of three operators, OR1, OR2, and OR3, in the order OR1 = OR2 > OR3. Binding of a cI dimer to OR1 enhances binding of a second cI dimer to OR2, an effect called cooperativity. Thus, OR1 and OR2 are almost always simultaneously occupied by cI. However, this does not increase the affinity between cI and OR3, which will be occupied only when the cI concentration is high. This cooperative action is shown by the relative affinity of the repressor for the native sequences individually, which is OR1 > OR2 = OR3; different from the actual order of binding. In the absence of cI proteins, the cro gene may be transcribed. In the presence of cI proteins, only the cI gene may be transcribed. At high concentration of cI, transcriptions of both genes are repressed. Lytic or Lysogenic? The gene regulatory circuitry of phage λ is among the best-understood circuits at the mechanistic level. This circuitry involves several interesting regulatory behaviors. An infected cell undergoes a decision between two alternative pathways, the lytic and lysogenic pathways. If the latter is followed, the lysogenic state is established and maintained. While this state is highly stable, it can switch to the lytic pathway in the process of prophage induction, which occurs when the host SOS response is triggered by DNA damage. . An important distinction here is that between the two decisions; lysogeny and lysis on infection, and continuing lysogeny or lysis from a prophage. The latter is determined solely by the activation of RecA in the SOS response of the cell, as detailed in the section on induction. The former will also be affected by this; a cell undergoing an SOS response will always by lysed, as no cI protein will be allowed to build up. However, the initial lytic/lysogenic decision on infection is also dependent on the cII and cIII proteins. Simplistically, in cells with abundant nutrients, protease activity is high, which breaks down cII. This leads to the lytic lifestyle. In cells with limited nutrients, protease activity is low, making cII stable. This leads to the lysogenic lifestyle. cIII appears to stabilise cII, both directly and by acting as a competitive inhibitor to the relevant proteases. This means that a cell "in trouble", i.e. lacking in nutrients and in a more dormant state, is more likely to lysogenise. This would be selected for because the phage can now lie dormant in the bacterium until it falls on better times, and so the phage can create more copies of itself with the additional resources available and with the more likely proximity of further infectable cells. Realistically, a full biophysical model for lambda's lysis-lysogeny decision remains to be developed. Computer modeling and simulation suggest that random processes during infection drive the selection of lysis or lysogeny within individual cells (Arkin et al.). However, recent experiments suggest that physical differences among cells, that exist prior to infection, predetermine whether a cell will lyse or become a lysogen (St-Pierre & Endy) See also molecular weight size marker References Significant papers Esther Lederberg, "Lysogenicity in Escherichia coli strain K-12", Microbial Genetics Bulletin, v.1, pp. 5–8 (January 1950); followed by "Lysogenicity in E. coli K-12", Genetics, v.36, p. 560 (1951) (abstract) (discovery reported). Esther Lederberg and Joshua Lederberg, "Genetic Studies of Lysogenicity in Escherichia Coli", Genetics, v.38, pp. 51–64 (1953) (available online via pubmed) Mark Ptashne and Nancy Hopkins, "The Operators Controlled by the Lambda Phage Repressor", PNAS, v.60, n.4, pp. 1282–1287 (1968). Barbara J. Meyer, Dennis G. Kleid, and Mark Ptashne, "Lambda Repressor Turns Off Transcription of Its Own Gene", PNAS, v.72, n.12, pp. 4785–4789 (December 1975). Basic overviews Brussow, H. and Hendrix, R.W. 2002 "Small is beautiful.", Cell, 108, 13-16 Dodd, J.B. Shearwin, K.E. and Egan, J.B. 2005 "Revisited gene regulation in phage lambda.", Curr Opin Genet Dev, 15, 145-152 Friedman, D.I. and Court, D.L. 2001 "Bacteriophage lambda; alive and well and still doing its thing.", Current Opinion in Microbiology, 4, 201-207 Gottesman, M. and Weisberg, R.A. 2004 "Little lambda - who made thee?", Micro and Mol Biol Revs, 68, 796-813 (available online at Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, American Society for Microbiology) Hendrix, R.W. et al. 1999 "All the world's a phage.", Proc Nat Acad Sc USA, 96, 2192-2197 Kitano, R. 2002 "Systems biology: a brief overview.", Science, 295, 1662-1664 Ptashne, M. "A Genetic Switch: Phage Lambda Revisited", 3rd edition 2003 Ptashne, M. 2005 "Regulation of transcription: from lambda to eukaryotes.", Trends in Biochem Sci'', 30, 275-279 Snyder, L. and Champness, W. "Molecular Genetics of Bacteria", 3rd edition 2007 (Contains an informative and well illustrated overview of bacteriophage lambda) Footnotes | Lambda_phage |@lemmatized lysis:11 plaque:1 lambda:26 phage:66 e:9 coli:10 bacteria:2 enterobacteria:1 λ:5 coliphage:1 temperate:1 bacteriophage:6 infect:1 escherichia:3 virus:2 particle:7 consisting:1 head:8 contain:5 double:2 strand:4 linear:4 dna:39 genetic:4 material:1 tail:11 fiber:1 inject:2 host:38 usually:1 enter:1 lytic:14 pathway:8 replicate:1 degrade:3 hijack:2 cell:33 replication:17 transcription:33 translation:1 mechanism:2 produce:9 many:2 resource:3 allow:4 deplete:1 lyse:2 break:3 open:2 release:4 new:4 however:8 certain:1 condition:3 may:5 integrate:2 chromosome:6 lysogenic:11 state:8 call:7 prophage:9 stays:1 resident:1 within:2 genome:44 without:2 apparent:1 harm:1 term:1 lysogen:4 present:2 duplicate:1 every:1 subsequent:2 division:1 gene:40 express:8 dormant:5 code:3 protein:61 repress:5 expression:10 stress:4 result:11 repressed:1 starvation:2 poison:1 like:1 antibiotic:1 factor:5 damage:5 destroy:2 response:10 activated:1 excise:1 one:8 newly:1 product:3 enters:1 discover:2 esther:4 lederberg:5 lysogenicity:5 eescherichia:1 strain:2 k:6 microbial:2 genetics:6 bulletin:2 v:8 pp:5 january:2 follow:6 p:11 abstract:2 use:5 heavily:1 model:2 organism:1 rich:3 source:1 useful:1 tool:1 molecular:4 biology:3 include:8 application:2 vector:1 cloning:1 recombinant:1 site:22 specific:5 recombinase:1 int:30 shuffling:1 clone:1 gateway:1 method:2 red:4 operon:3 alpha:1 also:10 exo:1 beta:1 gamma:1 engineering:1 recombineering:1 following:1 page:1 write:3 italic:1 associated:1 roman:1 instance:1 ci:49 refers:1 encode:1 anatomy:1 consist:3 fibre:1 base:4 pair:3 flank:1 single:3 segment:1 make:5 two:5 co:4 circular:4 form:7 cytoplasm:1 therefore:2 length:1 exist:2 section:5 insert:4 lifecycle:3 schematic:2 representation:2 infection:9 bind:33 target:3 j:8 tip:1 interact:2 lamb:1 porin:1 molecule:2 part:6 maltose:1 past:1 outer:1 membrane:4 pass:1 separate:1 sugar:1 transport:1 ptsg:1 inner:1 immediately:2 circularises:1 sit:3 g:3 c:4 cohesive:1 sticky:1 end:6 stranded:1 nick:2 ligate:1 ligase:1 gyrase:1 put:1 negative:2 supercoils:1 cause:5 region:2 unwind:1 drive:2 start:2 constitutive:1 pl:16 pr:20 promoter:29 immediate:1 early:5 transcript:14 initially:2 n:21 cro:16 short:2 inactive:2 prevent:6 access:1 prm:10 nut:5 utilisation:2 reading:6 frame:6 antiterminator:4 function:3 extend:3 rna:13 polymerase:9 transcribes:1 recruit:1 complex:6 several:3 nus:1 skip:2 termination:7 sequence:17 extended:1 late:4 along:1 cii:18 ciii:8 xi:17 op:3 q:16 discuss:1 later:2 act:4 protect:2 proteolysis:1 ftsh:3 bound:2 essential:2 protease:7 competitive:2 inhibitor:4 inhibition:1 induce:1 bacteriostatic:1 favour:2 lysogeny:9 directly:2 stabilise:2 kobiler:1 et:3 al:3 plos:1 initial:2 stability:2 determine:2 lifestyle:5 stable:6 lead:8 whereas:2 go:1 low:8 temperature:1 high:18 multiplicity:1 moi:1 know:2 favor:1 see:8 discussion:1 antitermination:3 occur:5 instead:1 freshly:1 transcribe:6 mrna:15 conserve:1 box:2 boxb:3 locate:2 close:3 transcribed:2 hairpin:3 loop:5 structure:5 contact:1 via:5 looping:1 rnap:1 stabilize:1 binding:17 nu:1 substance:1 bizarrely:1 ribosome:1 subunit:2 entire:1 continue:5 reach:2 enough:5 concentration:22 due:4 degradation:6 activate:5 dominate:1 repressor:14 synthesis:2 initiate:4 another:2 qut:5 structural:3 self:3 assemble:3 r:7 holin:1 hole:1 endolysin:1 cleave:3 wall:1 around:1 rightward:2 responsible:1 first:2 cycle:3 undergoes:2 θ:1 circle:4 ori:2 dnab:1 machinery:1 well:3 effectively:1 commandeer:1 soon:1 switch:6 roll:2 type:1 similar:3 serve:1 primer:1 notably:1 copy:4 rather:2 long:1 concatemer:1 concatemers:1 package:2 cannot:1 concatomeric:1 effect:4 ignore:3 terminator:1 different:2 associate:1 σ:2 holoenzyme:2 resemble:1 pribnow:1 pause:1 displaces:1 leftward:2 gam:3 involve:3 recombination:4 important:2 inhibit:4 recbcd:1 nuclease:1 integration:9 excision:11 vital:2 regulation:3 insertion:9 find:5 piece:1 approximately:3 equal:4 inserted:2 secondary:1 bobby:1 pin:1 sib:8 rnaaseiii:3 effective:2 xis:3 cistron:2 near:1 observe:1 evolutionarily:1 action:3 leave:4 pre:5 insterted:1 reduce:1 competition:1 doomed:1 lysenogenic:1 small:2 number:1 stabilisation:1 lack:4 stabilized:1 promote:3 pi:4 pantiq:3 antisense:2 message:1 thereby:1 production:11 turn:5 extension:1 elevated:1 level:5 much:2 diagram:5 unbound:1 maintain:3 decrease:1 stop:1 since:1 longer:5 need:2 active:1 former:2 latter:3 remain:3 take:1 place:1 special:2 attachment:1 bacterial:3 attλ:1 att:1 attb:2 gal:1 bio:1 b:9 complementary:1 attp:3 consists:1 sequential:1 exchange:1 holliday:1 junction:1 require:1 ihf:2 intasome:1 design:1 original:1 change:1 maintenance:1 solely:2 upregulating:1 control:6 coordinate:1 operator:6 three:2 favorably:1 inhibits:1 easily:1 dimerises:1 greatly:1 increase:2 affinity:6 happen:1 almost:3 direction:3 terminal:3 domain:4 tighten:2 hence:2 stimulate:5 thus:2 regulate:2 feedback:1 except:1 direct:1 additional:2 repression:1 dimer:5 bend:1 tetramerise:1 presence:2 immunity:1 superinfection:1 induction:6 classic:1 irradiate:1 infected:2 uv:1 light:1 situation:1 sos:2 otherwise:1 experience:1 environment:1 undergo:7 reca:6 cellular:2 detect:1 becomes:1 highly:2 normally:1 lexa:4 auto:1 activity:3 repair:1 autocleavage:2 mimic:1 dimerise:1 lose:1 return:1 event:2 note:2 notable:2 difference:2 displace:1 still:2 beyond:2 normal:3 intact:1 overview:4 ie:2 preferentially:2 block:2 downregulates:2 cooperative:3 f:3 clear:3 simultaneous:1 interaction:1 susceptible:1 cleavage:1 activator:1 activates:1 paq:1 susceptibility:1 hflb:2 proteases:1 especially:1 healthy:1 cofactor:2 transfer:2 onto:2 nascent:1 rnapol:5 modification:2 recognition:2 signal:1 distal:1 initiating:1 alter:1 bp:1 away:1 excisionase:1 regulator:1 manage:2 z:2 u:1 h:2 l:3 show:6 order:4 read:2 clockwise:2 daughter:1 conserved:2 attract:1 point:2 correspond:1 example:1 possible:1 simple:1 system:3 binary:1 mutually:1 exclusive:1 barbara:3 meyer:3 ref:2 hhmi:1 interactive:1 right:1 life:1 predominate:2 transform:1 enhances:1 second:1 cooperativity:1 always:2 simultaneously:1 occupy:2 relative:1 native:1 individually:1 actual:1 absence:1 regulatory:2 circuitry:2 among:2 best:1 understood:1 circuit:1 mechanistic:1 interest:1 behavior:1 decision:4 alternative:1 establish:1 process:2 trigger:1 distinction:1 activation:1 detail:1 affect:1 lysed:1 build:1 dependent:1 simplistically:1 abundant:1 nutrient:3 limited:1 appear:1 relevant:1 mean:1 trouble:1 likely:2 lysogenise:1 would:1 select:1 lie:1 bacterium:1 fall:1 good:1 time:1 create:1 available:3 proximity:1 infectable:1 realistically:1 full:1 biophysical:1 develop:1 computer:1 modeling:1 simulation:1 suggest:2 random:1 selection:1 individual:1 arkin:1 recent:1 experiment:1 physical:1 prior:1 predetermine:1 whether:1 become:1 st:1 pierre:1 endy:1 weight:1 size:1 marker:1 reference:1 significant:1 paper:1 discovery:1 report:1 joshua:1 study:1 online:2 pubmed:1 mark:2 ptashne:4 nancy:1 hopkins:1 pnas:2 dennis:1 kleid:1 december:1 basic:1 brussow:1 hendrix:2 w:3 beautiful:1 dodd:1 shearwin:1 egan:1 revisit:2 curr:1 opin:1 genet:1 dev:1 friedman:1 court:1 alive:1 thing:1 current:1 opinion:1 microbiology:3 gottesman:1 weisberg:1 little:1 thee:1 micro:1 mol:1 biol:1 rev:1 review:1 american:1 society:1 world:1 proc:1 nat:1 acad:1 sc:1 usa:1 kitano:1 brief:1 science:1 edition:2 eukaryote:1 trend:1 biochem:1 sci:1 snyder:1 champness:1 informative:1 illustrated:1 footnote:1 |@bigram lambda_phage:8 e_coli:6 coli_bacteria:1 escherichia_coli:3 replication_transcription:1 molecular_biology:2 recombinant_dna:1 beta_gamma:1 phage_genome:19 schematic_representation:2 bacteriophage_lambda:5 outer_membrane:1 dna_ligase:1 pl_pr:7 pr_pr:1 pr_promoter:11 rna_polymerase:8 xi_int:12 competitive_inhibitor:2 et_al:3 transcribe_mrna:1 hairpin_loop:3 transcribe_rna:1 qut_site:5 cell_lysis:1 dna_polymerase:1 pl_promoter:7 binding_ci:6 genetic_recombination:1 ci_ci:1 inhibit_transcription:2 negative_feedback:1 feedback_loop:1 dna_replication:2 cooperative_binding:2 mutually_exclusive:1 modeling_simulation:1 mol_biol:1 microbiology_molecular:1 |
2,935 | E._E._Smith | E. E. Smith, also Edward Elmer Smith, Ph.D., E.E. "Doc" Smith, Doc Smith, "Skylark" Smith, and (to family) Ted (May 2, 1890 - August 31, 1965) was a food engineer (specializing in doughnut and pastry mixes) and early science fiction author who wrote the Lensman series and the Skylark series, among others. He is sometimes referred to as the father of Space Opera. Biography Family and education Edward Elmer Smith was born in Sheboygan, Wisconsin on May 2, 1890 to Fred Jay Smith and Caroline Mills Smith, both staunch Presbyterians of British ancestry. Moskowitz p. 11. For this and all following dates, see also the timelines in Lucchetti pp. 31–5 and 113–147 and, to a lesser extent, Sanders pp. 1–2. His mother was a teacher born in Michigan in February 1855; his father was a sailor, born in Maine in January 1855 to an English father. 1900 Census, House 1515, Residence 438, Family 371, 3rd Ward of Spokane County, Washington, recorded June 13, 1900, accessed via online census images at heritagequest.com They moved to Spokane, Washington the winter after Edward Elmer was born, Sanders p. 1 & 7. Trestrail p. 2 instead says that the family moved that year to Idaho, but Moskowitz p. 11–12 and Eshbach p. 85 both seem to agree with Sanders. where Mr. Smith was working as a contractor in 1900. In 1902 the family moved to Seneaquoteen, Sanders p. 1. near the Pend Oreille River, in Kootenai County, Idaho. Moskowitz p. 11–12. He had four siblings, Rachel M. born September 1882, Daniel M. born January 1884, Mary Elizabeth born February 1886 (all of whom were born in Michigan), and Walter E. born July 1891 in Washington. 1900 Census, ibid. In 1910, Fred and Caroline Smith and their son Walter were living in the Markham Precinct of Bonner County, Idaho; Fred is listed in census records as a farmer. 1910 Census, Residence 37, Family 37, Markham Precinct, Bonner County, Idaho, recorded 25 April 1910, accessed via heritagequest.com. Smith worked primarily as a manual laborer until he injured his wrist, at the age of 19, while escaping from a fire. He attended the University of Idaho, where he was installed in the 1984 Class of the University of Idaho Alumni Hall of Fame; Letter from Flip Kleffner, Director of Alumni Relations, University of Idaho Alumni Association, to Verna Smith Trestrail, dated 27 February 1984. he entered its prep school in 1907, and graduated with two degrees in Chemical Engineering in 1914. He was president of the Chemistry Club, the Chess Club, and the Mandolin and Guitar Club, and captain of the Drill and Rifle Team; he also sang the bass lead in Gilbert and Sullivan operettas. Sanders p. 8 His undergraduate thesis was Some Clays of Idaho, co-written with classmate Chester Fowler Smith, who died in California of tuberculosis the following year, after taking a teaching fellowship at Berkeley. Latah County, Idaho Star-Mirror, March 25 1915. It is not known whether the two people were related. On October 5, 1915, in Boise, Idaho Western States Marriage Index Entry 84846, accessed 2007 April 5 he married Jeanne Craig MacDougall, the sister of his college roommate, Allen Scott (Scotty) MacDougall. Trestrail pp. 3 & 4, Sanders p. 8, Moskowitz p. 13. Trestrail spells the name "Allen." (Her sister was named Clarissa MacLean MacDougall; the heroine of the Lensman novels would later be named Clarissa MacDougall.) Jeanne MacDougall was born in Glasgow, Scotland; her parents were Donald Scott MacDougall, a violinist, and Jessica Craig MacLean. Her father had moved to Boise, Idaho when the children were young, and later sent for his family; he died while they were en route in 1905. Jeanne's mother, who remarried businessman and retired politician John F. Kessler in 1914<ref>Hawley, James F. A History of Idaho: Gem of the Mountains," page 868. S. J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1920. Full text available at Google Books, http://books.google.com/books?id=-t8UAAAAYAAJ&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html</ref> worked at, and later owned, a boarding house on Ridenbaugh Street. The Smiths had three children: Roderick N., born June 3, 1918 in the District of Columbia (employed as a design engineer at Lockheed Aircraft). Verna Jean (later Verna Smith Trestrail), born August 25, 1920 in Michigan, his literary executor until her death in 1994. (Her son Kim Trestrail is now the executor. Z9M9Z: "Noreascon 4". ) Robert Heinlein in part dedicated his 1982 novel Friday to Verna. Clarissa M.(later Clarissa Wilcox), born December 13, 1921 in Michigan. Lucchetti p. 32, Warner, Moskowitz p. 22. Early chemical career After graduating from college, he worked as a junior civil service chemist for the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C., working on standards for butter and oysters. He may have served as a Lieutenant in the U.S. Cavalry in World War I, but in what capacity is not known; See the photo at Lens FAQ p. 0. According to Warner, he applied unsuccessfully to serve as an aviator. The other biographies on silent on his wartime service. he apparently requested exemption from the draft, partly because his wife was solely dependent on him, and partly perhaps because of his service for the war effort. Partially illegible draft card, 5 June 1917, retrieved from Ancestry.com July 2007. Smith received a master's degree in Chemistry from George Washington University in 1917, studying under Charles E. Munroe. He earned a doctorate in Chemical Engineering, in 1918, Sanders p. 1, Lucchetti p. 32, Barrett p. 4 following Sanders. emphasizing food engineering with a thesis entitled The effect of bleaching with oxides of nitrogen upon the baking quality and commercial value of wheat flour, which was published in 1919. See bibliography, below. Warner and Fleischer instead give the thesis title as The Effect of the Oxides of Nitrogen upon the Carotin Molecule --- C40H56, which is difficult to explain. Sam Moskowitz instead gives the date of the degree as 1919, Moskowitz p. 13. which may result from differences between the thesis submission date, the defence date and the degree certification date. In 1919 Dr. Smith took a job as chief chemist for F.W. Stock & Sons of Hillsdale, Michigan, at one time the largest family-owned mill east of the Mississippi, http://www.hillsdalecounty.info/history0118.asp accessed 5 April 2007 working on doughnut mixes. Sanders p. 1 Writing Skylark One evening in 1915, while the Smiths were visiting his former classmate from the University of Idaho, Dr. Carl Garby, who had also moved to Washington and lived near the Smiths in the Seaton Place Apartments in Washington D.C. with his wife Lee Hawkins Garby, a long discussion about space travel ensued. It was suggested to Smith that he should write down his ideas and speculations as a story about interstellar travels. Although interested, he felt that some amounts of romantic elements was required as well, a task which he found himself uncomfortable with. When Mrs. Garby then offered to take care of the love interest and the romantic dialogue, Smith agreed to give it a try. The source of inspirations for the main characters in the novel was themselves; the Seatons were based on the Smiths while the Cranes were drawn from the Garbys. Sanders pp. 8-9, Moskowitz p. 14. About a third of The Skylark of Space was completed by the end of 1916, when they gradually abandoned work on it. Late in 1919, after moving to Michigan, one evening Smith was baby-sitting (presumably for Roderick) while his wife attended a movie; he resumed work on The Skylark of Space, finishing it in the spring of 1920. Sanders p.1, Moskowitz p. 14. Warner says 1921. He submitted it to many book publishers and magazines, spending more in postage than he would eventually receive for its publication. He received an encouraging rejection letter from Bob Davis, editor of Argosy, in 1922, saying that he liked the novel personally, but that it was too far out for his readers. Sanders p. 9, Moskowitz p. 15. (According to Warner, but no other source, Dr. Smith began work on the sequel, Skylark III, before the first book was accepted.) Finally, upon seeing the April 1927 issue of Amazing Stories, he submitted it to the magazine; it was accepted, initially for $75, later raised to $125. Sanders pp. 1 & 9, Moskowitz p. 15. Both Moskowitz and Sanders (p. 1 but not p. 9) say that T. O'Conor Sloane was the editor who accepted it, but according to the Wikipedia article on T. O'Conor Sloane, he was managing editor until 1929, when he became editor, replacing Hugo Gernsback. It was published in the August – October 1928 issues. It was such a success that managing editor T. O'Conor Sloane requested a sequel before the second installment had been published. Moskowitz p. 15. Mrs. Garby wasn't interested in collaborating further, so Dr. Smith began work on Skylark Three on his own. Moskowitz p. 15. As noted above, Warner instead says that Dr. Smith had already begun work. It was published in the August through October 1930 issues of Amazing. (In 1930 the Smiths were living in Michigan, at 33 Rippon Avenue in Hillsdale. 1930 Census of Ward 3, Household 288, Family 314, Hillsdale, Michigan, recorded by Mark C. Hanselman on 11 April 1930. Copy courtesy www.ancestry.com. ) This was as far as he had planned to take the Skylark series; it was praised in Amazings letter column, e.g., a letter from John W. Campbell on pages 567–8 of the September issue, which ends by stating that Skylark of Space had been "the best story of scientifiction ever printed," but which consists mainly of devastating criticism of the stories' science. and he was paid 3/4¢ per word, surpassing Amazing's previous record of half a cent. Moskowitz p. 16 The Early 1930’s: between Skylark and Lensman Dr. Smith then began work on what he intended as a new series, starting with Spacehounds of IPC, Moskowitz p. 16, Sanders p. 65. which he finished in the autumn of 1930. In this novel he took pains to avoid the scientific impossibilities which had bothered some readers of the Skylark novels. Sanders p. 65. The book does however have significant scientific implausibilities, for example the breathable atmosphere on Saturn and some of its and Jupiter's satellites. Even in 1938, after he had written Galactic Patrol, Dr. Smith considered it his finest work; he later said of it, "This was really scientific fiction; not, like the Skylarks, pseudo-science"; Sheridan p. 3 and even at the end of his career he considered it his only work of true science fiction. Rogers p. 26. It was published in the July through September 1931 issues of Amazing, but with unauthorized changes by Sloane. Moskowitz p. 16, Rogers p. 14. Fan letters in the magazine complained about the novel's containment within the solar system, and Sloane sided with the readers. So when Harry Bates, editor of Astounding Stories, offered Smith 2¢/word—payable on publication—for his next story, he agreed; this meant that it could not be a sequel to Spacehounds. Moskowitz p. 16. This book would be Triplanetary, "in which scientific detail would not be bothered about, and in which his imagination would run riot." Warner. Indeed, characters within the story point out its psychological Lyman Cleveland's comment on the easy availability of "solid asteroids of iron," Amazing March 1934, p. 16, first edition p.196, as proving the pointlessness of the Nevians' attack. and scientific Cleveland's expectation, correct according to Special Relativity, that inertialess travel would not be faster than light in the home reference frame, p. 223. implausibilities, and sometimes even seem to suggest self-parody. Nerado's comment, "Destruction, always destruction… they are a useless race," February p. 81, p. 160. At other times they are conspicuously silent about obvious implausibilities. Costigan & Bradley's lack of comment when they discover that the ship they are on has passed the speed of light, February p. 84, p. 168. This is the first mention in the story of faster-than-light travel. Costigan & Bradley's failure to object, when told of the Nevians' impending second raid on Tellus, that they could easily obtain iron without further destruction, February p. 88, p. 175. The January 1933 issue of Astounding announced that Triplanetary would appear in the March issue, and that issue's cover illustrated a scene from the story, but Astounding'''s financial difficulties prevented the story from appearing. Moskowitz p. 17, Rogers p. 14. Dr. Smith then submitted the manuscript to Wonder Stories, whose editor, Charles D. Hornig, rejected it, later boasting about the rejection in a fanzine. Moskowitz p. 17, citing "Stories We Reject" in Fantasy Magazine December 1934. He finally submitted it to Amazing, which published it beginning in January 1934, but for only half a cent a word. Shortly after it was accepted, F. Orlin Tremaine, the new editor of the revived Astounding, offered one cent a word for Triplanetary; when he learned that he was too late, he suggested a third Skylark novel instead. Moskowitz p. 17 In the winter of 1933-4 Dr. Smith worked on The Skylark of Valeron, but he felt that the story was getting out of control; he sent his first draft to Tremaine, with a distraught note asking for suggestions. Tremaine accepted the rough draft for $850, and announced it in the June 1934 issue, with a full-page editorial and a three-quarter page advertisement. The novel was published in the August 1934 through February 1935 issues. Astoundings circulation rose by 10,000 for the first issue, and its two main competitors, Amazing and Wonder Stories fell into financial difficulties, both skipping issues within a year. Moskowitz p. 17–8, Rogers pp. 24–30. Rogers agrees with Moskowitz that Astounding became the leading science fiction magazine during this period, but does not attribute this solely to Dr. Smith. The Lensman series In January 1936 Dr. Smith took a job, for salary plus profit-sharing, as a food technologist (a cereal chemist) at the Dawn Doughnut Company of Jackson, Michigan. Moskowitz p. 19, Warner. This initially entailed almost a year's worth of eighteen-hour days and seven-day workweeks. Individuals who knew Dr. Smith confirmed that he had a role in developing mixes for doughnuts and other pastries, but the contention that he developed the first process for making powdered sugar adhere to doughnuts cannot be substantiated. The earliest web source for this claim seems to be Computer games: 40 years of fun, ZDNet UK, November 23 2001 by Graeme Wearden; the article does not provide a source, and the claim may have been added by a colleague. (Private correspondence, July 4, 2006.) Searches at Google patent (www.google.com/patent) on various combinations of Dr. Smith's name have not uncovered any patents which relate to his professional biography and supposed accomplishments in the pastry field. Dr. Smith was reportedly dislocated from his job at Dawn Doughnuts due to pre-war rationing in early 1940. The Dictionary of Literary Biography, quoted at http://www.bookrags.com/Edward_Elgar accessed 8 May 2007. Dr. Smith had been contemplating writing a "space-police novel" since early 1927; "The Epic of Space" p. 83. once he had "the Lensmen's universe fairly well set up," he reviewed his science fiction collection for "cops-and-robbers" stories. He cites Constantinescue's "War of the Universe" as a negative example, and Starzl and Williamson as positive ones. "The Epic of Space" p. 84. 'Canstantinescu's "War of the Universes"' is apparently an error for "The War of the Universe" by Clinton Constantinescu, Amazing Stories Quarterly, Fall 1931. Tremaine responded extremely positively to a brief description of the idea. Once Dawn Doughnuts became profitable in late 1936, Dr. Smith wrote an eighty-five page outline for what became the four core Lensman novels; in early 1937 Tremaine committed to buying them. Gharlane LensFaq section 1, Moskowitz p. 19, "The Epic of Space" p. 85. Note that Dr. Smith's account in "The Epic of Space" does not mention Tremaine's commitment. Moskowitz says that the outline was eighty pages; Dr. Smith only mentions that the section on Galactic Patrol was "only a few pages long." Segmenting the story into four novels required considerable effort to avoid dangling loose ends; Dr. Smith cites Edgar Rice Burroughs as a negative example. "The Epic of Space" p. 85. After the outline was complete, he wrote a more detailed outline of Galactic Patrol, plus a detailed graph of its structure, with "peaks of emotional intensity and the valleys of characterization and background material." He notes, however, that he was never able to follow any of his outlines at all closely, as his "characters get away from me and do exactly as they damn please." "The Epic of Space" p. 86. After completing the rough draft of Galactic Patrol, he wrote the concluding chapter of the last book in the series, Children of the Lens. Galactic Patrol was published in the September 1937 through February 1938 issues of Astounding; unlike the revised book edition, it was not set in the same universe as Triplanetary. The Commandant’s account of the Patrol’s early history at the beginning of the magazine version of Galactic Patrol does not describe what happened in the magazine version of Triplanetary; the reference to Virgil Samms and the Triplanetary Patrol is a later interpolation. (Astounding September 1937 pp. 12–13; cp. Fantasy Press edition pp. 8–9.) The reference to "the days of the semi-inert drive" and the Third Galactic Survey on page 34 of the same issue is not consistent with the history of partial inertialessness in either version of Triplanetary, and is omitted from page 42 of the Fantasy Press edition. (Amazing March 1934 pp. 28 & 33; cp. Fantasy Press edition pp. 223 & 231.) See also Gharlane's Lens FAQ Question 1. The Arisians’ near-omniscience about the future is also interpolated, e.g., Astounding January 1938 p. 127 vs. first edition p. 205. Gray Lensman, the second book in the series, appeared in Astounding's October 1939 through January 1940 issues. (Note that the frequent British spelling “grey” is simply a recurrent mistake, starting with the cover of the first installment; Moskowitz's usage, “The Grey Lensman,” is even harder to justify. Gharlane Lens FAQ Question 1 and footnote to rec.arts.sf.written posting; Moskowitz p. 20. ) Gray Lensman (and its cover illustration) was extremely well received. Campbell’s editorial in the December issue suggested that the October issue was the best issue of Astounding ever, and Gray Lensman was first place in the Analytical Laboratory statistics “by a lightyear,” with three runners-up in a distant tie for third place. Astounding December 1939 pp. 6, 91. The cover was also praised by readers in Brass Tacks, and Campbell noted, “We got a letter from E.E. Smith saying he and Rogers agreed on how Kinnison looked.” Astounding December 1939 pp. 104. Dr. Smith was the guest of honor at Chicon I, the second World Science Fiction Convention, held in Chicago over Labor Day weekend 1940, Sanders p. 10, Moskowitz p. 12. giving a speech on the importance of science fiction fandom entitled “What Does This Convention Mean?” Resnick & Siclari. He attended the convention’s masquerade as C.L. Moore’s Northwest Smith, and met fans living near him in Michigan, who would later form the Galactic Roamers, which previewed and advised him on his future work.<ref>Sanders p. 10, afterword to Second Stage Lensman.</ref> Dr. Smith worked for the US Army between 1941 and 1945. An extended segment in the novel version of Triplanetary, set during World War II, suggests intimate familiarity with explosives and munitions manufacturing. Some biographers cite as fact that, just as Smith's protagonist in this segment lost his job over failure to approve sub-standard munitions, Smith did as well. Smith began work for the J. W. Allen Company (a manufacturer of doughnut and frosting mixes) in 1946 and worked for them until his professional retirement in 1957. The Dictionary of Literary Biography, ibid. Retirement and late writing After Dr. Smith retired, he and his wife lived in Clearwater, Florida in the fall and winter, driving the smaller of their two trailers to Seaside, Oregon each April, often stopping at science fiction conventions on the way. (Dr. Smith did not like to fly.) Pohl in Lucchetti p. 15, Al Trestrail in Lucchetti p. 19. Al Trestrail (p. 20) and Pohl (p. 14) also mention church attendance (Pohl in a fictional context), which none of the other sources seem to. Some of his biography is captured in an essay by Robert A. Heinlein, which was reprinted in the collection Expanded Universe in 1980. There is a more detailed, although allegedly error-ridden, biography in Sam Moskowitz's Seekers of Tomorrow.Robert A. Heinlein and Dr. Smith were friends. (Robert Heinlein dedicated his 1958 novel Methuselah's Children "To Edward E. Smith, Ph.D." ) Heinlein reported that E.E. Smith perhaps took his "unrealistic" heroes from life, citing as an example the extreme competence of the hero of Spacehounds of IPC. He reported that E.E. Smith was a large, blond, athletic, very intelligent, very gallant man, married to a remarkably beautiful, intelligent red-haired woman named MacDougal (thus perhaps the prototypes of 'Kimball Kinnison' and 'Clarissa MacDougal'). In Heinlein's essay, he reports that he began to suspect Smith might be a sort of "superman" when he asked Dr. Smith for help in purchasing a car. Smith tested the car by driving it on a back road at illegally high speeds with their heads pressed tightly against the roof columns to listen for chassis squeaks by bone conduction—a process apparently improvised on the spot. In his non-series novels written after his professional retirement, Galaxy Primes, Subspace Explorers, and Subspace Encounter, E. E. Smith explores themes of telepathy and other mental abilities collectively called "psionics," and of the conflict between libertarian and socialistic/communistic influences in the colonization of other planets. Lord Tedric Dr. Smith wrote a novelette entitled Lord Tedric, published in Other Worlds in 1952, and which was almost completely forgotten. Much later, 13 years after Dr. Smith's death in fact, Gordon Eklund published another novel of the same name about the same fictional character, introducing it as "a new series conceived by E. E. 'Doc' Smith". Eklund later went on to publish the other novels in the series, one or two under the pseudonym "E. E. 'Doc' Smith" or "E. E. Smith". The protagonist possesses similar heroic qualities common to the heroes in Dr. Smith's original novels and can communicate with an extra-dimensional race of beings known as The Scientists, whose archenemy is Fra Villion, a mysterious character described as a dark knight, skilled in whip-sword combat, and evil genius behind the creation of a planetoid-sized "iron sphere" armed with a weapon capable of destroying planets. As a result, Dr. Smith is believed by many to be the unacknowledged progenitor of themes that would appear in Star Wars. Critical opinion Smith’s novels are generally considered to be the classic space operas, Sir Arthur Clarke, Astounding Days, pp. 102–3 ff. and he is sometimes called the “first nova” of twentieth century science fiction. Clarke, op. cit. p. 120, citing and agreeing with Isaac Asimov in his introduction to The Best of Stanley G. Weinbaum, who was the second nova. Dr. Smith expressed a preference for inventing fictional technologies that were not strictly impossible (so far as the science of the day was aware) but highly unlikely: "the more unlikely the better" was his phrase. Extending the Lensman universeVortex Blasters (also known as Masters of the Vortex) is set in the same universe as the Lensman novels. It is an extension to the main storyline which takes place between Second Stage Lensman and Children of the Lens, and introduces a different type of psionics from that used by the Lensmen. Spacehounds of IPC is not a part of the series, despite occasional erroneous statements to the contrary. (It is listed as a novel in the series in some paperback editions of the 1970s.) Robert A. Heinlein reported that Smith had planned a seventh Lensman novel, set after the events described in Children of the Lens, which was unpublishable at that time (the early 1960s). Careful searches by people who knew Smith well (including Frederik Pohl, Smith's editor, and Verna Smith Trestrail, Smith's daughter) have failed to locate any material related to such a story. Smith apparently never wrote any of it down. Smith told Heinlein that the new novel proceeded inexorably from unresolved matters in Children, a statement easily supported by a careful reading of Children. On 14 July, 1965, barely a month before his death, Smith gave written permission to William B. Ellern to continue the Lensman series, which led to the publishing of "Moon Prospector" in 1965 and New Lensman in 1976. Smith's long-time friend, Dave Kyle, wrote three authorized added novels in the Lensman series that provided background about the major non-human Lensmen. Influence on Science and the Military Smith was widely read by scientists and engineers from the 1930s into the 1970s. Literary precursors of ideas which arguably entered the military-scientific complex include SDI (Triplanetary), stealth (Gray Lensman), the OODA Loop, C3-based warfare, and the AWACS (Gray Lensman). An influence that is inarguable was described in an 11 June 1947 letter Letter from John W. Campbell to E. E. Smith, page 1-2, Dated 11 June 1947. to Doc from John W. Campbell (the editor of Astounding magazine, where much of the Lensman series was originally published). In it, Campbell relayed Captain Cal Lanning's Presumably, this is later Rear Admiral Caleb Lanning, shipmate, friend, and occasional co-author of Robert A. Heinlein. acknowledgement that he had used Smith's ideas for displaying the battlespace situation (called the "tank" in the stories) in the design of the United States Navy's ships' Combat Information Centers. "The entire set-up was taken specifically, directly, and consciously from the Directrix. In your story, you reached the situation the Navy was in — more communication channels than integration techniques to handle it. You proposed such an integrating technique and proved how advantageous it could be. You, sir, were 100% right. As the Japanese Navy— not the hypothetical Boskonian fleet— learned at an appalling cost." One underlying theme of the later Lensman novels was the difficulty in maintaining military secrecy—as advanced capabilities are revealed, the opposing side can often duplicate them. This point was also discussed extensively by John Campbell in his letter to Doc. Letter from John W. Campbell to E. E. Smith, page 2-3, Dated 11 June 1947. Also in the later Lensman novels, and particular after the "Battle of Klovia" broke the Boskonian's power base at the end of Second Stage Lensman, the Boskonian forces and particularly Kandron of Onlo reverted to terroristic tactics to attempt to demoralize Civilization, thus providing an early literary glimpse into this modern problem of both law enforcement and military response. The use of "Vee-two" gas by the pirates attacking the Hyperion in Triplanetary (in both magazine and book appearances) also suggests anticipation of the terrorist uses of poison gases. The beginning of the story the Skylark of Space describes in relative detail the protagonists research into separation of platinum group residues, subsequent experiments involving electrolysis and the discovery of a process evocative of cold fusion (over 50 years before Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann). He describes a nuclear process yielding large amounts of energy and producing only negligible radioactive waste—which then goes on to form the basis of the adventures in the Skylark books. Smith's general description of the process of discovery is highly evocative of Röntgen's descriptions of his discovery of the X-ray. Another theme of the Skylark novels involves precursors of modern information technology. The humanoid aliens encountered in the first novel have developed a primitive technology called the "mechanical educator," which allows direct conversion of brain waves into intelligible thought for transmission to others or for electrical storage. By the third novel in the series, Skylark of Valeron, this technology has grown into an "Electronic Brain" which is capable of computation on all "bands" of energy—electromagnetism, gravity, and "tachyonic" energy and radiation bands included. This is itself derived from a discussion of reductionist atomic theory in the second novel, Skylark Three, which brings to mind modern quark and sub-quark theories of elementary particle physics. Literary influences on Smith's Writing In his essay "The Epic of Space," Smith listed (by last name only) authors he enjoyed reading: John W. Campbell, L. Sprague de Camp, Robert A. Heinlein, Murray Leinster, H. P. Lovecraft, A. Merritt (specifically The Ship of Ishtar, The Moon Pool, The Snake Mother, and Dwellers in the Mirage, as well as the character John Kenton), C.L. Moore (specifically Jirel of Joiry), Roman Frederick Starzl, John Taine, A.E. van Vogt, Stanley G. Weinbaum (specifically Tweerl "The Epic of Space" p. 80. The conventional spelling is "Tweel", though the most accurate spelling is "Trrrweerrlll." ("A Martian Odyssey", The Best of Stanley G. Weinbaum p. 5.) ), and Jack Williamson. In a passage on his preparation for writing the Lensman novels, he notes that Constantinescu's "War of the Universe" was not a masterpiece, Both Constantinescu's name and title are misspelled in the essay: Canstantinescu's "War of the Universes," p. 84. but says that Starzl and Williamson were masters; this suggests that Starzl's Interplanetary Flying Patrol may have been an influence on Smith's Triplanetary Patrol, later the Galactic Patrol. The feeding of the Overlords of Delgon upon the life-force of their victims at the end of chapter five of Galactic Patrol seems a clear allusion to chapter twenty-nine of The Moon Pool; Merritt's account of the Taithu and the power of love in chapters twenty-nine and thirty-four also bear some resemblance to the end of Children of the Lens. Smith also mentions Edgar Rice Burroughs, complaining about loose ends at the end of one of his novels. Smith acknowledges the help of the Galactic Roamers writers' workshop, plus E. Everett Evans, Ed Counts, an unnamed aeronautical engineer, Dr. James Enright, and Dr. Richard W. Dodson. Smith's daughter, Verna, lists the following authors as visitors to the Smith household in her youth: Lloyd Arthur Eshbach, Heinlein, Dave Kyle, Bob Tucker, Williamson, Frederik Pohl, Merritt, and the Galactic Roamers. Smith cites Bigelow's Theoretical Chemistry–Fundamentals as a justification for the possibility of the inertialess drive. There is also an extended reference to Rudyard Kipling's "Ballad of Boh Da Thon" in Gray Lensman. Sam Moskowitz's biographical essay on Smith in Seekers of Tomorrow states that he regularly read Argosy magazine, and everything by H.G. Wells, Jules Verne, H. Rider Haggard, Edgar Allan Poe, and Edgar Rice Burroughs. Moskowitz also notes that Smith's "reading enthusiasms included poetry, philosophy, ancient and medieval history, and all of English literature." Moskowitz p. 14. (Smith's grandson notes that he spoke, and sang, German. Al Trestrail, in Lucchetti, p. 20. ) The influence of these is not readily apparent, except in the Roman section of Triplanetary, and in the impeccable but convoluted grammar of Smith's narration. Some influence of nineteenth century philosophy of language may be detectable in the account in Galactic Patrol of the Lens of Arisia as a universal translator, which is reminiscent of Frege's strong realism about Sinn, that is, thought or sense. Both Moskowitz and Smith's daughter Verna Smith Trestrail report that Smith had a troubled relationship with John Campbell, the editor of Astounding. It is noteworthy that Smith's most successful works were published under Campbell, but the degree of influence is uncertain. The original outline for the Lensman series had been accepted by F. Orlin Tremaine, Moskowitz p. 19 and Smith angered Campbell by showing loyalty to Tremaine at his new magazine, Comet, when he sold him "The Vortex Blaster" in 1941. Moskowitz p. 21 Campbell's announcement of Children of the Lens, in 1947, was less than enthusiastic. Moskowitz p. 23. Campbell later said that he published it only reluctantly, Sanders p. 15. though he praised it privately, Letter to Clifford Simak June 18 1953, The John W. Campbell Letters Volume 1, p. 177. and bought little from Smith thereafter. Derivative Works and Influence on Popular Culture Randall Garrett wrote a parody entitled Backstage Lensman which Dr. Smith reportedly enjoyed. Harry Harrison also parodied Smith's work in the novel, Star Smashers of the Galaxy Rangers. Garrett also included a reference to Dr. Smith in his Lord Darcy novels; the badge of the Royal Messengers resembles the Lens, and the spell to activate one was devised by a wizard named Dr Edward Elmer. Sir Arthur C. Clarke’s space battle in Earthlight was based on the attack on the Mardonalian fortress in chapter seven of Skylark Three. Steve 'Slug' Russell wrote one of the first computer games, Spacewar!, with inspiration from the space battles from the Lensman series. The GURPS role-playing game includes a worldbook based on the Lensman series. There is a Japanese Lensman anime, but it is more an imitation of Star Wars than a translation of the Lensman novels. Efforts to print translations of the associated manga in the United States in the early 1990s without payment of royalties to the Smith family were successfully blocked in court by Verna Smith Trestrail with the help of several California science fiction authors and fans. In his biography, George Lucas reveals that the Lensman novels were a major influence on his youth. J. Michael Straczynski, creator of the science fiction television series Babylon 5, also has acknowledged the influence of the Lensman books. IGN: Interview with J. Michael Straczynski (Part 1 of 4) ATTN JMS: Lensman Superman-creator Jerry Siegel was impressed, at an early age, with the optimistic vision of the future presented in Skylark of Space. Gerard Jones, Men of Tomorrow, 2004, p. 29-31 Two members of the Green Lantern Corps are named Arisia and Eddore, and the Guardians and the Power Rings are arguably quite similar thematically to the Arisians and the Lens created by them. Ron Howard's Imagine Entertainment and Universal Studios are in negotiation with the Smith estate for an 18-month film rights option on the series. SCI-FI Weekly, Jan. 14, 2008. http://www.scifi.com/sfw/news/ accessed January 14, 2008. Fictional appearances Doc himself appears as a character in the 2006 novel The Chinatown Death Cloud Peril by Paul Malmont. The novel describes friendship and rivalry among pulp writers of the 1930s. He also appears as "Lensman Ted Smith" in the 1980 novel "The Number Of The Beast" by Robert A. Heinlein. Bibliography Series Lensman In "The Epic of Space," Dr. Smith reveals that the core books of the Lensman series, Galactic Patrol, Gray Lensman, Second Stage Lensman, and Children of the Lens, were conceived as a unified whole. Some recommend reading the books in this order, followed by the revised Triplanetary, First Lensman, and The Vortex Blaster. The original versions of the core books are not consistent with the original version of Triplanetary; the connections between them are later interpolations. Triplanetary (Amazing Stories Jan–Apr 1934, Fantasy Press 1948) The magazine version of Triplanetary was not part of the original Lensman series. For the book versions, passages were interpolated into the original Triplanetary, and earlier, pre-space-flight sections were added, forming the first third of the book. Some passages were added to or removed from the core books, to make them consistent with the new version of Triplanetary. First Lensman (Fantasy Press 1950) Galactic Patrol (Astounding Stories Sep 1937–Feb 1938, Fantasy Press 1950) Gray Lensman (Astounding Stories Oct 1939–Jan 1940, Fantasy Press 1951) Second Stage Lensmen (Astounding Stories Nov 1941–Feb 1942, Fantasy Press 1953) Children of the Lens (Astounding Stories Nov 1947–Feb 1948, Fantasy Press 1954) The Vortex Blaster, also known as Masters of the Vortex (Comet July 1941, Astonishing Stories Jun & Oct 1942, Gnome Press 1960) Skylark The Skylark of Space (written 1915–1920 with Mrs. Lee Hawkins Garby, Amazing Stories Aug–Oct 1928, Buffalo Book Co. 1946. Paperback edition, heavily revised and without the co-author credit, Pyramid Books 1958) Skylark Three (Amazing Stories Aug–Oct 1930, Fantasy Press 1948) Skylark of Valeron (Astounding Stories Aug 1934–Feb 1935, Fantasy Press 1949) Skylark DuQuesne (Worlds of If Jun–Oct 1965, Pyramid Books 1966) Subspace Subspace Explorers (Canaveral Press 1965, Ace 1968; the first 30 pages of the book appeared in Astounding Jul 1960) Subspace Encounter (1983) The Clockwork Traitor (1976), 1977 Panther paperback edition. 160 pages Family D'Alembert (with Stephen Goldin - in fact only parts of the first book are by Smith, the rest is by Goldin based on Smith's novella) Imperial Stars (1976) Stranglers' Moon (1976) The Clockwork Traitor (1976) Getaway World (1977) Appointment at Bloodstar, also known as The Bloodstar Conspiracy (1978) The Purity Plot (1978) Planet of Treachery (1981) Eclipsing Binaries (1983) The Omicron Invasion (1984) Revolt of the Galaxy (1985) Lord Tedric (with Gordon Eklund) Lord Tedric (1978) The Space Pirates (1979) Black Knight of the Iron Sphere (1979) Alien Realms (1980) Non-Series Novels and Collections Spacehounds of IPC (Amazing Stories Jul–Sep 1931, Fantasy Press 1947, Ace 1966) The Galaxy Primes (Amazing Stories Mar–May 1959, Ace 1965. Dr. Smith expressed extreme dissatisfaction with the editing of this novel.) Masters of Space (1976) (with E. Everett Evans) Non-fiction Some Clays of Idaho, (with Chester Fowler Smith) undergraduate thesis, University of Idaho, 1914. University of Idaho Libraries University of Idaho Libraries The effect of bleaching with oxides of nitrogen upon the baking quality and commercial value of wheat flour, Ph.D. thesis, George Washington University, 1919, approximately 100 pp. Lucchetti, p. 113, worldcatlibraries.org "A study of some of the chemical changes which occur in oysters during their preparation for market," Bureau of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 740, 1919, 24 pp. Lucchetti p. 113, Library of Congress "Viscosity and Baking Quality," Cereal Chemistry 2, 178-89, 1925. Lucchetti p. 113 "Report of the Subcommittee on Hydrogen-Ion Concentration with Special Reference to the Effect of Flour Bleach," Cereal Chemistry 9, 424–8, 1932. Lucchetti p. 114 "Catastrophe" (Astounding Science Fiction May 1938). Worldcon Guest of Honor Speech, originally presented at Chicon I on September 1, 1940. To be published in Worldcon Guest of Honor Speeches, edited by Mike Resnick and Joe Siclari, ISFiC Press, August 23, 2006. "The Epic of Space" in Of Worlds Beyond: The Science of Science Fiction Writing, edited by Lloyd Arthur Eshbach (Fantasy Press 1947; includes a biographical sketch). Introduction to Man of Many Minds by E. Everett Evans (Fantasy Press 1953). Secondary sources Contains a biographical sketch on p. 4, which is included in the excerpt at Steve Jackson Games. Ethan Fleischer Selectively Annotated English Primary Source Bibliography. Ethan Fleischer Z9M9Z: A Lensman Website Gharlane of Eddore (1998). Lensman FAQ http://www.chronology.org/noframes/lens/. Robert A. Heinlein (1979). "Larger Than Life," written for MosCon I, published in . Frederik Pohl (1964). "Ode to a Skylark," If, May 1964. Reprinted in Lucchetti, pp. 11-15. 8pp. Reprint of an article in Fantasy Review'', 1948. Describes itself as an interview, but is mostly an essay with some extended quotations. Verna Smith Trestrail (presumably 1979). MosCon I Keynote Speech, unpublished typewritten notes. Harry Warner (1938). Brief biography in Spaceways Volume 1, #1. References External links Skylark Three (original magazine version) Spacehounds of IPC (original magazine version) | E._E._Smith |@lemmatized e:31 smith:113 also:22 edward:5 elmer:4 ph:3 doc:7 skylark:28 family:11 ted:2 may:11 august:6 food:3 engineer:4 specialize:1 doughnut:7 pastry:3 mix:4 early:12 science:17 fiction:14 author:6 write:20 lensman:49 series:25 among:2 others:2 sometimes:3 refer:1 father:4 space:25 opera:2 biography:9 education:1 bear:13 sheboygan:1 wisconsin:1 fred:3 jay:1 caroline:2 mill:2 staunch:1 presbyterian:1 british:2 ancestry:3 moskowitz:37 p:86 following:3 date:8 see:5 timeline:1 lucchetti:11 pp:16 less:2 extent:1 sander:19 mother:3 teacher:1 michigan:10 february:8 sailor:1 maine:1 january:8 english:3 census:6 house:2 residence:2 ward:2 spokane:2 county:5 washington:8 record:5 june:8 access:6 via:2 online:1 image:1 heritagequest:2 com:8 move:6 winter:3 trestrail:13 instead:5 say:10 year:7 idaho:17 eshbach:3 seem:5 agree:6 mr:4 work:22 contractor:1 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2,936 | Politics_of_Cameroon | Politics of Cameroon takes place in a framework of a unitary presidential republic, whereby the President of Cameroon is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly of Cameroon Political background The government adopted legislation in 1990 to authorize the formation of multiple political parties and ease restrictions on forming civil associations and private newspapers. Cameroon' s first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held in 1992 followed by municipal elections in 1996 and another round of legislative and presidential elections in 1997. Because the government refused to consider opposition demands for an independent election commission, the three major opposition parties boycotted the October 1997 presidential election, which Biya easily won. The leader of one of the opposition parties, Bello Bouba Maigari of the NUDP, subsequently joined the government. Cameroon has a number of independent newspapers. Censorship was abolished in 1996, but the government sometimes seizes or suspends newspapers and occasionally arrests journalists. Although a 1990 law authorizes private radio and television stations, the government has not granted any licenses as of March 1998. The Cameroonian Government's human rights record has been improving over the years but remains flawed. There continue to be reported abuses, including beatings of detainees, arbitrary arrests, and illegal searches. The judiciary is frequently corrupt, inefficient, and subject to political influence. Worthy of note is the fact that Cameroon is the only country in which two Constitutions are applicable side-by-side. For example, the 1972 Constitution designates the Prime Minister as constitutional successor of the Head of State in case of incapacity, death, resignation or unaccountable absence of the incumbent. Contrarily, the 1996 Constitutional Reform designates the President of the Senate as constitutional successor; but the Senate (provided for by 1996 Reform) does not exist. Apart from increasing the presidential mandate from 5 years to 7 years, very few amendments of the 1996 Constitutional Reform have been applied. Executive branch |President |Paul Biya |RDPC |November 6, 1982 |- |Prime Minister |Ephraim Inoni |RDPC |December 8, 2005 |} Cameroon President Paul Biya (right) with Colin Powell The 1972 constitution of the Republic of Cameroon as modified by 1996 reforms provides for a strong central government dominated by the executive. The president is empowered to name and dismiss cabinet members (regardless of parliamentary representation), judges, generals, provincial governors, prefects, sub-prefects, and heads of Cameroon's parastatal (about 100 state-controlled) firms, obligate or disburse expenditures, approve or veto regulations, declare states of emergency, and appropriate and spend profits of parastatal firms. The president is not required to consult the National Assembly. The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch's Ministry of Justice. The Supreme Court may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president's request. All local government officials are employees of the central government's Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also get most of their budgets. While the president, the minister of justice, and the president's judicial advisers (the Supreme Court) top the judicial hierarchy, traditional rulers, courts, and councils also exercise functions of government. Traditional courts still play a major role in domestic, property, and probate law. Tribal laws and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. Traditional rulers receive stipends from the national government. Legislative branch The 180-member National Assembly meets in ordinary session three times a year (March/April, June/July, and November/December), and has seldom, until recently, made major changes in legislation proposed by the executive. Laws are adopted by majority vote of members present or, if the president demands a second reading, of a total membership. Following government pledges to reform the strongly centralized 1972 constitution, the National Assembly adopted a number of amendments in December 1995 which were promulgated in January 1996. The amendments call for the establishment of a 100-member senate as part of a bicameral legislature, the creation of regional councils, and the fixing of the presidential term to 7 years, renewable once. One-third of senators are to be appointed by the President, and the remaining two-thirds are to be chosen by indirect elections. As of July 2008, the government has not established the Senate or regional councils. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch's Ministry of Justice. The Supreme Court may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president's request. International organization participation Cameroon is member of: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, C, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, ITUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO External links Global Integrity Report: Cameroon has reporting on anti-corruption in Cameroon | Politics_of_Cameroon |@lemmatized politics:1 cameroon:12 take:1 place:1 framework:1 unitary:1 presidential:6 republic:2 whereby:1 president:12 head:4 state:4 government:17 multi:1 party:5 system:2 executive:6 power:2 exercise:2 legislative:4 vest:1 national:6 assembly:4 political:4 background:1 adopt:3 legislation:2 authorize:2 formation:1 multiple:1 ease:1 restriction:1 form:1 civil:1 association:1 private:2 newspaper:3 first:1 multiparty:1 election:7 hold:1 followed:1 municipal:1 another:1 round:1 refuse:1 consider:1 opposition:3 demand:2 independent:2 commission:1 three:2 major:3 boycott:1 october:1 biya:3 easily:1 win:1 leader:1 one:2 bello:1 bouba:1 maigari:1 nudp:1 subsequently:1 join:1 number:2 censorship:1 abolish:1 sometimes:1 seize:1 suspend:1 occasionally:1 arrest:2 journalist:1 although:1 law:7 radio:1 television:1 station:1 grant:1 license:1 march:2 cameroonian:1 human:1 right:2 record:1 improve:1 year:5 remain:2 flaw:1 continue:1 report:3 abuse:1 include:1 beating:1 detainee:1 arbitrary:1 illegal:1 search:1 judiciary:3 frequently:1 corrupt:1 inefficient:1 subject:1 influence:1 worthy:1 note:1 fact:1 country:1 two:2 constitution:4 applicable:1 side:2 example:1 designate:2 prime:2 minister:3 constitutional:4 successor:2 case:1 incapacity:1 death:1 resignation:1 unaccountable:1 absence:1 incumbent:1 contrarily:1 reform:5 senate:4 provide:2 exist:1 apart:1 increase:1 mandate:1 amendment:3 apply:1 branch:5 paul:2 rdpc:2 november:2 ephraim:1 inoni:1 december:3 colin:1 powell:1 modify:1 strong:1 central:2 dominate:1 empower:1 name:1 dismiss:1 cabinet:1 member:5 regardless:1 parliamentary:1 representation:1 judge:1 general:1 provincial:1 governor:1 prefect:2 sub:1 parastatal:2 control:1 firm:2 obligate:1 disburse:1 expenditure:1 approve:1 veto:1 regulation:1 declare:1 emergency:1 appropriate:1 spend:1 profit:1 require:1 consult:1 subordinate:2 ministry:3 justice:3 supreme:3 court:6 may:2 review:2 constitutionality:2 request:2 local:2 official:1 employee:1 territorial:1 administration:1 also:2 get:1 budget:1 judicial:3 adviser:1 top:1 hierarchy:1 traditional:3 ruler:2 council:3 function:1 still:1 play:1 role:1 domestic:1 property:1 probate:1 tribal:1 custom:1 honor:1 formal:1 conflict:1 receive:1 stipend:1 meet:1 ordinary:1 session:1 time:1 april:1 june:1 july:2 seldom:1 recently:1 make:1 change:1 propose:1 majority:1 vote:1 present:1 second:1 reading:1 total:1 membership:1 following:1 pledge:1 strongly:1 centralized:1 promulgate:1 january:1 call:1 establishment:1 part:1 bicameral:1 legislature:1 creation:1 regional:2 fixing:1 term:1 renewable:1 third:2 senator:1 appoint:1 choose:1 indirect:1 establish:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 acct:1 acp:1 afdb:1 bdeac:1 c:1 ceeac:1 eca:1 fao:1 fz:1 g:2 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icc:1 icrm:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 inmarsat:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 itu:1 ituc:1 nam:1 oau:1 oic:1 opcw:1 pca:1 udeac:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 unitar:1 upu:1 wco:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 external:1 link:1 global:1 integrity:1 anti:1 corruption:1 |@bigram presidential_election:3 prime_minister:2 paul_biya:2 colin_powell:1 supreme_court:3 legislative_branch:1 bicameral_legislature:1 judicial_branch:1 acct_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 eca_fao:1 fao_fz:1 fz_g:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icc:1 icc_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_inmarsat:1 inmarsat_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_itu:1 itu_ituc:1 ituc_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_oic:1 oic_opcw:1 opcw_pca:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 upu_wco:1 wco_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 external_link:1 |
2,937 | Fallacies_of_definition | Fallacies of definition refer to the various ways in which definitions can fail to have merit. The term is used to suggest analogy with the logical fallacies. This is a typical sort of list found in texts used in college logic courses. Circularity If one concept is defined by another, and the other is defined by the first, we have a pair of circular definitions, somewhat similar to a question-begging argument: neither offers us enlightenment about the thing we wanted to be enlightened about. Defining with a synonym A definition is no good if it simply gives a one-word synonym. For example, suppose we define the word "virtue"—an important word in ethics—just using the word "excellence." It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues, but the word "excellence" by itself is not a good definition of "virtue" in philosophy. One can always simply ask, "But what does 'excellence' mean?" Surely, if one has a basic confusion about what "virtue" means, then one may also have a basic philosophical confusion about what "excellence" means. Defining with a near synonym A definition does no good if it uses a very near synonym in the definition. For example, suppose we define 'beautiful' as 'possessing aesthetic value'. The words 'beautiful' and 'aesthetic' are very nearly the same in meaning; so if anyone is deeply confused or curious about beauty, then he or she is of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic. The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, or all objects that have aesthetic value. Over-broad definitions A definition is too broad if it applies to things that are not part of the extension of the word defined. Suppose one defines 'bachelor' as 'unmarried male'. At first glance this might look correct, but male is a word that can apply to many things. For example, unmarried male dogs and unmarried male babies are not considered bachelors. Narrowing the definition can avoid this problem. In this case, 'bachelor' can mean 'unmarried man'. However, the Pope, or a man whose wife has died and who has not remarried, are not considered bachelors either — so if it is to fit the common conception, the definition must be further narrowed to 'a man who is socially regarded as able to marry, but has not yet'. Over-narrow definitions Definitions are too narrow if they exclude some things that they should apply to; they fail to describe some members of the word's extension. Here is an example of a narrow definition: 'piece of furniture' means 'object used to sit on'. Of course, some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for example, we put objects on them (like tables) or in them (like a chest of drawers) or we put our feet on them (like footstools), and so forth. So even though some pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not all furniture is. We need a broader definition: we might add other qualifying characteristics, like 'used to put feet up on' or 'used to put household objects on', for example. That would make the extension of the definition bigger — that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word 'furniture' to describe. We might also choose to entirely rewrite the definition, since "laundry lists" of seemingly disparate characteristics strung together by 'or' are probably not truly describing a single concept. Obscurity Definitions can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language. Suppose we defined 'love' as 'the insensible quivering of the soul'. Given a definition like this, one might ask: what is the insensible quivering of the soul? How would we recognize it? Is Johnny's soul insensibly quivering right now? Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom the definitions are given. See jargon. An often quoted example is Samuel Johnson's definition for oats: "Oats: a grain which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland, supports the people", to which his Scots friend, Lord Elibank, retorted, "Yes, and where else will you see such horses and such men?" Examples and definition in context Examples are by themselves insufficient to define a term. For instance: "Chutzpah is killing your parents and then throwing yourself on the mercy of the court citing that you are an orphan." Such a definition is only useful if the reader has some larger context for the term being defined. Even a series of examples may be inadequate. For example, "Edentates are mammals such as voles and tenrecs," does not help the reader to decide if, say, shrews are edentates or not, especially if the reader does not know what voles and tenrecs are. Finally, combination of definitional fallacies can create complex definitions that are fallacious; example: "Situationism is the intellectual framework of situationist movements such as the student protests in France in 1968." If we remove the example, the remaining definition is circular. So this definition does not serve the needs that definition should, such as being able to determining if say, Ann Coulter were a situationist. See also Equivocation Loki's wager | Fallacies_of_definition |@lemmatized fallacy:3 definition:29 refer:1 various:1 way:1 fail:2 merit:1 term:3 use:11 suggest:1 analogy:1 logical:1 typical:1 sort:1 list:2 find:1 text:1 college:1 logic:1 course:3 circularity:1 one:7 concept:2 define:10 another:1 first:2 pair:1 circular:2 somewhat:1 similar:1 question:2 begging:1 argument:1 neither:1 offer:1 u:1 enlightenment:1 thing:6 want:1 enlighten:1 synonym:4 good:3 simply:2 give:4 word:10 example:13 suppose:4 virtue:5 important:1 ethic:1 excellence:6 might:5 perfectly:1 true:1 philosophy:1 always:1 ask:2 mean:5 surely:1 basic:2 confusion:2 may:2 also:3 philosophical:1 near:2 beautiful:3 possess:2 aesthetic:4 value:2 nearly:1 meaning:1 anyone:1 deeply:1 confused:1 curious:2 beauty:1 go:2 confuse:1 general:1 characteristic:3 object:6 broad:3 apply:4 part:1 extension:3 defines:1 bachelor:4 unmarried:4 male:4 glance:1 look:1 correct:1 many:1 dog:1 baby:1 consider:2 narrow:5 avoid:1 problem:1 case:1 man:3 however:1 pope:1 whose:1 wife:1 die:1 remarry:1 either:1 fit:1 common:1 conception:1 must:1 socially:1 regard:1 able:2 marry:1 yet:1 exclude:1 describe:3 member:1 piece:3 furniture:5 sit:3 put:4 like:5 table:1 chest:1 drawer:1 foot:2 footstool:1 forth:1 even:2 though:1 need:2 add:1 qualify:1 household:1 would:3 make:1 big:1 choose:1 entirely:1 rewrite:1 since:1 laundry:1 seemingly:1 disparate:1 string:1 together:1 probably:1 truly:1 single:1 obscurity:1 wrong:1 ambiguous:1 obscure:1 figurative:1 language:2 love:1 insensible:2 quivering:2 soul:3 recognize:1 johnny:1 insensibly:1 quiver:1 right:1 state:1 plain:1 straightforward:1 understand:1 people:2 see:3 jargon:1 often:1 quote:1 samuel:1 johnson:1 oat:2 grain:1 england:1 generally:1 horse:2 scotland:1 support:1 scot:1 friend:1 lord:1 elibank:1 retort:1 yes:1 else:1 men:1 context:2 insufficient:1 instance:1 chutzpah:1 kill:1 parent:1 throw:1 mercy:1 court:1 cite:1 orphan:1 useful:1 reader:3 large:1 series:1 inadequate:1 edentate:2 mammal:1 vole:2 tenrecs:1 help:1 decide:1 say:2 shrew:1 especially:1 know:1 tenrec:1 finally:1 combination:1 definitional:1 create:1 complex:1 fallacious:1 situationism:1 intellectual:1 framework:1 situationist:2 movement:1 student:1 protest:1 france:1 remove:1 remain:1 serve:1 determine:1 ann:1 coulter:1 equivocation:1 loki:1 wager:1 |@bigram logical_fallacy:1 |
2,938 | Geddy_Lee | Geddy Lee OC (born Gary Lee Weinrib; July 29, 1953) is a Canadian musician best known as the lead vocalist, bassist, and keyboardist for the Canadian rock group Rush. Lee joined Rush in September 1968 at the request of his childhood friend, Alex Lifeson in order to replace frontman Jeff Jones. An award-winning musician, Lee's style, technique, and skill on the bass guitar have proven very influential in the rock and heavy metal genres, inspiring such players as Steve Harris of Iron Maiden, Steve Harris John Myung of Dream Theater, dtfaq.com Les Claypool of Primus, You Say It's Your Birthday: Les Claypool of Primus in Addicted to Noise, September 1997 and Cliff Burton of Metallica. http://www.fender.com/artists/artists.php?artist=geddy_lee In addition to his composing, arranging, and performing duties for Rush, Lee has produced albums for various other bands, including Rocket Science. Lee's first solo effort, My Favourite Headache, was released in 2000. Along with his Rush bandmates—Lifeson and drummer Neil Peart—Lee was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on May 9, 1996. The trio was the first rock band to be so honored, as a group. "Rush highlights", MapleMusic (accessed May 23, 2007). On May 1, 2007, Rush released Snakes & Arrows, their eighteenth full-length studio album. Lee and the rest of the band recently toured in support of Snakes & Arrows across North America, which began in Atlanta, GA on June 13, 2007 and ended its second leg on July 24, 2008. Snakes & Arrows Tour Rush official website RUSH - Official Website Early life Geddy Lee was born Gary Lee Weinrib on July 29, 1953 in Willowdale, Toronto. Lee's stage name, Geddy, was inspired by his mother's heavily-accented pronunciation of his given first name, Gary, and it later became his highschool nickname before he adopted it as his stage name. Floridian: Personal inspiration Lee's parents were Jewish refugees from Poland who had been survivors of Nazi concentration camps Dachau and Bergen-Belsen during World War II. In 2004, Canadian Jewish News featured Lee's reflections on his mother's experiences as a refugee, and of his own Jewish heritage. Lee's Jewish Heritage CJnews.com Lee married Nancy Young in 1976. They have a son named Julian and a daughter named Kyla Avril. Lee attended primary school with the well-known comedian Rick Moranis, of SCTV fame. IGN Interview with Rick Moranis IGN.com Body of work The bulk of Lee's work in music has been with Rush (see Rush discography). However, Lee has also contributed to a body of work outside of his involvement with the band through guest appearances and album production. In 1981, Lee was the featured guest for the hit song "Take Off" and its included comedic commentary with Bob and Doug McKenzie (played by Rick Moranis and Dave Thomas, respectively) for the McKenzie Brothers' comedy album Great White North. The following year, Lee produced the debut (and only) album from Toronto new wave band Boys Brigade. On the 1985 album We Are the World, by humanitarian consortium USA for Africa, Lee recorded guest vocals for the song "Tears Are Not Enough". Humanitarian consortium Answers.com Apart from band contributions, Lee sang the Canadian National Anthem in front of a full crowd at Camden Yards for the 1993 All-Star Game. Another version of "O Canada" in rock format was recorded by Lee and Lifeson on the accompanying soundtrack CD for the Trey Parker and Matt Stone film South Park: Bigger, Longer, and Uncut released in 1999. My Favourite Headache, Lee's first solo album, was released in November 2000 while Rush was on a hiatus due to tragedies in drummer Neil Peart's life. Lee appeared in Broken Social Scene's music video for their 2006 single "Fire Eye'd Boy", judging the band while they perform various musical tasks, and in 2006, Lee joined Lifeson's supergroup the Big Dirty Band, to provide songs accompanying Trailer Park Boys: The Movie. Vocal style Lee's vocals during Rush's early period have been described as a "Robert Plant-esque wail." http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:h74zeflkhgf4~T1 By the recording of the Permanent Waves album in 1979, Lee gradually changed his vocal style to a more restrained sound. http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:h74zeflkhgf4~T1 Lee as of late, still has much of his range left, though the song "2112" ("Overture" and "The Temples of Syrinx") is played one whole step (two semitones) lower. http://www.t-n-m-s.com/index.php?topic=26888.15;wap2 Equipment used Lee has varied his equipment list continually throughout his career. Bass guitars Geddy Lee playing his Fender jazz bass at a 2008 live performance at the Xcel Energy Center For his first local gigs in the early 1970s and Rush's debut album, Lee used a Fender Precision Bass. From Fly By Night onward, Lee favored Rickenbacker basses, particularly the 4001 model, and a Fender Jazz Bass which is heard on Permanent Waves, Moving Pictures and Signals and supporting tours. In 1981, Lee began using the compact, headless Steinberger bass, which he used occasionally on the supporting tour for Signals and for many tracks on their follow-up, Grace Under Pressure and Power Windows. From 1985 to 1992, Lee used British Wal basses. He switched back to Fender Jazz Basses for the recording of Counterparts in 1993, and has been using them virtually exclusively since, heard on albums Test For Echo, Vapor Trails, Feedback and Snakes & Arrows. However, he used a Fender Jaco Pastorius Tribute fretless replica bass for the song "Malignant Narcissism" on Snakes & Arrows, and a Fender Custom Shop Jazz with an Alder Body and a Flamed Maple top in Transparent Red for songs in an alternate tuning during the last several tours. In 1998, Fender released the Geddy Lee Jazz Bass. Fender Geddy Lee Jazz Bass This signature model is a recreation of Lee's favorite bass, a 1973 Fender Jazz that he bought in a pawn shop in Kalamazoo, Michigan. On all of his basses, Lee uses Rotosound Swing Bass 66 Stainless Steel round-wound strings. Lee once again used his Rickenbacker 4001 for the performance of "A Passage To Bangkok" on the 2007 and 2008 Snakes & Arrows Tour. Bass guitar amplification Lee's amps in the early days were arena-ready Sunn and/or Ampeg models. By the late seventies, his backline had evolved into a configuration of Ashly preamps and BGW power amps, which were run in stereo with his 4001 bass. The neck pickup was sent to one amp and set for a clean, bass-heavy tone, while the bridge pickup was sent to the other amp which was set with an exaggerated treble boost, and extra gain in the preamp. This defined Lee's bass sound from 1977 to 1982. Though he would change basses, the amplifier setup remained constant through 1991. For the Roll the Bones tour (1991–1992), Lee switched to Gallien-Krueger amps, and later to Trace Elliots. Beginning in 2002, Lee dispensed with using a single bass guitar amplifier in favor of a chain of amplifiers and DI units, which allow the bass guitar to be connected directly to the stage and front-of-house mixers without involving microphones. Lee began using in-ear monitors at this point. At the beginning of the 2002 Vapor trails tour, Lee revised his previous setup. His bass signal is sent via a Samson wireless unit to an Avalon U5 DI. From there it is split between a Trace Elliot Quadravalve all-tube power amplifier and a SansAmp RBI rackmountable preamp. The speaker-level signal from the Quadravalve is sent to a Palmer PD-05 speaker emulator, which provides adequate load for the tube amplifier and attenuates the signal down to line level. The signals from the U5, Quadravalve/PD-05, and RBI are all sent to the monitor and front-of-house mixers and blends of the signals are changed on a song-by-song basis. Typically the Quadravalve/PD-05 signal makes up the low end while a balance of the U5 and RBI make up the high end, with the RBI providing the "top end" distortion in Lee's sound. For the 2007 Snakes and Arrows tour, Lee swapped the SansAmp RBI for a new unit by Sansamp, the RPM. During preparation for this tour a feature on bassplayer.tv with his live bass tech, Russ Ryan, was filmed which detailed Lee's live signal path. Keyboards and synthesizers Over the years, Lee's keyboards have featured synthesizers from Oberheim (Eight-voice, OB-1, OB-X, OB-Xa), PPG (Wave 2.2 and 2.3), Roland (Jupiter 8, D-50, XV-5080, and most recently a Fantom X7 on the Snakes and Arrows tour), Moog (Minimoog, Taurus bass pedals, Moog Little Phatty http://www.2112.net/powerwindows/S&Atourbook.htm Geddy Lee's equipment list. ), and Yamaha (DX7, Yamaha KX76). Lee used sequencers early in their development and has continued to use similar innovations as they have developed over the years. Lee has also made use of digital samplers. Combined, these electronic devices have supplied many memorable keyboard sounds, such as the "growl" in "Tom Sawyer" and the melody featured in the chorus of "The Spirit of Radio". With 1993's Counterparts, Rush reduced most keyboard- and synthesizer-derived sounds in their compositions, and they continued to do so with each successive album. In 2002, the band produced an album—Vapor Trails—that was completely free of keyboards and synthesizers, featuring only voice, guitar, bass guitar, drums and percussion. With the release of 2007's Snakes & Arrows, Lee sparingly adds a Mellotron to the instrument line-up. However, it does not mark a return to a "synth" sound for the band. Much like Vapor Trails, the music is primarily recorded with multiple layers of guitars, bass, drums and percussion. Live performances: special equipment Recreating unique sounds Newer advances in synthesizer and sampler technology have allowed Lee to store familiar sounds from his old synthesizers alongside new ones in combination synthesizer/samplers, such as the Roland XV-5080. For live shows in 2002 and 2004, Lee and his keyboard technician used the playback capabilities of the XV-5080 to generate virtually all of Rush's keyboard sounds to date, as well as additional complex sound passages that previously required several machines at once to produce. "Rush Rolls Again", September 2002, OnStage Magazine When playing live, Lee and his bandmates recreate their songs as accurately as possible with digital samplers. Using these samplers, the band members are able to recreate, in real-time, the sounds of non-traditional instruments, accompaniments, vocal harmonies, and other sound "events" that are familiar to those who have heard Rush songs from their albums. To trigger these sounds in real-time, Lee uses MIDI controllers, placed at the locations on the stage where he has a microphone stand. Lee uses two types of MIDI controllers: one type resembles a traditional synthesizer keyboard on a stand (Yamaha KX76). The second type is a large foot-pedal keyboard, placed on the stage floor (Korg MPK-130, Roland PK-5). Combined, they enable Lee to use his free hands and feet to trigger sounds in electronic equipment that has been placed off-stage. It is with this technology that Lee and his bandmates are able to present their arrangements in a live setting with the level of complexity and fidelity that fans have come to expect, and without the need to resort to the use of backing tracks or employing an additional band member. Peart, Neil Rush Backstage Club Newsletter, March 1990, via "Power Windows" Rush Fan Site Lee's (and his bandmates') use of MIDI controllers to trigger sampled instruments and audio events is visible throughout the R30: 30th Anniversary World Tour concert DVD (2005). In the Snakes and Arrows tour, Lee used a Roland Fantom X7 and a Moog Little Phatty synthesizer. Unique stage equipment Henhouse Ovens|Rush live in concert, with rotisseries and chef in background. As of 2002, Lee no longer uses traditional bass amplifiers on stage, as he prefers to go direct into the venue's FOH console which helps the sound reinforcement during their concerts. Faced with the dilemma of what to do with the empty space left behind by the lack of large amplifier cabinets, Lee chose to fill the space in a unique way. For the 2002 Vapor Trails tour, Lee lined his side of the stage with three coin-operated Maytag dryers. Other large appliances would appear later in the same space. (Lee had earlier decorated his side of the stage with unusual items. For the 1996-1997 Test for Echo tour, Lee's side sported a fully-stocked old-fashioned household refrigerator.) For every concert that featured the dryers, Rush's crew would load them with specially-designed Rush-themed T-shirts, different from the shirts on sale to the general public. At the close of each show, Lee and Lifeson would then toss these special T-shirts into the arms of lucky audience members. For the band's R30 tour, one dryer was replaced with a rotating shelf-style vending machine. It too was fully stocked and operational during shows. When asked about the purpose of the dryers in interviews, Lee was purposefully vague. The irony and non sequitur of placing such unusual items on a concert stage were Lee's way of expressing his sense of humor. He fed the mystery by responding to one interview question about the dryers, saying he chose to use them for their "warm, dry tone". The dryers can be seen on the Rush in Rio DVD and the R30 DVD. The vending machine can be seen on the R30 DVD. To add to the humorous effect, Lee's dryers were, purely for visual effect "miked" by the sound crew, just as a real amplifier would be. In interviews dated May 2007, Lee has stated that he is considering entirely new non-musical equipment to further his established comic effect for Rush's Snakes & Arrows tour. The tour commenced June 13, 2007, with a show at the Hi-Fi Buys Amphitheatre in Atlanta, Georgia. The show prominently featured 3 Henhouse brand rotisserie chicken ovens on stage complete with an attendant in a chef's hat and apron to "tend" the chickens during the show. Jamie Thomson. "Rush concert review: Wembley Arena, London. Friday, October 12, 2007.", The Guardian (accessed March 1, 2008). Such unorthodox stage equipment has been continuously seen thereafter. Baseball fan On June 5, 2008, Lee donated his entire collection of nearly 200 autographed Negro League baseballs to the Negro Leagues Baseball Museum in Kansas City, Missouri. Bob Kendrick, a director at the museum stated "Some of these guys have been dead for some time, and we could not get these (signatures) before no matter what their significance was in the Negro Leagues". Bob Kendrick. http://www.kansascity.com/594/story/649383.html 'Rush vocalist makes donation to Negro Leagues Museum', kansascity.com (2008)]. Retrieved June 7 2008. UPDATE 17 March 2009: this link now directs to a 404 error page; article's clearly been taken down; site's web engine returns nothing on Lee or donation At the time, Lee's gift was one of the largest single donations the NLBM had ever received. Ward Triplett. http://www.kansascity.com/entertainment/story/649383.html 'Rush vocalist makes donation to Negro Leagues Museum', kansascity.com (2008)]. Retrieved June 7 2008. UPDATE 17 March 2009: this link now directs to a 404 error page; article's clearly been taken down; site's web engine returns nothing on Lee or donation Awards Bass Hall of Fame – Guitar Player magazine 6 time winner: "Best Rock Bass" – Guitar Player magazine 1993 – "Best Rock Bass Player" Bass Player readers' poll 1994 – With Rush, inducted into the Juno Hall of Fame 1996 – Officer of the Order of Canada, along with fellow band mates Alex Lifeson and Neil Peart Best Album for Bass (Snakes & Arrows) – Bass Player magazine "Coolest Bass Line in a Song" (for "Malignant Narcissism") – Bass Player magazine "Best 2007 Cover Feature" for "Northern Warrior" – Bass Player magazine References External links Rush official website A colorful Geddy interview, w/ Nardwuar the Human Serviette Geddy Lee Interview on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos Geddy Lee Interview in SPIN | Geddy_Lee |@lemmatized geddy:10 lee:79 oc:1 born:1 gary:3 weinrib:2 july:3 canadian:4 musician:2 best:5 know:2 lead:1 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2,939 | Carinatae | This article is about bird taxonomy; for the topic in pottery and glassware design, see Carinate. The Carinatae are, in phylogenetic taxonomy, the last common ancestor of the Neornithes (modern birds) and Ichthyornis (an extinct seabird of the Cretaceous), and all its descendants. Defined in this way, the group includes all modern birds, both living and recently extinct, and a few Mesozoic forms. Earlier definition Traditionally, Carinatae were defined as all birds whose sternum (breast bone) has a keel (carina). The keel is a strong median ridge running down the length of the sternum. This is an important area for the attachment of flight muscles. Thus, all flying birds have a pronounced keel. Ratites, all of whom are flightless, lack a strong keel. Thus, living birds were divided into carinates (keeled) and ratites (from ratis, "raft", referring to the flatness of the sternum). The difficulty with this scheme phylogenetically was that some flightless birds, without strong carinae, are descended directly from ordinary flying birds with carinae. Examples include the Kakapo, a flightless parrot, and the dodo, a columbiform (the pigeon family). None of these birds are ratites. Thus, this supposedly distinctive feature was easy to use, but had nothing to do with actual phylogenic relationship. Current definition The use of a term for keeled sternum to describe the Ichthyornis–Neornithine group turned out to be equally inapt. Various dinosaurs – apparently, remote ancestors and cousins of the Carinatae – do possess a keeled sternum. So, evidently the presence of this structure does not necessarily imply its use in flight. This sort of definitional problem is one reason why the use of physical characteristics to name taxonomic groups is now discouraged. The characteristics that actually are unique to the Carinatae have little to do with the sternum. Rather, carinates are unique in having, for example, a globe-shaped, convex head on the humerus and fully fused bones in the lower leg and outer arm. They also have a pterygoid bone that articulates with the palatine by means of a joint. The vomer is reduced or absent. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant (1921) Guide to the gallery of birds. Part 1. British Museum. (2nd Edn) References | Carinatae |@lemmatized article:1 bird:10 taxonomy:2 topic:1 pottery:1 glassware:1 design:1 see:1 carinate:3 carinatae:4 phylogenetic:1 last:1 common:1 ancestor:2 neornithes:1 modern:2 ichthyornis:2 extinct:2 seabird:1 cretaceous:1 descendant:1 define:2 way:1 group:3 include:2 living:1 recently:1 mesozoic:1 form:1 early:1 definition:2 traditionally:1 whose:1 sternum:6 breast:1 bone:3 keel:6 carina:3 strong:3 median:1 ridge:1 run:1 length:1 important:1 area:1 attachment:1 flight:2 muscle:1 thus:3 fly:2 pronounced:1 ratite:3 flightless:3 lack:1 live:1 divide:1 ratis:1 raft:1 refer:1 flatness:1 difficulty:1 scheme:1 phylogenetically:1 without:1 descend:1 directly:1 ordinary:1 example:2 kakapo:1 parrot:1 dodo:1 columbiform:1 pigeon:1 family:1 none:1 supposedly:1 distinctive:1 feature:1 easy:1 use:4 nothing:1 actual:1 phylogenic:1 relationship:1 current:1 term:1 describe:1 neornithine:1 turn:1 equally:1 inapt:1 various:1 dinosaur:1 apparently:1 remote:1 cousin:1 possess:1 keeled:1 evidently:1 presence:1 structure:1 necessarily:1 imply:1 sort:1 definitional:1 problem:1 one:1 reason:1 physical:1 characteristic:2 name:1 taxonomic:1 discourage:1 actually:1 unique:2 little:1 rather:1 globe:1 shape:1 convex:1 head:1 humerus:1 fully:1 fuse:1 low:1 leg:1 outer:1 arm:1 also:1 pterygoid:1 articulate:1 palatine:1 mean:1 joint:1 vomer:1 reduce:1 absent:1 w:1 r:1 ogilvie:1 grant:1 guide:1 gallery:1 part:1 british:1 museum:1 edn:1 reference:1 |@bigram flightless_bird:1 |
2,940 | Charles_Babbage | Charles Babbage, FRS (26 December 1791 – 18 October 1871) GRO Register of Deaths: December 1871 1a 383 MARYLEBONE - Charles Babbage, aged 79 was an English mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer who originated the concept of a programmable computer. Parts of his uncompleted mechanisms are on display in the London Science Museum. In 1991, a perfectly functioning difference engine was constructed from Babbage's original plans. Built to tolerances achievable in the 19th century, the success of the finished engine indicated that Babbage's machine would have worked. Nine years later, the Science Museum completed the printer Babbage had designed for the difference engine, an astonishingly complex device for the 19th century. Considered a "father of the computer" Others can be regarded as having a claim on this title, such as John Vincent Atanasoff or Alan Turing. Babbage is credited with inventing the first mechanical computer that eventually led to more complex designs. Birth The birthplace of Charles Babbage is still disputed, but he was most likely born in 44 Crosby Row, Walworth Road, London, England. A blue plaque on the junction of Larcom Street and Walworth Road commemorates the event. Babbage's date of birth was given in his obituary in The Times as 26 December 1792. However after the obituary appeared, a nephew wrote to say that Charles Babbage actually was born one year earlier, in 1791. The parish register of St. Mary's Newington, London, shows that Babbage was baptized on 6 January 1792, supporting a birth year of 1791. Charles' father, Benjamin Babbage, was a banking partner of the Praeds who owned the Bitton Estate in Teignmouth. His mother was Betsy Plumleigh Teape. In 1808, the Babbage family moved into the old Rowdens house in East Teignmouth, and Benjamin Babbage became a warden of the nearby St. Michael’s Church. Education His father's money allowed Charles to receive instruction from several schools and tutors during the course of his elementary education. Around the age of eight he was sent to a country school in Alphington near Exeter to recover from a life-threatening fever. His parents ordered that his "brain was not to be taxed too much" and Babbage felt that "this great idleness may have led to some of my childish reasonings." For a short time he attended King Edward VI Grammar School in Totnes, South Devon, but his health forced him back to private tutors for a time. He then joined a 30-student Holmwood academy, in Baker Street, Enfield, Middlesex under Reverend Stephen Freeman. The academy had a well-stocked library that prompted Babbage's love of mathematics. He studied with two more private tutors after leaving the academy. Of the first, a clergyman near Cambridge, Babbage said, "I fear I did not derive from it all the advantages that I might have done." The second was an Oxford tutor from whom Babbage learned enough of the Classics to be accepted to Cambridge. Babbage arrived at Trinity College, Cambridge in October 1810. He had read extensively in Leibniz, Joseph Louis Lagrange, Thomas Simpson, and Lacroix and was seriously disappointed in the mathematical instruction available at Cambridge. In response, he, John Herschel, George Peacock, and several other friends formed the Analytical Society in 1812. Babbage, Herschel and Peacock were also close friends with future judge and patron of science Edward Ryan. Babbage and Ryan married two sisters. Wilkes (2002) p.355 In 1812 Babbage transferred to Peterhouse, Cambridge. He was the top mathematician at Peterhouse, but did not graduate with honours. He instead received an honorary degree without examination in 1814. Marriage, family, death Grave of Charles Babbage at Kensal Green Cemetery On 25 July 1814, Babbage married Georgiana Whitmore at St. Michael's Church in Teignmouth, Devon. The couple lived at Dudmaston Hall, Shropshire (where Babbage engineered the central heating system), before moving to 5 Devonshire Street, Portland Place, London. Charles and Georgiana had eight children, but only three — Benjamin Herschel, Georgiana Whitmore, and Henry Prevost — survived to adulthood. Georgiana died in Worcester on 1 September 1827. Charles' father, wife, and at least one son all died in 1827. These deaths caused Babbage to go into a mental breakdown which delayed the construction of his machines. His youngest son, Henry Prevost Babbage (1824-1918), went on to create six working difference engines based on his father's designs, one of which was sent to Howard H. Aiken, pioneer of the Harvard Mark I. Henry Prevost's 1910 Analytical Engine Mill, previously on display at Dudmaston Hall, is now on display at the Science Museum. Charles Babbage died at age 79 on 18 October 1871, and was buried in London's Kensal Green Cemetery. According to Horsley, Babbage died "of renal inadequacy, secondary to cystitis." - subscription required In 1983 the autopsy report for Charles Babbage was discovered and later published by one of his descendants. - subscription required A copy of the original is also available. Babbage's brain is preserved at the Science Museum in London. Design of computers Babbage sought a method by which mathematical tables could be calculated mechanically, removing the high rate of human error. Three different factors seem to have influenced him: a dislike of untidiness; his experience working on logarithmic tables; and existing work on calculating machines carried out by Wilhelm Schickard, Blaise Pascal, and Gottfried Leibniz. He first discussed the principles of a calculating engine in a letter to Sir Humphry Davy in 1822. Part of Babbage's difference engine, assembled after his death by Babbage's son, using parts found in his laboratory. Babbage's machines were among the first mechanical computers, although they were not actually completed, largely because of funding problems and personality issues. He directed the building of some steam-powered machines that achieved some success, suggesting that calculations could be mechanized. Although Babbage's machines were mechanical and unwieldy, their basic architecture was very similar to a modern computer. The data and program memory were separated, operation was instruction based, the control unit could make conditional jumps and the machine had a separate I/O unit. Difference engine In Babbage’s time, numerical tables were calculated by humans who were called ‘computers’, meaning "one who computes", much as a conductor is "one who conducts". At Cambridge, he saw the high error-rate of this human-driven process and started his life’s work of trying to calculate the tables mechanically. He began in 1822 with what he called the difference engine, made to compute values of polynomial functions. Unlike similar efforts of the time, Babbage's difference engine was created to calculate a series of values automatically. By using the method of finite differences, it was possible to avoid the need for multiplication and division. The London Science Museum's Difference Engine #2, built from Babbage's design. The first difference engine was composed of around 25,000 parts, weighed fifteen tons (13,600 kg), and stood high. Although he received ample funding for the project, it was never completed. He later designed an improved version, "Difference Engine No. 2", which was not constructed until 1989-1991, using Babbage's plans and 19th century manufacturing tolerances. It performed its first calculation at the London Science Museum returning results to 31 digits, far more than the average modern pocket calculator. Completed models The London Science Museum has constructed two Difference Engines, according to Babbage's plans for the Difference Engine No 2. One is owned by the museum; the other, owned by technology millionaire Nathan Myhrvold, went on exhibit at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California on 10 May 2008. It will remain there until April 2009, after which it will move to Myhrvold's personal collection. The two models that have been constructed are not replicas; until the assembly of the first Difference Engine No 2 by the London Science Museum, no model of the Difference Engine No 2 existed. Analytical engine Soon after the attempt at making the difference engine crumbled, Babbage started designing a different, more complex machine called the Analytical Engine. The engine is not a single physical machine but a succession of designs that he tinkered with until his death in 1871. The main difference between the two engines is that the Analytical Engine could be programmed using punch cards. He realized that programs could be put on these cards so the person had only to create the program initially, and then put the cards in the machine and let it run. The analytical engine would have used loops of Jacquard's punched cards to control a mechanical calculator, which could formulate results based on the results of preceding computations. This machine was also intended to employ several features subsequently used in modern computers, including sequential control, branching, and looping, and would have been the first mechanical device to be Turing-complete. Ada Lovelace, an impressive mathematician, and one of the few people who fully understood Babbage's ideas, created a program for the Analytical Engine. Had the Analytical Engine ever actually been built, her program would have been able to calculate a sequence of Bernoulli numbers. Based on this work, Lovelace is now widely credited with being the first computer programmer. See pages 19, 25 In 1979, a contemporary programming language was named Ada in her honour. Shortly afterward, in 1981, a satirical article by Tony Karp in the magazine Datamation described the Babbage programming language as the "language of the future". Modern adaptations While the abacus and mechanical calculator have been replaced by electronic calculators using microchips, the recent advances in MEMS and nanotechnology have led to recent high-tech experiments in mechanical computation. The benefits suggested include operation in high radiation or high temperature environments. These modern versions of mechanical computation were highlighted in the magazine The Economist in its special "end of the millennium" black cover issue in an article entitled "Babbage's Last Laugh". Babbage's Last Laugh (requires paid subscription) The article highlighted work done at University of California Berkeley by Ezekiel Kruglick. In this Doctoral Dissertation the researcher reports mechanical logic cells and architectures sufficient to implement the Babbage Analytical engine (see above) or any general logic circuit. Carry-shift digital adders and various logic elements are detailed as well as modern analysis on required performance for microscopic mechanical logic. Other accomplishments In 1824, Babbage won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society "for his invention of an engine for calculating mathematical and astronomical tables." He was a founding member of the society and one of its oldest living members on his death in 1871. From 1828 to 1839 Babbage was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge. He contributed largely to several scientific periodicals, and was instrumental in founding the Astronomical Society in 1820 and the Statistical Society in 1834. However, he dreamt of designing mechanical calculating machines. “... I was sitting in the rooms of the Analytical Society, at Cambridge, my head leaning forward on the table in a kind of dreamy mood, with a table of logarithms lying open before me. Another member, coming into the room, and seeing me half asleep, called out, "Well, Babbage, what are you dreaming about?" to which I replied "I am thinking that all these tables" (pointing to the logarithms) "might be calculated by machinery. " In 1837, responding to the Bridgewater Treatises, of which there were eight, he published his Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, "On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation", putting forward the thesis that God had the omnipotence and foresight to create as a divine legislator, making laws (or programs) which then produced species at the appropriate times, rather than continually interfering with ad hoc miracles each time a new species was required. The book is a work of natural theology, and incorporates extracts from correspondence he had been having with John Herschel on the subject. Babbage also achieved notable results in cryptography. He broke Vigenère's autokey cipher as well as the much weaker cipher that is called Vigenère cipher today. The autokey cipher was generally called "the undecipherable cipher", though owing to popular confusion, many thought that the weaker polyalphabetic cipher was the "undecipherable" one. Babbage's discovery was used to aid English military campaigns, and was not published until several years later; as a result credit for the development was instead given to Friedrich Kasiski, a Prussian infantry officer, who made the same discovery some years after Babbage. In 1838, Babbage invented the pilot (also called a cow-catcher), the metal frame attached to the front of locomotives that clears the tracks of obstacles. He also constructed a dynamometer car and performed several studies on Isambard Kingdom Brunel's Great Western Railway in about 1838. Babbage's eldest son, Benjamin Herschel Babbage, worked as an engineer for Brunel on the railways before emigrating to Australia in the 1850s Babbage also invented an ophthalmoscope, but although he gave it to a physician for testing it was forgotten, and the device only came into use after being independently invented by Hermann von Helmholtz. Babbage twice stood for Parliament as a candidate for the borough of Finsbury. In 1832 he came in third among five candidates, but in 1834 he finished last among four. - Note some confusion as to the dates. In On the Economy of Machine and Manufacture, Babbage described what is now called the Babbage principle, which describes certain advantages with division of labour. Babbage noted that highly skilled - and thus generally highly paid - workers spend parts of their job performing tasks that are 'below' their skill level. If the labour process can be divided among several workers, it is possible to assign only high-skill tasks to high-skill and -cost workers and leave other working tasks to less-skilled and paid workers, thereby cutting labour costs. This principle was criticised by Karl Marx who argued that it caused labour segregation and contributed to alienation. The Babbage principle is an inherent assumption in Frederick Winslow Taylor's scientific management. Eccentricities Babbage once counted all the broken panes of glass of a factory, publishing in 1857 a "Table of the Relative Frequency of the Causes of Breakage of Plate Glass Windows": Of 464 broken panes, 14 were caused by "drunken men, women or boys". See this web site for Babbage's table of causes of broken glass panes. Babbages's distaste for commoners ("the Mob") included writing "Observations of Street Nuisances" in 1864, as well as tallying up 165 "nuisances" over a period of 80 days. He especially hated street music, and in particular the music of organ grinders, against whom he railed in various venues. The following quotation is typical: It is difficult to estimate the misery inflicted upon thousands of persons, and the absolute pecuniary penalty imposed upon multitudes of intellectual workers by the loss of their time, destroyed by organ-grinders and other similar nuisances. Babbage once contacted the poet Alfred Tennyson in response to his poem "The Vision of Sin". Babbage wrote, "In your otherwise beautiful poem, one verse reads, Every moment dies a man, Every moment one is born. ... If this were true, the population of the world would be at a standstill. In truth, the rate of birth is slightly in excess of that of death. I would suggest [that the next version of your poem should read]: Every moment dies a man, Every moment 1 1/16 is born. Strictly speaking, the actual figure is so long I cannot get it into a line, but I believe the figure 1 1/16 will be sufficiently accurate for poetry." } Quotations Commemoration Babbage has been commemorated by a number of references, as shown on this list. In particular, the crater Babbage on the Moon, and the Charles Babbage Institute, an information technology archive and research center, were named after him. The large Babbage lecture theatre at Cambridge University, used for undergraduate science lectures, commemorates his time at the university. British Rail named a locomotive after him in the 1990s as part of a program of naming locomotives after famous and significant scientists. The University of Plymouth commemorates Charles Babbage with the Babbage building, the University's school of computing is based here. Also, in Monk's Walk School, there is a block called "Babbage" to commemorate his work in the world of science. In Chessington, in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames, a road in a new housing development has been named Charles Babbage Close. The Babbage programming language for GEC 4000 series minicomputers is named after him. Publications References External links Babbage at the Science Museum Charles Babbage Mr. Charles Babbage - obituary from The Times (1871) The Babbage Pages The Babbage Difference Engine - an overview of how it works. "On a Method of Expressing by Signs the Action of Machinery" , 1826. - Original edition Charles Babbage Institute - pages on "Who Was Charles Babbage?" including biographical note, description of Difference Engine No. 2, publications by Babbage, archival and published sources on Babbage, sources on Babbage and Ada Lovelace. | Charles_Babbage |@lemmatized charles:18 babbage:84 fr:1 december:3 october:3 gro:1 register:2 death:7 marylebone:1 age:3 english:2 mathematician:3 philosopher:1 inventor:1 mechanical:12 engineer:3 originate:1 concept:1 programmable:1 computer:10 part:6 uncompleted:1 mechanism:1 display:3 london:10 science:12 museum:11 perfectly:1 function:2 difference:19 engine:30 construct:5 original:3 plan:3 build:3 tolerance:2 achievable:1 century:3 success:2 finish:2 indicate:1 machine:13 would:6 work:12 nine:1 year:5 later:4 complete:5 printer:1 design:9 astonishingly:1 complex:3 device:3 consider:1 father:5 others:1 regard:1 claim:1 title:1 john:3 vincent:1 atanasoff:1 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2,941 | Fabales | Fabales is an order of flowering plants. It is included in the rosid group of the eudicots in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II classification system. In the APG II circumscription this order includes the families Fabaceae or legumes (including the subfamilies Caesalpinioideae, Mimosoideae, and Papilionoideae), Quillajaceae, Polygalaceae or milkworts (including the families Diclidantheraceae, Moutabeaceae, and Xanthophyllaceae), and Surianaceae. Under the Cronquist system and some other plant classification systems, the order Fabales contains only the family Fabaceae. The other families treated in the Fabales by the APG II classification were placed in separate orders by Cronquist, the Polygalaceae within its own order, the Polygalales, and the Quillajaceae and Surianaceae within the Rosales. The Fabaceae, as the third largest plant family in the world, contains most of the diversity of the Fabales, the other families making up a comparatively small portion of the order's diversity. Research in the order is largely focused on the Fabaceae, due in part to its great biological diversity, and to its importance as food plants. The Polygalaceae is fairly well researched among plant families, in part due to the large diversity of the genus Polygala, and also due to members of the family, like the Fabaceae, being food plants for various Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species. While taxonomists using molecular phylogenetic techniques find strong support for the order, it should be noted that there remain questions about the morphological relationships of the Quillajaceae and Surianaceae to the rest of the order, due in part to limited research on these families. Distribution The Fabales are a cosmopolitan order of plants, except that only the subfamily Papilionoideae (Faboideae) of the Fabaceae are well dispersed throughout the northern part of the North Temperate Zone. Gallery References be-x-old:Бабовакветныя | Fabales |@lemmatized fabales:5 order:10 flower:1 plant:7 include:4 rosid:1 group:2 eudicots:1 angiosperm:1 phylogeny:1 ii:3 classification:3 system:3 apg:2 circumscription:1 family:9 fabaceae:6 legume:1 subfamily:2 caesalpinioideae:1 mimosoideae:1 papilionoideae:2 quillajaceae:3 polygalaceae:3 milkwort:1 diclidantheraceae:1 moutabeaceae:1 xanthophyllaceae:1 surianaceae:3 cronquist:2 contain:2 treat:1 place:1 separate:1 within:2 polygalales:1 rosales:1 third:1 large:2 world:1 diversity:4 make:1 comparatively:1 small:1 portion:1 research:3 largely:1 focus:1 due:4 part:4 great:1 biological:1 importance:1 food:2 fairly:1 well:2 among:1 genus:1 polygala:1 also:1 member:1 like:1 various:1 lepidoptera:1 butterfly:1 moth:1 specie:1 taxonomist:1 use:1 molecular:1 phylogenetic:1 technique:1 find:1 strong:1 support:1 note:1 remain:1 question:1 morphological:1 relationship:1 rest:1 limited:1 distribution:1 cosmopolitan:1 except:1 faboideae:1 disperse:1 throughout:1 northern:1 north:1 temperate:1 zone:1 gallery:1 reference:1 x:1 old:1 бабовакветныя:1 |@bigram angiosperm_phylogeny:1 family_fabaceae:2 lepidoptera_butterfly:1 butterfly_moth:1 molecular_phylogenetic:1 temperate_zone:1 |
2,942 | Nilo-Saharan_languages | The Nilo-Saharan languages are a hypothetical group of African languages spoken mainly in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers (hence the term "Nilo-"), including historic Nubia, north of where the two tributaries of Nile meet. Its member languages extend, however, through 17 nations in the northern half of Africa: from Algeria and Mali in the northwest; to Benin, Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the south; and Sudan to Tanzania in the east (excluding the Horn of Africa). The largest part of its major subfamilies are found in the modern nation of Sudan, through which the Nile River flows in all its incarnations: the White and Blue Nile, which join to form the main Nile at Khartoum. As seen in the hyphenated name (compare map at right), Nilo-Saharan is primarily a family of the African interior, including the greater Nile basin and its tributaries as well as the central Sahara desert. Characteristics Roughly 11 million people spoke Nilo-Saharan languages as of 1987, according to Merritt Ruhlen's estimate. A characteristic feature of the family is a tripartite singulative–collective–plurative number system, which is found in every branch but Gumuz. Internally, Nilo-Saharan is extremely diverse—far more so than Indo-European or Niger-Congo—and rather controversial; if the various branches are related, there must have been typological restructuring in nearly every one. Major Languages Within the larger Nilo-Saharan language family are a number of major African languages with at least half a million speakers (SIL Ethnologue, 2005 figures): Luo (3,465,000 speakers), extending from Kenya and eastern Uganda into Tanzania, and the language of the Luo, Kenya's third largest major ethnic group (after the Niger-Congo Kikuyu and Luhya). US president Barack Obama's father, Barack Hussein Obama Sr., born in Kenya's far western Nyanza Province, was a speaker of the language. (The term "Luo", somewhat confusingly, is also used for the larger classification within the Western Nilotic subfamily that includes Kenyan Luo/Dholuo among its 15 members.) I Kanuri (3,340,000, all dialects), with speakers found from Niger to northeastern Nigeria, where it is a major national ethnic group. Songhay (2.9 million, all dialects), with its speakers widely spread along the Niger River in Mali and Burkina Faso. The largest variety is Zarma, a major language of Niger, while Songhay is also spoken throughout the historic Songhai Empire, including its former capital Gao and the well-known city of Timbuktu. Its inclusion in the Nilo-Saharan family is controversial, however. Dinka (2,000,000 +), found within Southern Sudan, the language of one of the most powerful Southern Sudanese ethnic groups, including that of John Garang, late commander of the Sudanese Liberation Army. Lango (977,680), spoken by one of Uganda's major ethnicities, found in Lango region in the center of the country. Along with the Acholi people (below), the Lango people were targets of severe ethnic persecution under dictator Idi Amin, a member of a fellow Nilo-Saharan ethnicity, the Kakwa. Masai (883,000), spoken by the Masai people of Kenya and Tanzania, one of the most well-known African ethnic groups internationally. Nuer (804,907), the language of the Nuer tribe, another powerful Southern Sudanese ethnicity. Acholi (791,796), the other member of the Luo-Acholi subfamily within Western Nilotic, spoken in Acholiland in Uganda and in Opari District of Sudan. It is closely related to Lango. Fur (501,800), notable as one of the major languages of Darfur (lit. "the home of the Fur" in Arabic), the Sudanese province currently in the news for its humanitarian crisis. Nubian (495,000, all dialects), the language of Ancient Egypt's traditional nemesis Nubia, extending today from southern Egypt into northern Sudan. Internal relationships Nilo-Saharan is seen by some linguists as the least convincing of Greenberg's four African families, an amalgam of the non-click languages left over after the establishment of Afro-Asiatic and Niger-Congo. However, Dimmendaal (2008) notes that Greenberg (1963) based his conclusion on sound evidence, and that the proposal has become more convincing in the decades since. Mikkola (1999) reviewed Greenberg's evidence and found it convincing. The problem in Dimmendaal's view is not the family as a whole, which he takes as reasonably well established, but several branches for which the evidence is notably thin: Songhay (the language of Timbuktu and its empire), Koman-Gumuz, and (post-Greenberg) Kadu. Koman and Gumuz are very poorly known, and therefore difficult to classify, but Songhai has been extensively studied and has yet to be convincingly shown to belong. Roger Blench, on the other hand, notes morphological similarities in all branches but Gumuz, which leads him to believe that the family is likely valid but that Gumuz is a language isolate. Most linguists who accept Nilo-Saharan accept Songhay as well, and posit that it is divergent due to massive influence from the Mande languages. Christopher Ehret attempts to show Songhay is particularly closely related to the Maban branch of Nilo-Saharan. However, both Bender and Blench note several methodological flaws in Ehret's study, and a failure to provide any evidence for his subclassification. Also problematic are the Kuliak languages, which are spoken by hunter-gatherers and appear to retain a non-Nilo-Saharan core; Blench believes they may have been similar to the Hadza or Dahalo and shifted incompletely to Nilo-Saharan. Many linguists consider the Kadu languages (also called Kadugli or Tumtum) to be Nilo-Saharan, while Ehret and Dimmendaal (who had originally supported the inclusion) believe they form a small family of their own. The Ethnologue by SIL, following Anbessa Tefera and Peter Unseth, considers the poorly attested Shabo language to be Nilo-Saharan, but otherwise unclassified due to lack of data. Ehret and Dimmendaal consider it to be a language isolate on current evidence. Proposals have sometimes been made to add Mande (usually classed as Niger-Congo) to Nilo-Saharan, largely due to its many noteworthy similarities with Songhay. However, most linguists believe that the similarities are due to Mande influence on Songhay, as noted above. Recently, the extinct Meroitic language of ancient Kush has been accepted by linguists such as Rille, Dimmendaal, and Blench as Nilo-Saharan, though others argue for an Afro-Asiatic affiliation. Various subclassifications have been proposed. However, each of the proposed internal groups has been rejected by other researchers: Greenberg's Komuz and Chari-Nile by Bender and Blench, Bender's core Nilo-Saharan by Dimmendaal, and Ehret's Sahelian etc. by all of them. What remains are eight (Dimmendaal) to twelve (Bender) families of no consensus arrangement. Greenberg, modified by Bender 1989 According to Joseph Greenberg (The Languages of Africa) as initially modified by Lionel Bender (and adopted by the Ethnologue), they are classified into the following branches: The Komuz and Chari-Nile groups were later abandoned by Bender. Bender 2000 By 2000 Bender had abandoned the Chari-Nile and Komuz branches, and added Kadu, and removed Kuliak from Eastern Sudanic. He states that Shabo cannot yet be adequately classified, but may prove to be Nilo-Saharan. Dimendaal's exclusion (pending further evidence) of Koman, Gumuz, and Kadu would eliminate Bender's Core Nilo-Saharan. Widespread doubt about Songhai and Blench's suggestion that Kuliak is divergent due to an origin in incomplete language shift would blur the distinction between Bender's periphery and his Satellite-Core. Ehret 2001 [1984] In his non-peer reviewed 2001 reconstruction of Nilo-Saharan, circulated in manuscript form since 1984 and first published in 1989, Christopher Ehret classifies the families in a radically different fashion, moving Koman to the periphery, Songhay deep into the family next to Maban, and Berta into East Sudanic: Blench notes that Ehret failed to consider existing scholarship, such as reconstructions of Proto-Central and Proto-Eastern Sudanic, and provided no evidence whatsoever for his classification. It has not been followed by other researchers. External relations Proposals for the external relationships of Nilo-Saharan typically center on Niger-Congo: Gregersen (1972) grouped the two together to form Kongo-Saharan, whereas Blench (1995) actually proposed that Niger-Congo may simply be a member of Nilo-Saharan (coordinate with Central Sudanic.) However, such proposals are treated with reserve by most historical linguists. Bibliography Lionel Bender, 2000. "Nilo-Saharan". In Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse, eds., African Languages: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. Gerrit Dimmendaal, 2008. "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent", Language and Linguistics Compass 2/5:842. Christopher Ehret, 2001. A Historical-Comparative Reconstruction of Nilo-Saharan. Köln. Joseph Greenberg, 1963. The Languages of Africa (International Journal of American Linguistics 29.1). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Pertti Mikkola, 1999. "Nilo-Saharan revisited: some observations concerning the best etymologies". Nordic Journal of African Studies, 8(2):108–138. External relationships Roger Blench. "Is Niger-Congo simply a branch of Nilo-Saharan?", in ed. Nicolai & Rottland, Fifth Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium. Nice, 24-29 August 1992. Proceedings. (Nilo-Saharan 10). Koeln: Koeppe Verlag. 1995. pp.36-49. Notes See also Languages of Ethiopia External links Ethnologue Roger Blench: Nilo-Saharan Nilo-Saharan classification (Blench) (.PDF) Nilo-Saharan Newsletter | Nilo-Saharan_languages |@lemmatized nilo:32 saharan:32 language:27 hypothetical:1 group:8 african:8 speak:7 mainly:1 upper:1 part:2 chari:4 nile:9 river:3 hence:1 term:2 include:5 historic:2 nubia:2 north:1 two:2 tributary:2 meet:1 member:5 extend:3 however:7 nation:2 northern:2 half:2 africa:4 algeria:1 mali:2 northwest:1 benin:1 nigeria:2 democratic:1 republic:1 congo:8 south:1 sudan:5 tanzania:3 east:2 exclude:1 horn:1 large:5 major:8 subfamily:3 find:6 modern:1 flow:1 incarnation:1 white:1 blue:1 join:1 form:4 main:1 khartoum:1 see:3 hyphenate:1 name:1 compare:1 map:1 right:1 primarily:1 family:11 interior:1 great:1 basin:1 well:5 central:3 sahara:1 desert:1 characteristic:2 roughly:1 million:3 people:4 languages:3 accord:2 merritt:1 ruhlen:1 estimate:1 feature:1 tripartite:1 singulative:1 collective:1 plurative:1 number:2 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2,943 | Antisymmetric_relation | In mathematics, a binary relation R on a set X is antisymmetric if, for all a and b in X if aRb and bRa, then a = b, or, equivalently, if aRb with a ≠ b, then bRa must not hold. In mathematical notation, this is: or equally, Partial and total orders are antisymmetric by definition. Therefore the usual order relation ≤ on the real numbers, the subset order ⊆ on the subsets of any given set and the divisibility order of the integers are antisymmetric. For example, if for two real numbers x and y both inequalities x ≤ y and y ≤ x hold then x and y must be equal. A relation can be both symmetric and antisymmetric (e.g., the equality relation), and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric (e.g., the preys-on relation on biological species). Antisymmetry is different from asymmetry. According to one definition of asymmetric, anything that fails to be symmetric is asymmetric. Another definition of asymmetric makes asymmetry equivalent to antisymmetry plus irreflexivity. Examples The relation "x is even, y is odd" between a pair (x, y) of integers is antisymmetric: Image:Evenandodd.PNG See also Symmetry in mathematics | Antisymmetric_relation |@lemmatized mathematics:2 binary:1 relation:7 r:1 set:2 x:8 antisymmetric:6 b:3 arb:2 bra:2 equivalently:1 must:2 hold:2 mathematical:1 notation:1 equally:1 partial:1 total:1 order:4 definition:3 therefore:1 usual:1 real:2 number:2 subset:2 give:1 divisibility:1 integer:2 example:1 two:1 inequality:1 equal:1 symmetric:3 e:2 g:2 equality:1 neither:1 prey:1 biological:1 specie:1 antisymmetry:2 different:1 asymmetry:2 accord:1 one:1 asymmetric:3 anything:1 fail:1 another:1 make:1 equivalent:1 plus:1 irreflexivity:1 examples:1 even:1 odd:1 pair:1 image:1 evenandodd:1 png:1 see:1 also:1 symmetry:1 |@bigram symmetric_antisymmetric:2 |
2,944 | Berber_languages | The Berber languages are a group of closely related languages spoken in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, as well as by Berber communities in parts of Niger and Mali. A relatively sparse population extends into the whole Sahara and the northern part of the Sahel. They belong to the Afro-Asiatic languages phylum. There is a movement among speakers of the closely related northern Berber languages to unite them into a single standard. The name Tamazight, which traditionally referred specifically to Central Morocco Tamazight, is being increasingly used for this standard Berber, or even for Berber as a whole, but usage is not consistent, and many Berber do not identify themselves as Tamazight. Among the Berber languages are Central Morocco Tamazight, Tarifit (northern Morocco), Kabyle (Algeria) and Tashelhiyt (central Morocco). The Berber languages have had a written language, on and off, for over 2000 years, although the tradition has been frequently disrupted by various invasions. It was first written in the Tifinagh alphabet, still used by the Tuareg; the oldest dated inscription is from about 200 BC. Later, between about 1000 AD and 1500 AD, it was written in the Arabic alphabet (particularly by the Shilha of Morocco); since the 20th century, it has often been written in the Latin alphabet, especially among the Kabyle. A variant of the Tifinagh alphabet was recently made official in Morocco, while the Latin alphabet is quasi-official in Algeria and official in Mali and Niger; however, both Tifinagh and Arabic are still widely used in Mali and Niger, while Tifinagh and Latin scripts are increasingly being used in Morocco and parts of Algeria. After independence, all the Maghreb countries to varying degrees pursued a policy of Arabization, aimed primarily at displacing French from its colonial position as the dominant language of education and literacy. But under this policy the use of Amazigh / Berber languages has been suppressed or even banned. This state of affairs has been contested by Berbers in Morocco and Algeria — especially Kabylie — and is now being addressed in both countries by introducing Berber language in some schools and by recognizing Berber as a "national language" in Algeria, - « Loi n° 02-03 portent révision constitutionnelle », adopted on April 10, 2002, allotting in particular to "Tamazight" the status of national language. though not an official one. No such measures have been taken in the other Maghreb countries, whose Berber populations are much smaller. In Mali and Niger, there are a few schools that teach partially in Tamasheq. Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century, and is still used today. It was borrowed from the Arabic designation for these populations, البربر, el-Barbar. The latter might have been derived from the Arabic or Persian words "barbakh"/"barbar" and "khanah", a house or guard on the wall. Although the Berbers obviously fell under that definition, Romans usually called them under more specific names, such as "Numidians" or "Mauri". The Egyptians referred to them as Rebu (= Libu), or Meshwesh, the ancient Greeks as "Libyans", the Byzantines as "Mazikes". As far as languages are concerned, the term Tamazight has recently gained ground over Berber, particularly to refer to Northern Berber languages, just as "Amazigh" is used to refer to a native Berber speaker. It traditionally referred specifically to the Central Morocco Tamazight dialect, closely related to Tashelhiyt. Etymologically, it means "language of the free" or "of the noblemen." Traditionally, the term "tamazight" (in various forms: "thamazighth", "tamasheq", "tamajeq", "tamahaq") was used by many Berber groups to refer to the language they spoke, including the Middle Atlas, the Rif, Sened in Tunisia, and the Tuareg. However, other terms were used by other groups; for instance, many parts of western Algeria called their language "taznatit" or Zenati, while the Kabyles called theirs "thaqvaylith", the inhabitants of Siwa "tasiwit", and the Zenaga. In Tunisia, the local Berber languages are usually referred to as "Shelha". ?? "Tuddhungiya". http://www.rosettaproject.org/live/search/showpages?ethnocode=ZEN&doctype=detail&version=0&scale=six Around the turn of the century, it was reported that the Zenata of the Rif called their language "Zenatia" specifically to distinguish it from the "Tamazight" spoken by the rest of the Rif. One group, the Linguasphere Observatory, has attempted to introduce the neologism "Tamazic languages" to refer to the Berber languages. Origin Berber is a member of the Afro-Asiatic language family (formerly called Hamito-Semitic), along with such languages as Arabic, Hebrew, Maltese and Somali. The script of the language is of Punic (Phoenician) origin, Mohamed Chafik believes, The Tifinagh is older than the Phoenician, "..Il ne faut pas oublier que le tifinagh est plus ancien que le Phénicien. Il y a dedans une dimension sentimentale.." Population The exact population of Berber speakers is hard to ascertain, since most North African countries do not record language data in their censuses. The Ethnologue provides a useful academic starting point; however, its bibliographic references are inadequate, and it rates its own accuracy at only B-C for the area. Early colonial censuses may provide better documented figures for some countries; however, these are also very much out of date. "Few census figures are available; all countries (Algeria and Morocco included) do not count Berber languages. The 1972 Niger census reported Tuareg, with other languages, at 127,000 speakers. Population shifts in location and number, effects of urbanization and education in other languages, etc., make estimates difficult. In 1952 A. Basset (LLB.4) estimated the number of Berberophones at 5,500,000. Between 1968 and 1978 estimates ranged from eight to thirteen million (as reported by Galand, LELB 56, pp. 107, 123-25); Voegelin and Voegelin (1977, p. 297) call eight million a conservative estimate. In 2006, S. Chaker estimated that the Berberophone populations of Kabylie and the three Moroccan groups numbered more than one million each; and that in Algeria, 12,650,000, or one out of three Algerians, speak a Berber language (Chaker 1984, pp. 8-9)." http://www.isp.msu.edu/AfrLang/Berber-root.html Morocco: In 1952, André Basset ("La langue berbère", Handbook of African Languages, Part I, Oxford) estimated that a "small majority" of Morocco's population spoke Berber. The 1960 census estimated that 34% of Moroccans spoke Berber, including bi-, tri-, and quadrilinguals. In 2000, Karl Prasse cited "more than half" in an interview conducted by Brahim Karada at Tawalt.com. According to the Ethnologue (by deduction from its Moroccan Arabic figures), the Berber-speaking population should be estimated at 35% or around 10.5 million speakers The Ethnologe, Languages of Morocco . However, the figures it gives for individual languages only add up to 7.5 million, divided into three dialects: Tarifit: 1.5 million (1991) The Ethnologue Tachelhit: 3 million (1998) The Ethnologue Central Morocco Tamazight: 3 million (1998) The Ethnologue INALCO estimates the figure of Central Morocco Tamazight speakers at 4-5 million INALCO A survey included in the official Moroccan census of 2004 and published by several Moroccan newspapers gave the following figures: 34% of people in rural regions spoke a Berber language and 21% in urban zones did, the national average would be 28.4% or 8.52 million Bladinet . It is possible, however, that the survey asked for the language "used in daily life" Al Bayane Newspaper, 10/07/2005 which would result of course in figures clearly lower than those of native speakers, as the language is not recognized for official purposes and many Berbers who live in a Arabic-speaking environment cannot use it in daily life; also the use of Berber in public was frowned upon until the 1990s and might affect the result of the survey}. Adding up the population (according to the official census of 2004) of the Berber-speaking regions as shown on a 1973 map of the CIA results in at least 10 million speakers, not counting the numerous Berber population which lives outside these regions in the bigger cities. Mohamed Chafik claims 80% of Moroccans are Berbers. It is not clear, however, whether he means "speakers of Berber languages" or "people of Berber descent". The division of Moroccan Berber dialects in three groups, as used by The Ethnologue is common in linguistic publications, but is significantly complicated by local usage: thus Tachelhit is sub-divided into Tachelhit of the Dra valley, Tasusit (the language of the Souss) and several other (mountain)-dialects. Moreover, linguistic boundaries are blurred, such that certain dialects cannot accurately be described as either Central Morocco Tamazight (spoken in the Central and eastern Atlas area) or Tachelhit. Algeria: In 1906, the total population speaking Berber languages in Algeria (excluding the thinly populated Sahara) was estimated at 1,305,730 out of 4,447,149, ie 29%. (Doutté & Gautier, Enquête sur la dispersion de la langue berbère en Algérie, faite par l'ordre de M. le Gouverneur Général, Alger 1913.) The 1911 census, however, found 1,084,702 speakers out of 4,740,526, ie 23%; Doutté & Gautier suggest that this was the result of a serious undercounting of Chaouia in areas of widespread bilingualism. A trend was noted for Berber groups surrounded by Arabic (as in Blida) to adopt Arabic, while Arabic speakers surrounded by Berber (as in Sikh ou Meddour near Tizi-Ouzou) tended to adopt Berber. In 1952, André Basset estimated that about a third of Algeria's population spoke Berber. The Algerian census of 1966 found 2,297,997 out of 12,096,347 Algerians, or 19%, to speak "Berber." In 1980, Salem Chaker estimated that "in Algeria, 3,650,000, or one out of five Algerians, speak a Berber language" (Chaker 1984, pp. 8–9). According to the Ethnologue, more recent estimates include (by deduction from its Algerian Arabic figures) 17% (1991) and 29% (Hunter 1996). The actual figures it gives for Berber languages, however, only add up to about 14 million, more than 45%. Most of these are accounted for by two dialects: Kabyle: 6 million (2007), or 20% of the population - or "up to" 5 million (1998), which would be more like 20% and they live especially in Algiers, Bejaia, Tizi -Ouzou, Setif and Boumerdes. Chaouia: 4 million (2007), thus 18% of the population and they live in Batna, Khenchela, Sétif, Souk Ahras, Oum-El-Bouaghi, Tebessa Tuareg Almost 1 million, spoken by those in the Sahara region. Tunisia: Basset (1952) estimated about 1%, as did Penchoen (1968). According to the Ethnologue, there are only 26,000 speakers (1998) of a Berber language it calls "Djerbi" (But which Tunisians call "Shelha") in Tunisia, all in the south around Djerba and Matmata. The more northerly enclave of Sened apparently no longer speaks Berber. This would make 0.3% of the population. Libya: According to the Ethnologue (by deduction from its combined Libyan Arabic and Egyptian Arabic figures) the non-Arabic-speaking population, most of which would be Berber, is estimated at 4% (1991, 1996). However, the individual language figures it gives add up to 162,000, ie about 3%. This is mostly accounted for by languages: Nafusi in Zuwarah and Jabal Nafusa: 141,000 (1998). Tahaggart Tamahaq of Ghat: 17,000 (Johnstone 1993). Egypt: The oasis of Siwa near the Libyan border speaks a Berber language; according to the Ethnologue, there are 5,000 speakers there (1995). Its population in 1907 was 3884 (according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica); the claimed lack of increase seems surprising. Mauritania: According to the Ethnologue, only 200-300 speakers of Zenaga remain (1998). It also mentions Tamasheq, but does not provide a population figure for it. Most non-Arabic speakers in Mauritania speak Niger-Congo languages. Mali: The Ethnologue counts 440,000 Tuareg (1991) speaking: Tamasheq: 250,000 Tamajaq: 190,000 Niger: The Ethnologue counts 720,000 Tuareg (1998) speaking: Tawallamat Tamajaq: 450,000 Tayart Tamajeq: 250,000 Tahaggart Tamahaq: 20,000 Burkina Faso: The Ethnologue counts 20,000 - 30,000 Tuareg (SIL 1991), speaking Kidal Tamasheq. However the Ethnologue is very inaccurate here appearing to miss the largest group of Tamasheq in Burkina in the province of Oudalan. The Tamasheq speaking population of Burkina is nearer to 100,000 (2005), with around 70,000 Tamasheq speakers in the province of Oudalan, the rest mainly in Seno, Soum, Yagha, Yatenga and Kadiogo provinces. About 10% of Burkina Tamasheq speak a version of the Tawallamat dialect. Nigeria: The Ethnologue notes the presence of "few" Tuareg, speaking Tawallamat Tamajaq. France: The Ethnologue lists 537,000 speakers for Kabyle, 150,000 for Central Morocco Tamazight, and no figures for Tachelhit and Tarifit. For the rest of Europe, it has no figures. Spain: A majority of Melilla's 80,000 inhabitants, and a minority of Ceuta's inhabitants, speak Berber. http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/berber/an/i1/i1.html#1 Israel: Around two thousand mostly elderly Moroccan-born Israelis of Berber Jewish descent use Judeo-Berber dialects (as opposed to Moroccan Jews who trace descent from Spanish-speaking Sephardi Jews expelled from Spain, or Arabic-speaking Moroccan Jews). Thus, judging by the not necessarily reliable Ethnologue, the total number of speakers of Berber languages in the Maghreb proper appears to lie anywhere between 16 and 25 million, depending on which estimate is accepted; if we take Basset's estimate, it could be as high as 30 million. The vast majority are concentrated in Morocco and Algeria. The Tuareg of the Sahel add another million or so. Grammar TAMAZGHA in Neo-Tifinagh. Nouns in the Berber languages vary in gender (masculine vs. feminine), in number (singular vs. plural) and in state (free state vs. construct state). In the case of the masculine, nouns generally begin with one of the three vowels of Berber, a, u or i (in standardised orthography, /e/ represents a schwa /ə/ inserted for reasons of pronunciation): afus "hand" argaz "man" udm "face" ul "heart" ixf "head" ils "tongue" While the masculine is unmarked, the feminine (also used to form diminutives and singulatives, like an ear of wheat) is marked with the circumfix t...t. Feminine plural takes a prefix t... : afus → tafust udm → tudmt ixf → tixft ifassn → tifassin Berber languages have two types of number: singular and plural, of which only the latter is marked. Plural has three forms according to the type of nouns. The first, "regular" type is known as the "external plural"; it consists in changing the initial vowel of the noun, and adding a suffix -n: afus → ifassn "hands" argaz → irgazn "men" ixf → ixfawn "heads" ul → ulawn "hearts" The second form of the plural is known as the "broken plural". It involves only a change in the vowels of the word: adrar → idurar "mountain" agadir → igudar "wall" abaghus → ibughas "monkey" The third type of plural is a mixed form: it combines a change of vowels with the suffix -n: izi → izan "fly" azur → izuran "root" iziker → izakaren "rope" Berber languages also have two types of states or cases of the noun, organized ergatively: one is unmarked, while the other serves for the subject of a transitive verb and the object of a preposition, among other contexts. The former is often called free state, the latter construct state. The construct state of the noun derives from the free state through one of the following rules: The first involves a vowel alternation, whereby the vowel a becomes u : argaz → urgaz amghar → umghar adrar → udrar The second involves the loss of the initial vowel, in the case of some feminine nouns: tamghart → tmghart "woman / old women" tamdint → tmdint "town" tarbat → trbat "girl" The third involves the addition of a semi-vowel (w or y) word-initially: asif → wasif "river" adu → wadu "wind" ils → yils "tongue" uccn → wuccn "wolf" Finally, some nouns do not change for free state: taddart → taddart "village" tuccnt → tuccnt "female wolf" The following table gives the forms for the noun amghar "old man / leader": masculine feminine default agent default agent singular amghar umghar tamghart tmghart plural imgharn yimgharen timgharin tmgharin Subclassification Modern Berber Languages Subclassification of the Berber languages is made difficult by their mutual closeness; Maarten Kossmann (1999) describes it as two dialect continua, Northern Berber and Tuareg, and a few peripheral languages, spoken in isolated pockets largely surrounded by Arabic, that fall outside these continua, namely Zenaga and the Libyan and Egyptian varieties. Within Northern Berber, however, he recognizes a break in the continuum between Zenati languages and their non-Zenati neighbors; and in the east, he recognizes a division between Ghadames and Awjila on the one hand and El-Foqaha, Siwa, and Djebel Nefusa on the other. The implied tree is: Nefusa-Siwa languages Ghadames-Awjila languages Northern Berber languages Zenati languages (including Tarifit) Kabyle language Moroccan Atlas languages (including Tashelhiyt and Central Morocco Tamazight) Tuareg languages Zenaga language There is so little data available on Guanche that any classification is necessarily uncertain; however, it is almost universally acknowledged as Afro-Asiatic on the basis of the surviving glosses, and widely suspected to be Berber. Much the same can be said of the language, sometimes called "Numidian", used in the Libyan or Libyco-Berber inscriptions around the turn of the Common Era, whose alphabet is the ancestor of Tifinagh. The Ethnologue, mostly following Aikhenvald and Militarev (1991), subdivides it somewhat differently: Guanche Eastern Berber languages Siwa Awjila-Sokna languages Northern Berber languages Zenati languages Kabyle language Asrav Chenoua language Moroccan Atlas languages Tamasheq languages Northern Tamasheq languages Southern Tamasheq languages Zenaga language Influence on other languages Berber languages have influenced Maghrib Arabic dialects, such as Morocco Arabic or Maltese, as the substratum. They also have influenced Iberian Romance languages due to the Muslim rule of the Iberian peninsula in the Middle Ages. Their influence is also seen in some languages in subsaharan Africa. See also Arsène Roux Michael Peyron Karl Prasse Henri Basset Tifinagh Berber alphabet Garamantes Barbary Coast Notes References Ethnologue entry for Berber languages Brett, Michael; & Fentress, Elizabeth (1997). The Berbers (The Peoples of Africa). ISBN 0-631-16852-4. ISBN 0-631-20767-8 (Pbk). Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1971. A Reference Grammar of Tamazight (Middle Atlas Berber). Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, The University of Michigan Basset, André. 1952. La langue berbère. Handbook of African Languages 1, ser. ed. Daryll Forde. London: Oxford University Press Chaker, Salem. 1995. Linguistique berbère: Études de syntaxe et de diachronie. M. S.—Ussun amaziɣ 8, ser. ed. Salem Chaker. Paris and Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters Dallet, Jean-Marie. 1982. Dictionnaire kabyle–français, parler des At Mangellet, Algérie. Études etholinguistiques Maghreb–Sahara 1, ser. eds. Salem Chaker, and Marceau Gast. Paris: Société d’études linguistiques et anthropologiques de France de Foucauld, Charles Eugène. 1951. Dictionnaire touareg–français, dialecte de l’Ahaggar. 4 vols. [Paris]: Imprimerie nationale de France Delheure, Jean. 1984. Aǧraw n yiwalen: tumẓabt t-tfransist, Dictionnaire mozabite–français, langue berbère parlée du Mzab, Sahara septentrional, Algérie. Études etholinguistiques Maghreb–Sahara 2, ser. eds. Salem Chaker, and Marceau Gast. Paris: Société d’études linguistiques et anthropologiques de France ———. 1987. Agerraw n iwalen: teggargrent–taṛumit, Dictionnaire ouargli–français, langue parlée à Oaurgla et Ngoussa, oasis du Sahara septentrinal, Algérie. Études etholinguistiques Maghreb–Sahara 5, ser. eds. Salem Chaker, and Marceau Gast. Paris: Société d’études linguistiques et anthropologiques de France Kossmann, Maarten G. 1999. Essai sur la phonologie du proto-berbère. Grammatische Analysen afrikaniscker Sprachen 12, ser. eds. Wilhelm J. G. Möhlig, and Bernd Heine. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag Kossmann, Maarten G., and Hendrikus Joseph Stroomer. 1997. "Berber Phonology". In Phonologies of Asia and Africa (Including the Caucasus), edited by Alan S. Kaye. 2 vols. Vol. 1. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. 461–475 Naït-Zerrad, Kamal. 1998. Dictionarrie des racines berbères (formes attestées). Paris and Leuven: Centre de Recherche Berbère and Uitgeverij Peeters Prasse, Karl-Gottfried, Ghubăyd ăgg-Ălăwžəli, and Ghăbdəwan əg-Muxămmăd. 1998. Asăggălalaf: Tămaẓəq–Tăfrăsist — Lexique touareg–français. 2nd ed. Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 24, ser. eds. Paul John Frandsen, Daniel T. Potts, and Aage Westenholz. København: Museum Tusculanum Press Quitout, Michel. 1997. Grammaire berbère (rifain, tamazight, chleuh, kabyle). Paris and Montréal: Éditions l’Harmattan Rössler, Otto. 1958. "Die Sprache Numidiens". In Sybaris: Festschrift Hans Krahe zum 60. Geburtstag am 7. February 1958, dargebracht von Freunden, Schülern und Kollegen. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Sadiqi, Fatima. 1997. Grammaire du berbère. Paris and Montréal: Éditions l’Harmattan. ISBN 2-7384-5919-6 Cannon, Garland. 1994. The Arabic Contributions to the English Language: A Historical Dictionary. External links Etymolgy of "Berber" Etymology of "Amazigh" Unified Tamazight Early Christian history of Berbers Tawiza Amazigh Monthly newspaper Amuddu n-Umsiggel - a philosophical Berber story Interview with Karl-G. Prasse (source) Libyamazigh Page about Libyan culture with a Berber language section. Tifinagh Ancient Scripts Ennedi Berber Interview with Rachid Aadnani on the Amazigh issue Algerian Dardja Online Dictionary: contains many Berber terms Imyura Kabyle site about literature The Tamazight Language Profile French Berber Research Center (INALCO, Paris) Articles and maps of high scientific value for a large audience | Berber_languages |@lemmatized berber:81 language:71 group:8 closely:3 related:2 speak:24 morocco:21 algeria:14 tunisia:5 libya:2 egypt:2 well:1 community:1 part:5 niger:7 mali:5 relatively:1 sparse:1 population:20 extend:1 whole:2 sahara:8 northern:9 sahel:2 belong:1 afro:3 asiatic:3 phylum:1 movement:1 among:4 speaker:18 unite:1 single:1 standard:2 name:2 tamazight:18 traditionally:3 refer:8 specifically:3 central:10 increasingly:2 use:17 even:2 usage:2 consistent:1 many:5 identify:1 tarifit:4 kabyle:9 tashelhiyt:3 write:4 year:1 although:2 tradition:1 frequently:1 disrupt:1 various:2 invasion:1 first:3 tifinagh:10 alphabet:7 still:3 tuareg:11 old:4 dated:1 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2,945 | Car_Talk | Car Talk is a radio talk show broadcast weekly on National Public Radio stations throughout the United States and elsewhere. Its subjects are automobiles and repair, and it often takes humorous turns. The hosts of Car Talk are brothers Tom and Ray Magliozzi, also known as Click and Clack, the Tappet Brothers. Show Car Talk is structured as a call-in radio show: listeners call with questions related to motor vehicle maintenance and repair. Most of the advice sought is diagnostic, with callers describing symptoms and demonstrating sounds of an ailing vehicle while the Magliozzis make an attempt at identifying the malfunction. While the hosts pepper their call-in sessions with jokes directed at both the caller and at themselves, the depth and breadth of their knowledge of automobiles is extensive, and they are usually able to arrive at a diagnosis and give helpful advice. Also, if a caller has an unusual name, they will inquire about the spelling, pronunciation, and/or origin of their name. They may also comment about the caller's hometown. The Magliozzis previously took a break at approximately the half-hour mark of the show. More recently, two breaks divide the show into approximately 20-minute segments referred to as the "three halves" of the show. Between segments a piece of music, usually related to cars in some way, will play. One example includes "fast cars" by The Buzzcocks. Car Talk was first broadcast on WBUR in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1977. It was picked up nationally by NPR ten years later. NPR reports that it is heard on more than 370 stations by an audience of more than two million weekly listeners. The show is also carried on Sirius XM Satellite Radio via the NPR Now channel. In May 2007, the program, which had only previously been available digitally as a paid subscription from Audible.com, became a free podcast distributed by NPR, after a two-month test period where only a "call of the week" was available via podcast. The full show quickly became the top-subscribed program within the iTunes Store's podcast directory upon its release. The Car Talk theme song is "Dawggy Mountain Breakdown" by bluegrass artist David Grisman. Call-in procedure Throughout the program, listeners are encouraged to dial the toll-free telephone number, 1-888-CAR-TALK (1-888-227-8255), giving the impression that real-time calls are being taken; however, that number actually connects to a 24-hour answering service. Although the approximately 2,000 queries received each week are pre-screened by the Car Talk staff, the questions are unknown to the Magliozzis in advance as "that would entail researching the right answer, which is what? ...Work." Producers select and contact the callers several days ahead of the show's Wednesday taping to arrange the segment. The caller speaks briefly to a producer before being connected "live" with the hosts, and is given little coaching other than being told to be prepared to talk, not to use any written preparation and to "have fun." The show deliberately tapes more callers than they'll have time to air each week in order to be able to choose the best ones for broadcast. Those segments that do make it to air are generally edited for time. Features The show opens with a comedy segment, followed by eight call-in sessions. They run a contest called the "Puzzler", in which a riddle, sometimes car related, is presented. The answer to the previous week's "Puzzler" is given during the "second half" of the show, and a new puzzler is given during the "third half". The hosts give instructions to listeners to write answers addressed to "Puzzler Tower" on some non-existent or expensive object, such as a 26-dollar bill or an advanced SLR digital camera. This gag initially started as having the answers "on the back of a twenty dollar bill." A recurring feature is "Stump the Chumps", in which they revisit a caller from a previous show to determine the effect, if any, of their advice. A similar feature began in May 2001, "Where Are They Now, Tommy?" Like "Stump the Chumps", a previous caller was revisited with the difference being, as described by Tom Magliozzi, "an excuse to talk to some of the previous whack jobs we've had on the show." Celebrities have been callers as well. Examples include Geena Davis, Morley Safer, Ashley Judd, Gordon Elliott, former Major League pitcher Bill Lee and astronaut John Grunsfeld calling from the space shuttle. There have been numerous appearances from NPR personalities, including Bob Edwards, Susan Stamberg, Scott Simon, Ray Suarez, Will Shortz, Sylvia Poggioli, and commentator and author Daniel Pinkwater. On one occasion, the show featured Martha Stewart as an in-studio guest, whom the Magliozzis twice during the segment referred to as "Margaret". Humor Leading into each break in the show, one of the hosts leads up to the network identification with a humorous take on a disgusted reaction of some usually famous person to hearing that identification. The full line goes along the pattern of, for example, "And even though Roger Clemens stabs his radio with a syringe whenever he hears us say it, this is NPR: National Public Radio." Other humor exists throughout. The end credits feature a rotating list of puns and wordplay. At some point in almost every show, usually when giving the address for the Puzzler answers, Ray will mention Cambridge, Massachusetts (where the show originates) at which point Tom reverently interjects "our fair city." They are known for their self-deprecating humor, often joking about their poor advice (the "Stump the Chumps" segment is particularly full of this type of humor). They also comment at the end of each show: "Well, it's happened again - you've wasted another perfectly good hour listening to Car Talk." At the end of the show, Ray warns the audience, "Don't drive like my brother," to which Tom replies, "And don't drive like my brother." There have been variations—such as, "Don't drive like my sister,"..."And don't drive like my sister" (a reference to their sister Joan). The tagline was heard in a cameo for the Pixar film Cars, in which Tom and Ray voiced anthropomorphized vehicles (Rusty and Dusty Rust-Eze, a 1963 Dodge Dart V1.0 and a 1963 Dodge A100 van respectively) with personalities similar to their own on-air personae. . Retrieved on 25 June 2007 Tom notoriously once owned a green Dodge Dart, known as the "Dartre". Hosts The name of the DC&H corporate offices is visible on the third floor window above the corner of Eliot and JFK Streets, in Harvard Square, Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Magliozzis are long-time car mechanics. Ray Magliozzi has a bachelor of science degree in humanities and science from MIT, while Tom has a bachelor of science degree in economics from MIT and an MBA and DBA from the Boston University Graduate School of Management. The duo, usually led by Ray, are known for rants on the evils of the internal combustion engine, people who talk on cell phones while driving, Peugeots, women named Donna who always seem to drive Camaros, the clever use of the English language, and practically anything else, including themselves. They have a laid-back humorous approach to cars, car repair, cup holders, pets, lawyers, car repair mechanics, SUVs, and almost everything else. They often cast a critical, jaundiced insider's eye toward the auto industry. Tom and Ray are committed to the values of defensive driving and environmentalism; Tom does not drive and Ray's car is over 20 years old. CarTalk FAQ In the late 1990s they pioneered an effort to rid the world of French pronunciations of words, intentionally pronouncing many words phonetically such as "Chev-ro-let" for Chevrolet. The Magliozzis operate the Good News Garage in Cambridge, Massachusetts, just a few blocks north of the MIT campus. The show's offices are located nearby at the corner of JFK Street and Eliot Street in Harvard Square, marked as "Dewey, Cheetham & Howe", the imaginary law firm they reference on-air. DC&H doubles as the business name of Tappet Brothers Associates, the corporation established to manage the business end of Car Talk. Initially a joke, the company was incorporated after the show expanded from a single station to national syndication. The two were commencement speakers at MIT in 1999. Click and Clack's As the Wrench Turns On July 11, 2007, PBS announced that it had greenlit an animated adaptation of Car Talk, to air on prime-time in the summer of 2008. The show is entitled Click and Clack's As the Wrench Turns , and is based on the adventures of the fictional "Click and Clack" brothers' garage at "Car Talk Plaza". The first episode aired on July 9, 2008. References External links Car Talk official website Car Talk Podcasting Page Car Talk History Click and Clack's As the Wrench Turns official website Exhaustive list of Car Talk credits Transcript of the Magliozzis' commencement address at MIT, 1999 | Car_Talk |@lemmatized car:24 talk:19 radio:6 show:23 broadcast:3 weekly:2 national:3 public:2 station:3 throughout:3 united:1 state:1 elsewhere:1 subject:1 automobile:2 repair:4 often:3 take:4 humorous:3 turn:4 host:6 brother:6 tom:9 ray:9 magliozzi:3 also:5 know:4 click:5 clack:5 tappet:2 structure:1 call:9 listener:4 question:2 relate:2 motor:1 vehicle:3 maintenance:1 advice:4 seek:1 diagnostic:1 caller:10 describe:2 symptom:1 demonstrate:1 sound:1 ailing:1 magliozzis:7 make:2 attempt:1 identify:1 malfunction:1 pepper:1 session:2 joke:3 direct:1 depth:1 breadth:1 knowledge:1 extensive:1 usually:5 able:2 arrive:1 diagnosis:1 give:7 helpful:1 unusual:1 name:5 inquire:1 spelling:1 pronunciation:2 origin:1 may:3 comment:2 hometown:1 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2,946 | Demographics_of_Lebanon | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Lebanon, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. About 91% of the population of Lebanon is urban and comprises many different ethnic groups and religions, including numerous Christian and Muslim sects. Because the matter of religious balance is a sensitive political issue, a national census has not been conducted since 1932, before the founding of the modern Lebanese state. Consequently there is an absence of accurate data on the relative percentages of the population of the major religions and groups. Ethnic groups The Lebanese Three Lebanese women, 1873. Ethnic background is an important factor in Lebanon. The country encompasses a great mix of cultural, religious, and ethnic groups which have been building up for more than 6,000 years. Although most of the population is today considered Arab, in the sense that Arabic is the national language, the ethnic self-designations vary. The Arabs only reached Lebanon in the 7th century, and their culture was superimposed on an already diverse population. Lebanese are overall genetically similar to the Phoenicians, and the Canaanites, as well as other modern Levantine populations, such as Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians. The question of ethnic identity has come to revolve more around aspects of cultural self-identification more than descent. Religious affiliation has also become a substitute in some respects for ethnic affiliation. Generally it can be said that all religious sects comprise many different ethnic backgrounds, and that clear ethnic boundaries are difficult to define. Still, religious and ethnic distinctions sometimes coincide, since religious sects have tended to marry within the group, thus preserving not only religious but ethnic characteristics. Also, one could claim that over time many of the religious sects have evolved into ethnic communities in their own right; the Druze are a prime example of this. Many Lebanese, especially among Maronite Christians and in some cases the Druze and some Muslims, see themselves as descendants of the Phoenicians/Canaanites (recently supported by genetic studies, though it applies to Lebanese as a whole as well as some neighbouring populations) and tend to de-emphasize or deny Lebanon's Arab heritage. Melkite Greek Catholics, the Greek Orthodox, and some Maronites tend to focus more on the Greek heritage of the region from the days of the Byzantine Empire, and the fact that Greek was maintained as a liturgical language until very recently. Some Christians even claim partial descent from Crusader knights who ruled Lebanon for a couple of centuries during the Middle Ages. This identification with non-Arab civilizations also exists in other religious communities, albeit not to the same extent. Many Muslims, as well as some Greek Orthodox and rural Roman Catholic Christians, tend to simply consider themselves as Arabs. Lebanese Armenians, Assyrians, Jews, Kurds and Persians form more distinct ethnic minorities, all of them in possession of a separate languages and two of them, a national home area outside of Lebanon. However, they total less than 4% of the population. Palestinian refugees Palestinians celebrating in the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp, 2005.402,582 Palestinian refugees were registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) in March 2005, almost all refugees or descendants of refugees from the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Some of these may have emigrated during the civil war, but there are no reliable figures available. There are also a number of Palestinians who are not registered as UNRWA refugees, because they left earlier than 1948 or were not in need of material assistance. The exact number of Palestinians remain a subject of great dispute and the Lebanese government will not provide an estimate. A figure of 400,000 Palestinian refugees would mean that Palestinians constitute more than 10% of the resident population of Lebanon. Their presence is controversial, and resisted by large segments of the Christian population, who argue that the primarily Sunni Muslim Palestinians dilute Christian numbers. Many Shi'a Muslims also look unfavorably upon the Palestinian presence, since the camps have tended to be concentrated in their home areas. As a result of this, Palestinians are not accorded the legal rights enjoyed by the rest of the population. They are denied citizenship and confined to severely overcrowded refugee camps, in which construction rights are severely constricted. Palestinians can't work in a large number of professions, such as lawyers, doctors, etc. However, after negotiations between Lebanese authorities and ministers from the Palestinian National Authority some professions for Palestinians were allowed (taxi driver, construction worker, etc..). The material situation of the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon is difficult, and they are believed to constitute the poorest community in Lebanon, as well as the poorest Palestinian community with the possible exception of Gaza refugees. Their primary sources of income are UNRWA aid and menial labor sought in competition with Syrian guest workers. The Palestinians are mostly Sunni Muslim, but there is also a Christian minority of over 10% (primarily Greek Orthodox). The numbers of Palestinian Christians has diminished in later years, as many have managed to leave Lebanon. During the Lebanese Civil War, Palestinian Christians sided with the rest of the Palestinian community, instead of allying with Lebanese Greek Orthodox or other Christian communities. See also Demographics of Palestine. Syrian workers and the 1994 naturalization Syrian workers in Lebanon, 2005.Lebanon holds a large number of Syrian workers, most of whom are employed on a seasonal basis and do not hold citizenship. They entered Lebanon mainly after Syria established its controversial occupation there during the Lebanese Civil War. They are employed in menial labor, working in areas such as construction. They are generally very poor and compete with the Palestinians over low-wage jobs. Some right-wing Lebanese argue that the presence of such a large number of Syrian workers should in fact be considered part of a Syrian colonization attempt, interlocking the economies and making Lebanon excessively dependent on Syria. Others have argued that the Syrian laborers have been essential to post-war reconstruction. Their exact numbers are disputed, with right-wing Lebanese nationalists tending to give high estimates (up to 1.5 million) while others go as low as 300,000. The CIA Factbook suggest a figure of 1 million (2001) . Regardless of which estimate is closer to the truth, numbers would naturally fluctuate according to season and to the situation of the Lebanese and Syrian economies. In 1994, Lebanese authorities - then under Syrian domination - authorized a controversial granting of citizenship to Syrians (and a small number of Palestinians and others) in Lebanon. The precise number is disputed, figures ranging from a 100,000 people to half a million. It seems clear, however, that the act shifted the religious balance in Lebanon in favor of Sunni Muslims, and had important effects on the sectarian makeup of Lebanese politics. The Syrians in Lebanon are Arab in the same linguistic sense as the Lebanese, but with a less ambiguous Arab self-identification. They are mainly Muslims of the Sunni sect, but due to Syria's diverse religious and ethnic population, many other groups are also included. See also Demographics of Syria. Other immigrants and ethnic groups There are substantial numbers of immigrants from other Arab countries and non-Arab-speaking Muslim countries, such as Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Also, recent years have seen an influx of people from Ethiopia and South East Asian countries such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Sri Lanka , as well as smaller numbers of other immigrant minorities, Mexicans and Brazilians (of Lebanese descent themselves). Most of these are employed as guest workers in the same fashion as Syrians and Palestinians, and entered the country to search for employment in the post-war reconstruction of Lebanon. Apart from the Palestinians, there are approximately 180,000 stateless persons in Lebanon. Due to the US-led invasion of Iraq, Lebanon has received a mass influx of Iraqi refugees numbering at around 100,000. The vast majority of them are undocumented, with a large number having been deported or put in prison. There are an estimated 30,000 people of Assyrian descent in Lebanon . They belong to various Syriac denominations, including the Assyrian Church of the East, Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, and the Chaldean Catholic Church. During European colonialism, there was a fairly large French minority. Most of French settlers left after Lebanese independence in 1943. Their most important colonial influence is the frequent use of French language. Religious groups of Lebanon The sectarian system Lebanon's religious divisions are extremely complicated, and the country is made up by a multitude of religious groupings. The ecclesiastical and demographic patterns of the sects are complex. Divisions and rivalries between groups date back as far as 15 centuries, and still are a factor today. The pattern of settlement has changed little since the 7th century, but instances of civil strife and ethnic cleansing - most recently during the Lebanese Civil War - has brought some important changes to the religious map of the country. (See also History of Lebanon.) Lebanon has by far the largest proportion of Christians of any Arab country, but both Christians and Muslims are sub-divided into many splinter sects. All population statistics are by necessity controversial, and all sects have a vested interest in inflating their own numbers. It is not uncommon to hear Sunnis, Shi'as and Maronites (the three largest sects) claim that their particular religious affiliation holds a majority in the country - adding up to over 150% of the total population, even before counting the other sects. One of the rare things that most Lebanese religious leaders will agree on is to avoid a new general census, out of fear that it could trigger a new round of sectarian conflict. The last official census was performed in 1932. Religion has traditionally been of overriding importance in defining the Lebanese population. Dividing state power between the religious sects, and granting religious authorities judicial power, dates back to Ottoman times (the millet system). The practice was reinforced during French mandate, when Christian groups were granted privileges. This system of government, while partly intended as a compromise between sectarian demands, has caused tensions that still dominate Lebanese politics to this day. The Christian population majority is believed to have ended in the early 1930s, but government leaders would agree to no change in the political power balance. This led to Muslim demands of increased representation, and the constant sectarian tension slid into violent conflict in 1958 (prompting U.S. intervention) and again in the grueling Lebanese Civil War, in 1975-90. The balance of power has been slightly adjusted in the 1943 National Pact, an informal agreement struck at independence, in which positions of power were divided according to the 1932 census. The Sunni elite was then accorded more power, but Maronites continued to dominate the system. The sectarian balance was again adjusted towards the Muslim side - but simultaneously further reinforced and legitimized . Shi'a Muslims (by now the largest sect) then gained additional representation in the state apparatus, and the obligatory Christian-Muslim representation in Parliament was downgraded from a 6:5 to a 1:1 proportion. Christians of various sects were then generally thought to constitute about 40% of the population, although often Muslim leaders would cite lower numbers, and some Christians would claim that they still held a majority of the population. The 18 recognized sects The present Lebanese Constitution officially acknowledges 18 religious groups (see below). These have the right to handle family law according to their own courts and traditions, and they are the basic players in Lebanon's complex sectarian politics. Still, it is important to note that these groups are not internally homogeneous; for example, the Maronite, Shi'a and Druze communities have been wracked by internal fighting even in recent times. Alawite Armenian Catholic Armenian Orthodox Assyrian Church of the East Chaldean Catholic Copts Druze Evangelical Christian (incl. Protestant groups such as Baptists and Seventh-day Adventists) Greek Catholic Greek Orthodox Isma'ili Jewish Maronite Roman Catholic Sunni Shi'a Syriac Catholic Syriac Orthodox Religious population statistics Note: stateless Palestinians and Syrians are not included in the statistics below since they do not hold Lebanese citizenship. The numbers only include the present population of Lebanon, and not the Lebanese diaspora. The 1932 census stated that Christians made up 55% of the population. Maronites, largest among the Christian sects and then largely in control of the state apparatus, accounted for 29% of the total population. But since the 19th century, Muslim birth rates have been continually higher than Christian birth rates. Also, far larger numbers of Christians emigrated from Lebanon than Muslims. Data varies over time, as of 1985 an estimated data showed Muslims 75% (including Shia, Sunni and Druze) and Christians 25% (Maronite, Orthodox and others) Contemporary Distribution of Lebanon's Major Religions . And according to more recent statistics by the CIA Factbook; there are 59.7% of the Lebanese population are Muslims, while 39% are Christians. Muslims Today, there is general consensus that Muslims constitute a solid majority of the population. According to the CIA World Factbook The Muslim population is estimated at 59.7% (Shia, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri). Sectarian Breakdown: Shi'a Muslims are 35% or 28% of the total population. Sunni Muslims constitute 25% or 28% of the total population. Sunni notables traditionally held power in the Lebanese state together, and they are still the only sect eligible for the post of Prime Minister. The Druze, constitute 5% of the population. For information on the remaining Muslim communities, see the Isma'ili and Alawite articles. Both groups constitute less than 1% of Lebanon's population. Christians Today, it is estimated that the Christian population makes up about 39% (or 35% ) of the total population. The Maronites are the largest of the Christian groups. They have had a long and continuous association with the Roman Catholic Church, but have their own patriarch, liturgy, and customs. Traditionally they had good relations with the Western world, especially France and the Vatican. They traditionally dominated the Lebanese government, and the President of Lebanon is always Maronite. Their influence in later years has diminished, due to their relative decrease in numbers, but also due to the Syrian occupation of Lebanon, which generally benefited Shi'a and other Muslim communities, and was resisted by most Maronites. Today the Maronites are believed to compose nearly 25.2% of the population, scattered around the Lebanese countryside but with heavy concentrations on Mount Lebanon and in Beirut. The second largest Christian group is the Greek Orthodox. The church exists in many parts of the Arab world and Greek Orthodox Christians have often been noted for pan-Arab or pan-Syrian leanings; it has had less dealings with Western countries than the Maronites. They are believed to constitute about 7.8% of the total population, not counting the Palestinian Greek Orthodox community. The remaining Christian churches are thought to constitute another 9% (350,000) of the population (Greek Catholics i.e. Melkites about 200,000, Armenian Apostolic, Armenian Catholic, Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Assyrians, Protestants) with no single group over 5% of the total population. Please refer to their articles in the list above, for more information. For the Roman Catholics see Roman Catholicism in Lebanon. Other religions Other religions account for only an estimated 1.3% of the population, according to the CIA Factbook. There remains a very small Jewish population, traditionally centered in Beirut. It has been larger - most Jews left the country after the Six Day War in 1967. Add to this some negligible numbers of native Bahá'ís, Buddhists, and Hindus, of long since-naturalized immigrant families. New immigrants from South East Asia have recently brought in larger numbers of Buddhists and Hindus, and small populations of other immigrant religions are also present. The Lebanese diaspora Apart from the three and a half million citizens of Lebanon proper, there is a sizeable Lebanese diaspora. No accurate numbers are available, so estimates on the total size of the diaspora vary wildly, from conservative estimates of 4-5 million to a maximum, and probably inflated, figure of 15 million. Most Lebanese emigrants and their descendants are Christian. Lebanese Christian families are economically and politically prominent in several Latin American countries (in 2007 Mexican Carlos Slim Helú, son of Lebanese immigrants, was determined to be the wealthiest man in the World by Fortune Magazine), and make up a substantial portion of the Arab American community in the United States. The largest Lebanese diaspora is located in Brazil, where about 5-7 million people have Lebanese descent (see Arab Brazilian). The large size of Lebanon's diaspora may be partly explained by the historical and cultural tradition of sea-faring and traveling, which stretches back to Lebanon's ancient Phoenician origins and its role as a "gateway" of relations between Europe and the Middle East. It has been commonplace for Lebanese citizens to emigrate in search of economic prosperity. Furthermore, on several occasions in the last two centuries the Lebanese population has endured periods of ethnic cleansing and displacement (for example, 1840-60 and 1975-90). These factors have contributed to the geographical mobility of the Lebanese people. While under Syrian occupation, Beirut passed legislation which prevented second-generation Lebanese of the diaspora from automatically obtaining Lebanese citizenship. This has reinforced the émigré status of many diaspora Lebanese. There is currently a campaign by those Lebanese of the diaspora who already have Lebanese citizenship to attain the vote from abroad. If suffrage was to be extended to these 1.2 million Lebanese émigré citizens, it would have a significant political effect, since as many as 90% of them are believed to be Christian. Civil war refugees and displaced persons With no official figures available, it is estimated that 600,000-900,000 persons fled the country during the civil war (1975-90). Although some have since returned, this permanently disturbed Lebanese population growth, and has greatly complicated demographic statistics. Another result of the war was a large number of internally displaced persons. This especially affected the southern Shi'a community, as Israeli invasion of southern Lebanon in 1978, 1982 and 1996 prompted waves of mass emigration, in addition to the continual strain of occupation and fighting between Israel and Hizbullah (mainly 1982 to 2000). Many Shi'a resettled in hastily constructed slum suburbs south of Beirut, the so-called "belt of misery". After the war, the pace of Christian emigration accelerated, as many Christians felt discriminated against in a Lebanon under increasingly oppressive Syrian occupation. Languages in Lebanon Commonly spoken languages in Lebanon include Arabic (official), French, English, Syriac, Greek, and Armenian. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of Lebanon, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: Total population: 3,826,018 (July 2005 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 26.7% (male 520,270; female 499,609) 15-64 years: 66.4% (male 1,216,738; female 1,324,031) 65 years and over: 6.9% (male 120,176; female 145,194) (2005 est.) Median age: Total: 27.34 years Male: 26.28 years Female: 28.43 years (2005 est.) Population growth rate: 1.26% (2005 est.) Birth rate: 18.88 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) Death rate: 6.24 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.83 male(s)/female total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2005 est.) Infant mortality rate: total: 24.52 deaths/1,000 live births male: 27.18 deaths/1,000 live births female: 21.71 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 72.63 years male: 70.17 years female: 75.21 years (2005 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.92 children born/woman (2005 est.) 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2,947 | Gallium | Gallium () is a chemical element that has the symbol Ga and atomic number 31. Elemental gallium does not occur in nature, but as the Ga (III) salt, in trace amounts in bauxite and zinc ores. A soft silvery metallic poor metal, elemental gallium is a brittle solid at low temperatures. As it liquefies slightly above room temperature, it will melt in the hand. Its melting point is used as a temperature reference point, and from its discovery in 1875 to the semiconductor era, its primary uses were in high-temperature thermometric applications and in preparation of metal alloys with unusual properties of stability, or ease of melting; some being liquid at room temperature (Ga-In eutectic, 75% Ga, 25% In, mp = 15.5°C). In semiconductors, an important application is in the compounds gallium nitride and gallium arsenide, used most notably in light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Semiconductor use is now the primary industrial market for gallium, but new uses in alloys and fuel cells continue to be discovered. Gallium is not known to be essential in biology, but because of the biological handling of gallium’s primary ionic salt Ga(III) as though it were iron(III), gallium ion localizes to and interacts with many processes in the body in which iron(III) is manipulated. As these processes include inflammation, which is present as a marker for many disease states, several gallium salts are used, or are in development, as both pharmaceuticals and radiopharmaceuticals in medicine. Notable characteristics Elemental gallium is not found in nature, but it is easily obtained by smelting. Very pure gallium metal has a brilliant silvery color and its solid metal fractures conchoidally like glass. Gallium metal expands by 3.1 percent when it solidifies, and therefore storage in either glass or metal containers is avoided, due to the possibility of container rupture with freezing. Gallium shares the higher-density liquid state with only a few materials like silicon, germanium, bismuth, antimony and water. Gallium also attacks most other metals by diffusing into their metal lattice. Gallium for example diffuses into the grain boundaries of Al/Zn alloys or steel , making them very brittle. Also, gallium metal easily alloys with many metals, and was used in small quantities in the core of the first atomic bomb to help stabilize the plutonium crystal structure. The melting point of 302.9146 K (29.7646°C, 85.5763°F) is near room temperature. Gallium's melting point (mp) is one of the formal temperature reference points in the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) established by BIPM. ITS-90 documents at Bureau International de Poids et Mesures The triple point of gallium of 302.9166 K (29.7666°C, 85.5799°F), is being used by NIST in preference to gallium's melting point. Gallium is a metal that will melt in one's hand. This metal has a strong tendency to supercool below its melting point/freezing point. Seeding with a crystal helps to initiate freezing. Gallium is one of the metals (with caesium, rubidium, francium and mercury) which are liquid at or near normal room temperature, and can therefore be used in metal-in-glass high-temperature thermometers. It is also notable for having one of the largest liquid ranges for a metal, and (unlike mercury) for having a low vapor pressure at high temperatures. Unlike mercury, liquid gallium metal wets glass and skin, making it mechanically more difficult to handle (even though it is substantially less toxic and requires far fewer precautions). For this reason as well as the metal contamination problem and freezing-expansion problems noted above, samples of gallium metal are usually supplied in polyethylene packets within other containers. Gallium does not crystallize in any of the simple crystal structures. The stable phase under normal conditions is orthorhombic with 8 atoms in the conventional unit cell. Each atom has only one nearest neighbor (at a distance of 244 pm) and six other neighbors within additional 39 pm. Many stable and metastable phases are found as function of temperature and pressure. The bonding between the nearest neighbors is found to be of covalent character, hence Ga2 dimers are seen as the fundamental building blocks of the crystal. The compound with arsenic, gallium arsenide is a semiconductor commonly used in light-emitting diodes. High-purity gallium is dissolved slowly by mineral acids. Gallium has no known biological role, although it has been observed to stimulate metabolism. History Gallium (the Latin Gallia means "Gaul," essentially modern France) was discovered spectroscopically by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875 by its characteristic spectrum (two violet lines) in an examination of a zinc blende from the Pyrenees. Before its discovery, most of its properties had been predicted and described by Dmitri Mendeleev (who had called the hypothetical element "eka-aluminium" on the basis of its position in his periodic table). Later, in 1875, Boisbaudran obtained the free metal by electrolysis of its hydroxide in potassium hydroxide solution. He named the element "gallia" after his native land of France. It was later claimed that, in one of those multilingual puns so beloved of men of science in the early 19th century, he had also named gallium after himself, as his name, "Le coq," is the French for "the rooster," and the Latin for "rooster" is "gallus"; however, in an 1877 article Le coq denied this supposition. (The supposition was also noted in Building Blocks of the Universe, a book on the elements by Isaac Asimov.) Occurrence Gallium does not exist in free form in nature, nor do any high-gallium minerals exist to serve as a primary source of extraction of the element or its compounds. Its abundance in the Earth's crust is approximately 16.9 ppm. Gallium is found and extracted as a trace component in bauxite and to a small extent from sphalerite. The amount extracted from coal, diaspore and germanite in which gallium is also present is negligible. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates gallium reserves to exceed 1 million tonnes, based on 50 ppm by weight concentration in known reserves of bauxite and zinc ores. Some flue dusts from burning coal have been shown to contain small quantities of gallium, typically less than 1% by weight. Production The only two economic sources for gallium are as byproduct of aluminium and zinc production, while the sphalerite for zinc production is the minor source. Most gallium is extracted from the crude aluminium hydroxide solution of the Bayer process for producing alumina and aluminium. A mercury cell electrolysis and hydrolysis of the amalgam with sodium hydroxide leads to sodium gallate. Electrolysis then gives gallium metal. For semiconductor use, further purification is carried out using zone melting, or else single crystal extraction from a melt (Czochralski process). Purities of 99.9999% are routinely achieved and commercially widely available. An exact number for the world wide production is not available, but it is estimated that in 2007 the production of gallium was 184 tonnes with less than 100 tonnes from mining and the rest from scrap recycling. Applications Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium nitride (GaN) used in electronic components represented about 98% of the gallium consumption in the United States. World wide gallium arsenide makes up 95% of the annual global gallium consumption. Semiconductors Gallium based blue LEDs The semiconductor applications are the main reason for the low-cost commercial availability of the extremely high-purity (99.9999+%) metal: As a component of the semiconductor gallium arsenide, the most common application for gallium is optoelectronic devices (mostly laser diodes and light-emitting diodes.) Smaller amounts of gallium arsenide are use for the manufacture of ultra-high speed logic chips and MESFETs for low-noise microwave preamplifiers. Gallium is used as a dopant for the production of solid-state devices such as transistors. However, worldwide the actual quantity used for this purpose is minute, since dopant levels are usually of the order of a few parts per million. Multijunction photovoltaic cell is used for special application, first developed and deployed for satellite power applications, are made by molecular beam epitaxy or Metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy of thin films of gallium arsenide, indium gallium phosphide or indium gallium arsenide.The Mars Exploration Rovers and several satellites use triple junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells. Gallium is the rarest component of new photovoltaic compounds (such as copper indium gallium selenium sulfide or Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S)2, recently announced by South African researchers) for use in solar panels as a more efficient alternative to crystalline silicon. Wetting and alloy improvement Because gallium wets glass or porcelain, gallium can be used to create brilliant mirrors. Gallium readily alloys with most metals, and has been used as a component in low-melting alloys. The plutonium used in nuclear weapon pits is machined by alloying with gallium to stabilize the allotropes of plutonium. Gallium added in quantities up to 2% in common solders can aid wetting and flow characteristics. Liquid alloys It has been suggested that a liquid gallium-tin alloy could be used to cool computer chips in place of water. As it conducts heat approximately 65 times better than water it can make a comparable coolant. Gallium is used in some high temperature thermometers. The liquid gallium-indium-tin alloy galinstan has been used in activating aluminum. Activated aluminum reacts with water generating hydrogen and steam. This reaction is being considered as one of the feasible processes necessary for hydrogen economy. Biomedical applications As the free element A low temperature liquid eutectic alloy of gallium, indium, and tin, is widely available in medical thermometers (fever thermometers), replacing problematic mercury. This alloy, with the trade name Galinstan (with the "-stan" referring to the tin), has a freezing point of −20°C. Much research is being devoted to gallium alloys as substitutes for mercury dental amalgams, but these compounds have yet to see wide acceptance. As gallium (III) salts Gallium nitrate (see Ganite) has been used as an intravenous pharmaceutical to treat hypercalcemia associated with tumor metastatis to bones. Gallium is thought to interfere with osteoclast function. It may be effective when other treatments for maligancy-associated hypercalcemia are not. http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CDG/content/CDG_gallium_nitrate.asp Accessed Dec. 12, 2008 Gallium maltolate is in clinical and preclinical trials as a potential treatment for cancer, infectious disease, and inflammatory disease. Research is being conducted to determine whether gallium can be used to fight bacterial infections in people with cystic fibrosis. Gallium is similar in size to iron, an essential nutrient for respiration. When gallium is mistakenly picked up by bacteria such as Pseudomonas, the bacteria's ability to respire is interfered with and the bacteria die. The mechanism behind this is that iron is redox active, which allows for the transfer of electrons during respiration, but gallium is redox inactive. As radiogallium salts Gallium-67 salts such as gallium citrate and gallium nitrate are used as radiopharmaceutical agents in a nuclear medicine imaging procedure commonly referred to as a gallium scan. The form or salt of gallium is not important, since it is the free dissolved gallium ion Ga3+ which is the active radiotracer. For these applications, the radioactive isotope 67Ga is used. The body handles Ga3+ in many ways as though it were iron, and thus it is bound (and concentrates) in areas of inflammation, such as infection, and also areas of rapid cell division. This allows such sites to be imaged by nuclear scan techniques. This use has largely been replaced by fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) for positron emission tomography, "PET" scan and indium-111 labelled leukocyte scans. However, the localization of gallium in the body has some properties which make it unique in some circumstances from competing modalities using other radioisotopes. Gallium-68, a positron emitter with a half life of 68 min., is now used as a diagnostic radionuclide in CT-PET when linked to pharmaceutical preparations such as DOTATOC, a somatostatin analogue used for neuroendocrine tumors investigation, and DOTATATE, a newer one, used for neuroendocrine metastasis and lung neuroendocrine cancer, like some kinds of Microcytoma. <p> Galium-68's preparation as a pharmaceutical is chemical and the radionuclide is extracted by elution from germanium-68, a synthetic radioisotope of germanium, in gallium-68 generators. <p> These generators function similarly to technetium-99m generators, in both cases using a process similar to thin layer chromatography. The stationary phase is alumina, Ti(IV)O or Sn(IV)O, onto which germanium-68 is adsorbed. The mobile phase is a solvent able to elute (wash out) decayed germanium-68, after it has decayed to gallium-68 (III). Currently Ga-68 is easily eluted with a few mL of 1 M or 0.1M hydrochloric acid from tin-oxide or titanium-oxide based generators respectively, within 1 to 2 minutes. However, there remains more than an hour of pharmaceutical preparation to attach the gallium-68 (III) to the tracer DOTATOC or DOTATATE, so that the total preparation time is typically longer than the Ga-68 isotope half life. This fact requires that these radiopharmaceuticals be made on-site in most cases. The on-site generator is required to minimize the time losses. The generator is easily storable for almost a year. Other uses Magnesium gallate containing impurities (such as Mn2+), is beginning to be used in ultraviolet-activated phosphor powder. Neutrino detection. Possibly the largest amount of pure gallium ever collected in a single spot was the GALLEX neutrino detector operated in the early 1990s in an Italian mountain tunnel. The detector contained 12.2 tons of watered gallium-71. Solar neutrinos caused a few atoms of Ga-71 to become radioactive Ge-71, which were detected. The solar neutrino flux deduced was found to have a deficit of 40% from theory. This was not explained until better solar neutrino detectors and theories were constructed (see SNO). As a liquid metal ion source for a focused ion beam. Gallium when painted on glass or porcelain forms a brilliant mirror Energy storage Aluminium is reactive enough to reduce water to hydrogen, being oxidized to aluminium oxide. However, the aluminium oxide forms a protective coat which prevents further reaction. When gallium is alloyed with aluminium, the coat does not form, thus the alloy can potentially provide a solid hydrogen source for transportation purposes, which would be more convenient than a pressurized hydrogen tank. Resmelting the resultant aluminium oxide and gallium mixture to metallic aluminium and gallium and reforming these into electrodes would constitute most of the energy input into the system, while electricity produced by a hydrogen fuel cell could constitute an energy output. The thermodynamic efficiency of the aluminium smelting process is said to be approximately 50 percent. Therefore, at most no more than half the energy that goes into smelting aluminium could be recovered by a fuel cell. Precautions While not considered toxic, the data about gallium are inconclusive. Some sources suggest that it may cause dermatitis from prolonged exposure; other tests have not caused a positive reaction. Like most metals, finely divided gallium loses its luster. Powdered gallium appears grey. When gallium is handled with bare hands, the extremely fine dispersion of liquid gallium droplets which results from wetting skin with the metal may appear as a grey skin stain. See also Gallium compounds References External links Los Alamos National Laboratory – Gallium Webelements: detailed information on gallium WebElements.com – textbook information on gallium Material safety data sheet at acialloys.com www.lenntech.com – textbook information regarding gallium environmental effects of gallium Price development of gallium 1959-1998 Technology produces hydrogen by adding water to an alloy of aluminum and gallium pure Gallium crystals ~99,9999% picture in the element collection from Heinrich Pniok | Gallium |@lemmatized gallium:105 chemical:2 element:7 symbol:1 ga:9 atomic:2 number:2 elemental:3 occur:1 nature:3 iii:7 salt:7 trace:2 amount:4 bauxite:3 zinc:5 ore:2 soft:1 silvery:2 metallic:2 poor:1 metal:25 brittle:2 solid:4 low:6 temperature:14 liquefy:1 slightly:1 room:4 melt:8 hand:3 point:10 use:34 reference:3 discovery:2 semiconductor:8 era:1 primary:4 us:2 high:9 thermometric:1 application:9 preparation:5 alloy:17 unusual:1 property:3 stability:1 ease:1 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price:1 technology:1 picture:1 collection:1 heinrich:1 pniok:1 |@bigram zinc_ore:2 gallium_nitride:2 gallium_arsenide:9 emit_diode:3 diode_led:1 silicon_germanium:1 atomic_bomb:1 de_poids:1 poids_et:1 et_mesures:1 vapor_pressure:1 metastable_phase:1 lecoq_de:1 de_boisbaudran:1 dmitri_mendeleev:1 periodic_table:1 potassium_hydroxide:1 le_coq:2 isaac_asimov:1 earth_crust:1 geological_survey:1 aluminium_hydroxide:1 sodium_hydroxide:1 arsenide_gaas:1 laser_diode:1 photovoltaic_cell:1 beam_epitaxy:1 indium_gallium:3 triple_junction:1 crystalline_silicon:1 glass_porcelain:2 nuclear_weapon:1 gallium_indium:2 indium_tin:2 http_www:1 infectious_disease:1 bacterial_infection:1 cystic_fibrosis:1 radioactive_isotope:1 positron_emission:1 emission_tomography:1 tomography_pet:1 thin_layer:1 stationary_phase:1 hydrochloric_acid:1 titanium_oxide:1 neutrino_detector:2 aluminium_oxide:3 aluminium_gallium:1 thermodynamic_efficiency:1 prolonged_exposure:1 external_link:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 webelements_com:1 |
2,948 | Facilitated_diffusion | Facilitated diffusion in cell membrane, showing ion channels and carrier proteins Facilitated diffusion (or facilitated transport) is a process of diffusion, a form of passive transport facilitated by transport proteins. Facilitated diffusion is the spontaneous passage of molecules or ions across a biological membrane passing through specific transmembrane transport proteins. The facilitated diffusion may occur either across biological membranes or through aqueous compartments of an organism. Polar molecules and charged ions are dissolved in water but they can not diffuse freely across cell membranes due to the hydrophobic nature of the phospholipids that make up the lipid bilayers. Only small nonpolar molecules, such as oxygen can diffuse easily across the membrane. All polar molecules are transported across membranes by proteins that form transmembrane channels. These channels are gated so they can open and close, thus regulating the flow of ions or small polar molecules. Larger molecules are transported by transmembrane carrier proteins, such as permeases that change their conformation as the molecules are carried through, for example glucose or amino acids. Non-polar molecules, such as retinol or fatty acids are poorly soluble in water. They are transported through aqueous compartments of cells or through extracellular space by water-soluble carriers as retinol binding protein. The metabolites are not changed because no energy is required for facilitated diffusion. Only permease changes its shape in order to transport the metabolites. The form of transport through cell membrane which modifies its metabolites is the group translocation transportation. | Facilitated_diffusion |@lemmatized facilitate:5 diffusion:6 cell:4 membrane:7 show:1 ion:4 channel:3 carrier:3 protein:6 transport:9 process:1 form:3 passive:1 spontaneous:1 passage:1 molecule:8 across:5 biological:2 pass:1 specific:1 transmembrane:3 facilitated:2 may:1 occur:1 either:1 aqueous:2 compartment:2 organism:1 polar:4 charge:1 dissolve:1 water:3 diffuse:2 freely:1 due:1 hydrophobic:1 nature:1 phospholipid:1 make:1 lipid:1 bilayers:1 small:2 nonpolar:1 oxygen:1 easily:1 gate:1 open:1 close:1 thus:1 regulate:1 flow:1 large:1 permeases:1 change:3 conformation:1 carry:1 example:1 glucose:1 amino:1 acid:2 non:1 retinol:2 fatty:1 poorly:1 soluble:2 extracellular:1 space:1 bind:1 metabolite:3 energy:1 require:1 permease:1 shape:1 order:1 modify:1 group:1 translocation:1 transportation:1 |@bigram amino_acid:1 fatty_acid:1 poorly_soluble:1 |
2,949 | Demographics_of_Greece | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Greece, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The Demographics of Greece refer to the demography of the population that inhabits the Greek peninsula. As of January 2008, the population of Greece is estimated at 11,262,000 by Eurostat. Historical overview Greece was inhabited as early as the Paleolithic period. Prior to the 2nd millennium BC, the Greek peninsula was inhabited by various pre-Hellenic peoples, the most notable of which were the Pelasgians. The Greek language ultimately dominated the peninsula and Greece's mosaic of small city-states became culturally similar. The population estimates on the Greeks during the 4th century BC, is approximately 3.5 million on the Greek peninsula and 4 to 6.5 million in the entire Mediterranean Basin, Mogens Herman Hansen, The Shotgun Method: The Demography of the Ancient Greek City-State Culture, University of Missouri Press, 2006. Book review including all colonies such as those in Magna Graecia, Asia Minor and the shores of the Black Sea. During the history of the Byzantine Empire, the Greek peninsula was occasionally invaded by the foreign peoples like Goths, Avars, Slavs, Normans, Franks and other Romance-speaking peoples who had betrayed the Crusades. The only group, however, which planned to establish permanent settlements in the region were the Slavs. They supposedly settled in isolated valleys of the Peloponnese and Thessaly, establishing segregated communities that were referred by the Byzantines as Sclaveni. However, traces of Slavic culture in Greece are very rare. Yet, by the 9th century, the Sclaveni in Greece were largely eliminated. The populations in central and southern Greece were the subject of population exchanges and army recruitments, but some Slavic communities managed to survive in rural Macedonia. At the same time a large Sephardi Jewish emigrant community from the Iberian peninsula established itself in Thessaloniki, while there were population movements of Arvanites and Vlachs, who established communities in several parts of the Greek peninsula. The Byzantine Empire ultimately fell to Ottoman Turks in the 15th century and as a result Ottoman colonies were established in the Balkans, notably in Macedonia, the Peloponnese and Crete. Many Greeks either fled to other European nations or to geographically isolated areas (i.e. mountains and heavily forested territories) in order to escape foreign rule. For those reasons, the population decreased in the plains, while increasing on the mountains. The population transfers with Bulgaria and Turkey that took place in the early 20th century, added in total some two million Greeks from to the demography of the Greek Kingdom. Population Population of Greece from 1961 to 2003. According to the 2001 census the population of Greece was 10,964,020. Eurostat estimations as of January 2008 gave the number of 11,214,992 inhabitants in the Greek peninsula. Census Population Change 1971 8,768,372 - 1981 9,739,589 11.1% 1991 10,259,900 5.3% 2001 10,964,020 6.9% By region Greece is divided into nine geographic regions. The population of each region according to the 2001 census: RegionPopulation Aegean Islands 508,807 Central Greece 4,591,568 Crete 601,131 Epirus 353,820 Ionian Islands 212,984 Macedonia 2,424,765 Peloponnese 1,155,019 Thessaly 753,888 Thrace 362,038 Total 10,964,020 Age structure Being part of the phenomenon of the aging of Europe, the Greek population shows a rapid increase of the percentage of the elderly people. Greece's population census of 1961 found that 10.9% of the total population was above the age of 65, while the percentage of this group age increased to 16.7% in 2001. On the contrary, the percentage of the population of the ages 0-14 had a total decrease of 10.2% between 1961 and 2001. Age group1971198119912001Population%Population%Population%Population% 0-14 2,223,90425.4 2,307,29723.7 1,974,86719.2 1,664,08515.2 15-64 5,587,35263.7 6,192,75163.6 6,880,68167.1 7,468,39568.1 65+ 957,11610.9 1,239,54112.7 1,404,35213.7 1,831,54016.7 Total8,768,3729,739,58910,259,90010,964,020 Immigration Greece has received a large number of immigrants since the early 1990s. The 2001 census revealed that 797,091 foreigners lived permanently in the country and comprised 6.95% of the total population, while their number in 1990 was 142,367. The majority of them come from the neighbouring countries. As of 2006, the number of foreigners in an estimated total of 11,148,533 people was 695,979 or 6.24%. The main ethnic groups were: Ethnic groupPopulation% Greeks 10,452,554 93.76 Albanians 481,663 4.32 Bulgarians 43,981 0.39 Romanians 25,375 0.23 Ukrainians 19,785 0.18 Pakistani 15,830 0.14 Russians 13,635 0.12 Georgians 13,254 0.12 Indians 10,043 0.09 Other 72,413 0.65 Languages Map showing the distribution of major Modern Greek dialect areas Note: Greek is the dominant language throughout Greece; inclusion in a non-Greek language zone does not necessarily imply that the relevant minority language is still spoken there, or that its speakers consider themselves an ethnic minority. The official language of Greece is Greek, spoken by some 99% of the total population. Apart from Modern Greek which is the standard form of the Greek language and is officially recognized, there are several non-official modern Greek dialects spoken throughout the country as well. Additionally, there is a number of linguistic minority groups which are bilingual in Greek and several non-Greek dialects, and most of these groups identify ethnically as Greeks. The most common of all these dialects, the groups which speak them and the regions where they are considered native are: DialectSpoken byEstimated populationRegionGreek dialects Cretan Cretans 600,000 Crete Maniot Maniots 25,000 Mani (southern Peloponnese) Pontic Pontians 200,000 Macedonia Sarakatsanika Sarakatsani 80,000 Central Greece, Thessaly, Epirus Tsakonian Tsakonians 1,200 Tsakonia (eastern Peloponnese)Other languages Turkish Muslims of Thrace (of Turkish, Pomak and Roma ethnic origins) 128,380 Thrace Arvanitika Arvanites 30,000-140,000 Attica, southern Euboea, Boeotia, Peloponnese Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian Aromanians 40,000-200,000 Epirus, Thessaly, West Macedonia Bulgarian Pomaks 35,000 Thrace Romani Roma 40,000 - 160,000 mainly in Thrace Macedonian Slavic Macedonian Slavs and Slavophone Macedonian Greeks 10,000 - 250,000 Macedonia Education Greek education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 15. English study is compulsory from third grade through high school. University education, including books, is also free, contingent upon the student's ability to meet stiff entrance requirements. A high percentage of the student population seeks higher education. More than 100,000 students are registered at Greek universities, and 15% of the population currently holds a university degree. Admission in a university is determined by state-administered exams, the candidate's grade-point average from high school, and his/her priority choices of major. About one in four candidates gains admission to Greek universities. Greek law does not currently offer official recognition to the graduates of private universities that operate in the country, except for those that offer a degree valid in another European Union country, which is automatically recognized by reciprocity. As a result, a large and growing number of students are pursuing higher education abroad. The Greek Government decides through an evaluation procedure whether to recognize degrees from specific foreign universities as qualification for public sector hiring. Other students attend private, post-secondary educational institutions in Greece that are not recognized by the Greek Government. At the moment extensive public talk is made for the reform of the Constitution in order to recognize private higher education in Greece as equal with public and to place common regulations for both. The number of Greek students studying at European institutions is increasing along with EU support for educational exchange. In addition, nearly 5,000 Greeks are studying in the United States, about half of whom are in graduate school. Greek per capita student representation in the US (one every 2,200) is among the highest in Europe. Religion According to the Greek constitution, Eastern Orthodox Christianity is recognized as the "prevailing religion" in Greece. During the centuries of Ottoman domination, besides its spiritual mandate, the Orthodox Church, based in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), also functioned as an official representative of the Christian population of the empire. The Church is often credited with the preservation of the Greek language, values, and national identity during Ottoman times. The Church was also an important rallying point in the war for independence, although this latter position is somewhat controversial as the official Church in Constantinople initially condemned the breakout of armed struggle against the Empire. The Church of Greece was established shortly after the formation of a Greek national state. Its authority to this day extends only to the areas included in the embryonic Greek state of 1833. There is a Muslim minority concentrated in Thrace and officially protected by the Treaty of Lausanne. Besides Pomaks (Muslim Slavic speakers) and Roma, it consists mainly of ethnic Turks, who speak Turkish and receive instruction in Turkish at special government-funded schools. There are also a number of Jews in Greece, most of whom live in Thessaloniki. There are also some Greeks who adhere to a reconstruction of the ancient Greek religion. A place of worship has been recognized as such by court. See also Demographic history of Greece Minorities in Greece Aging of Europe References External links General Secretariat of National Statistical Service of Greece The World Factbook | Demographics_of_Greece |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:28 greece:25 include:4 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:7 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 refer:2 demography:3 inhabit:3 greek:39 peninsula:8 january:2 estimate:2 eurostat:2 historical:1 overview:1 early:3 paleolithic:1 period:1 prior:1 millennium:1 bc:2 various:1 pre:1 hellenic:1 people:5 notable:1 pelasgians:1 language:9 ultimately:2 dominate:1 mosaic:1 small:1 city:2 state:6 become:1 culturally:1 similar:1 century:5 approximately:1 million:3 entire:1 mediterranean:1 basin:1 mogens:1 herman:1 hansen:1 shotgun:1 method:1 ancient:2 culture:2 university:8 missouri:1 press:1 book:2 review:1 colony:2 magna:1 graecia:1 asia:1 minor:1 shore:1 black:1 sea:1 history:2 byzantine:3 empire:4 occasionally:1 invade:1 foreign:3 like:1 goth:1 avars:1 slav:3 norman:1 frank:1 romance:1 speaking:1 betray:1 crusade:1 group:6 however:2 plan:1 establish:6 permanent:1 settlement:1 region:5 supposedly:1 settle:1 isolated:2 valley:1 peloponnese:6 thessaly:4 segregated:1 community:4 sclaveni:2 trace:1 slavic:4 rare:1 yet:1 largely:1 eliminate:1 central:3 southern:3 subject:1 exchange:2 army:1 recruitment:1 manage:1 survive:1 rural:1 macedonia:6 time:2 large:3 sephardi:1 jewish:1 emigrant:1 iberian:1 thessaloniki:2 movement:1 arvanites:2 vlachs:1 several:3 part:2 fell:1 ottoman:4 turk:2 result:2 balkan:1 notably:1 crete:3 many:1 either:1 flee:1 european:3 nation:1 geographically:1 area:3 e:1 mountain:2 heavily:1 forested:1 territory:1 order:2 escape:1 rule:1 reason:1 decrease:2 plain:1 increase:4 transfer:1 bulgaria:1 turkey:1 take:1 place:3 add:1 total:7 two:1 kingdom:1 accord:3 census:5 estimation:1 give:1 number:8 inhabitant:1 change:1 divide:1 nine:1 geographic:1 regionpopulation:1 aegean:1 islands:1 epirus:3 ionian:1 island:1 thrace:6 age:6 structure:1 phenomenon:1 aging:2 europe:3 show:2 rapid:1 percentage:4 elderly:1 find:1 contrary:1 immigration:1 receive:2 immigrant:1 since:1 reveal:1 foreigner:2 live:2 permanently:1 country:5 comprise:1 majority:1 come:1 neighbouring:1 estimated:1 main:1 ethnic:5 grouppopulation:1 greeks:1 albanian:1 bulgarian:2 romanian:2 ukrainians:1 pakistani:1 russian:1 georgian:1 indian:1 map:1 distribution:1 major:2 modern:3 dialect:5 note:1 dominant:1 throughout:2 inclusion:1 non:3 zone:1 necessarily:1 imply:1 relevant:1 minority:5 still:1 speak:5 speaker:2 consider:2 official:5 apart:1 standard:1 form:1 officially:2 recognize:7 well:1 additionally:1 linguistic:1 bilingual:1 identify:1 ethnically:1 common:2 native:1 dialectspoken:1 byestimated:1 populationregiongreek:1 cretan:2 maniot:1 maniots:1 mani:1 pontic:1 pontians:1 sarakatsanika:1 sarakatsani:1 tsakonian:1 tsakonians:1 tsakonia:1 eastern:2 turkish:4 muslim:3 pomak:1 rom:3 origin:1 arvanitika:1 attica:1 euboea:1 boeotia:1 aromanian:1 megleno:1 aromanians:1 west:1 pomaks:2 romani:1 mainly:2 macedonian:3 slavophone:1 free:2 compulsory:2 child:1 english:1 study:3 third:1 grade:2 high:7 school:4 also:6 contingent:1 upon:1 student:7 ability:1 meet:1 stiff:1 entrance:1 requirement:1 seek:1 register:1 currently:2 hold:1 degree:3 admission:2 determine:1 administered:1 exam:1 candidate:2 point:2 average:1 priority:1 choice:1 one:2 four:1 gain:1 law:1 offer:2 recognition:1 graduate:2 private:3 operate:1 except:1 valid:1 another:1 union:1 automatically:1 reciprocity:1 grow:1 pursue:1 abroad:1 government:3 decides:1 evaluation:1 procedure:1 whether:1 specific:1 qualification:1 public:3 sector:1 hiring:1 attend:1 post:1 secondary:1 educational:2 institution:2 moment:1 extensive:1 talk:1 make:1 reform:1 constitution:2 equal:1 regulation:1 along:1 eu:1 support:1 addition:1 nearly:1 united:1 half:1 per:1 capita:1 representation:1 u:1 every:1 among:1 religion:3 orthodox:2 christianity:1 prevail:1 domination:1 besides:2 spiritual:1 mandate:1 church:5 base:1 constantinople:2 present:1 day:2 istanbul:1 function:1 representative:1 christian:1 often:1 credit:1 preservation:1 value:1 national:3 identity:1 important:1 rallying:1 war:1 independence:1 although:1 latter:1 position:1 somewhat:1 controversial:1 initially:1 condemn:1 breakout:1 armed:1 struggle:1 shortly:1 formation:1 authority:1 extend:1 embryonic:1 concentrate:1 protect:1 treaty:1 lausanne:1 consist:1 instruction:1 special:1 funded:1 jew:1 adhere:1 reconstruction:1 worship:1 court:1 see:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 general:1 secretariat:1 statistical:1 service:1 world:1 factbook:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 millennium_bc:1 magna_graecia:1 iberian_peninsula:1 ottoman_turk:1 macedonian_slav:1 per_capita:1 eastern_orthodox:1 treaty_lausanne:1 external_link:1 |
2,950 | North_Atlantic_Deep_Water | North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) is a water mass that forms in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is largely formed in the Labrador Sea and in the Greenland Sea by the sinking of highly saline, dense overflow water from the Greenland Sea. The watermass can be traced around the southern end of Greenland and then, at a depth of 2000-4000 meters, down the coast of Canada and the United States where it turns slightly east. It continues southeast, past the eastern tip of South America and across the South Atlantic. Its path can ultimately be traced into the Southern Ocean and around the tip of Africa as it mixes with Circumpolar Deep Water. In the "conveyor belt" model of the thermohaline circulation of the world ocean, the sinking of NADW pulls the waters of the North Atlantic drift northward; however, this is almost certainly an oversimplification of the actual relationship between NADW formation and the strength of the Gulf Stream/N. Atlantic drift diagram at http://seis.natsci.csulb.edu/rbehl/NADW.htm . NADW's distinctive composition (particularly high-salinity) compared to other watermasses allows its path to be traced as it mixes with Circumpolar Deep Water, which in turn fills the deep Indian Ocean and part of the South Pacific. It is believed that North Atlantic Deep Water formation has been dramatically reduced at times during the past (such as during the Younger Dryas or during Heinrich events), and that this might correlate with a decrease in the strength of the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic drift, in turn cooling the climate of northwestern Europe. There is concern that global warming might cause this to happen again. It is also hypothesized that during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), NADW was replaced with an analogous watermass that occupied a shallower depth known as Glacial North Atlantic Intermediate Water (GNAIW). Formation details The NADW comprises three different water masses, each of which is distinguished by a specific formation region (LSW, see below) or entry point (DSOW, see below) and has unique production and transformation history (I Yashayaev). The upper one is the Labrador Sea Water (LSW), formed due to deep winter convection in the Labrador Sea. This water partwise recirculates in the Labrador Sea while sinking. (Other parts of Labrador Sea Water spreads over the whole northern atlantic.) After recirculation it enters the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) between 1600 and 2500 m depth. The Formation of LSW is seasonal and occurs not every year. The lower water mass is the Denmark Strait Overflow Water (DSOW). This water overflows the Denmark Strait, entraining water from its surrounding. Leaving the Greenland Sea with 2.5 Sv its flow increases to 10 Sv south of Greenland. It is cold and relatively fresh, flowing below 3500 m in the DWBC and spreading inward the deep Atlantic basins. The third water mass originates from the Greenland Sea, too, but it leaves the basin between Iceland and Scotland. While flowing southward it entrains warm and saline Atlantic waters (which are much saltier than the overflow itself, this is where this water acquires its salty signature) and the Labrador Sea Water. It passes the Gibbs Fracture Zone to the Irminger Sea, and arranges in the DWBC between 2500 and 3500 m. Because of its complex formation/transformation history this water has many names: Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water, Northeast Atlantic Deep Water and Gibbs Fracture Zone Water References | North_Atlantic_Deep_Water |@lemmatized north:6 atlantic:12 deep:9 water:24 nadw:7 mass:4 form:3 ocean:4 largely:1 labrador:6 sea:11 greenland:6 sinking:2 highly:1 saline:2 dense:1 overflow:5 watermass:2 trace:3 around:2 southern:2 end:1 depth:3 meter:1 coast:1 canada:1 united:1 state:1 turn:3 slightly:1 east:1 continue:1 southeast:1 past:2 eastern:1 tip:2 south:4 america:1 across:1 path:2 ultimately:1 africa:1 mix:2 circumpolar:2 conveyor:1 belt:1 model:1 thermohaline:1 circulation:1 world:1 pull:1 drift:3 northward:1 however:1 almost:1 certainly:1 oversimplification:1 actual:1 relationship:1 formation:6 strength:2 gulf:2 stream:2 n:1 diagram:1 http:1 seis:1 natsci:1 csulb:1 edu:1 rbehl:1 htm:1 distinctive:1 composition:1 particularly:1 high:1 salinity:1 compare:1 watermasses:1 allow:1 fill:1 indian:1 part:2 pacific:1 believe:1 dramatically:1 reduce:1 time:1 young:1 dryas:1 heinrich:1 event:1 might:2 correlate:1 decrease:1 cool:1 climate:1 northwestern:1 europe:1 concern:1 global:1 warming:1 cause:1 happen:1 also:1 hypothesize:1 last:1 glacial:2 maximum:1 lgm:1 replace:1 analogous:1 occupy:1 shallower:1 know:1 intermediate:1 gnaiw:1 detail:1 comprise:1 three:1 different:1 distinguish:1 specific:1 region:1 lsw:3 see:2 entry:1 point:1 dsow:2 unique:1 production:1 transformation:2 history:2 yashayaev:1 upper:1 one:1 due:1 winter:1 convection:1 partwise:1 recirculates:1 sink:1 spread:2 whole:1 northern:1 recirculation:1 enter:1 western:1 boundary:1 current:1 dwbc:3 seasonal:1 occur:1 every:1 year:1 low:1 denmark:2 strait:2 entrain:2 surround:1 leave:2 sv:2 flow:3 increase:1 cold:1 relatively:1 fresh:1 inward:1 basin:2 third:1 originate:1 iceland:2 scotland:2 southward:1 warm:1 much:1 salty:2 acquire:1 signature:1 pass:1 gibbs:2 fracture:2 zone:2 irminger:1 arranges:1 complex:1 many:1 name:1 northeast:1 reference:1 |@bigram atlantic_ocean:1 conveyor_belt:1 thermohaline_circulation:1 young_dryas:1 global_warming:1 |
2,951 | History_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia | This article is about the history of the territory of Southeast European country. For an overview of the wider Macedonian region see History of the Region of Macedonia. Medieval period At this period the area divided from the Jireček Line was populated from people of Thraco-Roman or Illyro-Roman origins, as well from Hellenized citizens of the Byzantine Empire and Byzantine Greeks. The ancient languages of the local Thraco-Illyrian people had already gone extinct before the arrival of the Slavs, and their cultural influence was highly reduced due to the repeated barbaric invasions on the Balkans during the early Middle Ages, accompanied by persistent hellenization, romanisation and later slavicisation. South Slavic tribes settled in the territory of the present-day Republic of Macedonia in the 6th century. The Slavic settlements were referred to by Byzantine Greek historians as "Sklavines". The Sklavines participated in several assaults against the Byzantine Empire - alone or aided by Bulgars or Avars. Around 680 AD the Bulgar group, led by khan Kuber (who belonged to the same clan as the Danubian Bulgarian khan Asparukh), settled in the Pelagonian plain, and launched campaigns to the region of Thessaloniki. Byzantine Empire under Basil II In the late 7th century Justinian II organized a massive expeditions against the Sklaviniai of the Greek peninsula, in which he reportedly captured over 110,000 Slavs and transferred them to Cappadocia. By the time of Constans II (who also organized campaigns against the Slavs), the significant number of the Slavs of Macedonia were captured and transferred to central Asia Minor where they were forced to recognize the authority of the Byzantine emperor and serve in its ranks. There are no Byzantine records of "Sklavines" after 836/837 as the Slavs of Macedonia were assimilated into the First Bulgarian Empire. Slavic influence in the region strengthened along with the rise of this state, which incorporated entire region to its domain in 837 AD. Saints Cyril and Methodius, Byzantine Greeks, born in Thessaloniki, were the creators of the first Slavic Glagolitic alphabet and Old Church Slavonic language, and also apostles-christianizators of the Slavic world. Their cultural heritage was acquired and developed in medieval Bulgaria, where after 885 the region of Ohrid became significant ecclesiastical center with the nomination of the Saint Clement of Ohrid for "first archbishop in Bulgarian language" with residence in this region. In conjunction with another disciple of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Saint Naum, he created a flourishing Bulgarian cultural center around Ohrid, where over 3000 pupils were taught in the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabet in what is now called Ohrid Literary School. At the end of the 10th century much of what is now Republic of Macedonia became the political and cultural center of the First Bulgarian Empire under tsar Samuil, while the Byzantine emperor Basil II conquered the eastern part of the empire (what is now Bulgaria), including the capital of Preslav, in 972. A new capital was established at Ohrid, which also became the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate. From then on, the Bulgarian culture became an integral part of the Slav culture as a whole. After several decades of almost incessant fighting, Bulgaria came under Byzantine rule in 1018. The whole of Macedonia was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire as Theme of Bulgaria and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was reduced in rank to an archbishopric. Prince Marko In the 13th and 14th century Byzantine control was punctuated by periods of Bulgarian and Serbian rule. For example Konstantin Asen, former nobleman from Skopje ruled as tsar of Bulgaria from 1257 to 1277. Later Skopje became a capital of the Serbian Empire under Stefan Dušan, and after the dissolution of the empire, the area became a domain of independent local Serbian rulers from the Mrnjavčević and Dragaš houses. The domain of the Mrnjavčević house included western parts of the present-day Republic of Macedonia and domains of the Dragaš house included eastern parts. The capital of the state of Mrnjavčević house was Prilep. There are only two known rulers from the Mrnjavčević house - king Vukašin Mrnjavčević and his son, king Marko. King Marko became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire and later died in the Battle of Rovine. Ottoman period Conquered by the Ottoman army in the first half of the 15th century, the region remained a part of the Ottoman Empire for nearly 500 years, during which it gained a substantial Turkish minority, especially in the religious sense of Muslim; some of those Muslims became so through conversions. During the Ottoman rule, Skopje and Monastir (Bitola) were capitals of separate Ottoman provinces (eyalets). The valley of the river Vardar, which was later to become the central area of the Republic of Macedonia, was ruled by the Ottoman Empire prior to the First Balkan War of 1912, with the exception of the brief period in 1878 when it was liberated from Ottoman rule after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, becoming part of Bulgaria. In 1903, a short-lived Kruševo Republic was proclaimed in the south-western part of present-day Republic of Macedonia by the rebels of the Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising. Most of the ethnographers and travellers during Ottoman rule classified Slavic speaking people in Macedonia as Bulgarians. Examples include the 17th Century traveller Evliya Celebi in his Seyahatname - Book of Travels to the Ottoman census of Hilmi Pasha in 1904 and later. However, they also remarked that the language spoken in Macedonia had somewhat of a distinctive character — often described as a "Western Bulgarian dialect". Evidence also exists that certain Macedonian Slavs, particularly those in the northern regions, considered themselves as Serbs and the Greek Idea predominated in southern Macedonia where it was supported by substantial part of the Slavic population. Although references are made referring to Slavs in Macedonia being labeled as 'Bulgarians', some scholars suggest that ethnicity in Medieval times was more fluid than what we see it to be today, an understanding derived from nineteenth century nationalistic ideals of a homogeneous nation-state. Walter Pohl. (p. 13-24 in: Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings, Ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, Blackwell Publishers, 1998)Ethnic boundaries are not static, and even less so in a period of migrations. It is possible to change one's ethnicity... Even more frequently, in the Early Middle Ages, people lived under circumstances of ethnic ambiguity. John V A Fine. When Ethnicity Did Not Matter in the Balkans. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11414-x. Pg 3 most South Slavs metioned with specific national-type names mentioned in our sources were such by political affiliation, namely that the individuals named so served the given state's ruler, and cannot be considered ethnic Serbs, Croats or whatever . 1912-1944 Map of Yugoslavia in 1919 showing the provisional borders in the aftermath of World War II before the treaties of Neuilly, Trianon and Rapallo The region was captured by Serbia during First Balkan War of 1912 and was subsequently annexed to Serbia in the post-war peace treaties. It had no administrative autonomy and was called Južna Srbija ("Southern Serbia") or Stara Srbija ("Old Serbia"). After the First World War, the Kingdom of Serbia joined the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In 1929, the kingdom was officially renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and was divided into provinces called banovinas. The territory of Vardar Banovina had Skopje as its capital and it included what eventually became the modern Republic of Macedonia. Map of the Vardar Banovina During World War II, the Vardar Banovina was occupied between 1941 and 1944 by Italian-ruled Albania, which annexed the Albanian-populated western regions, and pro-German Bulgaria, which occupied the remainder. The occupying powers persecuted those inhabitants of the province who opposed the regime; this prompted some of them to join the Communist resistance movement of Josip Broz Tito. However, the Bulgarian army was partially recruited from the local population, which formed as much as 40% to 60% of the soldiers in certain battalions. 1944-1949 Following World War II, Yugoslavia was reconstituted as a federal state under the leadership of Tito's Yugoslav Communist Party. When the former Vardar province was established in 1944, most of its territory was transferred into a separate republic while the northernmost parts of the province remained with Serbia. In 1946, the new republic was granted federal status as an autonomous "People's Republic of Macedonia" within the new Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In the 1963 Constitution of Yugoslavia it was slightly renamed, to bring it in line with the other Yugoslav republics, as the Socialist Republic of Macedonia. Greece was concerned by the initiatives of the Yugoslav government, as they were seen as pretext for future territorial claims against the Greek province of "Northern Greece" which formed the bulk of historical Macedonia and was also officially called 'Macedonia'. The Yugoslav authorities also promoted the development of the Macedonians' ethnic identity and Macedonian language. The Macedonian language was codified in 1944 (Keith 2003), from the Slavic dialect spoken around Veles. This further angered both Greece and Bulgaria, because of the possible territorial claims of the new states to the Greek and Bulgarian parts of the region of Macedonia received after the Balkan Wars. The Socialist Republic of Macedonia highlighted in red within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. During the Greek Civil War (1944-1949), many Macedonians (regardless of ethnicity) participated in the ELAS resistance movement organized by the Greek Communist Party. ELAS and Yugoslavia were on good terms until 1949, when they split due to Tito's lack of allegiance to Stalin (cf. Cominform). After the end of the war, the ELAS fighters who took refuge in southern Yugoslavia and Bulgaria were not all permitted to return to Greece: only those who considered themselves Greeks were allowed, whereas those who considered themselves Bulgarians or Macedonians were barred. These events also contributed to the bad state of Yugoslav-Greek relations in Macedonia. Road to Republic On September 8, 1991, the Socialist Republic of Macedonia held a referendum that established its independence from Yugoslavia, under the name of the Republic of Macedonia. The question of the referendum was formulated as "Would you support independent Macedonia with the right to enter future union of sovereign states of Yugoslavia?" (In Macedonian: Дали сте за самостојна Македонија со право да стапи во иден сојуз на суверени држави на Југославија). Bulgaria was the first country to recognize the new state under its constitutional name. However, international recognition of the new country was delayed by Greece's objection to the use of what it considered a Hellenic name and national symbols, as well as controversial clauses in the Republic's constitution. To compromise, the United Nations recognised the state under the name of "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" in 1993 Greece was still dissatisfied and it imposed a trade blockade in February 1994. The sanctions were lifted in September 1995 after Macedonia changed its flag and aspects of its constitution that were perceived as granting it the right to intervene in the affairs of other countries. The two neighbours immediately went ahead with normalizing their relations, but the state's name remains a source of local and international controversy. The usage of each name remains controversial to supporters of the other. After the state was admitted to the United Nations under the temporary reference "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia", other international organisations adopted the same convention. More than half of the UN's member states have recognised the country as the Republic of Macedonia, including the United States of America while the rest use the temporary reference "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" or, or have not established any diplomatic relations with Macedonia. In 1999, the Kosovo War led to 340,000 Albanian refugees from Kosovo fleeing into the Macedonia, greatly disrupting normal life in the region and threatening to upset the balance between Macedonians and Albanians. Refugee camps were set up in Macedonia. Meanwhile, Athens rallied behind Skopje and allowed Greek Macedonia to be used as a transit corridor for NATO forces moving to the region ahead of a possible invasion of Serbia. Thessaloniki became the main depot for humanitarian aid to the region. The Republic itself did not become involved in the conflict. In the event, the Serbian government under president Slobodan Milošević capitulated and the refugees were allowed home under UN protection. However, the war increased tensions and relations between ethnic Macedonians and Albanian Macedonians became strained. On the positive side, Athens and Ankara presented a united front of 'non-involvement'. In Greece, there was a strong reaction against NATO and the United States but the small anti-war political parties lost, rather than gained, support. 2000s see: 2001 Macedonia conflict Republic of Macedonia In the spring of 2001, ethnic Albanian insurgents calling themselves the National Liberation Army (some of whom were former members of the Kosovo Liberation Army) took up arms in the west of the Republic of Macedonia. They demanded that the constitution be rewritten to enshrine certain ethnic Albanian interests such as language rights. The guerillas received support from Albanians in NATO-controlled Kosovo and ethnic Albanian guerrillas in the demilitarized zone between Kosovo and the rest of Serbia. The fighting was concentrated in and around Tetovo, the fifth largest city in the republic. After a joint NATO-Serb crackdown on Albanian guerillas in Kosovo, European Union (EU) officials were able to negotiate a cease-fire in June. The government would give ethnic Albanians greater civil rights, and the guerilla groups would voluntarily relinquish their weapons to NATO monitors. This agreement was a success, and in August 2001 3,500 NATO soldiers conducted "Operations Essential Harvest" to retrieve the arms. Directly after the operation finished in September, the NLA officially dissolved itself. Ethnic relations have since improved significantly, although hardliners on both sides have been a continued cause for concern and some low level violence continues particularly directed against police. On February 26, 2004, President Boris Trajkovski died in a plane crash near Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The results of the official investigation revealed that the cause of the plane accident was procedural mistakes by the crew, committed during the approach to land at Mostar airport. In March 2004, the Republic of Macedonia submitted an application for membership of the EU. On December 17 2005, EU Presidency conclusions listed the Republic of Macedonia as an accession candidate. It is expected that the EU will announce in late 2006 the date for commencement of EU accession negotiations. In August 2005, Poland became the 112th country, out of 191 total members of UN, to recognize Republic of Macedonia under its constitutional name. A permanent agreement between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia's name has not yet been reached. The latest publicized proposal was 'Republika Makedonija-Skopje' (with that spelling), but was rejected by the Republic of Macedonia. The UN mediator Matthew Nimetz proposed another form several months afterwards, proposing that the name “Republika Makedonija” should be used by the countries that have recognized the country under that name and that Greece should use the formula “Republika Makedonija – Skopje”, while the international institutions and organizations should use the name “Republika Makedonia” in Latin alphabet transcription, but this form was rejected by Greece. See also History of Europe History of the Balkans Macedonia (region) Yugoslavia Vardar Banovina Republic of Macedonia Macedonians Macedonism Military history of the Republic of Macedonia References Notes External links The Holocaust in Macedonia, 1941-1945 7,000 Jews were deported from Bulgarian annexed Macedonia. 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2,952 | Timeline_of_chemical_element_discoveries | The discovery of the elements known to exist today is presented here in chronological order. The elements are listed generally in the order in which each was first defined as the pure element, as the exact date of discovery of most elements cannot be accurately defined. There are no written records for the discoveries of the first few elements that were known in antiquity. Given is each element's name, atomic number, year of first report, name of the discoverer, and some notes related to the discovery. Periodic Table of elements Unrecorded discoveries Z Name Earliest use Oldestremainingsample Discoverers Place ofoldestsampleNotes29Copper9000 BCE6000 BCEMiddle EastAnatoliaCopper was probably the first metal mined and crafted by man. Earliest estimates of discovery of copper suggest around 9000 BCE in the Middle East. It is one of the most important materials to humans throughout the entire copper and bronze ages. Copper beads dating from 6000 BCE were found in Çatal Höyük, Anatolia. CSA - Discovery Guides, A Brief History of Copper 79Goldbefore 6000 BCE5500 BCEMiddle EastEgyptArchaeologists suggest that first use of gold began with the first civilizations in the Middle East. It may have been the first metal used by humans. Oldest remaining gold jewelry is that in the tomb of Egyptian Queen Zer. 82Lead7000 BCE3800 BCENear EastAbydosIt is believed that lead smelting began at least 9000 years ago, and the oldest known artifact of lead is statuette found at the temple of Osiris on the site of Abydos dated circa 3800 BC. Lead was first purified and clearly differentiated from tin by medieval Middle Eastern chemists 47Silverbefore 5000 BCE~4000 BCEAsia Minor?Estimated to have happened to shortly after that of copper and gold. 47 Silver 26Ironbefore 5000 BCE4000BCE?EgyptThere is evidence that iron is known from before 5000 BCE. The oldest known iron objects used by humans are some beads made from meteorite iron, in Egypt, made about 4000BCE. Discovery of smelting around 3000 BCE lead to the prominence of use of iron for tools and weapons, which lead to the start of iron age around 1200 BCE. 6Carbon3750 BCE?Egyptians and Sumerians?Earliest known use of charcoal for the reduction of copper, zinc and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze, by the Egyptians and Sumerians. Diamonds were probably known as early as 2500 BCE First true chemical analyses were made in the 18th century CE, and in 1789 was listed by Antoine Lavoisier as an element. 50Tin3500 BCE2000 BCE??First smelt in combination with copper around 3500 BCE to produce bronze and brass. Oldest artifacts date around 2000 BCE. First purified and clearly differentiated from lead by medieval Middle Eastern chemists (ca. 700–1400 CE).16Sulfurbefore 2000 BCE?Chinese/Indians?First used at least 4000 years ago. Recognized as an element by Antoine Lavoisier in 1777.80Mercurybefore 2000 BCE1500 BCEChinese/IndiansEgyptKnown to ancient Chinese and Hindus before 2000 BC, and found in Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BCE. 30 Zinc before 1000 BCE1000 BCEIndian metallurgistsIndian subcontinentExtracted as a metal since antiquity by Indian metallurgists before 1000 BCE, but the true nature of this metal was not understood in ancient times. Identified as a unique metal by the metallurgist Rasaratna Samuccaya in 800 CE Craddock, P. T. et al. (1983), "Zinc production in medieval India", World Archaeology 15 (2), Industrial Archaeology, p. 13 and by the alchemist Paracelsus in 1526. Isolated by Andreas Sigismund Marggraf in 1746. Recorded discoveries Z Elementname <small>Observed orpredicted Report ofcharacterization(widely recognized) Isolation(widely known) <small>Observer <small>Person whowidely reported firstcharacterization(usually accepted discoverer) <small>Firstisolator Notes33Arsenic800 CE (ca.)?800 CE (ca.)GeberGeber or A.MagnusGeberDiscovered and isolated by Geber, who described its preparation in his Liber Fornacum, ca. 800 CE. George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science (cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan) Albertus Magnus was the first European to isolate the element in 1250. In 1649, Johann Schröder published two ways of preparing elemental arsenic.51Antimony800 (ca.)800 (ca.)GeberGeberDiscovered and isolated by Geber ca. 800 CE. Basilius Valentinus was the first European to describe the element around 1450. First description of a procedure for isolating elemental antimony in 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio.83Bismuth800 (ca.)1753GeberC.F.GeoffroyDiscovered by Geber ca. 800. Robert Briffault (1938), The Making of Humanity, p. 195 Later described in writings attributed to Basilius Valentinus around 1450. Definitively identified by Claude François Geoffroy in 1753.15Phosphorus16691669H.BrandH.BrandPrepared from urine, it was the first element to be chemically discovered. 27Cobalt1732?G.Brandt?Proved that the blue color of glass is due to a new kind of metal and not bismuth as thought previously. 78Platinum17351735A.de UlloaA. de UlloaFirst description of a metal found in South American gold was in 1557 by Julius Caesar Scaliger. Ulloa published his findings in 1748, but Sir Charles Wood also investigated the metal in 1741. First reference to it as a new metal was made by William Brownrigg in 1750. 28Nickel17511751A.F.CronstedtA.F.CronstedtBy attempting to extract copper from the mineral known as "fake copper" (now known as niccolite). 12Magnesium17551808J.BlackH.Davy Black observed that magnesia alba (MgO) was not quicklime (CaO). Davy isolated it electrochemically from magnesia. 1Hydrogen17661500(ca.)H.CavendishParacelsusCavendish was the first to distinguish from other gases, although Paracelsus around 1500, Robert Boyle, and Joseph Priestley had observed its production by reacting strong acids with metals. Lavoisier named it in 1793. 8Oxygen17711771C.W.ScheeleC.W.ScheeleObtained by heating mercuric oxide and nitrates in 1771, but published his findings in 1777. Joseph Priestley also prepared this new air by 1774, but only Lavoisier recognized it as a true element and named it in 1777. 7Nitrogen17721772D.RutherfordD.RutherfordHe showed that the air in which animals had breathed, even after removal of the exhaled carbon dioxide, was no longer able to burn a candle. Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley also studied the element about the same time, and Lavoisier named it in 1775-6. 17Chlorine17741774C.W.ScheeleC.W.ScheeleObtained it from hydrochloric acid, but thought it was an oxide. Only in 1808 Humphry Davy recognized it as an element. 25Manganese17701774T.O.BergmanJ.G.GahnDistinguished pyrolusite as the calx of a new metal. Ignatius Gottfred Kaim also discovered the new metal in 1770 and Scheele in 1774 too. It was isolated by reduction of manganese dioxide with carbon. 56Barium17721808C.W.ScheeleH.DavyScheele distinguished a new earth (BaO) in pyrolusite and Davy isolated the metal by elecrolysis. 42Molybdenum17781781C.W.ScheeleP.J.HjelmScheele recognised as a constituent of molybdena. 52Tellurium17821795?F.-J.M. vonReichensteinM.H.KlaprothMuller observed it as an impurity in gold ores from Transylvania. 74Tungsten17811783T.BergmanJ.J.Elhuyar, J.José &F.ElhuyarBergman obtained from scheelite an oxide of a new element. The Elhuyars obtained tungstic acid from wolframite and reduced it with charcoal. 38Strontium17871808W.Cruikshank H.DavyCruikshank and Adair Crawford in 1790 concluded that strontianite contained a new earth. It was eventually isolated electrochemically in 1808 by Humphry Davy. 1789A.Lavoisier The first modern list of chemical elements, containing among others, 23 elements of those known then. He also redefined the term "element". Until him, all metals except mercury were not considered elements.40Zirconium17891824M.H.KlaprothJ.J.Berzelius Klaproth identified the a new element in zirconia. 92Uranium17891841 M.H.KlaprothE.-M.PéligotMistakenly identified an uranium oxide obtained from pitchblende as the element itself and named it after the recently discovered planet Uranus. 22Titanium17911825W.GregorJ.J.BerzeliusGregor found an oxide of a new metal in ilmenite and Martin Heinrich Klaproth independently discovered the element in rutile in 1795 and named it. Pure metallic form was obtained only in 1910 by Matthew A. Hunter. 39Yttrium17941840 J.GadolinC.G.MosanderDiscovered in gadolinite, but Mosander showed later that it contained more elements. 24Chromium17971798L.N.VauquelinL.N.VauquelinDiscovered and isolated from crocoite. 4Beryllium17981828L.N.VauquelinF.Wöhler&A.BussyVauquelin discovered the oxide in beryl and emerald, and Klaproth suggested the present name around 1808. 23Vanadium18011830A.M.del RíoN.G.SefströmRío found the metal in vanadinite but retracted the claim after Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils disputed it. Sefström isolated and named it, and later it was shown that Río had been right in the first place. 41Niobium18011864C.HatchettC.W.BlomstrandHatchett found the element in columbite ore and named it columbium. Heinrich Rose proved in 1844 that the element is distinct from tantalum, and renamed it niobium which was officially accepted in 1949. 73Tantalum1802?A.G.Ekeberg?Ekeberg found another element in minerals similar to columbite and in 1844, Heinrich Rose proved that it was distinct from niobium. 46Palladium18031803W.H.WollastonW.H.WollastonWollaston discovered it in samples of platinum from South America, but did not publish his results immediately. He had intended to name it after the newly discovered asteroid, Ceres, but by the time he published his results in 1804, cerium had taken that name. Wollaston named it after the more recently discovered asteroid Pallas. 58Cerium18031839M.H.Klaproth,J.J.Berzelius &W.HisingerC.G.MosanderBerzelius and Hisinger discovered the element in ceria and named it after the newly discovered asteroid (then considered a planet), Ceres. Klaproth discovered it simultaneously and independently in some tantalum samples. Mosander proved later that the samples of all three researchers had at least another element in it, lanthanum. 76Osmium18031803S.TennantS.TennantTennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium. 77Iridium18031803S.TennantS.TennantTennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium, and published the iridium results in 1804. 45Rhodium18041804W.H.WollastonW.H.WollastonWollaston discovered and isolated it from crude platinum samples from South America. 19Potassium18071807H.DavyH.DavyDavy discovered it by using electrolysis on potash. 11Sodium18071807H.DavyH.DavyDavy discovered it a few days after potassium, by using electrolysis on soda. 20Calcium18081808H.DavyH.DavyDavy discovered the metal by electrolysis of quicklime.5Boron18081808J.L.Gay-Lussac &L.J.ThénardH.DavyOn June 30, 1808, Lussac and Thénard announced a new element in sedative salt, and nine days later Davy announced the isolation of metallic boron. 53Iodine18111811B.CourtoisB.CourtoisCourtois discovered it in the ashes of sea weed. 3Lithium18171817J.A.ArfwedsonJ.A.ArfwedsonArfwedson discovered the alkali in petalite. 48Cadmium18171817K.S.L Hermann,F.Stromeyer&J.C.H. RoloffK.S.L Hermann,F. Stromeyer,J.C.H. RoloffAll three found an unknown metal in a sample of zinc oxide from Silesia, but the name that Stromeyer gave became the accepted one. 34Selenium18171817J.J.Berzelius &J.G.GahnJ.J.Berzelius &J.G.GahnWhile working with lead they discovered a substance that they thought it is tellurium, and after realizing it is different. 14Silicon18241824J.J.BerzeliusJ.J.BerzeliusHumphry Davy thought in 1800 that silica is an element, not a compound, and in 1808 suggested the present name. In 1811 Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard probably prepared impure silicon, but Berzelius is credited with the discovery for obtaining the pure element in 1824. 13Aluminium18251825H.C.ØrstedH.C.ØrstedAntoine Lavoisier predicted in 1787 that alumine is the oxide of an undiscovered element, and in 1808 Humphry Davy tried to decompose it, and although failed, suggested the present name. Hans Christian Ørsted was the first to isolate metallic aluminum in 1825. 35Bromine18251825A.J.Balard,L.GmelinA.J.Balard &L.GmelinThey both discovered the element in the Autumn of 1825, and published the results next year. 90Thorium1829?J.J.Berzelius?Berzelius obtained the oxide of a new earth in thorite. 57Lanthanum1838?C.G.Mosander?Mosander found a new element in samples of ceria and published his results in 1842, but later, he showed that this lanthana contained four more elements. 68Erbium1842?C.G.Mosander?Mosander managed to split the old yttria into yttria proper and erbia, and later terbia too. 65Terbium18421842C.G.MosanderC.G.MosanderIn 1842 Mosander split yttria into two more earths, erbia and terbia 44Ruthenium18071807J.SniadeckiJ.SniadeckiSniadecki isolated the element in 1807 but his work was not ratified. Gottfried Wilhelm Osann thought he found three new metals in Russian platinum samples, and in 1844, Karl Karlovich Klaus confirmed that there was a new element. The latter is usually recognized as the discoverer of the element. 55Caesium18601882R.W.Bunsen &G.R.KirchhoffC.SetterbergBunsen and Kirchhoff were the first to suggest finding new elements by spectrum analysis. They discovered caesium by its two blue emission lines in a sample of Dürkheim mineral water. The pure metal was eventually isolated in 1962 by Setterberg. Ceasium 37Rubidium1861?R.W.Bunsen &G.R.KirchhoffHevesyBunsen and Kirchhoff discovered it just a few months after caesium, by observing new spectral lines in the mineral lepidolite. Bunsen never obtained a pure sample of the metal, which was later obtained by Hervesy. 81Thallium18611862W.CrookesC.-A.LamyShortly after the discovery of rubidium, Crookes found a new green line in a selenium sample and later that year, Lamy found the element to be metallic. 49Indium18631867F.Reich &H.T.RichterT.RichterRiach and Richter First identified it in sphalerite by its birght indigo-blue spectroscopic emission line. Richter isolated the metal several years later. 2Helium18681895P.Janssen &J.N.LockyerW.Ramsay,P.T.Cleve&N.LangletJanssen and Lockyer observed independently a yellow spectral line in the solar spectrum that did not match any other element. Years later, Ramsay, Cleve, and Langlet observed independently the element trapped in clevite about the same time. 1869<center> D.I.MendeleevMendeleev arranges the 63 elements known at that time into the first modern periodic table and correctly predicts several others.31Gallium1875?P.E.L.deBoisbaudranP.E.L.de BoisbaudranBoisbaudran observed on a Pyrenea blende sample some emission lines corresponding to the eka-aluminum that was predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 and subsequently isolated the element by electrolysis. 70Ytterbium1878?J.C.G. deMarignac?In October 22, 1878, Marignac reported splitting terbia in two new earths, terbia proper and ytterbia. 67Holmium1878?M.Delafontaine ?Delafontaine found it in samarskite and next year, Per Teodor Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium. 69Thulium18791879P.T.CleveP.T.CleveCleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium. 21Scandium18791879L.F.NilsonL.F.NilsonNilson split Marignac's ytterbia into pure one and a new element that matched 1871 Mendeleev's predicted eka-boron. 62Samarium18791879P.E.L. deBoisbaudranP.E.L. deBoisbaudranBoisbaudran noted a new earth in samarskite and named it after the mineral. 64Gadolinium18801886J.C.G. deMarignacF.L. deBoisbaudranMarignac initially observed the new earth in terbia and later, Boisbaudran obtained a pure sample from samarskite. 59Praseodymium1885?C.A.von Welsbach?Von Welsbach discovered two new distinct elements in ceria: praseodymium and neodymium. 60Neodymium1885?C.A.von Welsbach?Von Welsbach discovered two new distinct elements in ceria: praseodymium and neodymium. 66Dysprosium1886?P.E.L. deBoisbaudran?De Boisbaudran found a new earth in erbia.32Germanium1886?C.A.Winkler?In February 1886 Winkler found in argyrodite the eka-silicon that Mendeleev had predicted in 1871. 9Fluorine18861886H.MoissanH.MoissanLavoisier predicted an element obtained from hydrofluoric acid and between 1812 and 1886 many researchers tried to obtain this element. It was eventually isolated by Moissan. 18Argon18941894Lord Rayleigh &W.RamsayLord Rayleigh &W.RamsayThey discovered the gas by comparing the molecular weights of nitrogen prepared by liquefaction from air and nitrogen prepared by chemical means. It is the first noble gas to be isolated. 36Krypton18981898W.Ramsay &M.W.TraversW.Ramsay &M.W.TraversOn May 30, 1898, Ramsay separated a third noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point. 10Neon18981898W.Ramsay &M.W.TraversW.Ramsay &M.W.TraversIn June 1898 Ramsay separated a new noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.54Xenon18981898W.Ramsay &M.W.TraversW.Ramsay &M.W.TraversOn July 12, 1898 Ramsay separated a third noble gas within three weeks, from liquid argon by difference in boiling point. 84Polonium18981902 P.Curie &M.CurieW.MarckwaldIn an experiment done on July 13, 1898, the Curies noted an increased radioactivity in the uranium obtained from pitchblende which they assigned to an unknown element. 88Radium18981902P.Curie &M.CurieM. CurieThe Curies reported on December 26, 1898, a new element different from polonium, which Marie later isolated from uraninite. 86Radon18981910F.E.DornW.Ramsay &R.Whytlaw-GrayDorn discovered a radioactive gas resulting from the radioactive decay of radium, isolated later by Ramsay and Gray. 89Actinium18991899A.-L.DebierneA.-L.DebierneDebierne obtained from pitchblende a substance that had similar properties to thorium. 63Europium18961901E.DemarcayE.DemarcayDemarçay found spectral lines of a new element in Lecoq's samarium, and separated this element several years later. 71Lutetium19061906G.Urbain,C.A. vonWelsbachG. Urbain &C.A. von WelsbachUrbain and von Welsbach proved independently that the old ytterbium did also contain a new element. 75Rhenium19081908M.OgawaM.OgawaOgawa found it in thorianite but assigned it is element 43 instead of 75 and named it nipponium. http://www.maik.ru/abstract/radchem/0/radchem0535_abstract.pdf In 1922 Walter Noddack, Ida Eva Tacke and Otto Berg announced its separation from gadolinite and gave it the present name. 72Hafnium19111922G.Urbain,V.I.VernadskijD.Coster &G. vonHevesyUrbain claimed to have found the element in rare-earth residues, while Vernadskij independently found it in orthite. Neither claims was confirmed due to the World War I. After it, Coster and Hevesy found it by X-ray spectroscopic analysis in Norwegian zircon. It is the last stable element to be discovered.91Protactinium1913?O.H.Göhring,K.Fajans?The two obtained the first isotope of this element that had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as a member of the natural decay of 238U. Originally isolated in 1900 by William Crookes. 43Technetium19371937C.Perrier,E.SegrèC.Perrier & E.SegrèThe two discovered a new element in a molybdenum that was used in a cyclotron, the first synthetic element to be discovered. It had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as eka-manganese. History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers, Individual Element Names and History, "Technetium" 87Francium19391939M.PereyM.PereyPerey discovered it as a decay product of 227Ac. Francium is the last element to be discovered in nature, rather than synthesized in the lab, although some of the "synthetic" elements that were discovered later (plutonium, neptunium, astatine) were eventually found in trace amounts in nature as well.85Astatine1940?D.R.Corson,K.R.Mackenzie,E.Segrè?Obtained by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles. Later determined to occur naturally in minuscule quantitites (<25 grams in earth's crust).93Neptunium1940?E.M. McMillan,P.H.Abelson?Obtained by irradiating uranium with neutrons, it is the first transuranium element discovered. 94Plutonium1940-1?G.T.Seaborg,Arthur C. Wahl,J.K.Kennedy,E.M.McMillan?Prepared by bombardment of uranium with deuterons. 95Americium1944?G.T.Seaborg,R.A.James,L.O.Morgan &A.Ghiorso?Prepared by irradiating plutonium with neutrons during the Manhattan Project. 96Curium1944?G.T.Seaborg,R.A.James,A.Ghiorso?Prepared by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles during the Manhattan Project 61Promethium19421945C.S.Wu,E.G.Segrè,H.A.BetheCharles D. Coryell, Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin, Harold G. RichterIt was probably first prepared in 1942 by bombarding neodymium and praseodymium with neutrons, but separation of the element could not be carried out. Isolation was performed under the Manhattan Project in 1945.97Berkelium1949?S.G.Thompson,A.Ghiorso,G.T.Seaborg?Created by bombardment of americium with alpha particles. 98Californium1950?S.G.Thompson,K.Street,Jr.,A.Ghiorso,G.T.Seaborg?Bombardment of curium with alpha particles. 99Einsteinium19521952A.Ghiorso<small>et al. (Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory, and University of California)Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons and kept secret for several years. 100Fermium1952?A.Ghiorso<small>et al. (Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory, and University of California)Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons and kept secret for several years. 101Mendelevium1955?A.Ghiorso,B.G.Harvey,G.R.Choppin,S.G.Thompson,G.T.Seaborg?Prepared by bombardment of einsteinium with helium. 102Nobelium1958?A.Ghiorso,T.Sikkeland,J.R.Walton,G.T.Seaborg?First prepared by bombardment of curium with carbon atoms. 103Lawrencium1961?A.Ghiorso,T.Sikkeland,A.E.Larsh,R.M.Latimer ?First prepared by bombardment of californium with boron atoms. 104Rutherfordium1964?G.N.Flerov<small>et al. at JINR in Dubna?Prepared by bombardment of plutonium with neon atoms. 105Dubnium1968?G.N.Flerov<small>et al. at JINR in Dubna?By bombardment of americium with neon atoms. 106Seaborgium1974?A.Ghiorso<small>et al. in University of California, Berkeley?Collisions of californium-249 with oxygen atoms. 107Bohrium1981?G.Münzenberg<small>et al. GSI in Darmstadt?Obtained by bombarding bismuth with chromium. 109Meitnerium1982?G.Münzenberg,P.Armbruster<small>et al. GSI in Darmstadt?Bombardment of bismuth with iron atoms. 108Hassium1984?G.Münzenberg,P.Armbruster<small>et al. at GSI in Darmstadt?Bombardment of lead with iron atoms 110Darmstadtium1994?S.Hofmann<small>et al. at GSI in Darmstadt?Bombardment of lead with nickel. 111Roentgenium1994?S.Hofmann<small>et al. at GSI in Darmstadt?Bombardment of bismuth with nickel. Unconfirmed discoveries Z Name Discoveryyear Discoverer Notes112Ununbium1996S. Hofmann, Viktor Ninov et al., GSI114Ununquadium1999Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna 116Ununhexium2000Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna 118Ununoctium2002 Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 113Ununtrium2003 Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 115Ununpentium2003 Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 122Unbibium2008 Hebrew University of Jerusalem Disputed claim: A group led by Amnon Marinov at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem claims to have found single atoms of unbibium in naturally occurring thorium deposits at a concentration of between 10-11 and 10-12. If this is accurate, unbibium would be the first naturally occurring element to be discovered in nature since Francium. References External links http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/content/elements.html History of Elements of the Periodic Table Timeline of Element Discoveries | Timeline_of_chemical_element_discoveries |@lemmatized discovery:13 element:75 know:12 exist:1 today:1 present:5 chronological:1 order:2 list:3 generally:1 first:34 define:2 pure:7 exact:1 date:5 cannot:1 accurately:1 write:1 record:2 antiquity:2 give:3 name:25 atomic:1 number:1 year:11 report:5 discoverer:6 note:3 relate:1 periodic:3 table:3 unrecorded:1 z:4 early:4 use:10 oldestremainingsample:1 place:2 bcemiddle:2 eastanatoliacopper:1 probably:4 metal:22 mine:1 craft:1 man:1 estimate:2 copper:9 suggest:6 around:9 bce:14 middle:4 east:2 one:3 important:1 material:1 human:3 throughout:1 entire:1 bronze:3 age:2 bead:2 find:23 çatal:1 höyük:1 anatolia:1 csa:1 guide:1 brief:1 history:5 eastegyptarchaeologists:1 gold:5 begin:2 civilization:1 may:2 old:6 remain:1 jewelry:1 tomb:2 egyptian:4 queen:1 zer:1 bcenear:1 eastabydosit:1 believe:1 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2,953 | Inn | A 19th century inn in Vălenii de Munte, Romania (currently in Village Museum, Bucharest) Inns are generally establishments or buildings where travelers can seek lodging and, usually, food and drink. They are typically located in the country or along a highway. History and origins American scenery—the inn on the roadside (1872) Found in Europe, they possibly first sprang up when the Romans built their system of Roman roads two millennia ago. Some inns in Europe are several centuries old. In addition to providing for the needs of travellers, inns traditionally acted as community gathering places. "Inn" in more recent times has often come to denote a business serving alcoholic beverages, especially in North America, where they are usually alcohol-serving restaurants that have never provided lodging or serviced the needs of travellers. In Europe, it is the provision of accommodation, if anything, that now differentiates inns from taverns, alehouses and pubs. The latter tend only to supply alcohol (although in the UK the conditions of their licence sometimes require them to have a nominal supply of food and soft drinks). Inns tend to be grander and more long-lived establishments. Famous London examples include the George and The Tabard. There is however no longer a formal distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment, and many pubs will use the name "inn", either simply because they are long established and maybe were once a Coaching inn, or to summon up a particular kind of image; however, originally an Inn had to provide not only food and lodging, but also stabling and fodder for the traveller's horse(s) and for fresh horses for the Mail coach. The original functions of an inn are now usually split among separate establishments, such as hotels, lodges, and motels, all of which might provide the traditional functions of an inn but which focus more on lodging customers than on other services; public houses, which are primarily alcohol-serving establishments; and restaurants and taverns, which serve food and drink. (Hotels often contain restaurants and also often serve complimentary breakfast and meals, thus providing all of the functions of traditional inns.) In North America, the lodging aspect of the word "inn" lives on in hotel brand names like Holiday Inn, and in some state laws that refer to lodging operators as innkeepers. German Language The German words for "inn", "innkeeper", and "innkeeping" illustrate the historical importance of inns. An innkeeper is Wirt (a host), the inn itself is a Wirtshaus (a host's house), and innkeeping is Wirtschaft. This last word, Wirtschaft, has departed from its meaning as simple hospitality and is now the German term for business and the economy; the latter usage may have derived by analogy, as the word "economy" itself is the Greek term for housekeeping (from oikos, "house," and nomos, "law"). Taken one step further, economics is Wirtschaftswissenschaft, literally the "science of the economy," or (still more literally) the "science of innkeeping." Inns of Court The Inns of Court were originally ordinary inns where lawyers met to do business, but have become institutions of the legal profession in London. See also Bed and breakfast, B&B Public house Coaching inn Caravanserai Pub names Ryokan (inn) List of lodging types External links A Brief History of the British Pub Congleton's ancient Inn Signs The Lost Pubs Project: Lost and closed pubs of the UK. 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2,954 | Nissan_Motor_Company | , shortened to Nissan is a multinational automaker headquartered in Japan. It was formerly a core member of the Nissan Group, but has become more independent after its restructuring under Carlos Ghosn (CEO). It formerly marketed vehicles under the "Datsun" brand name and is one of the largest car manufacturers. The company's main offices are located in the Ginza area of Chūō, Tokyo. In 1999, Nissan entered an alliance with Renault S.A. of France, which owns 44.4% of Nissan as of 2008. Nissan is among the top three Asian (also known as the Japanese Big 3 Automakers) rivals of the "Big Three" in the U.S. Currently they are the third largest Japanese car manufacturer. It also manufactures the Infiniti luxury brand. The Nissan VQ engines, of V6 configuration, have featured among Ward's 10 Best Engines for 14 straight years, since the award's inception. For the truck and bus maker "Nissan Diesel," it is a separate company from Nissan Motors, please see UD instead. The pronunciation of its name is different in different markets. In the U.S., the brand is , while in the UK it is . In Japanese, it is . History Beginnings of Datsun name from 1914 The new car's name was an acronym of the company's partners' family names: . Nissan Model 70 Phaeton, 1938It was renamed to Kwaishinsha Motorcar Co. in 1918, and again to DAT Motorcar Co. in 1925. DAT Motors built trucks in addition to the DAT and Datsun passenger cars. The vast majority of its output was trucks, as there was almost no consumer market for cars at the time. Beginning in 1918, the first DAT trucks were produced for the military market. It was the low demand of the military market in the 1920s that forced DAT to merge in 1926 with Japan's 2nd most successful truck maker, Jitsuyo Motors. In 1926 the Tokyo-based DAT Motors merged with the Osaka-based a.k.a. Jitsuyo Motors (established 1919, as a Kubota subsidiary) to become in Osaka until 1932. New HQ building under construction(April, 2008) In 1931, DAT came out with a new smaller car, the first "Datson", meaning "Son of DAT". Later in 1933 after Nissan took control of DAT Motors, the last syllable of Datson was changed to "sun", because "son" also means "loss" (損) in Japanese, hence the name . Cusumano page 33 In 1933, the company name was Nipponized to and was moved to Yokohama. Nissan name first used in 1930s First President Yoshisuke Aikawa in 1939 In 1928, Yoshisuke Aikawa founded the holding company Nippon Sangyo (Japan Industries or Nippon Industries). "The name 'Nissan' originated during the 1930s as an abbreviation" Cusumano pp 28 used on the Tokyo stock market for Nippon Sangyo. This company was the famous Nissan "Zaibatsu" (combine) which included Tobata Casting and Hitachi. At this time Nissan controlled foundries and auto parts businesses, but Aikawa did not enter automobile manufacturing until 1933. Cusumano pp 28, 30, 33 Nissan would eventually grow to include 74 firms, and to be the fourth-largest combine in Japan during World War II. Cusumano pp 28, 30 In 1931, Aikawa purchased controlling(?) shares in DAT Motors, and then in 1933 it merged Tobata Casting's automobile parts department with DAT Motors. As Tobata Casting was a Nissan company, this was the beginning of Nissan's automobile manufacturing. Cusumano pp 30. Nissan Motors founded in 1934 In 1934, Aikawa "separated the expanded automobile parts division of Tobata Casting and incorporated it as a new subsidiary, which he named Nissan Motor (Nissan)". . The shareholders of the new company however were not enthusiastic about the prospects of the automobile in Japan, so Aikawa bought out all the Tobata Casting shareholders (using capital from Nippon Industries) in June, 1934. At this time Nissan Motors effectively became owned by Nippon Sangyo and Hitachi. Cusumano, page 37 Nissan built trucks, airplanes, and engines for the Japanese military. The company's main plant was moved to China after land there was captured by Japan. The plant made machinery for the Japanese war effort until it was captured by American and Russian forces. For two years (1947 to 1948) the company was briefly called Nissan Heavy Industries Corp. Nissan's early American connection DAT had inherited Kubota's chief designer who was an American, William R. Gorham. This, along with Aikawa's vision-inspiring 1908 visit to Detroit was to greatly affect Nissan's future. Although it had always been Aikawa's intention to use the latest cutting-edge automaking technology from America, it was Gorham that carried out this plan. All the machinery, vehicle designs and engine designs originally came out of the United States. Much of the tooling came from the Graham factory and Nissan had a Graham license under which trucks were made. The machinery was imported into Japan by Mitsubishi "Awful" (1935-01-21)- Retrieved 2007-06-11 on behalf of Nissan, which went into the first Yokohama factory to produce cars. Relationship with Ford Motor Company From 1993-2002 Nissan partnered with Ford to market a consumer-friendly minivan: The Mercury Villager and the Nissan Quest. The two minivans were manufactured with all the same parts and were virtually identical aside from several cosmetic differences. In 2002, Ford discontinued the Villager to make room for the future Freestar and Monterey. Nissan brought out a new version of the Quest in 2004, which was designed in house and no longer related to any Ford model. In 1992, Nissan re-launched its Terrano four-wheel drive, which was visually and mechanically identical to the Ford Maverick. Both cars were built in Spain; although the Maverick was discontinued in 1998 due to disappointing sales, the Terrano was a strong seller and remained in production until 2005 when the Nissan Pathfinder replaced it. Tie-ups with Austin Motor Company Like Hino and Isuzu, but unlike Toyota, Nissan partnered with an established European company to gain access to automobile and engine designs. Nissan chose Austin of the United Kingdom, which later became the British Motor Corporation by its merger with Morris et al. Nissan began building Austin 7s in 1930, though the legitimacy of their license at that time is debated. Later, in 1952 Nissan Motor Company of Japan entered into a well-documented legal agreement with Austin , Cususmano for Nissan to assemble 2,000 Austins from imported partially assembled sets and sell them in Japan under the Austin trademark. The agreement called for Nissan to make all Austin parts locally within three years, a goal Nissan met. Nissan produced and marketed Austins for seven years. The agreement also gave Nissan rights to use Austin patents, which Nissan used in developing its own engines for its Datsun line of cars. In 1953 British-built Austins were assembled and sold, but by 1955, the Austin A50 -- completely built by Nissan and featuring a slightly larger body with new 1489 cc engine -- was on the market in Japan. Nissan produced 20,855 Austins from 1953-1959. Cusumano, pp 90-92 Engine Development: Nissan leveraged the Austin patents to further develop their own modern engine designs past what the Austin's A- and B-family designs offered. The apex of the Austin-derived engines was the new design A series engine in 1967. Also in 1967 Nissan introduced its new highly advanced four cylinder overhead cam (OHC) Nissan L engine, which while similar to Mercedes-Benz OHC designs was a totally new engine designed by Nissan. This engine powered the new Datsun 510, which gained Nissan respect in the worldwide sedan market. Then, in 1970 Nissan introduced the Datsun 240Z sports car which used a six-cylinder variation of the L series engine. The 240Z was an immediate sensation and lifted Nissan to world class status in the automobile market. Merger with Prince Motor Company In 1966, Nissan merged with the Prince Motor Company, bringing into its range more upmarket cars, including the Skyline and Gloria. The Prince name was eventually abandoned, with successive Skylines and Glorias bearing the Nissan name - however, "Prince" is still used in names of certain Nissan dealers in Japan. Nissan introduced a new luxury brand for the US market in the early 1990s called Infiniti. Foreign expansion A Nissan dealership in Moncton, Canada In the 1950s, Nissan made a conscious decision to expand into worldwide markets. Nissan management realized their Datsun small car line would fill an unmet need in markets such as Australia and the world's largest car market, the United States. In 1958 they first showed cars at the 1959 Los Angeles auto show, and sold a few cars that year in the United States. The company formed a U.S. subsidiary, Nissan Motor Corporation U.S.A., in 1959, headed by Yutaka Katayama. By continually technologically improving their sedans, along with chic Italianate styling and adding sporty cars such as the Datsun Fairlady roadsters, the sporty and race-winning 411 series, the Datsun 510 and the world-class Datsun 240Z sports car, by 1970 Nissan had become one of the world's largest exporters of automobiles. 2009|Nissan GT-R In the wake of the 1973 oil crisis, consumers worldwide (especially in the lucrative U.S. market) began turning in rapidly increasing numbers to high-quality small economy cars. Nissan made a conscious decision for their growing economy car lines to have a "sporting" flavor, and set up new factories in Mexico, Australia, Taiwan and South Africa. The firm established assembly operations in the United States in the early 1980s, with a plant in Smyrna, Tennessee. This facility at first built only trucks and SUVs, such as the 720, Hardbody, and Pathfinder, but has since been expanded to produce several car lines. An engine plant in Decherd, Tennessee followed, and most recently a second assembly plant in Canton, Mississippi. In order to overcome export tariffs and delivery costs to its European customers, Nissan contemplated establishing a plant inside Europe's borders. After an extensive review, Sunderland in United Kingdom was chosen due to the local availability of a highly skilled workforce and its position near major ports. The plant was completed in 1986 as the subsidiary Nissan Motor Manufacturing (UK) Ltd. Since then it has arisen to achieve the highly coveted title of being the most productive plant in Europe, and by 2007 will be producing 400,000 vehicles per year. Financial difficulties (approaching billions) in Australia in the late 1980s caused Nissan to cease production there. Due to the "Button Plan" the Australian operation was unique as the Nissan products were also re-badged both by General Motors Holden (Pulsar re-badged as Holden Astra), and Ford (Bluebird re-badged as Ford Corsair). Trucks 2006 Nissan Titan King Cab The Nissan Titan was introduced in 2004, as a full-size pickup truck produced for the North American market, the truck shares the stretched Nissan F-Alpha platform with the Nissan Armada and Infiniti QX56 SUVs. The Titan features a 32 valve 5.6 L VK56DE V8 engine which generates 317 hp, and is capable of towing approximately 9500 pounds. The Nissan Titan comes in four basic trim levels: XE, SE, Pro-4X, and LE. The trim levels are combinations of the features offered on the truck. It was listed by Edmunds.com as the best full-size truck. The Titan was nominated for the North American Truck of the Year award for 2004. Lawsuit against Nissan Computers In December 1999, legal action was instituted by Nissan Motors seeking $10,000,000 in damages from Uzi Nissan, president of Nissan Computer. The outcome of the case was in favor of Nissan Computer Corp, to whom was also awarded partial attorney fees. Alliance with Renault Current CEO Carlos Ghosn has been credited with reviving Nissan In 1999, with Nissan facing severe financial difficulties, Nissan entered an alliance with Renault S.A. of France. Signed on March 27, 1999, the Renault-Nissan Alliance is the first of its kind involving a Japanese and a French car manufacturer, each with its own distinct corporate culture and brand identity. The same year, Renault appointed its own Chief Operating Officer, Carlos Ghosn, as Chief Operating Officer of Nissan and took a 22.5% stake in Nissan Diesel. Later that year, Nissan fired its top Japanese executives. The Renault-Nissan Alliance is much close, in practice to Renault takeover of Nissan with Renault holding 44.3% of Nissan shares, while Nissan holds 15% Renault shares which does not give Nissan a voting or board representation due to legal restriction in France. Under president Ghosn's "Nissan Revival Plan" (NRP), the company has rebounded in what many leading economists consider to be one of the most spectacular corporate turnarounds in history, catapulting Nissan to record profits and a dramatic revitalization of both its Nissan and Infiniti model line-ups. Despite the turnaround, Infiniti sales have been a disappointment. In 2001, the company initiated Nissan 180, capitalizing on the success of the NRP. The targets set with 180 were an additional sale of 1 million cars, achieving operating margins of 8%, and to have zero automotive debts. Ghosn has been recognized in Japan for the company's turnaround in the midst of an ailing Japanese economy. Ghosn and the Nissan turnaround were featured in Japanese manga and popular culture. His achievements in revitalizing Nissan were noted by Emperor Akihito, who awarded him the Japan Medal with Blue Ribbon in 2004. The first product of the Nissan-Renault alliance was the Nissan Primera, launched in 2001 and shared chassis with Renault Laguna that had been launched in 2000. Subsequently, Nissan's Micra, Note and Versa models have shared the same mechanical design as the Renault Clio. Recent news The Nissan Note, Micra and Qashqai in the UK are all produced at their UK factory in Washington, Sunderland. On January 9, 2009, it was announced that 1,200 jobs were to be cut at the Washington plant. The decision was blamed on economic reasons, including a downturn in the car selling market. Nissan's senior vice-president for manufacturing in Europe, Trevor Mann, said the company was "right-sizing our operations to the market demand." Nissan also produces cars at its factory at Roslyn, near Pretoria, South Africa. Recently, it was announced that Nissan will axe 1200 jobs from the Sunderland factory as there is a sharp reduction in the number of cars being bought. Sky News Article Nissan North America relocated its headquarters from Gardena, California to Nashville, Tennessee in July 2006. A new headquarters, Nissan Americas, was dedicated on July 22, 2008, in the Cool Springs area of Franklin, Tennessee. Approximately 1500 employees work in the facility. On June 30, 2006, General Motors convened an emergency board meeting to discuss a proposal by shareholder Kirk Kerkorian to form an alliance between GM and Renault-Nissan. On October 4, 2006, however, GM and Nissan terminated talks because of the chasm between the two companies related to compensation to GM from Nissan. On May 17, 2006 Nissan released the Atlas 20 hybrid truck in Japan. It released a Cabstar hybrid truck at the 2006 Hannover Fair. Nissan Ireland appoint Brando as their Irish Digital Advertising Agency in November 2006. They will be responsible for all of their online marketing activity. IAPI Agency Profile The company's head office is now in Tokyo but will move back to Yokohama in 2009. The Tamil Nadu state government signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with auto manufacturing consortium, Mahindra-Renault- Nissan to set up a production unit at Oragadam in suburban Chennai last week. The consortium comprising Indian auto major Mahindra and Mahindra, Renault (France) and Nissan (Japan) will begin with an initial investment of Rs4000 crore to manufacture nearly 50,000 tractors every year other than cars, utility vehicles and spare parts. The project is expected to increase Tamil Nadu’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by Rs18,000 crore annually while providing 41,000 jobs. Nissan began development of fuel-cell vehicles (FCVs) in 1996 and launched limited lease sales of the X-Trail FCV in Japan in fiscal year 2003. In 2002, Toyota and Nissan agree to tie-up on hybrid technologies, and in 2004, Nissan unveiled the Altima hybrid prototype. Environmental record Until recently, Nissan Motors has had no special environmental record, at least as perceived relative to its competition. This may change in the future owing to a new emphasis on the development, production and marketing of electric automobiles. Nissan is planning to sell electric cars in California by 2010 (although only to fleet customers, a common method of introducing new technology). The company claims to have an EV model out that has a maximum speed of and can go 100 miles per charge. It is projected to take eight hours to fully charge the car. Nissan's car uses a lithium ion battery. The vehicle is intended for short distances, and is not meant for replacing traditional cars for long trips. In 2012, Nissan states that it will market electric cars for delivery in cities all over the world. Nissan: Electric car to get here in 2010 - AutoWeek Magazine As with other electric cars these products from Nissan won't emit pollutants from their exhaust. Any pollution involved in their operation would come from the production of the electricity needed to charge the car, depending on the type of power generation facility. Nissan Plans Electric Car in U.S. by ’10 - New York Times Nissan has chosen to develop 100 percent electric cars rather than biofuel or ethanol running cars based upon cost analysis. Nissan bets on electric cars, not biofuels | Tech news blog - CNET News.com Leadership Presidents and Chief Executive Officers of Nissan: 1933-1939 Yoshisuke Aikawa 1939-1942 Masasuke Murakami 1942-1944 Genshichi Asahara 1944-1945 Haruto Kudo 1945 Takeshi Murayama 1945-1947 Souji Yamamoto 1947-1951 Taichi Minoura 1951-1957 Genshichi Asahara 1957-1973 Katsuji Kawamata 1973-1977 Tadahiro Iwakoshi 1977-1985 Takashi Ishihara 1985-1992 Yutaka Kume 1992-1996 Yoshifume Tsuji 1996-2000 Yoshikazu Hanawa 2000-present Carlos Ghosn Products Automotive products Main articles: List of Nissan vehicles and List of Nissan engines. Nissan has produced an extensive range of mainstream cars and trucks, initially for domestic consumption but exported around the world since the 1950s. There was a major strike in 1953. It also produced several memorable sports cars, including the Datsun Fairlady 1500, 1600 and 2000 Roadsters, the Z-car, an affordable sports car originally introduced in 1969; and the GT-R, a powerful all-wheel-drive sports coupe. In 1985, Nissan created a tuning division, NISMO, for competition and performance development of such cars.Nismo's latest model is the 350Z LM. They recently launched mid-sized Nissan Navara truck has . Until 1982, Nissan automobiles in most export markets were sold under the Datsun brand. Since 1989, Nissan has sold its luxury models in North America under the Infiniti brand. Nissan also sells a small range of kei cars, mainly as a joint venture with other Japanese manufacturers like Suzuki or Mitsubishi. Nissan does not develop these cars. Nissan also has shared model development of Japanese domestic cars with other manufacturers, particularly Mazda, Subaru, Suzuki and Isuzu. In China, Nissan produces cars in association with the Dongfeng Motor Group including the 2006 Nissan Livina Geniss. This is the first in the range of a new worldwide family of medium sized cars and is to make its world debut at the Guangzhou International Motor Show. Nissan launches Qashqai SUV in South Africa, along with their new motorsport Qashqai Car Games. Electric vehicles Nissan will launch electric cars in Europe in 2010 with different business models in different countries. http://www.autonews.com/article/20090304/ANE02/903039915/1164 "It would be good date for both for Renault and Nissan" to introduce mass-market electric cars, Carlos Ghosn told at the Tokyo Motor Show on Wednesday October 24, 2007. Renault-Nissan Motors alliance is in the Advisory Council of the PHEV Research Center. Nissan Motor and Robert Bosch GmbH are in talks to form a comprehensive alliance in hybrid systems and parts. When Nissan launches its new line of electrical vehicles in America in 2010, it will initially target fleet buyers, which can provide their own charging stations. "It will be a real business," says Tom Lane, Nissan's global product-planning chief, "not just a way to sell 200 cars in California." He expects sales to retail buyers to begin in 2012, at a price of around $25,000. Nissan is also hedging its bets by developing both a "parallel hybrid" system (akin to that found in the Toyota Prius) and a plug-in "series hybrid" similar to the Chevy Volt. But it favours the all-electric approach, even though it will be a tough sell, says Mr Lane. As for Mr Ghosn, he has no doubts. "We must have zero-emission vehicles," he says. "Nothing else will prevent the world from exploding." Nissan Motor Company, Ltd. aims to profit from the next generation of plug-in hybrid vehicles. In April, the company launched a joint venture with NEC Corporation and its subsidiary, NEC TOKIN Corporation, to develop and mass produce advanced lithium-ion batteries. On May 19, the new company, called Automotive Energy Supply Corporation (AESC), began full operations. The new company will invest $114.6 million over a three-year period in a manufacturing facility that will start producing 13,000 batteries per year in 2009. At full capacity, the plant will manufacture 65,000 batteries per year. EERE News: EERE Network News The batteries employ a compact laminated configuration with lithium-manganese electrodes, which NEC TOKIN will manufacture at a separate facility through an additional investment of $105.1 million over the next three years. AESC intends to install the batteries in electric forklifts next year, and Nissan plans to use the batteries in both a hybrid and an all-electric vehicle starting in 2010. Nissan claims that the batteries deliver twice as much power as the nickel-metal hydride batteries used in today's hybrid vehicles. In field tests exceeding , the batteries have demonstrated high performance without any safety problems, according to the company. In January 2008, Hiro Nakamura, Nissan's global design director stated that the Nissan Cube will be coming to the U.S. market as the Nissan Denki Cube.Making its debut at the March 2008 New York International Auto Show, the U.S.-bound Cube is a plug-in hybrid that will get 37 mpg–U.S. (6.36 L/100 km / 44.4 mpg–imp) and will be equipped with "e-4WD", which includes an electric motor operating (when demand dictates) alongside the gasoline engine. The Nissan’s Denki Cube's U.S. release is scheduled to occur in early 2009. Nissan plans a production hybrid electric vehicle to be introduced in 2010, not based on any current Nissan model. Nissan's original hybrid-electric delivered two breakthrough technologies a high-performance rear- wheel-drive hybrid system and a parallel-power-train hybrid system. The hybrid employs Nissan's own originally developed hybrid technology and its first rear-wheel-drive hybrid power-train. http://www6.lexisnexis.com/publisher/EndUser?Action=UserDisplayFullDocument&orgId=101846&topicId=103840033&docId=l:840211327 Nissan is developing a plug-in hybrid vehicle that could hit the market after the debut of its electric cars in 2010. http://www6.lexisnexis.com/publisher/EndUser?Action=UserDisplayFullDocument&orgId=101846&topicId=104970025&docId=l:845591318 Carlos Ghosn, said that the French-Japanese partnership will supply the state of Oregon with electric cars starting late in 2010 the latest in a series of agreements aimed at encouraging demand for the ultra-clean vehicles. The Renault-Nissan alliance formed a similar deal with Tennessee earlier this year to establish the conditions to encourage the use of electric cars in the central part of the state where Nissan has its U.S. headquarters. The alliance also has concluded accords with Israel, Portugal, Denmark, Spain, France and a prefecture in Japan. Nissan Nuvu Nissan Nuvu is a compact all-electric city car with 2+1 seating, with solar panels shaped like tree leaves on the roof that channel the sun's power through a "tree trunk" conduit in the center of the vehicle. It can hit about and travel up to about on a electric charge. http://www.nissan.co.jp/EN/LINEUP/lineup_24.html Competitors in light electric vehicles Non-automotive products Nissan has also had a number of ventures outside the automotive industry, most notably the Tu-Ka mobile phone service (est. 1994), which was sold to DDI and Japan Telecom (both now merged into KDDI Corporation) in 1999. Nissan also owns Nissan Marine, a joint venture with Tohatsu Corp that produces motors for boats and other maritime equipment. Manufacturing locations Data extracted from Nissan's international corporate website. Japan Oppama, Yokosuka, Kanagawa (Oppama Plant & Research Center) Kaminokawa, Tochigi (Tochigi Plant) Kanda, Fukuoka (Kyushu Plant) Kanagawa-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa (Yokohama Plant) Iwaki, Fukushima (Iwaki Plant) Hiratsuka, Kanagawa (Nissan Shatai Shonan Plant) Nagoya, Aichi (Aichi Machine Industry Atsuta & Eitoku Plants) Matsusaka, Mie (Aichi Machine Industry Matsusaka Plant) Tsu, Mie (Aichi Machine Industry Tsu Plant) Uji, Kyoto (Auto Works Kyoto) Ageo, Saitama (Nissan Diesel Motor, currently owned by the Volvo Group) Samukawa, Kanagawa (Nissan Kohki) Zama, Kanagawa (Zama Plant closed in 1995, currently Global Production Engineering Center and storage unit for its historic models) India Sriperumbudur,Chennai 2010 Brazil São José dos Pinhais, Paraná Indonesia Cikampek, West Java Iran Karaj, Tehran Malaysia Segambut, Kuala Lumpur Serendah, Selangor Mexico Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes Egypt 6th of October City, Giza Pakistan Karachi, Sindh Philippines Santa Rosa City, Laguna South Africa Rosslyn Spain Barcelona Ávila Thailand Bangna, Samutprakarn Taiwan Taipei United Kingdom Sunderland, North East United States Smyrna, Tennessee Canton, Mississippi Decherd, Tennessee Russia St. Petersburg, Russia (Completion 2010) See also Ashok Leyland Nissan Vehicles Nissan Diesel Nissan Group Datsun Renault Jatco Dongfeng Motor Company Dongfeng Nissan-Diesel Company List of Nissan vehicles List of Nissan engines Laurence Hartnett Project Better Place NEC Nissan Engine Museum Yokohama F. Marinos SHIFT word Notes and references External links Nissan Global website Nissan USA website Nissan Commercial Vehicles - North America be-x-old:Nissan Motors | Nissan_Motor_Company |@lemmatized shorten:1 nissan:178 multinational:1 automaker:2 headquarter:1 japan:19 formerly:2 core:1 member:1 group:4 become:5 independent:1 restructuring:1 carlos:6 ghosn:10 ceo:2 market:24 vehicle:21 datsun:13 brand:7 name:13 one:3 large:6 car:56 manufacturer:5 company:31 main:3 office:2 locate:1 ginza:1 area:2 chūō:1 tokyo:5 enter:4 alliance:11 renault:19 france:5 among:2 top:2 three:5 asian:1 also:16 know:1 japanese:13 big:2 rival:1 u:12 currently:3 third:1 manufacture:6 infiniti:6 luxury:3 vq:1 engine:21 configuration:2 feature:5 ward:1 best:2 straight:1 year:17 since:5 award:4 inception:1 truck:18 bus:1 maker:2 diesel:5 separate:3 motor:34 please:1 see:2 ud:1 instead:1 pronunciation:1 different:4 uk:4 history:2 beginning:2 new:23 acronym:1 partner:3 family:3 model:11 phaeton:1 rename:1 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2,955 | OS_X | Mac OS X () is a line of computer operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., and since 2002 has been included with all new Macintosh computer systems. It is the successor to Mac OS 9, the final release of the "classic" Mac OS, which had been Apple's primary operating system since 1984. Mac OS X, whose "X" represents the Roman numeral for "10" and is a prominent part of its brand identity, is a Unix-based operating system, built on technologies developed at NeXT between the second half of the 1980s and Apple's purchase of the company in early 1996. Its sixth and most recent version, Mac OS X v10.5 is certified UNIX 03 while running on Intel processors. The first version released was Mac OS X Server 1.0 in 1999, and a desktop-oriented version, Mac OS X version 10.0 followed in March 2001. Releases of Mac OS X are named after big cats; for example, Mac OS X v10.5 is usually referred to by Apple and users as "Leopard". The server edition, Mac OS X Server, is architecturally identical to its desktop counterpart, and includes tools to facilitate management of workgroups of Mac OS X machines, and to provide access to network services. These tools include a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a domain name server, and others. It is pre-loaded on Apple's Xserve server hardware, but can be run on most of Apple's computer models. Apple also produces specialized versions of Mac OS X for use on three of its consumer devices; the iPhone OS for the iPhone and iPod Touch, and an unnamed version for the Apple TV. History Mac OS X is based upon the Mach kernel. Certain parts from FreeBSD's and NetBSD's implementation of Unix were incorporated in Nextstep, the core of Mac OS X. Nextstep was the object-oriented operating system developed by Steve Jobs' company NeXT after he left Apple in 1985. While Jobs was away from Apple, Apple tried to create a "next-generation" OS through the Taligent, Copland and Gershwin projects, with little success. Eventually, NeXT's OS—then called OPENSTEP—was selected to be the basis for Apple's next OS, and Apple purchased NeXT outright. Steve Jobs returned to Apple as interim CEO, and later became CEO again, shepherding the transformation of the programmer-friendly OPENSTEP into a system that would be adopted by Apple's primary market of home users and creative professionals. The project was first known as Rhapsody and was later renamed to Mac OS X. With each new version, Mac OS X evolved away from a focus on backward compatibility with the earlier versions of Mac OS, toward an emphasis on "digital lifestyle" applications such as the iLife suite, enhanced business applications (iWork), and integrated home entertainment (the Front Row media center). Each version also included modifications to the general interface, such as the brushed metal appearance added in version 10.3, the non-pinstriped titlebar appearance in version 10.4, and in 10.5 the removal of the previous brushed metal styles in favor of the "Unified" gradient window style. Description Box artwork for Mac OS X. Left to right: Cheetah/Puma (1), Jaguar (2), Panther (3), Tiger (4), and Leopard (5). Mac OS X is the tenth major version of Apple's operating system for Macintosh computers. Previous Macintosh operating systems were named using regular numbers, e.g. Mac OS 8 and Mac OS 9. The letter X in Mac OS X's name refers to the number 10, a Roman numeral. It is therefore correctly pronounced as the number 10 in this context (), though the letter "X" () is sometimes used by users. Mac OS X's core is a POSIX compliant operating system (OS) built on top of the XNU kernel, with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. Apple released this set of software as a free and open source operating system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components, including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI-based operating system which is Mac OS X. Mac OS X introduced a number of new capabilities to provide a more stable and reliable platform than its predecessor, Mac OS 9. For example, pre-emptive multitasking and memory protection improved the system's ability to run multiple applications simultaneously without them interrupting or corrupting each other. Many aspects of Mac OS X's architecture are derived from Openstep, which was designed to be portable—to ease the transition from one platform to another. For example, Nextstep was ported from the original 68k-based NeXT workstations to x86 and other architectures before NeXT was purchased by Apple, and OpenStep was later ported to the PowerPC architecture as part of the Rhapsody project. The most visible change was the Aqua theme. The use of soft edges, translucent colors, and pinstripes—similar to the hardware design of the first iMacs—brought more texture and color to the user interface when compared to what OS 9's "Platinum" appearance had offered. According to John Siracusa, an editor of Ars Technica, the introduction of Aqua and its departure from the then conventional look "hit like a ton of bricks." However Bruce Tognazzini (who founded the original Apple Human Interface Group) said that the Aqua interface in Mac OS X v10.0 represented a step backwards in usability compared with the original Mac OS interface. Despite the controversial new interface, third-party developers started producing skins for customizable applications for Mac and other operating systems which mimicked the Aqua appearance. To some extent, Apple has used the successful transition to this new design as leverage, at various times threatening legal action against people who make or distribute software with an interface the company claims is derived from its copyrighted design. Mac OS X includes its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective-C, and Java. For the Apple Intel Transition, it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary, which provides compatibility with both the Intel-based and PowerPC-based Macintosh lines. The Darwin sub-system in Mac OS X is in charge of managing the filesystem, which includes the Unix permissions layer. In 2003 and 2005, two Macworld editors expressed criticism of the permission scheme; Ted Landau called misconfigured permissions "the most common frustration" in Mac OS X, while Rob Griffiths suggested that some users may even have to reset permissions every day, a process which can take up to 15 minutes. More recently, another Macworld editor, Dan Frakes, called the procedure of repairing permissions vastly overused. He argues that Mac OS X typically handles permissions properly without user interference, and resetting permissions should be tried only when problems emerge. As of 2009, Mac OS X is the second most popular general-purpose operating system in use, after Microsoft Windows, with a 9.6% market share according to statistics compiled by Net Applications. In contrast, it is the most successful UNIX-like desktop operating system ever released, estimated at over 10 times the penetration of the free Linux, and 1,000 times the penetration of the next most successful commercial UNIX, SunOS. Mac OS X is available in a variety of languages, including English, Japanese, French, German, Spanish and Italian. Compatibility Software The APIs that Mac OS X inherited from OpenStep are not backward compatible with earlier versions of Mac OS. These APIs were created as the result of a 1993 collaboration between NeXT Computer and Sun Microsystems and are now referred to by Apple as Cocoa. This heritage is highly visible for Cocoa developers, since the "NS" prefix is ubiquitous in the framework, standing variously for Nextstep or NeXT/Sun. The official OpenStep API, published in September 1994, was the first to split the API between Foundation and Application Kit and the first to use the “NS” prefix. Apple's Rhapsody project would have required all new development to use these APIs, causing much outcry among existing Mac developers. All Mac software that did not receive a complete rewrite to the new framework would run in the equivalent of the Classic environment. To permit a smooth transition from Mac OS 9 to Mac OS X, the Carbon Application Programming Interface (API) was created. Applications written with Carbon can be executed natively on both systems. Mac OS X used to support the Java Platform as a "preferred software package"—in practice this means that applications written in Java fit as neatly into the operating system as possible while still being cross-platform compatible, and that graphical user interfaces written in Swing look almost exactly like native Cocoa interfaces. Traditionally, Cocoa programs have been mostly written in Objective-C, with Java as an alternative. However, on July 11, 2005, Apple announced that "features added to Cocoa in Mac OS X versions later than 10.4 will not be added to the Cocoa-Java programming interface." Since Mac OS X is POSIX compliant, many software packages written for the *BSDs or Linux can be recompiled to run on it. Projects such as Fink, MacPorts and pkgsrc provide pre-compiled or pre-formatted packages. Since version 10.3, Mac OS X has included X11.app, Apple's version of the X Window System graphical interface for Unix applications, as an optional component during installation. Up to and including Mac OS X v10.4 (Tiger), Apple's implementation was based on the X11 Licensed XFree86 4.3 and X11R6.6. All bundled versions of X11 feature a window manager which is similar to the Mac OS X look-and-feel and has fairly good integration with Mac OS X, also using the native Quartz rendering system. Earlier versions of Mac OS X (in which X11 has not been bundled) can also run X11 applications using XDarwin. With the introduction of version 10.5 Apple switched to the X.org variant of X11. Hardware For the early releases of Mac OS X, the standard hardware platform supported was the full line of Macintosh computers (laptop, desktop, or server) based on PowerPC G3, G4, and G5 processors. Later versions discontinued support for some older hardware; for example, Panther does not support "beige" G3s , and Tiger does not support systems that pre-date Apple's introduction of integrated FireWire ports. Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard", introduced October 2007, has dropped support for all PowerPC G3 processors and for PowerPC G4 processors with clock speeds below 867 MHz. With the introduction of the MacBook Air and later the "unibody" MacBook, which lack any FireWire ports, Leopard does not require an integrated FireWire port. Tools such as XPostFacto and patches applied to the installation disc have however been developed by third parties to enable installation of newer versions of Mac OS X on systems not officially supported by Apple. This includes a number of pre-G3 Power Macintosh systems that can be made to run up to and including Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar, all G3-based Macs which can run up to and including Tiger, and sub-867 MHz G4 Macs can run Leopard by removing the restriction from the installation DVD or entering a command in the Mac's Open Firmware interface to tell the Leopard Installer that it has a clock speed of 867 MHz or greater. Except for features requiring specific hardware (e.g. graphics acceleration, DVD writing), the operating system offers the same functionality on all supported hardware. PowerPC versions of Mac OS X prior to Leopard retain compatibility with older Mac OS applications by providing an emulation environment called Classic, which allows users to run Mac OS 9 as a process within Mac OS X, so that most older applications run as they would under the older operating system. Classic is not supported on Intel-based Macs or in Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard", although users still requiring Classic applications on Intel Macs can use the SheepShaver emulator to run Mac OS 9 on top of Leopard. Apple Intel transition In April 2002, eWeek reported a rumor that Apple had a version of Mac OS X code-named Marklar which ran on Intel x86 processors. The idea behind Marklar was to keep Mac OS X running on an alternative platform should Apple become dissatisfied with the progress of the PowerPC platform. These rumors subsided until late in May 2005, when various media outlets, such as the Wall Street Journal and CNET, reported that Apple would unveil Marklar in the coming months. On June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs confirmed these rumors when he announced in his keynote address at the annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference that Apple would be making the transition from PowerPC to Intel processors over the following two years, and that Mac OS X would support both platforms during the transition. Jobs also confirmed rumors that Apple has had versions of Mac OS X running on Intel processors for most of its developmental life. The last time that Apple switched CPU families—from the Motorola 68K CPU to the IBM/Motorola PowerPC—Apple included a Motorola 68K emulator in the new OS that made almost all 68K software work automatically on the new hardware. Apple has supported the 68K emulator for 11 years, but stopped supporting it during the transition to Intel CPUs. Included in the new OS for the Intel-based Macs is Rosetta, a binary translation layer which enables software compiled for PowerPC Mac OS X to run on Intel Mac OS X machines. However, Apple dropped support for Classic mode on the new Intel Macs. Third party emulation software such as Mini vMac, Basilisk II and SheepShaver provides support for some early versions of Mac OS. A new version of Xcode and the underlying command-line compilers support building universal binaries that will run on either architecture. Software that is available only for PowerPC is supported with Rosetta, though applications may have to be rewritten to run properly on the newer OS X for Intel. Apple encourages developers to produce universal binaries with support for both PowerPC and x86. There is a performance penalty when PowerPC binaries run on Intel Macs through Rosetta. Moreover, some PowerPC software, such as kernel extensions and System Preferences plugins, are not supported on Intel Macs. Some PowerPC applications would not run on Intel OS X at all. Further, in order to continue booting from a PowerPC drive, it had to be reformatted. Plugins for Safari need to be compiled for the same platform as Safari, so when Safari is running on Intel it requires plug-ins that have been compiled as Intel-only or universal binaries, so PowerPC-only plug-ins will not work. While Intel Macs will be able to run PowerPC, x86, and universal binaries, PowerPC Macs will support only universal and PowerPC builds. Support for the PowerPC platform remains in Mac OS X version 10.5. Such cross-platform capability already existed in Mac OS X's lineage; Openstep was ported to many architectures, including x86, and Darwin included support for both PowerPC and x86. Although Apple stated that Mac OS X would not run on Intel-based personal computers aside from its own, a hacked version of the OS compatible with conventional x86 hardware has been developed by the OSx86 community. Features When a widget is added to the dashboard, it appears with a ripple effect. Apple introduced many new features with each new release of OS X. One of the major differences between the previous versions of Mac OS and OS X was the addition of the Aqua GUI, a fluid graphical user interface with water-like elements. Furthermore, every window element, texts, graphics or widgets was drawn on-screen using the anti-aliasing technology. ColorSync, a technology introduced many years before, was improved and built into the core drawing engine, to provide color matching for printing and multimedia professionals. Also, drop shadows were added around windows and isolated text elements to provide a sense of depth. New interface elements were integrated, including sheets (document modal dialog boxes attached to specific windows) and drawers. According to Aaron Hillegass, some of these are the main reasons the user interface of the operating system looks "so much better" than other systems. The human interface guidelines published by Apple for Mac OS X are followed by many applications, giving them consistent user interface and keyboard shortcuts. In addition, new services for applications were included, which included spelling and grammar checkers, special characters palette, color picker, font chooser and dictionary; these global features are present in every Cocoa application, adding consistency. The graphics system OpenGL composites windows onto the screen to allow hardware-accelerated drawing. This technology, introduced in version 10.2, is called Quartz Extreme, a component of Quartz. Quartz's internal imaging model correlates well with the Portable Document Format (PDF) imaging model, making it easy to output PDF to multiple devices. As a side result, PDF viewing is a built-in feature. In version 10.3, Apple added Exposé, a feature which includes three functions to help accessibility between windows and desktop. Its functions are to instantly display all open windows as thumbnails for easy navigation to different tasks, display all open windows as thumbnails from the current application, and hide all windows to access the desktop. Also, FileVault was introduced, which is an optional encryption of the user's files with Advanced Encryption Standard (AES-128). Features introduced in version 10.4 include Automator, an application designed to create an automatic workflow for different tasks; Dashboard, a full-screen group of small applications called desktop widgets that can be called up and dismissed in one keystroke; and Front Row, a media viewer interface accessed by the Apple Remote. Moreover, the Sync Services were included, which is a system that allows applications to access a centralized extensible database for various elements of user data, including calendar and contact items. The operating system then managed conflicting edits and data consistency. As of version 10.5, all system icons are scalable up to 512×512 pixels, to accommodate various places where they appear in larger size, including for example the CoverFlow view, a three-dimensional graphical user interface included with iTunes, the Finder, and other Apple products for visually skimming through files and digital media libraries via cover artwork. This version includes Spaces, a virtual desktop implementation which enables the user to have more than one desktop and display them in an Exposé-like interface. Mac OS X v10.5 includes an automatic backup technology called Time Machine, which provides the ability to view and restore previous versions of files and application data; and Screen Sharing was built in for the first time. Finder is a file browser allowing quick access to all areas of the computer, which has been modified throughout subsequent releases of Mac OS X. Quick Look is part of Mac OS X Leopard's Finder. It allows for dynamic previews of files, including videos and multi-page documents, without opening their parent applications. Spotlight search technology, which is integrated into the Finder since Mac OS X Tiger, allows rapid real-time searches of data files; mail messages; photos; and other information based on item properties (meta data) and/or content. Mac OS X makes use of a Dock, which holds file and folder shortcuts as well as minimized windows. Mac OS X Architecture implements a layered framework. The layered framework aids rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks. Versions + Mac OS X Version Information Version Codename Date Announced Release Date Most Recent Version Public Beta Kodiak September 13, 2000 10.0 Cheetah March 24, 2001 10.0.4 (June 22, 2001) 10.1 Puma September 25, 2001 10.1.5 (June 6, 2002) 10.2 Jaguar August 23, 2002 10.2.8 (3 October 2003) 10.3 Panther October 24, 2003 10.3.9 (April 15, 2005) 10.4 Tiger June 28th, 2004 April 29, 2005 10.4.11 (14 November 2007) 10.5 Leopard June 6, 2005 October 26, 2007 10.5.7 (May 12, 2009) 10.6 Snow Leopard June 9, 2008 date not yet announced Mac OS X versions are named after big cats. Prior to its release, version 10.0 was code named "Cheetah" internally at Apple, and version 10.1 was code named internally as "Puma". After the immense buzz surrounding version 10.2, codenamed "Jaguar", Apple's product marketing began openly using the code names to promote the operating system. 10.3 was marketed as "Panther", and 10.4 as "Tiger". "Leopard" is the name for the current release, version 10.5. The forthcoming version 10.6 is named "Snow Leopard". "Panther", "Tiger" and "Leopard" are registered as trademarks of Apple, but "Cheetah", "Puma" and "Jaguar" have never been registered. Apple has also registered "Lynx" and "Cougar" as trademarks, though were allowed to lapse. Trademark #78257226 for Panther, #78269988 for Tiger, #78270003 for Leopard, #78271630 for Cougar and #78271639 for Lynx, all registered in 2004 by Apple Computer, Inc. Computer retailer Tiger Direct sued Apple for its use of the name "Tiger". On May 16, 2005 a US federal court in the Southern District of Florida ruled that Apple's use does not infringe on Tiger Direct's trademark. Apple released to the public, on September 13, 2000, a "preview" version of its new operating system (internally codenamed Kodiak) in order to gain feedback from users. It cost $29.95 and came with a t-shirt. The "PB" as it was known marked the first public availability of the Aqua interface and Apple made many changes to the UI based on customer feedback. Mac OS X Public Beta expired and ceased to function in Spring 2001. On March 24, 2001, Apple released Mac OS X v10.0 (internally codenamed Cheetah). Although the version is now called Cheetah by users, rare evidences can be found to prove that it was called so internally. For instance, a Q&A was created in 2005 which mentions it The initial version was slow, not feature complete, and had very few applications available at the time of its launch, mostly from independent developers. While many critics suggested that the operating system was not ready for mainstream adoption, they recognized the importance of its initial launch as a base on which to improve. Simply releasing Mac OS X was received by the Macintosh community as a great accomplishment, for attempts to completely overhaul the Mac OS had been underway since 1996, and delayed by countless setbacks. Following some bug fixes, kernel panics became much less frequent. Later that year on September 25, 2001, Mac OS X v10.1 (internally codenamed Puma) was released. The name Puma can be found here It had better performance and provided missing features, such as DVD playback. Apple released 10.1 as a free upgrade CD for 10.0 users, in addition to the US$129 boxed version for people running only Mac OS 9. It was discovered that the upgrade CDs were actually full install CDs that could be used with Mac OS 9 systems by removing a specific file; Apple later re-released the CDs in an actual stripped-down format that did not facilitate installation on such systems. On January 7, 2002, Apple announced that Mac OS X was to be the default operating system for all Macintosh products by the end of that month. On August 23, 2002, Apple followed up with Mac OS X v10.2 "Jaguar", the first release to use its code name as part of the branding. The headline of the press release mention "Jaguar", while the codename was not mentioned for earlier versions. See Jaguar press release, compared to Mac OS X v10.0 press release and Mac OS X v10.1 press release It brought great performance enhancements, a sleeker look, and many powerful enhancements (over 150, according to Apple ), including Quartz Extreme for compositing graphics directly on an ATI Radeon or Nvidia GeForce2 MX AGP-based video card with at least 16 MB of VRAM, a system-wide repository for contact information in the new Address Book, and an instant messaging client named iChat. The Happy Mac which had appeared during the Mac OS startup sequence for almost 18 years was replaced with a large grey Apple logo with the introduction of Mac OS X v10.2. Mac OS X v10.3 "Panther" was released on October 24, 2003. In addition to providing much improved performance, it also incorporated the most extensive update yet to the user interface. Panther included as many or more new features as Jaguar had the year before, including an updated Finder, incorporating a brushed-metal interface, Fast User Switching, Exposé (Window manager), FileVault, Safari, iChat AV (which added video-conferencing features to iChat), improved Portable Document Format (PDF) rendering and much greater Microsoft Windows interoperability. Support for some early G3 computers such as "beige" Power Macs and "WallStreet" PowerBooks was discontinued. Mac OS X v10.4 "Tiger" was released on April 29, 2005. Apple stated that Tiger contained more than 200 new features. As with Panther, certain older machines were no longer supported; Tiger requires a Mac with a built-in FireWire port. Among the new features, Tiger introduced Spotlight, Dashboard, Smart Folders, updated Mail program with Smart Mailboxes, QuickTime 7, Safari 2, Automator, VoiceOver, Core Image and Core Video. The initial release of the Apple TV used a modified version of Tiger with a different graphical interface and fewer applications and services. On January 10, 2006, Apple released the first Intel-based Macs along with the 10.4.4 update to Tiger. This operating system functioned identically on the PowerPC-based Macs and the new Intel-based machines, with the exception of the Intel release dropping support for the Classic environment. Only PowerPC Macs can be booted from retail copies of the Tiger client DVD, but there is a Universal DVD of Tiger Server 10.4.7 (8K1079) that can boot both PowerPC and Intel Macs. Mac OS X v10.5 "Leopard" was released on October 26, 2007. It was called by Apple "the largest update of Mac OS X". It brought more than 300 new features. Leopard supports both PowerPC- and Intel x86-based Macintosh computers, however support for the G3 processor was dropped and the G4 processor required a minimum clock speed of 867 MHz. The single DVD works for all supported Macs (including 64-bit machines). New features include a new look, an updated Finder, Time Machine, Spaces, Boot Camp pre-installed, full support for 64-bit applications (including graphical applications), new features in Mail and iChat, and a number of new security features. Leopard is an Open Brand UNIX 03 registered product on the Intel platform. It is also the first BSD-based OS to receive UNIX 03 certification. Mac OS X v10.6 "Snow Leopard" was announced on June 9, 2008 at WWDC. Rather than delivering new functionality, Snow Leopard will focus on stability and performance improvements. It is expected to be released "about a year" from the announcement. It will feature Microsoft Exchange Server support, new 64-bit technology capable of supporting greater amounts of RAM, QuickTime X, advanced GPU performance with OpenCL, better use of multi-core processors through Grand Central, and SquirrelFish JavaScript interpreter, improving the JavaScript rendering speed of Safari by over 50%. The Developer Preview released at WWDC has a version number of 10.6, removes support for the PowerPC architecture, and requires an Intel CPU. It is unclear whether PowerPC support will remain absent in shipping copies. 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2,956 | Economy_of_Malta | The strengths of the Economy of Malta are its limestone, a favourable geographic location, and a productive labour force. Malta produces only about 20% of its food needs, has limited freshwater supplies, and has no domestic energy sources. The economy is dependent on foreign trade, manufacturing (especially electronics), tourism and financial services. In 2003, over 1.2 million tourists visited the island . Per capita GDP of $23,200 places Malta just above the middle of the list of European Union (EU) countries in terms of affluence. The island has joined the EU in 2004 despite having been divided politically over the question earlier. A sizeable budget deficit was a key concern, but recent initiatives by government have changed the situation dramatically enough for the country to be admitted into the eurozone as of 1 January 2008. Economic history Prior to 1800 the majority of Maltese were engaged in agriculture or fishing, although there was significant trade. Until then, Malta had very few industries except the cotton, tobacco, and shipyards industry. The dockyard was later used by the British for military purposes. At times of war, Malta's economy prospered due to its strategic location. During the Napoleonic Wars (1800–1815), Malta's economy prospered and became the focal point of a major trading system. In 1808, two-thirds of the cargo consigned from Malta went to Levant and Egypt. Later, one-half of the cargo was usually destined for Trieste. Cargo consisted of largely British and colonial-manufactured goods. Malta's economy became prosperous from this trade and many artisans, such as weavers, found new jobs in the port industry. In 1820, during the Battle of Navarino, which took place in Greece, the British fleet was based in Malta. In 1839, the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company and East India Companies used Malta as a calling port on their Egypt and Levant runs. In 1869, the opening of the Suez Canal benefited Malta's economy greatly as there was a massive increase in the shipping which entered in the port. The economy had entered a special phase. The Mediterranean Sea became the "world highway of trade" and a number of ships called at Malta for coal and various supplies on their way to the Indian Ocean and the Far East. From 1871 to 1881, about 8,000 workers found jobs in the Malta docks and a number of banks opened in Malta. By 1882, Malta reached the height of its prosperity. However, the boom did not last long. By the end of the 19th century, the economy began declining and by the 1940s, Malta's economy was in serious crisis. This was primarily due to the invention of large ships which had become oil-fired and therefore had no need to stop in the Grand Harbour of Malta to refuel. The British Government had to extend the dockyard. At the end of World War II, Malta's strategic importance had reached a low point. Modern air warfare technology and the invention of the atomic bomb had changed the importance of the military base. The British lost control of the Suez Canal and withdrew from the naval dockyard, transforming it for commercial shipbuilding and ship repair purposes. Modern economy Major resources are limestone, a favorable geographic location, and a productive labor force. Malta produces only about 20% of its food needs, has limited fresh water supplies, and has few domestic energy sources. The economy is dependent on foreign trade, manufacturing (especially electronics and pharmaceuticals), and tourism. Economic recovery of the European economy has lifted exports, tourism, and overall growth. Malta adopted the euro on 1 January 2008. Tourist arrivals and foreign exchange earnings derived from tourism have steadily increased since the 1987 watershed, in which there was growth from the previous year of, respectively, 30% and 63% (increase in terms of U.S. dollars). Following September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack, the tourist industry did suffer some temporary setbacks. With the help of a favourable international economic climate, the availability of domestic resources, and industrial policies that support foreign export-oriented investment, the economy has been able to sustain a period of rapid growth. During the 1990s, Malta's economic growth has generally continued this brisk pace. Both domestic demand (mainly consumption) boosted by large increases in government spending, and exports of goods and services contributed to this favorable performance. Buoyed by continued rapid growth, the economy has maintained a relatively low rate of unemployment. Labour market pressures have increased as skilled labour shortages have become more widespread, despite illegal immigration, and real earnings growth has accelerated. Growing public and private sector demand for credit has led -- in the context of interest rate controls - to credit rationing to the private sector and the introduction of noninterest charges by banks. Despite these pressures, consumer price inflation has remained low (2.2% according to the Central Bank of Malta 2nd Quarterly Report in 2007), reflecting the impact of a fixed exchange rate policy (100% hard peg to the euro, in preparation for currency changeover) and lingering price controls. The Maltese Government has pursued a policy of gradual economic liberalization and privatisation, taking some steps to shift the emphasis in trade and financial policies from reliance on direct government intervention and control to policy regimes that allow a greater role for market mechanisms. While change has been very substantial, by international standards, the economy remains fairly regulated and continues to be hampered by some longstanding structural weaknesses. There is a strong manufacturing base for high value-added products like electronics and pharmaceuticals, and the manufacturing sector has more than 250 foreign-owned, export-oriented enterprises. Tourism generates 35% of GDP. Film production is another growing industry (approx. 1,400,000 euros between 1997 and 2002), despite stiff competition from other film locations in Eastern Europe and North Africa, with the Malta Film Commission providing support services to foreign film companies for the production of feature cinema (Gladiator, Troy, Munich and Count of Montecristo, amongst others, were shot in Malta over the last few years), commercials and television series. Council of Europe, "Culture industries: policies and programmes" In 2000 the economy grew by 7% in nominal terms and 4.3% in real terms. Unemployment was down to 4.4%, its lowest level in 3 years. Many formerly state-owned companies are being privatized - and the market liberalized. Fiscal policy has been for some years directed toward bringing down the budget deficit after public debt grew from 24% of GDP in 1990 to 56% in 1999. By 2007, the deficit-to-GDP ratio is comfortably below 3%, as required for eurozone membership. Energy Even though it has great potential for solar and wind power “MALTA – Renewable Energy Fact Sheet.” Europa. January 2007. <http://ec.europa.eu/energy/energy_policy/doc/factsheets/renewables/renewables_mt_en.pdf> , Malta produces almost all its electricity using oil, importing 100% of it. “MALTA – Energy Mix Fact Sheet.” Europa. January 2007. <http://ec.europa.eu/energy/energy_policy/doc/factsheets/mix/mix_mt_en.pdf> Recently, Silvio Berlusconi suggested building nuclear power plants on Malta for Italian power supply, creating Maltese outcry http://news.google.nl/news/url?sa=t&ct=us/0-0&fp=48989ecaf581b7c0&ei=RMaYSM27FYj2wAGq1u3cBA&url=http%3A//www.independent.com.mt/news.asp%3Fnewsitemid%3D73009&cid=1231185176&usg=AFQjCNHC23mihDk12ZDZr39cJB4wfaAfnw . Maltese have a wary eye for nuclear developments in Turkey. Facts and figures Electricity - production: 1,620 GWh (1998) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 1,507 GWh (1998) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) Agriculture - products: potatoes, cauliflower, grapes, wheat, barley, tomatoes, citrus, cut flowers, green peppers; pork, milk, poultry, eggs Currency: 1 euro = 100 cent since 1 January 2008 previously 1 Maltese lira = 100 cents; Exchange rates: Maltese liri (LM) per US$1 - 0.4086 (January 2000), 0.3994 (1999), 0.3885 (1998), 0.3857 (1997), 0.3604 (1996), 0.3529 (1995) Irrevocably fixed conversion rate to the euro: Maltese liri (LM) per EUR1 - 0.4293 (2007) See also Economy of Europe Malta References | Economy_of_Malta |@lemmatized strength:1 economy:17 malta:29 limestone:2 favourable:2 geographic:2 location:4 productive:2 labour:3 force:2 produce:3 food:2 need:3 limit:2 freshwater:1 supply:4 domestic:4 energy:7 source:3 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2,957 | Floppy_disk | A floppy disk is a data storage medium that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible ("floppy") magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic shell. Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive or FDD, the initials of which should not be confused with "fixed disk drive," which is another term for a (nonremovable type of) hard disk drive. Invented by IBM, floppy disks in 8-inch (200 mm), 5¼-inch (133⅓ mm), and 3½-inch (90 mm) formats enjoyed many years as a popular and ubiquitous form of data storage and exchange, from the mid-1970s to the late 1990s. While floppy disk drives still have some limited uses, especially with legacy industrial computer equipment, The Floppy Disk Drive Engineering Design Challenge SSD to FDD; see http://jimwarholic.com/2008/12/floppy-disk-drive-engineering-design.php they have now been largely superseded by USB flash drives, External Hard Drives, CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs, and memory cards (such as Secure Digital). Recent usage The flexible magnetic disk, or diskette (-ette is a diminutive suffix), revolutionized computer disk storage in the 1970s. Diskettes, which were often called floppy disks or floppies by English speaking users, became ubiquitous in the 1980s and 1990s in their use with personal computers and home computers, such as the Apple II, Macintosh, MSX 2/2+, Amstrad CPC, Sinclair ZX Spectrum +3, Commodore 64/128, Atari ST, Amiga and IBM PC compatibles, to distribute software, transfer data, and create backups. Before hard disks became affordable, floppy disks were often also used to store a computer's operating system (OS), in addition to application software and data. Most home computers had a primary OS (often BASIC) stored permanently in on-board ROM, with the option of loading a more advanced disk operating system from a floppy, whether it be a proprietary system, CP/M, or later, DOS. By the early 1990s, the increasing size of software meant that many programs demanded multiple diskettes; a large package like Windows or Adobe Photoshop could use a dozen disks or more. Toward the end of the 1990s, distribution of larger packages therefore gradually switched to CD-ROM (or online distribution for smaller programs). Mechanically incompatible higher-density formats were introduced (e.g. the Iomega Zip disk) and were briefly popular, but adoption was limited by the competition between proprietary formats, and the need to buy expensive drives for computers where the media would be used. In some cases, such as with the Zip drive, the failure in market penetration was exacerbated by the release of newer higher-capacity versions of the drive and media that were not forward-compatible with the original drives, thus fragmenting the user base between new users and early adopters who were unwilling to pay for an upgrade so soon. A chicken or the egg scenario ensued, with consumers wary of making costly investments into unproven and rapidly changing technologies, with the result that none of the technologies were able to prove themselves and stabilize their market presence. Soon, inexpensive recordable CDs with even greater capacity, which were also compatible with an existing infrastructure of CD-ROM drives, made the new floppy technologies redundant. The last advantage of floppy disks, reusability, was again countered by re-writable CDs. Later, advancements in flash-based devices and widespread adoption of the USB interface provided another alternative that, in turn, made even optical storage obsolete for some purposes. An attempt to continue the traditional diskette was the SuperDisk (LS-120) in the late 1990s, with a capacity of 120 MB (actually 120.375 MB), 6848 cylinders x 36 blocks/cylinder x 512 bytes; see http://linuxcommand.org/man_pages/floppy8.html which was backward compatible with standard 3½-inch floppies. For some time, PC manufacturers were reluctant to remove the floppy drive because many IT departments appreciated a built-in file transfer mechanism that always worked and required no device driver to operate properly. However, manufacturers and retailers have progressively reduced the availability of computers fitted with floppy drives and of the disks themselves. External USB-based floppy disk drives are available for computers without floppy drives, and they work on any machine that supports USB Mass Storage Devices. Many modern systems even provide firmware support for booting to a USB-mounted floppy drive. Windows XP still requires the use of floppy drives to install third-party RAID, SATA, and AHCI hard drives, unless the install CD is modified to include these drivers. Customized Windows XP install CDs can be made with programs such as nLite. This requirement was only dropped with the introduction of Windows Vista in 2007. Windows XP and Vista still require floppy disks to be able to create a password reset disk for user accounts. Most PC motherboards will still attempt to boot from a floppy drive, depending on CMOS settings. Disk formats Floppy sizes are almost universally referred to in imperial measurements, even in countries where is the standard, and even when the size is in fact defined in metric (for instance the 3½-inch floppy, which is actually 90 mm). Formatted capacities are generally set in terms of binary kilobytes (as 1 sector is generally 512 bytes). For more information see below. + Historical sequence of floppy disk formats, including the last format to be generally adopted — the "High Density" 3½-inch HD floppy, introduced 1987.Disk formatYear introducedFormattedStorage capacityin KB (1024 bytes) if not statedMarketedcapacity¹8-inch - IBM 23FD (read-only)197179.7 The IBM Diskette and Diskette Drive, James T. Engh, 1981 - "where k = 1000" ... "This increased the formatted disk capacity to 81.6 kbytes." ?8-inch - Memorex 6501972175 kB1.5 megabit Memorex 650 Flexible Disc File - OEM Manual [unformatted]8-inch - SSSD IBM 33FD / Shugart 9011973237.25 The IBM Diskette and Diskette Drive, James T. Engh, 1981 - "The user capacity of the diskette was established at 242 944 bytes on 73 tracks with 26 sectors on each track." The Evolution of Magnetic Storage, L.D. Stevens, 1981 - "This drive, with a capacity of 243 Kbytes" 3.1 Mbits unformatted8-inch - DSSD IBM 43FD / Shugart 8501976500.5 The IBM Diskette and Diskette Drive, James T. Engh, 1981 - "This would double the capacity to approximately 0.5 megabytes (Mbytes)." 6.2 Mbits unformatted5¼-inch (35 track) Shugart SA 4001976 "In September, 1976, the first minifloppy disk drive was introduced by Shugart Associates." 89.6 kB Shugart SA 400 DatasheetFormatted with 256 byte sectors and 10 sectors per track the capacity is 89.6 Kbytes (256 x 10 x 35 = 89,600) 110 kB8-inch DSDD IBM 53FD / Shugart 8501977980 (CP/M)- 1200 (MS-DOS FAT)1.2 MB5¼-inch DD1978360 or 800360 KB3½-inchHP single sided1982280264 kB3-inch1982 December 1982: Amdek releases the Amdisk-3 Micro-Floppy-disk Cartridge system. 360125 kB (SS/SD), 500 kB (DS/DD)3½-inch (DD at release)1984720 (400 SS, 800 DS on Macintosh, 880 DS on Amiga)1 MB5¼-inch QD720720 KB5¼-inch HD1982 YE Data YD380 per 1986 Disk/Trend Report, Flexible Disk Drives 1,182,720 bytes1.2 MB3-inch DD1984720?3-inchMitsumi Quick Disk1985128 to 256?2-inch 1985720?5¼-inch Perpendicular1986100 MB?3½-inch HD198714401.44 MB3½-inch ED1987 Mueller, S: "Upgrading and Repairing PCs," p.656, Que Publishing, 2002. 28802.88 MB3½-inch Floptical (LS)19912100021 MB3½-inch LS-1201996120.375 MB120 MB3½-inch LS-2401997240.75 MB240 MB3½-inch HiFD1998/99150/200 MB 150/200 MBAbbreviations: ¹ The formatted capacities of floppy disks frequently corresponded only vaguely to their capacities as marketed by drive and media companies, due to differences between formatted and unformatted capacities and also due to the non-standard use of binary prefixes in labeling and advertising floppy media. The erroneous "1.44 MB" value for the 3½-inch HD floppies is the most widely known example. See Ultimate capacity and speed.Dates and capacities marked ? are of unclear origin and need source information; other listed capacities refer to: Formatted Storage Capacity is total size of all sectors on the disk: For 8-inch see Table of 8-inch floppy formats IBM 8-inch formats. Note that spare, hidden and otherwise reserved sectors are included in this number. For 5¼- and 3½-inch capacities quoted are from subsystem or system vendor statements. Marketed Capacity is the capacity, typically unformatted, by the original media OEM vendor or in the case of IBM media, the first OEM thereafter. Other formats may get more or less capacity from the same drives and disks. History 8-inch disk drive with diskette (3½-inch disk for comparison) The earliest floppy disks, invented at IBM, were 8 inches in diameter. They became commercially available in 1971. IBM Archives: 20th century disk storage chronology Disks in this form factor were produced and improved upon by IBM and other companies such as Memorex, Shugart Associates, and Burroughs Corporation. http://www.disktrend.com/5decades2.htm Five decades of disk drive industry firsts . A BASF double-density 5¼-inch diskette. In 1976 Shugart Associates introduced the first 5¼-inch FDD and associated media. By 1978 there were more than 10 manufacturers producing 5¼-inch FDDs, in competing physical disk formats: hard-sectored (90 KB) and soft-sectored (110 KB). The 5¼-inch formats quickly displaced the 8-inch for most applications, and the 5¼-inch hard-sectored disk format eventually disappeared. Throughout the early 1980s the limitations of the 5¼-inch format were starting to become clear. Originally designed to be smaller and more practical than the 8-inch format, the 5¼-inch system was itself too large, and as the quality of the recording media grew, the same amount of data could be placed on a smaller surface. A number of solutions were developed, with drives at 2-inch, 2½-inch, 3-inch and 3½-inch (50, 60, 75 and 90 mm) all being offered by various companies. They all shared a number of advantages over the older format, including a small form factor and a rigid case with a slidable write protection tab. The almost-universal use of the 5¼-inch format made it very difficult for any of these new formats to gain any significant market share. 3½-inch, high-density diskette affixed with a blank adhesive label. The diskette's write-protection tab is deactivated. Sony introduced their own small-format 90.0 mm × 94.0 mm disk.; however, this format suffered from a similar fate as the other new formats: the 5¼-inch format simply had too much market share. A variant on the Sony design, introduced in 1982 by a large number of manufacturers was then rapidly adopted. By 1988 the 3½-inch was outselling the 5¼-inch 1991 Disk/Trend Report, Flexible Disk Drives, Figure 2 . By the end of the 1980s, the 5¼-inch disks had been superseded by the 3½-inch disks. Though 5¼-inch drives were still available, as were disks, they faded in popularity as the 1990s began. By the mid-1990s the 5¼-inch drives had virtually disappeared as the 3½-inch disk became the predominant floppy disk. One of the chief advantages of the 3½-inch disk, besides its smaller size which allows it to fit in a shirt pocket, is its plastic case, which gives it good protection from dust, liquids, fingerprints, scratches, sunlight, warping, and other environmental risks. Standard floppy replacements Through the early 1990s a number of attempts were made by various companies to introduce newer floppy-like formats based on the now-universal 3½-inch physical format. Most of these systems provided the ability to read and write standard DD and HD disks, while at the same time introducing a much higher-capacity format as well. There were a number of times where it was felt that the existing floppy was just about to be replaced by one of these newer devices, but a variety of problems ensured this never took place. None of these ever reached the point where it could be assumed that every current PC would have one, and they have now largely been replaced by CD and DVD burners and USB flash drives. The main technological change was the addition of tracking information on the disk surface to allow the read/write heads to be positioned more accurately. Normal disks have no such information, so the drives use the tracks themselves with a feedback loop in order to center themselves. The newer systems generally used marks burned onto the surface of the disk to find the tracks, allowing the track width to be greatly reduced. Flextra As early as 1988, Brier Technology introduced the Flextra BR 3020, which boasted 21.4 MB (marketing, true size was 21,040 KB, 2 sides × 526 cyl × 40 tracks × 512 bytes 25 MB unformatted). Later the same year it introduced the BR3225, which doubled the capacity. This model could also read standard 3½-inch disks. Apparently it used 3½-inch standard disks which had servo information embedded on them for use with the Twin Tier Tracking technology. Original Floptical In 1991, Insite Peripherals introduced the "Floptical," which used an infra-red LED to position the heads over marks in the disk surface. The original drive stored 21 MB, while also reading and writing standard DD and HD floppies. In order to improve data transfer speeds and make the high-capacity drive usefully quick as well, the drives were attached to the system using a SCSI connector instead of the normal floppy controller. This made them appear to the operating system as a hard drive instead of a floppy, meaning that most PCs were unable to boot from them. This again adversely affected pickup rates. Insite licenced their technology to a number of companies, who introduced compatible devices as well as even larger-capacity formats. Most popular of these, by far, was the LS-120, mentioned below. Zip drive In 1994, Iomega introduced the Zip drive. Not true to the 3½-inch form factor, hence not compatible with the standard 1.44 MB floppies, it became the most popular of the "super floppies." It boasted 100 MB, later 250 MB, and then 750 MB of storage. Though Zip drives gained in popularity for several years they never reached the same market penetration as standard floppy drives, since only some new computers were sold with the drives. Eventually the falling prices of CD-R and CD-RW media and USB flash drives, along with notorious hardware failures (the so-called "click of death"), reduced the popularity of the Zip drive. A major reason for the failure of the Zip Drives is also attributed to the higher pricing they carried (partly because of royalties, that 3rd-party-manufacturers of drives and disks had to pay). However, hardware vendors such as Hewlett Packard, Dell and Compaq had promoted the same at a very high level. Zip drive media were primarily popular for the excellent storage density and drive speed they carried, but were always overshadowed by the price. LS-120 Announced in 1995, the "SuperDisk" drive, often seen with the brand names Matsushita (Panasonic) and Imation, had an initial capacity of 120 MB (120.375 MB) 6848 cylinders × 36 blocks/cylinder × 512 bytes using even higher density "LS-120" disks. It was upgraded ("LS-240") to 240 MB (240.75 MB). Not only could the drive read and write 1440 kB disks, but the last versions of the drives could write 32 MB onto a normal 1440 kB disk (see note below). Unfortunately, popular opinion held the Super Disk disks to be quite unreliable, though no more so than the Zip drives and SyQuest Technology offerings of the same period and there were also many reported problems moving standard floppies between LS-120 drives and normal floppy drives. This belief, true or otherwise, crippled adoption. The BIOS of many motherboards even to this day supports LS-120 drives as boot options. LS-120 compatible drives were available as options on many computers, including desktop and notebook computers from Compaq Computer Corporation. In the case of the Compaq notebooks, the LS-120 drive replaced the standard floppy drive in a multibay configuration. Sony HiFD Sony introduced their own floptical-like system in 1997 as the "150 MB Sony HiFD" which could hold 150 megabytes (157.3 actual megabytes) of data. Although by this time the LS-120 had already garnered some market penetration, industry observers nevertheless confidently predicted the HiFD would be the real standard-floppy-killer and finally replace standard floppies in all machines. After only a short time on the market the product was pulled, as it was discovered there were a number of performance and reliability problems that made the system essentially unusable. Sony then re-engineered the device for a quick re-release, but then extended the delay well into 1998 instead, and increased the capacity to "200 MB" (approximately 210 megabytes) while they were at it. By this point the market was already saturated by the Zip disk, so it never gained much market share. Caleb Technology’s UHD144 The UHD144 drive surfaced early in 1998 as the it drive, and provided 144 MB of storage while also being compatible with the standard 1.44 MB floppies. The drive was slower than its competitors but the media were cheaper, running about $8 at introduction and $5 soon after. Structure A user inserts the floppy disk, medium opening first, into a 5¼-inch floppy disk drive (pictured, an internal model) and moves the lever down (by twisting on this model) to close the drive and engage the motor and heads with the disk. The 5¼-inch disk had a large circular hole in the center for the spindle of the drive and a small oval aperture in both sides of the plastic to allow the heads of the drive to read and write the data. The magnetic medium could be spun by rotating it from the middle hole. A small notch on the right hand side of the disk would identify whether the disk was read-only or writable, detected by a mechanical switch or photo transistor above it. Another LED/phototransistor pair located near the center of the disk could detect a small hole once per rotation, called the index hole, in the magnetic disk. It was used to detect the start of each track, and whether or not the disk rotated at the correct speed; some operating systems, such as Apple DOS, did not use index sync, and often the drives designed for such systems lacked the index hole sensor. Disks of this type were said to be soft sector disks. Very early 8-inch and 5¼-inch disks also had physical holes for each sector, and were termed hard sector disks. Inside the disk were two layers of fabric designed to reduce friction between the medium and the outer casing, with the medium sandwiched in the middle. The outer casing was usually a one-part sheet, folded double with flaps glued or spot-welded together. A catch was lowered into position in front of the drive to prevent the disk from emerging, as well as to raise or lower the spindle (and, in two-sided drives, the upper read/write head). The 8-inch disk was very similar in structure to the 5¼-inch disk, with the exception that the read-only logic was in reverse: the slot on the side had to be taped over to allow writing. The 3½-inch disk is made of two pieces of rigid plastic, with the fabric-medium-fabric sandwich in the middle to remove dust and dirt. The front has only a label and a small aperture for reading and writing data, protected by a spring-loaded metal or plastic cover, which is pushed back on entry into the drive. The 3½-inch floppy disk drive automatically engages when the user inserts a disk, and disengages and ejects with the press of the eject button. On Macintoshes with built-in floppy drives, the disk is ejected by a motor (similar to a VCR) instead of manually; there is no eject button. The disk's desktop icon is dragged onto the Trash icon to eject a disk. The reverse has a similar covered aperture, as well as a hole to allow the spindle to connect into a metal plate glued to the medium. Two holes, bottom left and right, indicate the write-protect status and high-density disk correspondingly, a hole meaning protected or high density, and a covered gap meaning write-enabled or low density. (Incidentally, the write-protect and high-density holes on a 3½-inch disk are spaced exactly as far apart as the holes in punched A4 paper (8 cm), allowing write-protected floppies to be clipped into standard ring binders.) A notch top right ensures that the disk is inserted correctly, and an arrow top left indicates the direction of insertion. The drive usually has a button that, when pressed, will spring the disk out at varying degrees of force. Some would barely make it out of the disk drive; others would shoot out at a fairly high speed. In a majority of drives, the ejection force is provided by the spring that holds the cover shut, and therefore the ejection speed is dependent on this spring. In PC-type machines, a floppy disk can be inserted or ejected manually at any time (evoking an error message or even lost data in some cases), as the drive is not continuously monitored for status and so programs can make assumptions that do not match actual status (e.g., disk 123 is still in the drive and has not been altered by any other agency).A 3″ floppy disk used on Amstrad CPC machines With Apple Macintosh computers, disk drives are continuously monitored by the OS; a disk inserted is automatically searched for content, and one is ejected only when the software agrees the disk should be ejected. This kind of disk drive (starting with the slim "Twiggy" drives of the late Apple "Lisa") does not have an eject button, but uses a motorized mechanism to eject disks; this action is triggered by the OS software (e.g., the user dragged the "drive" icon to the "trash can" icon). Should this not work (as in the case of a power failure or drive malfunction), one can insert a straightened paper clip into a small hole at the drive's front, thereby forcing the disk to eject (similar to that found on CD/DVD drives). Some other computer designs (such as the Commodore Amiga) monitor for a new disk continuously but still have push-button eject mechanisms. The 3-inch disk, widely used on Amstrad CPC machines, bears much similarity to the 3½-inch type, with some unique and somewhat curious features. One example is the rectangular-shaped plastic casing, almost taller than a 3½-inch disk, but narrower, and more than twice as thick, almost the size of a standard compact audio cassette. This made the disk look more like a greatly oversized present day memory card or a standard PC card notebook expansion card rather than a floppy disk. Despite the size, the actual 3-inch magnetic-coated disk occupied less than 50% of the space inside the casing, the rest being used by the complex protection and sealing mechanisms implemented on the disks. Such mechanisms were largely responsible for the thickness, length and high costs of the 3-inch disks. On the Amstrad machines the disks were typically flipped over to use both sides, as opposed to being truly double-sided. Double-sided mechanisms were available but rare. Legacy Imation USB Floppy Drive, model 01946. An external drive that accepts high-density disks. The 8-inch, 5¼-inch and 3-inch formats can be considered almost completely obsolete, although 3½-inch drives and disks are still widely available. As of 2008, 3½-inch drives are still available on some desktop PC systems as an optional extra. Hewlett-Packard has recently dropped supplying floppy drives as standard on business desktops. The majority of ATX and Micro-ATX PC cases are still designed to accommodate at least one 3½″ drive that can be accessed from the front of the PC (although this bay can be used for other devices, such as flash memory readers). As of 2007, HD floppy disks are still quite commonly available in most computer and stationery shops, although selection is usually very limited. The advent of other portable storage options, such as USB storage devices and recordable or rewritable CDs, and the rise of multi-megapixel digital photography has encouraged the creation and use of files larger than most 3½-inch disks can hold. In addition, the increasing availability of broadband and wireless Internet connections has decreased the utility of removable storage devices overall. The 3½-inch floppy is growing as obsolete as its larger cousin a decade before. However, the 3½-inch floppy has been in continuous use longer than the 5¼-inch floppy. Floppies are still used for emergency boots in aging systems which may lack support for other bootable media such as CD-ROMs and USB devices. They are also still often required for setting up a new PC from the ground up, since even comparatively recent operating systems like Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 rely on third party drivers shipped on floppies: for example, SATA support during installation. Only Windows Vista, using Windows PE, Gnu/Linux, OpenSolaris, BSD, and other Unix type operating systems allow drivers to be loaded from media other than floppies during installation. Floppies are also still often required for BIOS updates, and as maintenance program carriers, since many BIOS and firmware update/restore programs are still designed to be executed from a bootable floppy disk. Furthermore, if BIOS update fails or BIOS just became corrupted somehow, bootblocks are often able to perform emergency recovery of main BIOS part only from floppy drives due to minimal code size of bootblock (often just 8Kb) so even as of 2009 floppy drives are still sometimes needed to perform BIOS recovery after failed BIOS update attempt. Floppy drives are also used to access non-critical data that may still be on floppy disks, such as personal data or legacy games and software. As well, office workplaces have often disabled high volume writable media such as optical drivers and USB ports to prevent employees from taking large amounts of data, so the small capacity of the floppy limits the information compromised. In 1991, Commodore introduced the CDTV, which used a CD-ROM drive in place of the floppy drive. The majority of AmigaOS was stored in read-only memory, making it easier to boot from a CD-ROM rather than floppy. In 1998, Apple introduced the iMac which had no floppy drive. This made USB-connected floppy drives a popular accessory for the early iMacs, since the basic model of iMac at the time had only a CD-ROM drive, giving users no easy access to writable removable media. This transition away from standard floppies was relatively easy for Apple, since all Macintosh models that were originally designed to use a CD-ROM drive were able to boot and install their operating system from CD-ROM early on. In February 2003, Dell, Inc. announced that they would no longer include standard floppy drives on their Dell Dimension home computers as standard equipment, although they are available as a selectable option "R.I.P. Floppy Disk", BBC News, 1 April 2003 "Dell Drops Floppy Drive on New Machine", Lisa Bruce, University of Missouri-Columbia, March 2003 for around $20 and can be purchased as an aftermarket OEM add-on anywhere between $5 and $25. On 29 January 2007 the British computer retail chain PC World issued a statement saying that only 2% of the computers that they sold contained a built-in floppy disk drive and, once present stocks were exhausted, no more standard floppies would be sold. "So farewell then, floppy disk", Richi Jennings, Computerworld, January 31, 2007 "PC World says farewell to floppy", BBC News, January 30, 2007 "Floppy disks ejected as demand slumps", David Derbyshire, Daily Telegraph, 30 January 2007 The music and theatre industries still employ many types of electronic equipment that use standard floppy disks as a storage medium. Synthesizers, samplers, drum machines, and sequencers continue to use 3½-inch disks, as do theatre lighting consoles. Other storage options, such as CD-R, CD-RW, network connections, and USB storage devices have taken much longer to mature in this industry. Compatibility In general, different physical sizes of floppy disks are incompatible by definition, and disks can be loaded only on the correct size of drive. There were some drives available with both 3½-inch and 5¼-inch slots that were popular in the transition period between the sizes. However, there are many more subtle incompatibilities within each form factor. For example, all but the earliest models of Apple Macintosh computers that have built-in floppy drives included a disk controller that can read, write and format IBM PC-format 3½-inch diskettes. However, few IBM-compatible computers use floppy disk drives that can read or write disks in Apple's variable speed format. For details on this, see the section More on floppy disk formats. The 3½-inch floppy disk Within the world of IBM-compatible computers, the three densities of 3½-inch floppy disks are partially compatible. Higher density drives are built to read, write and even format lower density media without problems, provided the correct media are used for the density selected. However, if by whatever means a diskette is formatted at the wrong density, the result is a substantial risk of data loss due to magnetic mismatch between oxide and the drive head's writing attempts. Still, a fresh diskette that has been manufactured for high density use can theoretically be formatted as double density, but only if no information has ever been written on the disk using high density mode (for example, HD diskettes that are pre-formatted at the factory are out of the question). The magnetic strength of a high density record is stronger and will "overrule" the weaker lower density, remaining on the diskette and causing problems. However, in practice there are people who use downformatted (ED to HD, HD to DD) or even overformatted (DD to HD) without apparent problems. Doing so always constitutes a data risk, so one should weigh out the benefits (e.g. increased space or interoperability) versus the risks (data loss, permanent disk damage). The holes on the right side of a 3½-inch disk can be altered as to 'fool' some disk drives or operating systems (others such as the Acorn Archimedes simply do not care about the holes) into treating the disk as a higher or lower density one, for backward compatibility or economical reasons . Possible modifications include: Drilling or cutting an extra hole into the right-lower side of a 3½-inch DD disk (symmetrical to the write-protect hole) in order to format the DD disk into a HD one. This was a popular practice during the early 1990s, as most people switched to HD from DD during those days and some of them "converted" some or all of their DD disks into HD ones, for gaining an extra "free" 720 KB of disk space. There even was a special hole punch that was made to easily make this extra (square) hole in a floppy. Taping or otherwise covering the bottom right hole on a HD 3½-inch disk enables it to be 'downgraded' to DD format. This may be done for reasons such as compatibility issues with older computers, drives or devices that use DD floppies, like some electronic keyboard instruments and samplers where a 'downgraded' disk can be useful, as factory-made DD disks have become hard to find after the mid-1990s. See the section "Compatibility" above. Note: By default, many older HD drives will recognize ED disks as DD ones, since they lack the HD-specific holes and the drives lack the sensors to detect the ED-specific hole. Most DD drives will also handle ED (and some even HD) disks as DD ones. Similarly, drilling an HD-like hole (under the ED one) into an ED (2880 kB) disk for 'downgrading' it to HD (1440 kB) format if there are many unusable ED disks due to the lack of a specific ED drive, which can now be used as normal HD disks. Even if such a format was hardly officially supported on any system, it is possible to "force" a 3½-inch floppy disk drive to be recognized by the system as a 5¼-inch 360 kB or 1200 kB one (on PCs and compatibles, this can be done by simply changing the CMOS BIOS settings) and thus format and read non-standard disk formats, such as a double sided 360 kB 3½-inch disk. Possible applications include data exchange with obsolete CP/M systems, for example with an Amstrad CPC. The 5¼-inch floppy disk The situation was even more complex with 5¼-inch diskettes. The head gap of a 80-track high-density (1.2 MB in the MFM format) drive is shorter than that of a 40-track double-density (360 kB) drive, but will format, read and write 40 track diskettes with apparent success provided the controller supports double stepping (or the manufacturer fitted a switch to do double stepping in hardware). A blank 40 track disk formatted and written on an 80 track drive can be taken to a 40 track drive without problems, similarly a disk formatted on a 40 track drive can be used on an 80 track drive. But a disk written on a 40 track drive and updated on an 80 track drive becomes permanently unreadable on any 360 kB drive, owing to the incompatibility of the track widths (special, very slow programs could have been used to overcome this problem). There are several other bad scenarios. Prior to the problems with head and track size, there was a period when just trying to figure out which side of a "single sided" diskette was the right side was a problem. Both Radio Shack and Apple used 180 kB single-sided 5¼-inch disks, and both sold disks labeled "single sided" that were certified for use on only one side, even though they in fact were coated in magnetic material on both sides. The irony was that the disks would work on both Radio Shack and Apple machines, yet the Radio Shack TRS-80 Model I computers used one side and the Apple II machines used the other, regardless of whether there was software available which could make sense of the other format. A disk notcher used to convert single-sided 5.25-inch diskettes to double-sided. For quite a while in the 1980s, users could purchase a special tool called a disk notcher which would allow them to cut a second write-unprotect notch in these diskettes and thus use them as "flippies" (either inserted as intended or upside down): both sides could now be written on and thereby the data storage capacity was doubled. Other users made do with a steady hand and a hole punch or scissors. For re-protecting a disk side, one would simply place a piece of opaque tape over the notch or hole in question. These "flippy disk procedures" were followed by owners of practically every home-computer single sided disk drives. Proper disk labels became quite important for such users. Flippies were eventually adopted by some manufacturers, with a few programs being sold in this medium (they were also widely used for software distribution on systems that could be used with both 40 track and 80 track drives but lacked the software to read a 40 track disk in an 80 track drive). The practice eventually faded with the increased use of double-sided drives capable of accessing both sides of the disk without the need for flipping. More on floppy disk formats Using the disk space efficiently In general, data is written to floppy disks in a series of sectors, angular blocks of the disk, and in tracks, concentric rings at a constant radius, e.g. the HD format of 3½-inch floppy disks uses 512 bytes per sector, 18 sectors per track, 80 tracks per side and two sides, for a total of 1,474,560 bytes per disk. (Some disk controllers can vary these parameters at the user's request, increasing the amount of storage on the disk, although these formats may not be able to be read on machines with other controllers; e.g. Microsoft applications were often distributed on Distribution Media Format (DMF) disks, a hack that allowed 1.68 MB (1680 kB) to be stored on a 3½-inch floppy by formatting it with 21 sectors instead of 18, while these disks were still properly recognized by a standard controller.) On the IBM PC and also on the MSX, Atari ST, Amstrad CPC, and most other microcomputer platforms, disks are written using a Constant Angular Velocity (CAV)—Constant Sector Capacity format. This means that the disk spins at a constant speed, and the sectors on the disk all hold the same amount of information on each track regardless of radial location. However, this is not the most efficient way to use the disk surface, even with available drive electronics. Because the sectors have a constant angular size, the 512 bytes in each sector are packed into a smaller length near the disk's center than nearer the disk's edge. A better technique would be to increase the number of sectors/track toward the outer edge of the disk, from 18 to 30 for instance, thereby keeping constant the amount of physical disk space used for storing each 512 byte sector (see zone bit recording). Apple implemented this solution in the early Macintosh computers by spinning the disk slower when the head was at the edge while keeping the data rate the same, allowing them to store 400 kB per side, amounting to an extra 160 kB on a double-sided disk. This higher capacity came with a serious disadvantage, however: the format required a special drive mechanism and control circuitry not used by other manufacturers, meaning that Mac disks could not be read on any other computers. Apple eventually gave up on the format and used constant angular velocity with HD floppy disks on their later machines; these drives were still unique to Apple as they still supported the older variable-speed format. The Commodore 64/128 Commodore started its tradition of special disk formats with the 5¼-inch disk drives accompanying its PET/CBM, VIC-20 and Commodore 64 home computers, the same as the 1540 and 1541 drives used with the later two machines. The standard Commodore Group Code Recording scheme used in 1541 and compatibles employed four different data rates depending upon track position (see zone bit recording). Tracks 1 to 17 had 21 sectors, 18 to 24 had 19, 25 to 30 had 18, and 31 to 35 had 17, for a disk capacity of 170 kB (170.75 KB). Unique among personal computer architectures, the operating system on the computer itself was unaware of the details of the disk and filesystem; disk operations were handled by Commodore DOS instead, which was implemented by a dual 6502 processor on the disk drive. Many programs such as GEOS removed Commodore's DOS completely, and replaced it with "fast loading" programs in the 1541 drive. Eventually Commodore gave in to disk format standardization, and made its last 5¼-inch drives, the 1570 and 1571, compatible with Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM), to enable the Commodore 128 to work with CP/M disks from several vendors. Equipped with one of these drives, the C128 was able to access both C64 and CP/M disks, as it needed to, as well as MS-DOS disks (using third-party software), which was a crucial feature for some office work. Commodore also offered its 8-bit machines a 3½-inch 800 kB disk format with its 1581 disk drive, which used only MFM. The GEOS operating system used a disk format that was largely identical to the Commodore DOS format with a few minor extensions; while generally compatible with standard Commodore disks, certain disk maintenance operations could corrupt the filesystem without proper supervision from the GEOS Kernal. The Atari 8-bit line The combination of DOS and hardware (810, 1050 and XF551 disk drives) for Atari 8-bit floppy usage allowed sectors numbered from 1 to 720. The DOS' 2.0 disk bitmap provides information on sector allocation, counts from 0 to 719. As a result, sector 720 could not be written to by the DOS. Some companies used a copy protection scheme where "hidden" data was put in sector 720 that could not be copied through the DOS copy option. Another more-common early copy-protected scheme simply did not record important sectors as "used" in the FAT table, so the DOS Utility Package (DUP) did not duplicate them. All of these early techniques were thwarted by the first program that simply duplicated all 720 sectors. Later DOS versions (3.0 and later 2.5) and DOS systems by third parties (i.e. OSS) accepted(and formatted) disks with up to 960 and 1020 sectors, resulting in 127KB storage capacity per disk side on drives equipped with double-density heads (i.e. not the Atari 810) vs. previous 90KB. That unusual 127K format allowed sectors 1-720 to still be read on a single-density 810 disk drive, and was introduced by Atari with the 1050 drive with the introduction of DOS 3.0 in 1983. A true 180K double-density Atari floppy format used 128 byte sectors for sectors 1-3, then 256 byte sectors for 4-720. The first three sectors contain code that signals the drive to switch into double-density mode. While this 180K format was developed by Atari for their DOS 2.0D and their (canceled) Atari 815 Floppy Drive, that double-density DOS was never widely released and the format was generally used by third-party DOS products. Under the Atari DOS scheme, sector 360 was the FAT sector map, and sectors 361-367 contained the file listing. The Atari-brand DOS versions and compatible used three bytes per sector for housekeeping and to link-list to the next sector. Third-party DOS systems added features such as double-sided drives, subdirectories, and drive types such as 1.2Mb and 8″. Well-known 3rd party Atari DOS products included SmartDOS (distributed with the Rana disk drive), TopDos, MyDos and SpartaDOS. The Commodore Amiga The pictured chip, codenamed Paula, controlled floppy access on all revisions of the Commodore Amiga as one of its many functions. The Commodore Amiga computers used an 880 kB format (eleven 512-byte sectors per track) on a 3½-inch floppy. Because the entire track was written at once, inter-sector gaps could be eliminated, saving space. The Amiga floppy controller was much more flexible than the one on the PC: it did not impose arbitrary format restrictions, and foreign formats such as the IBM PC could also be handled (by use of CrossDos, which was included in later versions of AmigaOS). With the correct filesystem software, an Amiga could theoretically read any arbitrary format on the 3½-inch floppy, including those recorded at a differential rotation rate. On the PC, however, there is no way to read an Amiga disk without special hardware, such as a CatWeasel, or a second floppy drive, which is also a crucial reason for an emulator being technically unable to access real Amiga disks inserted in a standard PC floppy disk drive. Commodore never upgraded the Amiga chip set to support high-density floppies, but sold a custom drive (made by Chinon) that spun at half speed (150 RPM) when a high-density floppy was inserted, enabling the existing floppy controller to be used. This drive was introduced with the launch of the Amiga 3000, although the later Amiga 1200 was only fitted with the standard DD drive. The Amiga HD disks could handle 1760 kB, but using special software programs it could hold even more data. A company named Kolff Computer Supplies also made an external HD floppy drive (KCS Dual HD Drive) available which could handle HD format diskettes on all Amiga computer systems KCS Dual HD Drive for Amiga computers . Because of storage reasons, the use of emulators and preserving data, many disks were packed into disk-images. Currently popular formats are .ADF (Amiga Disk File), .DMS (DiskMasher) and .IPF (Interchangeable Preservation Format) files. The DiskMasher format is copyright-protected and has problems storing particular sequences of bits due to bugs in the compression algorithm, but was widely used in the pirate and demo scenes. ADF has been around for almost as long as the Amiga itself though it was not initially called by that name. Only with the advent of the Internet and Amiga emulators has it become a popular way of distributing disk images. IPF files were created to allow preservation of commercial games which have copy protection, which is something that ADF and DMS unfortunately cannot do. The Electron, BBC Micro and Acorn Archimedes The British company Acorn used non-standard disk formats in their 8-bit BBC Micro and Acorn Electron, and their successor the 32-bit Acorn Archimedes. Acorn however used standard MFM disk controllers. The original disk implementation for the BBC Micro stored 100 KB (40 track) or 200 KB (80 track) per side on 5¼-inch disks in a custom format using the Disc Filing System (DFS). For their Electron floppy disk add-on added, Acorn picked 3½-inch disks and developed the Advanced Disc Filing System (ADFS). It used double-density recording and added the ability to treat both sides of the disk as a single drive. This offered three formats: S (small) — 160 KB, 40-track single-sided; M (medium) — 320 KB, 80-track single-sided; and L (large) — 640 KB, 80-track double-sided. ADFS provided hierarchical directory structure, rather than the flat model of DFS. ADFS also stored some metadata about each file, notably a load address, an execution address, owner and public privileges, and a "lock" bit. Even on the eight-bit machines, load addresses were stored in 32-bit format, since those machines supported 16 and 32-bit coprocessors. The ADFS format was later adopted into the BBC line upon release of the BBC Master. The BBC Master Compact marked the move to 3½-inch disks, using the same ADFS formats. The Acorn Archimedes added D format, which increased the number of objects per directory from 44 to 77 and increased the storage space to 800 KB. The extra space was obtained by using 1024 byte sectors instead of the usual 512 bytes, thus reducing the space needed for inter-sector gaps. As a further enhancement, successive tracks were offset by a sector, giving time for the head to advance to the next track without missing the first sector, thus increasing bulk throughput. The Archimedes used special values in the ADFS load/execute address metadata to store a 12-bit filetype field and a 40-bit timestamp. RISC OS 2 introduced E format, which retained the same physical layout as D format, but supported file fragmentation and auto-compaction. Post-1991 machines including the A5000 and Risc PC added support for high-density disks with F format, storing 1600 KB. However, the PC combo IO chips used were unable to format disks with sector skew, losing some performance. ADFS and the PC controllers also support extended-density disks as G format, storing 3200 KB, but ED drives were never fitted to production machines. With RISC OS 3, the Archimedes could also read and write disk formats from other machines, for example the Atari ST and the IBM PC. With third party software it could even read the BBC Micro's original single density 5¼-inch DFS disks. The Amiga's disks could not be read as they used unusual sector gap markers. The Acorn filesystem design was interesting because all ADFS-based storage devices connected to a module called FileCore which provided almost all the features required to implement an ADFS-compatible filesystem. Because of this modular design, it was easy in RISC OS 3 to add support for so-called image filing systems. These were used to implement completely transparent support for IBM PC format floppy disks, including the slightly different Atari ST format. Computer Concepts released a package that implemented an image filing system to allow access to high density Macintosh format disks. IBM DemiDiskettes IBM DemiDiskette media and drive In the early 80s, IBM Rochester developed a 4-inch floppy diskette, the DemiDiskette. This program was driven by aggressive cost goals, but missed the pulse of the industry. The prospective users, both inside and outside IBM, preferred standardization to what by release time were small cost reductions, and were unwilling to retool packaging, interface chips and applications for a proprietary design. The product never appeared in the light of day, and IBM wrote off several hundred million dollars of development and manufacturing facility. IBM obtained patent number 4482929 on the media and the drive for the DemiDiskette. At trade shows, the drive and media were labeled "Brown" and "Tabor". Auto-loaders IBM developed, and several companies copied, an autoloader mechanism that could load a stack of floppies one at a time into a drive unit. These were very bulky systems, and suffered from media hangups and chew-ups more than standard drives, but they were a partial answer to replication and large removable storage needs. The smaller 5¼- and 3½-inch floppy made this a much easier technology to perfect. Floppy mass storage A number of companies, including IBM and Burroughs, experimented with using large numbers of unenclosed disks to create massive amounts of storage. The Burroughs system used a stack of 256 12-inch disks, spinning at a high speed. The disk to be accessed was selected by using air jets to part the stack, and then a pair of heads flew over the surface as in any standard hard disk drive. This approach in some ways anticipated the Bernoulli disk technology implemented in the Iomega Bernoulli Box, but head crashes or air failures were spectacularly messy. The program did not reach production. 2-inch floppy disks 2-inch Video Floppy Disk from Canon. A small floppy disk was also used in the late 1980s to store video information for still video cameras such as the Sony Mavica (not to be confused with current Digital Mavica models) and the Ion and Xapshot cameras from Canon. It was officially referred to as a Video Floppy (or VF for short). VF was not a digital data format; each track on the disk stored one video field in the analog interlaced composite video format in either the North American NTSC or European PAL standard. This yielded a capacity of 25 images per disk in frame mode and 50 in field mode. The same media were used digitally formatted - 720 kB double-sided, double-density - in the Zenith Minisport laptop computer circa 1989. Although the media exhibited nearly identical performance to the 3½-inch disks of the time, they were not successful. This was due in part to the scarcity of other devices using this drive making it impractical for software transfer, and high media cost which was much more than 3½-inch and 5¼-inch disks of the time. Ultimate capacity and speed Floppy disk drive and floppy media manufacturers specify an unformatted capacity, which is, for example, 2.0 MB for a standard 3½-inch HD floppy. It is implied that this data capacity should not be exceeded since exceeding such limitations will most likely degrade the design margins of the floppy system and could result in performance problems such as inability to interchange or even loss of data. The nominal formatted capacity printed on labels is "1.44 MB" which uses an incorrect definition of the megabyte that combines decimal (base 10) with binary (base 2) to yield 1.44×1000×1024 bytes (approximately 1.47 million bytes). This usage of the "Mega-" prefix is not compatible with the International System of Units prefixes. Using SI-compliant definitions, the capacity of a 3½-inch HD floppy is properly written as 1.47 MB (base 10) or 1.40 MB (base 2). User available data capacity is a function of the particular disk format used which in turn is determined by the FDD controller manufacturer and the settings applied to its controller. The differences between formats can result in user data capacities ranging from approximately 1300 KB up to 1760 KB (1.80 MB) on a "standard" 3½-inch High Density floppy. The highest capacity techniques require much tighter matching of drive head geometry between drives; this is not always possible and cannot be relied upon. The LS-240 drive supports a (rarely used) 32 MB capacity on standard 3½-inch HD floppies —it is, however, a write-once technique, and cannot be used in a read/write/read mode. All the data must be read off, changed as needed and rewritten to the disk. The format also requires an LS-240 drive to read. Double-sided Extended-density (DSED) 3½″ floppy disks, introduced by Toshiba in 1987 and adopted by IBM on the PS/2 in 1994, operate at twice the data rate and have twice the capacity of DSHD 3½″ FDDs. Since USB floppy drives include their own controllers, it's possible use their buffer to exceed the speed of a standard floppy drive without confusing the host. Such USB 3½″ FDDs are available from SmartDisk, Y-E Data, Sony, and Apricorn; however, their internal drives are DSHD FDD and their sustained speed is 1x. The only serious attempt to speed up a 3½” floppy drive beyond 2x was the X10 accelerated floppy drive. It used a combination of RAM and 4x spindle speed to read a floppy in less than six seconds versus the more than one minute of a conventional drive. 3½-inch HD floppy drives typically have a maximum transfer rate of 1000 kilobits/second (minus overhead such as error correction and file handling). (For comparison, a 1x CD transfers at 1200 kilobits per second (maximum), and a 1x DVD transfers at approximately 11,000 kilobits per second.) While the floppy's data rate cannot be easily changed, overall performance can be improved by optimizing drive access times, shortening some BIOS introduced delays (especially on the IBM PC and compatible platforms), and by changing the sector:shift parameter of a disk, which is, roughly, the numbers of sectors that are skipped by the drive's head when moving to the next track. Because of overhead and these additional delays, the average sequential read speed is rather 30–70 KB/s than 125 KB/s. This happens because sectors are not typically written exactly in a sequential manner but are scattered around the disk, which introduces yet another delay. Older machines and controllers may take advantage of these delays to cope with the data flow from the disk without having to actually stop. Usability One of the chief usability problems of the floppy disk is its vulnerability. Even inside a closed plastic housing, the disk medium is still highly sensitive to dust, condensation and temperature extremes. As with any magnetic storage, it is also vulnerable to magnetic fields. Blank floppies have usually been distributed with an extensive set of warnings, cautioning the user not to expose it to conditions which can endanger it. Users damaging floppy disks (or their contents) were once a staple of "stupid user" folklore among computer technicians. These stories poked fun at users who stapled floppies to papers, made faxes or photocopies of them when asked to "copy a disk," or stored floppies by holding them with a magnet to a file cabinet. The flexible 5¼-inch disk could also (folklorically) be abused by rolling it into a typewriter to type a label, or by removing the disk medium from the plastic enclosure, the same way a record is removed from its slipsleeve. Also, these same users were, conversely, often the victims of technicians' hoaxes. Stories of them being carried on Subway/Underground systems wrapped in tin-foil to protect them from the magnetic fields of the electric power supply were common (for an explanation of why this is plausible, see Faraday cage). On the other hand, the 3½-inch floppy has also been lauded for its mechanical usability by HCI expert Donald Norman: The floppy as a metaphor Screenshot of the toolbar in OpenOffice.org, highlighting the Save icon, a floppy disk. For more than two decades, the floppy disk was the primary external writable storage device used. Also, in a non-network environment, floppies were once the primary means of transferring data between computers (sometimes jokingly referred to as Sneakernet or Frisbeenet). Floppy disks are also, unlike hard disks, handled and seen; even a novice user can identify a floppy disk. Because of all these factors, the image of the floppy disk has become a metaphor for saving data, and the floppy disk symbol is often seen in programs on buttons and other user interface elements related to saving files, even though such disks are almost obsolete. See also Floppy disk controller Floppy disk format RaWrite2 (a floppy disk image file writer/creator) On Unix or Unix-like systems the dd program can be used to write an image to a floppy. Don't Copy That Floppy References Bibliography Weyhrich, Steven (2005). "The Disk II" – A detailed essay describing one of the first commercial floppy disk drives (from the Apple II History website) Immers, Richard; Neufeld, Gerald G. (1984). Inside Commodore DOS. The Complete Guide to the 1541 Disk Operating System. DATAMOST, Inc & Reston Publishing Company, Inc. (Prentice-Hall). ISBN 0-8359-3091-2. Englisch, Lothar; Szczepanowski, Norbert (1984). The Anatomy of the 1541 Disk Drive. Grand Rapids, MI: Abacus Software (translated from the original 1983 German edition, Düsseldorf: Data Becker GmbH). ISBN 0-916439-01-1. Hewlett Packard: 9121D/S Disc Memory Operator's Manual; Printed 1 September 1982; Part No. 09121-90000 External links Programming Floppy Disk Controllers HowStuffWorks: How Floppy Disk Drives Work – By Gary Brown. Computer Hope: Information about computer floppy drives – Including abbreviated history, physical parameters and cable pin specifications. NCITS (mention of ANSI X3.162 (5¼-inch) and X3.171 (90 mm) floppy standards) Tandon Floppy Disk Drive Manuals Persci Floppy Disk Drive Manuals The 3″ Bible Floppy Drive Tech Info | Floppy_disk |@lemmatized floppy:167 disk:277 data:38 storage:29 medium:39 compose:1 thin:1 flexible:7 magnetic:12 encase:1 square:2 rectangular:2 plastic:8 shell:1 read:32 write:36 drive:189 fdd:5 initial:2 confuse:3 fixed:1 another:5 term:3 nonremovable:1 type:8 hard:11 invent:2 ibm:31 inch:127 mm:8 format:98 enjoy:1 many:15 year:3 popular:11 ubiquitous:2 form:5 exchange:2 mid:3 late:8 still:25 limited:2 us:1 especially:2 legacy:3 industrial:1 computer:40 equipment:3 engineering:2 design:14 challenge:1 ssd:1 see:15 http:3 jimwarholic:1 com:2 php:1 largely:4 supersede:2 usb:15 flash:5 external:6 cd:21 rom:11 dvd:4 memory:5 card:4 secure:1 digital:4 recent:2 usage:3 diskette:26 ette:1 diminutive:1 suffix:1 revolutionize:1 often:13 call:7 english:1 speaking:1 user:23 become:12 use:96 personal:3 home:5 apple:15 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2,958 | Economy_of_Nicaragua | The economy of Nicaragua has made significant progress toward macro-economic stabilization over the past few years - even with the damage caused by Hurricane Mitch in the fall of 1998. International aid, debt relief, and continued foreign investment have contributed to the stabilization process. GDP grew 6.3% in 1999, while inflation remained about 12%, and unemployment dropped. In 2005, finance ministers of the leading eight industrialized nations (G8) agreed to forgive Nicaragua's foreign debt, as part of the HIPC program. Aid is conditioned on improving governability, the openness of government financial operations, poverty alleviation, and human rights. According to the CIA Fact Book, Nicaraguas GDP per capita ranks #158, however, sources give differing data. Economy Nicaragua's economy was ravaged in the 1980s by the Contra War, which saw the destruction of much of the country's infrastructure. At the same time, the US staged an economic blockade from 1985 onward. Following the end of the war and the defeat of the Sandinistas in the 1990 general election, Nicaragua began free market reforms, privatizing more than 350 state enterprises. Since then, inflation has been reduced from 33,603% to 8%, and the government's foreign debt has been cut in half. The economy began expanding in 1991 and grew 2.5% in 2001. In 2001, the global recession, combined with a series of bank failures, low coffee prices, and a drought, caused the economy to retract. Unemployment is officially 3.8% (2006 est.), and another 46.5% (2006 est.) are underemployed. Nicaragua suffers from persistent trade and budget deficits and a high debt-service burden, leaving it highly dependent on foreign assistance--as much as 25% of GDP in 2001. One of the key engines of economic growth has been production for export. Exports were 640 million in 2001. Although traditional products such as coffee, meat, and sugar continued to lead the list of Nicaraguan exports, the fastest growth is now in nontraditional exports: maquila goods (apparel); gold; seafood; and new agricultural products such as peanuts, sesame, melons, and onions. In 2007 Daniel Ortega managed exports to top 1 billion dollars for the first time in Nicaraguan history during his first 100 days as president. Monstersandcritics.com Close scrutiny after President Ortega's first 100 days Nicaragua also depends heavily on remittances from Nicaraguans living abroad. Nicaragua is primarily an agricultural country, but construction, mining, fisheries, and general commerce also have been expanding during the last few years. Foreign private capital inflows topped $300 million in 1999 but, due to economic and political uncertainty, fell to less than $100 million in 2001. In the last 12 years tourism has grown 394%, Rcalvet.com Government Gets Tough on Environmental Scofflaws the rapid growth has led it to become Nicaragua's second largest source of foreign capital. Less than three years ago, the nation’s tourism budget was U.S. $400,000; today, it is over $2 million. Nicaragua's economy has also produced a construction boom, CostaRicaPages.com Nicaragua Information the majority of which is in and around Managua. Nicaragua faces a number of challenges in stimulating rapid economic growth. An International Monetary Fund (IMF) program is currently being followed, with the aim of attracting investment, creating jobs, and reducing poverty by opening the economy to foreign trade. This process was boosted in late 2000 when Nicaragua reached the decision point under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) debt relief initiative. However, HIPC benefits were delayed because Nicaragua subsequently fell "off track" from its IMF program. The country also has been grappling with a string of bank failures that began in August 2000. Moreover, Nicaragua continues to lose international reserves due to its growing fiscal deficits. The country is still a recovering economy and it continues to implement further reforms, on which aid from the IMF is conditional. In 2005, finance ministers of the leading eight industrialized nations (G8) agreed to forgive some of Nicaragua's foreign debt, as part of the HIPC program. According to the World Bank Nicaragua's GDP was around $4.9 US billion dollars. Recently, in March 2007, Poland and Nicaragua signed an agreement to write off 30.6 million dollars which was borrowed by the Nicaraguan government in the 1980s. english.people.com.cn Poland forgives nearly 31 million dollars of debt owed by Nicaragua The U.S. is the country's largest trading partner, providing 25% of Nicaragua's imports and receiving about 60% of its exports. About 25 wholly or partly owned subsidiaries of U.S. companies operate in Nicaragua. The largest of those investments are in the energy, communications, manufacturing, fisheries, and shrimp farming sectors. Good opportunities exist for further investments in those same sectors, as well as in tourism, mining, franchising, and the distribution of imported consumer, manufacturing, and agricultural goods. There also are copper mines in northeastern Nicaragua. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2006 was estimated at $16.83 billion USD, and GDP per capita in PPP at $3,000 USD. CIA - The World Factbook - Nicaragua The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 56.8%, followed by the industrial sector at 25.8% (2006 est.). Agriculture represents only 17.3% of GDP (2006 est.). Nicaraguan labor force is estimated at 2.261 million of which 29% is occupied in agriculture, 19% in the industry sector and 52% in the service sector (est. 2003). Agriculture and food production Food and agriculture{{#if:Puebla farmers.jpg|<tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"> Product World Rank1Coffee, Green 4Beans, Dry17Groundnuts in Shell30Indigenous Horse Meat30Plantains32Sesame Seed32Sugar Cane32Pineapples33Castor Beans37Cocoa Beans41Cassava48Oranges49Soybeans501Source: FAO (2005) Major Food and Agricultural Commodities and Producers </div> Coffee became Nicaragua's principal crop in the 1870s, a position it still held in 1992 despite the growing importance of other crops. Cotton gained importance in the late 1940s, and in 1992 was the second biggest export earner. In the early 1900s, Nicaraguan governments were reluctant to give concessions to the large United States banana companies, and bananas never attained the level of prominence in Nicaragua that they reached in Nicaragua's Central American neighbors; bananas were grown in the country, however, and were generally the third largest export earner in the post-World War II period. Beef and animal byproducts , the most important agricultural export for the three centuries before the coffee boom of the late 1800s, were still important commodities in 1992. From the end of World War II to the early 1960s, the growth and diversification of the agricultural sector drove the nation's economic expansion. From the early 1960s until the increased fighting in 1977 caused by the Sandinista revolution, agriculture remained a robust and significant part of the economy, although its growth slowed somewhat in comparison with the previous postwar decades. Statistics for the next fifteen years, however, show stagnation and then a drop in agricultural production. The agricultural sector declined precipitously in the 1980s. Until the late 1970s, Nicaragua's agricultural export system generated 40 percent of the country's GDP, 60 percent of national employment, and 80 percent of foreign exchange earnings. Throughout the 1980s, the Contras destroyed or disrupted coffee harvests as well as other key income-generating crops. Private industry stopped investing in agriculture because of uncertain returns. Land was taken out of production of export crops to expand plantings of basic grain. Many coffee plants succumbed to disease. In 1989, the fifth successive year of decline, farm production declined by roughly 7 percent in comparison with the previous year. Production of basic grains fell as a result of Hurricane Joan in 1988 and a drought in 1989. By 1990 agricultural exports had declined to less than half the level of 1978. The only bright spot was the production of nontraditional export crops such as sesame, tobacco, and African palm oil. Services The service sector was estimated to account for 56.8% of the country's GDP, and employs 52% of the active population. This section includes transportation, commerce, warehousing, restaurant and hotels, arts and entertainment, health, education, financial and banking services, telecommunications as well as public administration and defense. Tourism in Nicaragua is one of the most important industries in the country. It is the second largest source of foreign exchange for the country and is predicted to become the first largest industry in 2007. Canal2tv.com Turismo en Nicaragua: aportes y desafios parte I The growth in tourism has positively affected the agricultural, commercial, finance, and construction industries as well. Other statistics Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 1.6%; highest 10%: 39.8% (1993) Industrial production growth rate: 2.4% (2005 est.) Electricity - production: 2.778 billion kWh (2006) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 53.43%; hydro: 35.34%; nuclear: 0%; other: 11.23% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 2.929 billion kWh (2006) Electricity - exports: 69.34 million kWh (2006) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2006) Agriculture - products: coffee, bananas, sugarcane, cotton, rice, corn, tobacco, sesame, soya, beans; beef, veal, pork, poultry, dairy products; shrimp, lobsters Exports - commodities: coffee, beef, shrimp and lobster, cotton, tobacco, beef, peanuts, sugar, bananas; gold Imports - commodities: consumer goods, machinery and equipment, raw materials, petroleum products Currency: 1 gold Cordoba (C$) = 100 centavos Exchange rates: gold Cordoba (C$) per US$1 - 17.582 (2006), 16.733 (2005), 15.937 (2004), 15.105 (2003), 14.251 (2002) See also Nicaragua Banking in Nicaragua Tourism in Nicaragua Agriculture in Nicaragua Economy of North America Nicaragua related topics References External links U.S./Nicaraguan embassy economic reports Labor Conditions in the Nicaraguan Sugar Industry A 2005 study by PASE and the International Labor Rights Fund cia.gov factbook on Nicaragua | Economy_of_Nicaragua |@lemmatized economy:10 nicaragua:34 make:1 significant:2 progress:1 toward:1 macro:1 economic:7 stabilization:2 past:1 year:7 even:1 damage:1 cause:3 hurricane:2 mitch:1 fall:1 international:4 aid:3 debt:7 relief:2 continue:4 foreign:10 investment:4 contribute:1 process:2 gdp:10 grow:6 inflation:2 remain:2 unemployment:2 drop:2 finance:3 minister:2 lead:4 eight:2 industrialized:2 nation:4 agree:2 forgive:3 part:3 hipc:4 program:4 condition:2 improve:1 governability:1 openness:1 government:5 financial:2 operation:1 poverty:2 alleviation:1 human:1 right:2 accord:2 cia:3 fact:1 book:1 nicaraguas:1 per:3 caput:2 rank:1 however:4 source:4 give:2 differ:1 data:1 ravage:1 contra:2 war:4 saw:1 destruction:1 much:2 country:11 infrastructure:1 time:2 u:7 stag:1 blockade:1 onward:1 follow:3 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2,959 | Arabian_mythology | This is a sub-article to Pre-Islamic Arabia Arabian mythology comprises the ancient, pre-Islamic beliefs of the Arabs. Prior to Islam on the Arabian Peninsula in 622, the physical centre of Islam, the Kaaba of Mecca, the Kaaba was covered in symbols representing the myriad demons, djinn, demigods and other assorted creatures which represented the profoundly polytheistic environment of pre-Islamic Ancient Arabia. We can infer from this plurality an exceptionally broad context in which mythology could flourish. Stories of genies, ghouls, magic lamps, flying carpets, and wishes contained in tales from the Arabian Nights and other works have been passed down through the generations. The concept of the Evil Eye is mentioned in the Qur'an, in Surat al-Falaq (in which one is told to seek refuge "from the mischief of the envious one as he envies"). The Hand of Fatima is sometimes used to neutralize the effect of Evil Eye, though its use is forbidden in Islam, as are all talismans and superstitions. Among traditional Muslims, various verses from the Qur'an such as an-Nas and al-Falaq are sometimes recited for blessing. See also Babylonian mythology Ancient Semitic religion Folk religion Demon Iram of the Pillars SourcesGods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia'' by Jeremy Black and Anthony Green (ISBN 0-292-70794-0) ç | Arabian_mythology |@lemmatized sub:1 article:1 pre:3 islamic:3 arabia:2 arabian:3 mythology:3 comprise:1 ancient:4 belief:1 arab:1 prior:1 islam:3 peninsula:1 physical:1 centre:1 kaaba:2 mecca:1 cover:1 symbol:2 represent:2 myriad:1 demon:3 djinn:1 demigod:1 assort:1 creature:1 profoundly:1 polytheistic:1 environment:1 infer:1 plurality:1 exceptionally:1 broad:1 context:1 could:1 flourish:1 story:1 genie:1 ghoul:1 magic:1 lamp:1 fly:1 carpet:1 wish:1 contain:1 tale:1 night:1 work:1 pass:1 generation:1 concept:1 evil:2 eye:2 mention:1 qur:2 surat:1 al:2 falaq:2 one:2 tell:1 seek:1 refuge:1 mischief:1 envious:1 envy:1 hand:1 fatima:1 sometimes:2 use:2 neutralize:1 effect:1 though:1 forbid:1 talisman:1 superstition:1 among:1 traditional:1 muslim:1 various:1 verse:1 na:1 recite:1 blessing:1 see:1 also:1 babylonian:1 semitic:1 religion:2 folk:1 iram:1 pillar:1 sourcesgods:1 mesopotamia:1 jeremy:1 black:1 anthony:1 green:1 isbn:1 ç:1 |@bigram arabian_peninsula:1 seek_refuge:1 verse_qur:1 |
2,960 | Ozzie_Smith | Osborne Earl "Ozzie" Smith (born December 26, 1954) is a retired American professional baseball player who was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2002. Nicknamed "The Wizard," Smith played shortstop for the San Diego Padres and St. Louis Cardinals in Major League Baseball, winning the National League Gold Glove Award for defensive play at shortstop for 13 consecutive seasons. A 15-time All-Star, Smith accumulated 2,460 hits and 580 stolen bases during his career, and won the National League Silver Slugger Award as the best hitter at shortstop in 1987. Smith was born in Mobile, Alabama, but his family moved to the Watts section of Los Angeles, California when he was six years old. Developing quick reflexes via childhood athletic activities, Smith played baseball in high school and college. Drafted as an amateur player by the San Diego Padres, Smith made his Major League Baseball debut in 1978. Smith quickly established himself as an outstanding defensive player, who later became known for performing backflips on special occasions while running out to the shortstop position. Smith won his first Gold Glove award in 1980 and made his first All Star Game appearance in 1981. When conflict with Padres' ownership developed, he was traded to the St. Louis Cardinals for shortstop Garry Templeton in 1982. Upon joining the Cardinals, Smith helped the team win the 1982 World Series championship. Three years later his game-winning home run during Game 5 of the 1985 National League Championship Series prompted broadcaster Jack Buck's "Go crazy, folks!" play-by-play call. Despite a rotator cuff injury during the 1985 season, Smith posted career highs in multiple offensive categories in 1987. Smith continued to earn Gold Gloves and All Star appearances on an annual basis until 1993, and later missed nearly three months of the 1995 season after undergoing shoulder surgery. After tension between Smith and his new manager Tony La Russa developed in 1996, Smith decided to retire at season's end, and subsequently had his uniform number (# 1) retired by the Cardinals. Smith served as host of the television show This Week in Baseball from 1997 to 1999, and continues to be an entrepreneur in a variety of business ventures. Early life Smith was born in Mobile, Alabama, the second of Clovis and Marvella Smith's six children (five boys and one girl). While the family lived in Mobile, his father worked as a sandblaster at Brookley Air Force Base. Smith and Rains 1988: 6 When Smith was six his family moved to the Watts section of Los Angeles, California. His father became a delivery truck driver for Safeway stores, while his mother became an aide at a nursing home. Smith's mother was an influential part of his life who stressed the importance of education and encouraged him to pursue his dreams. Eisenbath 1999: 284–285 Smith played a variety of sports in his youth, but considered baseball to be his "favorite." Smith and Rains 1988: 8 Smith developed quick reflexes through various athletic and leisure activity, such as bouncing a ball off the concrete steps in front of his house, moving in closer to reduce reaction time with each throw. Smith and Rains 2002: 24 When not at the local YMCA or playing sports, Smith sometimes went with friends to the neighborhood lumberyard, springboarding off inner tubes and doing flips into sawdust piles (a precursor to his famous backflips). Smith and Rains 1988: 7 In 1965 a ten year old Smith endured the Watts Riots with his family, recalling that, "We had to sleep on the floor because of all the sniping and looting going on." Smith and Rains 1988: 4 While Smith was attending junior high school, his parents decided to divorce. Smith and Rains 1988: 9 Continuing to pursue his interest in baseball, Smith would ride the bus for nearly an hour to reach Dodger Stadium, cheering for the Los Angeles Dodgers at about 25 games a year. Upon becoming a student at Locke High School, Smith played on the basketball and baseball teams. Smith was a teammate of future National Basketball Association player Marques Johnson on the basketball team, and a teammate of future MLB player Eddie Murray on the baseball side. Smith and Rains 1988: 9–10 After high school Smith attended Cal Poly San Luis Obispo in 1974 on a partial academic scholarship, and managed to walk-on to the baseball team. In addition to his academic education, Smith learned to switch-hit from Cal-Poly coach Berdy Harr. Lang, Dave. "There is Only 1 Ozzie Smith." St. Louis Cardinals Official 1993 Yearbook. 1993. 17 When Cal Poly's starting shortstop broke his leg midway through the 1974 season, Smith subsequently took over the starting role. Later named an All-American athlete, Smith established school records in career at bats (754) and career stolen bases (110) before graduating in 1977. San Diego Padres Smith was playing semi-professional baseball in Clarinda, Iowa in June 1976 when he was selected in the seventh round of the amateur entry draft by the Detroit Tigers. The parties could not agree on a contract; Smith wanted a $10,000 signing bonus, while the Tigers offered $8,500. Smith returned to Cal-Poly for his senior year, then in the 1977 draft was selected in the fourth round by the San Diego Padres, ultimately agreeing to a contract that included a $5,000 signing bonus. Smith spent his first year of professional baseball, 1977, with the Class A Walla Walla Padres of the Northwest League. Hummel 2007: 57–61 Smith began 1978 as a non-roster invitee to the San Diego Padres' spring training camp in Yuma, Arizona. Smith credited Padres manager Alvin Dark for giving him confidence by telling reporters the shortstop job was Smith's until he proved he can't handle it. Smith and Rains 1988: 17 Even though Dark was fired in the middle of training camp, Smith made his Major League Baseball (MLB) debut on April 7, 1978. Smith and Rains 1988: 18 It did not take long for Smith to earn recognition in the major leagues, making what some consider his greatest defensive play only ten games into his rookie season. The Padres played host to the Atlanta Braves on April 20, 1978, and with two out in the top of the fourth inning, Atlanta's Jeff Burroughs hit a ground ball up the middle. Smith described the play by saying, "He hit a ball back up the middle that everybody thought was going into center field. I instinctively broke to my left and dove behind second. As I was in the air, the ball took a bad hop and caromed behind me, but I was able to catch it with my bare hand. I hit the ground, bounced back up, and threw Burroughs out at first. Smith and Rains 1988: 21 During a roadtrip to Houston, Texas later in the season, Smith met a part-time usherette at the Astrodome named Denise while making his way to the team bus outside the stadium. Smith and Rains 1988: 24–25 The couple developed a relationship that was sometimes long-distance in nature, and eventually decided to marry. It was also during the 1978 season that Smith introduced a signature move. Padres promotion director Andy Strasberg knew Smith could perform backflips, but that he only did them during practice before fans entered the stadium. Strasberg asked Smith to do a backflip for fans during Fan Appreciation Day on October 1, the Padres' last home game of the season. After conferring with veteran teammate Gene Tenace, Smith went ahead with the backflip, and it proved to be wildly popular. Smith finished the 1978 season with a .258 batting average and .970 fielding percentage, placing second in National League Rookie of the Year voting to Bob Horner. After working with a hitting instructor during the offseason, Smith failed to record a base hit in his first 32 at bats of the 1979 season. Smith and Rains 1988: 28–31 Off the field, conflict developed between Padres' ownership and the combination of Smith and his agent, Ed Gottlieb. The parties entered into a contract dispute before the 1980 season, and when negotiations lasted into spring training, the Padres renewed Smith's contract at his 1979 salary of $72,500. Smith and Rains 1988: 34 Angered by the Padres' attitude during those contract talks, Gottlieb took out a help-wanted ad in the San Diego Union, part of which read, "Padre baseball player wants part-time employment to supplement income." Smith and Rains 1988: 35 When Joan Kroc, wife of Padres owner Ray Kroc, publicly offered Smith a job as an assistant gardener on her estate, Smith and Gottlieb's relationship with the organization deteriorated further. Smith and Rains 1988: 35–36 Meanwhile, Smith was winning recognition for his accomplishments on the field. In 1980 he set the single-season record for most assists by a shortstop (621), and began his string of 13 consecutive Gold Glove awards. Smith's defensive play prompted the Yuma Daily Sun to use the nickname "The Wizard of Oz" in a March 1981 feature article about Smith. Smith and Rains 2002: 22 While "The Wizard of Oz" nickname was an allusion to the 1939 motion picture of the same name, Smith also came to be known as simply "The Wizard" during his playing career, as Smith's Baseball Hall of Fame plaque would later attest. Smith and Rains 2002: 25 In 1981, Smith made his first All-Star Game appearance as a reserve player. Trade While Smith was having problems with the Padres' owners, the St. Louis Cardinals also found themselves unhappy with their shortstop. During a game at Busch Stadium on August 26, 1981, Garry Templeton made obscene gestures at fans before being pulled off the field by manager Whitey Herzog. O'Neill 2005: 108 Herzog and Horrigan 1987: 135–136 Given the task of overhauling the Cardinals by owner Gussie Busch, Herzog was looking to trade Templeton when he was approached by Padres General Manager Jack McKeon at the 1981 baseball winter meetings. Herzog and Horrigan 1987: 119–120, 137 While McKeon had previously told Herzog that Smith was untouchable in any trade, the Padres were now so angry at Smith's agent Gottlieb that McKeon was willing to deal. Herzog and Horrigan 1987: 137 McKeon and Herzog agreed in principle to a six-player trade, with Templeton for Smith as the centerpiece. It was then that Padres manager Dick Williams informed Herzog that a no-trade clause had been included in Smith's 1981 contract. Herzog and Pitts 1999: 92–93 Upon learning of the trade, Smith's initial reaction was to invoke the clause and stay in San Diego, but he was still interested to hear what the Cardinals had to say. Smith and Rains 1988: 51 While the deal for the players beside Templeton and Smith went through, Herzog flew to San Diego to meet with Smith and Gottlieb over the Christmas holiday. Herzog and Horrigan 1987: 138 Smith later recalled that, "Whitey told me that with me playing shortstop for the St. Louis Cardinals, we could win the pennant. He made me feel wanted, which was a feeling I was quickly losing from the Padres. The mere fact that Whitey would come all the way out there to talk to us was more than enough to convince me that St. Louis was the place I wanted to be." Smith and Rains 1988: 52 St. Louis Cardinals 1982 season Part of Smith's statue outside Busch Stadium in St. Louis After more behind-the-scenes contract wrangling, Smith became a St. Louis Cardinal on February 11, 1982. Smith and Rains 1988: 57 Herzog believed Smith could improve his offensive production by hitting more ground balls, and subsequently created a motivational tool designed to help Smith concentrate on that task. Smith and Rains 2002: 28–29 Approaching Smith one day during spring training, Herzog said, "Every time you hit a fly ball, you owe me a buck. Every time you hit a ground ball, I owe you a buck. We'll keep that going all year." Smith and Rains 1988: 61 Smith agreed to the wager, and by the end of the season had won close to $300 from Herzog. As the 1982 season got underway, Herzog's newly assembled team won 12 games in a row during the month of April, and finished the season atop the National League East division. Leach 2008: 37 Herzog would later say of Smith's contributions that, "If he saved two runs a game on defense, which he did many a night, it seemed to me that was just as valuable to the team as a player who drove in two runs a game on offense." Smith and Rains 2002: 6 Smith became a father for the first time during the 1982 season with the birth of his son O.J., today known as Nikko, on April 28. Smith and Rains 1988: 65 Smith also developed a lasting friendship with teammate Willie McGee during the season, and Smith said he likes to think he "helped Willie get over some of the rough spots of adjusting to the major leagues". Smith and Rains 1988: 66 Smith later participated in the postseason for the first time when the Cardinals faced the Atlanta Braves in the best-of-five 1982 National League Championship Series (NLCS). Smith drove in the series' first run by hitting a sacrifice fly that scored McGee in Game 1, ultimately going five for nine in St. Louis' three-game series sweep. Just as Herzog had predicted when he told Smith the Cardinals would win the pennant with him on the team, Smith found himself as the team's starting shortstop in the best-of-seven 1982 World Series. During the contest Smith scored three runs, had five hits, and did not commit an error in the field. Rains 2003: 105 When St. Louis was trailing 3–1 with one out in the sixth inning of Game 7, Smith started a rally with a base hit to left field, eventually scoring the first of the team's three runs that inning. After Bruce Sutter struck out Gorman Thomas in the ninth inning, Smith celebrated a World Series championship with his teammates. Go crazy, folks After the World Series championship, Smith and the Cardinals agreed on a new contract in January 1983 that paid Smith $1 million per year. Smith and Rains 1988: 81 Smith was voted in as the National League's starting shortstop in the All-Star Game for the first time in 1983, and at season's end won a fourth consecutive Gold Glove Award. Smith and Rains 1988: 87 During July of the 1984 season, Smith went on the disabled list with a broken wrist after being hit by a pitch during a game against the Padres. Smith and Rains 1988: 95 Smith's return to the lineup a month later was not enough to propel the Cardinals to a postseason berth. In 1985 Smith amassed a .276 batting average, 31 stolen bases, and 591 assists in the field. The Cardinals as a team won 101 games during the season and earned another postseason berth. Facing the Los Angeles Dodgers in the now best-of-seven NLCS, a split of the first four games set the stage for Game 5 at Busch Stadium. With the score tied at two runs apiece in the bottom of the ninth inning, Dodgers manager Tommy Lasorda called upon closer Tom Niedenfuer to pitch. Smith batted left-handed against Niedenfuer with one out. Smith, who had never hit a home run in his previous 3,009 left-handed major league at-bats, pulled an inside fastball down the right-field line for a home run, ending Game 5 in a 3–2 Cardinals victory. Smith and Rains 1988: 130 Smith said, "I was trying to get an extra-base hit and get into scoring position. Fortunately, I was able to get the ball up." The home run not only prompted broadcaster Jack Buck's "Go crazy folks" play-by-play call, but was also later voted the greatest moment in Busch Stadium history by Cardinals fans. After Smith's teammate Jack Clark hit a late-inning home run of his own in Game 6 to defeat the Dodgers, the Cardinals moved on to face the Kansas City Royals in the 1985 World Series. Once again sportswriters were quick to draw attention to Smith's outstanding defensive play instead of his 2 for 23 effort at the plate. Schoor 1990: 362 Schoor 1990: 418 After the Cardinals took a three-games-to-two advantage, a controversial Game 6 call by umpire Don Denkinger overshadowed the remainder of the Series (which the Royals won in seven games). Nemec and Wisnia 2002: 433 What was not publicly known during the regular season and playoffs was that Smith had torn his rotator cuff after suffering an impingement in his right shoulder during the July 11–14 homestand against the Padres. Smith and Rains 1988: 121 After suffering the impingement diving back into first base on a pickoff throw, Smith altered his throwing motion to such a degree that the rotator cuff tear subsequently developed. The 5'10" (1.78 m), 180-pound (82 kg) Smith opted to forgo surgery and instead built up his arm strength via weightlifting, playing through whatever pain he encountered. Said Smith, "I didn't tell anybody about the injury, because I wanted to keep playing and didn't want anybody thinking they could run on me or take advantage of the injury. I tried to do almost everything, except throw a baseball, left-handed: opening a door, turning on the radio—everything. It didn't get any better, but it was good enough that I didn't have to have surgery." Smith and Rains 2002: 43 Because of his injury, Smith let his now four-year-old son Nikko perform his traditional Opening Day backflip before the Cardinals' first home game of the 1986 season. Rains and Reid 2002: 111 Smith made an "eye-popping" play later that season on August 5, during a game against the Philadelphia Phillies at Busch Stadium. In the top of the ninth inning, Phillies first baseman Von Hayes hit a short fly ball to left field, which was pursued by both Smith and left fielder Curt Ford. Hummel 2007: 85-87 Running with his back to home plate, Smith dove forward, simultaneously catching the ball while parallel to the ground and flying over the diving Ford, avoiding a collision by inches. St. Louis Cardinals 2005 Media Guide. Hadler Printing, 2005. C-26. 1987 season After hitting in either the second or eighth spot in the batting order for most of his time in St. Louis, Herzog made Smith the number-two hitter full-time during the 1987 season. Herzog and Pitts 1999: 95 Over the course of the year, Smith accrued a .303 batting average, 43 stolen bases, 75 RBI, 104 runs scored, and 40 doubles, good enough to earn him the Silver Slugger Award at shortstop. In addition to winning the Gold Glove Award at shortstop for the eighth consecutive time, Smith posted a career-high on-base percentage of .392. Smith was also the leading vote-getter in the 1987 All-Star Game. Smith and Rains 1988: 160 The Cardinals earned a postseason berth with 95 wins, and subsequently faced the San Francisco Giants in the 1987 National League Championship Series. Smith contributed a triple during the series, and the Cardinals won the contest in seven games. Nemec and Wisnia 2002: 441 The 1987 World Series matched the Cardinals against the American League champion Minnesota Twins. The home team won every game of the contest, as Minnesota won the series. Schoor 1990: 370–371 In 28 at bats during the Series, Smith scored three runs and had two RBI. Smith finished second in MVP balloting to Andre Dawson, who had played on the last-place Chicago Cubs, largely because Smith and teammate Jack Clark split the first-place vote. Following the 1987 season, Smith was awarded the largest contract in the National League at $2,340,000. While the team did not see the postseason for the remainder of the decade, Smith continued to rack up All-Star appearances and Gold Gloves. Combined with the attention he received from his contract, Smith continued to be a national figure. Known as a savvy dresser, he made the April 1988 cover of GQ magazine. Boswell, Thomas. "The Wizardry of Ozzie Smith." GQ. April 1988. Smith was witness to change within the Cardinal organization when owner Gussie Busch died in 1989 and Herzog quit as manager during the 1990 season. Hummel 2007: 121-123 Torre era Joe Torre became Smith's new manager in 1990, but the team did not reach the postseason during Torre's nearly five-year tenure. Rains 2003: 251–252 While the Cardinals' celebrated their 100th anniversary in 1992, Smith marked milestones of his own, stealing his 500th career base on April 26, then notching a triple on May 26 in front of the home crowd for his 2,000th hit. Rains 2003: 251 St. Louis had a one-game lead in the National League East division on June 1, 1992, but injuries took their toll on the team, including Smith's two week illness in late July after contracting chicken pox for the first time. As a testament to his national visibility during this time, Smith appeared in a 1992 episode of The Simpsons titled "Homer at the Bat". Smith became a free agent for the first time in his career on November 2, 1992, only to sign a new contract with the Cardinals on December 6. Smith won his final Gold Glove in 1992, and his 13 consecutive Gold Gloves at shortstop in the National League has yet to be matched. The 1993 season marked the only time between 1981 and 1996 that Smith failed to make the All-Star team, and Smith finished the 1993 season with a .288 batting average and .974 fielding percentage. He appeared in 98 games during the strike-shortened 1994 season, and later missed nearly three months of the 1995 season after shoulder surgery on May 31. Smith was recognized for his community service efforts with the 1994 Branch Rickey Award and the 1995 Roberto Clemente Award. In February 1994, Smith took on the role of honorary chairman and official spokesman for the Missouri Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Health. 1996 season As Smith entered the 1996 season, he finalized a divorce from his wife Denise during the first half of the year. Rains and Reid 2002: 110 Meanwhile, manager Tony La Russa began his first season with the Cardinals in tandem with a new ownership group. After General Manager Walt Jocketty acquired shortstop Royce Clayton during the offseason, La Russa emphasized an open competition for the spot that would give the Cardinals the best chance to win. Rains 2009: 183–184 When spring training concluded, Smith had amassed a .288 batting average and zero errors in the field, and Clayton batted .190 with eight errors. Smith believed he had earned the position with his spring training performance, but La Russa disagreed, and awarded Clayton the majority of playing time in the platoon situation that developed, where Smith typically saw action every third game. Rains 2009: 187 La Russa said, "I think it's fair to say he misunderstood how he compared to Royce in spring training...When I and the coaches evaluated the play in spring training-the whole game-Royce started very slowly offensively and you could see him start to get better. By what he was able to do defensively and on the bases, Royce deserved to play the majority of the games." Rains 2009: 185–186 Smith missed the first month of the season with a hamstring injury, and continued to harbor ill feelings toward La Russa that had blossomed after spring training ended. Rains 2009: 186–187 In a closed-door meeting in mid-May, La Russa asked Smith if he would like to be traded. Instead, Smith and his agent negotiated a compromise with Cardinals management, agreeing to a buyout of special provisions in his contract in conjunction with Smith announcing his retirement. The agreement prompted a press conference at Busch Stadium on June 19, 1996, during which Smith announced he would retire from Major League Baseball at season's end. Rains 2003: 252 As Smith made his final tour of the National League, he was honored by many teams, and received a standing ovation at the 1996 All-Star Game. Between June 19 and September 1, Smith's batting average increased from .239 to .286. On September 2 Smith tied a career high by scoring four runs, one of which was a home run, and another on a close play at home plate in the bottom of the 10th inning against division leader Houston. Hummel 2007: 129–135 The victory moved the Cardinals to within a half game of Houston in the National League Central Division, and the Cardinals went on to win the division by six games. The Cardinals held a special ceremony at Busch Stadium on September 28, 1996, before a game against the Cincinnati Reds, honoring Smith by retiring his uniform number. Noted for his ritual backflip before Opening Days, All-Star Games, and postseason games, Smith chose this occasion to perform it for one of the last times. In the postseason, the Cardinals first faced the San Diego Padres in the 1996 National League Division Series. After sitting out Game 1, Smith got the start in Game 2 at Busch Stadium, helping his team go up two games in the series by notching a run, a hit and two walks at the plate, along with an assist and a putout in the field. The Cardinals then swept the series by winning Game 3 in San Diego. The Cardinals faced the Atlanta Braves in the 1996 National League Championship Series. Smith started Game 1 and subsequently registered three putouts and one assist in the field, but went hitless in four at-bats in the Cardinals' 4−2 loss. The Cardinals then won Games 2, 3, and 4, contests in which Smith did not appear. Upon receiving the start in Game 5, Smith nearly duplicated his Game 1 performance with four putouts, one assist, and zero hits in four at-bats as part of another Cardinals defeat. The Cardinals also failed to win Game 6 or Game 7 in Atlanta, ending their season. When the Cardinals were trailing by ten runs during Game 7 on October 17, Smith flied out to right field while pinch-hitting in the sixth inning, marking the end of his playing career. Smith finished his career with distinctions ranging from the accumulation of more than 27.5 million votes in All-Star balloting, to holding the record for the most MLB at-bats without hitting a grand slam. Post-playing career Upon retirement, Smith took over for Mel Allen as the host of the television series This Week in Baseball (TWIB) in 1997. Smith also became color commentator for the local broadcast of Cardinals games on KPLR-TV from 1997 to 1999. Robinson, Tom. "Ozzie Puts Down Glove, Picks Up Mike." The Virginian-Pilot. May 22, 1997: C1. Retrieved on 2007-12-28. When his stint on This Week in Baseball concluded, Smith then moved on to do work for CNN-SI beginning in 1999. Rains and Reid 2002: 109 Smith fields a ground ball at Doubleday Field in 2002. On January 8, 2002 Smith received a phone call from Jack O'Connell, the secretary of the Baseball Writer's Association of America, informing him that he had been elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame on his first ballot by receiving 91.7% of the votes cast. Rains and Reid 2002: 107 As it happened, the Olympic torch was passing through St. Louis on its way to Salt Lake City for the 2002 Winter Olympics, and Smith served as a torchbearer in a ceremony with St. Louis Rams' quarterback Kurt Warner that evening. Smith and Rains 2002: 18–19 Smith was inducted into the Hall of Fame during ceremonies on July 28, 2002. During his speech, he compared his baseball experiences with the characters from the novel "The Wizard of Oz", after which his son Dustin presented his Hall of Fame plaque. Days later on August 11, Smith was back at Busch Memorial Stadium for the unveiling of a statue in his likeness made by sculptor Harry Weber. Weber chose to emphasize Smith's defensive skills by showing Smith stretched horizontal to the ground while fielding a baseball. At the ceremony Weber told Smith, "You spent half of your career up in the air. That makes it difficult for a sculptor to do something with it." Smith has also been an entrepreneur in a variety of business ventures. Smith opened "Ozzie's" restaurant and sports bar in 1988, started a youth sports academy in 1990, became an investor in a grocery store chain in 1999, and partnered with David Slay to open a restaurant in the early 2000s. Rains and Reid 2002: 113 Of those businesses, the sports bar and youth academy remain in operation as of 2009. Smith has also appeared in numerous radio and television commercials in the St. Louis area since retiring from baseball, and in 2008 pursued a new business venture by releasing a brand of salad dressing. Smith is father to three children from his marriage to former wife Denise; sons Nikko, Dustin, and daughter Taryn. Smith remains a visible figure around the St. Louis area, making appearances as varied as playing the role of the Wizard in the St. Louis Municipal Opera's summer 2001 production of The Wizard of Oz. Rains and Reid 2002: 114 In 1999 he ranked number 87 on The Sporting News''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and finished third in voting at shortstop for the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. Smith has also been honored with induction into the Alabama Sports Hall of Fame and the St. Louis Walk of Fame, and received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Cal-Poly. Smith has chosen to limit his association with the Cardinals for as long as La Russa remains manager of the team, still upset with the situation that unfolded in 1996. Besides playing golf as a hobby, Smith cheered on his son Nikko as he cracked the top ten finalists of the 2005 edition of American Idol''. Wald, Jaina. "When it's "Idol" time at Ozzie's, folks go crazy for Nikko." St. Louis Post-Dispatch. 2005-04-06. E3. Retrieved on 2008-03-19. Career MLB statistics Hitting Category G AB AVG R H 2B 3B HR RBI BB SB SO OBP SLG Statistic 2573 9396 .262 1257 2460 402 69 28 793 1072 580 589 .337 .328 Fielding Category G PO A CH E DP FP RFg Inn Statistic 2511 4249 8375 12624 281 1590 .978 5.03 21786 See also List of Major League Baseball players with 2000 hits List of Major League Baseball players with 400 doubles List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 runs List of Major League Baseball players with 500 stolen bases Notes References External links St. Louis Walk of Fame | Ozzie_Smith |@lemmatized osborne:1 earl:1 ozzie:6 smith:198 born:1 december:2 retired:1 american:4 professional:3 baseball:32 player:15 elect:2 hall:6 fame:8 nickname:3 wizard:7 play:27 shortstop:17 san:12 diego:10 padre:22 st:22 louis:22 cardinal:44 major:12 league:29 win:24 national:18 gold:9 glove:10 award:11 defensive:6 consecutive:5 season:39 time:19 star:11 accumulate:1 hit:25 steal:5 base:13 career:14 silver:2 slugger:2 best:5 hitter:2 bear:2 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2,961 | Anthony_Hopkins | Sir Philip Anthony Hopkins, CBE (born 31 December 1937) is a Welsh film, stage and television actor. Considered to be one of film's greatest living actors, he is known for his portrayal of cannibalistic serial killer Hannibal Lecter in the 1991 The Silence of the Lambs, its sequel, Hannibal, and its prequel, Red Dragon. His other notable film credits include The Elephant Man, Dracula, Legends of the Fall, The Remains of the Day, The Mask of Zorro, The World's Fastest Indian, Hearts in Atlantis, Nixon and Fracture. Hopkins was born and raised in Wales, and also became a U.S. citizen on 12 April 2000. He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2003 and was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts in 2008. Early life Hopkins was born in Margam, Port Talbot, Wales, the son of Muriel Anne (née Yeats) and Richard Arthur Hopkins, a baker. Stated in interview on Inside the Actors Studio, 2007 His schooldays were unproductive. A loner with dyslexia, he found that he would rather immerse himself in art, such as painting and drawing or playing the piano, than attend to his studies. In 1949, to instill discipline, his parents insisted he attend Jones' West Monmouth Boys' School in Pontypool, Wales. He remained there for five terms and was then educated at Cowbridge Grammar School, Cowbridge, Wales. Hopkins was influenced and encouraged to become an actor by compatriot Richard Burton, whom he met briefly at the age of 15. To that end, he enrolled at the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in Cardiff, Wales from which he graduated in 1957. After a two-year spell in the Army for National Service, he moved to London where he trained at RADA. Career In 1965, after several years in repertory, he was spotted by Sir Laurence Olivier, who invited him to join the Royal National Theatre. Hopkins became Olivier's understudy, and filled in when Olivier was struck with appendicitis during a production of August Strindberg's The Dance of Death. Olivier later noted in his memoir, Confessions of an Actor, that, "A new young actor in the company of exceptional promise named Anthony Hopkins was understudying me and walked away with the part of Edgar like a cat with a mouse between its teeth." Despite his success at the National, Hopkins tired of repeating the same roles nightly and yearned to be in movies. In 1968, he got his break in The Lion in Winter playing Richard I, along with Peter O'Toole, Katharine Hepburn, and future James Bond star Timothy Dalton, who played Philip II of France. Although Hopkins continued in theatre (most notably at the National Theatre as Lambert Le Roux in Pravda by David Hare and Howard Brenton and as Antony in Antony and Cleopatra opposite Judi Dench as well as in the Broadway production of Peter Shaffer's Equus, directed by John Dexter) he gradually moved away from it to become more established as a television and film actor. He made his small-screen debut in a 1967 BBC broadcast of A Flea in Her Ear. He has since gone on to enjoy a long career, winning many plaudits and awards for his performances. Hopkins was made a Commander of the British Empire (CBE) in 1987, and a Knight Bachelor in 1993 Official announcement knighthood. The London Gazette. 23 April 1993. In 1996, Hopkins was awarded an honorary fellowship from the University of Wales, Lampeter. Hopkins has stated that his role as Burt Munro, whom he portrayed in his 2005 film The World's Fastest Indian, was his favourite. He also asserted that Munro was the easiest role that he had played because both men have a similar outlook on life.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.solarnavigator.net/films_movies_actors/the_worlds_fastest_indian.htm| publisher=Solarnavigator.net | title=The World's Fastest Indian| accessdate=2007-05-21}}</ref> In 2006, Hopkins was the recipient of the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award for lifetime achievement. In 2008, he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award. Acting style As Angus Barrie in The Dawning Hopkins is renowned for his firm preparation for roles. He has confessed in interviews that once he has committed to a project, he will go over his lines as many times as is needed (sometimes upwards of 200) until the lines sound natural to him, so that he can "do it without thinking". This leads to an almost casual style of delivery that belies the amount of groundwork done beforehand. While it can allow for some careful improvisation, it has also brought him into conflict with the occasional director who departs from the script, or demands what the actor views as an excessive number of takes. Hopkins has stated that after he is finished with a scene, he simply discards the lines, not remembering them later on. This is unlike others who usually remember their lines from a film even years later. "Anthony Hopkins: Lecter and Me" — Red Dragon DVD interview Richard Attenborough, who has directed Hopkins on five occasions, found himself going to great lengths during the filming of Shadowlands (1993) to accommodate the differing approaches of his two stars (Hopkins and Debra Winger), who shared many scenes. Whereas Hopkins liked to keep rehearsals to a minimum, preferring the spontaneity of a fresh take, Winger rehearsed continuously. To allow for this, Attenborough stood in for Hopkins during Winger's rehearsals, only bringing him in for the last one before a take. The director praised Hopkins for "this extraordinary ability to make you believe when you hear him that it is the very first time he has ever said that line. It's an incredible gift." In addition, Hopkins is a gifted mimic, adept at turning his native Welsh accent into whatever is required by a character. He duplicated the voice of his late mentor, Laurence Olivier, for additional scenes in Spartacus in its 1991 restoration. His interview on the 1998 relaunch edition of the British TV chat show Parkinson featured an impersonation of comedian Tommy Cooper. Hannibal Lecter Anthony Hopkins as Hannibal Lecter Hopkins' most famous role is as the cannibalistic serial killer Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs, for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor in 1992, opposite Jodie Foster as Clarice Starling, who won for Best Actress. The film won Best Picture, Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay. It is the shortest lead performance to win an Oscar, as Hopkins only appears on screen for little over sixteen minutes. Hopkins reprised his role as Lecter twice (Hannibal in 2001, Red Dragon in 2002). His original portrayal of the character in The Silence of the Lambs has been labelled by the American Film Institute as the number-one film villain. At the time he was offered the role, Hopkins was making a return to the London stage, performing in M. Butterfly. He had come back to Britain after living for a number of years in Hollywood, having all but given up on a career there, saying, "Well that part of my life's over; it's a chapter closed. I suppose I'll just have to settle for being a respectable actor poncing around the West End and doing respectable BBC work for the rest of my life." Hopkins played the iconic villain in adaptations of the first three of the Lecter novels by Thomas Harris. The author was reportedly very pleased with Hopkins' portrayal of his antagonist. However, Hopkins stated that Red Dragon would feature his final performance as the character, and that he would not reprise even a narrative role in the latest addition to the series, Hannibal Rising. Personal life As of 2007, Hopkins resides in the United States. He had moved to the country once before during the 1970s to pursue his film career, but returned to Britain in the late 1980s. However, he decided to return to the U.S. following his 1990s success. He became a naturalized citizen on 12 April 2000, and celebrated with a 3,000-mile road trip across the country. Hopkins has been married three times. His first two wives were Petronella Barker (1967–1972) and Jennifer Lynton (1973–2002). He is now married to Colombian-born Stella Arroyave. He has a daughter from his first marriage, Abigail Hopkins (b. 20 August 1968), who is an actress and singer. He has offered his support to various charities and appeals, notably becoming President of the National Trust's Snowdonia Appeal, raising funds for the preservation of the Snowdonia National Park and to aid the Trust's efforts to purchase parts of Snowdon. A book celebrating these efforts, Anthony Hopkins' Snowdonia, was published together with Graham Nobles. Hopkins, who can speak some Welsh, also takes time to support various philanthropic groups. He was a Guest of Honour at a Gala Fundraiser for Women in Recovery, Inc., a Venice, California-based non-profit organization offering rehabilitation assistance to women in recovery from substance abuse. He is also a volunteer teacher at the Ruskin School of Acting in Santa Monica, California, where he resides. Hopkins is an acknowledged alcoholic Guardian Unlimited: A dark and stormy knight who has been sober since 1975. Hopkins is known to be a joker while on set, lightening the mood during production by barking like a dog before filming a scene, according to a Tonight Show interview broadcast on 9 April 2007. Hopkins is a prominent member of environmental protection group Greenpeace and as of early 2008 featured in a television advertisement campaign, voicing concerns about Japan's continuing annual whale hunt. Green Peace anti-whaling video Hopkins has been a patron of RAPt (Rehabilitation for Addicted Prisoners Trust) since its early days and helped open their first intensive drug and alcohol rehabilitation unit at Downview (HM Prison) in 1992. He is an admirer of the comedian Tommy Cooper. On 23 February 2008, as patron of The Tommy Cooper Society, the actor unveiled a commemorative statue in the entertainer's home town of Caerphilly. For the ceremony, Hopkins donned Cooper's trademark fez and performed a comic routine. BBC News: Tommy Cooper statue is unveiled Other work Hopkins is a talented pianist. In 1986, he released a single called "Distant Star". It peaked at #75 in the UK charts. In 2007, he announced he would retire temporarily from the screen to tour around the world. Hopkins has also written music for the concert hall, in collaboration with Stephen Barton as orchestrator. These compositions include The Masque of Time, given its world premiere with the Dallas Symphony Orchestra in October 2008, and Schizoid Salsa. In 1996, Hopkins directed his first film, August, an adaptation of Chekhov's Uncle Vanya. His first screenplay, an experimental drama called Slipstream, which he also directed and scored, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 2007. Hopkins is a fan of the BBC sitcom Only Fools and Horses, and once remarked in an interview how he would love to appear in the series. Writer John Sullivan saw the interview, and with Hopkins in mind created the character Danny Driscoll, a local villain. However, filming of the new series coincided with the filming of The Silence of the Lambs, making Hopkins unavailable. The role instead went to his friend Roy Marsden. Hopkins has played many famous historical and fictional characters including: John Quincy Adams (Amistad, 1997) Pierre Bezukhov (War and Peace, 1972) William Bligh (The Bounty, 1984) Count Galeazzo Ciano (Mussolini and I, 1985) Charles Dickens (The Great Inimitable Mr Dickens, 1970) John Frost (A Bridge Too Far, 1977) Bruno Hauptmann (The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case, 1976) Abraham Van Helsing (Bram Stoker's Dracula, 1992) Adolf Hitler (The Bunker, 1981) Hrothgar (Beowulf, 2007) Dr. John Harvey Kellogg (The Road to Wellville, 1994) Dr. Hannibal Lecter (The Silence of the Lambs, 1991)(Hannibal, 2001) (Red Dragon, 2002) C. S. Lewis (Shadowlands, 1993), David Lloyd George (Young Winston, 1972) Marcus Crassus (Jeff Wayne's Musical Version of Spartacus, 1992) Burt Munro (The World's Fastest Indian, 2005) Richard Nixon (Nixon, 1995) Iago (Othello, 1981) Paul the Apostle (Peter and Paul, 1981) Pablo Picasso (Surviving Picasso, 1996) Ptolemy I Soter (Alexander, 2004) Quasimodo (The Hunchback of Notre Dame, 1982) Yitzak Rabin (Victory at Entebbe, 1976) Richard Lionheart (The Lion in Winter, 1968) Titus Andronicus (Titus, 1999) Frederick Treves (The Elephant Man, 1980) Don Diego de la Vega/Zorro (The Mask of Zorro, 1998) Awards Besides his win for The Silence of the Lambs, Hopkins has been Oscar-nominated for The Remains of the Day (1993), Nixon (1995) and Amistad (1997). Hopkins won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in 1973 for his performance as Pierre Bezukhov in the BBC's production of War and Peace, and additionally for The Silence of the Lambs and Shadowlands. He received nominations in the same category for Magic and The Remains of the Day and as Best Supporting Actor for The Lion in Winter. He won Emmy Awards for his roles in The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case and The Bunker, and was Emmy-nominated for The Hunchback of Notre Dame and Great Expectations. He won the directing and the acting award, both for Slipstream'', at Switzerland's Locarno International Film Festival. Hopkins became a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) at the Orange British Academy Film Awards in February 2008. Filmography Year Film Role Other notes1967 A Flea in Her Ear Etienne Plucheux TV The White Bus Brechtian1968 The Lion in Winter Richard1969 The Looking Glass War John Avery Hamlet Claudius Department S Greg Halliday TV1970 The Great Inimitable Mr. Dickens Charles Dickens Television Film Hearts and Flowers Bob TV – Play for Today1971 When Eight Bells Toll Philip Calvert 1972 Young Winston David Lloyd George War and Peace Pierre Bezukhov A Doll's House Torvald Helmer1974 The Girl from Petrovka Kostya QB VII Dr. Adam Kelno Juggernaut Supt. John McCleod All Creatures Great and Small Seigfried Farnon The Childhood Friend Alexander Tashkov TV – Play for Today1976 Dark Victory Dr. Michael Grant TV The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case Bruno Richard Hauptmann Emmy Award Victory at Entebbe Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin1977 A Bridge Too Far Lt. Col. John D. Frost Audrey Rose Elliot Hoover1978 Magic Charles "Corky" Withers/Voice of Fats International Velvet Captain Johnson1979 Mayflower: The Pilgrims' Adventure Capt. Jones1980 The Elephant Man Dr. Frederick Treves A Change of Seasons Adam Evans1981 The Bunker Adolf Hitler Emmy Award Peter and Paul Paul of Tarsus Othello Othello TV1982 The Hunchback of Notre Dame Quasimodo TV1983 A Married Man John Strickland TV1984 The Bounty Lieutenant William Bligh1985 Hollywood Wives Neil Gray TV Arch of Triumph Dr. Ravic TV Guilty Conscience Arthur Jamison TV Mussolini and I Count Galeazzo Ciano TV The Good Father Bill Hooper1987 84 Charing Cross Road Frank Doel1988 The Dawning Angus Barrie A Chorus of Disapproval Dafydd Ap Llewellyn1989 Great Expectations Abel Magwitch1990 Desperate Hours Tim Comell1991 The Silence of the Lambs Dr. Hannibal Lecter Academy Award for Best Actor Howards End Henry J. Wilcox One Man's War Joel1992 Freejack Ian McCandless Chaplin George Hayden Spotswood Errol Wallace Bram Stoker's Dracula Professor Abraham Van Helsing1993 The Trial The Priest The Remains of the Day James Stevens Academy Award Nomination The Innocent Bob Glass Shadowlands Jack Lewis BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role1994 Legends of the Fall Col. William Ludlow The Road to Wellville Dr. John Harvey Kellogg1995 Nixon Richard Nixon Academy Award Nomination1996August Ieuan Davies also directed, composed score Surviving Picasso Pablo Picasso1997 Amistad John Quincy Adams Academy Award Nomination The Edge Charles Morse1998 The Mask of Zorro Don Diego de la Vega / Zorro Meet Joe Black William Parrish1999 Instinct Ethan Powell Titus Titus Andronicus2000 Mission: Impossible II Mission Commander Swanbeck uncredited The Grinch The Narrator2001 The Devil and Daniel Webster Daniel Webster Hannibal Dr. Hannibal Lecter Hearts in Atlantis Ted Brautigan2002 Red Dragon Dr. Hannibal Lecter Bad Company Officer Oakes2003 The Human Stain Coleman Silk2004 Alexander Ptolemy I Soter2005 Proof Robert The World's Fastest Indian Burt Munro2006 All the King's Men Judge Irwin Bobby John2007 Fracture Theodore "Ted" Crawford Beowulf Hrothgar Slipstream Felix Bonhoeffer 2008 The City of Your Final Destination Adam2009 The Wolfman Sir John Talbot post-production Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho Alfred Hitchcock pre-production King Lear King Lear announced References External links Anthony Hopkins, Giant of the Valley - By Michael Feeney Callan, 2007 Voyager Magazine Anthony Hopkins interviewed on HTV-Wales program Elinor in the 1980s An Evening with Anthony Hopkins HTV-Wales Early voice-over on HTV-Wales programme http://www.bafta.org/awards/film/2008-fellow-of-the-academy,289,BA.html Anthony Hopkins, BAFTA Fellow in 2008] Fellow Man - Anthony Hopkins, BAFTA profile by film writer Quentin Falk | Anthony_Hopkins |@lemmatized sir:3 philip:3 anthony:10 hopkins:55 cbe:2 born:2 december:1 welsh:4 film:22 stage:2 television:6 actor:15 consider:1 one:4 great:7 living:1 know:2 portrayal:3 cannibalistic:2 serial:2 killer:2 hannibal:13 lecter:11 silence:8 lamb:7 sequel:1 prequel:1 red:6 dragon:6 notable:1 credit:1 include:3 elephant:3 man:6 dracula:3 legend:2 fall:2 remains:4 day:5 mask:3 zorro:5 world:7 fast:5 indian:5 heart:3 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2,962 | Mesolithic | The Mesolithic (Greek: mesos "middle", lithos stone) or "Middle Stone Age" This translation can be ambiguous since Middle Stone Age is an older African prehistoric period. was a period in the development of human technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age. The term was introduced by John Lubbock in his work Pre-historic Times, published in 1865. The term was, however, not much used until V. Gordon Childe popularized it in his book The Dawn of Europe (1947). Linder, F., 1997. Social differentiering i mesolitiska jägar-samlarsamhällen. Institutionen för arkeologi och antik historia, Uppsala universitet. Uppsala. Recently, Ray Mears and paleoethnobotanist Gordon Hillman have brought the term 'Mesolithic' back into the public arena, prompting individuals to learn more about it and the diets of Mesolithic people through the popular BBC 2 broadcast 'Ray Mears' Wild Food'. A question of terminology: "Mesolithic" or "Epipaleolithic"? The term "Mesolithic" is in competition with another term, "Epipaleolithic", which means the "final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the Mesolithic". Bahn, Paul, The Penguin Archaeology Guide, Penguin, London, pp. 141. ISBN 0-14-051448-1 In the archaeology of northern Europe — for example for archaeological sites in Great Britain, Scandinavia, Ukraine, and Russia — the term "Mesolithic" is almost always used. In the archaeology of other areas, the term "Epipaleolithic" may be preferred by most authors, or there may be divergences between authors over which term to use or what meaning to assign to each. Some authors use the term "Epipaleolithic" for those cultures that are late developments of hunter-gatherer traditions but not in transition toward agriculture, reserving the term "Mesolithic" for those cultures, like the Natufian culture, that are transitional between hunter-gatherer and agricultural practices. Other authors use the term Mesolithic for a variety of Late Paleolithic cultures subsequent to the end of the last glacial period whether they are transitional towards agriculture or not. A Spanish scholar, Alfonso Moure, says in this regard: In the terminology of prehistoric archeology, the most widespread trend is to use the term "Epipaleolithic" for the industrial complexes of post-glacial hunter-gatherer groups. Conversely, those that are in course of transition toward artificial food production are assigned to the "Mesolithic". A. Moure El Origen del Hombre, 1999. ISBN 84-7679-127-5 Some authors prefer the opposite convention, using the term "Epipaleolithic" for cultures that are in transition toward agriculture and "Mesolithic" for those that are not. This is not really as confusing as it seems. The important thing is to take note of how each author uses the term. In Europe It began at the end of the Pleistocene epoch around 11,500 BP and ended with the introduction of farming, the date of which varied in each geographical region. In some areas, such as the Near East, farming was already in use by the end of the Pleistocene, and there the Mesolithic is short and poorly defined. In areas with limited glacial impact, the term "Epipaleolithic" is sometimes preferred. Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last glacial period ended have a much more apparent Mesolithic era, lasting millennia. In northern Europe, for example, societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands created by the warmer climate. Such conditions produced distinctive human behaviors that are preserved in the material record, such as the Maglemosian and Azilian cultures. Such conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 5000 BC in northern Europe. As what Mithen terms the "Neolithic package" (including farming, herding, polished stone axes, timber longhouses and pottery) spread into Europe by routes that remain controversial among scholars, the Mesolithic way of life was marginalized and eventually disappeared. Mesolithic adaptations are cited as of relevance of the question of the transition to agriculture, including sedentism, population size and plant foods. Europe's first farmers - T.Douglas Price, Cambridge University Press 2000, page 5 In Europe, a "ceramic Mesolithic" can be distinguished between 5200-3850 cal BC that ranging from southern to northern Europe. Other labels are Subneolithicum or "Mesolithic, Last Hunters, First Farmers"(Price). De Roevers, p. 135 This stage of Mesolithic culture can be found peripheral to the sedentary communities and Neolithic cultures (Linear Pottery -with Rössen culture and Lengyel culture being the most important derivate cultures- and Cardium Pottery) that by then had already passed their "aceramic Neolithic stage". By then most Mesolithic people employed a distinct type of pottery manufactured by methods not known to the Neolithic farmers. Though each area developed an individual style, yet some common features such as the point or knob base and the superimposed circular rolls of clay, suggests enduring contact and even "ethnic" relationships between the groups. The special shape of this pottery has been related to transport by logboat in wetland areas. De Roevers, p.162-163 . Jeunesse et al. (1991, fig.22) related similar point base pottery from Spain, southern Scandinavia and the Dnieper-Donets region in the Ukraine. Another area featuring neolithic point base pottery is Northern Africa. Denmark's Ertebølle culture is one example of a Mesolithic culture that made some pottery and engaged in significant trade with Neolithic groups directly to their south. Mithen, 2004 Mithen notes that Mesolithic cultures were a historical dead end, unlike the somewhat earlier cultures of the late Paleolithic period in West Asia, which were evolving steadily toward the Neolithic. At the same time, genetic studies strongly suggest that modern Europeans' ancestry, especially their matrilineal mitochondrial DNA, is descended directly from these Mesolithic peoples, who must have eventually adopted the Neolithic way of life that had come to them from West Asia. In the Levant There are two designated periods: Mesolithic 1 (Kebara culture; 20–18,000 BC to 12,150 BC) followed the Aurignacian or Levantine Upper Paleolithic throughout the Levant. By the end of the Aurignacian, gradual changes took place in stone industries. Microliths and retouched bladelets can be found for the first time. The microliths of this culture period differ greatly from the Aurignacian artifacts. This period is more properly called Epipaleolithic. By 20,000 to 18,000 BC the climate and environment had changed, starting a period of transition. The Levant became more arid and the forest vegetation retreated, to be replaced by steppe. The cool and dry period ended at the beginning of Mesolithic 1. The hunter-gatherers of the Aurignacian would have had to modify their way of living and their pattern of settlement to adapt to the changing conditions. The crystallization of these new patterns resulted in Mesolithic 1. New types of settlements and new stone industries developed. The inhabitants of a small Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant left little more than their chipped stone tools behind. The industry was of small tools made of bladelets struck off single-platform cores. Besides bladelets, burins and end-scrapers were found. A few bone tools and some ground stone have also been found. These so-called Mesolithic sites of Asia are far less numerous than those of the Neolithic and the archeological remains are very poor. The second period, Mesolithic 2, is also called the Natufian culture. The change from Mesolithic 1 to Natufian culture can be dated more closely. The latest date from a Mesolithic 1 site in the Levant is 12,150 BC. The earliest date from a Natufian site is 11,140 BC. This period is characterized by the early rise of agriculture that would later emerge into the Neolithic period. Natufian culture is commonly split into two subperiods: Early Natufian (12,500–10,800 BC) (Christopher Delage gives a. 13000 - 11500 BP uncalibrated, equivalent to ca. 13,700 to 11,500 BC) Delage, Christopher, The Last Hunter-gatherers in the Near East, British Archaeological Reports (1 Jun 2004), ISBN 1841713892 and Late Natufian (10,800–9,500 BC). The Late Natufian most likely occurred in tandem with the Younger Dryas. Radiocarbon dating places the Natufian culture between 12,500 and 9500 BC, just before the end of the Pleistocene. This period is characterised by the beginning of agriculture. The earliest known battle occurred during the Mesolithic period at a site in Egypt known as Cemetery 117. Mesolithic sites Some notable Mesolithic sites: Lepenski Vir, Serbia — 7000 BC Star Carr, England — 8700 BC Pulli settlement, Estonia — 9000 BC Franchthi cave, Greece — 20,000–3000 BC Cramond, Scotland — 8500 BC Mount Sandel, Ireland — 7010 BC Howick house, England — 7000 BC Newbury, England Swifterbant culture, The Netherlands Aveline's Hole, Somerset, England — 8,000 BC See also Jōmon period 10th millennium BC 9th millennium BC 8th millennium BC 7th millennium BC Holocene Notes Further reading Dragoslav Srejovic Europe's First Monumental Sculpture: New Discoveries at Lepenski Vir. (1972) ISBN 0-500-390-096 External links Official Lepenski Vir Site in Serbian Mesolithic Miscellany — Newsletter and Information on the European Mesolithic 20th Century Mesolithic Sites in Mandla (Madhya Pradesh), India, discovered by Dr. Babul Roy: , , and Picture Gallery of the Paleolithic (reconstructional palaeoethnology), Libor Balák at the Czech Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Archaeology in Brno, The Center for Paleolithic and Paleoethnological Research Gazetteer of Mesolithic sites in England and Wales with a gazetteer of Upper Palaeolithic sites in England and Wales. 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2,963 | Mitsubishi_A6M_Zero | The Mitsubishi A6M Zero was a lightweight fighter aircraft operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJNAS) from 1940 to 1945. The origin of its official designation was that "A" signified a carrier-based fighter, "6" for the sixth such model built for the Imperial Navy, and "M" for the manufacturer, Mitsubishi. The A6M was usually referred to by the Allies as the "Zero"—a name that was frequently misapplied to other Japanese fighters, such as the Nakajima Ki-43—as well as other codenames and nicknames, including "Zeke", "Hamp" and "Hap". When it was introduced early in World War II, the Zero was the best carrier-based fighter in the world combining excellent maneuverability and very long range. Hawks, Chuck. The Best Fighter Planes of World War II. Retrieved: 18 January 2007. The American and Japanese Air services Compared. Retrieved: 18 January 2007. In early combat operations, the Zero gained a legendary reputation as a "dogfighter," but by 1942, new tactics and techniques enabled Allied pilots to engage the Zero on more equal terms. Mersky, Peter B. (Cmdr. USNR). Time of the Aces: Marine Pilots in the Solomons, 1942-1944. Retrieved: 18 January 2007. The IJNAS also frequently used the type as a land-based fighter. By 1943, inherent design weaknesses and the increasing scarcity of more powerful aircraft engines meant that the Zero became less effective against newer enemy fighters that possessed greater firepower, armor, and speed, and approached the Zero's maneuverability. Willmott 1980, pp. 40–41. Although the Mitsubishi A6M was outdated by 1944, it remained in production. During the final years of the War in the Pacific, the Zero was utilized in kamikaze operations. Design and development Mitsubishi A6M3 Zero wreck abandoned at Munda Airfield, Central Solomons, 1943 Carrier A6M2 Zeros from the aircraft carrier Zuikaku preparing for a mission at Rabaul A6M3 Model 22 over the Solomon Islands, 1943 The Mitsubishi A5M fighter was just starting to enter service in early 1937 when the Imperial Japanese Navy started looking for its eventual replacement. In May they issued specification 12-Shi for a new carrier-based fighter, sending it to Nakajima and Mitsubishi. Both firms started preliminary design work while they awaited more definitive requirements to be handed over in a few months. Based on the experiences of the A5M in China, the Navy sent out updated requirements in October calling for a speed of 500 km/h (310 mph) at 4,000 m (13,120 ft) and a climb to 3,000 m (9,840 ft) in 3.5 min. They needed an endurance of two hours at normal power, or six to eight hours at economical cruising speed (both with drop tanks). Armament was to consist of two 20 mm cannons and two 7.7 mm (.303 in) machine guns and two 30 kg (70 lb) or 60 kg (130 lb) bombs. A complete radio set was to be mounted in all airplanes, along with a radio direction finder for long-range navigation. The maneuverability was to be at least equal to that of the A5M, while the wing span had to be less than 12 m (39 ft) to fit on the carriers. Nakajima's team considered the new requirements unachievable and pulled out of the competition in January. Mitsubishi's chief designer, Jiro Horikoshi, felt that the requirements could be met, but only if the aircraft could be made as light as possible. Every weight-saving method was used. Most of the airplane was built of T-7178 aluminum, a top-secret aluminum alloy developed by the Japanese just for this aircraft. It was lighter and stronger than the normal aluminum used at the time, but more brittle. In addition, no armor was carried for the pilot, engine or other critical points of the aircraft, and the self-sealing fuel tanks that were becoming common at the time were also left off. This made the Zero lighter and more agile than most other aircraft at the start of the war, but that also made it prone to catching fire and exploding when struck by enemy rounds. With its low-wing cantilever monoplane layout, retractable wide-set landing gear and enclosed cockpit, the design was one of the most modern in the world. The Zero had a fairly high-lift, low-speed wing with a very low wing loading; combined with the light weight this gave it a very low stalling speed of well below . This is the reason for the phenomenal turning ability of the airplane, allowing it to turn more sharply than any Allied fighter of the time. Roll rate is enhanced by servo tabs on the ailerons which deflect opposite to the ailerons and make the control force much lighter. The disadvantage is that they reduce the maximum roll effect at full travel. At 160 mph (260 km/h) the A6M2 had a roll rate of 56° per second. Because of wing flexibility, roll effectiveness dropped to near zero at about indicated airspeed. Name The A6M is universally known as the Zero from its Japanese Navy designation, Type 0 Carrier Fighter (Rei shiki Kanjō sentoki, 零式艦上戦闘機), taken from the last digit of the Imperial year 2600 (1940), when it entered service. In Japan it was unofficially referred to as both Rei-sen and Zero-sen; Japanese pilots most commonly called their plane Zero-sen. Note: In Japanese service carrier fighter units were referred to as Kanjō sentōkitai. Parshall and Tully 2007, p.78. The official Allied code name was "Zeke" in keeping with the practice of giving male names to Japanese fighters, female names to bombers, bird names to gliders and tree names to trainers. The reason for choosing "Zeke" as a code name for the Mitsubishi A6M is uncertain. When in 1942 the Allied code for Japanese planes was introduced, "Zeke" may have been thought an appropriate choice. Later, two variants of the fighter, not immediately identified as such, received their own code names: the A6M2-N (floatplane version of the Zero) was called Rufe and the A6M3-32 variant was initially called Hap. After objections from General "Hap" Arnold, C/O of the USAAF, the name was changed to Hamp. Operational history Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zero" Model 21 takes off from the aircraft carrier Akagi, to attack Pearl Harbor. Cockpit (starboard console) of a damaged A6M2 which crashed during the raid on Pearl Harbor into Building 52 at Fort Kamehameha, Oahu, during the 7 December 1941 raid on Pearl Harbor. The pilot, who was killed, was NAP1/c Takeshi Hirano. Plane's tail code was "AI-154". The Akutan Zero is inspected by US military personnel on Akutan Island on 11 July 1942. The first Zero (pre-series A6M2) were operative in July 1940, and two months later they had their baptism of fire in China where they claimed 266 aircraft. Matricardi 2006, p. 88. At the time of Pearl Harbor, there were 420 Zeros active in the Pacific. The carrier-borne Model 21 was the type encountered by the Americans, often much further from its carriers than expected, with a mission range of over 2,600 km (1,600 mi). Thanks to a combination of excellent manoeuvrability and firepower, the Zero easily disposed of the motley collection of Allied aircraft sent against it in the Pacific in 1941, while its tremendous range allowed it to appear over distant battlefronts and give Allied commanders the belief there must be several times as many Zeros as there actually were. Gunston 1980, p. 162. So, the Zero quickly gained a great reputation. However, the Zero failed to achieve complete air superiority due to the development of suitable tactics and new aircraft by the Allies. During World War II, the Zero destroyed at least 1,550 American aircraft. The Japanese ace Saburo Sakai described how the resilience of early Allied aircraft was a factor in preventing the Zeros from attaining total domination: Designed for attack, the Zero gave precedence to long range, maneuverability, and firepower at the expense of protection—most had no self-sealing tanks or armor plate—thus many Zeros and their pilots were too easily lost in combat. During the initial phases of the Pacific conflict, the Japanese trained their aviators far more strenuously than their Allied counterparts. However, unexpectedly heavy pilot losses at the Coral Sea and Midway made them difficult to replace. With the extreme agility of the Zero, the Allied pilots found that the appropriate combat tactic against Zeros was to remain out of range and fight on the dive and climb. By using speed and resisting the deadly error of trying to out-turn the Zero, eventually cannon or heavy machine guns (.50 caliber) could be brought to bear and a single burst of fire was usually enough to down the Zero. Such "boom-and-zoom" tactics were successful in the China Burma India Theater (CBI) against similarly maneuverable Japanese Army aircraft such as the Nakajima Ki-27 and Ki-43 by the "Flying Tigers" (American Volunteer Group). AVG pilots were trained to exploit the advantages of their P-40s; very sturdy, heavily armed, generally faster in a dive and in level flight at low altitude, with a good rate of roll. Another important maneuver was then-Lt Cdr John S. "Jimmy" Thach's "Thach Weave", in which two fighters would fly about 60 m (200 ft) apart. When a Zero latched onto the tail of one of the fighters, the two planes would turn toward each other. If the Zero followed its original target through the turn, it would come into a position to be fired on by his target's wingman. This tactic was used to good effect at the Battle of the Coral Sea, at the Battle of Midway and over the Solomon Islands. The American military discovered many of the A6M's unique attributes when they recovered the Akutan Zero - a mostly-intact specimen on Akutan Island in the Aleutians. Flight Petty Officer Tadayoshi Koga was losing oil and attempted an emergency landing but the Zero flipped over in soft ground and the pilot died of head wounds. The relatively undamaged fighter was recovered and shipped to North Air Station, North Island, San Diego. Subsequent testing of the repaired A6M revealed not only its strengths but also deficiencies in design and performance. Jablonski, Edward. Airwar. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1979. ISBN 0-38514-279-X. When the powerful P-38 Lightning, F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair appeared in the Pacific theater, the A6M, with its low-powered engine, lost its competitiveness. In combat with an F6F or F4U, the only positive thing that could be said of the Zero at this stage of the war was that in the hands of a skillful pilot it could manoeuvre as well as most of its opponents. But the ever-increasing number of inexperienced Japanese aviators became a significant factor in Allied successes. Nonetheless, until the end of the war, in competent hands, the Zero could still be deadly. Because of the scarcity of high-powered aviation engines and problems with planned successor models, the Zero remained in production until 1945, with over 11,000 of all variants produced. Variants A6M1, Type 0 Prototypes The first A6M1 prototype was completed in March 1939, powered by the 580 kW (780 hp) Mitsubishi Zuisei 13 engine with a two-blade propeller. It first flew on 1 April, and passed testing in a remarkably short period of time. By September, it had already been accepted for Navy testing as the A6M1 Type 0 Carrier Fighter, with the only notable change being a switch to a three-bladed propeller to cure a vibration problem. A6M2 While the Navy was testing the first two prototypes, they suggested that the third be fitted with the 700 kW (940 hp) Nakajima Sakae 12 engine instead. Mitsubishi had its own engine of this class in the form of the Kinsei, so they were somewhat reluctant to use the Sakae. Nevertheless when the first A6M2 was completed in January 1940, the Sakae's extra power pushed the performance of the plane well past the original specifications. The new version was so promising that the Navy had 15 built and shipped to China before they had completed testing. They arrived in Manchuria in July 1940, and first saw combat over Chungking in August. There they proved to be completely untouchable by the Polikarpov I-16s and I-153s that had been such a problem for the A5Ms currently in service. In one encounter, 13 Zeros shot down 27 I-15s and I-16s in under three minutes without loss. After hearing of these reports the Navy immediately ordered the plane into production as the Type 0 Carrier Fighter, Model 11. Reports of the Zero's performance filtered back to the US slowly. There they were dismissed by most military officials, who felt it was impossible for the Japanese to build such an aircraft. A6M2 A6M2 "Zero" Model 21 (front) on Shokaku. (Shokaku distinguisable from the white band on the fuselage just ahead of the tail) to attack Pearl Harbor during the morning of 7 December 1941. This is probably the launch of the second attack wave. The original photograph was captured on Attu in 1943 Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zero" Model 21 on the flight deck of carrier Shokaku , 26 October 1942, Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands After the delivery of only 65 planes by November 1940, a further change was worked into the production lines, which introduced folding wingtips to allow them to fit on the aircraft carriers. The resulting Model 21 would become one of the most produced versions early in the war. When the lines switched to updated models, 740 Model 21s were completed by Mitsubishi, and another 800 by Nakajima. Two other versions of the Model 21 were built in small numbers, the Nakajima-built A6M2-N "Rufe" floatplane (based on the model 11 with a slightly modified tail), and the A6M2-K two-seat trainer of which a total of 508 were built by Hitachi and the Sasebo Naval Air Arsenal. A6M3 A6M3 Model 32. In late 1941, Nakajima introduced the Sakae 21, which used a two-speed supercharger for better altitude performance, and increased power to 840 kW (1,130 hp). Plans were made to introduce the new engine into the Zero as soon as possible. The new Sakae was slightly heavier and somewhat longer due to the larger supercharger, which moved the center of gravity too far forward on the existing airframe. To correct for this the engine mountings were cut down by 20 cm (8 in), moving the engine back towards the cockpit. This had the side effect of reducing the size of the main fuel tank (located to the rear of the engine) from 518 L (137 US gal) to 470 L (120 US gal). The only other major changes were to the wings, which were simplified by removing the Model 21's folding tips. This changed the appearance enough to prompt the US to designate it with a new code name, Hap. This name was short-lived, as a protest from USAAF commander General Henry "Hap" Arnold forced a change to "Hamp". Soon after, it was realized that it was simply a new model of the "Zeke". The wings also included larger ammunition boxes, allowing for 100 rounds for each of the 20 mm cannon. The wing changes had much greater effects on performance than expected. The smaller size led to better roll, and their lower drag allowed the diving speed to be increased to 670 km/h (420 mph). On the downside, maneuverability was reduced, and range suffered due to both decreased lift and the smaller fuel tank. Pilots complained about both. The shorter range proved a significant limitation during the Solomons campaign of 1942. The first Model 32 deliveries began in April 1942, but it remained on the lines only for a short time, with a run of 343 being built. A6M3 In order to correct the deficiencies of the Model 32, a new version with the Model 21's folding wings, new in-wing fuel tanks and attachments for a 330 L (90 US gal) drop tank under each wing were introduced. The internal fuel was thereby increased to 570 L (137 US gal) in this model, regaining all of the lost range. As the airframe was reverted from the Model 32 and the engine remained the same, this version received the navy designation Model 22, while Mitsubishi called it the A6M3a. The new model started production in December, and 560 were eventually produced. This company constructed some examples for evaluation, armed with 30 mm Type 5 Cannon, under denomination of A6M3b (model 22b). A6M4 The A6M4 designation was applied to two A6M2s fitted with an experimental turbo-supercharged Sakae engine designed for high-altitude use. The design, modification and testing of these two prototypes was the responsibility of the at Yokosuka and took place in 1943. Lack of suitable alloys for use in the manufacture of the turbo-supercharger and its related ducting caused numerous ruptures of the ducting resulting in fires and poor performance. Consequently, further development of the A6M4 was cancelled. The program still provided useful data for future aircraft designs and, consequently, the manufacture of the more conventional A6M5, already under development by Mitsubishi Jukogyo K.K., was accelerated. A6M4 entry at the J-Aircraft.com website A6M5 Mitsubishi A6M "Rei Sen" (Zeke) captured in flying condition and test flown by U.S. airmen Mitsubishi A6M5 Model 52s abandoned by the Japanese at the end of the war (Atsugi Naval air base) and captured by US forces Considered the most effective variant, the Model 52 was developed to face the powerful American Hellcat and Corsair, superior mostly for engine power and armament. The variant was a modest update of the A6M3 Model 22, with non-folding wing tips and thicker wing skinning to permit faster diving speeds, plus an improved exhaust system. The latter used four ejector exhaust stacks, providing an increment of thrust, projecting along each side of the forward fuselage. The new exhaust system required modified "notched" cowl flaps and small rectangular plates which were riveted to the fuselage, just aft of the exhausts. Two smaller exhaust stacks exited via small cowling flaps immediately forward of and just below each of the wing leading edges. The improved roll-rate of the clipped-wing A6M3 was now built in. Sub-variants included: "A6M5a Model 52a «Kou»," featuring Type 99-II cannon with belt feed of the Mk 4 instead of drum feed Mk 3 (100 rpg), permitting a bigger ammunition supply (125 rpg) "A6M5b Model 52b «Otsu»," with an armor glass windscreen, a fuel tank fire extinguisher and the 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 97 gun (750 m/s muzzle velocity and 600 m/1,970 ft range) in the left forward fuselage was replaced by a 13.2 mm/.51 in Type 3 Browning-derived gun (790 m/s muzzle velocity and 900 m/2,950 ft range) with 240 rounds. The larger weapon required an enlarged cowling opening, creating a distinctive asymmetric appearance to the top of the cowling. "A6M5c Model 52c «Hei»" with more armor plate on the cabin's windshield (5.5 cm/2.2 in) and behind the pilot's seat. The wing skinning was further thickened in localised areas to allow for a further increase in dive speed. This version also had a modified armament fit of three 13.2 mm (.51 in) guns (one in the forward fuselage, and one in each wing with a rate of fire of 800 rpm), twin 20 mm Type 99-II guns and an additional fuel tank with a capacity of 367 L (97 US gal), often replaced by a 250 kg bomb. The A6M5 had a maximum speed of 540 km/h (340 mph) and reach a height of 8,000 m (26,250 ft) in nine minutes, 57 seconds. Other variants were the night fighter A6M5d-S (modified for night combat, armed with one 20 mm Type 99 cannon, inclined back to the pilot's cockpit) and A6M5-K "Zero-Reisen"(model l22) tandem trainer version, also manufactured by Mitsubishi. A6M6c This was similar to the A6M5c, but with self-sealing wing tanks and a Nakajima Sakae 31a engine featuring water-methanol engine boost. A6M7 Similar to the A6M6 but intended for attack or Kamikaze role. A6M8 Similar to the A6M6 but with the Sakae (now out of production) replaced by the Mitsubishi Kinsei 62 engine with 1,560 hp (1,164 kW), 60% more powerful than the engine of the A6M2. This resulted in an extensively modified cowling and nose for the aircraft. The carburetor intake was much larger, a long duct like that on the Nakajima B6N Tenzan was added, and a large spinner - like that on the Yokosuka D4Y Suisei with the Kinsei 62 - was mounted. The larger cowling meant deletion of the fuselage mounted machine gun, but armament was otherwise unchanged from the Model 52 Hei (20 mm cannon x 2; 13 mm/.51 in MG x 2). In addition, the Model 64 was modified to carry two 150 L (40 US gal) drop tanks on either wing in order to permit the mounting of a 250 kg (550 lb) bomb on the underside of the fuselage. Two prototypes were completed in April 1945 but the chaotic situation of Japanese industry and the end of the war obstructed the start of the ambitious program of production for 6,300 machines, none being completed. Francillion 1970, pp.374-375. Operators Primary operator Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service Royal Thai Air Force Captured aircraft and/or post-World War II period Republic of China Air Force Armée de l'Air Indonesian Air Force United States Army Air Forces A6M3 Model 22, NX712Z Camarillo Airport Museum, used in the film Pearl Harbor Survivors Several Zero fighters survived the war and are on display in Japan (in Aichi, Tokyo's Science Museum, Hiroshima, Hamamatsu, MCAS Iwakuni, and Shizuoka), China (in Beijing), United States (at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, the National Museum of Naval Aviation, the Pacific Aviation Museum, and at the San Diego Air and Space Museum), and the UK (Duxford) as well as the Auckland War Memorial Museum in New Zealand. A6M2 Model 21 on display at Pacific Aviation Museum, Pearl Harbor, HI A number of flyable Zero airframes exist; most have had their engines replaced with similar American units; only one, the Planes of Fame Museum's example, bearing tail number "61-120" (see external link below) has the original Sakae engine. Aircraft air shows Although not truly a survivor, the "Blayd" Zero is a reconstruction based on templating original Zero components recovered from the South Pacific. In order to be considered a "replica," the builders utilized a small fraction of parts from original Zero landing gear in the reconstruction. Blayd Corporation. Retrieved: 29 January 2007. Examination of Blayd Zero Artifacts Retrieved: 29 January 2007. The aircraft is now on display at the Fargo Air Museum in Fargo, North Dakota. The rarity of flyable Zeros accounts for the use of single-seat T-6 Texans, modified externally and painted in Japanese markings, to stand in for the fighter in the films Tora! Tora! Tora!, The Final Countdown, and many other television and film depictions of the aircraft. Specifications (A6M2 Type 0 Model 21) See also References Notes Bibliography Bueschel, Richard M. Mitsubishi A6M1/2/-2N Zero-Sen in Imperial Japanese Naval Air Service. Canterbury, Kent, UK: Osprey Publications Ltd., 1970. ISBN 0-85045-018-7. Francillon, René J. The Mitsubishi A6M2 Zero-Sen (Aircraft in Profile number 129). Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1966. Francillon, René J. The Mitsubishi A6M3 Zero-Sen ("Hamp") (Aircraft in Profile number 190). Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1967. Francillion, R.J. Japanese Aircraft of the Pacific War. London:Putnam, 1970, ISBN 0 370 00033 1. Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. The Great Book of Fighters. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-1194-3. Gunston, Bill. Aircraft of World War 2. London: Octopus Books Limited, 1980. ISBN 0-7064-1287-7. Jackson, Robert. Combat Legend: Mitsubishi Zero. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-84037-398-9. Juszczak, Artur. Mitsubishi A6M Zero. Tarnobrzeg, Poland/Redbourn, UK: Mushrom Model Publications, 2001. ISBN 83-7300-085-2. Marchand, Patrick and Junko Takamori. (Illustrator). A6M Zero (Les Ailes de Gloire 2) (in French). Le Muy, France: Editions d’Along, 2000. ISBN 2-914403-02-X. Matricardi, Paolo. Aerei Militari. Caccia e Ricognitori (in Italian). Milano: Mondadori Electa, 2006. Mikesh, Robert C. Warbird History: Zero, Combat & Development History of Japan's Legendary Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter. Osceola, Wisconsin: Motorbooks International, 1994. ISBN 0-87938-915-X. Mikesh, Robert C. and Rikyu Watanabe (Illustrator). Zero Fighter. London: Jane's Publishing Company Ltd., 1981. ISBN 0-7106-0037-2. Nohara, Shigeru. A6M Zero in Action (Aircraft #59). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 1983. ISBN 0-89747-141-5. Nohara, Shigeru. Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter (Aero Detail 7) (in Japanese with English captions). Tokyo, Japan: Dai Nippon Kaiga Company Ltd., 1993. ISBN 4-499 22608-2. Okumiya, Masatake and Jiro Horikoshi (with Martin Caidin, ed.). Zero! The Story of Japan's Air War in the Pacific: 1941-45. New York: Ballantine Books, 1956. No ISBN. Parshall, Jonathan and Anthony Tully. Shattered Sword; The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway. Washington D.C, USA: Potomac Books Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-1-57488-924-6 (paperback). Richards, M.C. and Donald S. Smith. Mitsubishi A6M5 to A6M8 'Zero-Sen' ('Zeke 52')(Aircraft in Profile number 236). Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1972. Sakaida, Henry. Imperial Japanese Navy Aces, 1937–45. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1998. ISBN 1-85532-727-9. Sakaida, Henry. The Siege of Rabaul. St. Paul, Minnesota: Phalanx Publishing, 1996. ISBN 1-883809-09-6. Sheftall, M.G. Blossoms in the Wind: Human Legacies of the Kamikaze. New York: NAL Caliber, 2005. ISBN 0-451-21487-0. Willmott, H.P. Zero A6M. London: Bison Books, 1980. ISBN 0-89009-322-9. Wilson, Stewart. Zero, Hurricane & P-38, The Story of Three Classic Fighters of WW2 (Legends of the Air 4). Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd., 1996. ISBN 1-875671-24-2. Scale aircraft modeling Criner, Brian. Modelling the Mitsubishi A6M Zero. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2006. ISBN 1-84176-866-9. Lochte, Arthur. Mitsubishi A6M Zero (Modelmania 6) (Bilingual Polish/English). Gdańsk, Poland: AJ-Press, 2000 (2nd expanded edition 2006). ISBN 83-7237-062-1. External links Tour A6M5 Zero cockpit Mitsubishi A6M Zero Japanese fighter aircraft - design, construction, history WW2DB: A6M Zero www.j-aircraft.com: Quotes A6M THE MITSUBISHI A6M ZERO at Greg Goebel's AIR VECTORS Imperial Japanese Navy's Mitsubishi A6M Reisen Planes of Fame Museum's Flightworthy A6M5 Zero No. "61-120" War Prize: The Capture of the First Japanese Zero Fighter in 1941 零戦の美しさ Beauty of the Zerosen How to Land on an Aircraft Carrier | Mitsubishi_A6M_Zero |@lemmatized mitsubishi:32 zero:76 lightweight:1 fighter:29 aircraft:33 operate:1 imperial:8 japanese:26 navy:13 air:20 service:8 ijnas:2 origin:1 official:3 designation:4 signify:1 carrier:16 base:8 sixth:1 model:39 build:10 manufacturer:1 usually:2 refer:3 ally:3 name:12 frequently:2 misapply:1 nakajima:10 ki:3 well:6 codenames:1 nickname:1 include:3 zeke:7 hamp:4 hap:5 introduce:6 early:5 world:7 war:17 ii:6 best:2 combine:2 excellent:2 maneuverability:5 long:5 range:11 hawk:1 chuck:1 plane:10 retrieve:5 january:7 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2,964 | Chemotherapy | A woman being treated with docetaxel chemotherapy for breast cancer. Cold mittens and wine coolers are placed on her hands and feet to prevent deleterious effects on the nails. Similar strategies can be used to prevent hair loss. Chemotherapy, in its most general sense, refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells, both good and bad, but specifically those of micro-organisms or cancer. In popular usage, it refers to antineoplastic drugs used to treat cancer or the combination of these drugs into a cytotoxic standardized treatment regimen. In its non-oncological use, the term may also refer to antibiotics (antibacterial chemotherapy). In that sense, the first modern chemotherapeutic agent was Paul Ehrlich's arsphenamine, an arsenic compound discovered in 1909 and used to treat syphilis. This was later followed by sulfonamides discovered by Domagk and penicillin discovered by Alexander Fleming. Most commonly, chemotherapy acts by killing cells that divide rapidly, one of the main properties of cancer cells. This means that it also harms cells that divide rapidly under normal circumstances: cells in the bone marrow, digestive tract and hair follicles; this results in the most common side-effects of chemotherapy–myelosuppression (decreased production of blood cells), mucositis (inflammation of the lining of the digestive tract) and alopecia (hair loss). Other uses of cytostatic chemotherapy agents (including the ones mentioned below) are the treatment of autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis and the suppression of transplant rejections (see immunosuppression and DMARDs). Newer anticancer drugs act directly against abnormal proteins in cancer cells; this is termed targeted therapy. History The usage of chemical substances and drugs as medication can be traced back to the ancient Indian system of medicine called Ayurveda, which uses many metals besides herbs for treatment of a large number of ailments. More recently, Persian physician, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes), in the 10th century, introduced the use of chemicals such as vitriol, copper, mercuric and arsenic salts, sal ammoniac, gold scoria, chalk, clay, coral, pearl, tar, bitumen and alcohol for medical purposes. The Valuable Contribution of al-Razi (Rhazes) to the History of Pharmacy, FSTC. The first drug used for cancer chemotherapy, however, dates back to the early 20th century, though it was not originally intended for that purpose. Mustard gas was used as a chemical warfare agent during World War I and was studied further during World War II. During a military operation in World War II, a group of people were accidentally exposed to mustard gas and were later found to have very low white blood cell counts . It was reasoned that an agent that damaged the rapidly-growing white blood cells might have a similar effect on cancer. Therefore, in the 1940s, several patients with advanced lymphomas (cancers of certain white blood cells) were given the drug by vein, rather than by breathing the irritating gas. Their improvement, although temporary, was remarkable. That experience led researchers to look for other substances that might have similar effects against cancer. As a result, many other drugs have been developed to treat cancer, and drug development since then has exploded into a multibillion-dollar industry. The targeted-therapy revolution has arrived, but the principles and limitations of chemotherapy discovered by the early researchers still apply. Principles Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of cells coupled with malignant behavior: invasion and metastasis. Cancer is thought to be caused by the interaction between genetic susceptibility and environmental toxins. In the broad sense, most chemotherapeutic drugs work by impairing mitosis (cell division), effectively targeting fast-dividing cells. As these drugs cause damage to cells they are termed cytotoxic. Some drugs cause cells to undergo apoptosis (so-called "programmed cell death"). Scientists have yet to identify specific features of malignant and immune cells that would make them uniquely targetable (barring some recent examples, such as the Philadelphia chromosome as targeted by imatinib). This means that other fast-dividing cells, such as those responsible for hair growth and for replacement of the intestinal epithelium (lining), are also often affected. However, some drugs have a better side-effect profile than others, enabling doctors to adjust treatment regimens to the advantage of patients in certain situations. As chemotherapy affects cell division, tumors with high growth fractions (such as acute myelogenous leukemia and the aggressive lymphomas, including Hodgkin's disease) are more sensitive to chemotherapy, as a larger proportion of the targeted cells are undergoing cell division at any time. Malignancies with slower growth rates, such as indolent lymphomas, tend to respond to chemotherapy much more modestly. Drugs affect "younger" tumors (i.e., more differentiated) more effectively, because mechanisms regulating cell growth are usually still preserved. With succeeding generations of tumor cells, differentiation is typically lost, growth becomes less regulated, and tumors become less responsive to most chemotherapeutic agents. Near the center of some solid tumors, cell division has effectively ceased, making them insensitive to chemotherapy. Another problem with solid tumors is the fact that the chemotherapeutic agent often does not reach the core of the tumor. Solutions to this problem include radiation therapy (both brachytherapy and teletherapy) and surgery. Over time, cancer cells become more resistant to chemotherapy treatments. Recently, scientists have identified small pumps on the surface of cancer cells that actively move chemotherapy from inside the cell to the outside. Research on p-glycoprotein and other such chemotherapy efflux pumps, is currently ongoing. Medications to inhibit the function of p-glycoprotein are undergoing testing as of June, 2007 to enhance the efficacy of chemotherapy. Treatment schemes There are a number of strategies in the administration of chemotherapeutic drugs used today. Chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent or it may aim to prolong life or to palliate symptoms. Combined modality chemotherapy is the use of drugs with other cancer treatments, such as radiation therapy or surgery. Most cancers are now treated in this way. Combination chemotherapy is a similar practice that involves treating a patient with a number of different drugs simultaneously. The drugs differ in their mechanism and side-effects. The biggest advantage is minimising the chances of resistance developing to any one agent. In neoadjuvant chemotherapy (preoperative treatment) initial chemotherapy is designed to shrink the primary tumour, thereby rendering local therapy (surgery or radiotherapy) less destructive or more effective. Adjuvant chemotherapy (postoperative treatment) can be used when there is little evidence of cancer present, but there is risk of recurrence. This can help reduce chances of developing resistance if the tumour does develop. It is also useful in killing any cancerous cells which have spread to other parts of the body. This is often effective as the newly growing tumours are fast-dividing, and therefore very susceptible. Palliative chemotherapy is given without curative intent, but simply to decrease tumor load and increase life expectancy. For these regimens, a better toxicity profile is generally expected. All chemotherapy regimens require that the patient be capable of undergoing the treatment. Performance status is often used as a measure to determine whether a patient can receive chemotherapy, or whether dose reduction is required. Because only a fraction of the cells in a tumor die with each treatment (fractional kill), repeated doses must be administered to continue to reduce the size of the tumor Skeel, R. T. (2003). Handbook of Cancer Chemotherapy, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. . Current chemotherapy regimens apply drug treatment in cycles, with the frequency and duration of treatments limited by toxicity to the patient Chabner, B. and D. L. Longo (2006). Cancer Chemotherapy and Biotherapy: Principles and Practice. Philadelphia, Lippincott Willians & Wilkins. . Types The majority of chemotherapeutic drugs can be divided in to alkylating agents, antimetabolites, anthracyclines, plant alkaloids, topoisomerase inhibitors, and other antitumour agents. All of these drugs affect cell division or DNA synthesis and function in some way. Some newer agents do not directly interfere with DNA. These include monoclonal antibodies and the new tyrosine kinase inhibitors e.g. imatinib mesylate (Gleevec or Glivec), which directly targets a molecular abnormality in certain types of cancer (chronic myelogenous leukemia, gastrointestinal stromal tumors). These are examples of targeted therapies. In addition, some drugs that modulate tumor cell behaviour without directly attacking those cells may be used. Hormone treatments fall into this category of adjuvant therapies. Where available, Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System codes are provided for the major categories. Alkylating agents (L01A) Alkylating agents are so named because of their ability to add alkyl groups to many electronegative groups under conditions present in cells. Cisplatin and carboplatin, as well as oxaliplatin, are alkylating agents. Other agents are mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil. They work by chemically modifying a cell's DNA. Anti-metabolites (L01B) Anti-metabolites masquerade as purine ((azathioprine, mercaptopurine)) or pyrimidine - which become the building blocks of DNA. They prevent these substances from becoming incorporated in to DNA during the "S" phase (of the cell cycle), stopping normal development and division. They also affect RNA synthesis. Due to their efficiency, these drugs are the most widely used cytostatics. Plant alkaloids and terpenoids (L01C) These alkaloids are derived from plants and block cell division by preventing microtubule function. Microtubules are vital for cell division, and, without them, cell division cannot occur. The main examples are vinca alkaloids and taxanes. Vinca alkaloids (L01CA) Vinca alkaloids bind to specific sites on tubulin, inhibiting the assembly of tubulin into microtubules (M phase of the cell cycle). They are derived from the Madagascar periwinkle, Catharanthus roseus (formerly known as Vinca rosea). The vinca alkaloids include: Vincristine Vinblastine Vinorelbine Vindesine Podophyllotoxin (L01CB) Podophyllotoxin is a plant-derived compound which is said to help with digestion as well as used to produce two other cytostatic drugs, etoposide and teniposide. They prevent the cell from entering the G1 phase (the start of DNA replication) and the replication of DNA (the S phase). The exact mechanism of its action is not yet known. The substance has been primarily obtained from the American Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum). Recently it has been discovered that a rare Himalayan Mayapple (Podophyllum hexandrum) contains it in a much greater quantity, but, as the plant is endangered, its supply is limited. Studies have been conducted to isolate the genes involved in the substance's production, so that it could be obtained recombinantively. Taxanes (L01CD) The prototype taxane is the natural product paclitaxel, originally known as Taxol and first derived from the bark of the Pacific Yew tree. Docetaxel is a semi-synthetic analogue of paclitaxel. Taxanes enhance stability of microtubules, preventing the separation of chromosomes during anaphase. Topoisomerase inhibitors (L01CB and L01XX) Topoisomerases are essential enzymes that maintain the topology of DNA. Inhibition of type I or type II topoisomerases interferes with both transcription and replication of DNA by upsetting proper DNA supercoiling. Some type I topoisomerase inhibitors include camptothecins: irinotecan and topotecan. Examples of type II inhibitors include amsacrine, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, and teniposide. These are semisynthetic derivatives of epipodophyllotoxins, alkaloids naturally occurring in the root of American Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum). Antitumour antibiotics (L01D) See main article: antineoplastic These include the immunosuppressant dactinomycin (which is used in kidney transplantations), doxorubicin, epirubicin, bleomycin and others. Newer and experimental approaches Hematopoietic stem cell transplant approaches Stem cell harvesting and autologous or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation has been used to allow for higher doses of chemotheraputic agents where dosages are primarily limited by hematopoietic damage. Years of research in treating solid tumors, particularly breast cancer, with hematopoeitic stem cell transplants, has yielded little proof of efficacy. Hematological malignancies such as myeloma, lymphoma, and leukemia remain the main indications for stem cell transplants. Isolated infusion approaches Isolated limb perfusion (often used in melanoma), or isolated infusion of chemotherapy into the liver or the lung have been used to treat some tumours. The main purpose of these approaches is to deliver a very high dose of chemotherapy to tumor sites without causing overwhelming systemic damage. These approaches can help control solitary or limited metastases, but they are by definition not systemic, and, therefore, do not treat distributed metastases or micrometastases. Targeted delivery mechanisms Specially-targeted delivery vehicles aim to increase effective levels of chemotherapy for tumor cells while reducing effective levels for other cells. This should result in an increased tumor kill and/or reduced toxicity. Specially-targeted delivery vehicles have a differentially higher affinity for tumor cells by interacting with tumor-specific or tumour-associated antigens. In addition to their targeting component, they also carry a payload - whether this is a traditional chemotherapeutic agent, or a radioisotope or an immune stimulating factor. Specially-targeted delivery vehicles vary in their stability, selectivity, and choice of target, but, in essence, they all aim to increase the maximum effective dose that can be delivered to the tumor cells. Reduced systemic toxicity means that they can also be used in sicker patients, and that they can carry new chemotherapeutic agents that would have been far too toxic to deliver via traditional systemic approaches. Nanoparticles Nanoparticles have emerged as a useful vehicle for poorly-soluble agents such as paclitaxel. Protein-bound paclitaxel (e.g., Abraxane) or nab-paclitaxel was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in January 2005 for the treatment of refractory breast cancer, and allows reduced use of the Cremophor vehicle usually found in paclitaxel. Nanoparticles made of magnetic material can also be used to concentrate agents at tumour sites using an externally applied magnetic field. Dosage Dosage of chemotherapy can be difficult: If the dose is too low, it will be ineffective against the tumor, whereas, at excessive doses, the toxicity (side-effects, neutropenia) will be intolerable to the patient. This has led to the formation of detailed "dosing schemes" in most hospitals, which give guidance on the correct dose and adjustment in case of toxicity. In immunotherapy, they are in principle used in smaller dosages than in the treatment of malignant diseases. In most cases, the dose is adjusted for the patient's body surface area, a measure that correlates with blood volume. The BSA is usually calculated with a mathematical formula or a nomogram, using a patient's weight and height, rather than by direct measurement. Delivery Most chemotherapy is delivered intravenously, although a number of agents can be administered orally (e.g., melphalan, busulfan, capecitabine). In some cases, isolated limb perfusion (often used in melanoma), or isolated infusion of chemotherapy into the liver or the lung have been used. The main purpose of these approaches is to deliver a very high dose of chemotherapy to tumour sites without causing overwhelming systemic damage. Depending on the patient, the cancer, the stage of cancer, the type of chemotherapy, and the dosage, intravenous chemotherapy may be given on either an inpatient or an outpatient basis. For continuous, frequent or prolonged intravenous chemotherapy administration, various systems may be surgically inserted into the vasculature to maintain access. Commonly-used systems are the Hickman line, the Port-a-Cath or the PICC line. These have a lower infection risk, are much less prone to phlebitis or extravasation, and abolish the need for repeated insertion of peripheral cannulae. Harmful and lethal toxicity from chemotherapy limits the dosage of chemotherapy that can be given. Some tumours can be destroyed by sufficiently high doses of chemotheraputic agents. However, these high doses cannot be given because they would be fatal to the patient. Side-effects The treatment can be physically exhausting for the patient. Current chemotherapeutic techniques have a range of side effects mainly affecting the fast-dividing cells of the body. Important common side-effects include (dependent on the agent): Pain Nausea and vomiting Diarrhea or constipation Anemia Malnutrition Hair loss Memory loss Depression of the immune system, hence (potentially lethal) infections and sepsis Weight loss or gain Hemorrhage Secondary neoplasms Cardiotoxicity Hepatotoxicity Nephrotoxicity Ototoxicity Secondary Neoplasm The development of secondary neoplasia after successful chemotherapy and or radiotherapy treatment has shown to exist. The most common secondary neoplasm is secondary acute myeloid leukemia, which develops primarily after treatment with alkylating agents or topoisomerase inhibitors. U. Rüther, C. Nunnensiek, H.-J. Schmoll,Secondary Neoplasias following Chemotherapy, Radiotherapy, and Immunosuppression,Contributions to Oncology (Beiträge zur Onkologie); Vol 55, 2000, ISBN 380557116X Other studies have shown a 13.5 fold increase from the general population in the incidence of secondary neoplasm occurrence after 30 years from treatment. Hijiya, Hudson, Lensing et al. Cumulative Incidence of Secondary Neoplasms as a First Event After Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic LeukemiaJAMA, 2007;297:1207-1215. Immunosuppression and myelosuppression Virtually all chemotherapeutic regimens can cause depression of the immune system, often by paralysing the bone marrow and leading to a decrease of white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. The latter two, when they occur, are improved with blood transfusion. Neutropenia (a decrease of the neutrophil granulocyte count below 0.5 x 109/litre) can be improved with synthetic G-CSF (granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, e.g., filgrastim, lenograstim, Neupogen, Neulasta). In very severe myelosuppression, which occurs in some regimens, almost all the bone marrow stem cells (cells that produce white and red blood cells) are destroyed, meaning allogenic or autologous bone marrow cell transplants are necessary. (In autologous BMTs, cells are removed from the patient before the treatment, multiplied and then re-injected afterwards; in allogenic BMTs the source is a donor.) However, some patients still develop diseases because of this interference with bone marrow. Nausea and vomiting Nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy; stomach upset may trigger a strong urge to vomit, or forcefully eliminate what is in the stomach. Stimulation of the vomiting center results in the coordination of responses from the diaphragm, salivary glands, cranial nerves, and gastrointestinal muscles to produce the interruption of respiration and forced expulsion of stomach contents known as retching and vomiting. The vomiting center is stimulated directly by afferent input from the vagal and splanchnic nerves, the pharynx, the cerebral cortex, cholinergic and histamine stimulation from the vestibular system, and efferent input from the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ). The CTZ is in the area postrema, outside the blood-brain barrier, and is thus susceptible to stimulation by substances present in the blood or cerebral spinal fluid. The neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin stimulate the vomiting center indirectly via stimulation of the CTZ. The 5-HT3 inhibitors are the most effective antiemetics and constitute the single greatest advance in the management of nausea and vomiting in patients with cancer. These drugs are designed to block one or more of the signals that cause nausea and vomiting. The most sensitive signal during the first 24 hours after chemotherapy appears to be 5-HT3. Blocking the 5-HT3 signal is one approach to preventing acute emesis (vomiting), or emesis that is severe, but relatively short-lived. Approved 5-HT3 inhibitors include Dolasetron (Anzemet), Granisetron (Kytril, Sancuso), and Ondansetron (Zofran). The newest 5-HT3 inhibitor, palonosetron (Aloxi), also prevents delayed nausea and vomiting, which occurs during the 2-5 days after treatment. A granisetron transdermal patch (Sancuso) was approved by the FDA in September 2008. The patch is applied 24-48 hours before chemotherapy and can be worn for up to 7 days depending on the duration of the chemotherapy regimen. Another drug to control nausea in cancer patients became available in 2005. The substance P inhibitor aprepitant (marketed as Emend) has been shown to be effective in controlling the nausea of cancer chemotherapy. The results of two large controlled trials were published in 2005, describing the efficacy of this medication in over 1,000 patients. Some studies Tramer MR, Carroll D, Campbell FA, Reynolds DJ, Moore RA, McQuay HJ. Cannabinoids for control of chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting: quantitative systematic review. BMJ 2001;323:16-21. PMID 11440936. and patient groups claim that the use of cannabinoids derived from marijuana during chemotherapy greatly reduces the associated nausea and vomiting, and enables the patient to eat. Some synthetic derivatives of the active substance in marijuana (Tetrahydrocannabinol or THC) such as Marinol may be practical for this application. Natural marijuana, known as medical cannabis is also used and recommended by some oncologists, though its use is regulated and not legal everywhere. "Frequently Asked Questions - Medical Marihuana" Other side-effects In particularly large tumors, such as large lymphomas, some patients develop tumor lysis syndrome from the rapid breakdown of malignant cells. Although prophylaxis is available and is often initiated in patients with large tumors, this is a dangerous side-effect that can lead to death if left untreated. Some patients report fatigue or non-specific neurocognitive problems, such as an inability to concentrate; this is sometimes called post-chemotherapy cognitive impairment, referred to as "chemo brain" by patients' groups. Specific chemotherapeutic agents are associated with organ-specific toxicities, including cardiovascular disease (e.g., doxorubicin), interstitial lung disease (e.g., bleomycin) and occasionally secondary neoplasm (e.g., MOPP therapy for Hodgkin's disease). See also Cancer Gene therapy Experimental cancer treatments Chemotherapy regimens National Comprehensive Cancer Network Safe Handling of Hazardous Drugs References External links American Cancer Society - Chemotherapy Cancerbackup - Understanding Chemotherapy The leukemia and lymphoma society Chemotherapy.com Educational and support information about chemotherapy and associated side effects be-x-old:Хіміётэрапія | Chemotherapy |@lemmatized woman:1 treat:9 docetaxel:2 chemotherapy:55 breast:3 cancer:31 cold:1 mitten:1 wine:1 cooler:1 place:1 hand:1 foot:1 prevent:8 deleterious:1 effect:13 nail:1 similar:4 strategy:2 use:31 hair:5 loss:5 general:2 sense:3 refers:1 treatment:24 disease:8 chemical:5 kill:5 cell:58 good:3 bad:1 specifically:1 micro:1 organism:1 popular:1 usage:2 refer:3 antineoplastic:2 drug:27 combination:2 cytotoxic:2 standardized:1 regimen:7 non:2 oncological:1 term:3 may:8 also:11 antibiotic:2 antibacterial:1 first:5 modern:1 chemotherapeutic:11 agent:24 paul:1 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2,965 | Demographics_of_the_Cayman_Islands | This article is about the demographic features of the population of the Cayman Islands, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The population of the Cayman Islands reflects its status as a British overseas territory, its history as a former dependency of Jamaica, and its present financial partnerships with the United States and other countries. The vast majority of its 45,436 residents live on the island of Grand Cayman. According to the Cayman Islands Chamber of Commerce, in 1999 an estimated 1,300 people lived on Cayman Brac, while only 115 resided on Little Cayman. Although many Caribbean islands were initially populated by Amerindian groups such as the Arawaks, Tainos, and Caribs, no evidence of this has been found in the Cayman Islands. Therefore, native Caymanians do not have any Amerindian heritage from their own islands; however, a significant number of Jamaicans have settled in the Cayman Islands over the years, so they and their descendants may have some Amerindian blood via Jamaica. Slavery was less common on the Cayman Islands than in many other parts of the Caribbean, resulting in a more even division of African and European ancestry. Those of mixed race make up 40% of the population, with blacks and whites following at 20% each. The remaining 20% belong to various immigrant ethnic groups. With its success in the tourism and financial service industries, the Cayman Islands have attracted many international businesses and citizens to relocate. The largest numbers of expatriates living in the Cayman Islands (as of the government's 1999 Census Report) hail from Jamaica (8,320), the United Kingdom (2,392), the United States (2,040), Canada (1,562), and Honduras (873). Approximately 3,300 more residents are citizens of various other countries. While the government doesn't restrict foreign land ownership, it does strongly enforce its immigration laws. Businesses are required to grant access to job openings to Caymanian citizens first; if none of them are suitable, the business may then seek employees from other countries. In order to work in the Cayman Islands, foreigners must have a job offer before immigrating. To encourage literacy, the Cayman Islands government requires all legal resident children between the ages of four and 16 years old to attend school. Education for Caymanians is free, with both public and private schools available. Based on the English school system, primary schools teach children from four to 11 years, while high schools handle 11 to 16 year-olds. The government also provides facilities for special education, training for the disabled, and an education center for juvenile offenders. In addition, higher education may be pursued at The University College and The Law School. Consequently, literacy rates are high, estimated at 98% in 1995 by UNESCO and 90% by the Cayman Islands government. The predominant religion on the Cayman Islands is Christianity. Denominations practiced include United Church, Church of God, Anglican Church, Baptist Church, Roman Catholic Church, Seventh-day Adventist Church, and Pentecostal Church. Many citizens are deeply religious, regularly going to church. Ports are closed on Sundays and Christian holidays. There are also places of worship in George Town for Jehovah's Witnesses and followers of Bahá'í Faith. The official language of the Cayman Islands is English. Islanders' accents retain elements passed down from English, Scottish, and Welsh settlers. Cayman Islanders of Jamaican origin speak in their own vernacular (see Jamaican Creole and Jamaican English). CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 45,436 note: most of the population lives on Grand Cayman (July 2006 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 20.7% (male 4,708/female 4,700) 15-64 years: 70.9% (male 15,707/female 16,504) 65 years and over: 8.4% (male 1,793/female 2,024) (2006 est.) Median age total: 37.2 years male: 36.8 years female: 37.5 years (2006 est.) Population growth rate 2.56% (2006 est.) Birth rate 12.74 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 4.89 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 17.78 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Note: Major destination for Cubans trying to migrate to the United States Sex ratio at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.89 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 8 deaths/1,000 live births male: 9.16 deaths/1,000 live births female: 6.81 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 80.07 years male: 77.45 years female: 82.74 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 1.9 children born/woman (2006 est.) Nationality noun: Caymanian(s) adjective: Caymanian Ethnic groups mixed 40%, white 20%, black 20%, expatriates of various ethnic groups 20% Religions United Church (Presbyterian and Congregational), Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Church of God, other Protestant Languages English Literacy definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school total population: 98% male: 98% female: 98% (1970 est.) 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2,966 | Charles_Baxter_(author) | Charles Baxter (born 1947 in Minneapolis) is an American author. Baxter is known for blending a quiet, sometimes absurdist wit with a profound sympathy for his far-from-perfect characters; he has also attracted attention for the consummate brilliance of his prose. He is likewise celebrated as an engaging and even deeply moving performer of his own work in public readings. His writing has been compared to that of Anton Chekhov, William Trevor, Alice Munro, and John Cheever. Baxter graduated from Macalester College in Saint Paul and in 1974 received a Ph.D. in English from the University at Buffalo with a thesis on Djuna Barnes, Malcolm Lowry, and Nathanael West. He began his teaching career at Wayne State University in Detroit. He then moved to the University of Michigan, where for many years he directed the Creative Writing MFA program. He is renowned for his generosity towards and patient encouragement of his students, many of whom have gone on to forge successful writing careers; they include Gretchen Mazur, Helen Fremont, Michael Byers, Jardine Libaire, Porter Shreve, Davy Rothbart, John Fulton, Marc Nesbitt, Patrick O'Keeffe, Jess Row, Francesca Delbano, Peter Orner, Heidi Julavits, Karl Iagnemma and Elwood Reid. He currently teaches at the University of Minnesota and in the Warren Wilson College MFA Program for Writers. Novels First Light (1987). An eminent astrophysicist and her brother, a small-town Buick salesman, discover how they grew so far apart and the bonds of love that still keep them together. Shadow Play (1993). As his wife does gymnastics and magic tricks, his crazy mother invents her own vocabulary, and his aunt writes her own version of the Bible, Five Oaks Assistant City Manager Wyatt Palmer tries to live a normal life and nearly succeeds, but... Feast of Love (novel) (2000), a sumptuously reimagined Midsummer Night's Dream, comic, poignant, and sexy by turns. Nominated for the National Book Award. A motion-picture version of the book, starring Morgan Freeman, Fred Ward and Greg Kinnear and directed by Robert Benton, was released on September 27, 2007. Saul and Patsy (2003). A teacher's marriage and identity are threatened by a dangerously obsessed teenage boy at his school. The Soul Thief (2008) Short Story and Essay Collections Harmony of the World (1984). Winner of the Associated Writing Programs Award. Through The Safety Net (1985) Gryphon (1985) A Relative Stranger (1990) Believers (1997) Burning Down The House: Essays on Fiction (1997) Non-fiction The Art of Subtext: Beyond Plot (2007). Winner of the 2008 Minnesota Book Award for General Non-fiction. Poetry Collections Imaginary Paintings (1989) The South Dakota Guidebook (1974) Chameleon (1970) Edited Works A William Maxwell Portrait: Memories and Appreciations (2004) Bringing the Devil to His Knees: The Craft of Fiction and the Writing Life (2001) Best New American Voices 2001 (2001) The Business of Memory (1999) Honors and Awards National Book Award (Finalist) for The Feast of Love, 2000 The Award in Literature, American Academy of Arts and Letters, 1997 Ohio University Spring Literary Festival (Honoree), 1995 The Cohen Award for the best essay published in Ploughshares, 1994 The Daniel A. Pollack-Harvard Review award to Shadow Play, 1994 The Gettysburg Review nonfiction prose award for "Fiction and the Inner Life of Objects," 1994 Michigan Author of the Year Award, 1993 Lila Wallace-Reader's Digest Foundation Fellowship, 1992-95 Lawrence Foundation Award, 1991 Arts Foundation of Michigan Award, 1991 Guggenheim Fellowship, 1985-86 Michigan Council for the Arts Grant, 1984 National Endowment for the Arts Grant, 1983 Lawrence Foundation Award, 1982 External links Charles Baxter official website Interview with the author at Powells.com | Charles_Baxter_(author) |@lemmatized charles:2 baxter:4 born:1 minneapolis:1 american:3 author:3 know:1 blend:1 quiet:1 sometimes:1 absurdist:1 wit:1 profound:1 sympathy:1 far:2 perfect:1 character:1 also:1 attract:1 attention:1 consummate:1 brilliance:1 prose:2 likewise:1 celebrate:1 engaging:1 even:1 deeply:1 move:2 performer:1 work:2 public:1 reading:1 writing:3 compare:1 anton:1 chekhov:1 william:2 trevor:1 alice:1 munro:1 john:2 cheever:1 graduate:1 macalester:1 college:2 saint:1 paul:1 receive:1 ph:1 english:1 university:5 buffalo:1 thesis:1 djuna:1 barnes:1 malcolm:1 lowry:1 nathanael:1 west:1 begin:1 teach:2 career:2 wayne:1 state:1 detroit:1 michigan:4 many:2 year:2 direct:2 creative:1 mfa:2 program:3 renowned:1 generosity:1 towards:1 patient:1 encouragement:1 student:1 go:1 forge:1 successful:1 write:3 include:1 gretchen:1 mazur:1 helen:1 fremont:1 michael:1 byers:1 jardine:1 libaire:1 porter:1 shreve:1 davy:1 rothbart:1 fulton:1 marc:1 nesbitt:1 patrick:1 keeffe:1 jess:1 row:1 francesca:1 delbano:1 peter:1 orner:1 heidi:1 julavits:1 karl:1 iagnemma:1 elwood:1 reid:1 currently:1 minnesota:2 warren:1 wilson:1 writer:1 novel:2 first:1 light:1 eminent:1 astrophysicist:1 brother:1 small:1 town:1 buick:1 salesman:1 discover:1 grow:1 apart:1 bond:1 love:3 still:1 keep:1 together:1 shadow:2 play:2 wife:1 gymnastics:1 magic:1 trick:1 crazy:1 mother:1 invent:1 vocabulary:1 aunt:1 version:2 bible:1 five:1 oak:1 assistant:1 city:1 manager:1 wyatt:1 palmer:1 try:1 live:1 normal:1 life:3 nearly:1 succeed:1 feast:2 sumptuously:1 reimagined:1 midsummer:1 night:1 dream:1 comic:1 poignant:1 sexy:1 turn:1 nominate:1 national:3 book:4 award:13 motion:1 picture:1 star:1 morgan:1 freeman:1 fred:1 ward:1 greg:1 kinnear:1 robert:1 benton:1 release:1 september:1 saul:1 patsy:1 teacher:1 marriage:1 identity:1 threaten:1 dangerously:1 obsessed:1 teenage:1 boy:1 school:1 soul:1 thief:1 short:1 story:1 essay:3 collection:2 harmony:1 world:1 winner:2 associate:1 safety:1 net:1 gryphon:1 relative:1 stranger:1 believer:1 burn:1 house:1 fiction:5 non:2 art:5 subtext:1 beyond:1 plot:1 general:1 poetry:1 imaginary:1 painting:1 south:1 dakota:1 guidebook:1 chameleon:1 edit:1 maxwell:1 portrait:1 memory:2 appreciation:1 bring:1 devil:1 knee:1 craft:1 best:2 new:1 voice:1 business:1 honor:1 finalist:1 literature:1 academy:1 letter:1 ohio:1 spring:1 literary:1 festival:1 honoree:1 cohen:1 publish:1 ploughshare:1 daniel:1 pollack:1 harvard:1 review:2 gettysburg:1 nonfiction:1 inner:1 object:1 lila:1 wallace:1 reader:1 digest:1 foundation:4 fellowship:2 lawrence:2 guggenheim:1 council:1 grant:2 endowment:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 interview:1 powell:1 com:1 |@bigram anton_chekhov:1 midsummer_night:1 motion_picture:1 morgan_freeman:1 reader_digest:1 guggenheim_fellowship:1 external_link:1 |
2,967 | Normal_distribution | In probability theory and statistics, the normal distribution or Gaussian distribution is a continuous probability distribution that describes data that clusters around a mean or average. The graph of the associated probability density function is bell-shaped, with a peak at the mean, and is known as the Gaussian function or bell curve. The normal distribution can be used to describe, at least approximately, any variable that tends to cluster around the mean. For example, the heights of adult males in the United States are roughly normally distributed, with a mean of about 70 inches. Most men have a height close to the mean, though a small number of outliers have a height significantly above or below the mean. A histogram of male heights will appear similar to a bell curve, with the correspondence becoming closer if more data is used. For theoretical reasons (such as the central limit theorem), any variable that is the sum of a large number of independent factors is likely to be normally distributed. For this reason, the normal distribution is used throughout statistics, natural science, and social science Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology - Normal Distribution as a simple model for complex phenomena. For example, the observational error in an experiment is usually assumed to follow a normal distribution, and the propagation of uncertainty is computed using this assumption. The probability density function for a normal distribution is given by the formula where μ is the mean, σ is the standard deviation (a measure of the “width” of the bell), and exp denotes the exponential function. For a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1, this formula simplifies to which is known as the standard normal distribution. When properly scaled and translated, the corresponding cumulative distribution function is known as the error function. The Gaussian distribution is named for Carl Friedrich Gauss, who used it to analyze astronomical data, Havil, 2003 and defined the formula for its probability density function. History The normal distribution was first introduced by Abraham de Moivre in an article in the year 1733, Abraham de Moivre, "Approximatio ad Summam Terminorum Binomii (a + b)n in Seriem expansi" (printed on 12 November 1733 in London for private circulation). This pamphlet has been reprinted in: (1) Richard C. Archibald (1926) “A rare pamphlet of Moivre and some of his discoveries,” Isis, vol. 8, pages 671-683; (2) Helen M. Walker, “De Moivre on the law of normal probability” in David Eugene Smith, A Source Book in Mathematics [New York, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1929; reprinted: New York, New York: Dover, 1959], vol. 2, pages 566-575.; (3) Abraham De Moivre, The Doctrine of Chances (2nd ed.) [London: H. Woodfall, 1738; reprinted: London: Cass, 1967], pages 235-243; (3rd ed.) [London: A Millar, 1756; reprinted: New York, New York: Chelsea, 1967], pages 243-254; (4) Florence N. David, Games, Gods and Gambling: A History of Probability and Statistical Ideas [London: Griffin, 1962], Appendix 5, pages 254-267. which was reprinted in the second edition of his The Doctrine of Chances, 1738 in the context of approximating certain binomial distributions for large n. His result was extended by Laplace in his book Analytical Theory of Probabilities (1812), and is now called the theorem of de Moivre-Laplace. Laplace used the normal distribution in the analysis of errors of experiments. The important method of least squares was introduced by Legendre in 1805. Gauss, who claimed to have used the method since 1794, justified it rigorously in 1809 by assuming a normal distribution of the errors. The fact the distribution is sometimes called Gaussian is an example of Stigler's Law. The name "bell curve" goes back to Esprit Jouffret who first used the term "bell surface" in 1872 for a bivariate normal with independent components. The name "normal distribution" was coined independently by Charles Sanders Peirce, Francis Galton and Wilhelm Lexis around 1875. Despite this terminology, other probability distributions may be more appropriate in some contexts; see the discussion of occurrence, below. Characterization There are various ways to characterize a probability distribution. The most visual is the probability density function (PDF). Equivalent ways are the cumulative distribution function, the moments, the cumulants, the characteristic function, the moment-generating function, the cumulant-generating function, and Maxwell's theorem. See probability distribution for a discussion. To indicate that a real-valued random variable X is normally distributed with mean μ and variance σ2 ≥ 0, we write While it is certainly useful for certain limit theorems (e.g. asymptotic normality of estimators) and for the theory of Gaussian processes to consider the probability distribution concentrated at μ (see Dirac measure) as a distribution with mean μ and variance σ2 = 0, this degenerate case is often excluded from the considerations because no density with respect to the Lebesgue measure exists. The normal distribution may also be parameterized using a precision parameter τ, defined as the reciprocal of σ2. This parameterization has an advantage in numerical applications where σ2 is very close to zero and is more convenient to work with in analysis as τ is a natural parameter of the normal distribution. Probability density function Probability density function for the normal distribution The continuous probability density function of the normal distribution is the Gaussian function where σ > 0 is the standard deviation, the real parameter μ is the expected value, and is the density function of the "standard" normal distribution: i.e., the normal distribution with μ = 0 and σ = 1. The integral of over the real line is equal to one as shown in the Gaussian integral article. As a Gaussian function with the denominator in the exponent equal to 2, the standard normal density function is an eigenfunction of the Fourier transform. The probability density function has notable properties including: symmetry about its mean μ the mode and median both equal the mean μ the inflection points of the curve occur one standard deviation away from the mean, i.e. at μ − σ and μ + σ. Cumulative distribution function Cumulative distribution function for the normal distribution The cumulative distribution function (cdf) of a probability distribution, evaluated at a number (lower-case) x, is the probability of the event that a random variable (capital) X with that distribution is less than or equal to x. The cumulative distribution function of the normal distribution is expressed in terms of the density function as follows: The standard normal cdf is just the general cdf evaluated with μ = 0 and σ = 1: The standard normal cdf can be expressed in terms of a special function called the error function, as and the cdf itself can hence be expressed as The complement of the standard normal cdf, , is often denoted , and is sometimes referred to simply as the Q-function, especially in engineering texts. The Q-function http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~jo/academic/Q.pdf This represents the tail probability of the Gaussian distribution. Other definitions of the Q-function, all of which are simple transformations of , are also used occasionally. Normal Distribution Function - from Wolfram MathWorld The inverse standard normal cumulative distribution function, or quantile function, can be expressed in terms of the inverse error function: and the inverse cumulative distribution function can hence be expressed as This quantile function is sometimes called the probit function. There is no elementary primitive for the probit function. This is not to say merely that none is known, but rather that the non-existence of such an elementary primitive has been proven. Several accurate methods exist for approximating the quantile function for the normal distribution - see quantile function for a discussion and references. The values Φ(x) may be approximated very accurately by a variety of methods, such as numerical integration, Taylor series, asymptotic series and continued fractions. See Q-function for one method of approximation valid for large x. Generating functions Moment generating function The moment generating function is defined as the expected value of exp(tX). For a normal distribution, the moment generating function is as can be seen by completing the square in the exponent. Cumulant generating function The cumulant generating function is the logarithm of the moment generating function: g(t) = μt + σ2t2/2. Since this is a quadratic polynomial in t, only the first two cumulants are nonzero. Characteristic function The characteristic function is defined as the expected value of exp(itX), where i is the imaginary unit. So the characteristic function is obtained by replacing t with it in the moment-generating function. For a normal distribution, the characteristic function is Properties Some properties of the normal distribution: If and and are real numbers, then (see expected value and variance). If and are independent normal random variables, then: Their sum is normally distributed with (proof). Thus the normal distribution is infinitely divisible. Interestingly, the converse holds: if two independent random variables have a normally-distributed sum, then they must be normal themselves — this is known as Cramér's theorem. Their difference is normally distributed with . If the variances of X and Y are equal, then U and V are independent of each other (and equal variance) – in the bivariate distribution, this corresponds to a change of coordinates in the plane from to , or equivalently a change of axes (rotation and dilation). The Kullback-Leibler divergence is given by: If and are independent normal random variables, then: Their product follows a distribution with density given by where is a modified Bessel function of the second kind. Their ratio follows a Cauchy distribution with . Thus the Cauchy distribution is a special kind of ratio distribution. If are independent standard normal variables, then has a chi-square distribution with n degrees of freedom. If are independent standard normal variables, then the sample mean and sample variance are independent. This can be proven using Basu's theorem or Cochran's theorem. This property characterizes normal distributions (and helps to explain why the F-test is non-robust with respect to non-normality!) See also Student's t-distribution, which uses a ratio derived from these. Standardizing normal random variables As a consequence of Property 1, it is possible to relate all normal random variables to the standard normal. If ~ , then is a standard normal random variable: ~ . An important consequence is that the cdf of a general normal distribution is therefore Conversely, if is a standard normal distribution, ~ , then is a normal random variable with mean and variance . The standard normal distribution has been tabulated (usually in the form of value of the cumulative distribution function Φ), and the other normal distributions are the simple transformations, as described above, of the standard one. Therefore, one can use tabulated values of the cdf of the standard normal distribution to find values of the cdf of a general normal distribution. Moments The first few moments of the normal distribution are: Number Raw moment Central moment Cumulant 0 1 1 1 0 2 3 0 0 4 0 5 0 0 6 0 7 0 0 8 0 All cumulants of the normal distribution beyond the second are zero. Higher central moments (of order 2k) are given by the formula The central limit theorem Plot of the pdf of a normal distribution with μ = 12 and σ = 3, approximating the pdf of a binomial distribution with n = 48 and p = 1/4 Under certain conditions (such as being independent and identically-distributed with finite variance), the sum of a large number of random variables is approximately normally distributed — this is the central limit theorem. The practical importance of the central limit theorem is that the normal cumulative distribution function can be used as an approximation to some other cumulative distribution functions, for example: A binomial distribution with parameters n and p is approximately normal for large n and p not too close to 1 or 0 (some books recommend using this approximation only if np and n(1 − p) are both at least 5; in this case, a continuity correction should be applied).The approximating normal distribution has parameters μ = np, σ2 = np(1 − p). A Poisson distribution with parameter λ is approximately normal for large λ.The approximating normal distribution has parameters μ = σ2 = λ. Whether these approximations are sufficiently accurate depends on the purpose for which they are needed, and the rate of convergence to the normal distribution. It is typically the case that such approximations are less accurate in the tails of the distribution. A general upper bound of the approximation error of the cumulative distribution function is given by the Berry–Esséen theorem. Infinite divisibility The normal distributions are infinitely divisible probability distributions: Given a mean μ, a variance σ 2 ≥ 0, and a natural number n, the sum X1 + . . . + Xn of n independent random variables has this specified normal distribution (to verify this, use characteristic functions or convolution and mathematical induction). Stability The normal distributions are strictly stable probability distributions. Standard deviation and confidence intervals |Dark blue is less than one standard deviation from the mean. For the normal distribution, this accounts for about 68% of the set (dark blue) while two standard deviations from the mean (medium and dark blue) account for about 95% and three standard deviations (light, medium, and dark blue) account for about 99.7%. About 68% of values drawn from a normal distribution are within one standard deviation σ > 0 away from the mean μ; about 95% of the values are within two standard deviations and about 99.7% lie within three standard deviations. This is known as the "68-95-99.7 rule" or the "empirical rule" or the "3-sigma rule." To be more precise, the area under the bell curve between μ − nσ and μ + nσ in terms of the cumulative normal distribution function is given by where erf is the error function. To 12 decimal places, the values for the 1-, 2-, up to 6-sigma points are: 1 0.682689492137 2 0.9544997361043 0.9973002039374 0.9999366575165 0.9999994266976 0.999999998027 The next table gives the reverse relation of sigma multiples corresponding to a few often used values for the area under the bell curve. These values are useful to determine (asymptotic) confidence intervals of the specified levels based on normally distributed (or asymptotically normal) estimators: 0.80 1.28155 0.90 1.644850.95 1.959960.98 2.326350.99 2.575830.995 2.807030.998 3.090230.999 3.290520.9999 3.89060.99999 4.4172 where the value on the left of the table is the proportion of values that will fall within a given interval and n is a multiple of the standard deviation that specifies the width of the interval. Exponential family form The Normal distribution is a two-parameter exponential family form with natural parameters μ and 1/σ2, and natural statistics X and X2. The canonical form has parameters and and sufficient statistics and Complex normal distribution Consider the complex Gaussian random variable, where X and Y are real and independent Gaussian variables with equal variances . The pdf of the joint variables is then Because , the resulting pdf for the complex Gaussian variable Z is Related distributions is a Rayleigh distribution if where and are two independent normal distributions. is a chi-square distribution with degrees of freedom if where for and are independent. is a Cauchy distribution if for and are two independent normal distributions. is a log-normal distribution if and . Relation to stable distribution: if then . Truncated normal distribution. If then truncating X below at and above at will lead to a random variable with mean where and is the probability density function of a standard normal random variable. If is a random variable with a normal distribution, and , then has a folded normal distribution. Descriptive and inferential statistics Scores Many scores are derived from the normal distribution, including percentile ranks ("percentiles" or "quantiles"), normal curve equivalents, stanines, z-scores, and T-scores. Additionally, a number of behavioral statistical procedures are based on the assumption that scores are normally distributed; for example, t-tests and ANOVAs (see below). Bell curve grading assigns relative grades based on a normal distribution of scores. Normality tests Normality tests check a given set of data for similarity to the normal distribution. The null hypothesis is that the data set is similar to the normal distribution, therefore a sufficiently small P-value indicates non-normal data. Kolmogorov–Smirnov test Lilliefors test Anderson–Darling test Ryan–Joiner test Shapiro–Wilk test Normal probability plot (rankit plot) Jarque–Bera test Spiegelhalter's omnibus test Estimation of parameters Estimators For a normal distribution with mean μ and variance σ2, the sample mean : is the UMVU estimator for the population mean μ, by the Lehmann–Scheffé theorem (because it is an unbiased, complete, sufficient statistic), is the maximum likelihood estimator for the population mean μ, has sampling distribution since the sum of n i.i.d. random variables has distribution and thus the standard error of the sample mean is As the number of samples grows, the standard error of the sample mean decays as – so if one wishes to decrease the standard error by a factor of 10, one must increase the number of samples by a factor of 100. This fact is widely used in determining sample sizes for opinion polls and number of trials in Monte Carlo simulation. The sample distribution of the mean depends on the standard deviation σ – it is not an ancillary statistic – and thus to estimate the error of the sample mean, one must estimate the standard deviation. The sample standard deviation, defined as: is a common estimator for the population standard deviation: is an unbiased estimator for the variance σ2, the sampling distribution of s2 is, up to scale, a chi-square distribution with n–1 degrees of freedom; properly, s is an ancillary statistic of the population mean μ – its sampling distribution does not depend on the population mean, and s2 (and thus s) are independent of the sample mean by Cochran's theorem. Note that: There is a factor of n–1, not n, in the definition – this corresponds to the number of degrees of freedom (the residuals sum to 1, which removes one degree of freedom), and is known as Bessel's correction. The normal distribution is the only distribution whose sample mean and sample variance are independent. While is an unbiased estimator for the variance σ2, s is a biased estimator for the standard deviation σ; see unbiased estimation of standard deviation. For the normal distribution, one can compute a correction factor, which depends on n, to arrive at an unbiased estimator of the standard deviation. This is denoted by c4, and the corrected (unbiased) estimator is . For n=2 , while for n=10 so this correction is rarely used outside of high-precision estimation of small samples. The standard error of the uncorrected (biased) sample standard deviation s is Duncan, A. J., Quality Control and Industrial Statistics 4th Ed., Irwin (1974) ISBN 0-256-01558-9, p.139 * N.L. Johnson, S. Kotz, and N. Balakrishnan, Continuous Univariate Distributions, Volume 1, 2nd edition, Wiley and sons, 1994. ISBN 0-471-58495-9. Chapter 13, Section 8.2 thus it also decays as . Unbiased estimation of parameters The maximum likelihood estimator of the population mean μ from a sample is an unbiased estimator of the mean. The maximum likelihood estimator of the variance is unbiased if we assume the population is known a priori, but in practice that does not happen. However, if we are faced with a sample and have no knowledge of the mean or the variance of the population from which it is drawn, as assumed in the maximum likelihood derivation above, then the maximum likelihood estimator of the variance is biased. An unbiased estimator of the variance σ2 is: This "sample variance" follows a Gamma distribution if all Xi are independent and identically-distributed: with mean and variance The maximum likelihood estimate of the standard deviation is the square root of the maximum likelihood estimate of the variance. However, neither this nor the square root of the sample variance provides an unbiased estimate for standard deviation: see unbiased estimation of standard deviation for formulae particular to the normal distribution. Maximum likelihood estimation of parameters Suppose are independent and each is normally distributed with expectation μ and variance σ 2 > 0. In the language of statisticians, the observed values of these n random variables make up a "sample of size n from a normally distributed population." It is desired to estimate the "population mean" μ and the "population standard deviation" σ, based on the observed values of this sample. The continuous joint probability density function of these n independent random variables is As a function of μ and σ, the likelihood function based on the observations X1, ..., Xn is with some constant C > 0 (which in general would be even allowed to depend on X1, ..., Xn, but will vanish anyway when partial derivatives of the log-likelihood function with respect to the parameters are computed, see below). In the method of maximum likelihood, the values of μ and σ that maximize the likelihood function are taken as estimates of the population parameters μ and σ. Usually in maximizing a function of two variables, one might consider partial derivatives. But here we will exploit the fact that the value of μ that maximizes the likelihood function with σ fixed does not depend on σ. Therefore, we can find that value of μ, then substitute it for μ in the likelihood function, and finally find the value of σ that maximizes the resulting expression. It is evident that the likelihood function is a decreasing function of the sum So we want the value of μ that minimizes this sum. Let be the "sample mean" based on the n observations. Observe that Only the last term depends on μ and it is minimized by That is the maximum-likelihood estimate of μ based on the n observations X1, ..., Xn. When we substitute that estimate for μ into the likelihood function, we get It is conventional to denote the "log-likelihood function", i.e., the logarithm of the likelihood function, by a lower-case ℓ, and we have and then This derivative is positive, zero, or negative according as σ2 is between 0 and or equal to that quantity, or greater than that quantity. (If there is just one observation, meaning that n = 1, or if X1 = ... = Xn, which only happens with probability zero, then by this formula, reflecting the fact that in these cases the likelihood function is unbounded as σ decreases to zero.) Consequently this average of squares of residuals is the maximum-likelihood estimate of σ2, and its square root is the maximum-likelihood estimate of σ based on the n observations. This estimator is biased, but has a smaller mean squared error than the usual unbiased estimator, which is n/(n − 1) times this estimator. Surprising generalization The derivation of the maximum-likelihood estimator of the covariance matrix of a multivariate normal distribution is subtle. It involves the spectral theorem and the reason it can be better to view a scalar as the trace of a 1×1 matrix than as a mere scalar. See estimation of covariance matrices. Occurrence Approximately normal distributions occur in many situations, as explained by the central limit theorem. When there is reason to suspect the presence of a large number of small effects acting additively and independently, it is reasonable to assume that observations will be normal. There are statistical methods to empirically test that assumption, for example the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Effects can also act as multiplicative (rather than additive) modifications. In that case, the assumption of normality is not justified, and it is the logarithm of the variable of interest that is normally distributed. The distribution of the directly observed variable is then called log-normal. Finally, if there is a single external influence which has a large effect on the variable under consideration, the assumption of normality is not justified either. This is true even if, when the external variable is held constant, the resulting marginal distributions are indeed normal. The full distribution will be a superposition of normal variables, which is not in general normal. This is related to the theory of errors (see below). To summarize, here is a list of situations where approximate normality is sometimes assumed. For a fuller discussion, see below. In counting problems, where the central limit theorem includes a discrete-to-continuum approximation and where infinitely divisible and decomposable distributions are involved, such as Binomial random variables, associated with yes/no questions; Poisson random variables, associated with rare events; In physiological measurements of biological specimens: The logarithm of measures of size of living tissue (length, height, skin area, weight); The length of inert appendages (hair, claws, nails, teeth) of biological specimens, in the direction of growth; presumably the thickness of tree bark also falls under this category; Other physiological measures may be normally distributed, but there is no reason to expect that a priori; Measurement errors are often assumed to be normally distributed, and any deviation from normality is considered something which should be explained; Financial variables, in the Black–Scholes model Changes in the logarithm of exchange rates, price indices, and stock market indices; these variables behave like compound interest, not like simple interest, and so are multiplicative; While the Black–Scholes model assumes normality, in reality these variables exhibit heavy tails, as seen in stock market crashes; Other financial variables may be normally distributed, but there is no reason to expect that a priori; Light intensity The intensity of laser light is normally distributed; Thermal light has a Bose–Einstein distribution on very short time scales, and a normal distribution on longer timescales due to the central limit theorem. Of relevance to biology and economics is the fact that complex systems tend to display power laws rather than normality. Photon counting Light intensity from a single source varies with time, as thermal fluctuations can be observed if the light is analyzed at sufficiently high time resolution. Quantum mechanics interprets measurements of light intensity as photon counting, where the natural assumption is to use the Poisson distribution. When light intensity is integrated over large times longer than the coherence time, the Poisson-to-normal approximation is appropriate. Measurement errors Normality is the central assumption of the mathematical theory of errors. Similarly, in statistical model-fitting, an indicator of goodness of fit is that the residuals (as the errors are called in that setting) be independent and normally distributed. The assumption is that any deviation from normality needs to be explained. In that sense, both in model-fitting and in the theory of errors, normality is the only observation that need not be explained, being expected. However, if the original data are not normally distributed (for instance if they follow a Cauchy distribution), then the residuals will also not be normally distributed. This fact is usually ignored in practice. Repeated measurements of the same quantity are expected to yield results which are clustered around a particular value. If all major sources of errors have been taken into account, it is assumed that the remaining error must be the result of a large number of very small additive effects, and hence normal. Deviations from normality are interpreted as indications of systematic errors which have not been taken into account. Whether this assumption is valid is debatable. A famous and oft-quoted remark attributed to Gabriel Lippmann says: "Everyone believes in the [normal] law of errors: the mathematicians, because they think it is an experimental fact; and the experimenters, because they suppose it is a theorem of mathematics." Whittaker, E. T., Robinson, G. (1967). The Calculus of Observations: A Treatise on Numerical Mathematics. Dover, New York, p. 179. Physical characteristics of biological specimens The sizes of full-grown animals is approximately lognormal. The evidence and an explanation based on models of growth was first published in the 1932 book Problems of Relative Growth by Julian Huxley. Differences in size due to sexual dimorphism, or other polymorphisms like the worker/soldier/queen division in social insects, further make the distribution of sizes deviate from lognormality. The assumption that linear size of biological specimens is normal (rather than lognormal) leads to a non-normal distribution of weight (since weight or volume is roughly proportional to the 2nd or 3rd power of length, and Gaussian distributions are only preserved by linear transformations), and conversely assuming that weight is normal leads to non-normal lengths. This is a problem, because there is no a priori reason why one of length, or body mass, and not the other, should be normally distributed. Lognormal distributions, on the other hand, are preserved by powers so the "problem" goes away if lognormality is assumed. On the other hand, there are some biological measures where normality is assumed, such as blood pressure of adult humans. This is supposed to be normally distributed, but only after separating males and females into different populations (each of which is normally distributed). Financial variables Already in 1900 Louis Bachelier proposed representing price changes of stocks using the normal distribution. This approach has since been modified slightly. Because of the multiplicative nature of compounding of returns, financial indicators such as stock values and commodity prices exhibit "multiplicative behavior". As such, their periodic changes (e.g., yearly changes) are not normal, but rather lognormal - i.e. logarithmic returns as opposed to values are normally distributed. This is still the most commonly used hypothesis in finance, in particular in option pricing in the Black–Scholes model. However, in reality financial variables exhibit heavy tails, and thus the assumption of normality understates the probability of extreme events such as stock market crashes. Corrections to this model have been suggested by mathematicians such as Benoît Mandelbrot, who observed that the changes in logarithm over short periods (such as a day) are approximated well by distributions that do not have a finite variance, and therefore the central limit theorem does not apply. Rather, the sum of many such changes gives log-Levy distributions. Distribution in standardized testing and intelligence In standardized testing, results can be scaled to have a normal distribution – for example, the 's traditional range of 200–800 is based on a normal distribution with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100. As the entire population is known, this normalization can be done, and allows the use of the Z test in standardized testing. Sometimes, the difficulty and number of questions on an IQ test is selected in order to yield normal distributed results. Or else, the raw test scores are converted to IQ values by fitting them to the normal distribution. In either case, it is the deliberate result of test construction or score interpretation that leads to IQ scores being normally distributed for the majority of the population. However, the question whether intelligence itself is normally distributed is more involved, because intelligence is a latent variable, therefore its distribution cannot be observed directly. Diffusion equation The probability density function of the normal distribution is closely related to the (homogeneous and isotropic) diffusion equation and therefore also to the heat equation. This partial differential equation describes the time evolution of a mass-density function under diffusion. In particular, the probability density function for the normal distribution with expected value 0 and variance t satisfies the diffusion equation: If the mass-density at time t = 0 is given by a Dirac delta, which essentially means that all mass is initially concentrated in a single point, then the mass-density function at time t will have the form of the normal probability density function with variance linearly growing with t. This connection is no coincidence: diffusion is due to Brownian motion which is mathematically described by a Wiener process, and such a process at time t will also result in a normal distribution with variance linearly growing with t. More generally, if the initial mass-density is given by a function φ(x), then the mass-density at time t will be given by the convolution of φ and a normal probability density function. Use in computational statistics The normal distribution arises in many areas of statistics. For example, for a random variable with finite variance, the sampling distribution of the sample mean is approximately normal, even if the distribution of the population from which the sample is taken is not normal. However, for distributions with infinite or undefined variance, such as the Cauchy distribution, the sampling distribution of the sample mean need not be approximately normal. In addition, the normal distribution maximizes information entropy among all distributions with known mean and variance, which makes it the natural choice of underlying distribution for data summarized in terms of sample mean and variance. The normal distribution is the most widely used family of distributions in statistics and many statistical tests are based on the assumption of normality. Generating values for normal random variables For computer simulations, it is often useful to generate values that have a normal distribution. There are several methods and the most basic is to invert the standard normal cdf. More efficient methods are also known, one such method being the Box-Muller transform. An even faster algorithm is the ziggurat algorithm. These are discussed below. A simple approach that is easy to program is as follows. Simply sum 12 uniform (0,1) deviates and subtract 6 (half of 12). This is quite usable in many applications. The sum over these 12 values has an Irwin–Hall distribution; 12 is chosen to give the sum a variance of exactly one. The resulting random deviates are limited to the range (−6, 6) and have a density which is a 12-section eleventh-order polynomial approximation to the normal distribution. Johnson NL, Kotz S, Balakrishnan N. (1995) Continuous Univariate Distributions Volume 2, Wiley. Equation(26.48) The Box-Muller method says that, if you have two independent random numbers U and V uniformly distributed on (0, 1], (e.g. the output from a random number generator), then two independent standard normally distributed random variables are X and Y, where: This formulation arises because the chi-square distribution with two degrees of freedom (see property 4 above) is an easily-generated exponential random variable (which corresponds to the quantity lnU in these equations). Thus an angle is chosen uniformly around the circle via the random variable V, a radius is chosen to be exponential and then transformed to (normally distributed) x and y coordinates. A method that is much faster than the Box-Muller transform but which is still exact is the so-called Ziggurat algorithm developed by George Marsaglia. In about 97% of all cases it uses only two random numbers, one random integer and one random uniform, one multiplication and an if-test. Only in 3% of the cases where the combination of those two falls outside the "core of the ziggurat" a kind of rejection sampling using logarithms, exponentials and more uniform random numbers has to be employed. There is also some investigation into the connection between the fast Hadamard transform and the normal distribution, since the transform employs just addition and subtraction and by the central limit theorem random numbers from almost any distribution will be transformed into the normal distribution. In this regard a series of Hadamard transforms can be combined with random permutations to turn arbitrary data sets into a normally-distributed data. Numerical approximations of the normal distribution and its cdf The normal distribution function is widely used in scientific and statistical computing. Therefore, it has been implemented in various ways. The GNU Scientific Library calculates values of the standard normal cdf using piecewise approximations by rational functions. Another approximation method uses third-degree polynomials on intervals. The article on the bc programming language gives an example of how to compute the cdf in Gnu bc. For a more detailed discussion of how to calculate the normal distribution, see Knuth's The Art of Computer Programming, section 3.4.1C. See also Behrens–Fisher problem Bell curve grading Central limit theorem - re-averaged sum of a sufficiently large number of identically distributed independent random variables each with finite mean and variance will be approximately normally distributed Chi square distribution Data transformation (statistics) - simple techniques to transform data into normal distribution Erdős-Kac theorem, on the occurrence of the normal distribution in number theory Gaussian blur, convolution using the normal distribution as a kernel Gaussian function Gaussian process Wiener process Brownian bridge Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process Iannis Xenakis, Gaussian distribution in music. Inverse Gaussian distribution Logistic distribution Logit function Lognormal distribution Multivariate normal distribution Matrix normal distribution Normal-gamma distribution Normally distributed and uncorrelated does not imply independent (an example of two normally distributed uncorrelated random variables that are not independent; this cannot happen in the presence of joint normality) Pearson distribution Generalized family of probability distributions that extend the Gaussian distribution to include different skewness and kurtosis values Probit function Sample size Skew normal distribution Student's t-distribution Sum of normally distributed random variables Truncated normal distribution Tweedie distributions Notes References John Aldrich. Earliest Uses of Symbols in Probability and Statistics. Electronic document, retrieved March 20, 2005. (See "Symbols associated with the Normal Distribution".) Abraham de Moivre (1738). The Doctrine of Chances. Stephen Jay Gould (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. First edition. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-01489-4 . Havil, 2003. Gamma, Exploring Euler's Constant, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, p. 157. R. J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray (1994). The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life. Free Press. ISBN 0-02-914673-9 . Pierre-Simon Laplace (1812). Analytical Theory of Probabilities. Jeff Miller, John Aldrich, et al. Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics. In particular, the entries for "bell-shaped and bell curve", "normal" (distribution), "Gaussian", and "Error, law of error, theory of errors, etc.". Electronic documents, retrieved December 13, 2005. S. M. Stigler (1999). Statistics on the Table, chapter 22. Harvard University Press. (History of the term "normal distribution".) Eric W. Weisstein et al. Normal Distribution at MathWorld. Electronic document, retrieved March 20, 2005. Marvin Zelen and Norman C. Severo (1964). Probability Functions. Chapter 26 of Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, ed, by Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun. National Bureau of Standards. External links The normal distribution Mathworld: Normal Distribution PlanetMath: normal random variable Intuitive derivation. Is normal distribution due to Karl Gauss? Euler, his family of gamma functions, and place in history of statistics Maxwell demons: Simulating probability distributions with functions of propositional calculus Visualization of normal distribution XLL Excel Addin function for Normal Dist. Random Number Generator Online results and applications Normal distribution table Public Domain Normal Distribution Table Distribution Calculator – Calculates probabilities and critical values for normal, t, chi-square and F-distribution. Java Applet on Normal Distributions Interactive Distribution Modeler (incl. Normal Distribution). Free Area Under the Normal Curve Calculator from Daniel Soper's Free Statistics Calculators website. Interactive Graph of the Standard Normal Curve Quickly Visualize the one and two-tailed area of the Standard Normal Curve Javascript calculator which calculates the probability that a value randomly chosen from a Normal Distribution is greater than, less than or between chosen values Standard Normal Distribution Table for the iPhone Algorithms and approximations GNU Scientific Library – Reference Manual – The Gaussian Distribution Calculating the Cumulative Normal distribution, C++, VBA, sitmo.com An algorithm for computing the inverse normal cumulative distribution function by Peter J. Acklam – has examples for several programming languages An Approximation to the Inverse Normal(0, 1) Distribution, gatech.edu Handbook of Mathematical Functions: Polynomial and Rational Approximations for P(x) and Z(x), Abramowitz and Stegun | Normal_distribution |@lemmatized probability:38 theory:9 statistic:17 normal:158 distribution:199 gaussian:21 continuous:5 describe:5 data:12 cluster:3 around:5 mean:47 average:3 graph:3 associated:1 density:25 function:95 bell:13 shape:2 peak:1 know:11 curve:14 use:29 least:3 approximately:9 variable:49 tend:2 example:11 height:5 adult:2 male:3 united:1 state:1 roughly:2 normally:32 distribute:35 inch:1 men:1 close:4 though:1 small:6 number:23 outlier:1 significantly:1 histogram:1 appear:1 similar:2 correspondence:1 become:1 theoretical:1 reason:7 central:13 limit:12 theorem:22 sum:15 large:11 independent:26 factor:5 likely:1 throughout:1 natural:7 science:2 social:2 gale:1 encyclopedia:1 psychology:1 simple:6 model:8 complex:5 phenomenon:1 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2,968 | The_Birth_of_a_Nation | The Birth of a Nation (also known as The Clansman), is a 1915 silent film directed by D. W. Griffith; Set during and after the American Civil War, the film was based on Thomas Dixon's The Clansman, a novel and play. The Birth of a Nation is noted for its innovative technical and narrative achievements, and its status as the first Hollywood "blockbuster." It has provoked great controversy for its treatment of white supremacy and its positive portrayal of the Ku Klux Klan. MJ Movie Reviews - Birth of a Nation, The (1915) by Dan DeVore Plot This silent film was originally presented in two parts separated by an intermission. Part 1 depicted pre-Civil War America, introducing two juxtaposed families: the Northern Stonemans, consisting of abolitionist Congressman Austin Stoneman (based on real-life Reconstruction-era Congressman Thaddeus Stevens), his two sons, and his daughter, Elsie, and the Southern Camerons, a family including two daughters (Margaret and Flora) and three sons, most notably Ben. The Stoneman boys visit the Camerons at their South Carolina estate, representing the Old South. The eldest Stoneman boy falls in love with Margaret Cameron, and Ben Cameron idolizes a picture of Elsie Stoneman. When the Civil War begins, all the young men join their respective armies. A black militia (with a white leader) ransacks the Cameron house. The Cameron women are rescued when Confederate soldiers rout the militia. Meanwhile, the youngest Stoneman and two Cameron boys are killed in the war. Ben Cameron is wounded after a heroic battle in which he gains the nickname, "the Little Colonel," by which he is referred for the rest of the film. The Little Colonel is taken to a Northern hospital where he meets Elsie, who is working there as a nurse. The war ends and Abraham Lincoln is assassinated at Ford's Theater, allowing Austin Stoneman and other radical congressmen to punish the South for secession using radical measures supposedly typical of this period of the Reconstruction era. Griffith followed the then-dominant Dunning School or "Tragic Era" view of Reconstruction presented by early 20th century historians such as William Archibald Dunning and Claude G. Bowers. Stokes 2007, pp. 190–191. Part 2 depicts Reconstruction. Stoneman and his "mulatto" protegé, Silas Lynch, go to South Carolina to observe their agenda of empowering Southern blacks via election fraud. Meanwhile, Ben, inspired by observing white children pretending to be ghosts to scare off black children, devises a plan to reverse perceived powerlessness of Southern whites by forming the Ku Klux Klan, although his membership in the group angers Elsie. Then Gus, a former slave who has educated himself and gained a title of recognition through the army, proposes to marry Flora. Scared by Gus' lascivious advances, she flees into the forest, pursued by Gus. Trapped on a precipice, Flora leaps to her death. In response, the Klan hunts Gus, tries him and finds him guilty, and leaves his corpse on Lieutenant Governor Silas Lynch's doorstep. In retaliation, Lynch orders a crackdown on the Klan. The Camerons flee from the black militia and hide out in a small hut, home to two former Union soldiers, who agree to assist their former Southern foes in defending their white birthright, according to the caption. Meanwhile, with Austin Stoneman gone, Lynch tries to force Elsie to marry him. Disguised Klansmen discover her situation and leave to get reinforcements. The Klan, now at full strength, rides to her rescue and takes the opportunity to disperse the rioting "crazed negroes." Simultaneously, Lynch's militia surrounds and attacks the hut where the Camerons are hiding, but the Klan saves them just in time. Victorious, the Klansmen celebrate in the streets, and the film cuts to the next election where the Klan successfully disenfranchises black voters and disarms the blacks. The film concludes with a double honeymoon of Phil Stoneman with Margaret Cameron and Ben Cameron with Elsie Stoneman. The final frame shows masses oppressed by a mythical god of war suddenly finding themselves at peace under the image of Christ. The final title rhetorically asks: "Dare we dream of a golden day when the bestial War shall rule no more? But instead-the gentle Prince in the Hall of Brotherly Love in the City of Peace." Production Hooded Klansmen catch Gus, a black man whom the filmmaker described as "a renegade, a product of the vicious doctrines spread by the carpetbaggers." Gus was portrayed in blackface by white actor Walter Long. The film was based on Thomas Dixon's novels The Clansman and The Leopard's Spots. Griffith, whose father had served as a colonel in the Confederate Army, agreed to pay Thomas Dixon $10,000 for the rights to his play The Clansman. Since he ran out of money and could afford only $2,500 of the original option, Griffith offered Dixon 25 percent interest in the picture. Dixon reluctantly agreed. The film's unprecedented success made him rich. Dixon's proceeds were the largest sum any author had received for a motion picture story and amounted to several million dollars. Griffith's budget started at US$40,000, but the film finally cost $112,000 William K. Everson, American Silent Film. New York: Da Capo Press, 1978, p. 78 (the equivalent of $2.2 million in 2007 Consumer Price Index calculator at Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis website ). As a result, Griffith had to seek new sources of capital for his film. A ticket to the film cost a record $2 (the equivalent of $40 in 2007). It remained the most profitable film of all time until it was dethroned by Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937. West Point engineers provided technical advice on the Civil War battle scenes. They provided Griffith with the masses of artillery used in the film. Seelye, Katharine Q. "When Hollywood's Big Guns Come Right From the Source." The New York Times, 10 June 2002. The film premiered on February 8, 1915, at Clune's Auditorium in downtown Los Angeles. At its premiere the film was entitled The Clansman but the title was later changed to The Birth of a Nation to reflect Griffith's belief that the United States emerged out of the American Civil War and Reconstruction, ostensibly ended by the Klan, as a unified nation. Responses The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1909, protested premieres of the film in numerous cities. It also conducted a public education campaign, publishing articles protesting the film's fabrications and inaccuracies, organizing petitions against it, and conducting education on the facts of the war and Reconstruction. NAACP - Timeline When the film was shown, riots broke out in Boston, Philadelphia and other major cities. Chicago, Denver, Kansas City, Minneapolis, Pittsburgh and St. Louis refused to allow the film to open. The film's inflammatory character was a catalyst for gangs of whites to attack blacks. In , after seeing the movie, a white man murdered a black teenager. The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow . Jim Crow Stories . The Birth of a Nation | PBS Thomas Dixon, author of the source play The Clansman, was a former classmate of President Woodrow Wilson at Johns Hopkins University. Dixon arranged a screening at the White House, for Wilson, members of his cabinet, and their families. Wilson was reported to have commented of the film that "it is like writing history with lightning. And my only regret is that it is all so terribly true". In Wilson: the new freedom, Arthur Link quotes Wilson's aide, Joseph Tumulty, who denied Wilson said this and also claims that "the President was entirely unaware of the nature of the play before it was presented and at no time has expressed his approbation of it." Letter from J. M. Tumulty, secretary to President Wilson, to the Boston branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, quoted in Link, Wilson. Relentless in publicizing the film, Dixon himself was apparently the source for the quotation, which has been repeated so often in print that it has taken on a separate life. Dixon went so far as to promote the film as "Federally endorsed". After controversy over the film had grown, Wilson wrote that he disapproved of the "unfortunate production." Woodrow Wilson to Joseph P. Tumulty, April 28, 1915 in Wilson, Papers, 33:86. D. W. Griffith would also respond to the film's negative critical reception with his next film Intolerance. In 1918 Emmett J. Scott helped produce and John W. Noble directed The Birth of a Race in response. The film portrayed a positive image of blacks. Although the film was panned by white critics, it was well-received by black critics and moviegoers attending segregated theaters. Also in 1919, director/producer/writer Oscar Micheaux released Within Our Gates, another response. Notably, he reversed a key scene of Griffith's film by depicting a white man assaulting a black woman. Ideology Woodrow Wilson's History of the American People is quoted in The Birth of a Nation. The film is controversial due to its interpretation of history. University of Houston historian Steven Mintz summarizes its message as follows: Reconstruction was a disaster, blacks could never be integrated into white society as equals, and the violent actions of the Ku Klux Klan were justified to reestablish honest government. Digital History The film suggested that the Ku Klux Klan restored order to the post-war South, which was depicted as endangered by abolitionists, freedmen, and carpetbagging Republican politicians from the North. This reflects the so-called Dunning School of historiography. Stokes 2007, pp. 190–191. This version was vigorously disputed by W. E. B. Du Bois and other black historians upon its release, and most historians of all backgrounds today, who point out African Americans' loyalty and contributions during the Civil War years and Reconstruction, including the establishment of universal public education. Some historians, such as E. Merton Coulter in his The South Under Reconstruction (1947), maintained the Dunning School view after World War II. However, today this argument is largely seen as a product of Anglo-American racism of the early twentieth century, by which many Americans held that black Americans were unequal as citizens. The civil rights movement and other social movements created a new generation of historians, such as scholar Eric Foner, who led a reassessment of Reconstruction. Building on Du Bois' work but also adding new sources, they focused on achievements of the African American and white Republican coalitions, such as establishment of universal public education and charitable institutions in the South and extension of suffrage to black men. In response, the Southern-dominated Democratic Party and its affiliated white militias used extensive terrorism, intimidation and outright assassinations to suppress African-American leaders and voting in the 1870s and to regain power. Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War. New York: Farrar Strauss and Giroux, 2006, p. 150-154 Significance Released in 1915, the film has been credited with securing the future of feature-length films (any film over 60 minutes in length), as well as solidifying the visual language of cinema. In its day, it was the highest grossing film, taking in more than $10 million, according to the box cover of the Shepard version of the DVD (equivalent to $200 million in 2007). The website Rotten Tomatoes, which compiles reviews from various sources, indicates the film has a 100% "fresh" (positive) rating. In 1992 the United States Library of Congress deemed the film "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant films" and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry. Despite its controversial story, the film has been praised by film critics such as Roger Ebert, who said: "'The Birth of a Nation' is not a bad film because it argues for evil. Like Riefenstahl’s Triumph of the Will, it is a great film that argues for evil. To understand how it does so is to learn a great deal about film, and even something about evil." rogerebert.com: The Birth of a Nation According to a 2002 article in the Los Angeles Times, the film facilitated the refounding of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. A Painful Present as Historians Confront a Nation's Bloody Past As late as the 1970s, the Ku Klux Klan continued to use the film as a recruitment tool. American Film Institute recognition AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies #44 Cast Spottiswoode Aitken Mary Alden George Beranger Monte Blue Bobby Burns David Butler Peggy Cartwright Dark Cloud Elmer Clifton Robert Cheek Lenore Cooper Miriam Cooper Donald Crisp Josephine Crowell Doris Doscher Charles Eagle Eye Kevin Flavin John Ford Howard Gaye Sam De Grasse Dorothy Gish Lillian Gish Gibson Gowland Olga Grey Robert Harron Joseph Henabery Russell Hicks Alberta Lee Jennie Lee Ralph Lewis Elmo Lincoln Walter Long Mae Marsh Vester Pegg Wallace Reid Alma Rubens George Siegmann Maxfield Stanley Charles Stevens Madame Sul-Te-Wan Henry B. Walthall Eugene Pallette Elmo Lincoln Raoul Walsh Jules White Tom Wilson Violet Wilkey Mary Wynn Sequel A sequel was released to theaters one year later, in 1916, called The Fall of a Nation. The film was directed by Thomas Dixon, who adapted it from the novel of the same name. The film has three acts and a prologue. Despite its success in the foreign market, the film was not a success among the American audience and is now considered a lost film. In popular culture In 2008, DJ Spooky remixed Griffith's film as Rebirth of a Nation. David Robertson's novel Booth includes a passage in which the film is shown at the Old Grover's National Theatre in Washington in 1916, providing a key plot point. In Forrest Gump, a scene is depicted with the title character's great grandfather as the lead klansman, using a seamlessly edited clip from this film. See also D. W. Griffith filmography Lillian Gish filmography References Notes Bibliography Addams, Jane, in Crisis: A Record of Darker Races, X (May 1915), 19, 41, and (June 1915), 88. Brodie, Fawn M. Thaddeus Stevens, Scourge of the South (New York, 1959) p. 86-93. Corrects the historical record as to Dixon's false representation of Stevens in this film with regard to his racial views and relations with his housekeeper. Chalmers, David M. Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan (New York: 1965) p. 30 *Cook, Raymond Allen. Fire from the Flint: The Amazing Careers of Thomas Dixon (Winston-Salem, N.C., 1968). Franklin, John Hope, "Propaganda as History" pp. 10–23 in Race and History: Selected Essays 1938-1988 (Louisiana State University Press: 1989); first published in The Massachusetts Review 1979. Describes the history of the novel, The Clan and this film. Franklin, John Hope, Reconstruction After the Civil War, (Chicago, 1961) p. 5-7 Korngold, Ralph, Thaddeus Stevens. A Being Darkly Wise and Rudely Great (New York: 1955) pp. 72–76. corrects Dixon's false characterization of Stevens' racial views and of his dealings with his housekeeper. Leab, Daniel J., From Sambo to Superspade, (Boston, 1975) p. 23-39New York Times, roundup of reviews of this film, March 7, 1915. The New Republica, II (March 20, 1915), 185 Simkins, Francis B., "New Viewpoints of Southern Reconstruction," Journal of Southern History, V (February, 1939), pp. 49–61. Stokes, Melvyn, D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation: A History of "The Most Controversial Motion Picture of All Time" (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). The latest study of the film's making and subsequent career. Williamson, Joel, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction'' (Chapel Hill, 1965). This book corrects Dixon's false reporting of Reconstruction, as shown in his novel, his play and this film. External links Watch complete film on Internet Archive Detailed account of the movie "Art (and History) by Lightning Flash": The Birth of a Nation and Black Protest The Birth of a Nation on Roger Ebert's list of great movies The Birth of a Nation on filmsite.org, a web site offering comprehensive summaries of classic films The Myth of a Nation by Jonathan Lapper, challenging some of the "firsts" listed by film historians Souvenir Guide for The Birth of a Nation, hosted by the Portal to Texas History Literature | The_Birth_of_a_Nation |@lemmatized birth:14 nation:18 also:7 know:1 clansman:6 silent:3 film:63 direct:3 w:6 griffith:13 set:1 american:12 civil:9 war:15 base:3 thomas:6 dixon:15 novel:6 play:5 note:2 innovative:1 technical:2 narrative:1 achievement:2 status:1 first:3 hollywood:2 blockbuster:1 provoke:1 great:6 controversy:2 treatment:1 white:16 supremacy:1 positive:3 portrayal:1 ku:7 klux:7 klan:13 mj:1 movie:5 review:4 dan:1 devore:1 plot:2 originally:1 present:4 two:6 part:3 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2,969 | Metasyntactic_variable | The phrase metasyntactic variable () is a neologism that is used in some programmer communities to describe a placeholder name or an alias term commonly used to denote the subject matter under discussion or an arbitrary member of a class of things under discussion. The term originates from computer programming and other technical contexts, and is commonly used in examples by hackers and programmers. The use of a metasyntactic variable is helpful in freeing a programmer from creating a logically named variable, although the invented term may also become sufficiently popular and enter the language as a neologism. For example, in Terry Pratchett's book Men at Arms, the dog Gaspode says, "Clothing has never been what you might call a thingy of dog wossname.", and then adds, "Two metasyntactic variables there. Sorry.". The word foo is the principal example. RFC 3092 (rfc3092) - Etymology of "Foo" Any word can be used as a metasyntactic variable, but "nonsense words" are commonly used. The same concept is employed in other fields where it is expressed by terms such as schematic variable (see logical form). Explanation of the concept Dissecting the phrase 'Meta' means providing information about, or transcending. 'Syntax' means the grammatical arrangement of words or the grammatical rules of a programming language. 'Variable' means something that can assume a value, or something likely to vary. So we have a word that transcends grammar and can assume a value or one that is more comprehensive than grammatical arrangement and is likely to vary. Mathematical analogy A metasyntactic variable is a word that is a variable for other words, just as in algebra letters are used as variables for numbers. Words commonly used as metasyntactic variables A "standard list of metasyntactic variables used in syntax examples" is: foo, bar, baz, qux, quux, corge, grault, garble, warg, fred, plugh, xyzzy, thud. The word foo occurs in over 330 RFCs and bar occurs in over 290. http://www.rfc-editor.org/download.html Foo is used in one section of a tutorial on the C programming language by Brian W. Kernighan. Here, he illustrates the use of the extern declaration: Brian W. Kernighan: Programming in C: A Tutorial Second, at the beginning of any file that contains functions needing a variable whose definition is in some other file, put in an extern declaration, outside of any function: extern int foo; f1( ) { ... } etc. In Python Spam, ham, and eggs are the principal metasyntactic variables used in the Python programming language. Python Tutorial This is a reference to the famous comedy sketch, Spam, by Monty Python, the namesake of the language. General Python FAQ In this extract from the Python tutorial showing the use of comments, 3. An Informal Introduction to Python SPAM and STRING are metasyntactic variables. Some examples: # this is the first comment SPAM = 1 # and this is the second comment # ... and now a third! STRING = "# This is not a comment." Wibble, wobble, wubble and flob are often used in the UK wibble. (n.d.). Jargon File 4.2.0. Retrieved March 23, 2009, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/wibble . See also Placeholder name Free variables and bound variables gadget widget Hello World Lorem Ipsum Fnord Alice and Bob John Doe References External links Definition of metasyntactic variable, with examples. Examples of metasyntactic variables used in Commonwealth Hackish, such as wombat. Variable "foo" and Other Programming Oddities | Metasyntactic_variable |@lemmatized phrase:2 metasyntactic:11 variable:20 neologism:2 use:15 programmer:3 community:1 describe:1 placeholder:2 name:3 alias:1 term:4 commonly:4 denote:1 subject:1 matter:1 discussion:2 arbitrary:1 member:1 class:1 thing:1 originate:1 computer:1 programming:5 technical:1 context:1 example:7 hacker:1 helpful:1 free:2 create:1 logically:1 although:1 invented:1 may:1 also:2 become:1 sufficiently:1 popular:1 enter:1 language:5 terry:1 pratchett:1 book:1 men:1 arm:1 dog:2 gaspode:1 say:1 clothing:1 never:1 might:1 call:1 thingy:1 wossname:1 add:1 two:1 sorry:1 word:9 foo:7 principal:2 rfc:2 etymology:1 nonsense:1 concept:2 employ:1 field:1 express:1 schematic:1 see:2 logical:1 form:1 explanation:1 dissect:1 meta:1 mean:3 provide:1 information:1 transcend:2 syntax:2 grammatical:3 arrangement:2 rule:1 something:2 assume:2 value:2 likely:2 vary:2 grammar:1 one:2 comprehensive:1 mathematical:1 analogy:1 algebra:1 letter:1 number:1 standard:1 list:1 bar:2 baz:1 qux:1 quux:1 corge:1 grault:1 garble:1 warg:1 fred:1 plugh:1 xyzzy:1 thud:1 occur:1 rfcs:1 occurs:1 http:2 www:1 editor:1 org:1 download:1 html:1 section:1 tutorial:4 c:2 program:1 brian:2 w:2 kernighan:2 illustrate:1 extern:3 declaration:2 second:2 beginning:1 file:3 contain:1 function:2 need:1 whose:1 definition:2 put:1 outside:1 int:1 etc:1 python:7 spam:4 ham:1 egg:1 reference:3 famous:1 comedy:1 sketch:1 monty:1 namesake:1 general:1 faq:1 extract:1 show:1 comment:4 informal:1 introduction:1 string:2 first:1 third:1 wibble:3 wobble:1 wubble:1 flob:1 often:1 uk:1 n:1 jargon:1 retrieve:1 march:1 dictionary:2 com:2 website:1 browse:1 bound:1 gadget:1 widget:1 hello:1 world:1 lorem:1 ipsum:1 fnord:1 alice:1 bob:1 john:1 doe:1 external:1 link:1 commonwealth:1 hackish:1 wombat:1 oddity:1 |@bigram metasyntactic_variable:11 terry_pratchett:1 foo_bar:1 bar_baz:1 http_www:1 monty_python:1 external_link:1 |
2,970 | Federation_of_Expellees | The Federation of Expellees or Bund der Vertriebenen (BdV) is a non-profit organization formed to represent the interests of Germans who either fled their homes in parts of Central and Eastern Europe, or were expelled following World War II. Historical background It is estimated that in the aftermath of World War II between 13 and 16 million ethnic Germans were expelled from the territories of present-day Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia (mostly from the Vojvodina region), the Kaliningrad Oblast (formerly Königsberg) area of Russia, Lithuania, Romania and other East European countries. Many refugee camps had been set up in Germany after 1945 and this legal status is paralleled only by the situation of Palestinian refugees in UNRWA camps. The first president of the federation was a former Nazi judge and activist Hans Krüger. Today, the position is held by a CDU politician Erika Steinbach. The federation claims to represent the diaspora of ethnic Germans and their families (today numbering approximately 15 million ). German laws concerning the expellees Between 1953 and 1991 the West German government passed several laws dealing with German expellees. The most notable of these laws is the "Law of Return" which granted West German citizenship to any ethnic German. Several additions were later made to these laws. A central issue addressed by the Law of Return is the inheritability of refugee status. According to Bundesvertriebenengesetz Par. 7/2, "the spouse and the descendants" of an expellee are to be treated as if they were expellees themselves, regardless whether they have been personally displaced. The Federation of Expellees has steadily lobbied to preserve the inheritability clause, as a change might deeply affect its ability to recruit new members from the post-WWII generations. Recent developments Under previous governments, especially those led by the CDU, the West German government had shown more rhetorical support for German refugees and expellees. Social Democratic governments have traditionally been less supportive — and it was under Willy Brandt that West Germany recognized the Oder-Neisse line as part of his Ostpolitik. In 1989-1990 the German government realized they had an opportunity to remove the division between the Federal Republic of Germany and Soviet created German Democratic Republic. However, it was believed that if this was to be realized it had to be done quickly. One of the potential complications were the claims to historical eastern Germany, since unless these were renounced, some foreign governments might not agree to German reunification. The Federal German government thus agreed to the 1990 Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany (Two Plus Four Agreement), which officially reestablished both German states' sovereignty. A condition of this agreement was that Germany accept the post-World War II frontiers created by the victors. Upon reunification in 1990, the "basic law", was amended to state that Germany's territory had reached its full extent. Article 146 was amended so that Article 23 of the current constitution could be used for reunification. Once the five "reestablished federal states" in the east had been united with the west, the Basic Law was amended again to show that there were no other parts of Germany, which existed outside of the unified territory, that had not acceded. The federation today Support for the aims of the Federation of Expellees within the German electorate remains low, and when in charge of government, both CDU and SPD have tended to favor improved relations with Central and Eastern Europe, even when this conflicts with the interests of the displaced people. The issue of the eastern border and the return of the Heimatvertriebene to their ancestral homes are matters which the current German government, German constitutional arrangements and German treaty obligations have virtually closed. The refugees' claims were unanimously rejected by the affected countries and became a source of mistrust between Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic. These governments argue that the expulsion of Germans and related border changes were not enacted by the Polish or Czech governments, but rather were ordered by the Potsdam Conference. Furthermore, the nationalization of private property by Poland's former communist government did not apply only to Germans but was enforced on all people, regardless of ethnic background. The situation is further complicated by the fact that parts of the current Polish population in historical eastern Germany are themselves expellees (or descendants of expellees) who were expelled from Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union and were forced to leave their homes and property behind as well. The fact that some Germans settled in Poland after 1939 and the treatment under German law of these ex-colonists as expellees are issues which add to the controversy. However, the majority of expelled Germans had lived in Eastern Europe for many centuries, and the majority of German colonists in Nazi-occupied Poland were Baltic and other East European Germans resettled during the Nazi-Soviet population transfers. In 2000 the Federation of Expellees also initiated the formation of the Center Against Expulsions (). Chairwoman of this Center is Erika Steinbach, who headed it together with former SPD politician Prof. Dr. Peter Glotz (†2005). In February 2004, the federation sued the German journalist Gabriele Lesser for alleged defamations. The article in question was published September 19, 2003, in the daily Kieler Nachrichten. The district court of Hamburg ruled against the repetition of a certain wording by Lesser but in favour of another, which resulted in Lesser welcoming the verdict. In February 2009, the Polish paper Polska wrote that over one third of the Federation top officials were former Nazi activists, and based this on an article published by the German magazine Der Spiegel in 2006. The German paper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung wrote that Der Spiegel said this not in respect to the Federation of Expellees, but in respect to a predecessor organization that was dissolved in 1957. Stefan Dietrich, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Erika Steinbach, Polnisches Feindbild, 16 March 2009 "Dafür fehlen uns die Mittel", Spiegel, 14.08.2006 Recently Erika Steinbach, the chair of the Federation of Expellees has rejected any compensation claims. The vice president of the Federation Rudi Pawelka is however a chairman of the supervisory board of the Prussian Trust. Criticism The large Polish daily newspaper Rzeczpospolita reported that during BdV meetings in 2003, publications using hate-language to describe Poles butchering Germans were available for sale, as were recordings of Waffen SS marches on compact disks, including those glorifying the Invasion of Poland. Also, far right groups openly distributed their materials at BdV meetings. While the BdV officially denied responsibility for this, they seem to tolerate the situation. Organization The expellees are organized in 21 regional associations (Landsmannschaften) according to the areas of origin of its members, 16 state organizations (Landesverbände) according to their current residence, and 5 associate member organizations. It is the single representative federation for the approximately 15 million Germans who after fleeing, being expelled, evacuated or emigrating, found refuge in the Federal Republic of Germany. The organizations have approximately 2 million members, and are a political force of some influence in Germany. The current president of the federation is the German politician Erika Steinbach (CDU), who also is a member of the German Parliament. The federation helps members to integrate into German society. Many of the members assist the societies of their place of birth. Charter of the German Expellees The Charter of the German Expellees () of August 5, 1950 announced their belief in requiring that "the right to the homeland is recognized and carried out as one of the fundamental rights of mankind given by God", while renouncing revenge and retaliation in the face of the "unending suffering" (unendliche Leid) of the previous decade, and supporting the unified effort to rebuild Germany and Europe. Presidents Hans Krüger (1959–1963) Wenzel Jaksch (1964–1966) Reinhold Rehs (1967–1970) Herbert Czaja (1970–1994) Fritz Wittmann (1994–1998) Erika Steinbach (1998—) Vice president (since 1992): Wilhelm von Gottberg Member organizations Regional Landsmannschaft Ostpreußen Landsmannschaft Schlesien Deutsch-Baltische Gesellschaft Landsmannschaft der Banater Schwaben e.V. Landsmannschaft Berlin-Mark Brandenburg Landsmannschaft der Bessarabiendeutschen e.V. Landsmannschaft der Buchenlanddeutschen (Bukowina) e.V. Bund der Danziger e.V. Landsmannschaft der Dobrudscha- und Bulgariendeutschen Landsmannschaft der Donauschwaben, Bundesverband e.V. Karpatendeutsche Landsmannschaft Slowakei e.V. Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Litauen e.V. Landsmannschaft der Oberschlesier e.V. - Bundesverband - Pommersche Landsmannschaft - Zentralverband - e.V. Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Russland e.V. Landsmannschaft der Sathmarer Schwaben in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland e.V. Landsmannschaft der Siebenbürger Sachsen in Deutschland e.V. Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft Bundesverband e.V. Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Ungarn Landsmannschaft Weichsel-Warthe Bundesverband e.V. Landsmannschaft Westpreußen e.V. State Landesverband Baden-Württemberg Landesverband Bayern Landesverband Berlin Landesverband Brandenburg Landesverband Bremen Landesverband Hamburg Landesverband Hessen Landesverband Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Landesverband Niedersachsen Landesverband Nordrhein-Westfalen Landesverband Rheinland-Pfalz Landesverband Saar Landesverband Sachsen / Schlesische Lausitz Landesverband Sachsen-Anhalt Landesverband Schleswig-Holstein Landesverband Thüringen See also All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights Organised persecution of ethnic Germans Pursuit of Nazi collaborators Lebensraum Drang nach Osten Further reading Casualty of War: A Childhood Remembered (Eastern European Studies, 18) Luisa Lang Owen and Charles M. Barber, Texas A&M University Press, January, 2003, hardcover, 288 pages, ISBN 1-58544-212-7 References External links Bund der Vertriebenen - Official homepage For latest developments: http://cdu.de/politik-a-z/vertriebenen/inhalt.htm Jose Ayala Lasso Speech to the German expellees, Day of the Homeland, Berlin 6 August 2005 Lasso was the first United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (1994-1997) | Federation_of_Expellees |@lemmatized federation:15 expellees:18 bund:3 der:17 vertriebenen:3 bdv:4 non:1 profit:1 organization:7 form:1 represent:2 interest:2 german:39 either:1 flee:2 home:3 part:4 central:3 eastern:7 europe:4 expel:4 following:1 world:3 war:4 ii:3 historical:3 background:2 estimate:1 aftermath:1 million:4 ethnic:5 territory:3 present:1 day:2 poland:6 czech:3 republic:5 slovakia:1 slovenia:1 hungary:1 croatia:1 serbia:1 mostly:1 vojvodina:1 region:1 kaliningrad:1 oblast:1 formerly:1 königsberg:1 area:3 russia:1 lithuania:1 romania:1 east:3 european:3 country:2 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2,971 | Foreign_relations_of_Poland | The Republic of Poland is a Central European country and member of the European Union and NATO, among others. In recent years, Poland has extended its responsibilities and position in European and Western affairs, supporting and establishing friendly foreign relations with both the West and with numerous European countries. Integration with the West and Europe Recently, Poland has forged ahead on its economic reintegration with the Western world. Poland also has been an active nation in advocating European integration. In 1994, Poland became an associate member of the European Union (EU) and its defensive arm, the Western European Union (WEU). In 1996, Poland achieved full OECD membership and submitted preliminary documentation for full EU membership. In 1997, Poland was invited in the first wave of NATO policy enlargement at the July 1997 NATO Summit in Madrid, Spain. In March 1999, Poland became a full member of NATO. Poland promoted its NATO candidacy through energetic participation in the Partnership for Peace (PfP) program and through intensified individual dialogue with NATO. Poland formally joined the European Union in May 2004, along with the other members of the Visegrád group. Poland is a part of the multinational force in Iraq. Establishing relationships with European countries Changes since 1989 have redrawn the map of central Europe, and Poland has had to forge relationships with seven new neighbors. Poland has actively pursued good relations with all its neighboring countries, signing friendship treaties replacing links severed by the collapse of the Warsaw Pact. The Poles have forged special relationships with Lithuania and particularly Ukraine in an effort to firmly anchor these states to the West. Due to its tragic historical experience with a repeating pattern of disloyal allies and simultaneous aggression of powerful neighbors (e.g., Partitions of Poland, Second World War), Polish foreign policy pursues close cooperation with a strong partner, one apt enough to give strong military support in times of critical situations. This creates the background of Poland's tight relations with the USA and their over-sensitivity in relations towards its main partner within the European Union, Germany. At the same time, the equally burdened attitude towards Russia results in very tense diplomatic relations, which have been constantly worsening since Vladimir Putin's rise to power. This is an important factor for the special attention Poland pays to the political emancipation of all its Eastern neighbors: Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine (as well as certain of those countries do to Poland itself). Relations involving the 2008 Georgian Crisis In recent years, relations with Russia have worsened considerably. Poland responded with strong disapproval towards the 2008 Georgian Crisis, in which a military invasion of Georgia was led by Russia. Georgia is a former USSR republic, Poland was a member of the Eastern Bloc, and Poland stated its support for Georgia and condemned Russia's actions. The Polish believed the invasion was carried out by the Russians in an attempt to reestablish and reassert its dominance over its former republics. A tighter security alliance with the United States was announced in the middle of the Georgian crisis as an agreement between the two countries was reached to allow the US to install and operate an interceptor missile defense shield, a move which Russia sees explicitly targeting it and which it stated made Poland "a legitimate military target." A high-ranking Russian military official said, "Poland in deploying [the US system] opens itself to a nuclear strike." Relations with Belarus and Ukraine The authoritarian and anti-Western political course taken by the country of neighboring Belarus presents a huge problem for Polish foreign policy. The Orange Revolution in Ukraine evoked a wide and authentic support within the Polish society. Relations with Denmark Denmark and Poland have still not agreed on the formal establishment of the maritime border between the two countries. Denmark supports a border half-way between the two countries, but Poland wants to be awarded an even greater share of the Baltic Sea, since Poland has a much longer coastline than the Danish island of Bornholm. The issue has gained significance alongside Russia's plans to build the controversial Nord Stream natural gas pipeline through the disputed area. See also Diplomatic missions of Poland List of diplomatic missions in Poland Polish involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq Canadian-Polish relations Israel–Poland relations References Further reading | Foreign_relations_of_Poland |@lemmatized republic:3 poland:28 central:2 european:10 country:9 member:5 union:5 nato:6 among:1 others:1 recent:2 year:2 extend:1 responsibility:1 position:1 western:4 affair:1 support:5 establish:2 friendly:1 foreign:3 relation:11 west:3 numerous:1 integration:2 europe:2 recently:1 forge:3 ahead:1 economic:1 reintegration:1 world:2 also:2 active:1 nation:1 advocate:1 become:2 associate:1 eu:2 defensive:1 arm:1 weu:1 achieve:1 full:3 oecd:1 membership:2 submit:1 preliminary:1 documentation:1 invite:1 first:1 wave:1 policy:3 enlargement:1 july:1 summit:1 madrid:1 spain:1 march:1 promote:1 candidacy:1 energetic:1 participation:1 partnership:1 peace:1 pfp:1 program:1 intensify:1 individual:1 dialogue:1 formally:1 join:1 may:1 along:1 visegrád:1 group:1 part:1 multinational:1 force:1 iraq:2 relationship:3 change:1 since:3 redrawn:1 map:1 seven:1 new:1 neighbor:4 actively:1 pursue:1 good:1 neighboring:1 sign:1 friendship:1 treaty:1 replace:1 link:1 sever:1 collapse:1 warsaw:1 pact:1 pole:1 special:2 lithuania:2 particularly:1 ukraine:4 effort:1 firmly:1 anchor:1 state:4 due:1 tragic:1 historical:1 experience:1 repeat:1 pattern:1 disloyal:1 ally:1 simultaneous:1 aggression:1 powerful:1 e:1 g:1 partition:1 second:1 war:1 polish:6 pursues:1 close:1 cooperation:1 strong:3 partner:2 one:1 apt:1 enough:1 give:1 military:4 time:2 critical:1 situation:1 create:1 background:1 tight:2 usa:1 sensitivity:1 towards:3 main:1 within:2 germany:1 equally:1 burdened:1 attitude:1 russia:6 result:1 tense:1 diplomatic:3 constantly:1 worsen:2 vladimir:1 putin:1 rise:1 power:1 important:1 factor:1 attention:1 pay:1 political:2 emancipation:1 eastern:2 belarus:3 well:1 certain:1 involve:1 georgian:3 crisis:3 considerably:1 respond:1 disapproval:1 invasion:3 georgia:3 lead:1 former:2 ussr:1 bloc:1 condemn:1 action:1 believe:1 carry:1 russian:2 attempt:1 reestablish:1 reassert:1 dominance:1 security:1 alliance:1 united:1 announce:1 middle:1 agreement:1 two:3 reach:1 allow:1 u:2 install:1 operate:1 interceptor:1 missile:1 defense:1 shield:1 move:1 see:2 explicitly:1 target:2 make:1 legitimate:1 high:1 rank:1 official:1 say:1 deploy:1 system:1 open:1 nuclear:1 strike:1 authoritarian:1 anti:1 course:1 take:1 present:1 huge:1 problem:1 orange:1 revolution:1 evoke:1 wide:1 authentic:1 society:1 denmark:3 still:1 agree:1 formal:1 establishment:1 maritime:1 border:2 half:1 way:1 want:1 award:1 even:1 great:1 share:1 baltic:1 sea:1 much:1 long:1 coastline:1 danish:1 island:1 bornholm:1 issue:1 gain:1 significance:1 alongside:1 plan:1 build:1 controversial:1 nord:1 stream:1 natural:1 gas:1 pipeline:1 disputed:1 area:1 mission:2 list:1 involvement:1 canadian:1 israel:1 reference:1 reading:1 |@bigram warsaw_pact:1 diplomatic_relation:1 vladimir_putin:1 belarus_ukraine:2 eastern_bloc:1 interceptor_missile:1 baltic_sea:1 diplomatic_mission:2 |
2,972 | Northern_Sotho_language | Northern Sotho (Sesotho sa Leboa is the autoglottonym or name of the language used by its native speakers as defined by the United Nations, Northern Sotho is the heteroglottonym) is one of the official languages of South Africa, and is spoken by nearly five million—4,208,980 people (2001 Census Data)—in the South African provinces of Gauteng, Limpopo Province and Mpumalanga. Classification Northern Sotho is a language of the Bantu family within the Niger-Congo language phylum. Northern Sotho is specifically found within the Sotho languages branch of Zone S (S.30). Thus, this language is most closely related to Tswana (Setswana) and Sotho (Sesotho/Southern Sotho). Nomenclature Northern Sotho is often, but erroneously, referred to as Sepedi, since for some years after the new South African constitution appeared, Pedi (or Sepedi) was the name used for Northern Sotho. There is thus some confusion as to which name to use. The name "Pedi" is not, as some believe, synonymous with "Northern Sotho"; the official Northern Sotho language is intended to encompass approximately 30 closely related dialects, of which Pedi is but one. The name "Pedi" thus refers specifically to the language of the Pedi people, while Northern Sotho refers to the official language, which is a much broader category than merely Pedi. (Thus if speaking to a Pedi-speaker, it is not incorrect to say "Pedi", but if speaking about the official language, it is "Northern Sotho" or "Sesotho sa Leboa"). "Pedi" also refers to a ruling group which established its dominance over other groups in the eighteenth century, and to the culture and lifestyle of that group and of those over whom it ruled (see below). Historically, the standard Northern Sotho language has been largely based on Pedi, as the missionaries who first developed the orthography had contact mainly with the Pedi people, and this is probably where the confusion originated. Further confusion arose when the South African constitution originally incorrectly cited "(Se)pedi" as being the official language. The Pan South African Language Board and the Northern Sotho National Lexicography Unit specifically endorse the names "Northern Sotho" or "Sesotho sa Leboa". Non-Pedi dialects of Northern Sotho Very little published information is available on non-Pedi dialects of the Northern Sotho language. These include Selobedu, Setlokwa, Sebirwa, Pai and Sepulana. The morphological and perhaps lexical variation across dialects of Northern Sotho has led some to claim that 'Northern Sotho' is a typological holding category for simply all the Sotho-ish languages and dialects of northeastern South Africa. Whether there is a coherent linguistic or ethnic identity among speakers of this range of languages is a matter for further research. External links Northern Sotho main page in the incubator Online Northern Sotho - English dictionary Online Northern Sotho explanatory dictionary Ethnologue report for Northern Sotho Pan South African Language Board Software Spell checker for OpenOffice.org and Mozilla, OpenOffice.org, Mozilla Firefox web-browser, and Mozilla Thunderbird email program in Northern Sotho Translate.org.za Project to translate Free and Open Source Software into all the official languages of South Africa including Northern Sotho Keyboard with extra Northern Sotho characters | Northern_Sotho_language |@lemmatized northern:24 sotho:28 sesotho:4 sa:3 leboa:3 autoglottonym:1 name:6 language:17 use:3 native:1 speaker:3 define:1 united:1 nation:1 heteroglottonym:1 one:2 official:6 south:8 africa:3 speak:1 nearly:1 five:1 million:1 people:3 census:1 data:1 african:5 province:2 gauteng:1 limpopo:1 mpumalanga:1 classification:1 bantu:1 family:1 within:2 niger:1 congo:1 phylum:1 specifically:3 find:1 languages:1 branch:1 zone:1 thus:4 closely:2 relate:1 tswana:1 setswana:1 southern:1 nomenclature:1 often:1 erroneously:1 refer:3 sepedi:2 since:1 year:1 new:1 constitution:2 appear:1 pedi:14 confusion:3 believe:1 synonymous:1 intend:1 encompass:1 approximately:1 related:1 dialect:5 refers:1 much:1 broad:1 category:2 merely:1 speaking:2 incorrect:1 say:1 also:1 ruling:1 group:3 establish:1 dominance:1 eighteenth:1 century:1 culture:1 lifestyle:1 rule:1 see:1 historically:1 standard:1 largely:1 base:1 missionary:1 first:1 develop:1 orthography:1 contact:1 mainly:1 probably:1 originate:1 arise:1 originally:1 incorrectly:1 cite:1 se:1 pan:2 board:2 national:1 lexicography:1 unit:1 endorse:1 non:2 little:1 publish:1 information:1 available:1 include:2 selobedu:1 setlokwa:1 sebirwa:1 pai:1 sepulana:1 morphological:1 perhaps:1 lexical:1 variation:1 across:1 lead:1 claim:1 typological:1 hold:1 simply:1 ish:1 northeastern:1 whether:1 coherent:1 linguistic:1 ethnic:1 identity:1 among:1 range:1 matter:1 research:1 external:1 link:1 main:1 page:1 incubator:1 online:2 english:1 dictionary:2 explanatory:1 ethnologue:1 report:1 software:2 spell:1 checker:1 openoffice:2 org:3 mozilla:3 firefox:1 web:1 browser:1 thunderbird:1 email:1 program:1 translate:2 za:1 project:1 free:1 open:1 source:1 keyboard:1 extra:1 character:1 |@bigram northern_sotho:24 sotho_sesotho:4 niger_congo:1 closely_relate:1 tswana_setswana:1 closely_related:1 external_link:1 spell_checker:1 openoffice_org:2 mozilla_firefox:1 web_browser:1 browser_mozilla:1 mozilla_thunderbird:1 |
2,973 | Line_Islands | Line Islands The Line Islands, or Equatorial Islands, are a group of eleven atolls and low coral islands in the central Pacific Ocean south of the Hawaiian Islands, eight of which belong to Kiribati, while three are United States territories grouped with the United States Minor Outlying Islands. Those that are part of the Republic of Kiribati are in the world's furthest forward time zone, UTC+14. The time of day is the same as in Hawaii, but the date is one day ahead. The time is 25 hours ahead of some other islands in Oceania. All the islands in this group are or were claimed by the United States except Filippo Reef. The group is geographically divided in three subgroups, Northern, Central, and Southern Line Islands. The Central Line Islands are sometimes grouped with the Southern Line Islands. The table is listing the islands from north to south. Atoll/Island/Reef Island Areakm² Lagoonkm² Coordinates StatusNorthern Line Islands (Fanning's Group) Kingman Reef 0.03 60 U.S. unincorporated territory Palmyra Atoll 6.56 15 U.S. incorporated territory Teraina (Washington Island) 14.2 2* Kiribati Island Council Tabuaeran (Fanning Island) 33.7 110 Kiribati Island Council Kiritimati (Christmas Island) c.322 c.320 Kiribati Island CouncilCentral Line Islands Jarvis Island 4.45 - U.S. unincorporated territory Malden Island 39.3 13* part of Kiribati Filippo Reef - 1.5 outside EEZ Starbuck Island 21 25 part of KiribatiSouthern Line Islands Caroline Island 3.76 2.5 part of Kiribati Vostok Island 0.24 - part of Kiribati Flint Island 3 - part of Kiribati '''Line Islands 514,74 538 * The lagoon areas marked with an asterisk are contained within the island areas of the previous column because they are, unlike in the case of a typical atoll, inland waters completely sealed off from the sea. Only three islands are inhabited, with a total population of 8,809 (census of 2005), of which 5,115 are on Kiritimati, 2,539 on Tabuaeran, and 1,155 on Teraina. The total population of these three atolls in 1900 was about 300. Kiritimati is the largest atoll in the world in terms of land area. The islands were annexed by Britain in 1888 with a view to laying the Pacific cable with Tabuaeran (then Fanning Island) as a relay station. That cable functioned between 1902 and 1963 except for a short period in 1914. Copra and "Petfish" are the main export products (with seaweed). | Line_Islands |@lemmatized line:9 islands:3 equatorial:1 island:31 group:6 eleven:1 atoll:6 low:1 coral:1 central:3 pacific:2 ocean:1 south:2 hawaiian:1 eight:1 belong:1 kiribati:9 three:4 united:3 state:3 territory:4 minor:1 outlying:1 part:6 republic:1 world:2 furthest:1 forward:1 time:3 zone:1 utc:1 day:2 hawaii:1 date:1 one:1 ahead:2 hour:1 oceania:1 claim:1 except:2 filippo:2 reef:4 geographically:1 divide:1 subgroup:1 northern:1 southern:2 sometimes:1 table:1 list:1 north:1 coordinate:1 statusnorthern:1 fan:3 kingman:1 u:3 unincorporated:2 palmyra:1 incorporated:1 teraina:2 washington:1 council:2 tabuaeran:3 kiritimati:3 christmas:1 c:2 councilcentral:1 jarvis:1 malden:1 outside:1 eez:1 starbuck:1 kiribatisouthern:1 caroline:1 vostok:1 flint:1 lagoon:1 area:3 mark:1 asterisk:1 contain:1 within:1 previous:1 column:1 unlike:1 case:1 typical:1 inland:1 water:1 completely:1 seal:1 sea:1 inhabit:1 total:2 population:2 census:1 large:1 term:1 land:1 annex:1 britain:1 view:1 lay:1 cable:2 relay:1 station:1 function:1 short:1 period:1 copra:1 petfish:1 main:1 export:1 product:1 seaweed:1 |@bigram pacific_ocean:1 minor_outlying:1 kingman_reef:1 unincorporated_territory:2 palmyra_atoll:1 kiritimati_christmas:1 jarvis_island:1 |
2,974 | David | David ( "beloved", Dāwud) was the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel according to the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. He is depicted as a righteous king, although not without fault, as well as an acclaimed warrior, musician and poet (he is traditionally credited with the authorship of many of the Psalms). The narrative depicts him throughout his life as conflicted between his ruthless ambition and lusts, and his desire to serve God. The biblical chronology sets his life c.1037 - 970 BC, his reign over Judah c.1007 - 1000 BC, and his reign over the united Kingdom of Israel c.1000 - 970 BC. The Book of Samuel is the primary source of information on his life and reign; there is little archaeological evidence to confirm the Bible's picture of David (although the Tel Dan stele suggests that a king named David founded a Judaean royal dynasty by the 9th-century BC), but his story has been of immense importance to subsequent Jewish and Christian culture. Biblical narrative David is chosen God withdraws his favour from Saul, king of Israel, and sends the prophet Samuel to seek a new king for his people from the sons of Jesse of Bethlehem. Seven of Jesse's sons pass before Samuel, but Samuel says "The LORD has not chosen these." He then asks "Are these all the sons you have?" and Jesse answers, "There is still the youngest but he is tending the sheep." David is brought to Samuel, and "the LORD said, "Rise and anoint him; he is the one."" http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=9&chapter=16&version=31 David and Saul Because of Saul's earlier disobedience, God allows an injurious spirit to torment Israel's first King. His attendants suggest he send for David, the son of Jesse, "a brave man and a warrior. He speaks well and is a fine-looking man. And Yahweh is with him." So Saul sends for David, and makes him one of his armor-bearers, and David remains in the service of Saul, and "whenever the spirit from God came upon Saul, David would take his harp and play. Then relief would come to Saul; he would feel better, and the evil spirit would leave him." David and Goliath David hoists the severed head of Goliath by Gustave Dore The Israelites are facing the Philistines in the Valley of Elah. David is bringing food to his older brothers who are with King Saul, and hears Goliath challenging the Israelites to send their own champion to decide the outcome in single combat. He insists that he can defeat Goliath (whose height, according to the Bible, was six cubits and a span http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1SAM%2017:1-11;&version=47; and according to Maimonides, was 6 cubits, or around 9 feet, tall), and Saul sends for him and reluctantly allows him to make the attempt. David is victorious, felling Goliath with a stone from his sling, at which the Philistines flee in terror and the Israelites win a great victory. David cuts off the giant's head and brings it to Saul, who asks who the young hero is; David replies, "I am the son of your servant Jesse of Bethlehem." 1 Samuel 17:58 The enmity of Saul Saul makes David a commander over his armies and offers him his daughter Michal in marriage. () David is successful in many battles, and the women say, "Saul has slain his thousands, and David his tens of thousands." His popularity awakened Saul's fears - "What more can he have but the kingdom?" - and by various stratagems the jealous king seeks David's death. But the plots all prove futile, and only endear David the more to the people, and especially to Saul's son Jonathan, one of those who love David. Warned by Jonathan of Saul's intention to kill him, David flees into the wilderness. 1 Samuel 18 and subsequent chapters of 1 Samuel. (The relationship between David and Jonathan, Saul's rightful heir, is a central element in the story of David's rise. Jonathan recognizes David as the rightful king, and 1 Samuel 18 - "Jonathan made a covenant with David, because he loved him as his own soul" - implies a close personal relationship between the two. http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Samuel%2018%20;&version=47; ) David in the wilderness In the wilderness David gathers a band of followers and becomes the champion of the oppressed while evading the pursuit of Saul. He accepts Ziklag as a chief from the Philistine king Achish of Gath, but continues secretly to champion the Israelites. Achish marches against Saul, but David is excused from the war on the accusation of the Philistine nobles that his loyalty to their cause cannot be trusted! David made king Saul and Jonathan are killed in battle with the Philistines. David mourns their death, then goes up to Hebron, where he is anointed king over Judah; in the north, Saul's son Ish-Bosheth is king over the tribes of Israel. 2 Samuel 2:1-10 War ensues between Ish-Bosheth and David, until Ish-Bosheth is assassinated. The assassins bring forward the head of Ish-Bosheth to David hoping for reward, but David executes them for their crime against the Lord's anointed. 2 Samuel 4 Yet with the death of the son of Saul, the elders of Israel come to Hebron, and David, 30 years old, is anointed King over Israel and Judah. David's reign David conquers the Jebusite fortress of Jerusalem and makes it his capital, "and Hiram king of Tyre sent messengers to David, and cedar trees, also carpenters and masons who built David a house." David brings the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem, intending to build a temple. 2 Samuel 6 God, speaking to the prophet Nathan, forbids it, saying the temple must wait for a future generation. But God makes a covenant with David, promising that he will establish the house of David eternally: "Your throne shall be established forever." 2 Samuel 7 David goes on to conquer Zobah and Aram (modern Syria), Edom and Moab (roughly modern Jordan), Philistine lands, as well as other territories, in many cases exterminating large portions of their citizenry. 2 Samuel 8 and subsequent chapters. Bathsheba and Uriah the Hittite David and Bathsheba, by Lucas Cranach, 1526. David commits adultery with Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah the Hittite, while her husband is away at war. Bathsheba becomes pregnant and David sends for Uriah, who is with the Israelite army at the siege of Rabbah, so that he may lie with his wife and conceal the identity of the child's father. Uriah refuses to do so while his companions are in the field of battle and David sends him back to Joab, the commander, with a message instructing him to abandon Uriah on the battlefield, "that he may be struck down, and die." David then marries Bathsheba and she bears his child, "but the thing that David had done displeased the Lord." 2 Samuel 11 The prophet Nathan confronts David, saying: "Why have you despised the word of God, to do what is evil in his sight? You have smitten Uriah the Hittite with the sword, and have taken his wife to be your wife." David repents, but God "struck the child ... and it became sick ... [And] on the seventh day the child died." David then leaves his lamentations, dresses himself, and eats. His servants ask why he lamented when the baby was alive, but leaves off when it is dead, and David replies: "While the child was still alive, I fasted and wept; for I said, who knows whether Yahweh will be gracious to me, that the child may live? But now he is dead, why should I fast? Can I bring him back again? I shall go to him, but he will not return to me." 2 Samuel 12 David's son Absalom rebels In 2 Samuel 15 David’s son Absalom rebels. David flees the city taking all but 10 of his wives and concubines. Absalom captures the city, and to show his domination Absalom lay with the 10 remaining concubines in front of all Israel, proving Nathan's words to be true. Absalom and David come to battle in the Wood of Ephraim. Absalom is caught by his hair in the branches of an oak and David’s general Joab kills him as he hangs there. When the news of the victory is brought to David he does not rejoice, but is instead shaken with grief: “O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!” Religions and David David in Judaism Abishag, Bathsheba, Solomon, and Nathan tend to aging David, c. 1435 David's reign represents the formation of a coherent Jewish kingdom centered in Jerusalem and the institution of an eternal royal dynasty; the failure of this "eternal" Davidic dynasty after some four centuries led to the later elaboration of the concept of the Messiah, at first a human descendant of David who would occupy the throne of a restored kingdom, later an apocalyptic figure who would usher in the end of time. In modern Judaism David's descent from a convert (Ruth) is taken as proof of the importance of converts within Judaism. David is also viewed as a tragic figure; his acquisition of Bathsheba, and the loss of his son are viewed as his central tragedies. Many legends have grown around the figure of David. According to one Rabbinic tradition, David was raised as the illegitimate son of his father Jesse and spent his early years herding his father's sheep in the wilderness while his brothers were in school. Only at his anointing by Samuel - when the oil from Samuel's flask turned to diamonds and pearls - was his true identity as Jesse's son revealed. David's adultery with Bathsheba was only an opportunity to demonstrate the power of repentance, and some Talmudic authors stated that it was not adultery at all, quoting a supposed Jewish practice of divorce on the eve of battle. Furthermore, according to David's apologists, the death of Uriah was not to be considered murder, on the basis that Uriah had committed a capital offence by refusing to obey a direct command from the King. Jewish Encyclopedia, "David" According to midrashim Zohar Bereishis 91b , Adam gave up 70 years of his life for the life of David. Also, according to the Talmud Yerushalmi, David was born and died on the Jewish holiday of Shavuot (Feast of Weeks). His piety was said to be so great that his prayers could bring down things from Heaven. David in Christianity David and King Saul, by Rembrandt. David plays the lyre (depicted here as a harp) to the king "tormented by an evil spirit" Originally an earthly king ruling by divine appointment ("the anointed one", as the title Messiah had it), the "son of David" became in the last two pre-Christian centuries the apocalyptic and heavenly who would deliver Israel and usher in a new kingdom. This was the background to the concept of Messiahship in early Christianity, which interpreted the career of Jesus "by means of the titles and functions assigned to David in the mysticism of the Zion cult, in which he served as priest-king and in which he was the mediator between God and man." "David" article from Encyclopedia Britannica Online The early Church believed that "the life of David [foreshadowed] the life of Christ; Bethlehem is the birthplace of both; the shepherd life of David points out Christ, the Good Shepherd; the five stones chosen to slay Goliath are typical of the five wounds; the betrayal by his trusted counsellor, Achitophel, and the passage over the Cedron remind us of Christ's Sacred Passion. Many of the Davidic Psalms, as we learn from the New Testament, are clearly typical of the future Messias." John Corbett (1911) King David The Catholic Encyclopedia (New York: Robert Appleton Company) In the Middle Ages, "Charlemagne thought of himself, and was viewed by his court scholars, as a 'new David'. [This was] not in itself a new idea, but [one whose] content and significance were greatly enlarged by him." Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, The linking of David to earthly kingship was reflected in later Medieval cathedral windows all over Europe through the device of the Tree of Jesse its branches demonstrating how divine kingship descended from Jesse, through his son David, to Jesus. Western Rite churches (Roman Catholic, Lutheran) celebrate his feast day on 29 December, Eastern-rite on 19 December. Saint of the Day for December 29 at St. Patrick Catholic Church, Washington, D.C. The Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Church celebrate the feast day of the "Holy Righteous Prophet and King David" on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers (two Sundays before the Great Feast of the Nativity of the Lord), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. He is also commemorated on the Sunday after the Nativity, together with Joseph and James, the Brother of the Lord. David in Mormonism The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints cites David as one directed by God to practise polygamy, but who sinned in committing adultery with Bathsheba and having Uriah killed. Doctrine and Covenants 132:1, 38-39 (see highlighted portions). This clarifies the LDS doctrine that polygamy is only allowed as directed by the Lord, otherwise it is a grievous sin. Book of Mormon, Jacob 2:28-30. David in Islam Main article Islamic view of David David (Arabic Dawud, Dawood, or Dawoud)) is one of the prophets of Islam, to whom the Zabur (Psalms) were revealed by God. The Islamic tradition includes many elements from the Jewish history of David, such as his battle with the giant Goliath, but rejects the Biblical portrayal of David as an adulterer and murderer - the rejection is based on the concept of ismah, or the infallibility of the prophets (according to Shia Islam). According to some Islamic traditions David was not from Judah but from Levi and Aron. Behar al Anvar V:13 P:440, Tafseer Al-Qomi V:1 P:82, The story of Prophets of Jazayeri Page 331 David appears in the Qur'aan. David also appears in various Hadith (oral traditions derived from those who knew the Prophet Muhammad). In Sahih al-Bukhari and in Abd-Allah ibn Amr he is named as the person whose way of fasting and praying is the most perfect: "God's Apostle (Muhammad) said to me, "The most beloved fasting to God was the fasting of (the Prophet) David who used to fast on alternate days. And the most beloved prayer to God was the prayer of David who used to sleep for (the first) half of the night and pray for 1/3 of it and (again) sleep for a sixth of it." David was also given the most beautiful voice of all mankind, just as Joseph was given the most beautiful appearance. In one hadith, Abu Hurairah narrates that Muhammad said, "The reciting of the Zabur (i.e. Psalms) was made easy for David. He used to order that his riding animals be saddled, and would finish reciting the Zabur before they were saddled." Other hadith relate that David's reading of psalms was so entrancing that fish would leave the sea to listen when he recited, and that it was he who began the building of the Holy Temple, completed by his son Solomon, and which later became the site of Al-Aqsa Mosque. Historicity of David See The Bible and history and dating the Bible for a more complete description of the general issues surrounding the Bible as a historical source. Archaeological evidence The Tel Dan Stele An inscription found at Tel Dan dated c.850-835 BC, as well as the Mesha Stele from Moab have been interpreted as containing the phrase 'House of David' (ביתדוד). Kenneth Kitchen has proposed that an inscription of c. 945 BC by the Egyptian Pharaoh Shoshenq I mentions "the highlands of David," but this has not been widely accepted. See, for example, The Tel Dan Inscription: A Reappraisal and a New Interpretation [Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2003], pp. 193-194. See also King David: A Biography (Steven McKenzie, Associate Professor Rhodes College, Memphis, Tennessee): McKenzie discusses the background to his 2002 book of the same title (ISBN 978-0195132731). On the Shoshenq inscription, see K. A. Kitchen, "A Possible Mention of David in the Late Tenth Century B.C., and Deity *Dod as Dead as the Dodo?" Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 76 (1997): 29–44, especially 39–41. "If the reading of בית דוד [House of David] on the Tel Dan stele is correct, ... then we have solid evidence that a 9th-century BC Aramean king considered the founder of the Judean dynasty to be somebody named דוד" (David). Picking Abraham and Choosing David, Christopher Heard, Associate Professor of Religion at Pepperdine University. See also Israeli journalist Daniel Gavron's King David and Jerusalem - Myth and Reality for a useful overview. The Tel Dan stele is largely accepted as supporting the historical existence of a Judean royal dynasty tracing its descent from an individual named David Dever, William G., "What did the Bible writers know and when did they know it?" William B. Eerdmans Publ. Co., Cambridge UK, 2001 . The interpretation of the archeological evidence on the extent and nature of Judah and Jerusalem in the 10th century BC is a matter of fierce debate. Israel Finkelstein and Ze'ev Herzog of Tel Aviv University do not believe the archeological record supports the view that Israel at that time was a major state, but rather was a small tribal kingdom, although both Finkelstein and Silberman do accept that David and Solomon were real kings of Judah about the 10th century BCE David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible's Sacred Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition pp20 . Finkelstein says in his The Bible Unearthed (2001): "[O]n the basis of archaeological surveys, Judah remained relatively empty of permanent population, quite isolated and very marginal right up to and past the presumed time of David and Solomon, with no major urban centers and with no pronounced hierarchy of hamlets, villages and towns." Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of its Sacred Texts, p.132. See this summary of Finkelstein and Silberman's book. According to Ze'ev Herzog "the united monarchy of David and Solomon, which is described by the Bible as a regional power, was at most a small tribal kingdom". mideastfacts.org - Deconstructing the walls of Jericho On the other is William Dever, in his What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?, holds that the archaeological and anthropological evidence supports the broad biblical account of a Judean state in the 10th century BC. Dever, What Did the Biblical Writers Know...? The Bronze and Iron Age remains of the City of David The original urban core of Jerusalem, identified with the reigns of David and Solomon. were investigated extensively in the 1970s and 1980s under the direction of Yigael Shiloh of Hebrew University, but failed to discover significant evidence of occupation during the 10th century BC See David Ussishkin, "Solomon's Jerusalem: The Text and the Facts on the Ground," in: A.G. Vaughn and A.E. Killebrew (eds.), Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period, (Society of Biblical Literature, Symposium Series, No. 18), Atlanta, 2003, pp. 103-115. See also Cahill, J., David's Jerusalem, Fiction or Reality? The Archaeological Evidence Proves It, and Steiner, M., David's Jerusalem, Fiction or Reality? It's Not There: Archaeology Proves a Negative, both in Biblical Archaeology Review 24/4, 1998 (the two scholars argue opposite sides of the case for a Jerusalem in keeping with the biblical portrayal). In 2005 Eilat Mazar found a Large Stone Structure which she claimed was David's Palace See Eilat Mazar, "Did I find David's Temple?" in Biblical Archeology Review, Jan/Feb 2006 , but the site is contaminated and impossible to date accurately. The oldest pottery from the site is dated to the 12th-11th centuries BCE, leading Amihai Mazar to speculate that it represents a pre-Davidic Jebusite fortress, while at the other end of the chronological range there is the 7th-century bulla found in the structure. Elsewhere in the territory of biblical Judah and Israel, no royal inscriptions exist from the 10th century BCE, nor evidence of a royal bureaucracy (the equivalents of the LMLK seal LMLK:"Belonging to the king", or "for the king". attached to oil jars associated with the Judean royal bureaucracy of the late 8th century BC), nor the inscribed potshards which would provide evidence of widespread literacy. Surveys of surface finds aimed at tracing settlement patterns and population changes have shown that between the 16th and 8th centuries BC, a period which includes the biblical kingdoms of David and Solomon, the entire population of the hill country of Judah was no more than about 5,000 persons, most of them wandering pastoralists, with the entire urbanised area consisting of about twenty small villages. On settlement patterns in ancient Judah, see A. Ofer, "'All the Hill Country of Judah': From a Settlement Fringe to a Prosperous Monarchy," in I. Finkelstein and N. Na'aman, eds., From Nomadism to Monarchy (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1994), pp. 92-121; "The Judean Hills in the Biblical Period," Qadmoniot 115 (1998), 40-52 (Hebrew); "The Monarchic Period in the Judaean Highland," in A. Mazar, ed., Studies in the Archaeology of the Iron Age in Israel and Jordan (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), pp. 14-37. Historicity of the Biblical account Russian icon of St. David, the Prophet and King, 18th century (Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia). The biblical evidence for David comes from the book of Samuel (two books in the Christian tradition), and the book of Chronicles (also two books in the Christian tradition). (Although almost half of the Psalms are headed "A Psalm of David", the headings are later additions, and no psalm can be attributed to David with certainty). Steven McKenzie, Associate Professor Rhodes College, Memphis, Tennessee. Chronicles, however, merely retells Samuel from a different theological vantage point, and contains little if any information not available there, and the biblical evidence for David is therefore dependent almost exclusively on the material contained in the chapters from 1 Samuel 16 to 1 Kings 2. The question of David's historicity therefore becomes the question of the date, textual integrity, authorship and reliability of 1st and 2nd Samuel. Since Martin Noth put forward his analysis of the Deuteronomistic History biblical scholars have accepted that these two books form part of a continuous history of Israel, compiled no earlier than the late 7th century BC, but incorporating earlier works and fragments. Samuel's account of David "seems to have undergone two separate acts of editorial slanting. The original writers show a strong bias against Saul, and in favour of David and Solomon. Many years later, the Deuteronomists edited the material in a manner that conveyed their religious message, inserting reports and anecdotes that strengthened their monotheistic doctrine. Some of the materials in Samuel I and II , notably the lists of officers, officials, and districts are believed to be very early, possibly even dating to the time of David or Solomon. These documents were probably in the hands of the Deuteronomists when they started to compile the material three centuries later." "King David and Jerusalem: Myth and Reality", Israel Review of Arts and Letters, 2003, Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Beyond this, the full range of possible interpretations is available, from the "maximalist" position of the late John Bright, whose "History of Israel", dating largely from the 1950s, takes Samuel at face value, to the recent "minimalist" scholars such Thomas L. Thompson, who measures Samuel against the archaeological evidence and concludes that "an independent history of Judea during the Iron I and Iron II periods [i.e., the period of David] has little room for historicizing readings of the stories of I-II Samuel and I Kings." "A View from Copenhagen", Thomas L. Thompson, Professor of Old Testament, Copenhagen University. Within this gamut some interesting studies of David have been written. Baruch Halpern has pictured David as a lifelong vassal of Achish, the Philistine king of Gath; Baruch Halpern, "David's Secret Demons", 2001.Review of Baruch Halpern's "David's Secret Demons". Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman have identified as the oldest and most reliable section of Samuel those chapters which describe David as the charismatic leader of a band of outlaws who captures Jerusalem and makes it his capital. Finkelstein and Silberman, "David and Solomon", 2006. See review"Archaeology" magazine. David's legacy The Death of Absalom (engraving from the Doré Bible). Genealogy According to , David is the tenth generation descendant from Judah, the fourth son of the patriarch Jacob (Israel). The genealogical line runs as follows: Judah → Pharez → Hezron → Ram → Amminadab → Nahshon → Salmon → Boaz (the husband of Ruth) → Obed → Jesse → David. This genealogy is only available from post-exilic biblical sources included in the later books of Chronicles and Ruth. Without these sources, all that would be know of David's ancestry was that he was the son of Jesse. The "tenth generation" formula is part of a larger pattern of tens within the Pentateuch/Deuteronomistic history: there are twenty generations of patriarchs (two sets of ten) from Adam to Abraham before David, and twenty kings of Judah after him, with the three Patriarchs Abraham-Isaac-Jacob between. The schematic character of the genealogy, and the fact that it runs from the Creation (Adam) to the destruction of Jerusalem, suggests that it was an exilic or post-exilic invention. The New Testament traces the genealogy of Jesus back to David and Adam, with three blocks of fourteen "generations" each being similarly schematic. In the ancient world each letter of the alphabet had a numerical value, the value for the name "David" being fourteen: the fourteen "generations" thus underscored Christ's Davidic descent and his identity as the expected Messiah. David's family David was born in Bethlehem, in the territory of the Tribe of Judah. His father was named Jesse. His mother is not named in the Bible, but the Talmud identifies her as Nitzevet daughter of Adael. Talmud Tractate Bava Batra 91a . David had seven brothers and was the youngest of them all. He had eight wives: Michal, the second daughter of King Saul; Ahinoam the Jezreelite; Abigail the Carmelite, previously wife of the evil Nabal; Maachah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur; Haggith; Abital; Eglah; and Bathsheba, previously the wife of Uriah the Hittite. The Book of Chronicles lists David's sons by various wives and concubines. In Hebron he had six sons (): Amnon, by Ahinoam; Daniel, by Abigail; Absalom, by Maachah; Adonijah, by Haggith; Shephatiah, by Abital; and Ithream, by Eglah. By Bathsheba, his sons were: Shammua; Shobab; Nathan; and Solomon. His sons born in Jerusalem by other mothers included: Ibhar; Elishua; Eliphelet; Nogah; Nepheg; Japhia; Elishama; and Eliada. () According to , Jerimoth, who is not mentioned in any of the genealogies, is mentioned as another of David's sons. According to , David adopted Johnathan's son Mephibosheth as his own. David also had at least one daughter, Tamar by Maachah, who was raped by Amnon, her half-brother. Her rape leads to Amnon's death. () Absalom, Amnon's half-brother and Tamar's full-brother, waits two years, then avenges his sister by sending his servants to kill Amnon at a feast to which he had invited all the king's sons. () Claimed descendants of David The following are some of the more notable persons who have claimed descent from the Biblical David, or had it claimed on their behalf: Jesus of Nazareth Judah Loew, Yehuda Loew ben Bezalel (c. 1525, Prague; 22 August 1609 Prague), also known as "The Maharal of Prague". The Abravanel family The Baal Shem Tov, and through him every Hassidic Rebbe descended from him Eliezer Silver Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, whose family is descended from Judah Loew. Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia The Royal House of Georgia Representation in art and literature The Star of David David, Michelangelo, 1500-1504. Art Famous sculptures of David include (in chronological order) those by: Donatello (c. 1430 - 1440), David (Donatello) Andrea del Verrocchio (1476), David (Verrocchio) Michelangelo (1504), David (Michaelangelo) Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1624), David (Bernini) Antonin Mercié (1873) Literature Dryden's long poem Absalom and Achitophel is an allegory that uses the story of the rebellion of Absalom against King David as the basis for his satire of the contemporary political situation, including events such as the Monmouth Rebellion (1685), the Popish Plot (1678) and the Exclusion Crisis. Elmer Davis's 1928 novel Giant Killer retells and embellishes the Biblical story of David, casting David as primarily a poet who managed always to find others to do the "dirty work" of heroism and kingship. In the novel, Elhanan in fact killed Goliath but David claimed the credit; and Joab, David's cousin and general, took it upon himself to make many of the difficult decisions of war and statecraft when David vacillated or wrote poetry instead. Gladys Schmitt wrote a novel titled "David the King" in 1946 which proceeds as a richly embellished biography of David's entire life. The book took a risk, especially for its time, in portraying David's relationship with Jonathan as overtly homoerotic, but was ultimately panned by critics as a bland rendition of the title character. In Thomas Burnett Swann's Biblical fantasy novel How are the Mighty Fallen (1974) David and Jonathan are explicitly stated to be lovers. Moreover, Jonathan is a member of a winged semi-human race (possibly nephilim), one of several such races co-existing with humanity but often persecuted by it. Joseph Heller, the author of Catch-22, also wrote a novel based on David, God Knows. Told from the perspective of an aging David, the humanity — rather than the heroism — of various biblical characters are emphasized. The portrayal of David as a man of flaws such as greed, lust, selfishness, and his alienation from God, the falling apart of his family is a distinctly 20th century interpretation of the events told in the Bible. Juan Bosch, Dominican political leader and writer, wrote "David: Biography of a King" (1966) a realistic approach to David's life and political career. Allan Massie wrote "King David" (1995), a novel about David's career which portrays the king's relationship to Jonathan and others as openly homosexual. Madeleine L'Engle's novel Certain Women explores family, the Christian faith, and the nature of God through the story of King David's family and an analogous modern family's saga. Madeleine L'Engle, Certain Women, ISBN 9780374120252 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle used the story of David and Bathsheba as the main structure for the Sherlock Holmes story the Crooked Man. The betrayal of the Crooked Man is parelleled with David's betrayal of Uriah the Hittite, carried out in order to win Bathsheba. Film Gregory Peck, played King David in the 1951 film David and Bathsheba, directed by Henry King. Susan Hayward played Bathsheba and Raymond Massey played the prophet Nathan. Finlay Currie, played an aged King David in the 1959 film Solomon and Sheba, directed by King Vidor. Yul Brynner played Solomon and Gina Lollobrigida played the Queen of Sheba. Richard Gere portrayed King David in the 1985 film King David directed by Bruce Beresford. Music Josquin des Pres's Absalon fili mi is a polyphonic lamentation from David's perspective on the death of his son. Arthur Honegger's oratorio, Le Roi David ('King David'), with a libretto by Rene Morax, was composed in 1921 and instantly became a staple of the choral repertoire; it is still widely performed. Leonard Cohen's song "Hallelujah" has references to David ("there was a secret chord that David played and it pleased the Lord", "The baffled king composing Hallelujah") and Bathsheba ("you saw her bathing on the roof") in its opening verses. "Mad About You", a song on Sting's 1991 album The Soul Cages explores David's obsession with Bathsheba from David's perspective. Dead by the Pixies is a retelling of David's adultery and repentance. Herbert Howells (1892-1983) composed an artsong for voice and piano called "King David". Eric Whitacre wrote a song, "When David Heard," based on 2 Samuel, chronicling the death of David's son, Absalom and David's grief over losing his son. Musical Theatre King David, a modern oratorio, with a book and lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Alan Menken. Television In 2009, NBC introduced the series Kings, which was explicitly designed as a modern retelling of the David story. See also King David's Palace site King David's Tomb Tel Arad David and Jonathan Further reading For a more complete summary of all the episodes in the Saul/David story in Samuel (but excluding Chronicles), see synopsis Notes References Kirsch, Jonathan (2000) King David: the real life of the man who ruled Israel. Ballantine. ISBN 0-345-43275-4. See also the entry "David" in Easton's Bible Dictionary. Dever, William G. (2001) What did the Bible writers know and when did they know it? William B. Eerdmans Publ. Co., Cambridge UK. External links Etymology of "David" Complete Bible Genealogy David's family tree King David Tomb - Mount Zion - Jerusalem - Videos, Presentations, Photos King David's Tomb in Jerusalem The Eternal House Of David Family Reunion Poet Robert Pinsky Takes on King David on ThoughtCast Double Identity: Orpheus as David. Orpheus as Christ? 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2,975 | Grinnell_College | Grinnell College is a private liberal arts college in Grinnell, Iowa, U.S. with a strong tradition of social activism. It was founded in 1846, when a group of pioneer New England Congregationalists established the Trustees of Iowa College. Grinnell is classified as a more selective institution by the Carnegie Foundation and is ranked fourteenth among liberal arts colleges by U.S. News and World Report. http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/classifications/sub.asp?key=748&subkey=14294&start=782 http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/college/liberal-arts-search In 2004 it received the "Best All-Around" college rating from Newsweek magazine. Until recently, the estimated value of Grinnell's endowment was the highest among liberal arts colleges; it had the third-largest endowment among them. History Josiah Bushnell Grinnell: founder of Grinnell Iowa and benefactor of Grinnell College. In 1843 eleven Congregational ministers, all of whom trained at Andover Theological Seminary in Massachusetts, set out to proselytize on the frontier. Each man pledged to gather a church and together the group or band would seek to establish a college. When the group arrived in Iowa later that year, each selected a different town in which to establish a congregation. In 1846 they collectively established Iowa College in Davenport. A few months later, Iowa joined the Union. The first 25 years of Grinnell's history saw a change in name and location. Iowa College moved farther west from Davenport, Iowa, to the town of Grinnell and unofficially adopted the name of its new benefactor: an abolitionist minister, Josiah Bushnell Grinnell, to whom journalist Horace Greeley famously wrote "Go West, young man, go West, and grow up with the country!" The name of the corporation "The Trustees of Iowa College" remained, but in 1909 the name "Grinnell College" was adopted by the trustees for the institution itself. In its early years, the College experienced setbacks. Although two students received bachelor of arts degrees in 1854 (the first to be granted by a college west of the Mississippi River), within 10 years the Civil War had claimed most of Grinnell's students and professors. In the decade following the war, growth resumed: women were officially admitted as candidates for degrees, and the curriculum was enlarged to include then-new areas of academic studies, such as natural sciences with laboratory work. In 1882, Grinnell College was struck by a tornado — then called a cyclone, after which the college yearbook was named. The storm devastated the campus and destroyed both College buildings. Rebuilding began immediately, and the determination to expand wasn't limited to architecture: the curriculum was again extended to include departments in political science (the first in the United States) and modern languages. Grinnell became known as the center of the Social Gospel reform movement, . see footnote 4. as Robert Handy writes, "The movement centered on the campus of Iowa (now Grinnell) College. Its leading figures were Professor George D. Herron and President George A. Gates". Other firsts pointed to the lighter side of college life: the first intercollegiate football and baseball games west of the Mississippi were played in Grinnell, and the home teams won. As the 20th century began, Grinnell established a Phi Beta Kappa chapter, introduced the departmental "major" system of study, began Grinnell-in-China (an educational mission that lasted until the Japanese invasion and resumed in 1987), and built a women's residence hall system that became a national model. The social consciousness fostered at Grinnell during these years became evident during Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency, when Grinnell graduates Harry Hopkins '12, Chester Davis '11, Paul Appleby '13, Hallie Flanagan '11, and Florence Kerr '12 became influential New Deal administrators. Concern with social issues, educational innovation, and individual expression continue to shape Grinnell. As an example, the school’s "5th year travel-service program," preceded the establishment of the Peace Corps by many years. Other recent innovations include first-year tutorials, cooperative pre-professional programs, and programs in quantitative studies and the societal impacts of technology. Academics Reputation John H. T. Main Residence Hall Academically, Grinnell College is nationally recognized as a leading undergraduate institution. According to current U.S. News and World Report rankings, Grinnell is the #14 liberal arts college in the United States. The College has been consistently ranked in the top 17 liberal arts colleges in the nation since the publication began in 1983. "U.S. News Rankings Through the Years", Chronicle of Higher Education In July 2006, The New York Times included Grinnell in its profile of the 20 colleges and universities of "established or rising scholarship" which are fast becoming viable alternatives to Ivy League institutions. Archibold, R.C. "Off the Beaten Path", The New York Times, July 30, 2006. Grinnell is ranked 14th in the Washington Monthly rankings, "The Washington Monthly College Ratings: Liberal Arts Colleges", The Washington Monthly, September 2006. which focus on key outputs such as research, dollar value of scientific grants won and certain types of public service. Grinnell College has been ranked by The Princeton Review as one of the Top 10 best values in private colleges. http://www.princetonreview.com/SchoolList.aspx?id=758 They gave Grinnell College its highest possible academic rating of 99, on a scale of 60-99, reflecting how hard students work and how much they get back for their efforts. This rating is calculated from student survey results and statistical information reported by administrators. Factors weighed include how many hours students study and the quality of students the school attracts. "Grinnell College: Academics", The Princeton Review Accessed April 30, 2008 Recent data place Grinnell at number eight among all U.S. undergraduate institutions in the proportion of graduates who go on to earn Ph.D. degrees and 15th for graduating female Ph.D. earners. Higher Education Data Sharing Consortium. "Weighted Baccalaureate Origins Study." 2006. Grinnell College graduates enjoy a high acceptance rate to law school; over 46% of all applications submitted by students have been accepted by law schools. Grinnell College Career Development Office Law School Admission Report Indeed, Grinnell ranked 44th in a 2004 Wall Street Journal survey of the top "feeder schools" to the fifteen most prestigious business, law, and medical schools in the country. "Ranking the Colleges...", The Wall Street Journal However, Forbes magazine's first ever rankings for academic institutions, America's Best Colleges (which uses a non-traditional ranking system based on RateMyProfessor.com evaluations, notable alumni, student debt, percentage of students graduating in four years, and the number of students or faculty receiving prestigious awards), Grinnnell College has a comparatively lower rank of 107th best school overall, one behind Wells College and one in front of Virginia Military Institute. In the same study, Dartmouth College received a rank of 127. http://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/94/opinions_college08_Grinnell-College_94168.html Faculty Grinnell has 150 voting faculty, 90% of whom possess a doctorate or the terminal degree in their field. At the end of each semester, students fill out course surveys which play a large role in determining faculty tenure decisions and merit raises. SamR's Site: About End-Of-Course Evaluations Academic program Alumni Recitation Hall The academic program at Grinnell College emphasizes active learning and one-on-one interactions between faculty members and students. There are few large lecture classes. In sharp contrast to all public universities and many private universities in the United States, no classes, labs or other courses are taught by graduate students at Grinnell College. Grinnell's open curriculum encourages students to take initiative and to assume responsibility for their own courses of study. The sole core, or general education, requirement is the completion of the First-Year Tutorial, a one-semester special topics seminar that stresses methods of inquiry, critical analysis, and writing skills. All other classes are chosen, with the direct guidance of a faculty member in the student's major department, by the student. Grinnell College expects all students to possess significant academic achievements. The curriculum is rigorous and advanced, and no remedial classes are offered. For example, the math department does not offer any basic-level classes such as college algebra, trigonometry, or pre-calculus. Mathematics and Statistics courses offered However, several independent, non-credit programs assist students who need help in a specific subject. They are the Library Lab, Math Lab, Reading Lab, Science Learning Center, and the Writing Lab. Links to labs While private tutors can be hired, participation in these programs is free for any enrolled student. Grinnell has twenty-six major departments and ten interdisciplinary concentrations. Popular majors include Psychology, Economics, Biology, History, English, and Political Science. In every division, students have opportunities to conduct original research and undertake advanced study through independent and interdisciplinary projects that foster intellectual discovery. The minimum requirements in a major area of study are typically limited to 32 credits in a single department, with some departments additionally requiring a small number of classes in related fields that are deemed critical for all students in that field. For example, the biology program requires 32 credits in the biology department plus two classes in chemistry and one in math. Biology major requirements Many students exceed the minimum requirements. To graduate, students are normally expected to complete at least 32 credits in a major field and a total of 124 credits of academic work. To encourage students to explore courses outside of their primary interest area, no more than 48 credits in one department and no more than 92 credits in one division are counted towards this requirement. Grinnell’s commitment to the importance of off-campus study reflects the school’s emphasis on social and political awareness and the international nature of its campus. Approximately 60 percent of all Grinnell students participate in at least one of more than seventy off-campus programs, including the Grinnell-in-London program and study tours of China, France, Greece, and Russia. These study programs in Europe (including Russia), Africa, the Near East, and Asia, as well as nine programs in Central and South America, provide the opportunity for research in many disciplines, from archaeology to education to mathematics. In addition to off-campus programs, Grinnell offers internship programs in such areas as urban studies, art, and marine biology for students interested in field-based learning and experience in professional settings. Second- and third-year students may apply for summer internship grants and receive credit for the experience. Semester programs in the United States include those at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Newberry Library, National Theatre Institute, and Grinnell-in-Washington, D.C. Grinnell also has invested in several interdisciplinary programs: the Center for Prairie Studies, Center for the Humanities, Center for International Studies, Noun Program in Women's Studies, Peace Studies Program, Rosenfield Public Affairs Program, and the Donald L. Wilson Program in Enterprise and Leadership. Despite the growing trend of U.S. students taking five or more years to finish an undergraduate degree, Grinnell College is strongly oriented towards students being enrolled full time in exactly eight consecutive semesters at the college, although exceptions are available for medical issues and other emergencies. Grinnell College. "Academic Catalog: Academic Regulations" To avoid being suspended from the college, students must make "normal progress towards graduation." This generally means that the student must pass at least 12 credits of classes in each individual semester, with grades of a C or better, and have accumulated enough credits to make graduation possible at the end of four years, which requires an average of 15.5 credits each semester. A student who is not making normal progress towards graduation is placed on academic probation and may be dismissed from the college. Grinnell College. "Academic Catalog: Academic Regulations" Admission Grinnell College is a highly selective liberal arts college. Historically, it has generally offered admission to less than half of applicants, and approximately one-third of accepted students typically enrolled in the fall. In the spring of 2008, 33.5% of applicants were accepted. Accessed 2008-06-10. And in the spring of 2009, 27% of applicants were accepted for a target class size of 385 students. http://sethallensays.blogspot.com/ Two-thirds of admitted students were in the top 10% of their high school class. Grinnell College Office of Admission Class at a Glance Accessed 2008-05-15. One in five students is a National Merit Finalist, National Merit Scholar, or National Merit Commended Student. One in seven is an Advanced Placement Scholar. Due to the high and ACT scores achieved by its students and their class rankings, U.S. News and World Reports considers Grinnell College to be one of the "most selective" schools. US News and World Reports. Accessed 2008-04-20. For the class of 2012, the median combined SAT score is 1332, and the median ACT composite score is 30.1. Grinnell College's admissions selectivity rank according to The Princeton Review is a 95 out of 99. The Princeton Review. Grinnell College. Accessed November 23, 2008. This ranking is determined by several institutionally-reported factors, including: the class rank, average standardized test scores, and average high school GPA of entering freshmen; the percentage of students who hail from out-of-state; and the percentage of applicants accepted. The Princeton Review. [http://www.princetonreview.com/college/research/articles/find/ratings.asp#selectivity About College . The primary factor in evaluating applicants is the quality of the education they have received, as shown by their transcript. Additional factors include standardized test scores, student writing skills, recommendations, and extracurricular activities. Grinnell College Admission FAQ Accessed 2008-05-15. Early decision opportunities are offered to students in the fall; most students apply in January of their final year in high school. Admissions letters are usually received by April 1 of each year. All students begin classes in August. For American students, the students' expectation of needing financial assistance does not affect the admission process. Montgomery, David. "International student financial aid goes need-sensitive", The Scarlet & Black, March 4, 2005 International students whose needs can be met with the limited financial aid available to them are given an edge in the admissions process. A few students are admitted before they graduate from high school; these students have typically taken all of the academic classes offered at their school. Tuition and financial aid Robert Noyce Science Center Grinnell's combined tuition, room, board, and fees for the 2007-2008 academic year is $42,422. Tuition and fees are $34,392 and room and board are $8,030. Grinnell offers a significant amount of need-based and merit-based aid in comparison with peer institutions. About 90% of students receive some form of financial aid. Grinnell College, Office of Admission. Tuition & Fees. Accessed February 26, 2007. The average financial aid package is over $26,000. College Board. "College Board Profile of Grinnell College". Accessed October 2, 2007. Grinnell College is one of a few dozen US colleges that maintain need-blind admissions and meets the full demonstrated financial need of all U.S. residents who are admitted to the college. With the first-year students enrolled in the 2006-2007 school year, Grinnell has ended its need-blind admissions policy for international applicants. Under the old policy, students from countries outside the U.S. were admitted without any consideration of their ability to afford four years of study at the college. However, financial aid offers to these students were limited to half the cost of tuition. International students frequently carried very high workloads in an effort to pay the bills, and their academic performance often suffered. Leavens, Kennedy. "Need-sensitivity? Admissions may start looking at international students’ bank accounts", The Scarlet & Black, February 28, 2003. Under the new "need-sensitive" or "need-aware" policy, international students whose demonstrated financial needs can be met are given a slight admissions edge over applicants who can't. The twin hopes are that the enrolled international students will be able to dedicate more energy to their schoolwork, and also that this will ultimately allow the college to provide higher tuition grants to international students. Additionally, several extremely competitive "special scholarships" were set up to meet the full demonstrated financial needs for students from the following countries or regions: Africa, Eastern and Central Europe, Latin America, Middle East and Asia, Nepal, the People's Republic of China, as well as for native speakers of Russian regardless of citizenship, available every other year. Grinnell College. "International Student Financial Aid Policy". Athletics Grinnell Athletics "Honor G" The school's varsity sports teams are named the Pioneers. They participate in eighteen intercollegiate sports at the NCAA Division III level and in the Midwest Conference. In addition, Grinnell has several club sports teams that compete in non-varsity sports such as Water Polo, Ultimate and Rugby Union. The Water Polo club team, the Wild Turkeys, went runners-up in the 2007 Division III Collegiate National Club Championships organized by the CWPA in Lindenwood College, St. Louis. The Men's Ultimate team, nicknamed the Grinnellephants, qualified in 2008 for its first Division III National Championship in Versailles, Ohio. Nearly one-third of recent Grinnell graduates participated in at least one of 20 varsity sports while attending the college and the college has led the Midwest Conference in the total number of Academic All-Conference honorees in last six years. In February 2005, Grinnell became the first Division III school featured in a regular season basketball game by the ESPN network family in 30 years, when it faced off against the Beloit Buccaneers on ESPN 2. Amy Farnum. NCAA Sports. Grinnell Goes Big-Time. January 28, 2005. Grinnell was narrowly defeated 86 to 85. D3Hoops.com Beloit 86, Grinnell 85. February 3, 2005. Grinnell College's basketball team attracted ESPN due to the team's unique style of playing basketball, known simply as "The System." Coach David Arseneault's "system" incorporates a continual full-court press, a fast-paced offense, an emphasis on offensive rebounding, a barrage of three-point shots and substitutions of five players at a time every 35 to 40 seconds. This allows a higher average playing time for more players than the "starters" and suits the Division III goals of scholar-athletes. "The System" has been criticized for not teaching the principles of defense. However, under "The System," Grinnell has won three conference championships over the past ten years and have regularly placed in the top half of the conference. Coach Arseneault's teams have set numerous NCAA scoring records and several individuals on the Grinnell team have led the nation in scoring or assists. Official 2007 NCAA Men's Basketball Records Book. . Accessed March 7, 2007. Campus Grinnell College is located in the town of Grinnell, Iowa, halfway between Des Moines and Iowa City. The campus contains sixty-three buildings ranging in architectural style from Collegiate Gothic to Bauhaus. The residential part of campus is divided into three sections: North Campus, East Campus, and South Campus. Each campus's dormitories, modeled explicitly after the residential colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, are connected by a loggia, an architectural signature of the college. The college maintains a environmental research area called the Conard Environmental Research Area (CERA). The U.S. Green Building Council awarded CERA's Environmental Education Center a gold certification. United States Green Building Council. "Cera Environmental Education Center LEED Scorecard". Accessed May 14, 2007. The building is the first in Iowa to receive the designation. American Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education. AAASHE Bulletin "Grinnell College Education Center Receives LEED Gold Certification", June 8, 2006. Accessed April 29, 2008 Many building projects have been undertaken in recent years at the College including a new athletics center, the Bucksbaum Center for the Arts, the renovation of the Robert Noyce '49 Science Center and the Joe Rosenfield '25 Student Center. Noted architect César Pelli designed the athletics center, the Joe Rosenfield '25 Student Center, and the Bucksbaum Center for the Arts. Hebel, Sara. "In Iowa, 2 Colleges Separated by 150 Miles and $1.37-Billion", The Chronicle of Higher Education, April 7, 2006. Accessed April 30, 2008 Social activities and organizations The organizational structure of the Student Government Association, wielding a yearly budget of over $360,000 and unusually strong administrative influence, covers almost all aspects of student activity and campus life. There are no sororities or fraternities. Founded in 2004, the student run Student Endowment Investing Group (SEIG), actively invests over $100,000 of Grinnell College's endowment in the stock market. The group's mission is to provide interested students with valuable experience for future careers in finance. Student Endowment Investment Group Service organizations are popular. The Alternative Break ("AltBreak") program takes students to pursue service initiatives during school holidays, and as of 2005, Grinnell had more alumni per capita serving in the Peace Corps than any other college in the nation. Peace Corps. Peace Corps Announces the Colleges and Universities that Have Produced the Most Peace Corps Volunteers. January 24, 2005. The college also runs its own post-graduation service program known as Grinnell Corps in Grinnell, China, Namibia, Lesotho, Greece, Macau, Nepal, and New Orleans though the Nepal program is currently suspended for safety reasons. Grinnell College, Office of Social Commitment. Grinnell Corps. Accessed February 26, 2007. The Scarlet and Black is the campus newspaper and KDIC (88.5 FM) is the student-run radio station. The school also has a monthly-printed satirical newspaper, "The B&S." In April 2007, Grinnell college students founded the Social Entrepreneurs of Grinnell, a student operated microfinance lending institution. The group collects donations for the purpose of making small loans at zero interest to business owners and artisans in developing nations. It is affiliated with kiva.org. Social Entrepreneurs of Grinnell Grinnell also has an entirely student-run textbook lending library on campus. Aimed at the economically disadvantaged yet open to all, it allows students to check out books for the semester for free, defraying the high cost of college textbooks. Grinnell College, Student Government Association. . Accessed July 13, 2008. The library has no funding, relying solely on books donated. Since its founding in 2005, the collection has grown to thousands of books due to the generosity of the campus community. The library has expanded to include caps and gowns, which are lent out to graduating seniors every spring. Grinnell College, Commencement Information. . Accessed July 13, 2008. . Grinnell also hosts the Titular Head (film festival). Self-Governance The students of Grinnell College adhere to a unique honor system known as "self-governance" wherein students are expected to govern their own choices and behavior with minimal direct intervention by the college administration. By cultivating a community based on freedom of choice, self-governance aims to encourage students to become responsible, respectful, and accountable members of the campus, town, and global community. http://www.grinnell.edu/offices/studentaffairs/selfgovernance/ Endowment Grinnell's $1.45 billion endowment – the third-largest among United States liberal arts colleges – is evident in the college's facilities, art collections, and generous financial aid programs. Under the stewardship of Warren Buffett and Joseph Rosenfield, the college has adopted an opportunistic and innovative strategy in managing its assets. In 1976, Grinnell's capital fund acquired a TV station, Time. . January 15, 1979. one of many investments that were unprecedented in their time for a college endowment. Another innovative move that significantly increased the endowment occurred when Rosenfield and the college contributed to the founding of Intel—an investment exceeding 10% of the venture capital raised to start the semiconductor company (Intel co-founder Robert Noyce is a Grinnell alumnus). CNNMoney. . June 1, 2000. Since joining the board in 1968, Warren Buffett has played a visible role in growing the endowment at Grinnell, where he serves as a life trustee. Grinnell College, Office of the President. "Board of Trustees: Warren E. Buffett 1968; Life Trustee 1987". Accessed May 12, 2008. A campaign is currently under way to create more transparency and social responsibility in the endowment's investments. Notable alumni Many former students at Grinnell College have gone into politics, made important contributions to science, or become prominent entertainers. Harry Hopkins, 1912, senior advisor to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, principal architect of the New Deal, WPA administrator. Joseph Welch, 1914, Head attorney for the United States Army during the Army-McCarthy Hearings. Robert Noyce, 1949, nicknamed "Mayor of Silicon Valley", co-founder of Intel, co-inventor of the integrated circuit. Herbie Hancock, 1960, Jazz musician and composer who has won an Academy Award and multiple Grammy Awards, member of Miles Davis's "second great quintet". John Garang, 1969, leader of the rebel Sudan People's Liberation Army, later vice president of Sudan. Thomas Cech, 1970, Co-winner of 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for [...] discovery of catalytic properties of RNA", president of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Virtual communities and social networking websites GrinnellPlans is a virtual community consisting of 3,809 members as of January 8, 2008. GrinnellPlans. Planlove v2.4.2. Most members are current students or alumni, but faculty, staff members, and (by invitation) other friends of the college have also joined. In 2003, the college administration ordered that GrinnellPlans not be hosted on college servers because of the college's concerns regarding possible illegal content on the system and related liability. GrinnellPlans moved to an off-campus host, www.grinnellplans.com. The community is supported by its users and is not affiliated with Grinnell College. Backes, M. Molly. 2003. "An Historical Overview...". Accessed May 4, 2008. 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2,976 | Diode | 270x|Figure 1: Closeup of a diode, showing the square shaped semiconductor crystalFigure 2: Various semiconductor diodes. Bottom: A bridge rectifier Figure 3: Structure of a vacuum tube diode In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device (thermionic diodes may also have one or two ancillary terminals for a heater). Diodes have two active electrodes between which the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional electric current property. The varicap diode is used as an electrically adjustable capacitor. The unidirectionality most diodes exhibit is sometimes generically called the rectifying property. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current in one direction (called the forward biased condition) and to block the current in the opposite direction (the reverse biased condition). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. Real diodes do not display such a perfect on-off directionality but have a more complex non-linear electrical characteristic, which depends on the particular type of diode technology. Diodes also have many other functions in which they are not designed to operate in this on-off manner. Early diodes included “cat’s whisker” crystals and vacuum tube devices (also called thermionic valves). Today the most common diodes are made from semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium. History Although the crystal (solid state) diode was popularized before the thermionic diode, thermionic and solid state diodes were developed in parallel. The basic principle of operation of thermionic diodes was discovered by Frederick Guthrie in 1873. 1928 Nobel Lecture: Owen W. Richardson, "Thermionic phenomena and the laws which govern them," December 12, 1929 Guthrie discovered that an positively-charged electroscope could be discharged by bringing a grounded piece of white-hot metal close to it (but not actually touching it). The same did not apply to a negatively charged electroscope, indicating that the current flow was only possible in one direction. The principle was independently rediscovered by Thomas Edison on February 13, 1880. At the time Edison was carrying out research into why the filaments of his carbon-filament light bulbs nearly always burned out at the positive-connected end. He had a special bulb made with a metal plate sealed into the glass envelope, and he was able to confirm that an invisible current could be drawn from the glowing filament through the vacuum to the metal plate, but only when the plate was connencted to the positive supply. Edison devised a circuit where his modified light bulb more or less replaced the resistor in a DC voltmeter and on this basis was awarded a patent for it in 1883 (). There was no apparent practical use for such device at the time, and the patent application was most likley simply a precaution in case someone else did find a use for the so-called "Edison Effect". About 20 years later, John Ambrose Fleming (scientific adviser to the Marconi Company and former Edison employee) realized that the Edison effect could be used as a precision radio detector. Fleming patented the first true thermionic diode in Britain on November 16 1904 (followed by in November 1905) The principle of operation of crystal diodes was discovered in 1874 by the German scientist, Karl Ferdinand Braun. Historical lecture on Karl Braun Braun patented the crystal rectifier in 1899. http://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/diode.html Braun's discovery was further developed by Jagdish Chandra Bose into a useful device for radio detection. The first actual radio receiver using a crystal diode was built by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard. Pickard received a patent for a silicon crystal detector on November 20 1906 http://www.bellsystemmemorial.com/belllabs_transistor1.html (). Other experimenters tried a variety of minerals and other substances, although by far the most popular was the Lead Sulfide mineral Galena. Although other substances offered slightly better performance, galena had the advantage of being cheap and easy to obtain, and was used almost exclusvely in home-built "crystal sets", until the advent of inexpensive fixed germanium diodes in the 1950s At the time of their invention, such devices were known as rectifiers. In 1919, William Henry Eccles coined the term diode from Greek roots; di means "two", and ode (from ὅδος) means "path". Thermionic and gaseous state diodes Figure 4: The symbol for an indirect heated vacuum tube diode. From top to bottom, the components are the anode, the cathode, and the heater filament. Thermionic diodes are thermionic-valve devices (also known as vacuum tubes, tubes, or valves), which are arrangements of electrodes surrounded by a vacuum within a glass envelope. Early examples were fairly similar in appearance to incandescent light bulbs. In thermionic valve diodes, a current through the heater filament indirectly heats the cathode, another internal electrode treated with a mixture of barium and strontium oxides, which are oxides of alkaline earth metals; these substances are chosen because they have a small work function. (Some valves use direct heating, in which a tungsten filament acts as both heater and cathode.) The heat causes thermionic emission of electrons into the vacuum. In forward operation, a surrounding metal electrode called the anode is positively charged so that it electrostatically attracts the emitted electrons. However, electrons are not easily released from the unheated anode surface when the voltage polarity is reversed. Hence, any reverse flow is negligible. For much of the 20th century, thermionic valve diodes were used in analog signal applications, and as rectifiers in many power supplies. Today, valve diodes are only used in niche applications such as rectifiers in electric guitar and high-end audio amplifiers as well as specialized high-voltage equipment. Semiconductor diodes Most diodes today are based on semiconductor p-n junctions. In a p-n diode, conventional current is from the p-type side (the anode) to the n-type side (the cathode), but not in the opposite direction. Another type of semiconductor diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction. Current–voltage characteristic A semiconductor diode's current–voltage characteristic, or I–V curve, is related to the transport of carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p-n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (the dopant) on the N-side and negatively charged acceptor (the dopant) on the P-side. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in" potential across the depletion zone. If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron/hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light. see photodiode). This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction).. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be "turned on" as it has a forward bias. A diode’s I–V characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation (see the figure at right). At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in current (i.e. a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the pn junction) that usually damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in the avalanche region. In the zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A zener diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power in the clamped reverse voltage region. Also, following the end of forward conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases. The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a very small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the µA range). The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forward current is conducted. As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined "cut-in voltage" or "on-voltage" or "diode forward voltage drop (Vd)", the diode current becomes appreciable (the level of current considered "appreciable" and the value of cut-in voltage depends on the application), and the diode presents a very low resistance. The current–voltage curve is exponential. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the arbitrary "cut-in" voltage is defined as 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types — Schottky diodes can be as low as 0.2 V and red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be 1.4 V or more and blue LEDs can be up to 4.0 V. At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for power diodes. Shockley diode equation The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law (named after transistor co-inventor William Bradford Shockley, not to be confused with tetrode inventor Walter H. Schottky) is the I–V characteristic of an ideal diode in either forward or reverse bias (or no bias). The equation is: where I is the diode current, IS is the reverse bias saturation current, VD is the voltage across the diode, VT is the thermal voltage, and n is the emission coefficient, also known as the ideality factor. The emission coefficient n varies from about 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material and in many cases is assumed to be approximately equal to 1 (thus the notation is omitted). The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.85 mV at 300 K, a temperature close to “room temperature” commonly used in device simulation software. At any temperature it is a known constant defined by: where q is the magnitude of charge on an electron (the elementary charge), k is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction in kelvins The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law is derived with the assumption that the only processes giving rise to current in the diode are drift (due to electrical field), diffusion, and thermal recombination-generation. It also assumes that the recombination-generation (R-G) current in the depletion region is insignificant. This means that the Shockley equation doesn’t account for the processes involved in reverse breakdown and photon-assisted R-G. Additionally, it doesn’t describe the “leveling off” of the I–V curve at high forward bias due to internal resistance. Under reverse bias voltages (see Figure 5) the exponential in the diode equation is negligible, and the current is a constant (negative) reverse current value of -IS. The reverse breakdown region is not modeled by the Shockley diode equation. For even rather small forward bias voltages (see Figure 5) the exponential is very large because the thermal voltage is very small, so the subtracted ‘1’ in the diode equation is negligible and the forward diode current is often approximated as The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the article on diode modeling. Small-signal behaviour For circuit design, a small-signal model of the diode behavior often proves useful. A specific example of diode modeling is discussed in the article on small-signal circuits. Types of semiconductor diode |- align = "center" | Diode symbol | Zener diode symbol | Schottky diode symbol | Tunnel diode symbol |- align = "center" | Diode | Zener diode | Schottky diode | Tunnel diode |- align = "center" | | | | |- align = "center" | Light-emitting diode | Photodiode | Varicap | Silicon controlled rectifier Figure 7: Typical diode packages in same alignment as diode symbol. Thin bar depicts the cathode. Figure 8: Several types of diodes. The scale is centimeters. There are several types of junction diodes, which either emphasize a different physical aspect of a diode often by geometric scaling, doping level, choosing the right electrodes, are just an application of a diode in a special circuit, or are really different devices like the Gunn and laser diode and the MOSFET: Normal (p-n) diodes, which operate as described above, are usually made of doped silicon or, more rarely, germanium. Before the development of modern silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used; its low efficiency gave it a much higher forward voltage drop (typically 1.4–1.7 V per “cell”, with multiple cells stacked to increase the peak inverse voltage rating in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode’s metal substrate), much larger than a silicon diode of the same current ratings would require. The vast majority of all diodes are the p-n diodes found in CMOS integrated circuits, which include two diodes per pin and many other internal diodes. Avalanche diodes Diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field across the p-n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the “mean free path” of the electrons, so there are collisions between them on the way out. The only practical difference is that the two types have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities. Cat’s whisker or crystal diodes These are a type of point contact diode. The cat’s whisker diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a piece of coal. The wire forms the anode and the crystal forms the cathode. Cat’s whisker diodes were also called crystal diodes and found application in crystal radio receivers. Cat’s whisker diodes are obsolete. Constant current diodes These are actually a JFET with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiter analog to the Zener diode, which is limiting voltage. They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating diodes. Esaki or tunnel diodes These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling, thus allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. These diodes are also the type most resistant to nuclear radiation. Gunn diodes These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the wavelength of the emitted photons: 1.2 V corresponds to red, 2.4 to violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; “white” LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator. Laser diodes When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication. Peltier diodes These diodes are used as sensors, heat engines for thermoelectric cooling. Charge carriers absorb and emit their band gap energies as heat. Photodiodes All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material. Photodiodes are intended to sense light(photodetector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light). A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications. Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a two-dimensional array. These arrays should not be confused with charge-coupled devices. Point-contact diodes These work the same as the junction semiconductor diodes described above, but their construction is simpler. A block of n-type semiconductor is built, and a conducting sharp-point contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with the semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region of p-type semiconductor near the contact. The long-popular 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog electronics. PIN diodes A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type structure. They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as large volume ionizing radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors. Schottky diodes Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than p-n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers although their reverse leakage current is generally higher than that of other diodes. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down many other diodes — so they have a faster “reverse recovery” than p-n junction diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than p-n diodes which provides for high switching speeds and their use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers and detectors. Super Barrier Diodes Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop of the Schottky diode with the surge-handling capability and low reverse leakage current of a normal p-n junction diode. Gold-doped” diodes As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which help a fast recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop. Gold doped diodes are faster than other p-n diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes). They also have less reverse-current leakage than Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p-n diodes).. S. M. Sze, Modern Semiconductor Device Physics, Wiley Interscience, ISBN 0-471-15237-4 A typical example is the 1N914. Snap-off or Step recovery diodes The term ‘step recovery’ relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can therefore provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers. Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS) These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from high-voltage transients. Their p-n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage. Varicap or varactor diodes These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm up and lock. A PLL is faster than an FLL, but prone to integer harmonic locking (if one attempts to lock to a broadband signal). They also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator. Zener diodes Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see below). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark). The Zener diode is named for Dr. Clarence Melvin Zener of Southern Illinois University, inventor of the device. Other uses for semiconductor diodes include sensing temperature, and computing analog logarithms (see Operational amplifier applications#Logarithmic). Numbering A standardized 1N-series numbering system was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC (Joint Electron Device Engineering Council) about 1960. Among the most popular in this series were: 1N34A/1N270 (Germanium signal), IN914/1N4148 (Silicon signal) and 1N4001-1N4007 (Silicon 1A power rectifier). Related devices Rectifier Transistor Thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) TRIAC Diac Varistor In optics, an equivalent device for the diode but with laser light would be the Optical isolator, also known as an Optical Diode, that allows light to only pass in 1 direction. It uses a Faraday rotator as the main component. Applications Radio demodulation The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is treated in depth in the radio article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of voltage, whose amplitude or “envelope” is proportional to the original audio signal. The diode (originally a crystal diode) rectifies the AM radio frequency signal, leaving an audio signal which is the original audio signal. The audio is extracted using a simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which generates sound waves. Power conversion Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC). Automotive alternators are a common example, where the diode, which rectifies the AC into DC, provides better performance than the commutator of earlier dynamo. Similarly, diodes are also used in Cockcroft–Walton voltage multipliers to convert AC into higher DC voltages. Over-voltage protection Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises above the normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). For example, diodes are used in ( stepper motor and H-bridge ) motor controller and relay circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. (Any diode used in such an application is called a flyback diode). Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power (see Diode types above). Logic gates Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND and OR logic gates. This is referred to as diode logic. Ionizing radiation detectors In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation. In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionizing radiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors. This effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volts of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement of the particle’s energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer or etc. These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current. They are often cooled by liquid nitrogen. For longer range (about a centimetre) particles they need a very large depletion depth and large area. For short range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at least one surface to be very thin. The back-bias voltages are near breakdown (around a thousand volts per centimetre). Germanium and silicon are common materials. Some of these detectors sense position as well as energy. They have a finite life, especially when detecting heavy particles, because of radiation damage. Silicon and germanium are quite different in their ability to convert gamma rays to electron showers. Semiconductor detectors for high energy particles are used in large numbers. Because of energy loss fluctuations, accurate measurement of the energy deposited is of less use. Temperature measuring A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature, as in a Silicon bandgap temperature sensor. From the Shockley ideal diode equation given above, it appears the voltage has a positive temperature coefficient (at a constant current) but depends on doping concentration and operating temperature (Sze 2007). The temperature coefficient can be negative as in typical thermistors or positive for temperature sense diodes down to about 20 kelvins. Current steering Diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions. To supply power to an electrical circuit during a power failure, the circuit can draw current from a battery. An Uninterruptible power supply may use diodes in this way to ensure that current is only drawn from the battery when necessary. Similarly, small boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery/batteries: one used for engine starting; one used for domestics. Normally both are charged from a single alternator, and a heavy duty split charge diode is used to prevent the higher charge battery (typically the engine battery) from discharging through the lower charged battery when the alternator is not running http://mysite.orange.co.uk/springnuts/docs/alternator.pdf . Diodes are also used in electronic musical keyboards. To reduce the amount of wiring needed in electronic musical keyboards, these instruments often use keyboard matrix circuits. The keyboard controller scans the rows and columns to determine which note the player has pressed. The problem with matrix circuits is that when several notes are pressed at once, the current can flow backwards through the circuit and trigger "phantom keys" that cause "ghost" notes to play. To avoid triggering unwanted notes, most keyboard matrix circuits have diodes soldered with the switch under each key of the musical keyboard. The same principle is also used for the switch matrix in solid state pinball machines. Abbreviations Diodes are usually referred to as D for diode on PCBs. Sometimes the abbreviation CR for crystal rectifier is used. John Ambrose Fleming. (1919). The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy and Telephony. London: Longmans, Green. 550. See also Diode modelling P-N junction Small-signal model Active rectification References External links Fast Recovery Epitaxial Diodes (FRED)Characteristics - Applications - Examples Ixys Corp. 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2,977 | Kazakhstan | Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Qazaqstan, ; , Kazakhstán, ), officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a large country situated in Central Asia and, according to the Council of Europe, Eastern Europe. Ranked as the ninth largest country in the world as well as the world's largest landlocked country, Agency of Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan (ASRK). 2005. Main Demographic Indicators. Available at http://www.stat.kz United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). 2007. “Kazakhstan” in The World Factbook. Book on-line. Available at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kz.html it has a territory of 2,727,300 km² (greater than Western Europe). It is bordered by Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and China. The country also borders on a significant part of the Caspian Sea. Vast in size, the land in Kazakhstan is very diverse in types of terrain: flatlands, steppes, taigas, rock-canyons, hills, deltas, mountains, snow-capped mountains and deserts. Kazakhstan has the 62nd largest population in the world, with a population density of less than 6 people per square kilometre (15 per sq. mi.). For most of its history the territory of modern-day Kazakhstan has been inhabited by nomadic tribes. By the 16th century the Kazakhs emerged as a distinct group, divided into three hordes. The Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century all of Kazakhstan was part of the Russian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and subsequent civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganised several times before becoming the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, a part of the USSR. During the 20th century, Kazakhstan was the site of major Soviet projects, including Khrushchev's Virgin Lands campaign, the Baikonur Cosmodrome, and the Semipalatinsk "Polygon", the USSR's primary nuclear weapon testing site. Kazakhstan declared itself an independent country on December 16, 1991, the last Soviet republic to do so. Its communist-era leader, Nursultan Nazarbayev, became the country's new president. Since independence, Kazakhstan has pursued a balanced foreign policy and worked to develop its economy, especially its hydrocarbon industry. While the country's economic outlook is improving, President Nazarbayev maintains strict control over the country's politics. Several opposition leaders and journalists have been killed in recent years, and Western observers generally do not consider Kazakhstan's elections to be free and fair. Nevertheless, Kazakhstan's international prestige is building. Zarakhovich, Yuri (September 27, 2006). "Kazakhstan Comes on Strong", Time Magazine. It is now considered to be the dominant state in Central Asia. Medvedev Visit Underscores Kazakh Victory Over Uzbekistan For Regional Dominance Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty The country belongs to many international organizations, including the United Nations, NATO's Partnership for Peace, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. In 2010, Kazakhstan will chair the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. Kazakhstan is ethnically and culturally diverse, in part due to mass deportations of many ethnic groups to the country during Stalin's rule. Kazakhs are the largest group, followed by Russians. Kazakhstan allows freedom of religion, and many different beliefs are represented in the country. Islam is the primary religion, followed by Orthodox Christianity. The Kazakh language has the status of the "state" language, while Russian is declared the "official" language and used in everyday business. CIA, The Word Factbook. Available at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kz.html The constitution of Kazakhstan: 1. The state language of the Republic of Kazakhstan shall be the Kazak language. 2. In state institutions and local self-administrative bodies the Russian language shall be officially used on equal grounds along with the Kazak language. Available at http://www.kazakhstan.orexca.com/kazakhstan_constitution.shtml History Kazakh Khanate Ancient Taraz Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Stone Age: the region's climate and terrain are best suited for nomads practicing pastoralism. Historians believe that humans first domesticated the horse in the region's vast steppes. While ancient cities Taraz (Aulie-Ata) and Hazrat-e Turkestan had long served as important way-stations along the Silk Road connecting East and West, real political consolidation only began with the Mongol invasion of the early 13th century. Under the Mongol Empire, administrative districts were established, and these eventually came under the emergent Kazakh Khanate. Throughout this period traditional nomadic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate the steppe. In the 15th century, a distinct Kazakh identity began to emerge among the Turkic tribes, a process which was consolidated by the mid-16th century with the appearance of a distinctive Kazakh language, culture, and economy. Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh emirs and the neighbouring Persian-speaking peoples to the south. By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which has effectively divided the population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) Hordes (jüz). Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between East and West weakened the Kazakh Khanate. During the 17th century Kazakhs fought Oirats, a federation of western Mongol tribes, among which the Dzungars were particularly aggressive. Kazakhstan to c. AD 1700 The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730 war against the Dzungars, following their "Great Disaster" invasion of Kazakh territories. Under leadership Abul Khair Khan the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungar at the Bulanty River, in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729. Country Briefings: Kazakhstan Ablai Khan participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungars from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a "batyr" ("hero") by the people. Kazakhs were also a victims of constant raids carried out by the Volga Kalmyks. Russian Empire Abay Qunanbayuli, Kazakh poet, composer and philosopher. In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand, and spread into Central Asia. The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. The tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan. The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" between it and the British Empire. The first Russian outpost, Orsk, was built in 1735. Russia enforced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the extreme resentment by the Kazakh people, and by the 1860s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy, and the associated hunger which was rapidly wiping out some Kazakh tribes. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 1800s, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle them. From the 1890s onwards ever-larger numbers of settlers from Russian Empire began colonising the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular the province of Semirechye. The number of settlers rose still further once the Trans-Aral Railway from Orenburg to Tashkent was completed in 1906, and the movement was overseen and encouraged by a specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in St. Petersburg. The competition for land and water which ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of Tsarist Russia, with the most serious uprising, the Central Asian Revolt, occurring in 1916. The Kazakhs attacked Russian and Cossack settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides. Kazakhstan. MSN Encarta. The Russians' revenge was merciless. A military force drove 300,000 Kazakhs to flee into the mountains or to China. When approximately 80,000 of them returned the next year, many of them were slaughtered by Tsarist forces. During the 1921–22 famine, another million Kazakhs died from starvation. Kazakh SSR Almaty, the Soviet-era capital of Kazakhstan. Although there was a brief period of autonomy (Alash Autonomy) during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, many uprisings were brutally suppressed, and the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to Soviet rule. In 1920, the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic within RSFSR. Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced collectivization in late 1920s–1930s, brought mass hunger and led to unrest (See also: Soviet famine of 1932–1933). The Kazakh Catastrophe and Stalin’s Order of Priorities, 1929–1933: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives Between 1926 and 1939, the Kazakh population declined by 22%, due to starvation, violence and mass emigration. Today, the estimates suggest that the population of Kazakhstan would be closer to 20 million if there had been no starvation or massacre of Kazakhs. During the 1930s, many renowned Kazakh writers, thinkers, poets, politicians and historians were slaughtered on Stalin's orders, both as part of the repression and as a methodical pattern of suppressing Kazakh identity and culture. Soviet rule took hold, and a communist apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system. In 1936 Kazakhstan became a Soviet republic. Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of millions exiled from other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s; many of the deportation victims were deported to Siberia or Kazakhstan merely due to their ethnic heritage or beliefs, and were in many cases interned in some of the biggest Soviet labour camps, including ALZHIR camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered "enemies of the people". Children of the gulag live with amnesia, Taipei Times, January 1, 2007 (See also: Population transfer in the Soviet Union, Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union.) The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) contributed five national divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort. In 1947, two years after the end of the war, the Semipalatinsk Test Site, the USSR's main nuclear weapon test site was founded near the city of Semey. The period of World War II marked an increase in industrialisation and increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious "Virgin Lands" programme to turn the traditional pasture lands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. By 1959, Kazakhs made up 30% of the population. Ethnic Russians accounted for 43%. Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. A factor that has contributed to this immensely was Lavrentii Beria's decision to test a nuclear bomb on the territory of Kazakh SSR in Semipalatinsk (also known as Semey) in 1949. This had a catastrophic ecological and biological effect which was felt generations later, and Kazakh anger toward the Soviet system has escalated. In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called Jeltoksan riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR Dinmukhamed Konayev with Gennady Kolbin from the Russian SFSR. Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed and many demonstrators were jailed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost. Astana, the capital of Kazakhstan Independence Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in October 1990. Following the August 1991 aborted coup attempt in Moscow and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared independence on December 16, 1991. It was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence. The years following independence have been marked by significant reforms to the Soviet-style economy and political monopoly on power. Under Nursultan Nazarbayev, who initially came to power in 1989 as the head of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan and was eventually elected President in 1991, Kazakhstan has made significant progress toward developing a market economy. The country has enjoyed significant economic growth since 2000, partly due to its large oil, gas, and mineral reserves. Democracy, however, has not gained much ground since 1991. "In June 2007, Kazakhstan's parliament passed a law granting President Nursultan Nazarbayev lifetime powers and privileges, including access to future presidents, immunity from criminal prosecution, and influence over domestic and foreign policy. Critics say he has become a de facto "president for life." World War 3 web site. Central Asia-Caucasus Institute briefing, July 5, 2000. Over the course of his ten years in power, Nazarbayev has repeatedly censored the press through arbitrary use of "slander" laws, RFE Newsline, April 12, 1996. blocked access to opposition web sites (November 9, 1999), banned the Wahhabi religious sect (September 5, 1998), and refused demands that the governors of Kazakhstan's 14 provinces be elected, rather than appointed by the president (April 7, 2000)." Government and politics President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev Political system Kazakhstan is a presidential republic. The president is the head of state. The president also is the commander in chief of the armed forces and may veto legislation that has been passed by the Parliament. The prime minister chairs the Cabinet of Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in the Cabinet. Karim Massimov has served as the Prime Minister since January 10, 2007. Kazakhstan has a bicameral Parliament, made up of the lower house (the Majilis) and upper house (the Senate). Single mandate districts popularly elect 67 seats in the Majilis; there also are ten members elected by party-list vote rather than by single mandate districts. The Senate has 39 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies (Maslikhats) of Kazakhstan's 16 principal administrative divisions (14 provinces, plus the cities of Astana and Almaty). The president appoints the remaining seven senators. Majilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the Parliament. Elections A sign for the Otan (Fatherland) Party, the former ruling party of Kazakhstan. Elections to the Majilis in September 2004 yielded a lower house dominated by the pro-government Otan party, headed by President Nazarbayev. Two other parties considered sympathetic to the president, including the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the Asar party, founded by President Nazarbayev's daughter, won most of the remaining seats. Opposition parties, which were officially registered and competed in the elections, won a single seat during elections that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards. In 1999, Kazakhstan applied for observer status at the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly. The official response of the Assembly was that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is partially located in Europe, but that they would not be granted any status whatsoever at the Council until their democracy and human rights records improved. On December 4, 2005, Nursultan Nazarbayev was reelected in a landslide victory. The electoral commission announced that he had won over 90% of the vote. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) concluded the election did not meet international standards despite some improvements in the administration of the election. Xinhua News Agency reported that observers from the People's Republic of China, responsible in overseeing 25 polling stations in Astana, found that voting in those polls was conducted in a "transparent and fair" manner. Kazakhstan's Nazarbayev Wins Re-election With 91% of Vote On August 17, 2007, elections to the lower house of parliament were held with the ruling Nur-Otan coalition winning every seat with 88% of the vote. None of the opposition parties have reached the benchmark 7% level of the seats. This has led some in the local media to question the competence and charisma of the opposition party leaders. Opposition parties made accusations of serious irregularities in the election. BBC NEWS World | Asia-Pacific | Kazakh poll fairness questioned BBC NEWS World | Asia-Pacific | Q&A: Kazakhstan parliamentary election Intelligence Services Kazakhstan's National Security Committee (KNB) was established on June 13, 1992. It includes the Service of Internal Security, Military Counterintelligence, Border Guard, several Commando units, and Foreign Intelligence (Barlau). The latter is considered by many as the most important part of KNB. Its director is Major General Omirtai Bitimov. Geography Map of Kazakhstan With an area of 2.7 million square kilometers (1.05 million sq. mi), Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest country in the world and the largest landlocked country in the world. It is equivalent to the size of Western Europe. It shares borders of 6,846 kilometers (4,254 mi) with Russia, 2,203 kilometers (1,369 mi) with Uzbekistan, 1,533 kilometers (953 mi) with China, 1,051 kilometers (653 mi) with Kyrgyzstan, and 379 kilometers (235 mi) with Turkmenistan. Major cities include Astana, Almaty, Karagandy, Shymkent, Atyrau and Oskemen. While located primarily in Asia, a small portion of Kazakhstan is also located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Kazakhstan - MSN Encarta Kaindy lake in south-east of Kazakhstan The terrain extends west to east from the Caspian Sea to the Altay Mountains and north to south from the plains of Western Siberia to the oases and deserts of Central Asia. The Kazakh Steppe (plain), with an area of around 804,500 square kilometres (310,600 sq. mi), occupies one-third of the country and is the world's largest dry steppe region. The steppe is characterized by large areas of grasslands and sandy regions. Important rivers and lakes include: the Aral Sea, Ili River, Irtysh River, Ishim River, Ural River, Syrdariya, Charyn River and gorge, Lake Balkhash and Lake Zaysan. Charyn Canyon in northern Tian Shan The climate is continental, with warm summers and colder winters. Precipitation varies between arid and semi-arid conditions. The Charyn Canyon is 150–300 metres deep and 80 kilometres long, cutting through the red sandstone plateau and stretching along the Charyn River gorge in northern Tian Shan ("Heavenly Mountains", 200 km east of Almaty) at . The steep canyon slopes, columns and arches rise to heights of 150–300 m. The inaccessibility of the canyon provided a safe haven for a rare ash tree that survived the Ice Age and is now also grown in some other areas. Bigach crater is a Pliocene or Miocene asteroid impact crater, in diameter and estimated at 5 ±3 million years old at . Provinces Kazakhstan is divided into 14 provinces (облыстар). The provinces are subdivided into districts (аудандар). Province Capital Area (km.²) Population Akmola Kokshetau 121,400 829,000 Aktobe Aktobe 300,600 661,000 Almaty(1) Almaty 324.8 1,226,300 Almaty Province Taldykorgan 224,000 860,000 Astana(1) Astana 710.2 600,200 Atyrau Atyrau 118,600 380,000 Baikonur(2) Baikonur 57 70,000 East Kazakhstan Oskemen 283,300 897,000 Karagandy Karagandy 428,000 1,287,000 Kostanay Kostanay 196,000 975,000 Kyzylorda Kyzylorda 226,000 590,000 Mangystau Aktau 165,600 316,847 North Kazakhstan Petropavl 123,200 586,000 Pavlodar Pavlodar 124,800 851,000 South Kazakhstan Shymkent 118,600 1,644,000 West Kazakhstan Oral 151,300 599,000 Zhambyl Taraz 144,000 962,000 Notes: CIA World Factbook: Kazakhstan. (1) Almaty and Astana cities have the status of State importance and do not relate to any province. (2) Baikonur city has a special status because it is currently being leased to Russia with Baikonur cosmodrome through the year 2050. Each province is headed by an Akim (provincial governor) appointed by the president. Municipal Akims are appointed by province Akims. The Government of Kazakhstan transferred its capital from Almaty to Astana on December 10, 1997. Economy Baykonur is the world's oldest and largest operational space launch facility The government of Kazakhstan plans to double its Gross domestic product (GDP) by 2008 and triple it by 2018 as compared to 2000. GDP growth has been stable in the last five years, at a rate higher than 9%. Buoyed by high world crude oil prices, GDP growth figures were in 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005: 9.8%, 13.2%, 9.5%, 9.2%, 9.4%, and 9.2%, respectively. Other major exports of Kazakhstan include wheat, textiles, and livestock. Kazakhstan forecasts that it will become the world's leading exporter of uranium by the year 2010. Kazakhstan's monetary policy is generally considered by outside observers to be well-managed. Its principal challenge since 2002 has been to manage strong foreign currency inflows without sparking inflation. Since that time, inflation has not been under control, registering at 6.6% in 2002, 6.8% in 2003, and 6.4% in 2004, higher than forecast levels of 5.3%-6.0%. In 2000 Kazakhstan became the first former Soviet republic to repay all of its debt to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), 7 years ahead of schedule. In March 2002, the U.S. Department of Commerce granted Kazakhstan market economy status under U.S. trade law. This change in status recognized substantive market economy reforms in the areas of currency convertibility, wage rate determination, openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of resources. Astana city In September 2002, Kazakhstan became the first country in the CIS to receive an investment-grade credit rating from a major international credit rating agency. As of late December 2003, Kazakhstan's gross foreign debt was about $22.9 billion. Total governmental debt was $4.2 billion. This amounts to 14% of GDP. There has been a noticeable reduction in the ratio of debt to GDP observed in past years; the ratio of total governmental debt to GDP in 2000 was 21.7%, in 2001 it was 17.5%, and in 2002 it was 15.4%. The upturn in economic growth, combined with the results of earlier tax and financial sector reforms, has dramatically improved government finances from the 1999 budget deficit level of 3.5% of GDP to a deficit of 1.2% of GDP in 2003. Government revenues grew from 19.8% of GDP in 1999 to 22.6% of GDP in 2001, but decreased to 16.2% of GDP in 2003. In 2000, Kazakhstan adopted a new tax code in an effort to consolidate these gains. On November 29, 2003 the Law on Changes to Tax Code was adopted, which reduced tax rates. The value added tax fell from 16% to 15%, the social tax from 21% to 20%, and the personal income tax from 30% to 20%. (On July 7, 2006 the personal income tax was reduced even further to a flat rate of 5% for personal income in the form of dividends and 10% for other personal income.) Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on June 20, 2003, and a new customs code on April 5, 2003. Headquarter of KazMunayGaz, the national oil and gas company Energy is the leading economic sector. Production of crude oil and natural gas condensate in Kazakhstan amounted to 51.2 million tons in 2003, which was 8.6% more than in 2002. Kazakhstan raised oil and gas condensate exports to 44.3 million tons in 2003, 13% higher than in 2002. Gas production in Kazakhstan in 2003 amounted to 13.9 billion cubic meters (491 billion cu. ft), up 22.7% compared to 2002, including natural gas production of 7.3 billion cubic meters (258 billion cu. ft); Kazakhstan holds about 4 billion tons of proven recoverable oil reserves and 2,000 cubic kilometers (480 cu mi) of gas. Industry analysts believe that planned expansion of oil production, coupled with the development of new fields, will enable the country to produce as much as 3 million barrels (477,000 m³) per day by 2015, lifting Kazakhstan into the ranks of the world's top 10 oil-producing nations. Kazakhstan's 2003 oil exports were valued at more than $7 billion, representing 65% of overall exports and 24% of the GDP. Major oil and gas fields and their recoverable oil reserves are Tengiz with 7 billion barrels (1.1 km³); Karachaganak with 8 billion barrels (1.3 km³) and 1,350 km³ of natural gas); and Kashagan with 7 to 9 billion barrels (1.1 to 1.4 km³). Kazakhstan instituted an ambitious pension reform program in 1998. As of January 1, 2005, the pension assets were about $4.1 billion. There are 16 saving pension funds in the republic. The State Accumulating Pension Fund, the only state-owned fund, could be privatized as early as 2006. The country's unified financial regulatory agency oversees and regulates the pension funds. The pension funds' growing demand for quality investment outlets triggered rapid development of the debt securities market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and government bonds, including Government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds. The Kazakhstani banking system is developing rapidly. The banking system's capitalization now exceeds $1 billion. The National Bank has introduced deposit insurance in its campaign to strengthen the banking sector. Several major foreign banks have branches in Kazakhstan, including ABN AMRO, Citibank, and HSBC. Raiffeisen Zentralbank and UniCredit have both recently entered the Kazakhstan's financial services market through acquisitions and stakebuilding. Agriculture Agriculture accounted for 10.3% of Kazakhstan's GDP in 2005. Background Note: Kazakhstan Grain (Kazakhstan is the seventh-largest producer in the world) and livestock are the most important agricultural commodities. Agricultural land occupies more than 846,000 square kilometres (327,000 sq. mi). The available agricultural land consists of 205,000 square kilometres (79,000 sq. mi) of arable land and 611,000 square kilometres (236,000 sq. mi) of pasture and hay land. Chief livestock products are dairy products, leather, meat, and wool. The country's major crops include wheat, barley, cotton, and rice. Wheat exports, a major source of hard currency, rank among the leading commodities in Kazakhstan's export trade. In 2003 Kazakhstan harvested 17.6 million tons of grain in gross, 2.8% higher compared to 2002. Kazakh agriculture still has many environmental problems from mismanagement during its years in the Soviet Union. Some Kazakh wine is produced in the mountains to the east of Almaty. Kazakhstan is thought to be one of the original homes of the apple, particularly the wild ancestor of Malus domestica, Malus sieversii. It has no common name in English, but is known in Kazakhstan, where it is native, as 'alma'. In fact, the region where it is thought to originate is called Almaty, or 'rich with apple'. The official site of Almaty city: History This tree is still found wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China. Natural resources Aktau seaport on the Caspian Sea Kazakhstan has an abundant supply of accessible mineral and fossil fuel resources. Development of petroleum, natural gas, and mineral extraction has attracted most of the over $40 billion in foreign investment in Kazakhstan since 1993 and accounts for some 57% of the nation's industrial output (or approximately 13% of gross domestic product). According to some estimates, Mineral Wealth. Kazakhstan has the second largest uranium, chromium, lead, and zinc reserves, the third largest manganese reserves, the fifth largest copper reserves, and ranks in the top ten for coal, iron, and gold. It is also an exporter of diamonds. Perhaps most significant for economic development, Kazakhstan also currently has the 11th largest proven reserves of both oil and natural gas. International Crisis Group. 2007. Central Asia’s Energy Risks, Asia Report No. 133. May. Available on-line at http://www.crisisgroup.org/ In total, there are 160 deposits with over 2.7 billion tons of petroleum. Oil explorations have shown that the deposits on the Caspian shore are only a small part of a much larger deposit. It is said that 3.5 billion tons of oil and 2.5 trillion cubic meters of gas could be found in that area. Overall the estimate of Kazakhstan's oil deposits is 6.1 billion tons. However, there are only 3 refineries within the country, situated in Atyrau, Pavlodar, and Shymkent. These are not capable of processing the total crude output so much of it is exported to Russia. In 2006, Kazakhstan was producing approximately of oil and 23.5 billion cubic metres of natural gas annually. British Petroleum (BP). 2006. World Oil Production. Database on-line. Available at http://www.bp.com/ Foreign relations and armed forces Kazakhstani President Nursultan Nazarbayev with former U.S. President George W. Bush, 2006 Kazakhstan within Europe (light blue represents territory considered to be located in Asia) Kazakhstan has stable relationships with all of its neighbors. Kazakhstan is also a member of the United Nations, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council and Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). It is an active participant in the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Partnership for Peace program. Kazakhstan is also a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Economic Cooperation Organization and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The nations of Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan established the Eurasian Economic Community in 2000 to re-energize earlier efforts at harmonizing trade tariffs and the creation of a free trade zone under a customs union. On December 1, 2007, it was revealed that Kazakhstan has been chosen to chair OSCE for the year 2010. Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has pursued what is known as the multidimensional foreign policy (многовекторная внешняя политика), seeking equally good relations with two large neighbors, Russia and China, and the United States and the West generally. The policy has yielded results in the oil and gas sector, where companies from the U.S., Russia, China, and Europe are present at all major fields, and in the multidimensional directions of oil export pipelines out of Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan also enjoys strong, and rapidly developing, political and economic ties with Turkey. In 2011, and possibly as early as 2010, Kazakhstan plans to form a customs union with Russia and Belarus. Russia currently leases approximately 6,000 km² (2,300 mi²) of territory enclosing the Baikonur Cosmodrome space launch site in south central Kazakhstan, where the first man was launched into space as well as Soviet space shuttle Buran and the well-known space station Mir. Most of Kazakhstan's military was inherited from the Soviet Armed Forces' Turkestan Military District. These units became the core of Kazakhstan's new military which acquired all the units of the 40th Army (the former 32nd Army) and part of the 17th Army Corps, including 6 land force divisions, storage bases, the 14th and 35th air-landing brigades, 2 rocket brigades, 2 artillery regiments and a large amount of equipment which had been withdrawn from over the Urals after the signing of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe. The largest expansion of the Kazakhstan Army has been focused on armored units in recent years. Since 1990, armored units have expanded from 500 to 1,613 in 2005. The Kazakh air force is composed mostly of Soviet-era planes, including 41 MiG-29s, 44 MiG-31s, 37 Su-24s and 60 Su-27s. A small naval force is also maintained on the Caspian Sea. Kazakhstan sent 49 military engineers to Iraq to assist the US post-invasion mission in Iraq. Demographics Population pyramid, 2005 The US Census Bureau International Database list the current population of Kazakhstan as 16,763,795, while United Nations sources such as the World Bank give a 2002 estimate of 14,794,830. The last 10-year census, held 28 February to 6 of March 2009, gave as result a total of 16,402,861 people registered in Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan Today: 16 million 402 thousand 861 people registered in Kazakhstan . The ethnic Kazakhs represent 59.2% of the population and ethnic Russians 25.6%, Kazakhstan's News Bulletin, April 20, 2007 with a rich array of other groups represented, including Tatars, Ukrainians, Uzbeks, Belarusians, Uyghurs, Azerbaijanis, and Poles. Kazakhstan's `forgotten Poles' long to return Some minorities such as Germans who had previously settled in Russia (esp.Volga Germans), Ukrainians, Koreans, Kurds, Chechens, Remembering Stalin's deportations, BBC News, February 23, 2004 Meskhetian Turks, and Russian political opponents of the regime had been deported to Kazakhstan in the 1930s and 1940s by Stalin; some of the bigger Soviet labour camps (Gulag) existed in the country. Politics, economics and time bury memories of the Kazakh gulag, International Herald Tribune, January 1, 2007 Significant Russian immigration also connected with Virgin Lands Campaign and Soviet space program during Khrushchev era. Robert Greenall, Russians left behind in Central Asia, BBC, November 23, 2005 There is also a small but active Jewish community. Before 1991 there were one million Germans in Kazakhstan; most of them emigrated to Germany following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Kazakhstan: Special report on ethnic Germans, IRIN Asia, February 1, 2005 Most members of the smaller Pontian Greek minority have emigrated to Greece. In the late 1930s thousands of Koreans in the Soviet Union were deported to Central Asia. These people are now known as Koryo-saram. Kazakhstan is a bilingual country: the Kazakh language, spoken by 64.4% of the population, has the status of the "state" language, while Russian, which is spoken by almost all Kazakhstanis, is declared the "official" language, and is used routinely in business. The ethnolinguistic patchwork of Central Asia. The 1990s were marked by the emigration of many of the country's Russians and Volga Germans, a process that began in the 1970s; this was a major factor in giving the autochthonous Kazakhs a majority along with higher Kazakh birthrates and ethnic Kazakh immigration from the People's Republic of China, Mongolia, and Russia. In the early twenty-first century, Kazakhstan has become one of the leading nations in international adoptions. This has recently sparked some criticism in the Parliament of Kazakhstan, due to the concerns about safety and treatment of the children abroad and the questions regarding the low level of population in Kazakhstan. Kazakhs and Kazakhstanis (terminology) The term Kazakhstani (; ) was coined to describe all citizens of Kazakhstan, including non-Kazakhs. The word "Kazakh" is generally used to refer to people of actual Kazakh descent (including those living in China, Afghanistan, Turkey, Uzbekistan and other countries). The ethnonym Kazakh is derived from an ancient Turkic word "independent, a free spirit". It is the result of Kazakhs' nomadic horseback culture and is related to the term "cossack". See etymology of Cossack and Kazakh in The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1993, pp. 520, 1474 The Avestan/Old Persian (See Indo-European languages) word "stan" means "land" or "place of", so "Kazakhstan" is "land of the Kazakhs". Religion Zenkov Cathedral in Almaty, a Russian Orthodox cathedral. Islam is the largest religion in Kazakhstan. Kazakhs are mainly Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi school, and the Russians are Russian Orthodox. In 1994, some 47 percent of the population was Muslim, 44 percent was Russian Orthodox, and 2 percent was Protestant, mainly Baptist. Library of Congress Country Studies Based on 2007 data from The Embassy of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the UK, Islam was practiced by 57% of the population, Christianity 40% and other religions 3%. The country has historically hosted a wide variety of ethnic groups with varying religions. Tolerance to other societies has become a part of the Kazakh culture. The foundation of an independent republic, following the disintegration of the USSR, has launched a great deal of changes in every aspect of people's lives. Religiosity of the population, as an essential part of any cultural identity, has undergone dynamic transformations as well. Recently, some Kazakhs have joined Buddhism. After decades of suppressed culture, the people were feeling a great need for exhibiting their ethnic identity – in part through religion. Quantitative research shows that for the first years after the establishment of the new laws, waiving any restrictions on religious beliefs and proclaiming full freedom of confessions, the country experienced a huge spike in religious activity of its citizens. Hundreds of mosques, synagogues, churches, and other religious structures were built in a matter of years. All represented religions benefited from increased number of members and facilities. Many confessions that were absent before independence made their way into the country, appealing to hundreds of people. The government supported this activity, and has done its best to provide equality among all religious organizations and their followers. Some reported occurrences of persecution against Hare Krishnas and Jehovah's Witnesses for proselytizing have raised concern in the international community. WorldWide Religious News-KAZAKHSTAN: Officially-inspired intolerance of religious freedom steps up Forum 18 Search/Archive Palace of the Soul: Project Updates A Unification Church missionary was imprisoned on January 9, 2009 in Almaty after her teachings on original sin were classified by the government as a criminal offense. She was freed on appeal after serving two months. The Washington Times, March 11, 2009 Education KIMEP in AlmatyEducation is universal and mandatory through to the secondary level and the adult literacy rate is 99.5%. Education consists of three main educational phases: primary education (forms 1–4), basic general education (forms 5–9) and senior level education (forms 10–11 or 12) divided into continued general education and professional education. (Primary education is preceded by one year of pre-school education.) These three levels of education can be followed in one institution or in different ones (e.g. primary school, then secondary school). Recently, several secondary schools, specialized schools, magnet schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, linguistic and technical gymnasiums, have been founded. Secondary professional education is offered in special professional or technical schools, lyceums or colleges and vocational schools. At present, there are universities, academies, and institutes, conservatories, higher schools and higher colleges. There are three main levels: basic higher education that provides the fundamentals of the chosen field of study and leads to the award of the Bachelor's degree; specialized higher education after which students are awarded the Specialist's Diploma; and scientific-pedagogical higher education which leads to the Master's Degree. Postgraduate education leads to the Kandidat nauk (Candidate of Sciences) and the Doctor of Sciences. With the adoption of the Laws on Education and on Higher Education, a private sector has been established and several private institutions have been licensed. The Ministry of Education of Kazakhstan runs a highly successful Bolashak scholarship, which is annually awarded to approximately three thousand applicants. The scholarship funds their education in institutions abroad, including the prestigious Oxford and Ivy League universities. The terms of the program include mandatory return to Kazakhstan for at least five years of employment. Sport Football is the most popular sport in Kazakhstan. The Football Federation of Kazakhstan (Kazakh: Қазақстанның Футбол Федерациясы) is the sport's national governing body. The FFK organises the men's, women's and futsal national teams. Hockey - The Kazakhstani national ice hockey team has competed in ice hockey in the 1998 and 2006 Winter Olympics as well as in the 2006 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships. Kazakhstan has 7 teams. The teams are Kaztsink-Torpedo Ust-Kamenogorsk, Kazakhmys Satpaev, Gornyak Rudnyi, Barys Astana, Irtysh Pavlodar, Yenbek Almaty, Sary-Arka Karagandy. Top Kazakhstani ice hockey players include Nikolai Antropov and Evgeni Nabokov. Barys Astana - main kazakhi ice hockey professional team play in Kontinental Hockey League. Cycling - Alexander Vinokourov represented Kazakhstan in his cycling career for the Astana Team. Vinokourov had an impressive cycling record finishing third overall in the 2003 Tour de France. Vinokourov finished 5th in the 2005 Tour de France, while two other young Kazakhstanis, Andrej Kashechkin and Maksim Iglinskiy, finished 19th and 37th, respectively. In 2006 Vinokourov's team became known as "Team Astana" after a drug doping scandal forced his team (AKA Liberty Seguras) from the 2006 Tour de France. Vinokourov helped form a new team funded by a comglomeration of Kazakhstan businesses and adopted the color of the Kazakh flag for its uniforms. That same year, Vinokourov and Kashechkin took first and third places in general classification at Vuelta a Espana '06 in Spain. In September 2006, Vino won the 61st Vuelta a España by attacking Alejandro Valverde in dramatic fashion with 23 km to go in Stage 17. He then held on to his lead over the next four stages, including the final individual time trial to win the Vuelta. Boxing - Kazakhstan is one of the leading countries in the world in this sport. Since it's independence in 1991 Kazakhstan's most famous boxers constantly have been earning medals. Due to that Kazakhstan quickly went up in all-time medal table of Olympic Games in boxing, where the country jumped from the lowest starting rank to current 11th rank among all other countries. As of now, 2 Kazakh boxers (Bakhtiyar Artayev, Vassiliy Jirov) have earned Val Barker Trophy, making Kazakhstan second from the top falling only 3 medals behind from USA. Culture Riders in traditional dress demonstrate Kazakhstan's equestrian culture by playing a kissing game, Kyz kuu ("Chase the Girl"), one of a number of traditional games played on horseback. The Customs and Traditions of the Kazakh By Betsy Wagenhauser Before the Russian colonization, the Kazakhs had a well-articulated culture based on their nomadic pastoral economy. Although Islam was introduced to most of the Kazakhs in the fifteenth century, the religion was not fully assimilated until much later. As a result, it coexisted with earlier elements of Tengriism. Traditional Kazakh belief held that separate spirits inhabited and animated the earth, sky, water and fire, as well as domestic animals. To this day, particularly honored guests in rural settings are treated to a feast of freshly killed lamb. Such guests are sometimes asked to bless the lamb and to ask its spirit for permission to partake of its flesh. Besides lamb, many other traditional foods retain symbolic value in Kazakh culture. Traditional moral values of Kazakhs are respect of the elders and hospitality to strangers. In the national cuisine, livestock meat can be cooked in a variety of ways and is usually served with a wide assortment of traditional bread products. Refreshments often include black tea and traditional milk-derived drinks such as ayran, shubat and kymyz. A traditional Kazakh dinner involves a multitude of appetisers on the table, followed by a soup and one or two main courses such as pilaf and beshbarmak. They also drink their national beverage, which consists of fermented mare's milk. Because livestock was central to the Kazakhs' traditional lifestyle, most of their nomadic practices and customs relate in some way to livestock. Kazakhs have historically been very affectionate about horse-riding. Traditional curses and blessings invoked disease or fecundity among animals, and good manners required that a person ask first about the health of a man's livestock when greeting him and only afterward inquire about the human aspects of his life. Even today, many Kazakhs express interest in equestrianism and horse-racing. Kazakhstan is home to a large number of prominent contributors to literature, science and philosophy: Abay Qunanbayuli, Al-Farabi, Mukhtar Auezov, Gabit Musirepov, Kanysh Satpayev, Mukhtar Shakhanov, Saken Seyfullin, Jambyl Jabayev, among many others. Beshbarmak, a traditional dish in Kazakhstan Kazakhstan has developed itself as a formidable sports-force on the world arena in the following fields: boxing, chess, kickboxing, skiing, gymnastics, water-polo, cycling, martial arts, heavy-athletics, horse-riding, tri-athlon, track-hurdles, sambo, greco-roman wrestling and billiards. The following are all well-known Kazakhstani athletes and world-championship medalists: Bekzat Sattarkhanov, Vassiliy Jirov, Alexander Vinokourov, Bulat Jumadilov, Mukhtarkhan Dildabekov, Olga Shishigina, Andrey Kashechkin, Aliya Yussupova, Dmitriy Karpov, Darmen Sadvakasov, Yeldos Ikhsangaliyev, Aidar Kabimollayev, Yermakhan Ibraimov, Vladimir Smirnov, among others. Kazakhstan features a lively music culture, evident in massive popularity of SuperStar KZ, a local offspring of Simon Fuller's Pop Idol. Almaty is considered to be the musical capital of the Central Asia, recently enjoying concerts by well-known artists such as Deep Purple, Tokio Hotel, Atomic Kitten, Dima Bilan, Loon, Craig David, The Black Eyed Peas, Eros Ramazzotti, Jose Carreras, Ace of Base, among others. During the recent years, Kazakhstan has experienced somewhat of a revival of the Kazakh language, Kazakhstan officials adopt low-key language policy EnerPub - Energy Publisher which is returning into mainstream usage both in media, law and business, as well as the general society. This is widely approved by Kazakh people and the international organizations as a way of preserving the national identity and culture, but has in some cases caused anxiety among Russian-Kazakhstanis, Russia-sponsored special-interest groups in Kazakhstan and some high-ranking politicians in Russia. The Parliament is considering the introduction of Latin-based Kazakh alphabet to replace Cyrillic-based. The reasons that are popularly cited are cultural considerations and the Turkic nature of the Kazakh language. Turkic languages such as Turkish and Uzbek use the Latin alphabet. However, the imposition of the Latin alphabet in Kazakhstan would involve massive costs of translation and replacement of the vast Kazakh literature. Public holidays Date English name Local name Notes January 1 New Year's Day Жаңа жыл / Новый Год January 7 Eastern Orthodox Christmas Рождество Христово from 2007 official holiday Last day of Hajj Qurban Ayt* Құрбан айт March 8 International Women's Day Халықаралық әйелдер күні / Международный женский день March 22 Nauryz Meyramy Наурыз мейрамы Traditionally a springtime holiday marking the beginning of a new year, sometimes as late as April 21. May 1 Kazakhstan People’s Unity Day Қазақстан халқының бірлігі мерекесі / Праздник единства народа Казахстана May 9 World War II Victory Day Жеңіс күні / День Победы A holiday in the former Soviet Union carried over to present-day Kazakhstan and other former republics (Except Baltic Countries). July 6 Capital City Day Астана күні / День столицы August 30 Constitution Day Қазақстан Республикасының Конституциясы күні / День Конституции Республики Казахстан October 25 Republic Day Республика күні / День Республики December 16 Independence Day Тәуелсіздік күні / День независимости Media of Kazakhstan Transportation Rail Telecommunications Internet See also Kazpost .kz References Bibliography Kazakhs, by Martha Brill Olcott Epicenter of Peace, by Nursultan Nazarbayev Kazakhstan: Coming of Age, by Michael Furgus and Janar Jandosova Kazakhstan: Power and the Elite, by Sally Cummings Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled Promise, by Martha Brill Olcott Lonely Planet Guide: Central Asia, by Paul Clammer, Michael Kohn and Bradley Mayhew The Lost Heart of Asia, by Colin Thubron Once in Kazakhstan: The Snow Leopard Emerges, by Keith Rosten Post-Soviet Chaos: Violence and Dispossession in Kazakhstan, by Joma Nazpary The Russian Colonization of Kazakhstan, by George Demko Uneasy Alliance: Relations Between Russia and Kazakhstan in the Post-Soviet Era — 1992–1997, by Mikhail Alexandrov Journey into Kazakhstan: The True Face of the Nazarbayev Regime, by Alexandra George Law and Custom in the Steppe, by Virginia Martin Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New Middle East?, by Ted Rall In Search of Kazakhstan: The Land That Disappeared, by Christopher Robbins Notes External links Government Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan E-Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan Government of Kazakhstan President of the Republic of Kazakhstan Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information 2008 Human Rights Report: Kazakhstan. 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2,978 | Charlton_Athletic_F.C. | Charlton Athletic Football Club (also known as The Addicks) is a professional association football club based in Charlton, in the London Borough of Greenwich. Charlton was founded on 9 June 1905, when a number of youth clubs in the South-East London area, including both East Street Mission and Blundell Mission, combined to form Charlton Athletic Football Club. The club is based at The Valley, where it has played since 1919, apart from one year in Catford, during 1923–24, and seven years at Crystal Palace and West Ham United between 1985 and 1992. Charlton turned professional in 1920 and first entered the Football League in 1921. Since then, it has had four separate periods in the top flight of English football; between 1936 and 1957; 1986 and 1990; 1998 and 1999, and 2000 to 2007. Historically, Charlton's most successful period was the 1930s, when the club's highest league finishes were recorded, and the 1940s, when the club reached the FA Cup final twice, winning in 1947. After being relegated from the Championship in 2008–09, they will play in Football League One in 2009–10. History Charlton Athletic were formed on 9 June 1905 by a group of 15 to 17 year old boys in an area of Charlton which is no longer residential, near where the Thames Barrier is now. In the club's early years of existence, its progress was hampered by the nearby presence of Woolwich Arsenal F.C. (now Arsenal), which was one of the largest clubs in the country, and Charlton spent the years preceding the war playing in local leagues. Woolwich Arsenal's move to North London in 1913 gave Charlton an opportunity to develop, and they became a senior side by joining the Lewisham League. After the First World War, they joined the Kent League for one season (1919–20) and then becoming professional, appointing Walter Rayner as the first full time manager. They were accepted by the Southern League and played just a single season (1920–21) before being voted into the Football League. The club's first Football League match was against Exeter City in August 1921, which was won 1–0. In 1923 it was proposed that Charlton merged with Catford Southend to create a larger team with bigger support. In the 1923–24 season Charlton played in Catford at The Mount stadium and wore the colours of 'The Enders', light and dark blue vertical stripes. However, the move fell through and the Addicks returned to the Charlton area in 1924, returning to the traditional red and white colours in the process. Charlton finished second bottom in the Football League in 1926 and was forced to apply for re-election which was successful. Three years later the Addicks won the Division Three championship in 1929 and they remained at the Division Two level for four years. After relegation, Jimmy Seed was appointed as manager and three years into Seed's reign, the Addicks had gained successive promotions from the Third Division to the First Division in 1936. In 1937, Charlton finished runners up in the First Division, in 1938 finished fourth and 1939 finished third. They were the most consistent team in the top flight of English football over the three seasons immediately before World War II. This continued during the war years and they won the "war" cup and appeared in finals. They remained in the First Division, and were finalists in the 1946 FA Cup, but lost to 4–1 to Derby after extra time. The Addicks made amends when the reached the FA Cup final again in 1947. This time they beat Burnley 1–0 and Chris Duffy scoring the only goal of the day. In this period of renewed football attendances, Charlton became one of only eleven English football teams to average over 40,000 as their attendance during a full season. The Valley was the largest football ground in the League, drawing crowds in excess of 70,000. However, in the 1950s little investment was made either for players or to The Valley, hampering the club's growth. In 1956, the then board undermined Jimmy Seed, and Charlton were relegated the following year. From the late 1950s until the early 1970s, Charlton remained a mainstay of the Second Division. Relegation to the Third Division in 1972 caused the team's support to drop, and even a promotion in 1975 back to the second division did little to re-invigorate the team's support and finances. In 1979–80 Charlton were relegated again to the Third Division, but won immediate promotion back to the Second Division in 1980–81. Even though it did not feel like it, this was a turning point in the club's history leading to a period of turbulence and change including further promotion and exile. A change in management and shortly after a change in club ownership led to severe problems, such as the reckless signing of former European Footballer of the Year Allan Simonsen, and the club looked like it would go out of business. In 1984 financial matters came to a head and the club went into administration, to be reformed as Charlton Athletic (1984) Ltd. But the club's finances were still far from secure, and they were forced to leave the Valley just after the start of the 1985-86 season after its safety was criticised by Football League officials. The club began to groundshare with Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park and this arrangement looked to be for the long-term, as Charlton did not have enough funds to revamp the Valley to meet safety requirements. Despite the move away from the Valley, Charlton were promoted to the First Division as Second Division runners-up at the end of 1985–86, and remained at this level for four years (achieving a highest league finish of 14th) often with late escapes, most notably against Leeds in 1987, where the Addicks triumphed in extra-time of the play-off final replay to secure their top flight place. In 1987 Charlton also returned to Wembley for the first time since the 1947 FA Cup final for the Full Members Cup final against Blackburn. Eventually, however, the Addicks fell to relegation in 1990 after a dismal season. Manager Lennie Lawrence remained in charge for one more season before he accepted an offer to take charge ofMiddlesbrough. He was replaced by joint player-managers Alan Curbishley and Steve Gritt. The pair had unexpected success in their first season finishing just outside the play-offs, and 1992–93 began promisingly and Charlton looked good bets for promotion in the new Division One (the new name of the old Second Division following the formation of the Premier League). However, the club was forced to sell players such as Rob Lee to help pay for a return to The Valley, which eventually happened in December 1992. In 1995, new chairman Richard Murray appointed Curbishley as sole manager of Charlton. Under his sole leadership Charlton made an appearance in the playoffs in 1996 but were eliminated by Crystal Palace in the semi-finals and the following season brought a disappointing 15th place finish. 1997–98 was Charlton's best season for years. They reached the Division One playoff final and battled against Sunderland in a thrilling game which ended with a 4–4 draw after extra time. Charlton won 7–6 on penalties, with the match described as "one of the finest games ever seen at Wembley", and were promoted to the Premier League. Charlton's first Premier League campaign began promisingly (they went top after two games) but they were unable to keep up their good form and were soon battling relegation. The battle was lost on the final day of the season but the club's board kept faith in Curbishley, confident that they could bounce back. And Curbishley rewarded the chairman's loyalty with the Division One title in 2000 which signalled a return to the Premiership. After the club's return, Curbishley proved an astute spender and by 2003 he had succeeded in establishing Charlton in the top flight. In the 2003–04 season, Charlton spent much of the campaign challenging for a Champions League place, but a late-season slump in form, combined with the sale of star player Scott Parker to Chelsea, left Charlton in 7th place, which was still the club's highest finish since the 1950s. However, Charlton failed to build on this achievement and Curbishley left two years afterwards in 2006, after 15 years as manager, with the club still established as a solid mid table side. In May 2006, Iain Dowie was named as Curbishley's successor, but was sacked after twelve league matches in November 2006, with only two wins. Les Reed replaced Dowie as manager, however he too failed to improve Charlton's position in the league table and on Christmas Eve 2006, Reed was replaced by former player Alan Pardew. Although results did improve, Pardew was unable to keep Charlton up and relegation was confirmed in the penultimate match of the season. Charlton's return to the second tier of English football was a disappointment, with their promotion campaign tailing off to an 11th place finish. Early in the following season the Addicks were linked with a foreign takeover, but this was swiftly denied by the club. More recently, on 10 October 2008 Charlton received an indicative offer for the club from a Dubai-based diversified investment company. However, the deal later fell through. The full significance of this soon became apparent as the club recorded net losses of over £13 million in the past financial year. On 22 November 2008 Charlton suffered a 5–2 loss to Sheffield United at home, which meant that the club had gone eight successive games without a win and had slipped into the relegation zone - particularly disastrous considering they were among the pre-season favourites for promotion. Hours after the game, Alan Pardew left Charlton by mutual consent. Matters did not improve under caretaker manager Phil Parkinson, and a 3–1 defeat at Sheffield United saw the Addicks four points adrift at the bottom of the Championship as 2009 dawned, under threat of their first relegation to English football's third tier for 29 years. Charlton continued their poor run of form to go 18 games without a win, a new club record, before finally achieving a 1–0 away victory over Norwich City in an FA Cup Third Round replay. They then went on to beat Crystal Palace 1–0 at the Valley on January 27 to achieve their first league win under Phil Parkinson, whose contract was made permanent despite the lack of progress in the league. Charlton's relegation from the Championship was all but confirmed on Easter Monday (13th April) when, despite picking up a point in a 0–0 draw at Coventry, they found themselves 12 points from safety with four games remaining. With a vastly inferior goal difference and with the two teams directly above them (Southampton and Nottingham Forest) still having to play each other, it was effectively an impossible task for Charlton to avoid relegation. The following game saw Charlton's relegation to League One become a reality after a 2–2 draw against Blackpool. Stadia One of Charlton's early grounds, Siemens Meadow The club's first ground was Siemens Meadow (1905–1907), not a meadow but a patch of rough ground by the Thames. This was over-shadowed by the now demolished Siemens Telegraph Works. Then followed Woolwich Common (1907–1908), Pound Park (1908–1913), and Angerstein Lane (1913–1915). After the end of the First World War, a chalk quarry known as the 'Swamps' was identified as the new ground for Charlton, and in the summer of 1919 work began on the ground to create the level playing area and remove debris from the site. The first match at this site, now known as the club's current ground The Valley, was in September 1919. Charlton stayed at The Valley until 1923, when the club moved to The Mount stadium in Catford as part of a proposed merger with Catford Southend Football Club. However, after this move collapsed in 1924 Charlton returned to The Valley. During the 1930s and 1940s, significant improvements were made to the ground so that it was one of the largest in the country. In 1938 the highest attendance to date at the ground was recorded at over 75,000 for a FA Cup match against Aston Villa. During the 1940s and 50s the attendance was often above 40,000, and Charlton had one of the largest support bases in the country. However, after the club's relegation little investment was made to The Valley as it fell into decline. In the 1980s matters came to a head as the ownership of the club and The Valley was divided. The large East Terrace had been closed down by the authorities after the Bradford City disaster and the ground's owner wanted to use part of the site for housing. In September 1985, Charlton made the controversial move to ground-share with South London neighbours Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park. This move was unpopular with supporters and in the late 1980s significant steps were taken to bring about the club's return to The Valley. A single issue political party, the Valley Party, contested the 1990 local elections in Greenwich Borough Council on a ticket of reopening the stadium, capturing a creditable 11% of the vote, aiding the club's return. The 'Valley Gold' investment scheme was created to help supporters fund the return to The Valley, and several players were also sold to ensure the club's return. For the 1991–92 season (and part of the 1992–93 season), the Addicks played at West Ham's Upton Park as Wimbledon had moved into Selhurst Park alongside Palace. Charlton finally returned to The Valley in December 1992, celebrating with 1–0 victory against Portsmouth. The Valley in 2007 Since the return to The Valley, three sides of the ground have been completely redeveloped turning The Valley into a modern, all-seater stadium with a 27,111 capacity. There are currently plans in place to increase the ground's capacity to approximately 31,000 and even around 40,000 in the future. Supporters The bulk of the club's support base comes from the London Boroughs of Greenwich, Bexley and Bromley and also north-west Kent. The connection with Kent is longstanding (Charlton was part of Kent until the creation of London County Council in 1889), and today supporters' coaches are laid on from all over the county. Charlton are rare among football clubs, in that they reserve a seat on their directors' board for a supporter. Any season ticket holder can put themselves forward for election, with a certain number of nominations, and votes are cast by all season ticket holders over the age of 18. The current director is Ben Hayes, who was elected in 2006 and will last until 2008. The role is, however, set to be discontinued as a result of legal issues and replaced by a fans forum. Charlton's most common nickname is The Addicks. Among the theories on the origin of the Addicks name are that it was the south-east London pronunciation of either 'addict' or 'athletic'. However, the most likely origin of name is from a local fishmonger, Arthur 'Ikey' Bryan, who rewarded the team with meals of haddock and chips. Bent scoring an 86th minute penalty against Wigan Athletic, which earned Charlton a 1–0 victory The progression of the nickname can be seen in the book The Addicks Cartoons: An Affectionate Look into the Early History of Charlton Athletic, which covers the pre-First World War history of Charlton through a narrative based on 56 cartoons which appeared in the now defunct Kentish Independent. The very first cartoon, from 31 October 1908, calls the team the Haddocks. By 1910, the name had changed to Addicks although it also appeared as Haddick. The club has had two other nicknames, the Robins, adopted in 1931, and the Valiants, chosen in a fan competition in the 1960s which also led to the adoption of the sword badge which is still in use. The Addicks nickname never went away and was revived by fans after the club lost its Valley home in 1985 and went into exile at Crystal Palace. It is now once again the official nickname of the club. The charlton fans usually generate quite a bit of an atmosphere coming from north upper. The fans' favourite chant is entitled "Valley, Floyd Road" (Floyd Road being the address of the stadium) and is sung to the tune of Paul McCartney's "Mull of Kintyre". The team run out to "The Red, Red Robin" and the version played is one by the Billy Cotton band first recorded in the 1950s. A number of versions have been recorded, however this version is now well established. Colours and Crest Crest of the former Metropolitan Borough of Greenwich Council, used by Charlton briefly in late 1940s and early 50sCharlton have used a number of crests and badges during their history, though the current design has not been changed since 1968. The first known badge, from the 1930s, consisted of the letters CAF in the shape of a club from a pack of cards. In the 1940s, Charlton used a design featuring a robin sitting in a football within a shield, sometimes with the letters CAFC in the four quarters of the shield, which was worn for the 1946 FA Cup final. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the crest of the former metropolitan borough of Greenwich was used as a symbol for the club but this was not used on the team's shirts. In 1963, a competition was held to find a new badge for the club, and the winning entry was a hand holding a sword, which complied with Charlton's nickname of the time, the Valiants. Over the next five years modifications were made to this design, such as the addition of a circle surrounding the hand and sword and including the club's name in the badge. By 1968, the design had reached the one known today, and has been used continuously from this year, apart from a period in the 1970s when the just the letters ‘CAFC’ appeared on the team's shirts. With the exception of one season, Charlton have always played in red and white. The colours had been chosen by the group of boys who had founded Charlton Athletic in 1905. The exception came during the 1923–24 season when Charlton wore the colours of Catford Southend as part of the proposed move to Catford, which were light and dark blue stripes. However, after the move fell through, Charlton returned to wearing red and white as their home colours. Kit Sponsors and Manufacturers Year Kit ManufacturerShirt Sponsor 1905–74 none None 1974–80 Bukta 1980–81 Adidas 1981–82 FADS 1982–83 None 1983–84 Osca 1984–86 The Woolwich 1986–88 Adidas 1988–92 Admiral 1992–93 Ribero None 1993–94 Viglen 1994–98 Quaser 1998–00 Le Coq Sportif MESH 2000–02 Redbus 2002–03 All:Sports 2003–05 Joma 2005–08 Llanera 2008– Carbrini Sportswear Rivalries Most Charlton fans would consider Crystal Palace F.C. or Millwall F.C. as their main rivals, by virtue of geographical location. Charlton's rivalry with Crystal Palace stems from the days when Charlton played at Selhurst Park in 1985 as The Valley was closed and then refurbished, to be opened again in 1992. During this time, Palace's then-chairman Ron Noades tried to increase the rent Charlton had to pay, forcing the club to move along to a rather more welcoming Upton Park. Crystal Palace's outspoken chairman Simon Jordan has often criticised Charlton fans, and Jordan once called the Charlton fans 'morons'. He later retracted his statement, saying: "In hindsight, I regret calling Charlton fans morons; imbeciles would have been more relevant." This centres around the behaviour of Charlton's fans: most notably when Charlton relegated Crystal Palace in 2004–05, which was a return gesture to the way Palace fans reacted after they won the 1995–96 play-off semi finals between the clubs; also, when Charlton fans tried to boycott a 'Save Our Club' pledge from Crystal Palace supporters in the 1999–2000 season during a game at Selhurst Park. Whilst Crystal Palace fans would acknowledge Brighton as their main rivals, there is growing anomosity between the two clubs, both in the stands and at boardroom level, with a public falling-out over the appointment of Iain Dowie in 2006 which dominated the news. Public clashes between rival supporters have also been well documented. Millwall would be considered Charlton's rivals by proximity but, as the two teams have not been in the same league for well over ten years, this has cooled off dramatically. Gillingham F.C. supporters seem to have developed a hatred of Charlton Athletic over the 'Valley Express' service, which arguably exploits Gillingham's key catchment area of support by offering cheap coach services to the Valley from Kent. Gillingham chairman Paul Scally has been very critical of Charlton in recent years, but this is taken with a pinch of salt by Charlton fans, who consider Gillingham irrelevant. Players As of 29 March 2009. It has been confirmed that Jamie Green will be joining League 1 side Charlton Athletic on June 5 Out on loan Notable former players Player of the year YearWinner1971 Paul Went1972 Keith Peacock1973 Arthur Horsfield1974 John Dunn1975 Richie Bowman1976 Derek Hales1977 Mike Flanagan1978 Keith Peacock1979 Keith Peacock1980 Les Berry1981 Nicky Johns1982 Terry Naylor1983 Nicky Johns YearWinner1984 Nicky Johns1985 Mark Aizlewood1986 Mark Aizlewood1987 Bob Bolder1988 John Humphrey1989 John Humphrey1990 John Humphrey1991 Robert Lee1992 Simon Webster1993 Stuart Balmer1994 Carl Leaburn1995 Richard Rufus1996 John Robinson YearWinner1997 Andy Petterson1998 Mark Kinsella1999 Mark Kinsella2000 Richard Rufus2001 Richard Rufus2002 Dean Kiely2003 Scott Parker2004 Dean Kiely2005 Luke Young2006 Darren Bent2007 Scott Carson2008 Matt Holland2009 Nicky Bailey Club officials Club officials as of 16 June 2008 Year Name1921–1924 Douglas Oliver1924–1932 Edwin Radford1932–1951 Albert Gliksten1951–1962 Stanley Gliksten1962–1982 Edward Gliksten1982–1983 Mark Hulyer1983 Richard Collins1983–1984 Mark Hulyer1984 John Fryer1984–1985 Jimmy Hill1985–1987John Fryer1987–1989 Richard Collins1989–1995 Roger Alwen1995–2008 Richard Murray (plc)1995–2008 Martin Simons2008– Derek Chappell (plc)2008– Richard Murray Boardroom Charlton Athletic PLC Chairman: Derek Chappell Deputy Chairman: Robert Whitehand Directors: Gideon Franklin, Michael Grade, Richard Murray, Martin Simons, David Sumners CAFC Limited Honorary Life President: Sir Maurice Hatter Chairman: Richard Murray Deputy chairman: Martin Simons Chief Executive: Steve Waggott Deputy Chief Executive: Nigel Capelin Directors: Roger Alwen, Derek Chappell, Richard Collins, Gideon Franklin, David Hughes, Michael Stevens, David Sumners, Derek Ufton, David White, Robert Whitehand Associate Directors: Clifford Benford, John Humphreys, Diran Kazandjian, Andrew Murray, Hannah Murray, James Murray, Keith Peacock, Paul Statham, Steven Ward Management Role NameManager Phil ParkinsonAssistant Manager Lee DixonCoach Mark KinsellaGoalkeeping Coach Andy Woodman, Lee SmeltInterim Reserve Team Manager Damian MatthewAcademy Manager Steve GrittInterim U18s ManagerWomen's Team Manager Paul MortimerClub Doctor John Fraser Managerial history Alan Curbishley managed Charlton between 1991 and 2006 NameDatesAchievements Walter RaynerJune 1920 – May 1925 Alex 'Sandy' MacFarlaneMay 1925 – January 1928 Albert Lindon January 1928 – June 1928 Alex 'Sandy' MacFarlaneJune 1928 – December 1932Division Three Champions (1929) Albert LindonDecember 1932 – May 1933 Jimmy SeedMay 1933 – September 1956Division Three Champions (1935);Division Two runners up (1936); Football League runners up (1937); FA Cup runners up 1946; FA Cup winners 1947 David Clark (caretaker)September 1956 Jimmy TrotterSeptember 1956 – October 1961 David Clark (caretaker)October 1961 – November 1961 Frank Hill November 1961 – August 1965 Bob StokoeAugust 1965 – September 1967 Eddie FirmaniSeptember 1967 – March 1970 Theo FoleyMarch 1970 – April 1974 Les Gore (caretaker) April 1974 – May 1974 Andy NelsonMay 1974 – March 1980Division Three 3rd place (promoted - 1975) Mike BaileyMarch 1980 – June 1981Division Three 3rd place (promoted - 1981) Alan MulleryJune 1981 – June 1982 Ken CraggsJune 1982 – November 1982 Lennie LawrenceNovember 1982 – July 1991Division Two runners up (1986); Full Members Cup runners up (1987) Alan Curbishley & Steve GrittJuly 1991 – June 1995 Alan Curbishley June 1995 – May 2006Division One play-off winners (1998);Football League Champions (2000) Iain DowieMay 2006 – November 2006 Les ReedNovember 2006 – December 2006 Alan PardewDecember 2006 – November 2008 Phil ParkinsonNovember 2008 – Honours Competition Achievement YearFA CupWinners1947FA CupFinalists1946Football LeagueRunners-Up1937Division One Play-OffChampions1998Division OneChampions2000Division TwoRunners-Up1936Division TwoRunners-Up1986Division Three SouthChampions1929Division Three SouthChampions1935Division ThreePromoted1975Division ThreePromoted1981Full Members CupFinalists1987 Records Charlton's top appearance maker, Sam Bartram Goalkeeper Sam Bartram is Charlton's record appearance maker, having played a total of 623 times between 1934 and 1956. But for six years lost to World War II, when no league football was played, this tally would be far higher. Keith Peacock is the club's second highest appearance maker with 591 games between 1961 and 1979. Charlton's record goalscorer is Derek Hales, who scored 168 times in all competitions in 368 matches, during two spells, for the club. Counting only league goals, Stuart Leary is the club's record scorer with 153 goals between 1951 and 1962. The record number of goals scored in one season is 33, scored by Ralph Allen in the 1934–35 season. Charlton's record home attendance is 75,031 which was set on 12 February 1938 for an FA Cup match against . The record all-seated attendance is 27,111, The Valley's current capacity. This record was first set in September 2005 in a Premier League match against and has since been equalled several times. Role NameHighest League Finish Runners-up in 1936/37 (First Division)Most League Points in a Season 91 in 1999/00 (Division One)Most League Goals in a Season 107 in 1957/58 (Second Division)Record Victory 8-1 vs Middlesbrough, 12 September 1953Record Defeat 1-11 vs Aston Villa, 14 November 1959Record FA Cup Victory 7-0 vs Burton Albion, 7 January 1956Record League Cup Victory 5-0 vs Brentford, 12 August 1980Most Successive Victories 12 matches (from 26 December 1999 to 7 March 2000)Most Games Without A Win 18 matches (from 18 October 2008 to 13 January 2009)Most Successive Defeats 10 matches (from 11 April 1990 to 15 September 1990)Most Successive Draws 6 matches (from 13 December 1992 to 16 January 1993)Longest Unbeaten 15 matches (from 4 October 1980 to 20 December 1980)Record Attendance 75,031 vs Aston Villa, 17 October 1938Record League Attendance 68,160 vs Arsenal, 17 October 1936Record Gate Receipts £400,920 vs Leicester City, 19 February 2005 Player Records Role NameMost Appearances Sam Bartram (623)Most Goals Derek Hales (168)Most Hat-Tricks Johnny Summers and Eddie Firmani (8)Most Capped Player Radostin Kishishev (42)Oldest Player Sam Bartram (42 years and 47 days)Youngest Player Jonjo Shelvey (16 years and 59 days)Oldest Scorer Chris Powell (38 years and 239 days)Youngest Scorer Jonjo Shelvey (16 years and 310 days)Quickest Scorer Jim Melrose (9 seconds)Quickest Sending Off Nicky Weaver (3 minutes) References External links cafc.co.uk Official club website Charlton at the official UEFA website Charlton information and statistics from Soccerbase Fan sites ByTheSword Addickted.net CAFCBabes Charlton Life netaddicks.com vintage-cafc.co.uk Blogging Daily News sites ByTheSword Charlton Athletic on Sky Sports Forever Charlton addicks.biz Charlton on euFootball.BIZ | Charlton_Athletic_F.C. |@lemmatized charlton:91 athletic:12 football:22 club:55 also:8 know:5 addicks:16 professional:3 association:1 base:6 london:7 borough:5 greenwich:5 found:2 june:9 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2,979 | General_Packet_Radio_Service | General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service available to users of the 2G cellular communication systems global system for mobile communications (GSM), as well as in the 3G systems. In the 2G systems, GPRS provides data rates of 56-114 kbit/s. GPRS data transfer is typically charged per megabyte of traffic transferred, while data communication via traditional circuit switching is billed per minute of connection time, independent of whether the user actually is using the capacity or is in an idle state. GPRS is a best-effort packet switched service, as opposed to circuit switching, where a certain quality of service (QoS) is guaranteed during the connection for non-mobile users. 2G cellular systems combined with GPRS are often described as 2.5G, that is, a technology between the second (2G) and third (3G) generations of mobile telephony. It provides moderate speed data transfer, by using unused time division multiple access (TDMA) channels in, for example, the GSM system. Originally there was some thought to extend GPRS to cover other standards, but instead those networks are being converted to use the GSM standard, so that GSM is the only kind of network where GPRS is in use. GPRS is integrated into GSM Release 97 and newer releases. It was originally standardized by European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), but now by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). GPRS was developed as a GSM response to the earlier CDPD and i-mode packet switched cellular technologies. Basics Services GPRS upgrades GSM data services providing: Multimedia messaging service (MMS) Short message service (SMS) Push to talk over cellular (PoC/PTT) Instant messaging and presence—wireless village Internet applications for smart devices through wireless application protocol (WAP) Point-to-point (P2P) service: inter-networking with the Internet (IP) Future enhancements: flexibility to add new functions, such as more capacity, more users, new accesses, new protocols, new radio networks. If SMS over GPRS is used, an SMS transmission speed of about 30 SMS messages per minute may be achieved. This is much faster than using the ordinary SMS over GSM, whose SMS transmission speed is about 6 to 10 SMS messages per minute Protocols supported GPRS originally supported (in theory) internet protocol (IP), point-to-point protocol (PPP) and X.25 connections. The last has been typically used for applications like wireless payment terminals, although it has been removed from the standard. X.25 can still be supported over PPP, or even over IP, but doing this requires either a router to perform encapsulation or intelligence built in to the end-device/terminal; e.g., user equipment (UE). In practice, the mobile built-in browser uses IPv4. In this mode PPP is often not supported by the mobile phone operator, while IPv6 is not yet popular. But if the mobile is used as a modem to the connected computer, PPP is used to tunnel IP to the phone. This allows an IP address to be assigned dynamically to the mobile equipment. When TCP/IP is used, each phone can have one or more IP addresses allocated. GPRS will store and forward the IP packets to the phone during cell handover (when you move from one cell to another). A radio noise induced pause can be interpreted by TCP as packet loss, and cause a temporary throttling in transmission speed. Hardware Class A Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), using both at the same time. Such devices are known to be available today. Class B Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), but using only one or the other at a given time. During GSM service (voice call or SMS), GPRS service is suspended, and then resumed automatically after the GSM service (voice call or SMS) has concluded. Most GPRS mobile devices are Class B. Class C Are connected to either GPRS service or GSM service (voice, SMS). Must be switched manually between one or the other service. A true Class A device may be required to transmit on two different frequencies at the same time, and thus will need two radios. To get around this expensive requirement, a GPRS mobile may implement the dual transfer mode (DTM) feature. A DTM-capable mobile may use simultaneous voice and packet data, with the network coordinating to ensure that it is not required to transmit on two different frequencies at the same time. Such mobiles are considered pseudo-Class A, sometimes referred to as "simple class A". Some networks are expected to support DTM in 2007. GPRS is technology in which speed is a direct function of the number of TDMA time slots assigned, which is the lesser of (a) what the particular cell supports and (b) the maximum capability of the mobile device expressed as a GPRS multislot class. Huawei E220 Modem USB GPRS modems use a terminal-like interface USB 2.0 and later, data formats V.42bis, and RFC 1144 and external antennas. Modems can be added as cards (for laptops) or external USB devices which are similar in shape and size to a computer mouse. Coding schemes {| class="wikitable" align=center ! Coding scheme ! Speed (kbit/s) |- align="center" | CS-1 | 8.0 |- align="center" | CS-2 | 12.0 |- align="center" | CS-3 | 14.4 |- align="center" | CS-4 | 20.22222222222 |} Transfer speed depends also on the channel encoding used. The least robust, but fastest, coding scheme (CS-4) is available near a base transceiver station (BTS), while the most robust coding scheme (CS-1) is used when the mobile station (MS) is further away from a BTS. Using the CS-4 it is possible to achieve a user speed of 20.0 kbit/s per time slot. However, using this scheme the cell coverage is 25% of normal. CS-1 can achieve a user speed of only 8.0 kbit/s per time slot, but has 98% of normal coverage. Newer network equipment can adapt the transfer speed automatically depending on the mobile location. Like circuit-switched data (CSD), high-speed circuit-switched data (HSCSD) establishes a circuit and is usually billed per minute. For an application such as downloading, HSCSD may be preferred, since circuit-switched data are usually given priority over packet-switched data on a mobile network, and there are relatively few seconds when no data are being transferred. {| class="wikitable" align=center ! Technology ! Download (kbit/s) ! Upload (kbit/s) ! Configuration |- align="center" | CSD | 9.6 | 9.6 | 1+1 |- align="center" | HSCSD | 28.8 | 14.4 | 2+1 |- align="center" | HSCSD | 43.2 | 14.4 | 3+1 |- align="center" | GPRS | 80.0 | 20.0 (Class 8 & 10 and CS-4) | 4+1 |- align="center" | GPRS | 60.0 | 40.0 (Class 10 and CS-4) | 3+2 |- align="center" | EGPRS (EDGE) | 236.8 | 59.2 (Class 8, 10 and MCS-9) | 4+1 |- align="center" | EGPRS (EDGE) | 177.6 | 118.4 (Class 10 and MCS-9) | 3+2 |} Multiple access schemes The multiple access methods used in GSM with GPRS are based on frequency division duplex (FDD) and TDMA. During a session, a user is assigned to one pair of up-link and down-link frequency channels. This is combined with time domain statistical multiplexing; i.e., packet mode communication, which makes it possible for several users to share the same frequency channel. The packets have constant length, corresponding to a GSM time slot. The down-link uses first-come first-served packet scheduling, while the up-link uses a scheme very similar to reservation ALOHA (R-ALOHA). This means that slotted ALOHA (S-ALOHA) is used for reservation inquiries during a contention phase, and then the actual data is transferred using dynamic TDMA with first-come first-served scheduling. Mobility management Network topology Addressing A GPRS connection is established by reference to its access point name (APN). The APN defines the services such as wireless application protocol (WAP) access, short message service (SMS), multimedia messaging service (MMS), and for Internet communication services such as email and World Wide Web access. Availability In many areas, such as France, telephone operators have priced GPRS relatively cheaply (compared to older GSM data transfer, CSD and HSCSD). Some mobile phone operators offer flat rate access to the Internet, while others charge based on data transferred, usually rounded up to 100 kilobytes. During the heyday of GPRS in the developed countries, around 2005, typical prices varied from EUR €0,24 per megabyte to over €20 per megabyte. In developing countries, prices vary widely, and change. Some operators gave free access while they decided pricing, for example in Togocel.tg in Togo, West Africa, others were over-priced, such as Tigo of Ghana at one US dollar per megabyte or Indonesia at $3 per megabyte. AirTel of India charges $0.025 per megabyte, and Telstra of Australia charges $22.53 per megabyte . As of 2008, data access in Canada is still prohibitively expensive. For example, Fido charges $0.05 per kilobyte, or roughly $50 per megabyte. . In Venezuela, Digitel charges about $20 per 100 Mb or $25 for unlimited access. Pre-paid SIM Cards allow travelers to buy short term internet access. The mean price in developing nations is US$1 per hour. The maximum speed of a GPRS connection offered in 2003 was similar to a modem connection in an analog wire telephone network, about 32-40 kbit/s, depending on the phone used. Latency is very high; round-trip time (RTT) is typically about 600-700 ms and often reaches 1 s. GPRS is typically prioritized lower than speech, and thus the quality of connection varies greatly. In order to set up a GPRS connection for a wireless modem, a user must specify an APN, optionally a user name and password, and very rarely an IP address, all provided by the network operator. Devices with latency/RTT improvements (via, for example, the extended UL TBF mode feature) are generally available. Also, network upgrades of features are available with certain operators. With these enhancements the active round-trip time can be reduced, resulting in significant increase in application-level throughput speeds. See also Automatic packet reporting system (APRS) Code division multiple access (CDMA) Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE) Universal mobile telephone system (UMTS) GPRS core network Sub-network dependent convergence protocol (SNDCP) IP Multimedia Subsystem High-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) Multiplayer mobile games List of device bandwidths References External links 3GPP AT command set for user equipment (UE) Introduction of high-speed data in GSM/GPRS networks GPRS security information Free GPRS resources Free online tutorial. GSM World, the trade association for GSM and GPRS network operators. Palowireless GPRS resource center GPRS attach and PDP context activation sequence diagram GPRS Tutorial How machines use the GPRS network GPRS developers Dataflow Informática be-x-old:GPRS | General_Packet_Radio_Service |@lemmatized general:1 packet:13 radio:4 service:23 gprs:42 orient:1 mobile:19 data:19 available:5 user:12 cellular:4 communication:5 system:8 global:1 gsm:20 well:1 provide:3 rate:3 kbit:7 transfer:10 typically:4 charge:6 per:17 megabyte:8 traffic:1 via:2 traditional:1 circuit:6 switching:2 bill:2 minute:4 connection:8 time:13 independent:1 whether:1 actually:1 use:25 capacity:2 idle:1 state:1 best:1 effort:1 switch:7 oppose:1 certain:2 quality:2 qos:1 guarantee:1 non:1 combine:2 often:3 describe:1 technology:4 second:2 third:1 generation:2 telephony:1 moderate:1 speed:15 unused:1 division:3 multiple:4 access:14 tdma:4 channel:4 example:4 originally:3 thought:1 extend:1 cover:1 standard:4 instead:1 network:16 convert:1 kind:1 integrate:1 release:2 new:6 standardize:1 european:1 telecommunication:1 institute:1 etsi:1 partnership:1 project:1 develop:3 response:1 early:1 cdpd:1 mode:5 basic:1 upgrades:1 providing:1 multimedia:3 messaging:2 mm:1 short:3 message:5 sms:9 push:1 talk:1 poc:1 ptt:1 instant:1 presence:1 wireless:5 village:1 internet:6 application:6 smart:1 device:9 protocol:7 wap:2 point:5 inter:1 networking:1 ip:10 future:1 enhancement:2 flexibility:1 add:2 function:2 transmission:3 sm:4 may:5 achieve:3 much:1 faster:1 ordinary:1 whose:1 support:6 theory:1 ppp:4 x:3 last:1 like:3 payment:1 terminal:3 although:1 remove:1 still:2 even:1 require:3 either:2 router:1 perform:1 encapsulation:1 intelligence:1 build:2 end:1 e:2 g:1 equipment:4 ue:2 practice:1 browser:1 us:1 phone:6 operator:7 yet:1 popular:1 modem:6 connect:4 computer:2 tunnel:1 allow:2 address:4 assign:3 dynamically:1 tcp:2 one:6 allocate:1 store:1 forward:1 cell:4 handover:1 move:1 another:1 noise:1 induce:1 pause:1 interpret:1 loss:1 cause:1 temporary:1 throttling:1 hardware:1 class:14 voice:6 know:1 today:1 b:3 give:3 call:2 suspend:1 resume:1 automatically:2 conclude:1 c:3 must:2 manually:1 true:1 transmit:2 two:3 different:2 frequency:5 thus:2 need:1 get:1 around:2 expensive:2 requirement:1 implement:1 dual:1 dtm:3 feature:3 capable:1 simultaneous:1 coordinate:1 ensure:1 consider:1 pseudo:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 simple:1 expect:1 direct:1 number:1 slot:5 less:1 particular:1 maximum:2 capability:1 express:1 multislot:1 huawei:1 usb:3 interface:1 later:1 format:1 v:1 rfc:1 external:3 antenna:1 card:2 laptop:1 similar:3 shape:1 size:1 mouse:1 cod:3 scheme:7 wikitable:2 align:13 center:14 cs:8 depend:3 also:3 encoding:1 least:1 robust:2 fast:1 near:1 base:3 transceiver:1 station:2 bts:2 coding:1 away:1 possible:2 however:1 coverage:2 normal:2 adapt:1 location:1 csd:3 high:4 hscsd:5 establish:2 usually:3 downloading:1 prefer:1 since:1 priority:1 relatively:2 download:1 upload:1 configuration:1 egprs:2 edge:3 mcs:2 method:1 duplex:1 fdd:1 session:1 pair:1 link:5 domain:1 statistical:1 multiplexing:1 make:1 several:1 share:1 constant:1 length:1 correspond:1 first:4 come:2 serve:2 scheduling:2 reservation:2 aloha:4 r:1 mean:2 inquiry:1 contention:1 phase:1 actual:1 dynamic:1 mobility:1 management:1 topology:1 reference:2 name:2 apn:3 define:1 mms:1 email:1 world:2 wide:1 web:1 availability:1 many:1 area:1 france:1 telephone:3 price:5 cheaply:1 compare:1 older:1 offer:2 flat:1 others:2 round:3 kilobyte:2 heyday:1 developed:1 country:2 typical:1 vary:2 eur:1 widely:1 change:1 free:3 decide:1 pricing:1 togocel:1 tg:1 togo:1 west:1 africa:1 tigo:1 ghana:1 u:2 dollar:1 indonesia:1 airtel:1 india:1 telstra:1 australia:1 canada:1 prohibitively:1 fido:1 roughly:1 venezuela:1 digitel:1 mb:1 unlimited:1 pre:1 pay:1 sim:1 traveler:1 buy:1 term:1 nation:1 hour:1 analog:1 wire:1 latency:2 trip:2 rtt:2 reach:1 prioritize:1 low:1 speech:1 varies:1 greatly:1 order:1 set:2 specify:1 optionally:1 password:1 rarely:1 improvement:1 extended:1 ul:1 tbf:1 generally:1 upgrade:1 active:1 reduce:1 result:1 significant:1 increase:1 level:1 throughput:1 see:1 automatic:1 reporting:1 apr:1 code:1 cdma:1 enhance:1 evolution:1 universal:1 umts:1 core:1 sub:1 dependent:1 convergence:1 sndcp:1 subsystem:1 downlink:1 hsdpa:1 multiplayer:1 game:1 list:1 bandwidth:1 command:1 introduction:1 security:1 information:1 resource:2 online:1 tutorial:2 trade:1 association:1 palowireless:1 attach:1 pdp:1 context:1 activation:1 sequence:1 diagram:1 machine:1 developer:1 dataflow:1 informática:1 old:1 |@bigram packet_switch:3 service_qos:1 mobile_telephony:1 instant_messaging:1 mobile_phone:2 ip_address:3 tcp_ip:1 ip_packet:1 class_wikitable:2 wikitable_align:2 align_center:13 gsm_gprs:3 prohibitively_expensive:1 varies_greatly:1 external_link:1 |
2,980 | The_Katzenjammer_Kids | 1901 panel by Rudolph Dirks. The Katzenjammer Kids is a comic strip created by the German immigrant Rudolph Dirks. Dirks profile: "Born in Heide, Germany, Rudolph Dirks moved with his parents to Chicago at the age of seven." It debuted on December 12, 1897 in the American Humorist, a Sunday supplement of the New York Journal owned by newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst. The Katzenjammer Kids is today distributed by King Features Syndicate, making it the oldest comic strip still in syndication. After a series of legal battles between 1912 and 1914, Dirks left the Hearst organization, and began a new strip, first titled Hans und Fritz and then The Captain and the Kids, featuring the same characters as The Katzenjammer Kids, which was continued by Hearst with other artists. The two separate versions of the strip competed with each other until 1979, when The Captain and the Kids, by then drawn by Rudolph Dirks' son John, ended its six-decade run. History Creation and early years The Katzenjammer Kids was inspired by "Max and Moritz", a famous children's story of the 1860s by the German Wilhelm Busch. The Katzenjammer Kids (three brothers in the first strip, but soon reduced to two) featured Hans and Fritz, twins who rebelled against authority, particularly in the form of their mother, Mama; der Captain, a shipwrecked sailor who acted as a surrogate father; and der Inspector, an official from the school system. Several of the characters spoke in stereotypical German-accented English. Katzenjammer translates literally as the wailing of cats but is used to mean contrition after a failed endeavor or hangover in German. The meaning of katzenjammer for a hangover is used in English as well katzenjammer, noun: 1. the discomfort and illness experienced as the aftereffects of excessive drinking; hangover. 2. uneasiness; anguish; distress. 3. uproar; clamor: His speech produced a public katzenjammer. [Origin: 1840–50; < G, equiv. to Katzen (pl. of Katze cat1) + Jammer discomfort, OHG jāmar (n. and adj.); cf. yammer] Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1) Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2006. and as such it is occasionally used in crossword puzzles. The New York Times crossword puzzle, June 7, 2008. The comic strip was turned into a stage play in 1903, inspired several animated cartoons, and was one of 20 strips included in the Comic Strip Classics series of commemorative postage stamps. The Katzenjammer Kids versus The Captain and the Kids The Katzenjammer Kids was so popular that it became two competing comic strips and the subject of a lawsuit. This happened because Dirks wanted to take a break after 15 years, but the Hearst newspaper syndicate would not allow it. Dirks left anyway, and the strip was taken over by Harold Knerr. Dirks sued, and after a long legal battle, the Hearst papers were allowed to continue The Katzenjammer Kids and Dirks was allowed to syndicate an almost identical strip of his own for the rival Pulitzer newspapers. Initially named Hanz und Fritz after the two naughty protagonist brothers, Dirks' feature was called The Captain and the Kids from 1918 on. The Captain and the Kids was very similar to The Katzenjammer Kids in terms of content and characters, but Dirks had a looser and more verbal style than Knerr, who on the other hand often produced stronger, more direct gags and drawings. The Captain and the Kids soon proved to equal the popularity of The Katzenjammer Kids. It was later distributed by the United Features Syndicate (while Hearst's King Features Syndicate distributed The Katzenjammer Kids). The Katzenjammers from the 1950s to the present While a daily Captain and the Kids strip faltered during a short-lived run in the 1930s, the Sunday strip maintained its popularity for several years. From 1946, Dirks' son John Dirks gradually began taking over more and more of the work with The Captain and the Kids, and he and his father began introducing new characters in the 1950s. In 1958, the Dirkses turned towards science fiction with a storyline running for months about a brilliant inventor and alien invasions. Even as John Dirks took over most of the work, Rudolph Dirks signed the strip until his death in 1968. Meanwhile, Harold Knerr had continued with The Katzenjammer Kids until his death in 1949. Following his passing, the feature was written and drawn by Charles H. Winner from 1949–1956, and Joe Musial beginning in 1956. After Dirks' passing, the drawing style for The Captain and the Kids had shifted slightly towards a more square-formed line, though it maintained the original style more so than Musial's work with The Katzenjammer Kids. Regardless of the fact that The Captain and the Kids was the work of the characters' originator and his son, The Katzenjammer Kids proved to be the more profitable and long-running, and The Captain and the Kids ended its run in 1979. Musial was replaced on The Katzenjammer Kids by Mike Senisch from 1976–1981, and Angelo DeCesare took over the feature from 1981–1986. The feature is currently drawn by Hy Eisman and distributed to some 50 newspapers and magazines around the world. Notable features of the modern version include a more constructive relationship between the Captain and the Boys - sometimes they have friendly conversations instead of fights - and the fact that the King and his people are now Polynesian rather than African. Eisman has reused a lot of old gags and stories in recent years of the strip. Appearances in other media The title card for The Captain and the Kids. The Katzenjammer Kids characters first appeared outside of comics in a handful of live-action silent films, the first produced in 1898. Seventeen Katzenjammer Kids silent cartoon shorts were produced between 1917 and 1918. In 1938, The Captain and the Kids became the subject of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's first self-produced series of theatrical cartoon short subjects, with William Hanna, Bob Allen and Friz Freleng serving as the directors. However, the series proved to be unsuccessful, and ended after one year and 15 cartoons (following the series's cancellation, Freleng returned to Warner Bros., where he had earlier been directing cartoons). A later series of Captain and the Kids cartoons were produced for television as a back-up segment for Filmation's Archie's TV Funnies. In 2007, the Katzenjammer Kids were mentioned as a joke in the "Black Mystery Month" episode of American Dad. Effect on popular culture Art Clokey, the creator of Gumby, has claimed that The Katzenjammer Kids inspired the creation of Gumby's nemeses, The Block-heads. A deathrock band in France, Katzenjammer Kabarett, is named for the comic strip. A Dutch rockabilly band The Katzenjammer Kidz, is also named for the comic strip. Cafe Katzenjammer, a German dining establishment located in the West Point Grey neighborhood of Vancouver, British Columbia, is named after the comic strip. The American musical group, The World/Inferno Friendship Society, reference The Katzenjammer Kids in their song, "Zen and the Art of Breaking Everything in this Room". Playboy frequently featured in its late 1970s-early 1980s "Playboy Funnies" pages a spoof of the Katzenjammer Kids called "The Krautzenbummer Kids" with adult style gags. An early issue of Mad carried a satire titled "The Katchandhammer Kids!", in which "Hands and Feetz" grow up to be gangsters. An animated television commercial for Pepto-Bismol featured the characters. Hans and Fritz steal a pie and get sick eating so much. The Captain and the Inspector seek to punish them, but Mama gives the boys what they need: a dose of Pepto-Bismol. The Captain and the Kids has been published as an annual comic book in Norway since 1987. When no more reproducible material was available in 2001, Per Sanderhage, the editor of the Danish comic strip agency PIB, negotiated a deal where Ferd’nand cartoonist Henrik Rehr would redraw 32 pages loosely based on old magazine clippings for the annual. In spite of the artistic/ethical questions, this raises regarding the testament of Dirks' original work, the arrangement continues on to this day. References External links King Features The Katzenjammer Kids at Toonopedia The Captain and the Kids at Toonopedia Fan site Timelining the Katzenjammer Kids | The_Katzenjammer_Kids |@lemmatized panel:1 rudolph:5 dirk:17 katzenjammer:31 kid:41 comic:11 strip:19 create:1 german:5 immigrant:1 profile:1 bear:1 heide:1 germany:1 move:1 parent:1 chicago:1 age:1 seven:1 debut:1 december:1 american:3 humorist:1 sunday:2 supplement:1 new:4 york:2 journal:1 newspaper:4 magnate:1 william:2 randolph:1 hearst:6 today:1 distribute:4 king:4 feature:13 syndicate:5 make:1 old:3 still:1 syndication:1 series:6 legal:2 battle:2 dirks:2 leave:2 organization:1 begin:3 first:5 title:3 han:3 und:2 fritz:4 captain:19 character:7 continue:4 artist:1 two:4 separate:1 version:2 compete:2 draw:4 son:3 john:3 end:3 six:1 decade:1 run:4 history:1 creation:2 early:3 year:5 inspire:3 max:1 moritz:1 famous:1 child:1 story:2 wilhelm:1 busch:1 three:1 brother:2 soon:2 reduce:1 twin:1 rebel:1 authority:1 particularly:1 form:2 mother:1 mama:2 der:2 shipwrecked:1 sailor:1 act:1 surrogate:1 father:2 inspector:2 official:1 school:1 system:1 several:3 speak:1 stereotypical:1 accented:1 english:2 translates:1 literally:1 wailing:1 cat:1 use:3 mean:1 contrition:1 failed:1 endeavor:1 hangover:3 meaning:1 well:1 noun:1 discomfort:2 illness:1 experience:1 aftereffect:1 excessive:1 drinking:1 uneasiness:1 anguish:1 distress:1 uproar:1 clamor:1 speech:1 produce:6 public:1 origin:1 g:1 equiv:1 katzen:1 pl:1 katze:1 jammer:1 ohg:1 jāmar:1 n:1 adj:1 cf:1 yammer:1 dictionary:2 com:1 unabridged:2 v:1 base:2 random:2 house:2 inc:1 occasionally:1 crossword:2 puzzle:2 time:1 june:1 turn:2 stage:1 play:1 animated:2 cartoon:6 one:2 include:2 classic:1 commemorative:1 postage:1 stamp:1 versus:1 popular:2 become:2 subject:3 lawsuit:1 happen:1 want:1 take:5 break:2 would:2 allow:3 anyway:1 harold:2 knerr:3 sue:1 long:2 paper:1 almost:1 identical:1 rival:1 pulitzer:1 initially:1 name:4 hanz:1 naughty:1 protagonist:1 call:2 similar:1 term:1 content:1 looser:1 verbal:1 style:4 hand:2 often:1 strong:1 direct:2 gag:3 drawing:1 prove:3 equal:1 popularity:2 later:1 united:1 present:1 daily:1 falter:1 short:3 lived:1 maintain:2 gradually:1 work:5 introduce:1 towards:2 science:1 fiction:1 storyline:1 month:2 brilliant:1 inventor:1 alien:1 invasion:1 even:1 sign:1 death:2 meanwhile:1 follow:2 passing:2 write:1 charles:1 h:1 winner:1 joe:1 musial:3 beginning:1 shift:1 slightly:1 square:1 line:1 though:1 original:2 regardless:1 fact:2 originator:1 profitable:1 running:1 replace:1 mike:1 senisch:1 angelo:1 decesare:1 currently:1 hy:1 eisman:2 magazine:2 around:1 world:2 notable:1 modern:1 constructive:1 relationship:1 boy:2 sometimes:1 friendly:1 conversation:1 instead:1 fight:1 people:1 polynesian:1 rather:1 african:1 reuse:1 lot:1 recent:1 appearance:1 medium:1 card:1 appear:1 outside:1 handful:1 live:1 action:1 silent:2 film:1 seventeen:1 metro:1 goldwyn:1 mayer:1 self:1 theatrical:1 hanna:1 bob:1 allen:1 friz:1 freleng:2 serve:1 director:1 however:1 unsuccessful:1 cancellation:1 return:1 warner:1 bros:1 earlier:1 late:2 television:2 back:1 segment:1 filmation:1 archie:1 tv:1 funny:2 mention:1 joke:1 black:1 mystery:1 episode:1 dad:1 effect:1 culture:1 art:2 clokey:1 creator:1 gumby:2 claim:1 nemesis:1 block:1 head:1 deathrock:1 band:2 france:1 kabarett:1 dutch:1 rockabilly:1 kidz:1 also:1 cafe:1 din:1 establishment:1 locate:1 west:1 point:1 grey:1 neighborhood:1 vancouver:1 british:1 columbia:1 musical:1 group:1 inferno:1 friendship:1 society:1 reference:2 song:1 zen:1 everything:1 room:1 playboy:2 frequently:1 page:2 spoof:1 krautzenbummer:1 adult:1 issue:1 mad:1 carry:1 satire:1 katchandhammer:1 feetz:1 grow:1 gangster:1 commercial:1 pepto:2 bismol:2 steal:1 pie:1 get:1 sick:1 eat:1 much:1 seek:1 punish:1 give:1 need:1 dose:1 publish:1 annual:2 book:1 norway:1 since:1 reproducible:1 material:1 available:1 per:1 sanderhage:1 editor:1 danish:1 agency:1 pib:1 negotiate:1 deal:1 ferd:1 nand:1 cartoonist:1 henrik:1 rehr:1 redraw:1 loosely:1 clipping:1 spite:1 artistic:1 ethical:1 question:1 raise:1 regard:1 testament:1 arrangement:1 day:1 external:1 link:1 toonopedia:2 fan:1 site:1 timelining:1 |@bigram rudolph_dirk:5 katzenjammer_kid:23 comic_strip:9 william_randolph:1 randolph_hearst:1 max_moritz:1 wilhelm_busch:1 unabridged_dictionary:1 crossword_puzzle:2 animated_cartoon:1 commemorative_postage:1 postage_stamp:1 short_lived:1 science_fiction:1 metro_goldwyn:1 goldwyn_mayer:1 friz_freleng:1 warner_bros:1 external_link:1 |
2,981 | Telecommunications_in_Burma | All communications in Burma are controlled by the government. Telecommunication networks Installation of telephones, and the cost of calling, are prohibitively expensive for most people. To call overseas for two minutes would cost more than most earn in a month. Telephones - main lines in use: 158,000 (1995) These are mostly in the capital Yangon. Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,007 (1995) Telephone system: meets minimum requirements for local and intercity service for business and government; international service is good domestic: NA international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) Homepage : www.mpt.net.mm/ Media Radio broadcast stations 3 (1998)Radios:4.2 million (1997)Television broadcast stations:4 (1998)Televisions:260,000 (1997)Press Kyehmon (Burmese: Image:Kyetmon.png) - state-run daily The New Light of Myanmar () - English and Burmese language organ of SPDC The Myanmar Times () - private-run English-language weeklyTelevision TV Myanmar - state-run, operated by Myanmar TV and Radio Department - broadcasts in Burmese, Arakanese, Shan, Karen, Kachin, Kayah, Chin, Mon and English MRTV-3 - state-run international TV service MRTV-4 - pay TV service (only available in Yangon) TV Myawady - army-run network Democratic Voice of Burma - Burmese students in exile launched it since two years agoRadio Radio Myanmar - state-run, operated by Myanmar TV and Radio Department Yangon City FM - entertainment-based, operated by Yangon City Development Committee Democratic Voice of Burma - opposition station based in Norway, broadcasts via shortwaveNews agency''' Myanmar News Agency (MNA) - state-run Internet The government does not allow access to all the internet, adult sites, anti-government, and free email web sites are blocked. (See Myanmar Wide Web.) There are only 2 Internet Service Providers, BaganNET and MPT . See also Burma External links Myanmar Post and Telecoms - the government ISP | Telecommunications_in_Burma |@lemmatized communication:1 burma:4 control:1 government:5 telecommunication:1 network:2 installation:1 telephone:4 cost:2 call:2 prohibitively:1 expensive:1 people:1 overseas:1 two:2 minute:1 would:1 earn:1 month:1 main:1 line:1 use:1 mostly:1 capital:1 yangon:4 mobile:1 cellular:1 system:1 meet:1 minimum:1 requirement:1 local:1 intercity:1 service:5 business:1 international:3 good:1 domestic:1 na:1 satellite:1 earth:1 station:4 intelsat:1 indian:1 ocean:1 homepage:1 www:1 mpt:2 net:1 mm:1 medium:1 radio:5 broadcast:4 million:1 television:2 press:1 kyehmon:1 burmese:4 image:1 kyetmon:1 png:1 state:5 run:7 daily:1 new:1 light:1 myanmar:9 english:3 language:2 organ:1 spdc:1 time:1 private:1 weeklytelevision:1 tv:6 operate:3 department:2 arakanese:1 karen:1 kachin:1 kayah:1 chin:1 mon:1 mrtv:2 pay:1 available:1 myawady:1 army:1 democratic:2 voice:2 student:1 exile:1 launch:1 since:1 year:1 agoradio:1 city:2 fm:1 entertainment:1 base:2 development:1 committee:1 opposition:1 norway:1 via:1 shortwavenews:1 agency:2 news:1 mna:1 internet:3 allow:1 access:1 adult:1 site:2 anti:1 free:1 email:1 web:2 block:1 see:2 wide:1 provider:1 bagannet:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 post:1 telecom:1 isp:1 |@bigram prohibitively_expensive:1 mobile_cellular:1 station_intelsat:1 burma_burmese:1 external_link:1 |
2,982 | Measurement | Measurement is the process of assigning a number to an attribute (or phenomenon) according to a rule or set of rules. The term can also be used to refer to the result obtained after performing the process. History The word measurement comes from the Greek "metron," meaning limited proportion. The history of measurements is a topic within the history of science and technology. Metre The metre (U.S.: meter) was standardized as the unit for length after the French revolution, and has since been adopted throughout most of the world. Standards Laws to regulate measurement were originally developed to prevent fraud. However, units of measurement are now generally defined on a scientific basis, and are established by international treaties. In the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a division of the United States Department of Commerce, regulates commercial measurements. In the United Kingdom, the role is performed by the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). Units and systems A baby bottle that measures in all three measurement systems, Imperial (U.K.), U.S. Customary, and metric. The definition or specification of precise standards of measurement involves two key features, which are evident in the International System of Units (SI). Specifically, in this system the definition of each of the base units refer to specific empirical conditions and, with the exception of the kilogram, also to other quantitative attributes. Each derived SI unit is defined purely in terms of a relationship involving it and other units; for example, the unit of velocity is 1 m/s. Because derived units refer to base units, the specification of empirical conditions is an implied component of the definition of all units. Imperial system Before SI units were widely adopted around the world, the British systems of English units and later Imperial units were used in Britain, the Commonwealth and the United States. The system came to be known as U.S. customary units in the United States and is still in use there and in a few Caribbean countries. These various systems of measurement have at times been called foot-pound-second systems after the Imperial units for distance, weight and time even though the tons, hundredweights, gallons, and nautical miles, for example, are different for the U.S. units. Many Imperial units remain in use in Britain despite the fact that it has officially switched to the SI system. Road signs are still in miles, yards, miles per hour, and so on, people tend to measure their own height in feet and inches and milk is sold in pints, to give just a few examples. Imperial units are used in many other places, for example, in many Commonwealth countries that are considered metricated, land area is measured in acres and floor space in square feet, particularly for commercial transactions (rather than government statistics). Similarly, the imperial gallon is used in many countries that are considered metricated at gas/petrol stations, an example being the United Arab Emirates. Metric system The metric system is a decimalized system of measurement based on the metre and the gram. It exists in several variations, with different choices of base units, though these do not affect its day-to-day use. Since the 1960s, the , explained further below, is the internationally recognized standard metric system. Metric units of mass, length, and electricity are widely used around the world for both everyday and scientific purposes. The main advantage of the metric system is that it has a single base unit for each physical quantity. All other units are powers of ten or multiples of ten of this base unit. Unit conversions are always simple because they will be in the ratio of ten, one hundred, one thousand, etc. All lengths and distances, for example, are measured in meters, or thousandths of a metre (millimeters), or thousands of meters (kilometres), and so on. There is no profusion of different units with different conversion factors as in the Imperial system (e.g. inches, feet, yards, fathoms, rods). Multiples and submultiples are related to the fundamental unit by factors of powers of ten, so that one can convert by simply moving the decimal place: 1.234 metres is 1234 millimetres or 0.001234 kilometres. The use of fractions, such as 2/5 of a meter, is not prohibited, but uncommon. SI The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French language name Système International d'Unités) is the modern, revised form of the metric system. It is the world's most widely used system of units, both in everyday commerce and in science. The SI was developed in 1960 from the metre-kilogram-second (MKS) system, rather than the centimetre-gram-second (CGS) system, which, in turn, had many variants. At its development the SI also introduced several newly named units that were previously not a part of the metric system. The SI units for the four basic physical quantities: length, time, mass, and temperature are: metre (m) :SI unit of length second (s) :SI unit of time kilogram (kg) :SI unit of mass kelvin (K) :SI unit of temperature There are two types of SI units, base and derived units. Base units are the simple measurements for time, length, mass, temperature, amount of substance, electric current and light intensity. Derived units are made up of base units, for example, density is kg/m3. Converting prefixes The SI allows easy multiplication when switching among units having the same base but different prefixes. To convert from metres to centimetres it is only necessary to multiply the number of centimetres by 100, since there are 100 centimetres in a metre. Inversely, to switch from centimetres to metres one multiplies the number of centimetres by 0.01. Distance A 2-metre carpenter's ruler A ruler or rule is a tool used in, for example, geometry, technical drawing, engineering, and carpentry, to measure distances or to draw straight lines. Strictly speaking, the ruler is the instrument used to rule straight lines and the calibrated instrument used for determining length is called a measure, however common usage calls both instruments rulers and the special name straightedge is used for an unmarked rule. The use of the word measure, in the sense of a measuring instrument, only survives in the phrase tape measure, an instrument that can be used to measure but cannot be used to draw straight lines. As can be seen in the photographs on this page, a two-metre carpenter's rule can be folded down to a length of only 20 centimetres, to easily fit in a pocket, and a five-metre long tape measure easily retracts to fit within a small housing. Some special names We also use some special names for some multiples of some units. 100 kilograms = 1 quintal;1000 kilogram = 1 metric tonne; 10 years = 1 decade; 100 years = 1 century; 1000 years = 1 millennium Building trades The Australian building trades adopted the metric system in 1966 and the units used for measurement of length are metres (m) and millimetres (mm). Centimetres (cm) are avoided as they cause confusion when reading plans, the length two and a half metres is usually recorded as 2500 mm or 2.5 m. Time Mass Mass refers to the intrinsic property of all material objects to resist changes in their momentum. Weight, on the other hand, refers to the downward force produced when a mass is in a gravitational field. In free fall, objects lack weight but retain their mass. The Imperial units of mass include the ounce, pound, and ton. The metric units gram and kilogram are units of mass. A unit for measuring weight or mass is called a weighing scale or, often, simply a scale. A spring scale measures force but not mass, a balance compares masses, but requires a gravitational field to operate. The most accurate instrument for measuring weight or mass is the digital scale, but it also requires a gravitational field, and would not work in free fall. Economics The measures used in economics are physical measures, nominal price value measures and fixed price value measures. These measures differ from one another by the variables they measure and by the variables excluded from measurements. The measurable variables in economics are quantity, quality and distribution. By excluding variables from measurement makes it possible to better focus the measurement on a given variable, yet, this means a narrower approach. Difficulties Since accurate measurement is essential in many fields, and since all measurements are necessarily approximations, a great deal of effort must be taken to make measurements as accurate as possible. For example, consider the problem of measuring the time it takes an object to fall a distance of one metre (39 in). Using physics, it can be shown that, in the gravitational field of the Earth, it should take any object about 0.45 second to fall one metre. However, the following are just some of the sources of error that arise. First, this computation used for the acceleration of gravity 9.8 metres per second per second (32.2 ft/s²). But this measurement is not exact, but only precise to two significant digits. Also, the Earth's gravitational field varies slightly depending on height above sea level and other factors. Next, the computation of .45 seconds involved extracting a square root, a mathematical operation that required rounding off to some number of significant digits, in this case two significant digits. So far, we have only considered scientific sources of error. In actual practice, dropping an object from a height of a metre stick and using a stopwatch to time its fall, we have other sources of error. First, and most common, is simple carelessness. Then there is the problem of determining the exact time at which the object is released and the exact time it hits the ground. There is also the problem that the measurement of the height and the measurement of the time both involve some error. Finally, there is the problem of air resistance. Scientific measurements must be carried out with great care to eliminate as much error as possible, and to keep error estimates realistic. Definitions and theories Classical definition In the classical definition, which is standard throughout the physical sciences, measurement is the determination or estimation of ratios of quantities. Quantity and measurement are mutually defined: quantitative attributes are those, which it is possible to measure, at least in principle. The classical concept of quantity can be traced back to John Wallis and Isaac Newton, and was foreshadowed in Euclid's Elements Michell, 1993 . Representational theory In the representational theory, measurement is defined as "the correlation of numbers with entities that are not numbers" Ernest Nagel: "Measurement", Erkenntnis, Volume 2, Number 1 / December, 1931, pp. 313-335, published by Springer, the Netherlands . The strongest form of representational theory is also known as additive conjoint measurement. In this form of representational theory, numbers are assigned based on correspondences or similarities between the structure of number systems and the structure of qualitative systems. A property is quantitative if such structural similarities can be established. In weaker forms of representational theory, such as that implicit within the work of Stanley Smith Stevens, numbers need only be assigned according to a rule. The concept of measurement is often misunderstood as merely the assignment of a value, but it is possible to assign a value in a way that is not a measurement in terms of the requirements of additive conjoint measurement. One may assign a value to a person's height, but unless it can be established that there is a correlation between measurements of height and empirical relations, it is not a measurement according to additive conjoint measurement theory. Likewise, computing and assigning arbitrary values, like the "book value" of an asset in accounting, is not a measurement because it does not satisfy the necessary criteria. In physics Measuring the ratios between physical quantities is an important sub-field of physics. Some important physical quantities include: Elementary charge (electric charge of electrons, protons, etc.) Fine-structure constant Gravitational constant Planck's constant Quantity Speed of light See also Airy points Conversion of units Detection limit Differential linearity Dimensional analysis Dimensionless number Econometrics History of measurement Instrumentation Key relevance in locksmithing Levels of measurement Measurement in quantum mechanics NCSL International Orders of magnitude Psychometrics Statistics Systems of measurement Test method Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology Timeline of time measurement technology Units of measurement Uncertainty principle Uncertainty in measurement Virtual instrumentation Weights and measures References External links 'Universcale', an application showing the relative sizes of objects A Dictionary of Units of Measurement 'Metrology – in short' 3rd edition, July 2008 ISBN 978-87-988154-5-7 Metric conversions Euromet 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2,983 | Allen_Ginsberg | Irwin Allen Ginsberg (; June 3, 1926 – April 5, 1997) was an American poet. Ginsberg is best known for the poem "Howl" (1956), celebrating his friends who were members of the Beat Generation and attacking what he saw as the destructive forces of materialism and conformity in the United States. Life Early life and family Ginsberg was born into a Jewish Pacernick, Gary. "Allen Ginsberg: An interview by Gary Pacernick" (February 10, 1996), The American Poetry Review, Jul/Aug 1997. "Yeah, I am a Jewish poet. I'm Jewish." http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0320091/bio family in Newark, New Jersey, and grew up in nearby Paterson. His father Louis Ginsberg was a poet and a high school teacher. Ginsberg's mother, Naomi Livergant Ginsberg (who was affected by a rare psychological illness which was never properly diagnosed ) was an active member of the Communist Party and often took Ginsberg and his brother Eugene to party meetings. Ginsberg later said that his mother "made up bedtime stories that all went something like: 'The good king rode forth from his castle, saw the suffering workers and healed them.'" As a young teenager, Ginsberg began to write letters to The New York Times about political issues such as World War II and workers' rights. When he was in junior high school, he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist. The trip disturbed Ginsberg — he mentioned it and other moments from his childhood in his long autobiographical poem "Kaddish for Naomi Ginsberg (1894-1956)." While in high school, Ginsberg began reading Walt Whitman; he said he was inspired by his teacher's passion in reading. Miles, Barry. Ginsberg: A Biography. London: Virgin Publishing Ltd. (2001), paperback, 628 pages, ISBN 0-7535-0486-3 In 1943, Ginsberg graduated from Eastside High School and briefly attended Montclair State College before entering Columbia University on a scholarship from the Young Men's Hebrew Association of Paterson. In 1945, he joined the Merchant Marine to earn money to continue his education at Columbia. Allen Ginsberg, The Letters of Allen Ginsberg (Philadelphia, Da Capo Press, 2008) p.6 While at Columbia, Ginsberg contributed to the Columbia Review literary journal, the Jester humor magazine, won the Woodberry Poetry Prize and served as president of the Philolexian Society, the campus literary and debate group. Ginsberg worked for a while as a clerk in the Gotham Book Mart, a renowned bookstore and literary hotspot, where he undoubtedly came in contact with many renowned authors and poets. New York Beats In Ginsberg's freshman year at Columbia he met fellow undergraduate Lucien Carr, who introduced him to a number of future Beat writers including Jack Kerouac, William S. Burroughs, and John Clellon Holmes. They bonded because they saw in one another excitement about the potential of the youth of America, a potential which existed outside the strict conformist confines of post-World War II McCarthy-era America. Ginsberg and Carr talked excitedly about a "New Vision" (a phrase adapted from Arthur Rimbaud) for literature and America. Carr also introduced Ginsberg to Neal Cassady, for whom Ginsberg had a long infatuation. Barry Gifford, ed., As Ever: The Collected Correspondence of Allen Ginsberg & Neal Cassady. Kerouac later described the meeting between Ginsberg and Cassady in the first chapter of his 1957 novel On the Road. Kerouac saw them then as the dark (Ginsberg) and light (Cassady) side of their "New Vision." Kerouac's perception had to do partly with Ginsberg's association with Communism (though Ginsberg himself was never a Communist); Kerouac called Ginsberg "Carlo Marx" in On the Road. This was a source of strain in their relationship since Kerouac grew increasingly distrustful of Communism. In 1948 in an apartment in Harlem, Ginsberg had an auditory hallucination of William Blake reading his poems "Ah, Sunflower", "The Sick Rose", and "Little Girl Lost" (later referred to as his "Blake vision"). Ginsberg was reading these poems at the time, and he said he was very familiar with them; at one point he claimed he heard them being read by what sounded like the voice of God but what he interpreted as the voice of Blake. He had at that moment pivotal revelations that defined his understanding of the universe. He believed that he witnessed then the interconnectedness of the universe. He looked at lattice work on the fire escape and realized some hand had crafted that; he then looked at the sky and intuited that some hand had crafted that also, or rather that the sky was the hand that crafted itself. He explained that this hallucination was not inspired by drug use, but said he sought to recapture that feeling later with various drugs. Also in New York, Ginsberg met Gregory Corso in the Pony Stable Bar, one of New York's first openly lesbian bars. Corso, recently released from prison, was supported by the Pony Stable patrons and was writing poetry there the night of their meeting. Ginsberg claims he was immediately attracted to Corso, who was straight but understanding of homosexuality after three years in prison. Ginsberg was even more struck by reading Corso's poems, realizing Corso was "spiritually gifted." Ginsberg introduced Corso to the rest of his inner circle. In their first meeting at the Pony Stable, Corso showed Ginsberg a poem about a woman who lived across the street from him, and sunbathed naked in the window. Amazingly, the woman happened to be Ginsberg's former girlfriend from one of his forays into heterosexuality. Ginsberg and Corso remained life-long friends and collaborators. It was also during this period that Ginsberg was romantically involved with Elise Cowen. San Francisco Renaissance In 1954 in San Francisco, Ginsberg met Peter Orlovsky, with whom he fell in love and who remained his life-long partner. Also in San Francisco Ginsberg met members of the San Francisco Renaissance and other poets who would later be associated with the Beat Generation in a broader sense. Ginsberg's mentor William Carlos Williams wrote an introductory letter to San Francisco Renaissance figurehead Kenneth Rexroth, who then introduced Ginsberg into the San Francisco poetry scene. There, Ginsberg also met three budding poets and Zen enthusiasts who were friends at Reed College: Gary Snyder, Philip Whalen, and Lew Welch. In 1959, along with poets John Kelly, Bob Kaufman, A. D. Winans, and William Margolis, Ginsberg was one of the founders of the Beatitude poetry magazine. Wally Hedrick — a painter and co-founder of the Six Gallery — approached Ginsberg in the summer of 1955 and asked him to organize a poetry reading at the Six Gallery. At first, Ginsberg refused, but once he’d written a rough draft of "Howl", he changed his "fucking mind," as he put it. Jonah Raskin, American Scream: Allen Ginsberg's "Howl" and the Making of the Beat Generation. Ginsberg advertised the event as "Six Poets at the Six Gallery." One of the most important events in Beat mythos, known simply as "The Six Gallery reading" took place on October 7, 1955. The event, in essence, brought together the East and West Coast factions of the Beat Generation. Of more personal significance to Ginsberg: that night was the first public reading of "Howl", a poem that brought worldwide fame to Ginsberg and to many of the poets associated with him. An account of that night can be found in Kerouac's novel The Dharma Bums, describing how change was collected from audience members to buy jugs of wine, and Ginsberg reading passionately, drunken, with arms outstretched. A taped recording of the reading of "Howl" that Ginsberg gave at Reed College has recently been rediscovered and appeared on their multimedia website from 9am PST 15 February 2008. Ginsberg's principal work, "Howl", is well-known for its opening line: "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked...." "Howl" was considered scandalous at the time of its publication, because of the rawness of its language, which is frequently explicit. Shortly after its 1956 publication by San Francisco's City Lights Bookstore, it was banned for obscenity. The ban became a cause célèbre among defenders of the First Amendment, and was later lifted after Judge Clayton W. Horn declared the poem to possess redeeming artistic value. Biographical references in "Howl" Ginsberg claimed at one point that all of his work was an extended biography (like Kerouac's Duluoz Legend). "Howl" is not only a biography of Ginsberg's experiences before 1955, but a history of the Beat Generation. Ginsberg also later claimed that at the core of "Howl" were his unresolved emotions about his schizophrenic mother. Though "Kaddish" deals more explicitly with his mother (so explicitly that a line-by-line analysis would be simultaneously overly-exhaustive and relatively unrevealing), "Howl" in many ways is driven by the same emotions. Though references in most of his poetry reveal much about his biography, his relationship to other members of the Beat Generation, and his own political views, "Howl", his most famous poem, is still perhaps the best place to start. See "Howl". To Paris and the "Beat Hotel" In 1957, Ginsberg surprised the literary world by abandoning San Francisco. After a spell in Morocco, he and Peter Orlovsky joined Gregory Corso in Paris. Corso introduced them to a shabby lodging house above a bar at 9 rue Gît-le-Coeur that was to become known as the Beat Hotel. They were soon joined by William Burroughs and others. It was a productive, creative time for all of them. There, Ginsberg finished his epic poem "Kaddish", Corso composed "Bomb" and "Marriage", and Burroughs (with help from Ginsberg and Corso) put together Naked Lunch, from previous writings. This period was documented by the photographer Harold Chapman, who moved in at about the same time, and took pictures constantly of the residents of the "hotel" until it closed in 1963. Continuing literary activity Ginsberg with his forty-year companion, poet Peter Orlovsky. Photo taken in 1978 Though "Beat" is most accurately applied to Ginsberg and his closest friends (Corso, Orlovsky, Kerouac, Burroughs, etc.), the term "Beat Generation" has become associated with many of the other poets Ginsberg met and became friends with in the late 1950s and early 1960s. A key feature of this term seems to be a friendship with Ginsberg. Friendship with Kerouac or Burroughs might also apply, but both writers later strove to disassociate themselves from the name "Beat Generation." Part of their dissatisfaction with the term came from the mistaken identification of Ginsberg as the leader. Ginsberg never claimed to be the leader of a movement. He did, however, claim that many of the writers with whom he had become friends in this period shared many of the same intentions and themes. Some of these friends include: Bob Kaufman; LeRoi Jones before he became Amiri Baraka, who, after reading "Howl", wrote a letter to Ginsberg on a sheet of toilet paper; Diane DiPrima; Jim Cohn; poets associated with the Black Mountain College such as Robert Creeley and Denise Levertov; poets associated with the New York School such as Frank O'Hara and Kenneth Koch. Portrait with Bob Dylan, taken in 1975 Later in his life, Ginsberg formed a bridge between the beat movement of the 1950s and the hippies of the 1960s, befriending, among others, Timothy Leary, Ken Kesey, and Bob Dylan. Ginsberg gave his last ever reading at Booksmith, a bookstore located in the Haight Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco, a few months before his death. Video of Ginsberg biographer Bill Morgan speaking about the poet. Buddhism and Krishnaism Ginsberg's spiritual journey began early on with his spontaneous visions, and continued with an early trip to India and a chance encounter on a New York City street with Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche (they both tried to catch the same cab), a Tibetan Buddhist meditation master of the Vajrayana school, who became his friend and life-long teacher. Ginsberg helped Trungpa (and New York poet Anne Waldman) in founding the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado. Ginsberg was also involved with Krishnaism. He befriended A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder of the Hare Krishna movement in the Western world, a relationship that is documented by Satsvarupa dasa Goswami in his biographical account Srila Prabhupada Lilamrta. Ginsberg donated money, materials, and his reputation to help the Swami establish the first temple, and toured with him to promote his cause. Music and chanting were both important parts of Ginsberg's live delivery during poetry readings. Chowka, Peter Barry, "This is Allen Ginsberg?" (Interview), New Age Journal, April 1976. "I had known Swami Bhaktivedanta and was somewhat guided by him... spiritual friend. I practiced the Hare Krishna chant, practiced it with him, sometimes in mass auditoriums and parks in the Lower East Side of New York. Actually, I'd been chanting it since '63, after coming back from India. I began chanting it, in Vancouver at a great poetry conference, for the first time in '63, with Duncan and Olson and everybody around, and then continued. When Bhaktivedanta arrived on the Lower East Side in '66 it was reinforcement for me, like 'the reinforcements had arrived' from India." He often accompanied himself on a harmonium, and was often accompanied by a guitarist. When Ginsberg asked if he could sing a song in praise of Lord Krishna on William F. Buckley, Jr.'s TV show Firing Line on September 3, 1968, Buckley acceded and the poet chanted slowly as he played dolefully on a harmonium. According to Richard Brookhiser, an associate of Buckley's, the host commented that it was "the most unharried Krishna I've ever heard." Konigsberg, Eric, "Buckley's Urbane Debating Club: Firing Line Set a Standard For Political Discourse on TV", The New York Times, Metro Section, p B1, February 29, 2008. Attendance to his poetry readings was generally standing room only for most of his career, no matter where in the world he appeared. Ginsberg came in touch with the Hungryalist poets of Bengal, especially Malay Roy Choudhury, who introduced Ginsberg to the three fishes with one head of Indian emperor Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar. The three fishes symbolised coexistence of all thought, philosophy and religion. the wastepaper Death Ginsberg won the National Book Award for his book The Fall of America. In 1993, the French Minister of Culture awarded him the medal of Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres (the Order of Arts and Letters). With the exception of a special guest reading at the NYU Poetry Slam on February 20, 1997, Ginsberg gave what is thought to be his last reading at The Booksmith in San Francisco December 16, 1996. He died April 5, 1997, surrounded by family and friends in his East Village loft in New York City, succumbing to liver cancer via complications of hepatitis. He was 70 years old. Ginsberg continued to write through his final illness, with his last poem, "Things I'll Not Do (Nostalgias)", written on March 30. Allen Ginsberg, Collected Poems 1947-1997, p.1160-1 Ginsberg is buried in his family plot in Gomel Chesed Cemetery, one of a cluster of Jewish cemeteries at the corner of McClellan Street and Mt. Olivet Avenue near the city lines of Elizabeth and Newark, New Jersey. The family plot, located toward the western edge of the cemetery at the far end of the walk from the third gate along Mt. Olivet Avenue, is marked by a large Ginsberg and Litzky stone, and Ginsberg himself and each family member have smaller markers. The grave itself and the cemetery are neither picturesque nor otherwise notable (Ginsberg's grave is located near the rear fence of the flat cemetery, which is in the midst of an industrial area); although it has not become a major place of pilgrimage, there is a steady trickle of visitors to the grave, as indicated by a handful of stones always on his marker and the occasional book or other item left by other poets and admirers. Social and political activism Free Speech Ginsberg's willingness to talk about taboo subjects made him a controversial figure during the conservative 1950s and a significant figure in the 1960s. But Ginsberg continued to broach controversial subjects throughout the 1970s, '80s, and '90s. When explaining how he approached controversial topics, he often pointed to Herbert Huncke: he said that when he first got to know Huncke in the 1940s, Ginsberg saw that he was sick from his heroin addiction, but at the time heroin was a taboo subject and Huncke was left with nowhere to go for help. Ginsberg, Allen. Deliberate Prose: Selected Essays 1952-1995. Harper Perennial, 2001. ISBN 0060930810 Likewise, he continuously attempted to force the world into a dialogue about controversial subjects because he thought that no change could be made in a polite silence. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, busking (Ie public street performance) had grown to be quite a controversial enterprise in New York City. The country was in the midst of a horrible economic depression and many people had turned to busking as a source of income. Buskers were everywhere and fights over locations were alarmingly common between the buskers themselves and the buskers, merchants, and vendors. Out of frustration over the complaining, fighting, and violence, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia banned street performances in New York on the grounds of safety issues regarding the escalating conflicts. Busking went on, but on a much smaller scale. If anybody complained about a busker, at their discretion the police could order the busker to move on or could even arrest him or her. In 1970 Allen Ginsburg challenged the constitutionality of this ban. The ban was lifted in 1970 after being found to be unconstitutional by New York mayor John Lindsay. http://www.kqed.org/assets/pdf/arts/programs/spark/412.pdf Role in Vietnam War protests Ginsberg also played a key role in ensuring that a 1965 protest of the Vietnam war, which took place at the Oakland-Berkeley city line and drew several thousand marchers, was not violently interrupted by the California chapter of the notorious motorcycle gang, the Hells Angels, and their leader, Sonny Barger. The day prior to the scheduled march, the Hell's Angels attacked the front line of a smaller scale protest where a confrontation between police and demonstrators was brewing. The Hell's Angels came in on motorcycles and slashed banners while yelling "Go back to Russia, you fucking communists!" at the protesters. The Hell's Angels then vowed to disrupt the larger protest the next day. Ginsberg traveled to Barger's home in Oakland to talk the situation through. It is rumored that he offered Barger and other members of the Hell's Angels LSD as a gesture of friendship and goodwill. In the end, Barger and the other Hell's Angels that were present came away deeply impressed by the courage of Ginsberg and his companion Ken Kesey. They vowed not to attack the next day's protest march and furthermore deemed Ginsberg a man who was worth helping out. It was shortly after the Tompkins Square Park riots in New York that Ginsberg was involved in a fracas with the Mentofreeist group and was assaulted by its leader, Vargus Pike. Pike was arrested, and was later released when Ginsberg, sporting a black eye, refused to press charges. Relationship to Communism He talked openly about his connections with Communism and his admiration for past heroes of Communism and the labor movement at a time in America when the Red Scare and McCarthyism were recent memories. Later he travelled to several Communist countries to promote free speech. He claimed Communist countries, China for example, welcomed him in because they thought he was an enemy of Capitalism but often turned against him when they saw him as a trouble maker. In his poem "America", written on 17 January 1956 in Berkeley, a line reads "America I used to be a communist when I was a kid I'm not sorry..." followed directly by "I smoke marijuana every chance I get...." Ginsberg admired Castro along with many other quasi-Marxist figures from the 20th century. In 1965 Ginsberg was deported from Cuba for publicly protesting against Cuba's anti-marijuana stance. The Cubans sent him to Czechoslovakia, where one week after being named the King of a May Day parade, Ginsberg was labeled an "immoral menace" by the Czech government because of his free expression of radical ideas, and was then deported. Vaclav Havel points to Ginsberg as an important inspiration in striving for freedom . Biographer Jonah Raskin writes that despite Ginsberg's often stark opposition to communist orthodoxy, he held "his own idiosyncratic version of communism". Raskin, 170 In 1970 Ginsberg objected to being characterized as a Communist, stating publicly, "I am not, as a matter of fact, a member of the Communist party, nor am I dedicated to the overthrow of [the U.S.] government or any government by violence. ... I must say that I see little difference between the armed and violent governments both Communist and Capitalist that I have observed ..." Allen Ginsberg, The Letters of Allen Ginsberg (Philadelphia, Da Capo Press, 2008) p.359 Gay Rights One contribution that is often considered his most significant and most controversial was his openness about homosexuality. Ginsberg was an early proponent of freedom for homosexuals. In 1943 he discovered within himself "mountains of homosexuality." He expressed this desire openly and graphically in his poetry. He also struck a note for gay marriage by listing Peter Orlovsky, his lifelong companion, as his spouse in his Who's Who entry. Later homosexual writers saw his frank talk about homosexuality as an opening to speak more openly and honestly about something often before only hinted at or spoken of in metaphor. In writing about sexuality in graphic detail and in his frequent use of language seen as indecent he challenged—and ultimately changed—obscenity laws. He was a staunch supporter of others whose expression challenged obscenity laws (William S. Burroughs and Lenny Bruce, for example). Radio talk show host, Michael Savage befriended and traveled with Beat poets Allen Ginsberg and Lawrence Ferlinghetti. Stephen Schwartz, also an acquaintance of Savage from this time, reported Savage possessed a photograph of himself and Ginsberg swimming naked in Hawaii and used the photograph as sort of a "calling card." Savage maintained a correspondence with Ginsberg consisting of ten letters and a trio of postcards across four years, which is maintained with Ginsberg's papers at Stanford University. One letter asked for Ginsberg to do a poetry reading, so others could "hear and see and know why I adore your public image." One postcard from Michael Savage mentions his desire to photograph Ginsberg "nude, in a provocative way." Association with NAMBLA Ginsberg also spoke out in defense of the freedom of expression of the North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA). He defended his membership by stating: "Attacks on NAMBLA stink of politics, witchhunting for profit, humorlessness, vanity, anger and ignorance." In "Thoughts on NAMBLA", a 1994 essay published in the collection Deliberate Prose, Ginsberg stated, "I joined NAMBLA in defense of free speech." In the essay, he referred to NAMBLA "as a forum for reform of those laws on youthful sexuality which members deem oppressive, a discussion society not a sex club." Ginsberg expressed the opinion that the appreciation of youthful bodies and "the human form divine" has been a common theme throughout the history of culture, "from Rome's Vatican to Florence's Uffizi galleries to New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art", and that laws regarding the issue needed to be more openly discussed. Ginsberg left the organization when he felt that his point on freedom of speech in America had been made. Demystification of drugs Ginsberg also talked often about drug use. Throughout the 1960s he took an active role in the demystification of LSD and with Timothy Leary worked to promote its common use. He was also for many decades an advocate of marijuana legalization, and at the same time warned his audiences against the hazards of tobacco in his Put Down Your Cigarette Rag (Don't Smoke): "Don't Smoke Don't Smoke Nicotine Nicotine No / No don't smoke the official Dope Smoke Dope Dope." Career Allen Ginsberg at the Miami Book Fair International of 1984 Though early on he had intentions to be a labor lawyer, Ginsberg wrote poetry for most of his life. Most of his very early poetry was written in formal rhyme and meter like his father or like his idol William Blake. His admiration for the writing of Jack Kerouac inspired him to take poetry more seriously. Though he took odd jobs to support himself, in 1955, upon the advice of a psychiatrist, Ginsberg dropped out of the working world to devote his entire life to poetry. Soon after, he wrote "Howl", the poem that brought him and his friends much fame and allowed him to live as a professional poet for the rest of his life. Later in life, Ginsberg entered academia, teaching poetry as Distinguished Professor of English at Brooklyn College from 1986 until his death. Inspiration from friends Since Ginsberg's poetry is intensely personal, and since much of the vitality of those associated with the beat generation comes from mutual inspiration, much credit for style, inspiration, and content can be given to Ginsberg's friends. Ginsberg claimed throughout his life that his biggest inspiration was Kerouac's concept of "spontaneous prose". He believed literature should come from the soul without conscious restrictions. However, Ginsberg was much more prone to revise than Kerouac. For example, when Kerouac saw the first draft of "Howl" he disliked the fact that Ginsberg had made editorial changes in pencil (transposing "negro" and "angry" in the first line, for example). Kerouac only wrote out his concepts of Spontaneous Prose at Ginsberg's insistence because Ginsberg wanted to learn how to apply the technique to his poetry. The inspiration for "Howl" was Ginsberg's friend, Carl Solomon and "Howl" is dedicated to Solomon (whom Ginsberg also directly addresses in the third section of the poem). Solomon was a Dada and Surrealism enthusiast (he introduced Ginsberg to Artaud) who suffered bouts of depression. Solomon wanted to commit suicide, but he thought a form of suicide appropriate to dadaism would be to go to a mental institution and demand a lobotomy. The institution refused, giving him many forms of therapy, including electroshock therapy. Much of the final section of the first part of "Howl" is a description of this. Ginsberg used Solomon as an example of all those ground down by the machine of "Moloch." Moloch, to whom the second section is addressed, is a Levantine god to whom children were sacrificed. Ginsberg may have gotten the name from the Kenneth Rexroth poem "Thou Shalt Not Kill", a poem about the death of one of Ginsberg's heroes, Dylan Thomas. But Moloch is mentioned a few times in the Torah and references to Ginsberg's Jewish background are not infrequent in his work. Ginsberg said the image of Moloch was inspired by peyote visions he had of the Francis Drake Hotel in San Francisco which appeared to him as a skull; he took it as a symbol of the city (not specifically San Francisco, but all cities). Ginsberg later acknowledged in various publications and interviews that behind the visions of the Francis Drake Hotel were memories of the Moloch of Fritz Lang's film Metropolis (1927) and of the woodcut novels of Lynd Ward. See, for example, Allen Ginsberg, Howl: Original Draft Facsimile, Transcript & Variant Versions, ed., Barry Miles (New York: Harper, 1986), 139-140. Ward also illustrated a later broadside version of "Howl", which can be seen in the cited pages. Moloch has subsequently been interpreted as any system of control, including the conformist society of post-World War II America focused on material gain, which Ginsberg frequently blamed for the destruction of all those outside of societal norms. He also made sure to emphasize that Moloch is a part of all of us: the decision to defy socially created systems of control—and therefore go against Moloch—is a form of self-destruction. Many of the characters Ginsberg references in "Howl", such as Neal Cassady and Herbert Huncke, destroyed themselves through excessive substance abuse or a generally wild lifestyle. The personal aspects of "Howl" are perhaps as important as the political aspects. Carl Solomon, the prime example of a "best mind" destroyed by defying society, is associated with Ginsberg's schizophrenic mother: the line "with mother finally ****** (fucked)" comes after a long section about Carl Solomon, and in Part III, Ginsberg says "I'm with you in Rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother." Ginsberg later admitted that the drive to write "Howl" was fueled by sympathy for his ailing mother, an issue which he was not yet ready to deal with directly. He dealt with it directly with 1959's "Kaddish". Inspiration from mentors and idols Ginsberg's poetry was strongly influenced by Modernism (specifically Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Hart Crane, and most importantly William Carlos Williams), Romanticism (specifically Percy Shelley and John Keats), the beat and cadence of jazz (specifically that of bop musicians such as Charlie Parker), and his Kagyu Buddhist practice and Jewish background. He considered himself to have inherited the visionary poetic mantle handed down from the English poet and artist William Blake, and the American poet Walt Whitman. The power of Ginsberg's verse, its searching, probing focus, its long and lilting lines, as well as its New World exuberance, all echo the continuity of inspiration that he claimed. Ginsberg, Allen. Spontaneous Mind: Selected Interviews, 1958-1996. Harper Perennial, 2002. ISBN 0060930829 He studied poetry under William Carlos Williams, who was then in the middle of writing his epic poem Paterson about the industrial city near his home. Ginsberg, after attending a reading by Williams, sent the older poet several of his poems and wrote an introductory letter. Most of these early poems were rhymed and metered and included archaic pronouns like "thee." Williams hated the poems. He told Ginsberg later, "In this mode perfection is basic, and these poems are not perfect." Though he hated the early poems, Williams loved the exuberance in Ginsberg's letter. He included the letter in a later part of "Paterson." He taught Ginsberg not to emulate the old masters but to speak with his own voice and the voice of the common American. Williams taught him to focus on strong visual images, in line with Williams' own motto "No ideas but in things." His time studying under Williams led to a tremendous shift from the early formalist work to a loose, colloquial free verse style. Early breakthrough poems include "Bricklayer's Lunch Hour" and "Dream Record." Carl Solomon introduced Ginsberg to the work of Antonin Artaud ("To Have Done with the Judgement of God" and "Van Gogh: The Man Suicided by Society"), and Jean Genet (Our Lady of the Flowers). Philip Lamantia introduced him to other Surrealists and Surrealism continued to be an influence (for example, sections of Kaddish were inspired by André Breton's "Free Union"). Ginsberg claimed that the anaphoric repetition of "Howl" and other poems was inspired by Christopher Smart in such poems as "Jubilate Agno." Ginsberg also claimed other more traditional influences, such as: Franz Kafka, Herman Melville, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Edgar Allan Poe, and even Emily Dickinson. Ginsberg also made an intense study of haiku and the paintings of Paul Cézanne, from which he adapted a concept important to his work, which he called the "Eyeball Kick". He noticed in viewing Cézanne's paintings that when the eye moved from one color to a contrasting color, the eye would spasm, or "kick." Likewise, he discovered that the contrast of two seeming opposites was a common feature in haiku. Ginsberg used this technique in his poetry, putting together two starkly dissimilar images: something weak with something strong, an artifact of high culture with an artifact of low culture, something holy with something unholy. The example Ginsberg most often used was "hydrogen jukebox" (which later became the title of an opera he wrote with Philip Glass). Another example is Ginsberg's observation on Bob Dylan during Dylan's hectic and intense 1966 electric-guitar tour, fuelled by a cocktail of amphetamines, http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/1999/dec/30/artsfeatures.bobdylan opiates, http://nymag.com/daily/entertainment/2007/10/the_ten_most_incomprehensible.html alcohol, http://www.slate.com/id/1855/ and psychedelics, http://www.guardian.co.uk/theobserver/2001/mar/25/features.review7 as a "Dexedrine Clown". The phrases "eyeball kick" and "hydrogen jukebox" both show up in "Howl", as well as a direct quote from Cézanne: "Pater Omnipotens Aeterna Deus". Style and technique From the study of his idols and mentors and the inspiration of his friends—not to mention his own experiments—Ginsberg developed an individualistic style that's easily identified as Ginsbergian. "Howl" came out during a potentially hostile literary environment less welcoming to poetry outside of tradition; there was a renewed focus on form and structure among academic poets and critics partly inspired by New Criticism. Consequently, Ginsberg often had to defend his choice to break away from traditional poetic structure, often citing Williams, Pound, and Whitman as precursors. Ginsberg's style may have seemed to critics chaotic or unpoetic, but to Ginsberg it was an open, ecstatic expression of thoughts and feelings that were naturally poetic. He believed strongly that traditional formalist considerations were archaic and didn't apply to reality. Though some, Diana Trilling for example, have pointed to Ginsberg's occasional use of meter (for example the anapest of "who came back to Denver and waited in vain"), Ginsberg denied any intention toward meter and claimed instead that meter follows the natural poetic voice, not the other way around; he said, as he learned from Williams, that natural speech is occasionally dactylic, so poetry that imitates natural speech will sometimes fall into a dactylic structure but only accidentally. Like Williams, Ginsberg's line breaks were often determined by breath: one line in "Howl", for example, should be read in one breath. Ginsberg claimed he developed such a long line because he had long breaths (saying perhaps it was because he talked fast, or he did yoga, or he was Jewish). The long line could also be traced back to his study of Walt Whitman; Ginsberg claimed Whitman's long line was a dynamic technique few other poets had ventured to develop further. Whitman is often compared to Ginsberg because their poetry sexualized aspects of the male form — though there is no direct evidence Whitman was homosexual. Many of Ginsberg's early long line experiments contain some sort of anaphoric repetition, or repetition of a "fixed base" (for example "who" in "Howl", "America" in "America"), and this has become a recognizable feature of Ginsberg's style. However, he said later this was a crutch because he lacked confidence in his style; he didn't yet trust "free flight". In the 60s, after employing it in some sections of Kaddish ("caw" for example) he, for the most part, abandoned the anaphoric repetition. Several of his earlier experiments with methods for formatting poems as a whole become regular aspects of his style in later poems. In the original draft of "Howl", each line is in a "stepped triadic" format reminiscent of Williams (see "Ivy Leaves", for example). He abandoned the "stepped triadic" when he developed his long line, but the stepped lines showed up later, most significantly in the travelogues of The Fall of America. "Howl" and "Kaddish", arguably his two most important poems, are both organized as an inverted pyramid, with larger sections leading to smaller sections. In "America", he experimented with a mix of longer and shorter lines. "Lightning's blue glare fills Oklahoma plains,the train rolls east casting yellow shadow on grassTwenty years ago approaching Texas,I saw sheet lightningcover Heaven's corners... An old man catching fireflies on the porch at nightwatched the Herd Boy cross the Milky Way to meet the Weaving Girl...How can we war against that?"(From Iron Horse, composed July 22-23, 1966, while riding a train from the West Coast to Chicago. The poem was dictated to a tape recorder, and later transcribed. The second part of the poem takes place on a Greyhound bus.) See also Central Park Be-In The Life and Times of Allen Ginsberg Allen Ginsberg Live in London :Category:Works by Allen Ginsberg Sheri Martinelli Hungry generation A Poet on the Lower East Side: A Docu-Diary on Allen Ginsberg Notes and references Bibliography Chelsea on the Edge: The Adventures of an American Theater, Davi Napoleon. Includes discussion of Robert Kalfin's off-Broadway multi-media production of Kaddish. Iowa State University Press. ISBN-0-8138-1713-7, 1991. Howl and Other Poems (1956) ISBN 9780872860179 Howl & Other Poems 50th Anniversary Edition (2006) ISBN 9780061137457 Kaddish and Other Poems (1961) ISBN 9780872860193 Empty Mirror: Early Poems (1961) Reality Sandwiches (1963) ISBN 9780872860216 The Yage Letters (1963) – with William S. Burroughs Planet News (1971) ISBN 9780872860209 First Blues: Rags, Ballads & Harmonium Songs 1971 - 1974 (1975), ISBN 0-916190-05-6 The Gates of Wrath: Rhymed Poems 1948 – 1951 (1972) The Fall of America: Poems of These States (1973) ISBN 9780872860636 Iron Horse (1972) Mind Breaths (1978) ISBN 9780872860926 Plutonian Ode: Poems 1977 – 1980 (1981) ISBN 9780872861251 Collected Poems 1947 – 1980 (1984) Republished with later material added as Collected Poems 1947-1997, New York, Harper Collins, 2006 White Shroud Poems: 1980 – 1985 (1986) Cosmopolitan Greetings Poems: 1986 – 1993 (1994) Howl Annotated (1995) Illuminated Poems (1996) Selected Poems: 1947 – 1995 (1996) Death and Fame: Poems 1993 – 1997 (1999) Deliberate Prose 1952 – 1995 (2000) The Book of Martyrdom and Artifice: First Journals and Poems 1937-1952 (Da Capo Press, 2006) The Letters of Allen Ginsberg (Philadelphia, Da Capo Press, 2008) ISBN 978-0306814631 The Selected Letters of Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder (Counterpoint, 2009) Further reading Bullough, Vern L. "Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context." Harrington Park Press, 2002. pp 304–311. Charters, Ann (ed.). The Portable Beat Reader. Penguin Books. New York. 1992. ISBN 0-670-83885-3 (hc); ISBN 0140151028 (pbk) Clark, Thomas. "Allen Ginsberg." Writers at Work—The Paris Review Interviews. 3.1 (1968) pp.279–320. Gifford, Barry (ed.). As Ever: The Collected Letters of Allen Ginsberg & Neal Cassady. Berkeley: Creative Arts Books (1977). Ginsberg, Allen. Travels with Ginsberg: A Postcard Book. San Francisco: City Lights (2002). ISBN 9780872863972 Podhoretz, Norman. "At War with Allen Ginsberg", in Ex-Friends (Free Press, 1999), 22-56. ISBN0-684-85594-1. McBride, Dick: Cometh With Clouds (Memory: Allen Ginsberg) Cherry Valley Editions, 1982 ISBN 0916156516 Miles, Barry. Ginsberg: A Biography. London: Virgin Publishing Ltd. (2001), paperback, 628 pages, ISBN 0-7535-0486-3 Hrebeniak, Michael. Action Writing: Jack Kerouac's Wild Form, Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois UP, 2006. Raskin, Jonah. American Scream: Allen Ginsberg's Howl and the Making of the Beat Generation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. ISBN 0-520-24015-4 Schumacher, Michael (ed.). Family Business: Selected Letters Between a Father and Son. Bloomsbury (2002), paperback, 448 pages, ISBN 1-58234-216-4 Schumacher, Michael. Dharma Lion: A Biography of Allen Ginsberg. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Trigilio, Tony. Allen Ginsberg's Buddhist Poetics. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2007. ISBN 0809327554 Trigilio, Tony. "Strange Prophecies Anew": Rereading Apocalypse in Blake, H.D., and Ginsberg. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2000. ISBN 0838638546. Tytell, John. Naked Angels: Kerouac, Ginsberg, Burroughs. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1976. ISBN 1-56663-683-3 Warner, Simon (ed.). Howl for Now: A 50th anniversary celebration of Allen Ginsberg's epic protest poem. West Yorkshire, UK: Route (2005), paperback, 144 pages, ISBN 1-901927-25-3 Warner, Simon. "Raising the Consciousness? Re-visiting Allen Ginsberg's 1965 trip to Liverpool", chapter in Centre of the Creative Universe: Liverpool and the Avant Garde'', edited by Christoph Grunenberg and Robert Knifton. Liverpool & Chicago: Liverpool University Press & Chicago University Press, 2007, ISBN 13: 9781846310812 (pbk); ISBN 10: 1846310814 (hc) All sources gathered and formatted by Sydney Bolton External links The Allen Ginsberg Trust Official website of THE LIFE AND TIMES OF ALLEN GINSBERG BBC Interview with Allen Ginsberg Allen Ginsberg on Poets.org With audio clips, poems, and related essays, from the Academy of American Poets After 50 Years, Ginsberg's 'Howl' Still Resonates George Petros interview with Ginsberg Allen Ginsberg Collection, Photographs at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin Allen Ginsberg Live in London Allen Ginsberg @ Kerouac Alley Autobiographical Article in Shambhala Sun Magazine How Allen Died Resources The Allen Ginsberg Papers, 1937-1994(1,330 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries | Allen_Ginsberg |@lemmatized irwin:1 allen:41 ginsberg:199 june:1 april:3 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2,984 | Disc_golf | Disc golf (also called Frisbee Golf or "frolf") is a disc game in which individual players throw a flying disc into a basket or at a target. According to the Professional Disc Golf Association, "The object of the game is to traverse a course from beginning to end in the fewest number of throws of the disc." "Rules", PDGA.com, Professional Disc Golf Association Disc golf is inexpensive and is physically accessible for all ages and athletic ranges and therefore attracts a diverse range of players. A great majority of established disc golf courses are free. History Disc golf, in some form, has probably been played informally since the early 1900s, according to Victor Malafronte's, "The Complete Book of Frisbee." But modern disc golf started in the late 1960s, when it seems to have been invented in many places and by many people independently. Two of the best-known figures in the sport are George Sappenfield and Ed" Headrick who coined the term "Disc Golf" and who introduced the first formal disc golf target with chains and a basket, the Mach 1. He created the first disc golf course at Oak Grove Park in Pasadena, California. In 1975, Headrick formed the first disc golf association, the PDGA, which now officiates the standard rules of play for the sport. The sport has grown at a rate of 12-15 percent annually for more than the past decade, with nearly 3,000 courses in the US. In 2009, approximately one out of every five rounds of golf played in the United States will be disc golf rounds. George Sappenfield and early object courses In 1965, George Sappenfield, a Californian, was a recreation counselor during summer break from college. While playing golf one afternoon he realized that it might be fun for the kids on his playground if they played "golf" with frisbees. He set up an object course for his kids to play on. Other early courses were also of this type, using anything from lamp poles to fire hydrants as targets. When he finished college in 1968, Sappenfield became the Parks and Recreation Supervisor for Thousand Oaks, California. George introduced the game to many adults by planning a Disc Golf Tournament as part of a recreation project. He contacted Wham-O Manufacturing and asked them for help with the event. Wham-O supplied frisbees for throwing, and hula hoops for use as targets. However, it would not be until the early 1970s that courses began to crop up in various places in the Midwest and the East Coast (some perhaps through Sappenfield's promotion efforts, others probably independently envisioned). "Brief History of Disc Golf." Some of Sappenfield's acquaintances are known to have brought the game to UC Berkeley. It quickly became popular on campus, with a permanent course laid out in 1970. The discs were given to friends and family, and some were sold with all proceeds going toward funding a nonprofit "Steady" Ed Memorial Disc Golf Museum at the PDGA International Disc Golf Center in Columbia County, Georgia. One of the discs that contains Headrick's ashes will be permanently placed on the roof of the center. When asked why this was to be done, by a member of the local media, PDGA Executive Director Brian Graham quoted an old Frisbee addage, "Old Frisbee players are like old Frisbees ... They don't die, they just land up on the roof." Rule differences between golf and disc golf A disc resting in the basket In golf, a player can carry only 14 clubs. Disc golf has no rule concerning how many discs a disc golfer can carry. In disc golf, it is acceptable for a player to 'fall' in front of their lie after the release. This allowance does NOT apply to putting. A throw is officially considered a putt in disc golf if the lie is marked within what is known as 'The Circle'. This is a circle with a 10-meter (33 feet) radius, with the pin at its center. Within the circle, after putting, a player must not advance beyond the marked lie toward the pin, normally by picking up the marker disc. However, like golfers putting from the fringe, rough or fairway, most disc golfers still use a putting motion on shots that are longer than 10 meters, often called "being out of the circle" or "being outside." The player may follow through on these shots and many players develop a jump putt where the golfer jumps towards the target. This allows a combination of the accuracy that putting provides and more power on the putt. Falling putts (when the player follows through [as described above] on a putt 10 meters or shorter) and foot faults (when a player does not release the disc behind their mark or within the required distance of the mark, when a player has a part of their body touching the ground on release past their mark or when their tee shot is released from off the teeing area) are penalized in a unique way. The first offense is not penalized a stroke, but the golfer is required to re-throw the shot and then is warned for the offense. Any subsequent fouls, however, are penalized one stroke and the golfer must re-throw. A disc golf course incorporating a pond Disc golf doesn't have "hazards" as defined in golf. Bodies of water, park roads and areas of cement are typically defined as out-of-bounds in disc golf, however, sometimes these are not. Most courses define these areas as out of bounds or in bounds on tee signs at each hole, however, there is no universal standard for these. As in golf, any out-of-bounds shot is a one stroke penalty, however, the rules for spotting the lie for the next shot are quite different than those in golf. If a throw lands out of bounds, unless defined by the hole, the thrower has the option of playing from the previous lie, or playing from the approximate spot where the disc crossed into the out-of-bound territory. If they choose to play from where the disc crossed out-of-bounds, they may take a one-meter relief from the out-of-bounds area, even if it puts them closer to the pin. The rules do not permit a player to have a supporting point touching out of bounds on release so this is the reason for the relief. If a player lands within a meter of the out of bounds and is in bounds, they are still granted this relief for the same reasoning. This relief is an option, the only rule regarding this is when the disc is released. Most golfers use this rule to their advantage to make putts closer or to improve their lie. Some holes may require a throw from a Drop Zone. If that is the case, the thrower moves to the drop zone to play the next shot. A disc is only considered out-of-bounds if it is completely surrounded by out-of-bounds - if any part of the disc is touching in-bounds, then the lie is playable. Another difference is the optional penalty for a disc that lands more than 2 meters above the playing surface. The course designer may specify that on particular trees, holes, or the whole course, a disc landing above 2 meters will receive a one throw penalty. This is known as the 2-Meter Rule. If not specified, there's no penalty for a disc landing any height above the ground. In golf, it's likely a player will need to take an unplayable penalty if their ball lands above the ground. On the other hand, balls are much less likely to remain stuck above ground than discs are as they fly through trees. When the disc is stuck above ground (including on top of baskets and those that land in the wrong basket) are to be marked directly below the disc. Even if the disc is not retrievable, as long as the player can identify it, they are not penalized (assuming the 2-meter rule is not in effect). A tournament director has the option of enforcing the 2-meter Rule regardless of whether or not the course enforces the rule. Many casual disc golfers often choose whether to play with the 2-meter rule at the beginning of a round. Disc Golf holes may also have what are known as 'mandatories' or what are commonly called "mandos". These are obstacles that a disc must pass in a certain way. For example, a tree may be marked as a 'right mandatory', meaning a disc must pass that tree on the right side. Failure to hit a mandatory is a one-stroke penalty, and the thrower must play from their previous lie or a drop zone if provided. Mandos are usually put in place to force a player to play down a fairway instead of down another fairway to help with safety. Safety: Disc golf is usually played in a public park, thus bicyclists, hikers, children playing and campers are often on the course. On some courses, such as on a college campus, athletic activities often take place on fairways. Disc golfers have to be very careful to avoid pedestrians, and it is a generally accepted rule that pedestrians have the right-of-way. Driving is one of the more dangerous aspects of disc golf as it pertains to pedestrians. Players should always be aware of their surroundings before a drive. It is common to yell "Fore" before a drive on holes that the target cannot be seen from the tee pad. Groups that have finished the hole yell "clear!" to signify they are clear of the target area. If a player is about to drive and want to know if there are players in the target area, they may yell "clear on hole 12?", and if players are in the target area they may yell "no" or if they have vacated the area they will yell "clear on hole 12!". Players use these terms to alert other groups when finishing the hole as well as approaching groups to find out if the hole is ready for play. This also gives pedestrians a chance to react if they do not realize they are on a disc golf course. Hole #17 on the Gold course at Winthrop University, home of the annual United States Disc Golf Championship Equipment Understanding Disc Golf Discs The golf disc used today is much smaller than traditional flying discs. Also, general-purpose flying discs, such as those used for playing guts or ultimate, have a simple edge to them, whereas disc golf discs have extended lips. They also have a much smaller diameter and profile. There are a wide variety of discs, divided into four basic categories: putters,all-purpose mid-range discs, and drivers. The putters are designed similar to discs you would play catch with: e.g., a Wham-o brand Frisbee. They are designed to fly straight, predictably, and very slowly compared to mid-range discs and drivers. Mid-range discs have slightly sharper edges, which enable them to cut through the air better. Drivers have the sharpest edge and have most of their mass concentrated on the outer rim of the disc rather than distributed equally throughout. Drivers are the hardest types of discs to learn how to throw; their flight path will be very unpredictable without practice. Drivers are also often divided into different categories. For example, Innova discs divides their discs into Distance Drivers and Fairway Drivers, with a fairway driver being somewhere between a distance drive and a mid-range disc. New players will find that throwing a distance driver accurately will require experience with disc golf disc response. It is better to begin play with a fairway driver and later incorporate distance drivers. Discraft divides their drivers into 3 categories: Long Drivers, Extra Long Drivers and Maximum Distance Drivers. The greater the distance of the driver the less control the disc golf player has on the disc. Therefore, an inexperienced player would most likely prefer to use a Long or Extra Long Driver while an experienced player would go for a maximum distance driver if they were seeking longer throws. Natural action of the disc: For a right-handed, back-hand thrower (RHBH), the disc will naturally fall to the left. For a right-handed fore-hand thrower (RHFH), the disc will naturally fall to the right. For a left-handed, back-hand thrower (LHBH), the disc will naturally fall to the right. For a left-handed, fore-hand thrower (LHFH), the disc will naturally fall to the left. Overstable: A disc that is over-stable will increase the natural angle of the disc; discs that are more over-stable are not usually recommended for beginning players. Understable: A disc that is under-stable will push against the natural angle of the disc; discs that are more under-stable are usually recommended for beginning players. Weight of the disc: Golf discs typically weigh between 150 and 180 grams (5.3-6.3 oz.), and measure about 21-24 cm in diameter. PDGA rules prohibit discs weighing more than 200 grams, or more than 8.3 grams per centimeter of diameter. PDGA Rules of Disc Golf Understanding Disc Golf Course Components Four basic components go into a course design, Disc Pole Holes, Tonal Poles, Tee Signs and Tee Pads. Disc Pole Holes are the main and most important components of a disc golf course. A Disc Pole Hole comprises a center pole, chain holder and a basket. A set of chains hang down from the chain holder surrounding the center pole. Surrounding the pole below the chains is a circular basket that serves to catch a disc thrown at the chains of the Disc Pole Hole. The Disc Pole Hole is also commonly known as a basket or a catcher. In some cases a Tonal Pole, a pole without chains and a basket, will act as the target. When the disc strikes a tonal pole, the pole makes a noise, indicating that the disc has been "caught" by the chains. The approximate dimensions of a tonal pole represent those of a full disc pole hole (if the disc strikes the tonal pole, that same shot would have fallen in the basket on a disc pole hole). When the disc drops into the basket or strikes the tonal pole the player moves to the next Tee. For each hole, a tee pad provides a firm and level foundation to start play from, “tee off”. Tees are usually composed of poured concrete slabs, decomposed granite, or more recently dense rubber pads. Some courses have alternative tee pads for a given hole. Similar to traditional golf, one tee is often closer to the target, allowing multiple players of different skill levels a better chance of competitive play. The player(s) with lesser ability to drive the disc greater distances shoot from the closer tee than his/her fellow players shooting off the further tee. Most often, experienced players allow this strategy to be employed by novice players and children, to keep the scores in more competitive range. Located at each tee, Tee Signs are the map to the hole. They give important information like the distance, par, the preferred flight path, hazards and out of bounds. Scoring A player getting out of the rough on Goolagong, hole #3, Whitcombe Disc Golf Course, Beaminster, Dorset, UK. Photo:Toby Green Stroke play is the most common scoring method but there are many others, including match play, skins, speed golf and captain's choice, which in disc golf is referred to as "doubles" (not to be confused with partner or team play). In every form of play, the goal is to play as few strokes per round as possible. Scores for each hole can be described as follows: Term on a scoreboardSpecific termDefinition-3 Albatross (or double-eagle)three strokes under par -2 Eagle (or double-birdie)two strokes under par-1 Birdieone stroke under par0 Parstrokes equal to par+1 Bogeyone stroke more than par+2 Double bogeytwo strokes over par+3 Triple bogeythree strokes over par </center> A snowman (perhaps 4 over par on a par 4-hole) is an informal term in some countries for a score indicating that 8 shots were taken at a single hole. Doubles play is a unique style of play that many local courses offer on a weekly basis. In this format, teams of two golfers are determined. Sometime this is done by random draw, and other times it is a pro-am format. On the course, it is a 'best-disc' scramble. Meaning both players throw their tee shot, and then decide which lie they would like to play. Both players then play from the same lie, again choosing which lie is preferable. The World Amateur Doubles Format include best shot, alternate shot, best score(players play singles and take the best result from the hole) and worst shot (both players must sink the putt). Tournaments Disc Golf tournaments are popular around the world. As with traditional "ball golf", there are many championship tournaments. One of the largest is the United States Disc Golf Championship. Women in the sport While there are more male than female players, the Women's Disc Golf Association exists to encourage female players and arrange women's tournaments. A PDGA survey states that out of its 11,302 members in 2006, 8% are female, or about 900. In PDGA competition, women have the option to play in gender-protected divisions. Several companies have started programs to help attract women to the sport, including Innova, who has dedicated a section of their website for ideas on getting women involved. Disc golf for women at Innova There are also Disc golf companies such as Disc-Diva, that have started up with a primary, though not exclusive, focus on women in the sport, promoting accessories geared towards women and using catch phrases like, "You wish you threw like a girl." Disc-Diva.com Sassy Pants is another group that focuses on getting more involvement from women in the sport, advocating for sponsorship of women to enter tournaments. Sassy Pants Visions References Disc Golf Rules for Recreation Play Brief History of Disc Golf" PDGA, 2009. Web. 25 March 2009 External links Professional Disc Golf Association PDGA Radio - Weekly Disc Golf News and Information podcast A list of all disc golf world champions, United States champions, world doubles champions, and PDGA award winners. discgolf.com Disc Golf Association Disc Golf Foundation Disc Golf Course Review discgolfersR.us Midwest Disc Sport Collection (acc. 5828), Univ. of Missouri-Columbia (Pacific) Northwest Disc Golf News British Disc Golf Association 1000rated.com 1000 Rated Disc Golf Players, News, Scores, and more GotDiscGolf.com Disc Golf News & Tips National Collegiate Disc Golf Union The Association For The Advancement of Disc Golf Disc Golf Information and Resources Disc Golf Review-Disc Golf Equipment and Technique Article Worlds Biggest Disc Golf Weekend | Disc_golf |@lemmatized disc:130 golf:75 also:9 call:3 frisbee:8 frolf:1 game:4 individual:1 player:41 throw:14 fly:5 basket:11 target:11 accord:2 professional:3 association:8 object:3 traverse:1 course:26 begin:5 end:1 number:1 rule:17 pdga:11 com:5 inexpensive:1 physically:1 accessible:1 age:1 athletic:2 range:7 therefore:2 attract:2 diverse:1 great:3 majority:1 establish:1 free:1 history:3 form:3 probably:2 play:33 informally:1 since:1 early:4 victor:1 malafronte:1 complete:1 book:1 modern:1 start:4 late:1 seem:1 invent:1 many:9 place:5 people:1 independently:2 two:3 best:5 know:7 figure:1 sport:8 george:4 sappenfield:6 ed:2 headrick:3 coin:1 term:4 introduce:2 first:4 formal:1 chain:8 mach:1 create:1 oak:2 grove:1 park:4 pasadena:1 california:2 officiate:1 standard:2 grow:1 rate:1 percent:1 annually:1 past:2 decade:1 nearly:1 u:2 approximately:1 one:11 every:2 five:1 round:4 united:4 state:5 californian:1 recreation:4 counselor:1 summer:1 break:1 college:3 afternoon:1 realize:2 might:1 fun:1 kid:2 playground:1 set:2 type:2 use:9 anything:1 lamp:1 pole:19 fire:1 hydrant:1 finish:3 become:2 supervisor:1 thousand:1 adult:1 plan:1 tournament:7 part:3 project:1 contact:1 wham:3 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path:2 unpredictable:1 without:2 practice:1 innova:3 somewhere:1 new:1 accurately:1 experience:2 response:1 later:1 discraft:1 extra:2 maximum:2 control:1 inexperienced:1 prefer:1 experienced:1 seek:1 natural:3 action:1 back:2 rhbh:1 naturally:4 left:4 rhfh:1 lhbh:1 lhfh:1 overstable:1 stable:4 increase:1 angle:2 recommend:2 understable:1 push:1 weight:1 weigh:2 gram:3 oz:1 measure:1 cm:1 prohibit:1 per:2 centimeter:1 component:3 tonal:6 main:1 important:2 comprise:1 holder:2 hang:1 circular:1 serve:1 thrown:1 catcher:1 act:1 strike:3 noise:1 indicate:1 dimension:1 represent:1 full:1 firm:1 level:2 foundation:2 compose:1 poured:1 concrete:1 slab:1 decompose:1 granite:1 recently:1 dense:1 rubber:1 alternative:1 closer:1 multiple:1 skill:1 good:1 competitive:2 ability:1 shoot:2 fellow:1 strategy:1 employ:1 novice:1 keep:1 score:6 locate:1 map:1 information:3 par:9 preferred:1 get:3 goolagong:1 whitcombe:1 beaminster:1 dorset:1 uk:1 photo:1 toby:1 green:1 scoring:1 method:1 match:1 skin:1 speed:1 captain:1 choice:1 refer:1 double:7 confuse:1 partner:1 team:2 goal:1 possible:1 scoreboardspecific:1 termdefinition:1 albatross:1 eagle:2 three:1 birdie:1 birdieone:1 parstrokes:1 equal:1 bogeyone:1 bogeytwo:1 triple:1 bogeythree:1 snowman:1 informal:1 country:1 indicating:1 single:2 style:1 offer:1 weekly:2 basis:1 format:3 determine:1 sometime:1 random:1 draw:1 time:1 pro:1 scramble:1 decide:1 preferable:1 world:4 amateur:1 alternate:1 result:1 bad:1 sink:1 around:1 large:1 woman:11 male:1 female:3 exist:1 encourage:1 arrange:1 survey:1 competition:1 gender:1 protected:1 division:1 several:1 company:2 program:1 dedicate:1 section:1 website:1 idea:1 involve:1 diva:2 primary:1 though:1 exclusive:1 focus:2 promote:1 accessory:1 gear:1 phrase:1 wish:1 girl:1 sassy:2 pant:2 involvement:1 advocate:1 sponsorship:1 enter:1 vision:1 reference:1 web:1 march:1 external:1 link:1 radio:1 news:4 podcast:1 list:1 champion:3 award:1 winner:1 discgolf:1 review:2 discgolfersr:1 collection:1 acc:1 univ:1 missouri:1 pacific:1 northwest:1 british:1 rat:1 gotdiscgolf:1 tip:1 national:1 collegiate:1 union:1 advancement:1 resource:1 technique:1 article:1 worlds:1 big:1 weekend:1 |@bigram disc_golf:61 golf_course:8 oak_grove:1 pasadena_california:1 golf_tournament:2 uc_berkeley:1 outer_rim:1 weigh_gram:2 gram_oz:1 centimeter_diameter:1 tonal_pole:6 concrete_slab:1 male_female:1 external_link:1 association_advancement:1 |
2,985 | Ahab | Ahab (or Ach'av or ) was king of Israel and the son and successor of Omri (). William F. Albright dated his reign to 869 – 850 BC, while E. R. Thiele offered the dates 874 – 853 BC. Family Ahab married Jezebel, the daughter of King Ithobaal I of Tyre, and the alliance was doubtless the means of procuring political support. Ahab's reign Shalmaneser III's (859-824 BC) Kurkh Monolith names King Ahab.(see List of artifacts significant to the Bible During Ahab's reign, Moab, which had been conquered by his father, remained tributary; Judah, with whose king, Jehoshaphat, he was allied by marriage, was probably his vassal; only with Aram Damascus is he believed to have had strained relations. Battle of Qarqar The Battle of Qarqar is one event mentioned by external sources and was perhaps at Apamea) where Shalmaneser III of Assyria fought a great confederation of princes from Cilicia, Northern Syria, Israel, Ammon and the tribes of the Syrian desert (853 BC). Here Ahab (A-ha-ab-bu mat) (Adad-'idri). Ahab's contribution was reckoned at 2,000 chariots and 10,000 men. The numbers are comparatively large and possibly include forces from Tyre, Judah, Edom and Moab. The Assyrian king claimed a victory, but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in 849 BC and 846 BC against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to show that he met with no lasting success. According to the Tanakh, however, Ahab with 7,000 troops had previously overthrown Ben-hadad and his thirty-two kings, who had come to lay siege to Samaria, and in the following year obtained a decisive victory over him at Aphek, probably in the plain of Sharon at Antipatris (1 Kings 20). A treaty was made whereby Ben-hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from Ahab's father (that is, Omri, but see 15:20, 2 Kings 13:25), and trading facilities between Damascus and Samaria were granted. Death of Ahab Three years later, war broke out on the east of the Jordan River, and Ahab with Jehoshaphat of Judah went to recover Ramoth-Gilead. During this battle Ahab disguised himself but was shot by an arrow and mortally wounded (ch. 22). He was succeeded by his sons (Ahaziah and Jehoram). Order of events It is very difficult to obtain any clear idea of the order of these events (the Septuagint places 1 Kings 21 immediately after 19). How the hostile kings of Israel and Syria came to fight a common enemy, and how to correlate the Assyrian and Biblical records, are questions which have perplexed all recent writers. The reality of the difficulties will be apparent from the fact that it has been suggested that the Assyrian scribe wrote "Ahab" for his son "Jehoram", and that the very identification of the name with Ahab of Israel has been questioned. Legacy While the above passages from 1 Kings do not view Ahab favourably, there are others which are less friendly. The murder of Naboth (see Jezebel), an act of royal encroachment, stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused the opposition of certain of the prophets. Indeed, he is referred to, for this and other things as being "more evil than all the kings before him".The latter found their champion in Elijah, whose history reflects the prophetic teaching of more than one age. His denunciation of the royal dynasty, and his emphatic insistence on the worship of Yahweh and Him alone, form the key note to a period which culminated in the accession of Jehu, an event in which Elijah's chosen disciple Elisha was the leading figure. Sources External links Ahab - Archaeowiki.org | Ahab |@lemmatized ahab:16 ach:1 av:1 king:12 israel:4 son:3 successor:1 omri:2 william:1 f:1 albright:1 date:2 reign:3 bc:6 e:1 r:1 thiele:1 offer:1 family:1 marry:1 jezebel:2 daughter:1 ithobaal:1 tyre:2 alliance:1 doubtless:1 mean:1 procure:1 political:1 support:1 shalmaneser:2 iii:2 kurkh:1 monolith:1 name:2 see:3 list:1 artifact:1 significant:1 bible:1 moab:2 conquer:1 father:3 remain:1 tributary:1 judah:3 whose:2 jehoshaphat:2 ally:1 marriage:1 probably:2 vassal:1 aram:1 damascus:2 believe:1 strain:1 relation:1 battle:3 qarqar:2 one:2 event:4 mention:1 external:2 source:2 perhaps:1 apamea:1 assyria:1 fight:2 great:1 confederation:1 prince:1 cilicia:1 northern:1 syria:2 ammon:1 tribe:1 syrian:1 desert:1 ha:1 ab:1 bu:1 mat:1 adad:1 idri:1 contribution:1 reckon:1 chariot:1 men:1 number:1 comparatively:1 large:1 possibly:1 include:1 force:1 edom:1 assyrian:3 claim:1 victory:2 immediate:1 return:1 subsequent:1 expedition:1 similar:1 unspecified:1 coalition:1 seem:1 show:1 meet:1 lasting:1 success:1 accord:1 tanakh:1 however:1 troop:1 previously:1 overthrow:1 ben:2 hadad:2 thirty:1 two:1 come:2 lay:1 siege:1 samaria:2 following:1 year:2 obtain:2 decisive:1 aphek:1 plain:1 sharon:1 antipatris:1 treaty:1 make:1 whereby:1 restore:1 city:1 take:1 trading:1 facility:1 grant:1 death:1 three:1 later:1 war:1 break:1 east:1 jordan:1 river:1 go:1 recover:1 ramoth:1 gilead:1 disguise:1 shoot:1 arrow:1 mortally:1 wound:1 ch:1 succeed:1 ahaziah:1 jehoram:2 order:2 difficult:1 clear:1 idea:1 septuagint:1 place:1 immediately:1 hostile:1 common:1 enemy:1 correlate:1 biblical:1 record:1 question:2 perplex:1 recent:1 writer:1 reality:1 difficulty:1 apparent:1 fact:1 suggest:1 scribe:1 write:1 identification:1 legacy:1 passage:1 view:1 favourably:1 others:1 less:1 friendly:1 murder:1 naboth:1 act:1 royal:2 encroachment:1 stir:1 popular:1 resentment:1 new:1 cult:1 arouse:1 opposition:1 certain:1 prophet:1 indeed:1 refer:1 thing:1 evil:1 latter:1 find:1 champion:1 elijah:2 history:1 reflect:1 prophetic:1 teaching:1 age:1 denunciation:1 dynasty:1 emphatic:1 insistence:1 worship:1 yahweh:1 alone:1 form:1 key:1 note:1 period:1 culminate:1 accession:1 jehu:1 chosen:1 disciple:1 elisha:1 leading:1 figure:1 link:1 archaeowiki:1 org:1 |@bigram f_albright:1 r_thiele:1 shalmaneser_iii:2 ben_hadad:2 decisive_victory:1 ramoth_gilead:1 mortally_wound:1 external_link:1 |
2,986 | Karel_Hynek_Mácha | Statue of Karel Hynek Mácha in Petřín Park, Prague Karel Hynek Mácha () (16 November 1810 – 5 November 1836) was a Czech romantic poet. Biography Mácha grew up in Prague, the son of a foreman at a mill. He learned Latin and German in school. He went on to study law at Prague University; during that time he also became involved in theater, where he met Eleonora Somkova, with whom he had a son out of wedlock. He was fond of travel, enjoying trips into the mountains, and was an avid walker. Eventually he moved to Litoměřice, a quiet town some 60 km from Prague, to prepare for law school exams and to write poetry. Three days before he was to be married to Somkova, just a few weeks after he had begun working as a legal assistant, Mácha died after a short period of illness, due to pneumonia. Mácha was buried in Litoměřice in a pauper's grave. Recognition came after his death: in 1939, his remains were exhumed, and they were given a formal state burial at the Vyšehrad cemetery in Prague. A statue was erected in his honor in Petřín Park, Prague. In 1937 a biographic film, Karel Hynek Mácha, was made by Zet Molas (a pen name of Zdena Smolová). Máchovo jezero (English Mácha's Lake) was named after him in 1961. Works His lyrical epic poem Máj (May), published in 1836 shortly before his death, was judged by his contemporaries as confusing, too individualistic, and not in harmony with the national ideas. Marcela Sulak, "Introduction," in Czech playwright Josef Kajetán Tyl even wrote a parody on Mácha's style, Rozervanec (The chaotic). Máj was rejected by publishers, and was published by a vanity press at Mácha's own expense, not long before his early death. Mácha's genius was discovered and glorified much later by the poets and novelists of the 1850s generation (for example Jan Neruda, Vítězslav Hálek, Karolina Světlá) and Máj is now regarded as the classic work of Czech Romanticism, and is considered one of the best Czech poems ever written. He also authored a collection of autobiographical sketches titled Pictures From My Life, the 1835–36 novel Gypsies, as well as several individual poems, besides a journal in which, for instance, he detailed his sexual encounters with Somkova. References External links Máj (English translation) Mácha's untimely death Karel Hynek Mácha: On Patriotism and Turtle-Doves | Karel_Hynek_Mácha |@lemmatized statue:2 karel:4 hynek:4 mácha:12 petřín:2 park:2 prague:6 november:2 czech:4 romantic:1 poet:2 biography:1 grow:1 son:2 foreman:1 mill:1 learn:1 latin:1 german:1 school:2 go:1 study:1 law:2 university:1 time:1 also:2 become:1 involve:1 theater:1 meet:1 eleonora:1 somkova:3 wedlock:1 fond:1 travel:1 enjoy:1 trip:1 mountain:1 avid:1 walker:1 eventually:1 move:1 litoměřice:2 quiet:1 town:1 km:1 prepare:1 exam:1 write:3 poetry:1 three:1 day:1 marry:1 week:1 begin:1 work:3 legal:1 assistant:1 die:1 short:1 period:1 illness:1 due:1 pneumonia:1 bury:1 pauper:1 grave:1 recognition:1 come:1 death:4 remains:1 exhume:1 give:1 formal:1 state:1 burial:1 vyšehrad:1 cemetery:1 erect:1 honor:1 biographic:1 film:1 make:1 zet:1 mola:1 pen:1 name:2 zdena:1 smolová:1 máchovo:1 jezero:1 english:2 lake:1 lyrical:1 epic:1 poem:2 máj:4 may:1 publish:2 shortly:1 judge:1 contemporary:1 confusing:1 individualistic:1 harmony:1 national:1 idea:1 marcela:1 sulak:1 introduction:1 playwright:1 josef:1 kajetán:1 tyl:1 even:1 parody:1 style:1 rozervanec:1 chaotic:1 reject:1 publisher:1 vanity:1 press:1 expense:1 long:1 early:1 genius:1 discover:1 glorify:1 much:1 later:1 novelist:1 generation:1 example:1 jan:1 neruda:1 vítězslav:1 hálek:1 karolina:1 světlá:1 regard:1 classic:1 romanticism:1 consider:1 one:1 best:1 poems:1 ever:1 author:1 collection:1 autobiographical:1 sketch:1 title:1 picture:1 life:1 novel:1 gypsy:1 well:1 several:1 individual:1 besides:1 journal:1 instance:1 detail:1 sexual:1 encounter:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 translation:1 untimely:1 patriotism:1 turtle:1 dove:1 |@bigram autobiographical_sketch:1 external_link:1 untimely_death:1 |
2,987 | Meta_element | Meta elements are HTML or XHTML elements used to provide structured metadata about a Web page. Such elements must be placed as tags in the head section of an HTML or XHTML document. Meta elements can be used to specify page description, keywords and any other metadata not provided through the other head elements and attributes. The meta element has four valid attributes: content, http-equiv, name and scheme. Of these, only content is a required attribute. An example of the use of the meta element In one form, meta elements can specify HTTP headers which should be sent before the actual content when the HTML page is served from Web server to client. For example: <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html" /> This specifies that the page should be served with an HTTP header called 'Content-Type' that has a value 'text/html'. This is a typical use of the meta element, which specifies the document type so a client (browser or otherwise) knows what content type to render. In the general form, a meta element specifies name and associated content attributes describing aspects of the HTML page. For example: <meta name="keywords" content="wikipedia,encyclopedia" /> In this example, the meta element identifies itself as containing the 'keywords' relevant to the document, Wikipedia and encyclopedia. Meta tags can be used to indicate the location a business serves: <meta name="zipcode" content="45212,45208,45218,etc." /> In this example, geographical information is given according to zip codes. Meta element used in search engine optimization Meta elements provide information about a given Web page, most often to help search engines categorize them correctly. They are inserted into the HTML document, but are often not directly visible to a user visiting the site. They have been the focus of a field of marketing research known as search engine optimization (SEO), where different methods are explored to provide a user's site with a higher ranking on search engines. In the mid to late 1990s, search engines were reliant on meta data to correctly classify a Web page and webmasters quickly learned the commercial significance of having the right meta element, as it frequently led to a high ranking in the search engines — and thus, high traffic to the website. As search engine traffic achieved greater significance in online marketing plans, consultants were brought in who were well versed in how search engines perceive a website. These consultants used a variety of techniques (legitimate and otherwise) to improve ranking for their clients. Meta elements have significantly less effect on search engine results pages today than they did in the 1990s and their utility has decreased dramatically as search engine robots have become more sophisticated. This is due in part to the nearly infinite re-occurrence (keyword stuffing) of meta elements and/or to attempts by unscrupulous website placement consultants to manipulate (spamdexing) or otherwise circumvent search engine ranking algorithms. While search engine optimization can improve search engine ranking, consumers of such services should be careful to employ only reputable providers. Given the extraordinary competition and technological craftsmanship required for top search engine placement, the implication of the term "search engine optimization" has deteriorated over the last decade. Where it once implied bringing a website to the top of a search engine's results page, for the average consumer it now implies a relationship with keyword spamming or optimizing a site's internal search engine for improved performance. Major search engine robots are more likely to quantify such extant factors as the volume of incoming links from related websites, quantity and quality of content, technical precision of source code, spelling, functional v. broken hyperlinks, volume and consistency of searches and/or viewer traffic, time within website, page views, revisits, click-throughs, technical user-features, uniqueness, redundancy, relevance, advertising revenue yield, freshness, geography, language and other intrinsic characteristics. The keywords attribute The keywords attribute was popularized by search engines such as Infoseek and AltaVista in 1995, and its popularity quickly grew until it became one of the most commonly used meta elements Statistic (June 4, 1997), META attributes by count, Vancouver Webpages, retrieved June 3, 2007 . By late 1997, however, search engine providers realized that information stored in meta elements, especially the keyword attribute, was often unreliable and misleading, and at worst, used to draw users into spam sites. (Unscrupulous webmasters could easily place false keywords into their meta elements in order to draw people to their site.) Search engines began dropping support for metadata provided by the meta element in 1998, and by the early 2000s, most search engines had veered completely away from reliance on meta elements. In July 2002, AltaVista, one of the last major search engines to still offer support, finally stopped considering them Danny Sullivan (October 1, 2002), Death Of A Meta Tag, SearchEngineWatch.com, retrieved June 03, 2007 . No consensus exists whether or not the keywords attribute has any effect on ranking at any of the major search engines today. It is speculated that it does, if the keywords used in the meta can also be found in the page copy itself. With respect to Google, thirty-seven leaders in search engine optimization concluded in April 2007 that the relevance of having your keywords in the meta-attribute keywords is little to none Rand Fishkin (April 2, 2007), Search Engine Ranking Factors V2, SEOmoz.org, retrieved June 3, 2007 . However, the same article also suggests that Yahoo still makes use of the keywords meta tag in some of its rankings. Yahoo itself claims support for the keyword meta tag in conjunction with other factors for improving search rankings. Yahoo FAQs, How do I improve the ranking of my web site in the search results?, Yahoo.com, retrieved November 12, 2008 The description attribute Unlike the keyword attribute, the description attribute is supported by most major search engines, like Yahoo and Live Search, while Google will fall back on this tag when information about the page itself is requested (e.g. using the related: query). The description attribute provides a concise explanation of a Web page's content. This allows the Web page authors to give a more meaningful description for listings than might be displayed if the search engine was unable to automatically create its own description based on the page content. The description is often, but not always, displayed on search engine results pages, so it can impact click-through rates. Industry commentators have suggested that major search engines also consider keywords located in the description attribute when ranking pages. Danny Sullivan, How To Use HTML Meta Tags, Search Engine Watch, December 5, 2002 W3C doesn't specify the size of this description meta tag, but almost all search engines recommend it to be shorter than 200 characters of plain text. The language attribute The language attribute tells search engines what natural language the website is written in (e.g. English, Urdu or French), as opposed to the coding language (e.g. HTML). It is normally a 2 letter abbreviation for the language name. It is of most use when a website is written in multiple languages and can be included on each page to tell search engines in which language a particular page is written. 1 Website Designer Using language metatags in websites February 19, 2008 The robots attribute The robots attribute controls whether search engine spiders are allowed to index a page, or not, and whether they should follow links from a page, or not. The noindex value prevents a page from being indexed, and nofollow prevents links from being crawled. Other values are available that can influence how a search engine indexes pages, and how those pages appear on the search results. The robots attribute is supported by several major search engines Vanessa Fox, Using the robots meta tag, Official Google Webmaster Central Blog, 3/05/2007 . There are several additional values for the robots meta attribute that are relevant to search engines, such as NOARCHIVE and NOSNIPPET, which are meant to tell search engines what not to do with a Web pages content. Danny Sullivan (March 5, 2007),Meta Robots Tag 101: Blocking Spiders, Cached Pages & More, SearchEngineLand.com, retrieved June 3, 2007 . Meta tags are not the best option to prevent search engines from indexing content of your website. A more reliable and efficient method is the use of the Robots.txt file (robots exclusion standard). NOINDEX tag tells a search engine not to index a specific page. NOFOLLOW tag tells a search engine not to follow the links on a specific page. NOARCHIVE tag tells a search engine not to store a cached copy of your page. NOSNIPPET tag tells Google not to show a snippet (description) under your a search engine listing, it will also not show a cached link in the search results Additional attributes for search engines NOODP The search engines Google, Yahoo! and MSN use in some cases the title and abstract of the Open Directory Project (ODP) listing of a Web site for the title and/or description (also called snippet or abstract) in the search engine results pages (SERPS). To give webmasters the option to specify that the ODP content should not be used for listings of their website, Microsoft introduced in May 2006 the new "NOODP" value for the "robots" element of the meta tags Betsy Aoki (May 22, 2006), Opting Out of Open Directory Listings for Webmasters, Live Search Blog, retrieved June 3, 2007 . Google followed in July 2006 Vanessa Fox (July 13, 2006), More control over page snippets, Inside Google Sitemaps, retrieved June 3, 2007 and Yahoo! in October 2006 Yahoo! Search (October 24, 2006), Yahoo! Search Weather Update and Support for 'NOODP', Yahoo! Search Blog, retrieved June 3, 2007 . The syntax is the same for all search engines who support the tag. <META NAME="ROBOTS" CONTENT="NOODP"> Webmasters can decide if they want to disallow the use of their ODP listing on a per search engine basis Google: <META NAME="GOOGLEBOT" CONTENT="NOODP"> Yahoo! <META NAME="Slurp" CONTENT="NOODP"> MSN and Live Search: <META NAME="msnbot" CONTENT="NOODP"> NOYDIR Yahoo! puts content from their own Yahoo! directory next to the ODP listing. In 2007 they introduced a meta tag that lets web designers opt-out of this Yahoo! Search (February 28, 2007), Yahoo! Search Support for 'NOYDIR' Meta Tags and Weather Update, Yahoo! Search Blog, retrieved June 3, 2007 . If you add the NOYDIR tag to a page, Yahoo! won't display the Yahoo! Directory titles and abstracts. <META NAME="ROBOTS" CONTENT="NOYDIR"> <META NAME="Slurp" CONTENT="NOYDIR"> Robots-NoContent Yahoo! also introduced in May 2007 the attribute value: class="robots-nocontent". Yahoo! Search (May 02, 2007), Introducing Robots-Nocontent for Page Sections, Yahoo! Search Blog, retrieved June 3, 2007 This is not a meta tag, but an attribute and value, which can be used throughout Web page tags where needed. Content of the page where this attribute is being used will be ignored by the Yahoo! crawler and not included in the search engine's index. Examples for the use of the robots-nocontent tag: <div class="robots-nocontent">excluded content</div> <span class="robots-nocontent">excluded content</span> <p class="robots-nocontent">excluded content</p> Academic studies Google does not use HTML keyword or meta tag elements for indexing. The Director of Research at Google, Monika Henziger, was quoted (in 2002) as saying, "Currently we don't trust metadata because we are afraid of being manipulated." Greta de Groat (2002). "Perspectives on the Web and Google: Monika Henziger, Director of Research, Google", Journal of Internet Cataloging, Vol. 5(1), pp. 17-28, 2002 . Other search engines developed techniques to penalize Web sites considered to be "cheating the system". For example, a Web site repeating the same meta keyword several times may have its ranking decreased by a search engine trying to eliminate this practice, though that is unlikely. It is more likely that a search engine will ignore the meta keyword element completely, and most do regardless of how many words used in the element. Google does, however, use meta tag elements for displaying site links. The title tags are used to create the link in search results: <title>Site name - Page title - Keyword description</title> The meta description often appears in Google search results to describe the link: <meta name="description" content="A blurb to describe the content of the page appears here" /> Redirects Meta refresh elements can be used to instruct a Web browser to automatically refresh a Web page after a given time interval. It is also possible to specify an alternative URL and use this technique in order to redirect the user to a different location. Using a meta refresh in this way and solely by itself rarely achieves the desired result. For Internet Explorer's security settings, under the miscellaneous category, meta refresh can be turned off by the user, thereby disabling its redirect ability entirely. Many Web design tutorials also point out that client side redirecting tends to interfere with the normal functioning of a Web browser's "back" button. After being redirected, clicking the back button will cause the user to go back to the redirect page, which redirects them again. Some modern browsers seem to overcome this problem however, including Safari, Mozilla Firefox and Opera. Auto-redirects via markup (versus server side redirects) are not in compliance with the W3C's - Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 1.0 (guideline 7.5). W3C Recommendation (May 5, 1999), Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 1.0 - Guideline 7. W3.org, retrieved September 28, 2007 HTTP message headers Meta elements of the form can be used as alternatives to http headers. For example, would tell the browser that the page "expires" on June 21 2006 at 14:25:27 GMT and that it may safely cache the page until then. Alternative to meta elements An alternative to meta elements for enhanced subject access within a website is the use of a back-of-book-style index for the website. See examples at the websites of the Australian Society of Indexers and the American Society of Indexers. In 1994, ALIWEB, which was likely the first Web search engine, also used an index file to provide the type of information commonly found in meta keywords attributes. See also Resource Description Framework (RDF) External links Meta tag list at W3Schools References | Meta_element |@lemmatized meta:59 element:30 html:10 xhtml:2 use:33 provide:7 structure:1 metadata:4 web:21 page:41 must:1 place:2 tag:27 head:2 section:2 document:4 specify:7 description:15 keywords:13 attribute:26 four:1 valid:1 content:31 http:6 equiv:2 name:13 scheme:1 required:1 example:9 one:3 form:3 header:4 send:1 actual:1 serve:2 server:2 client:4 type:5 text:3 call:2 value:7 typical:1 browser:5 otherwise:3 know:2 render:1 general:1 specifies:1 associate:1 describe:3 aspect:1 wikipedia:2 encyclopedia:2 identify:1 contain:1 relevant:2 indicate:1 location:2 business:1 serf:1 zipcode:1 etc:1 geographical:1 information:5 give:6 accord:1 zip:1 code:2 search:72 engine:52 optimization:5 often:5 help:1 categorize:1 correctly:2 insert:1 directly:1 visible:1 user:7 visit:1 site:11 focus:1 field:1 market:1 research:3 seo:1 different:2 method:2 explore:1 high:3 ranking:8 mid:1 late:2 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2,988 | Poker | A game of Texas hold 'em in progress. "Hold 'em" is currently the most popular form of poker. Poker is a family of card games that share betting rules and usually (but not always) hand rankings. Poker games differ in how the cards are dealt, how hands may be formed, whether the high or low hand wins the pot in a showdown (in some games, the pot is split between the high and low hands), limits on bets and how many rounds of betting are allowed. In most modern poker games, the first round of betting begins with some form of forced bet. The action then proceeds to the left. Each player in turn must either match the maximum previous bet or fold, losing all further interest in the hand. A player who matches a bet may also raise, increasing the bet. The betting round ends when all players have either matched the last bet or folded. If all but one player fold on any round, the remaining player collects the pot without showing his hand. If more than one player remains in contention after the final betting round, the hands are shown and the winning hand takes the pot. David G. Schwartz, Roll the Bones: The History of Gambling, Gotham (2007), ISBN: 978-1592403165 Players feel that this betting system distinguishes poker from gambling games. With the minor exception of initial forced bets, money is only placed into the pot voluntarily by a player who, at least in theory, rationally believes the bet has positive expected value. Thus while the outcome of any particular hand is determined mostly by chance, the long-run expectations of the players are determined mostly by their actions chosen based on probability and psychology. Variations Poker has many variations, all following a similar pattern of play and generally using the same hand ranking hierarchy. There are three main families of variants, largely grouped by the protocol of card-dealing and betting: "Straight": A complete hand is dealt to each player, and players bet in one round, with raising and re-raising allowed. This is the oldest poker family; the root of the game as currently played was a game known as Primero, which evolved into the game Three-card brag, a very popular gentleman's game around the time of the American Revolutionary War and still enjoyed in the U.K. today. "Straight" hands of five cards are sometimes used as a final showdown, but poker is currently virtually always played in a more complex form to allow for additional strategy. Stud: Cards are dealt in a prearranged combination of face-down and face-up rounds or "streets", with a round of betting following each. This is the next-oldest family; as poker progressed from three to five-card hands, they were often dealt one card at a time, either face-down or face-up, with a betting round between each. The most popular stud variant today, Seven-card stud, deals two extra cards to each player (three facedown, four faceup) from which they must make the best possible 5-card hand. Draw: A complete hand is dealt to each player, face-down, and after betting, players are allowed to attempt to change their hand (with the object of improving it) by discarding unwanted cards and being dealt new ones. Five-card draw is the most famous variation in this family. Community: A variation of Stud, players are dealt an incomplete hand of face-down cards, and then a number of face-up "community" cards are dealt to the center of the table, each of which can be used by one or more of the players to make a 5-card hand. Texas hold-em and Omaha are two well-known variants of the Community family. Other games that use poker hand rankings may likewise be referred to as "poker". Video poker is a single-player computer game that functions much like a slot machine; most video poker machines play draw poker, where the player bets, a hand is dealt, and the player can discard and replace cards. Payout is dependent on the hand resulting after the draw and the player's initial bet. Strip poker is a traditional poker variation where players remove clothing when they lose bets. Since it depends only on the basic mechanic of betting in rounds, strip poker can be played with any form of poker; however, it is usually based on simple variants with few betting rounds, like five card draw. Another game with the "Poker" name, but with a vastly different mode of play, is called "Acey-Deucey" or "Red Dog" Poker. This game is more similar to Blackjack in its layout and betting; each player bets against the house, and then is dealt two cards. For the player to win, the third card dealt (after an opportunity to raise the bet) must have a value in between the first two. Payout is based on the odds that this is possible, based on the difference in values of the first two cards. Gameplay In casual play, the right to deal a hand typically rotates among the players and is marked by a token called a 'dealer' button (or "buck"). In a casino, a house dealer handles the cards for each hand, but the button (typically a white plastic disk) is rotated clockwise among the players to indicate a nominal dealer to determine the order of betting. One or more players are usually required to make forced bets, usually either an ante or a blind bet (sometimes both). The dealer shuffles the cards, the player one chair to his right cuts, and the dealer deals the appropriate number of cards to the players one at a time, beginning with the player to his left. Cards may be dealt either face-up or face-down, depending on the variant of poker being played. After the initial deal, the first of what may be several betting rounds begins. Between rounds, the players' hands develop in some way, often by being dealt additional cards or replacing cards previously dealt. At the end of each round, all bets are gathered into the central pot. At any time during a betting round, if one player bets and no opponents choose to "call" (match) the bet and instead "fold", the hand ends immediately, the bettor is awarded the pot, no cards are required to be shown, and the next hand begins. This is what makes bluffing possible. Bluffing is a primary feature of poker, one that distinguishes it from other vying games and from other games that make use of poker hand rankings. At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a showdown, in which the players reveal their previously hidden cards and evaluate their hands. The player with the best hand according to the poker variant being played wins the pot. A poker hand consists of five cards, but in some variants a player has more than five to choose from. See betting (poker) for detailed rules regarding forced bets, betting actions, limits, stakes, and all-in situations. See List of poker variants and poker hand rankings for order of play and other details for the most common poker variants. History The history is a matter of debate. One of the earliest known games to incorporate betting, hand rankings, and bluffing was the 15th century German game Pochspiel. Poker closely resembles the Persian game of As Nas, though there is no specific description of nas prior to 1890. Pagat.com: A History of Poker by David Parlett In the 1937 edition of Foster's Complete Hoyle, R. F. Foster wrote: "the game of poker, as first played in the United States, five cards to each player from a twenty-card pack, is undoubtedly the Persian game of as nas." By 1990s some gaming historians including David Parlett started to challenge the notion that poker is a direct derivative of As Nas. There is evidence that a game called poque, a French game similar to poker, was played around the region where poker is said to have originated. The name of the game likely descended from the Irish Poca (Pron. Pokah) ('Pocket') or even the French poque, which descended from the German pochen ('to brag as a bluff' lit. 'to knock' ). Yet it is not clear whether the origins of poker itself lie with the games bearing those names. It is commonly regarded as sharing ancestry with the Renaissance game of primero and the French brelan. The English game brag (earlier bragg) clearly descended from brelan and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time). It is quite possible that all of these earlier games influenced the development of poker as it exists now. Harry Truman's poker chips A modern school of thought rejects these ancestries. Reuven and Gabrielle Brenner, Gambling and Speculation: A Theory, a History, and a Future of some Human Decisions , Cambridge University Press (1990), ISBN: 978-0521381802 They focus on the card play in poker, which is trivial and could have been derived from any number of games, or made up on general cardplay principles. Stephen Longstreet, Win or Lose: A Social History of Gambling in America , Bobbs-Merrill (1977), ISBN: 978-0672522536 The unique features of poker have to do with the betting, and do not appear in any known older game. Reuven and Gabrielle Brenner, and Aaron Brown, A World of Chance: Betting on Religion, Games, Wall Street, Cambridge University Press (2008), ISBN: 978-04701273152 In this view poker originated much earlier, in the early or mid-1700's, and spread throughout the Mississippi River region by 1800. It was played in a variety of forms, with 52 cards, and included both straight poker and stud. 20 card poker was a variant for two players (it is a common English practice to reduce the deck in card games when there are fewer players). Aaron Brown, The Poker Face of Wall Street, John Wiley & Sons (2006), ISBN: 978-0470127315 The development of poker is linked to the historical movement that also saw the invention of commercial gambling. David G. Schwartz, Roll the Bones: The History of Gambling, Gotham (2007), ISBN: 978-1592403165 Timothy O'Brien, Bad Bet : The Inside Story of the Glamour, Glitz, and Danger of America's Gambling Industry, Crown Business (1998), ISBN: 978-0812928075 English actor Joseph Crowell reported that the game was played in New Orleans in 1829, with a deck of 20 cards and four players betting on which player's hand was the most valuable. Jonathan H. Green's book, An Exposure of the Arts and Miseries of Gambling (G. B. Zieber, Philadelphia, 1843), described the spread of the game from there to the rest of the country by Mississippi riverboats, on which gambling was a common pastime. As it spread north along the Mississippi River and to the West during the gold rush, it is thought to have become a part of the frontier pioneer ethos. Soon after this spread, the full 52-card English deck was used and the flush was introduced. The draw was added prior to 1850 (when it was first mentioned in print in a handbook of games). Henry G. Bond (ed.), Bohn's New Handbook of Games, Henry F. Anners (1850) During the American Civil War, many additions were made including stud poker (the five-card variant), and the straight. Further American developments followed, such as the wild card (around 1875), lowball and split-pot poker (around 1900), and community card poker games (around 1925). The game and jargon of poker have become important parts of American culture and English culture. Such phrases and clichés as ace in the hole, ace up one's sleeve, beats me, blue chip, call one's bluff, cash in, high roller, pass the buck, poker face, stack up, up the ante, when the chips are down, wild card, and others are used in everyday conversation, even by those unaware of their origins at the poker table. Poker Room at the Trump Taj Mahal, Atlantic City, New Jersey Beginning in 1970 a series of developments lead to poker becoming far more popular than it was previously: Modern tournament play became popular in American casinos after the World Series of Poker began, in 1970. Notable champions from these early WSOP tournaments include Johnny Moss, Amarillo Slim, Bobby Baldwin, Doyle Brunson, and Puggy Pearson. Later in the 1970s, the first serious strategy books appeared, notably Super/System by Doyle Brunson (ISBN 1-58042-081-8) and Caro's Book of Poker Tells by Mike Caro (ISBN 0-89746-100-2), followed later by The Theory of Poker by David Sklansky (ISBN 1-880685-00-0). In 1987, community card poker games were introduced in California, home of the largest poker casinos in the world. These games proved far more exciting to players than the draw poker variants that were played up until that time. In the 1990s, poker and casino gambling spread across the United States, most notably to Atlantic City, New Jersey. In 1998, the poker-themed film Rounders starring Matt Damon and Edward Norton was released. In 1999, Late Night Poker debuted on British television, introducing poker for the first time to many Europeans. Poker's popularity experienced an unprecedented spike at the beginning of the 21st century, largely because of the introduction of online poker and hole-card camera, which turned the game into a spectator sport. Viewers could now follow the action and drama of the game, and broadcasts of poker tournaments such as the World Series of Poker and the World Poker Tour brought in huge audiences for cable and satellite TV distributors. Because of the increasing coverage of poker events, poker pros became celebrities, with poker fans all over the world entering into expensive tournaments for the chance to play with them. This increased camera exposure also brings a new dimension to the poker professional's game—the realization that their actions may be aired later on TV. Since 2003, major poker tournament fields have grown dramatically, in part because of the growing popularity of online satellite-qualifier tournaments where the prize is an entry into a major tournament. The 2003 and 2004 World Series Of Poker champions, Chris Moneymaker and Greg Raymer, respectively, won their seats to the main event by winning online satellites. After the passage of the UIGEA in October of 2006, attendance at live tournaments as well as participation in live and online cash games has slowed, however they are still far more popular today than they were prior to 2003. See also List of poker related topics Glossary of poker terms Poker hand rankings Rule variations (poker) Poker strategy Poker probability Ring games Poker chip Poker room/card room Notes External links | Poker |@lemmatized game:46 texas:2 hold:3 em:3 progress:2 currently:3 popular:6 form:6 poker:82 family:6 card:45 share:2 bet:35 rule:3 usually:4 always:2 hand:34 ranking:6 differ:1 dealt:8 may:6 whether:2 high:3 low:2 win:6 pot:9 showdown:3 split:2 limit:2 many:4 round:16 allow:4 modern:3 first:8 begin:5 forced:4 action:5 proceed:1 left:2 player:41 turn:2 must:3 either:5 match:4 maximum:1 previous:1 fold:4 lose:3 interest:1 also:4 raise:3 increase:3 end:4 last:2 one:15 remain:3 collect:1 without:1 show:3 contention:1 final:2 betting:9 winning:1 take:1 david:5 g:4 schwartz:2 roll:2 bone:2 history:7 gambling:4 gotham:2 isbn:10 feel:1 system:2 distinguish:2 gamble:6 minor:1 exception:1 initial:3 money:1 place:1 voluntarily:1 least:1 theory:3 rationally:1 believe:1 positive:1 expect:1 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2,989 | Digital_Private_Network_Signalling_System | The Digital Private Network Signalling System (DPNSS) is a network protocol used on digital trunk lines for connecting two PABX. It supports a defined set of inter-networking facilities. DPNSS was originally defined by British Telecom. The specification for the protocol is defined in BTNR188. The specification currently comes under the Network Interoperability Consultative Committee. History DPNSS was developed in the early 1980s by BT, or its forerunner, Post Office Telecommunications in recognition that the emerging Digital Private Circuit Primary Rate product 'Megastream' had to address the market for both data and Voice. The latter being significantly greater because of the market for PBXs. It may seem odd now that BT would invest in the development of a signaling protocol for PBXs in which it had a minority interest and in competition with its PSTN services. Under the liberalization rules of the day, (1979) BT was barred from manufacturing, selling or supplying PBXs of more than 200 extensions. Digital (PCM based) PBXs were just starting to come into the marketplace with the ROLM/Northern Telecom SL1, and Plessey PDX, it was recognised that corporate customers would wish to network these systems across the country. At the time 'CAS' inter node signaling was slow and inter-register signaling MF5, developed for the PSTN was complex and would not support sufficient features. The support for DPNSS as BT's own signaling protocol also differentiated BT's private circuit’s services from those of its emerging rival Mercury Communications. In practice, DPNSS was possibly a backroom development by a couple of guys at BT's research labs whose efforts accidentally found a market and official support. BT and some of the UK manufacturers championed DPNSS into ECMA and CCITT (ITU) but it was eventually deprecated by the standards bodies in favour of Q931 and QSig. Nevertheless, the elegance of the protocol and it's compatibility with PBX features ensured the adoption DPNSS actually grew in Europe, compared to the much slower take-up of Qsig. Version 1 of BTNR188 (DPNSS) was issued in 1983, the last version of DPNSS to be released 6 in 1995 included compatibility with ISDN features released in V5. A lightweight version of DPNSS 'APNSS' was developed for smaller PBXs. Overview of the Protocol Layer 1(CCITT) ITU-G703 defines the physical and electrical interface. G704 defines the Frame structure of the 2.048 Mbs sent across the link. G732 defines the allocation of that frame structure into the 32 discrete 64Kbit 'channels', of which 0 is used for alignment of the frames and 16 is (by convention only) allocated to common channel signaling. Speech is carried as G711. Layer 2 Timeslot 16, 64Kbs operates as HDLC LAPB, to support up to 60 PVCs or DLCs (data link connections) as the specification describes them. Therefore, at maximum operation, each potential traffic channel can have two simultaneous data channels available for messages. Note that HDLC operates as a statistical multiplexing system. When traffic delta's are low, a single call establishment message will have access to the full 64Kbs (allowing for overheads. DPNSS is a layer 3 protocol functioning as common channel signaling. The functionality is divided into Levels (confusingly nothing to do with OSI layers.) Levels 1-6 deal with simple call establishment (make call/break call) and are the minimum requirements by which a PBX can be said to be DPNSS compatible. The remaining levels are allocated to telephony features, supplementary services, or to administrative features. Note that support of 'levels' by a PBX is not necessarily incremental. Some levels are interdependent but a PBX may omit support of some levels (above 6,) and support others. DPNSS is a compelled protocol in that each instruction issued must be met with an appropriate response from the other PBX otherwise the message is re-transmitted (until timer expiry). This means that when interworking two PBXs features invoked on PBX A must be acknowledged by PBX B even if that feature is not supported. DPNSS carries its protocol messages as short strings of IA5 text. It is therefore much easier to interpret in its native form than Q931/Qsig or H323/H450, and a pre-cursor to the plain language format of SIP. Practical Considerations As HDLC can operate successfully in quite poor (errored) data environments, DPNSS will work over a 2Mbs link running without proper synchonisation (plesiochronously) and over poor quality connections (including badly terminated connectors). When setting up PBXs to run a DPNSS connection one end must be defined as the primary or 'A' end. This is a protocol requirement and has nothing to do with link synchronisation. DPNSS and VoIP For a protocol that began life in the 1980s, DPNSS is natively a long way from VoIP. However many of the hybrid VoIP PBXs available from manufacturer’s world wide, provide on-board DPNSS trunk cards. Where they do not, a Protocol converter is necessary. Commercially available equipment offers the ability to convert from DPNSS to Q.Sig . Note that It is also possible to tunnel DPNSS and it's associated PCM (G711) over an IP network. Criticisms Some critics of DPNSS suggest that it is too loosely defined and allows too much latitude in its interpretation of message formats and timers. It is also sometimes mistakenly believed that DPNSS is semi proprietary and that it is only possible to connect PBXs from the same manufacturer. i.e. Siemens will connect to Siemens, Mitel to Mitel etc. Experience indicates that this is not the case and BT's FeatureNet platform (Nortel's DMS100) running DPNSS, has interconnected successfully to many PBX types available in the UK. Voice VPN A Voice VPN combines Voice over IP and Virtual Private Network VPN technologies to offer a method for delivering voice services between site PBXs Private branch exchange. The site-based Voice Router acts as an intelligent voice switch which creams off the interesting calls and routes them over the corporate data network e.g. IP-VPN. As the voice calls are now carried over the data network then all inter-site calls now cost zero cost per minute – as you may know this could be a significant saving potential for most companies. In addition long distance calls can also be routed over the Voice VPN to an appropriate destination site Voice Router e.g. if the UK company calls a US-based customer then calls are re-routed over the Voice VPN to the US-sited Voice Router before exiting to the PSTNɸ. Therefore call rates become local in-country rates rather than international rates. ɸ Please note that this is always subject to any local regulatory constraints. See also DASS1 (obsolete) Digital Access Signaling System 2 (DASS2) (obsolescent) QSIG (the ISO equivalent of DPNSS, uses the Q.931 and ROSE protocols. It is widely used in the rest of Europe). External links The DPNSS specification at NICC | Digital_Private_Network_Signalling_System |@lemmatized digital:5 private:5 network:8 signal:7 system:4 dpnss:26 protocol:13 use:4 trunk:2 line:1 connect:3 two:3 pabx:1 support:9 defined:2 set:2 inter:4 networking:1 facility:1 originally:1 define:6 british:1 telecom:2 specification:4 currently:1 come:2 interoperability:1 consultative:1 committee:1 history:1 develop:3 early:1 bt:8 forerunner:1 post:1 office:1 telecommunication:1 recognition:1 emerge:2 circuit:2 primary:2 rate:4 product:1 megastream:1 address:1 market:3 data:6 voice:12 latter:1 significantly:1 great:1 pbxs:10 may:3 seem:1 odd:1 would:3 invest:1 development:2 minority:1 interest:1 competition:1 pstn:2 service:4 liberalization:1 rule:1 day:1 bar:1 manufacture:1 sell:1 supply:1 extension:1 pcm:2 base:3 start:1 marketplace:1 rolm:1 northern:1 plessey:1 pdx:1 recognise:1 corporate:2 customer:2 wish:1 across:2 country:2 time:1 ca:1 node:1 slow:2 register:1 complex:1 sufficient:1 feature:7 also:5 differentiate:1 rival:1 mercury:1 communication:1 practice:1 possibly:1 backroom:1 couple:1 guy:1 research:1 lab:1 whose:1 effort:1 accidentally:1 find:1 official:1 uk:3 manufacturer:3 champion:1 ecma:1 ccitt:2 itu:2 eventually:1 deprecate:1 standard:1 body:1 favour:1 qsig:4 nevertheless:1 elegance:1 compatibility:2 pbx:8 ensure:1 adoption:1 actually:1 grow:1 europe:2 compare:1 much:3 take:1 version:3 issue:2 last:1 release:2 include:2 isdn:1 lightweight:1 apnss:1 small:1 overview:1 layer:4 physical:1 electrical:1 interface:1 frame:3 structure:2 mbs:1 send:1 link:5 allocation:1 discrete:1 channel:5 alignment:1 convention:1 allocate:2 common:2 speech:1 carry:3 timeslot:1 operates:1 hdlc:3 lapb:1 pvc:1 dlcs:1 connection:3 describe:1 therefore:3 maximum:1 operation:1 potential:2 traffic:2 simultaneous:1 available:4 message:5 note:4 operate:2 statistical:1 multiplexing:1 delta:1 low:1 single:1 call:11 establishment:2 access:2 full:1 allow:2 overhead:1 functioning:1 signaling:1 functionality:1 divide:1 level:6 confusingly:1 nothing:2 osi:1 deal:1 simple:1 make:1 break:1 minimum:1 requirement:2 say:1 compatible:1 remaining:1 telephony:1 supplementary:1 administrative:1 necessarily:1 incremental:1 interdependent:1 omit:1 others:1 compelled:1 instruction:1 must:3 meet:1 appropriate:2 response:1 otherwise:1 transmit:1 timer:2 expiry:1 mean:1 interworking:1 invoke:1 acknowledge:1 b:1 even:1 short:1 string:1 text:1 easy:1 interpret:1 native:1 form:1 pre:1 cursor:1 plain:1 language:1 format:2 sip:1 practical:1 consideration:1 successfully:2 quite:1 poor:2 errored:1 environment:1 work:1 run:3 without:1 proper:1 synchonisation:1 plesiochronously:1 quality:1 badly:1 terminate:1 connector:1 one:1 end:2 synchronisation:1 voip:3 begin:1 life:1 natively:1 long:2 way:1 however:1 many:2 hybrid:1 world:1 wide:1 provide:1 board:1 card:1 converter:1 necessary:1 commercially:1 equipment:1 offer:2 ability:1 convert:1 q:2 sig:1 possible:2 tunnel:1 associate:1 ip:3 criticisms:1 critic:1 suggest:1 loosely:1 latitude:1 interpretation:1 sometimes:1 mistakenly:1 believe:1 semi:1 proprietary:1 e:3 siemens:2 mitel:2 etc:1 experience:1 indicate:1 case:1 featurenet:1 platform:1 nortel:1 interconnect:1 type:1 vpn:6 combine:1 virtual:1 technology:1 method:1 deliver:1 site:4 branch:1 exchange:1 router:3 act:1 intelligent:1 switch:1 cream:1 interesting:1 rout:3 g:2 cost:2 zero:1 per:1 minute:1 know:1 could:1 significant:1 save:1 company:2 addition:1 distance:1 destination:1 u:2 sited:1 exit:1 pstnɸ:1 become:1 local:2 rather:1 international:1 ɸ:1 please:1 always:1 subject:1 regulatory:1 constraint:1 see:1 obsolete:1 obsolescent:1 iso:1 equivalent:1 rise:1 widely:1 rest:1 external:1 nicc:1 |@bigram consultative_committee:1 osi_layer:1 loosely_defined:1 external_link:1 |
2,990 | Council_of_Trent | The Council in Santa Maria Maggiore church; Museo Diocesiano Tridentino, Trento. The Council of Trent () was the 16th century Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. Considered to be one of the Church's most important councils, it convened in Trento (then capital of the Prince-Bishopric of Trent, inside the Holy Roman Empire, now in modern Italy) between December 13, 1545, and December 4, 1563 in twenty-five sessions for three periods. Council fathers met for the first through eighth sessions in Trent (1545-1547), for the ninth through eleventh sessions in Bologna (1547) during the pontificate of Pope Paul III. Hubert Jedin, Konciliengeschichte, Herder Freiburg, 138 Under Pope Julius III, the council met in Trent (1551-1552) for the twelfth through sixteenth sessions. Under Pope Pius IV the seventeenth through twenty-fifth sessions took place in Trent (1559-1563). The council issued condemnations on what it defined as Protestant heresies and defined Church teachings in the areas of Scripture and Tradition, Original Sin, Justification, Sacraments, the Eucharist in Holy Mass and the veneration of saints. It issued numerous reform decrees. Jedin, 138 By specifying Catholic doctrine on salvation, the sacraments, and the Biblical canon, the Council was answering Protestant disputes. The Council entrusted to the Pope the implementation of its work, as a result of which Pope Pius V issued in 1566 the Roman Catechism, in 1568 a revised Roman Breviary, and in 1570 a revised Roman Missal, thus initiating what since the twentieth century has been called the Tridentine Mass (from the city's Latin name Tridentum), and Pope Clement VIII issued in 1592 a revised edition of the Vulgate. Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Trent, Council of The Council of Trent, delayed and interrupted several times because of political or religious disagreements, was a major reform council and the most impressive embodiment of the ideals of the Counter-Reformation. It would be over 300 years until the next Ecumenical Council. When announcing Vatican II, Pope John XXIII stated that the precepts of the Council of Trent continue to the modern day, a position that was reaffirmed by Pope Paul VI. What was, still is, quoted in http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20070629_responsa-quaestiones_en.html Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church] Before the Council Obstacles and events before the Council Pope Paul III invoked the Council of Trent On March 16, 1517, the Fifth Council of the Lateran closed its activities with a number of reform proposals (on the selection of bishops, taxation, censorship and preaching) but not on the major problems that confronted the Church in Germany and other parts of Europe. A few months later, October 31, 1517, Martin Luther issued his 95 Theses in Wittenberg. Luther’s position on ecumenical councils shifted over time. Hubert Jedin, Konziliengeschichte, Herder, 1959,g 80 A general, free Council in Germany But in 1520 Luther appealed to the German princes to reform the Church, if necessary with a council An den Adel deutscher Nation, 1520 in Germany, open and free of the papacy. After the Pope condemned in Exsurge Domine forty-one sentences of Luther as heresy, German opinion considered a council the best method to reconcile existing differences. German Catholics, diminished in number, hoped for a council to clarify matters. Jedin 81 It took a generation for the council to materialize, partly because of Papal reluctance—the Lutherans demanded his exclusion from the Council—and partly because of ongoing political rivalries between France and Germany and the Turkish dangers in the Mediterranean. Jedin 81 Under Pope Clement VII (1523-1534), troops of the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Papal Rome in 1527, “raping, killing burning, stealing, the like had not been seen since the Vandals”. Saint Peter's Basilica and the Sistine Chapel were used for horses. Hans Kühner Papstgeschichte, Fischer, Frankfurt 1960, 118 This, together with the Pontiff's ambivalence between France and Germany, led to his hesitation. Charles V strongly favoured a council, but needed the support of France, which attacked him militarily. Faced with a Turkish attack, Charles needed the support of the Protestant German rulers, all of which delayed the opening of the Council of Trent. Jedin 79-82 Failure in Mantua-Vicenza The council was ordered by the Emperor and Pope to convene in Mantua on May 23, 1537. It failed to convene, after another war broke out between France and Charles V, resulting in a non-attendance of French prelates. Protestants, just defeated by Charles V, refused to attend as well. Financial difficulties in Mantua led the Pope in the fall of 1537 to move the council to Vicenza, where participation was poor. The Council was postponed indefinitely on May 21, 1539. Pope Paul III then initiated several internal Church reforms while Emperor Charles V convened a meeting with Protestants in Regensburg, seat of the German diet, to reconcile differences. Unity failed between Catholic and Protestant representatives “because of different concepts of Church and justification”. Jedin 85 Occasion, sessions, and attendance The Council, depicted by Cati da Iesi In reply to the Papal bull Exsurge Domine of Pope Leo X (1520), Martin Luther burned the document and appealed for a general council. In 1522, German diets joined in the appeal, with Charles V seconding and pressing for a council as a means of reunifying the Church and settling the Reformation controversies. Pope Clement VII (1523–34) was vehemently against the idea of a council, agreeing with Francis I of France. After Pope Pius II in his bull Execrabilis (1460) and his reply to the University of Cologne (1463) set aside the theory of the supremacy of general councils laid down by the Council of Constance, it was the papal policy to avoid councils. Pope Paul III (1534–49)—seeing that the Protestant Reformation was no longer confined to a few preachers, but had won over various princes, particularly in Germany, to its ideas—desired a council. Yet when he proposed the idea to his cardinals, it was unanimously opposed. Nonetheless, he sent nuncios throughout Europe to propose the idea. Paul III issued a decree for a general council to be held in Mantua, Italy, to begin May 23, 1537. Martin Luther wrote the Smalcald Articles in preparation for the general council. The Smalcald Articles were designed to sharply define where the Lutherans could and could not compromise. However, the council was delayed until 1545, and convened right before Luther's death. Unable, however, to resist the urging of Charles V, the pope, after proposing Mantua as the place of meeting, convened the council at Trent (at that time a free city of the Holy Roman Empire under a prince-bishop), on December 13, 1545; the Pope's decision to transfer it to Bologna in March, 1547 on the pretext of avoiding a plague failed to take effect and the Council was indefinitely prorogued on 17 September 1549. Reopened at Trent on 1 May 1551 by convocation of Pope Julius III (1550–1555), it was broken up by the sudden victory of Maurice, Elector of Saxony over the Emperor Charles V and his march into surrounding state of Tirol on 28 April 1552. There was no hope of reassembling the council while the very anti-Protestant Paul IV was Pope. The council was reconvened by Pope Pius IV (1559–65) for the last time, meeting from 18 January 1562, and continued until its final adjournment on 4 December 1563. It closed with a series of ritual acclamations honouring the reigning Pope, the Popes who had convoked the Council, the emperor and the kings who had supported it, the papal legates, the cardinals, the ambassadors present, and the bishops, followed by acclamations of acceptance of the faith of the Council and its decrees, and of anathema for all heretics. Acclamations of the Fathers at the Close of the Council The history of the council is thus divided into three distinct periods: 1545–49, 1551–52 and 1562–63. During the second period, the Protestants present asked for renewed discussion on points already defined and for bishops to be released from their oaths of allegiance to the Pope. When the last period began, all hope of conciliating the Protestants was gone and the Jesuits had become a strong force. The number of attending members in the three periods varied considerably. The council was small to begin with. It increased toward the close, but never reached the number of the First Council of Nicaea (which had 318 members) nor of the First Vatican Council (which numbered 744). The decrees were signed by 255 members, including four papal legates, two cardinals, three patriarchs, twenty-five archbishops, and 168 bishops, two-thirds of whom were Italians. The Italian and Spanish prelates were vastly preponderant in power and numbers. At the passage of the most important decrees not more than sixty prelates were present. Objects and general results The main object of the council was twofold, although there were other issues that were also discussed: To condemn the principles and doctrines of Protestantism and to define the doctrines of the Catholic Church on all disputed points. It is true that the emperor intended it to be a strictly general or truly ecumenical council, at which the Protestants should have a fair hearing. He secured, during the council's second period, 1551-53, an invitation, twice given, to the Protestants to be present and the council issued a letter of safe conduct (thirteenth session) and offered them the right of discussion, but denied them a vote. Melanchthon and Johannes Brenz, with some other German Lutherans, actually started in 1552 on the journey to Trent. Brenz offered a confession and Melanchthon, who got no farther than Nuremberg, took with him the ironic statement known as the Confessio Saxonica. But the refusal to give to the Protestants the right to vote and the consternation produced by the success of Maurice in his campaign against Charles V in 1552 effectually put an end to Protestant cooperation. To effect a reformation in discipline or administration. This object had been one of the causes calling forth the reformatory councils and had been lightly touched upon by the Fifth Council of the Lateran under Pope Julius II and Pope Leo X. The perceived corruption in the administration of the Church was one of the numerous causes of the Reformation. Twenty-five public sessions were held, but nearly half of them were spent in solemn formalities. The chief work was done in committees or congregations. The entire management was in the hands of the papal legate. The liberal elements lost out in the debates and voting. The council abolished some of the most notorious abuses and introduced or recommended disciplinary reforms affecting the sale of indulgences, the morals of convents, the education of the clergy, the non-residence of bishops (also bishops having plurality of benefices, which was fairly common), and the careless fulmination of censures and forbade dueling. Although evangelical sentiments were uttered by some of the members in favor of the supreme authority of the Scriptures and justification by faith, no concession whatever was made to Protestantism. The church's interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian who substituted his or her own interpretation was a heretic. Also, the Bible and Church Tradition (not mere customs but the ancient tradition that made up part of the Catholic faith) were equally authoritative. The relationship of faith and works in salvation was defined, following controversy over Martin Luther's doctrine of "justification by faith alone". Other Catholic practices that drew the ire of reformers within the Church, such as indulgences, pilgrimages, the veneration of saints and relics, and the veneration of the Virgin Mary were strongly reaffirmed, though abuses of them, such as the sale of indulgences, were forbidden. Decrees concerning sacred music and religious art, though inexplicit, were subsequently amplified by theologians and writers to condemn many types of Renaissance and medieval styles and iconographies, impacting heavily on the development of these art forms. The doctrinal decisions of the council are divided into decrees (decreta), which contain the positive statement of the conciliar dogmas, and into short canons (canones), which condemn the dissenting Protestant views with the concluding "anathema sit" ("let him be anathema"). Canons and decrees The doctrinal acts are as follows: after reaffirming the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (third session), the decree was passed (fourth session) confirming that the deuterocanonical books were on a par with the other books of the canon (against Luther's placement of these books in the Apocrypha of his edition) and coordinating church tradition with the Scriptures as a rule of faith. The Vulgate translation was affirmed to be authoritative for the text of Scripture. Justification (sixth session) was declared to be offered upon the basis of faith and good works as opposed to the Protestant doctrine of faith alone and faith was treated as a progressive work. The idea of man being utterly passive under the influence of grace was also rejected. The greatest weight in the Council's decrees is given to the sacraments. The seven sacraments were reaffirmed and the Eucharist pronounced to be a true propitiatory sacrifice as well as a sacrament, in which the bread and wine were consecrated into the Eucharist (thirteenth and twenty-second sessions). The term transubstantiation was used by the Council, but the specific Aristotelian explanation given by Scholasticism was not cited as dogmatic. Instead, the decree states that Christ is "really, truly, substantially present" in the consecrated forms. The sacrifice of the Mass was to be offered for dead and living alike and in giving to the apostles the command "do this in remembrance of me," Christ conferred upon them a sacerdotal power. The practice of withholding the cup from the laity was confirmed (twenty-first session) as one which the Church Fathers had commanded for good and sufficient reasons; yet in certain cases the Pope was made the supreme arbiter as to whether the rule should be strictly maintained. Ordination (twenty-third session) was defined to imprint an indelible character on the soul. The priesthood of the New Testament takes the place of the Levitical priesthood. To the performance of its functions, the consent of the people is not necessary. In the decrees on marriage (twenty-fourth session) the excellence of the celibate state was reaffirmed (see also Clerical celibacy (Catholic Church)), concubinage condemned and the validity of marriage made dependent upon its being performed before a priest and two witnesses -- although the lack of a requirement for parental consent ended a debate that had proceeded from the twelfth century. In the case of a divorce, the right of the innocent party to marry again was denied so long as the other party is alive, even if the other may have committed adultery. In the twenty-fifth and last session, the doctrines of purgatory, the invocation of saints and the veneration of relics were reaffirmed, as was also the efficacy of indulgences as dispensed by the Church according to the power given her, but with some cautionary recommendations, and a ban on the sale of indulgences. Short and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, were to have great impact on the development of Catholic art. The council appointed, in 1562 (eighteenth session), a commission to prepare a list of forbidden books (Index Librorum Prohibitorum), but it later left the matter to the Pope. The preparation of a catechism and the revision of the Breviary and Missal were also left to the pope. The catechism embodied the council's far-reaching results, including reforms and definitions of the sacraments, the Scriptures, church dogma, and duties of the clergy. Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994. On adjourning, the Council asked the supreme pontiff to ratify all its decrees and definitions. This petition was complied with by Pope Pius IV, January 26, 1564, in the papal bull, Benedictus Deus, which enjoins strict obedience upon all Catholics and forbids, under pain of excommunication, all unauthorized interpretation, reserving this to the Pope alone and threatens the disobedient with "the indignation of Almighty God and of his blessed apostles, Peter and Paul." Pope Pius appointed a commission of cardinals to assist him in interpreting and enforcing the decrees. The Index librorum prohibitorum was announced 1564 and the following books were issued with the papal imprimatur: the Profession of the Tridentine Faith and the Tridentine Catechism (1566), the Breviary (1568), the Missal (1570) and the Vulgate (1590 and then 1592). The decrees of the council were acknowledged in Italy, Portugal, Poland and by the Catholic princes of Germany at the Diet of Augsburg in 1566. Philip II of Spain accepted them for Spain, the Netherlands and Sicily insofar as they did not infringe the royal prerogative. In France they were officially recognized by the king only in their doctrinal parts. The disciplinary sections received official recognition at provincial synods and were enforced by the bishops. No attempt was made to introduce it into England. Pius IV sent the decrees to Mary, Queen of Scots, with a letter dated June 13, 1564, requesting her to publish them in Scotland, but she dared not do it in the face of John Knox and the Reformation. These decrees were later supplemented by the First Vatican Council of 1870. Publication of documents The most comprehensive description is still Hubert Jedin's The History of the Council of Trent (Geschichte des Konzils von Trient with about 2500 pages in four volumes: The History of the Council of Trent, The fight for a Council (Vol I, 1951); The History of the Council of Trent The first Sessions in Trent (1545-1547) (Vol II, 1957); The History of the Council of Trent Sessions in Bologna 1547-1548 and Trent 1551-1552 (Vol III, 1970, 1998); The History of the Council of Trent Third Period and Conclusion (Vol IV, 1976). The canons and decrees of the council have been published very often and in many languages (for a large list consult British Museum Catalogue, under "Trent, Council of"). The first issue was by P. Manutius (Rome, 1564). The best Latin editions are by J. Le Plat (Antwerp, 1779) and by F. Schulte and A. L. Richter (Leipzig, 1853). Other good editions are in vol. vii. of the Acta et decreta conciliorum recentiorum. Collectio Lacensis (7 vols., Freiburg, 1870-90), reissued as independent volume (1892); Concilium Tridentinum: Diariorum, actorum, epastularum, ... collectio, ed. S. Merkle (4 vols., Freiburg, 1901 sqq.; only vols. i.-iv. have as yet appeared); not to overlook Mansi, Concilia, xxxv. 345 sqq. Note also Mirbt, Quellen, 2d ed, pp. 202-255. The best English edition is by J. Waterworth (London, 1848; With Essays on the External and Internal History of the Council). The original acts and debates of the council, as prepared by its general secretary, Bishop Angelo Massarelli, in six large folio volumes, are deposited in the Vatican Library and remained there unpublished for more than 300 years and were brought to light, though only in part, by Augustin Theiner, priest of the oratory (d. 1874), in Acta genuina sancti et oecumenici Concilii Tridentini nunc primum integre edita (2 vols., Leipzig, 1874). Most of the official documents and private reports, however, which bear upon the council, were made known in the sixteenth century and since. The most complete collection of them is that of J. Le Plat, Monumentorum ad historicam Concilii Tridentini collectio (7 vols., Leuven, 1781-87). New materials(Vienna, 1872); by JJI von Döllinger (Ungedruckte Berichte und Tagebücher zur Geschichte des Concilii von Trient) (2 parts, Nördlingen, 1876); and A. von Druffel, Monumenta Tridentina (Munich, 1884-97). List of dogmatic decrees Doctrine Session Date Canons DecreesOn the Symbol of the Faith 3 February 4, 1546 None 1The Holy Scriptures 4 April 8, 1546 None 1Original sin 5June 7, 1546 5 4Justification 6January 13, 1547 33 16The Sacraments in General 7March 3, 1547 13 1Baptism 7March 3, 1547 14 NoneConfirmation 7 March 3, 1547 3 NoneHoly Eucharist 13October 11, 1551 11 8Penance 14 November 15, 1551 15 15Extreme Unction 14November 4, 1551 4 3Cults: Saints Relics Images 25December 4, 1563 None 3Indulgences 25December 4, 1563 None 1 References See also Counter-Reformation Nicolas Psaume, bishop of Verdun External links Article on the Council from the Catholic Encyclopedia The text of the Council of Trent translated by J. 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2,991 | Kathy_Acker | Kathy Acker (née Karen Alexander) (18 April 1947 – 30 November 1997) was an American experimental novelist, prose stylist, playwright, essayist, postmodernist and sex-positive feminist writer. She was strongly influenced by the Black Mountain School, William S. Burroughs, David Antin, French critical theory, philosophy, and pornography. Overview Born to a wealthy Jewish family in Manhattan, New York City, Acker took her last name from her first husband, Robert Acker; though born as Karen, she was known as Kathy by her friends and family. She studied classics as an undergraduate at Brandeis University and aspired to write novels but moved to San Diego to further pursue her studies. Acker's first work appeared in print as part of the burgeoning New York literary underground of the mid-1970s. She claimed that her early writings were profoundly influenced by her experiences working for a few months as a stripper. She remained on the margins of the literary establishment, only being published by small presses until the mid-1980s, thus earning herself the epithet of literary terrorist. 1984 saw her first British publication, a novel called Blood and Guts in High School. From here on Acker produced a considerable body of novels, almost all still in print with Grove Press. She wrote pieces for a number of magazines and anthologies, and also had notable pieces printed in issues of RE/Search, Angel Exhaust and Rapid Eye. Towards the end of her life she had a measure of success in the conventional press—the Guardian newspaper published several of her articles, including an interview with the Spice Girls, which she submitted just a few months before her death. Acker's formative influences were American poets and writers (the Black Mountain poets, especially Jackson Mac Low, Charles Olson, William S. Burroughs), and the Fluxus movement, as well as literary theory, especially the French feminists and Gilles Deleuze. In her work, she combined plagiarism, cut-up techniques, pornography, autobiography, persona and personal essay to confound expectations of what fiction should be. She acknowledged the performative function of language in drawing attention to the instability of female identity in male narrative and literary history (Don Quixote), created parallelism in characters and autobiographical personas and experimented with pronouns, upsetting conventional syntax. In In Memoriam to Identity, Acker draws attention to popular analyses of Rimbaud's life and The Sound and the Fury, constructing or revealing social and literary identity. Though she was known in the literary world for creating a whole new style of feminist prose and for her transgressive fiction, she was also a punk and feminist icon for her devoted portrayals of subcultures, strong-willed women, and violence. In April 1996 Acker was diagnosed with breast cancer and had a double mastectomy. In January 1997 she wrote about her loss of faith in conventional medicine in a Guardian article, "The Gift of Disease." In the article she explains that after unsuccessful surgery, which left her feeling physically mutilated and emotionally debilitated, she rejected the passivity of the patient in the medical mainstream and began to seek out the advice of nutritionists, acupuncturists, psychic healers, and Chinese herbalists. She found appealing the claim that instead of being an object of knowledge, as in Western medicine, the patient becomes a seer, a seeker of wisdom. that Illness becomes the teacher and the patient the student. After pursuing several forms of alternative medicine in England and the United States, Acker died a year and a half later from complications of breast cancer in an alternative cancer clinic in Tijuana, Mexico, where she had gone to seek treatment with laetrile.. Literary biography Born and raised in New York City, novelist, poet and performance artist Kathy Acker came to be closely associated with the punk movement of the 1970s and '80s that affected much of the culture in and around Manhattan. As an adult, however, she moved around quite a bit. She received her bachelor's degree from the University of California, San Diego in 1968; there she worked with David Antin and Jerome Rothenberg. She did two years worth of post-graduate work at City University of New York but left before earning a degree. While still in New York she worked as a file clerk, secretary, stripper, and porn performer. During the 1970s she often moved back and forth between San Diego, San Francisco and New York. She married twice, and though most of her relationships were with men, she was openly bisexual for at least part of her adult life. In 1979 she won the Pushcart Prize for her short story "New York City in 1979." During the early 1980s she lived in London, where she wrote several of her most critically acclaimed works. After returning to the United States in the late 1980s she worked as an adjunct professor at the San Francisco Art Institute for about six years and as a visiting professor at several universities, including the University of Idaho, the University of California, San Diego, University of California, Santa Barbara, the California Institute of Arts, and Roanoke College. Acker’s controversial body of work borrows heavily from the experimental styles of William S. Burroughs and Marguerite Duras. She often used extreme forms of pastiche and even Burroughs’s cut-up technique, in which one cuts passages and sentences into several pieces and rearranges them somewhat randomly. Acker herself situated her writing within a post-nouveau roman European tradition. In her texts, she combines biographical elements, power, sex and violence. Indeed, critics often compare her writing to that of Alain Robbe-Grillet and Jean Genet. Critics have noticed links to Gertrude Stein and photographers Cindy Sherman and Sherrie Levine. Acker’s novels also exhibit a fascination with and an indebtedness to tattoos. Ylioppilaslehti-magazine: Brief in english She even dedicated Empire of the Senseless to her tattooist. Although associated with generally well-respected artists, even Acker’s most recognized novels, Blood and Guts in High School, Great Expectations and Don Quixote receive mixed critical attention. Most critics acknowledge Acker’s skilled manipulation of plagiarized texts from writers as varied as Charles Dickens, Marcel Proust, and Marquis de Sade. She quite clearly has a grasp on poststructuralist theory as well as a profound familiarity with literary history. Feminist critics have also had strong responses both for and against Acker’s writing. While some praise her for exposing a misogynistic capitalist society that uses sexual domination as a key form of oppression, others argue that her extreme and frequent use of violent sexual imagery quickly becomes numbing and leads to the degrading objectification of women. Despite repeated criticisms, Acker maintained that in order to challenge the phallogocentric power structures of language, literature must not only experiment with syntax and style, but also give voice to the silenced subjects that common taboos marginalize. The inclusion of controversial topics such as abortion, rape, incest, terrorism, pornography, graphic violence, and feminism demonstrate that conviction. Acker published her first book, Politics, in 1972. Although the collection of poems and essays did not garner much critical or public attention, it did establish her reputation within the New York punk scene. In 1973 she published her first novel The Childlike Life of the Black Tarantula: Some Lives of Murderesses under the pseudonym Black Tarantula. In 1974 she published her second novel, I Dreamt I Was a Nymphomaniac: Imagining. In 1979 Acker finally received popular attention when she won a Pushcart Prize for her short story "New York City in 1979." She did not receive critical attention, however, until she published Great Expectations in 1982. The opening of Great Expectations is a clear re-writing of Charles Dickens’s classic of the same name. It features Acker’s usual subject matter, including a semi-autobiographical account of her mother’s suicide and the appropriation of several other texts, including Pierre Guyotat's violent and sexually explicit "Eden Eden Eden". That same year, Acker published a chapbook titled Hello, I’m Erica Jong. Despite the increased recognition she got for Great Expectations, Blood and Guts in High School is often considered Acker’s breakthrough work. Published in 1984, it is one of her most extreme explorations of sexuality and violence. Borrowing from, among other texts, Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, Blood and Guts details the experiences of Janey Smith, a sex addicted and pelvic-inflammatory-disease-ridden urbanite who is in love with a father who sells her into slavery. Many critics criticized it for being demeaning toward women, and Germany banned it completely. Acker published the German court judgment against Blood and Guts in High School in Hannibal Lecter, My Father. In 1984 Acker published My Death My Life by Pier Paolo Pasolini and a year later published Algeria: A Series of Invocations because Nothing Else Works. In 1986 she published Don Quixote, another one of her more acclaimed novels. In Acker’s version of Miguel de Cervantes' classic, Don Quixote becomes a young woman obsessed with poststructuralist theory, taking it to a nihilistic extreme. Moreover, the Don's insanity that causes her to wander the streets of St. Petersburg & New York City was caused from having an abortion. She recognizes the world’s many lies and fakes, believes in nothing and regards identity as an internalized fictional construct. Marching around New York City and London with her dog St. Simeon, who serves as her Sancho Panza, Don Quixote attacks the sexist societies while simultaneously deflating feminist mythologies. Acker published Empire of the Senseless in 1988 and considered it a turning point in her writing. While she still borrows from other texts, including Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, the plagiarism is less obvious. However, one of Acker’s more controversial plagiarisms is from William Gibson’s 1984 text ‘'Neuromancer’' in which Acker equates code with the female body and its militaristic implications. The novel comes from the voices of two terrorists, Abhor, who is half human and half robot, and her lover Thivai. The story takes place in the decaying remnants of a post-revolutionary Paris. Like her other works, Empire of the Senseless includes graphic violence and sexuality. However, it turns toward concerns of language more than her previous works. In 1988 she also published Literal Madness: Three Novels which included three previously published works: Florida deconstructs and reduces John Huston’s 1948 film noir classic Key Largo into its base sexual politics, Kathy Goes to Haiti details a young woman’s relationship and sexual exploits while on vacation, and My Death My Life by Pier Paolo Pasolini provides a fictional autobiography of the Italian filmmaker in which he solves his own murder. Between 1990 and 1993 Acker published four more books: In Memoriam to Identity (1990); Hannibal Lecter, My Father (1991); Portrait of an Eye: Three Novels (1992), also comprised of already published works; and My Mother: Demonology (1992). Many critics complained that these later works became redundant and predictable, as Acker continued to explore the same taboos in a similar fashion. Her last novel, Pussy, King of the Pirates, published in 1996, showed signs of Acker’s broadening interests as it incorporates more humor, lighter fantasy and a consideration of Eastern texts and philosophy that was largely absent in her earlier works. Posthumous reputation Acker's work has been acknowledged by a number of younger writers working in an experimental style, including Stewart Home, Barry Graham, Anna Joy Springer, Tribe 8 singer and writer Lynn Breedlove, Tamil novelist Charu Nivedita, Noah Cicero, Travis Jeppesen, and Salvador Plascencia. Kathleen Hanna of Bikini Kill and Kim Gordon, co-founder of Sonic Youth have also acknowledged her influence. Three volumes of her non-fiction have been published and re-published since her death. In 2002 New York University (NYU) staged Discipline and Anarchy, a retrospective exhibition of her works, NYU > The Office of Public Affairs > Discipline and Anarchy: The Works of Kathy Acker while in 2008 London's Institute of Contemporary Arts held an evening of her films. Guardian Unlimited: Arts blog - books: Looking back at Kathy Acker Recently (2007) Amandla Publishing has re-published Acker's articles for the New Statesman from 1989 to 1991. Quotes "We don't have a clue what it is to be male or female, or if there are intermediate genders. Male and female might be fields which overlap into androgyny or different kinds of sexual desires. But because we live in a Western, patriarchal world, we have very little chance of exploring these gender possibilities." Eve Experts - Kathy Acker, Writer "Literature is that which denounces and slashes apart the repressing machine at the level of the signified." Student Zone: On-line Response #8: Octavia BUTLER & Kathy ACKER "The students who come to my class are very closely related to all the evil girls who are very interested in their bodies and sex and pleasure. I learn a lot from them about how to have pleasure and how cool the female body is. One of my students had a piercing through her labia. And she told me about how when you ride on a motorcycle, the little bead on the ring acts like a vibrator. Her story turned me on so I did it. I got two. It was very cool. I'm very staid compared to my students, actually. I come from a generation where you've got the PC dykes and confused heterosexuals. No one ever told me that you could walk around with a strap-on, having orgasms." Kathy Acker Interview Published works Politics (1972) Childlike Life of the Black Tarantula By the Black Tarantula (1973) I Dreamt I Was a Nymphomaniac: Imagining (1974) Adult Life of Toulouse Lautrec (1978) N.Y.C. in 1979 (1981) Great Expectations (1983) Algeria : A Series of Invocations Because Nothing Else Works (1984) Blood and Guts in High School (1984) Don Quixote: Which Was a Dream (1986) Literal Madness: Three Novels (Reprinted 1987) My Death My Life by Pier Paolo Pasolini Florida Wordplays 5 : An Anthology of New American Drama (1987) Empire of the Senseless (1988) In Memoriam to Identity (1990) Kathy Goes To Haiti (1990) Hannibal Lecter, My Father (1991) My Mother: Demonology (1994) Pussycat Fever (1995) Dust. Essays (1995) Pussy, King of the Pirates (1996) Bodies of Work : Essays (1997) Portrait of an Eye: Three Novels (Reprinted 1998) Redoing Childhood (2000) spoken word CD, KRS 349. "Rip-Off Red, Girl Detective" (pub. 2002 from manuscript of 1973) See also Delirium, a comic book character created by Neil Gaiman based on his friend Kathy Acker. Postmodern feminism Further reading Lust for Life: On the Writings of Kathy Acker, ed. Carla Harryman, Avital Ronell, and Amy Scholder (Verso, 2006) Devouring Institutions: The Life Work of Kathy Acker, ed. Michael Hardin (Hyperbole/San Diego State University Press: 2004). DEVOURING INSTITUTIONS "no one can find little girls any more: Kathy Acker in Australia" , (1997). Documentary film by Jonathan and Felicity Dawson. Griffith University, 90 minutes. Footage from this film is included in* Who's Afraid of Kathy Acker? A documentary by Barbara Caspar References External links Who's Afraid of Kathy Acker? A documentary by Barbara Caspar Oblivion: Kathy Acker's CalArts website Matias Viegener's memoir of Acker's death. Viegener was a close friend who was with her when she died and is currently Acker's literary executor. Inventory of the Kathy Acker Papers, 1972–1997 and n.d., at Duke University Kill Rock Stars artist page, including mp3 sample track from Redoing Childhood A Conversation with Kathy Acker By Ellen G. 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2,992 | Charles_Lyell | Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet, KT, FRS (14 November 1797 – 22 February 1875) was a Scottish lawyer, geologist, and proponent of uniformitarianism. He was the foremost geologist of his day, and an influence on the young Charles Darwin. Life Charles Lyell was born in Kinnordy, Forfarshire (now Angus), the eldest of ten children. Lyell's father, also named Charles, was a lawyer and botanist of minor repute and first exposed the younger Charles to the study of nature. Charles spent much of his childhood at the family’s other home, Bartley Lodge in the New Forest, England, where his interest in the natural world was sparked. After being sent down from Exeter College, Oxford in 1820, Lyell learnt geology under the wing of the naturalist William Buckland. Wilson, Leonard G. "Charles Lyell" Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie. Vol. VIII. Pennsylvania, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973. After graduation he took up law as a profession, and completed a circuit through rural England, where he could observe geological phenomena. As his eyesight began to fail him he turned to geology as a full-time profession. His first paper, "On a recent formation of freshwater limestone in Forfarshire", was presented in 1822. By 1827, he had abandoned law and embarked on a geological career that would result in fame and the acceptance of ideas, mainly uniformitarianism, proposed by James Hutton a few decades earlier. In 1832, Lyell married Mary Horner of Bonn, daughter of Leonard Horner (1785-1864), also associated with the Geological Society of London. The new couple spent their honeymoon in Switzerland and Italy on a geological tour of the area. Macomber, Richard W. "Lyell, Sir Charles, Baronet." The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1997. During the 1840s, Lyell traveled to the United States and Canada, and wrote two popular travel-and-geology books: Travels in North America (1845) and A Second Visit to the United States (1849). After the Great Chicago Fire, Lyell was one of the first to donate books to help found the Chicago Public Library. Lyell's wife died in 1873, and two years later Lyell himself died as he was revising the twelfth edition of Principles. He is buried in Westminster Abbey. Lyell was rewarded with a knighthood (KT), and later by a baronetcy (Bt), which is an hereditary honour. He was awarded the Copley Medal in 1858 and the Wollaston Medal in 1866. The crater Lyell on the Moon and a crater on Mars were named in his honour. In addition, Mount Lyell in western Tasmania, Australia, located in a profitable mining area, bears Lyell’s name. Career and major writings Lyell had private means, and earned further income as an author. He came from a prosperous family, worked briefly as a lawyer in the 1820s, and held the post of Professor of Geology at King's College London in the 1830s. From 1830 onward his books provided both income and fame. Each of his three major books was a work continually in progress. All three went through multiple editions during his lifetime, although many of his friends (such as Darwin) thought the first edition of the Principles was the best written. Darwin F. 1887. Life and letters of Charles Darwin, vol II p90. London. Darwin F and Seward A.C. 1903. More letters of Charles Darwin, vol II p232. London. Lyell used each edition to incorporate additional material, rearrange existing material, and revisit old conclusions in light of new evidence. Charles Lyell Principles of Geology, Lyell's first book, was also his most famous, most influential, and most important. First published in three volumes in 1830-33, it established Lyell's credentials as an important geological theorist and propounded the doctrine of uniformitarianism. http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/_0/history_12. Accessed 27 Nov. 2007. It was a work of synthesis, backed by his own personal observations on his travels. The central argument in Principles was that the present is the key to the past. Geological remains from the distant past can, and should, be explained by reference to geological processes now in operation and thus directly observable. Lyell's interpretation of geologic change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a powerful influence on the young Charles Darwin. Lyell asked Robert FitzRoy, captain of HMS Beagle, to search for erratic boulders on the survey voyage of the Beagle, and just before it set out FitzRoy gave Darwin Volume 1 of the first edition of Lyell's Principles. When the Beagle made its first stop ashore at St Jago, Darwin found rock formations which seen "through Lyell's eyes" gave him a revolutionary insight into the geological history of the island, an insight he applied throughout his travels. While in South America Darwin received Volume 2 which considered the ideas of Lamarck in some detail. Lyell rejected Lamarck's idea of organic evolution, proposing instead "Centres of Creation" to explain diversity and territory of species. However, as discussed below, many of his letters show he was fairly open to the idea of evolution. Judd gives a number of examples: Judd J.W. 1910. The coming of evolution. Cambridge. In geology Darwin was very much Lyell's disciple, and brought back observations and his own original theorising, including ideas about the formation of atolls, which supported Lyell's uniformitarianism. On the return of the Beagle (October 1836) Lyell invited Darwin to dinner and from then on they were close friends. Although Darwin discussed evolutionary ideas with him from 1842, Lyell continued to reject evolution in each of the first nine editions of the Principles. He encouraged Darwin to publish, and following the 1859 publication of On the Origin of Species, Lyell finally offered a tepid endorsement of evolution in the tenth edition of Principles. The frontispiece from Principles of Geology Elements of Geology began as the fourth volume of the third edition of Principles: Lyell intended the book to act as a suitable field guide for students of geology. Bailey, Edward 1962. Charles Lyell. Nelson, London. The systematic, factual description of geological formations of different ages contained in Principles grew so unwieldy, however, that Lyell split it off as the Elements in 1838. The book went through six editions, eventually growing to two volumes and ceasing to be the inexpensive, portable handbook that Lyell had originally envisioned. Late in his career, therefore, Lyell produced a condensed version titled Student's Elements of Geology that fulfilled the original purpose. Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man brought together Lyell's views on three key themes from the geology of the Quaternary Period of Earth history: glaciers, evolution, and the age of the human race. First published in 1863, it went through three editions that year, with a fourth and final edition appearing in 1873. The book was widely regarded as a disappointment because of Lyell's equivocal treatment of evolution. Lyell, a devout Christian, had great difficulty reconciling his beliefs with natural selection. Bynum W.F. 1984. Charles Lyell's Antiquity of Man and its critics. J. Hist Biol 17 153-87. Scientific contributions Lyell's geological interests ranged from volcanoes and geological dynamics through stratigraphy, paleontology, and glaciology to topics that would now be classified as prehistoric archaeology and paleoanthropology. He is best known, however, for his role in popularising the doctrine of uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism From 1830 to 1833 his multi-volume Principles of Geology was published. The work's subtitle was "An attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth's surface by reference to causes now in operation", and this explains Lyell's impact on science. He drew his explanations from field studies conducted directly before he went to work on the founding geology text. He was, along with the earlier John Playfair, the major advocate of James Hutton's idea of uniformitarianism, that the earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces still in operation today, acting over a very long period of time. This was in contrast to catastrophism, a geologic idea of abrupt changes due to unknown forces, which had been adapted in England to support belief in Noah's flood. The two terms, uniformitarianism and catastrophism, were coined by William Whewell; in 1866 R. Grove suggested the simpler term continuity for Lyells's view, but the old terms persisted. In various revised editions (twelve in all, through 1872), Principles of Geology was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century, and did much to put geology on a modern footing. For his efforts he was knighted in 1848, then made a baronet in 1864. Geological Surveys Lyell noted the “economic advantages” that geological surveys could provide, citing their felicity in mineral-rich countries and provinces. Modern surveys, like the U.S. Geological Survey, map and exhibit the natural resources within the country. So, in endorsing surveys, as well as advancing the study of geology, Lyell helped to forward the business of modern extractive industries, such as the coal and oil industry. Volcanoes and geological dynamics An aerial photo of Vesuvius Before the work of Lyell, phenomena such as earthquakes were understood by the destruction that they wrought. One of the contributions that Lyell made in Principles was to explain the cause of earthquakes. Adams, Frank D. The Birth and Development of the Geological Sciences. Dover Publications, Inc., 1938. Lyell, in contrast focused on recent earthquakes (150 yrs), evidenced by surface irregularities such as faults, fissures, stratigraphic displacements and depressions. Lyell's work on volcanoes focused largely on Vesuvius and Etna, both of which he had earlier studied. His conclusions supported gradual building of volcanoes, so-called "backed up-building," as opposed to the upheaval argument supported by other geologists. Stratigraphy Lyell's most important specific work was in the field of stratigraphy. From May 1828, until February 1829, he traveled with Roderick Impey Murchison (1792-1871) to the south of France (Auvergne volcanic district) and to Italy. Stafford, Robert A. Scientist of Empire. Cambridge, UK. Cambridge University Press, 1989. In these areas he concluded that the recent strata (rock layers) could be categorized according to the number and proportion of marine shells encased within. Based on this he proposed dividing the Tertiary period into three parts, which he named the Pliocene, Miocene, and Eocene. Glaciers Lateral moraine on a glacier joining the Gorner Glacier, Zermatt, Switzerland. In Principles of Geology (first edition, vol. 3, Ch. 2, 1833) Lyell proposed that icebergs could be the means of transport for erratics. During periods of global warming, ice breaks off the poles and floats across submerged continents, carrying debris with it, he conjectured. When the iceberg melts, it rains down sediments upon the land. Because this theory could account for the presence of diluvium, the word "drift" became the preferred term for the loose, unsorted material, today called "till." Furthermore, Lyell believed that the accumulation of fine angular particles covering much of the world (today called loess) was a deposit settled from mountain flood water. Today some of Lyell's mechanisms for geologic processes have been disproven, though many have stood the test of time. His observational methods and general analytical framework remain in use today as foundational principles in geology. Evolution Lyell first became aware of the ideas of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck when he was 26, in 1827. A letter to Mantell reads, in part, as follows: "I devoured Lamark... his theories delighted me... I am glad that he has been courageous enough and logical enough to admit that his argument, if pushed as far as it must go, if worth anything, would prove that men may have come from the Ourang-Outang. But after all, what changes species may really undergo!... That the Earth is quite as old as he supposes, has long been my creed..." Lyell K. 1881. The life and letters of Sir Charles Lyell. 2 vols, London. vol 1 p168 <center>Charles Darwin In the second volume of the first edition of Principles Lyell explicitly rejected the mechanism of Lamark on the transmutation of species, and was doubtful whether species were mutable. Lyell C. 1830-33. The principles of geology. Murray, London. vol 2, Chapter 2. However, privately, in letters, he was more open to the possibility of evolution: "If I had stated... the possibility of the introduction or origination of fresh species being a natural, in contradisctinction to a miraculous process, I should have raised a host of prejudices against me, which are unfortunately opposed at every step to any philosopher who attempts to address the public on these mysterious subjects." Lyell K. 1881. The life and letters of Sir Charles Lyell. 2 vols, London. vol 2 p5 This letter makes it clear that his equivocation on evolution was, at least at first, a deliberate tactic. As a result of his letters and, no doubt, personal conversations, Huxley and Haeckel were convinced that, at the time he wrote Principles, he believed new species had arisen by natural methods. Both Whewell and Sedgwick wrote worried letters to him about this. see Judd J.W. 1910. The coming of evolution. Cambridge. Chapter 8, p83-6. Later, Darwin became a close personal friend, and Lyell was one of the first scientists to support On the Origin of Species, though he did not subscribe to all its contents. Lyell was also a friend of Darwin's closest colleagues, Hooker and Huxley, but unlike them he struggled to square his religious beliefs with evolution. This inner struggle has been much commented on. He had particular difficulty in believing in natural selection as the main motive force in evolution. Bowler P.J. 2003. Evolution: the history of an idea. 3rd ed, California. 129-134, 215 Mayr E. 1982. The growth of biological thought. Harvard. (esp pp375-381 & 404-8). Bartholomew M. 1973. Lyell and evolution: an account of Lyell's response to the prospect of an evolutionary ancestry for man. Brit J Hist Sci 6, 261-303. <center>A.R. Wallace in 1862. Lyell and Hooker were instrumental in arranging the peaceful co-publication of the theory of natural selection by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in 1858: each had arrived at the theory independently (Darwin long before Wallace, however). Lyell's data on stratigraphy were important because Darwin thought that populations of an organism changed slowly, requiring "geologic time". Although Lyell did not publicly accept evolution (descent with modification) at the time of writing the Principles, Lyell C. 1830-33. The principles of geology. Murray, London. vol 2, 20-21. after the Darwin-Wallace papers and the Origin Lyell wrote in his notebook: May 3 1860: "Mr. Darwin has written a work which will constitute an era in geology & natural history to show that... the descendants of common parents may become in the course of ages so unlike each other as to be entitled to rank as a distinct species, from each other or from some of their progenitors." Wilson, Leonard G. (ed) 1970. Sir Charles Lyell's scientific journals on the species question. Yale University Press. p407 Lyell's acceptance of natural selection, Darwin's proposed mechanism for evolution, was equivocal, and came in the tenth edition of Principles. Desmond A. 1982. Archetypes and Ancestors: palaeontology in Victorian London Blond & Briggs, London. page 179: "Even Charles Lyell agreed... that 'natural selection was a force quite subordinate to that variety-making or creative power to which all the wonders of the organic world must be referred.' " The Antiquity of Man (published in early February 1863, just before Huxley's Man's place in nature) drew these comments from Darwin to Huxley: "I am fearfully disappointed at Lyell's excessive caution" and "The book is a mere 'digest' ". Burkhardt F. and Smith S. 1982–present. The correspondence of Charles Darwin. Cambridge, vol 11, 181 & 173. Quite strong remarks: no doubt Darwin resented Lyell's repeated suggestion that he owed a lot to Lamarck, whom he (Darwin) had always specifically rejected. Darwin's daughter Henrietta (Etty) wrote to her father: "Is it fair that Lyell always calls your theory a modification of Lamarck's?" Burkhardt F. and Smith S. 1982–present. The correspondence of Charles Darwin. Cambridge, vol 11, 223. Cape, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 Browne, E. Janet 2002. Charles Darwin: the power of place. Volume 2 of a biography. Cape, London. page 219 In other respects Antiquity was a success. It sold well, and it "shattered the tacit agreement that mankind should be the sole preserve of theologians and historians." Browne, E. Janet 2002. Charles Darwin: the power of place. Volume 2 of a biography. Cape, London. p218 But when Lyell wrote that it remained a profound mystery how the huge gulf between man and beast could be bridged, Darwin wrote "Oh!" in the margin of his copy. Bynum W.F. 1984. Charles Lyell's Antiquity of Man and its critics. J. Hist Biol 17 153-87. Bibliography Principles of Geology Principles of Geology 1st vol. 1st edition, Jan. 1830 (John Murray, London). Principles of Geology 1st vol. 2nd edition, 1832 Principles of Geology 2nd vol. 1st edition, Jan. 1832 Principles of Geology 2nd vol. 2nd edition, Jan. 1833 Principles of Geology 3rd vol. 1st edition, May 1833 Principles of Geology 4 vols. 3rd edition, May 1834 Principles of Geology 4 vols. 4th edition, June 1835 Principles of Geology 4 vols. 5th edition, March 1837 Principles of Geology 3 vols. 6th edition, June 1840 Principles of Geology 1 vol. 7th edition, Feb. 1847 Principles of Geology 1 vol. 8th edition, May 1850 Principles of Geology 1 vol. 9th edition, June 1853 Principles of Geology 10th edition, 1866-68 Principles of Geology 2 vols. 11th edition, 1872 Principles of Geology 2 vols. 12th edition, 1875 (published posthumously) Elements of Geology Elements of Geology 1 vol. 1st edition, July 1838 (John Murray, London) Elements of Geology 2 vols. 2nd edition, July 1841 Elements of Geology (Manual of Elementary Geology) 1 vol. 3rd edition, Jan. 1851 Elements of Geology (Manual of Elementary Geology) 1 vol. 4th edition, Jan. 1852 Elements of Geology 1 vol. 5th edition, ???? Elements of Geology 6th edition, 1865 Student's Elements of Geology, 1871 Travels in North America Travels in North America 2 vols., 1845 (John Murray, London) A Second Visit to the United States of North America 2 vols., 1849 (John Murray, London) Antiquity of Man Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man 1 vol. 1st edition, Feb. 1863 (John Murray, London) Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man 1 vol. 2nd edition, April 1863 Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man 1 vol. 3rd edition, Nov. 1863 Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man 1 vol. 4th edition, May 1873 Life, Letters, and Journals Life, Letters, and Journals of Sir Charles Lyell 2 vols. 1st edition, K. M. Lyell, ed., 1881 (John Murray, London) Miscellaneous The following are among the objects named for Lyell: Mount Lyell (California) Mount Lyell (Canada) Lyell Land (Greenland) See also Correspondence of Charles Darwin Shen Kuo, 11th century Chinese geologist and mineralogist Image source Portraits of Honorary Members of the Ipswich Museum (Portfolio of 60 lithographs by T.H. Maguire) (George Ransome, Ipswich 1846-1852) References External links Charles Lyell Notable Names Database. Charles Lyell in Strange Science Elements of Geology, The Student's Series, 1871 Principles of Geology 1st edition at ESP: Electronic Scholarly Publishing. 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2,993 | Breviary | Breviary of Cologne, 12th or 13th century (Helsinki University Library) A breviary (from Latin brevis, 'short' or 'concise') is a liturgical book of the Latin liturgical rites of the Catholic Church containing the public or canonical prayers, hymns, the Psalms, readings, and notations for everyday use, especially by, bishops, priests, and deacons in the Divine Office (i.e., at the canonical hours or Liturgy of the Hours, the Christians' daily prayer). The word can also refer to a collection of Christian orders of prayers and readings, such as contained in Anglican or Lutheran resources. In general, the word breviary may be used to refer to an abridged version of any text or a brief account or summary of some subject, but is primarily used to refer to the Catholic liturgical book. The volume containing the daily hours of Roman Catholic prayer was published as the Breviarium Romanum (Roman Breviary) until the reforms of Paul VI, when it became known as the Liturgy of the Hours. However, these terms are used interchangeably to refer to the Office in all its forms. This entry deals with the Breviary prior to the changes introduced by Pope Paul VI in 1974. Origin of name This word breviary (Lat. Breviarium), signifies in its primary acceptation an abridgment, or a compendium. It is often employed in this sense by Christian authors, e.g. Breviarium fidei, Breviarium in psalmos, Breviarium canonum, Breviarium regularum. In liturgical language Breviary has a special meaning, indicating a book furnishing the regulations for the celebration of Mass or the canonical Office, and may be met with under the titles Breviarium Ecclesiastici Ordinis, or Breviarium Ecclesiæ Rominsæ (Romanæ). In the ninth century Alcuin uses the word to designate an office abridged or simplified for the use of the laity. Prudentius of Troyes, about the same period, composed a Breviarium Psalterii (v. inf. V. HISTORY). In an ancient inventory occurs Breviarium Antiphonarii, meaning "Extracts from the Antiphonary". In the "Vita Aldrici" occurs "sicut in plenariis et breviariis Ecclesiæ ejusdem continentur". Again, in the inventories in the catalogues, such notes as these may be met with: "Sunt et duo cursinarii et tres benedictionales Libri; ex his unus habet obsequium mortuorum et unus Breviarius", or, "Præter Breviarium quoddam quod usque ad festivitatem S. Joannis Baptistæ retinebunt", etc. Monte Cassino about A.D. 1100 obtained a book titled "Incipit Breviarium sive Ordo Officiorum per totam anni decursionem". From such references, and from others of a like nature, Quesnel gathers that by the word Breviarium was at first designated a book furnishing the rubrics, a sort of Ordo. The title Breviary, as we employ it – that is, a book containing the entire canonical office – appears to date from the eleventh century. St. Gregory VII having, indeed, abridged the order of prayers, and having simplified the Liturgy as performed at the Roman Court, this abridgment received the name of Breviary, which was suitable, since, according to the etymology of the word, it was an abridgment. The name has been extended to books which contain in one volume, or at least in one work, liturgical books of different kinds, such as the Psalter, the Antiphonary, the Responsoriary, the Lectionary, etc. In this connection it may be pointed out that in this sense the word, as it is used nowadays, is illogical; it should be named a Plenarium rather than a Breviarium, since, liturgically speaking, the word Plenarium exactly designates such books as contain several different compilations united under one cover. This is pointed out, however, simply to make still clearer the meaning and origin of the word; and section V will furnish a more detailed explanation of the formation of the Breviary. History Mary Stuart's personal breviary, which she took with her to the scaffold, is preserved in the National Library of Russia of St. Petersburg. The canonical hours of the Breviary owe their remote origin to the Old Covenant when God commanded the Aaronic priests to offer morning and evening sacrifices. Other inspiration may have come from David's words in the Psalms "Seven times a day I praise you" (Ps. 119:164), as well as, "the just man meditates on the law day and night" (Ps. 1:2). In the early days of Christian worship, when Jewish custom was followed, the Bible furnished all that was thought necessary, containing as it did the books from which the lessons were read and the psalms that were recited. The first step in the evolution of the Breviary was the separation of the Psalter into a choir-book. At first the president of the local church (bishop) or the leader of the choir chose a particular psalm as he thought appropriate. From about the 4th century certain psalms began to be grouped together, a process that was furthered by the monastic practice of daily reciting the 150 psalms. This took so much time that the monks began to spread it over a week, dividing each day into hours, and allotting to each hour its portion of the Psalter. St Benedict in the 6th century drew up such an arrangement, probably, though not certainly, on the basis of an older Roman division which, though not so skilful, is the one in general use. Gradually there were added to these psalter choir-books additions in the form of antiphons, responses, collects or short prayers, for the use of those not skilful at improvisation and metrical compositions. Jean Beleth, a 12th-century liturgical author, gives the following list of books necessary for the right conduct of the canonical office:—the Antiphonarium, the Old and New Testaments, the Passionarius (liber) and the Legendarius (dealing respectively with martyrs and saints), the Homiliarius (homilies on the Gospels), the Sermologus (collection of sermons) and the works of the Fathers, besides, of course, the Psalterium and the Collectarium. To overcome the inconvenience of using such a library the Breviary came into existence and use. Already in the 8th century Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, had in a Breviarium Psalterii made an abridgment of the Psalter for the laity, giving a few psalms for each day, and Alcuin had rendered a similar service by including a prayer for each day and some other prayers, but no lessons or homilies. The Breviary rightly so called, however, only dates from the 11th century; the earliest MS. containing the whole canonical office is of the year 1099 and is in the Mazarin library. Gregory VII. (pope 1073-1085), too, simplified the liturgy as performed at the Roman court, and gave his abridgment the name of Breviary, which thus came to denote a work which from another point of view might be called a Plenary, involving as it did the collection of several works into one. There are several extant specimens of 12th-century Breviaries, all Benedictine, but under Innocent III. (pope 1198-1216) their use was extended, especially by the newly founded and active Franciscan order. These preaching friars, with the authorization of Gregory IX., adopted (with some modifications, e.g. the substitution of the "Gallican" for the "Roman" version of the Psalter) the Breviary hitherto used exclusively by the Roman court, and with it gradually swept out of Europe all the earlier partial books (Legendaries, Responsories), &c., and to some extent the local Breviaries, like that of Sarum. Finally, Nicholas III. (pope 1277-1280) adopted this version both for the curia and for the basilicas of Rome, and thus made its position secure. The Benedictines and Dominicans have Breviaries of their own. The only other types that merit notice are:— the Mozarabic Breviary, once in use throughout all Spain, but now confined to a single foundation at Toledo; it is remarkable for the number and length of its hymns, and for the fact that the majority of its collects are addressed to God the Son; the Ambrosian, now confined to Milan, where it owes its retention to the attachment of the clergy and people to their traditionary rites, which they derive from St Ambrose. Till the council of Trent every bishop had full power to regulate the Breviary of his own diocese; and this was acted upon almost everywhere. Each monastic community, also, had one of its own. Pius V. (pope 1566-1572), however, while sanctioning those which could show at least 200 years of existence, made the Roman obligatory in all other places. But the influence of the court of Rome has gradually gone much beyond this, and has superseded almost all the local "uses." The Roman has thus become nearly universal, with the allowance only of additional offices for saints specially venerated in each particular diocese. The Roman Breviary has undergone several revisions: The most remarkable of these is that by Francis Quignonez, cardinal of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme (1536), which, though not accepted by Rome (It was approved by Clement VII. and Paul III., and permitted as a substitute for the unrevised Breviary, until Pius V. in 1568 excluded it as too short and too modern, and issued a reformed edition (Breviarium Pianum, Pian Breviary) of the old Breviary), formed the model for the still more thorough reform made in 1549 by the Church of England, whose daily morning and evening services are but a condensation and simplification of the Breviary offices. Some parts of the prefaces at the beginning of the English Prayer-Book are free translations of those of Quignonez. The Pian Breviary was again altered by Sixtus V. in 1588, who introduced the revised Vulgate text; by Clement VIII. in 1602 (through Baronius and Bellarmine), especially as concerns the rubrics; and by Urban VIII. (1623-1644), a purist who unfortunately tampered with the text of the hymns, injuring both their literary charm and their historic worth. In the 17th and 18th centuries a movement of revision took place in France, and succeeded in modifying about half the Breviaries of that country. Historically, this proceeded from the labours of Jean de Launoy (1603-1678), "le dénicheur des saints," and Louis Sébastien le Nain de Tillemont, who had shown the falsity of numerous lives of the saints; while theologically it was produced by the Port Royal school, which led men to dwell more on communion with God as contrasted with the invocation of the saints. This was mainly carried out by the adoption of a rule that all antiphons and responses should be in the exact words of Scripture, which, of course, cut out the whole class of appeals to created beings. The services were at the same time simplified and shortened, and the use of the whole Psalter every week (which had become a mere theory in the Roman Breviary, owing to its frequent supersession by saints' day services) was made a reality. These reformed French Breviaries—e.g. the Paris Breviary of 1680 by Archbishop François de Harlay (1625-1695) and that of 1736 by Archbishop Charles Gaspard Guillaume de Vintimille (1655-1746)—show a deep knowledge of Holy Scripture, and much careful adaptation of different texts; but during the pontificate of Pius IX. a strong Ultramontane movement arose against them. This was inaugurated by Montalembert, but its literary advocates were chiefly Dom Gueranger, a learned Benedictine monk, abbot of Solesmes, and Louis François Veuillot (1813-1883) of the Univers; and it succeeded in suppressing them everywhere, the last diocese to surrender being Orleans in 1875. The Jansenist and Gallican influence was also strongly felt in Italy and in Germany, where Breviaries based on the French models were published at Cologne, Münster, Mainz and other towns. Meanwhile, under the direction of Benedict XIV. (pope 1740-1758), a special congregation collected many materials for an official revision, but nothing was published. Subsequent changes have been very few and minute. In 1902, under Leo XIII., a commission under the presidency of Monsignor Louis Duchesne was appointed to consider the Breviary, the Missal, the Pontifical and the Ritual. The most significant changes came with the revision of the Breviary by Pius X. in 1910. Pius X. modified the traditional psalm scheme so that, while all 150 psalms were used in the course of the week, these were said without repetition. Those assigned to the Sunday Office underwent the least revision, although noticeably fewer psalms are recited at Matins, and both Lauds and Compline are slightly shorter due to psalms (or in the case of Compline the first few verses of a psalm) being removed. Pius X. was probably influenced by earlier attempts to eliminate repetition in the psalter, most notably the liturgy of the Benedictine congregation of St. Maur. However, since Cardinal Quignonez's attempt to reform the Breviary employed this principal - albeit with no regard to the traditional scheme - such notions had floated around in the western Church, and can particularly be seen in the Paris Breviary. Pope John XXIII also revised the Breviary in 1960, introducing changes drawn up by his predecessor Pope Pius XII. The most notable alteration is the shortening of most feasts from nine to three lessons at Matins, keeping only the Scripture readings (the former lesson i, then lessons ii and iii together), followed by either the first part of the patristic reading (lesson vii) or, for most feasts, a condensed version of the former second Nocturn, which was formerly used when a feast was reduced in rank and commemorated. The new or so-called "Pian" psalter sponsored by Pius XII, a modern translation of the psalms from Hebrew into Latin, was also an option for use in the Office, and most breviaries published in the early 1960s used this psalter. Before the rise of the mendicant orders (wandering friars) in the thirteenth century, the daily services were usually contained in a number of large volumes. The first occurrence of a single manuscript of the daily office was written by the Benedictine order at Monte Cassino in Italy in 1099. By a strange twist, the Benedictines were not a mendicant order, but a stable, monastery-based order, and single-volume breviaries are rare from this early period. The arrangement of the Psalms in the Rule of St. Benedict had a profound impact upon the breviaries used by secular and monastic clergy alike, up until 1911 when Pope St. Pius X introduced his reform of the Roman Breviary. In many places, every diocese, order or ecclesiastical province maintained its own edition of the breviary. However, mendicant friars travelled around a lot and needed a shortened, or abbreviated, daily office contained in one portable book, and single-volume breviaries flourished from the thirteenth century onwards. These abbreviated volumes soon became very popular and eventually supplanted the Roman Catholic Church's Curia office, previously said by non-monastic clergy. Before the advent of printing, breviaries were written by hand and were often richly decorated with initials and miniature illustrations telling stories in the lives of Christ or the saints, or stories from the Bible. Later printed breviaries usually have woodcut illustrations, interesting in their own right but the poor relation of the beautifully illuminated breviaries. The beauty and value of many of the Latin Breviaries were brought to the notice of English churchmen by one of the numbers of the Oxford Tracts for the Times, since which time they have been much more studied, both for their own sake and for the light they throw upon the English Prayer-Book. From a bibliographical point of view some of the early printed Breviaries are among the rarest of literary curiosities, being merely local. The copies were not spread far, and were soon worn out by the daily use made of them. Doubtless many editions have perished without leaving a trace of their existence, while others are known by unique copies. In Scotland the only one which has survived the convulsions of the 16th century is that of Aberdeen, a Scottish form of the Sarum Office (The Sarum Rite was much favoured in Scotland as a kind of protest against the jurisdiction claimed by the church of York), revised by William Elphinstone (bishop 1483-1514), and printed at Edinburgh by Walter Chapman and Andrew Myllar in 1509-1510. Four copies have been preserved of it, of which only one is complete; but it was reprinted in facsimile in 1854 for the Bannatyne Club by the munificence of the duke of Buccleuch. It is particularly valuable for the trustworthy notices of the early history of Scotland which are embedded in the lives of the national saints. Though enjoined by royal mandate in 1501 for general use within the realm of Scotland, it was probably never widely adopted. The new Scottish Proprium sanctioned for the Roman Catholic province of St Andrews in 1903 contains many of the old Aberdeen collects and antiphons. The Sarum or Salisbury Breviary itself was very widely used. The first edition was printed at Venice in 1483 by Raynald de Novimagio in folio; the latest at Paris, 1556, 1557. While modern Breviaries are nearly always printed in four volumes, one for each season of the year, the editions of the Sarum never exceeded two parts. Contents of the Roman Breviary At the beginning stands the usual introductory matter, such as the tables for determining the date of Easter, the calendar, and the general rubrics. The Breviary itself is divided into four seasonal parts—winter, spring, summer, autumn—and comprises under each part: the Psalter; Proprium de Tempore (the special office of the season); Proprium Sanctorum (special offices of saints); Commune Sanctorum (general offices for saints); Extra Services. These parts are often published separately. The Psalter This psalm book is the very backbone of the Breviary, the groundwork of the Catholic prayer-book; out of it have grown the antiphons, responsories and versicles. Until the 1911 reform, the psalms were arranged according to a disposition dating from the 8th century, as follows. Psalms i.-cviii., with some omissions, were recited at Matins, twelve each day from Monday to Saturday, and eighteen on Sunday. The omissions were said at Lauds, Prime and Compline. Psalms cix.-cxlvii. (except cxvii., cxviii. and cxlii.) were said at Vespers, five each day. Psalms cxlviii.-cl. were always used at Lauds, and give that hour its name. The text of this Psalter is that commonly known as the Gallican. The name is misleading, for it is simply the second revision (A.D. 392) made by Jerome of the old Itala version originally used in Rome. Jerome's first revision of the Itala (A.D. 383), known as the Roman, is still used at St Peter's in Rome, but the "Gallican," thanks especially to St Gregory of Tours, who introduced it into Gaul in the 6th century, has ousted it everywhere else. The Antiphonary of Bangor proves that Ireland accepted the Gallican version in the 7th century, and the English Church did so in the 10th. Following the 1911 reform, Matins was reduced to nine Psalms every day, with the other psalms redistributed throughout Prime, Terce, Sext, and Compline, which previously used the same psalms every day. Lauds and Vespers largely remained the same, and Psalm 118 at the Little Hours and Psalms 4, 90, and 130 at Compline were retained for Sundays and special feasts. The Proprium de Tempore This contains the office of the seasons of the Christian year (Advent to Trinity), a conception that only gradually grew up. There is here given the whole service for every Sunday and week-day, the proper antiphons, responsories, hymns, and especially the course of daily Scripture-reading, averaging about twenty verses a day, and (roughly) arranged thus: for Advent, Isaiah; Epiphany to Septuagesima, Pauline Epistles; Lent, patristic homilies (Genesis on Sundays); Passion-tide, Jeremiah; Easter to Whitsun, Acts, Catholic epistles and Apocalypse; Whitsun to August, Samuel and Kings; August to Advent, Wisdom books, Maccabees, Prophets. The Proprium Sanctorum This contains the lessons, psalms and liturgical formularies for saints' festivals, and depends on the days of the secular month. The readings of the second Nocturn are mainly hagiological biography, with homilies or papal documents for certain major feasts, particularly those of Jesus and Mary. Some of this material has been revised by Leo XIII, in view of archaeological and other discoveries. The third Nocturn consists of a homily on the Gospel which is read at that day's Mass. Covering a great stretch of time and space, they do for the worshipper in the field of church history what the Scripture readings do in that of biblical history. The Commune Sanctorum This comprises psalms, antiphons, lessons, &c., for feasts of various groups or classes (twelve in all); e.g. apostles, martyrs, confessors, virgins, and the Blessed Virgin Mary. These offices are of very ancient date, and many of them were probably in origin proper to individual saints. They contain passages of great literary beauty. The lessons read at the third nocturn are patristic homilies on the Gospels, and together form a rough summary of theological instruction. Extra Services Here are found the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Office of the Dead (obligatory on All Souls' Day), and offices peculiar to each diocese. Elements of the Hours It has already been indicated, by reference to Matins, Lauds, &c., that not only each day, but each part of the day, has its own office, the day being divided into liturgical "hours." A detailed account of these will be found in the article Canonical Hours. Each of the hours of the office is composed of the same elements, and something must be said now of the nature of these constituent parts, of which mention has here and there been already made. They are: psalms (including canticles), antiphons, responsories, hymns, lessons, little chapters, versicles and collects. Psalms Before the 1911 reform, the multiplication of saints' festivals, with practically the same festal psalms, tended to repeat the about one-third of the Psalter, with a correspondingly rare recital of the remaining two-thirds. Following this reform, the entire Psalter is again generally recited each week, with the festal psalms restricted to only the highest-ranking feasts. As in the Greek usage and in the Benedictine, certain canticles like the Song of Moses (Exodus xv.), the Song of Hannah (1 Sam. ii.), the prayer of Habakkuk (iii.), the prayer of Hezekiah (Isaiah xxxviii.) and other similar Old Testament passages, and, from the New Testament, the Magnificat, the Benedictus and the Nunc dimittis, are admitted as psalms. Antiphons The antiphons are short liturgical forms, sometimes of biblical, sometimes of patristic origin, used to introduce a psalm. The term originally signified a chant by alternate choirs, but has quite lost this meaning in the Breviary. Responsories The responsories are similar in form to the antiphons, but come at the end of the psalm, being originally the reply of the choir or congregation to the precentor who recited the psalm. Hymns The hymns are short poems going back in part to the days of Prudentius, Synesius, Gregory of Nazianzus and Ambrose (4th and 5th centuries), but mainly the work of medieval authors. Lessons The lessons, as has been seen, are drawn variously from the Bible, the Acts of the Saints and the Fathers of the Church. In the primitive church, books afterwards excluded from the canon were often read, e.g. the letters of Clement of Rome and the Shepherd of Hermas. In later days the churches of Africa, having rich memorials of martyrdom, used them to supplement the reading of Scripture. Monastic influence accounts for the practice of adding to the reading of a biblical passage some patristic commentary or exposition. Books of homilies were compiled from the writings of SS. Augustine, Hilary, Athanasius, Isidore, Gregory the Great and others, and formed part of the library of which the Breviary was the ultimate compendium. In the lessons, as in the psalms, the order for special days breaks in upon the normal order of ferial offices and dislocates the scheme for consecutive reading. The lessons are read at Matins (which is subdivided into three nocturns). Little chapters The little chapters are very short lessons read at the other "hours." Versicles The versicles are short responsories used after the little chapters in the minor hours. They appear after the hymns in Lauds and Vespers. Collects The collects come at the close of the office and are short prayers summing up the supplications of the congregation. They arise out of a primitive practice on the part of the bishop (local president), examples of which are found in the Didachē (Teaching of the Apostles) and in the letters of Clement of Rome and Cyprian. With the crystallization of church order improvisation in prayer largely gave place to set forms, and collections of prayers were made which later developed into Sacramentaries and Orationals. The collects of the Breviary are largely drawn from the Gelasian and other Sacramentaries, and they are used to sum up the dominant idea of the festival in connection with which they happen to be used. Celebration Before 1910 the difficulty of harmonizing the Proprium de Tempore and the Proprium Sanctorum, to which reference has been made, was only partly met in the thirty-seven chapters of general rubrics. Additional help was given by a kind of Catholic Churchman's Almanack, called the Ordo Recitandi Divini Officii, published in different countries and dioceses, and giving, under every day, minute directions for proper reading. In 1960 John XXIII simplified the rubrics governing the Breviary in order to make it easier to use. Every cleric in Holy Orders and every member of a religious order must publicly join in or privately read aloud (i.e. using the lips as well as the eyes—it takes about two hours in this way) the whole of the Breviary services allotted for each day. In large churches where they were celebrated the services were usually grouped; e.g. Matins and Lauds (about 7.30 A.M.); Prime, Terce (High Mass), Sext, and None (about 10 A.M.); Vespers and Compline (4 P.M.); and from four to eight hours (depending on the amount of music and the number of high masses) are thus spent in choir. Lay use of the Breviary has varied throughout the Church's history. In some periods laymen did not use the Breviary as a manual of devotion to any great extent. The late Medieval period saw the recitation of certain hours of the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin, which was based on the Breviary in form and content, becoming popular among those who could read, and Bishop Challoner did much to popularise the hours of Sunday Vespers and Compline (albeit in English translation) in his 'Garden of the Soul' in the eighteenth century. The Liturgical Movement in the twentieth century saw renewed interest in the Offices of the Breviary and several popular editions were produced containing the vernacular as well as the Latin. The complete pre-Pius X. Roman Breviary was translated into English (by the marquess of Bute in 1879; new ed. with a trans, of the Martyrology, 1908), French and German. Bute's version is noteworthy for its inclusion of the skilful renderings of the ancient hymns by J.H. Newman, J.M. Neale and others. Several editions of the Pius X. Breviary were produced during the twentieth century, including a notable edition prepared with the assistance of the Sisters of Stanbrook Abbey in the 1950s. Two editions in English and Latin were produced in the mid-sixties, which conformed to the rubrics of 1960, published by Liturgical Press and Benziger in America. These used the Pius XII. psalter. Baronius Press's revised edition of the Liturgical Press, which was originally scheduled for publication at the end of 2006), is scheduled to be printed in 2009. It will use the older Gallican psalter of St. Jerome. The company has announced that electronic typesetting for the project is nearing completion, and specimen pages have appeared on their website. Under Pope Benedict XVI's motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, Roman Catholic bishops, priests, and deacons are again permitted to use the 1962 edition of the Roman Breviary, promulgated by Pope John XXIII to satisfy their obligation to recite the Divine Office every day. In 2008, an i-breviary was launched, which combines the ancient breviaries with the latest computer technology. See also Liturgy of the Hours Canonical Hours Book of Hours Horologion Little Office of Our Lady Liturgical books of the Roman Rite References F. Cabrol, Introduction aux études liturgiques Probst, Kirchenlex. ii., s.v. "Brevier"; Bäumer, Geschichte des Breviers (Freiburg, 1895) P. Batiffol, L'Histoire du bréviaire romain (Paris, 1893; Eng. tr.) Baudot, Le Bréviaire romain (1907). A complete bibliography is appended to the article by F. Cabrol in the Catholic Encyclopaedia, vol. ii. (1908). Kellerbook.com: Information concerning the development of breviaries and psalters] A history of the Divine Office/Breviary from EWTN Breviaries according the Curial or Roman use (pre-Vatican II) The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Winter (part 1) The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Spring (part 2) The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Summer (part 3) The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Autumn/Fall (part 4) The 1961 Roman Breviary in Latin The 1911 Roman Breviary in Latin and English Canonical Hours according to the 1911 Breviarium Romanum without the festal propers of Common of the Saints Breviarium Romanum cum Psalterium, proprio,& Officiis Sanctorum ad usum cleri Basilicae Vaticanae, pars Autumnalis (1740) Breviarium romanum ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii tridentini restitutum (1888) Breviarium Romanum ex decreto Sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum,Pars Verna(1799) Breviarium Romanum ex decreto Sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum,Pars Hiemalis(1799) Breviarium Romanum ex decreto Sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, Pars Autumnalis (1799) Breviarium Romanum, Pars Autumnalis (1828) Breviarium Romanum, Pars Aestiva (1828) Breviarium Romanum, Pars Autumnalis (1861) The Breviary of Quignonez (1537) Divinum Officium in Latin and English Breviaries according Pre-Tridentine Usages outside of Rome (pre-Vatican II) Breviarium Aberdonense (The Aberdeen Breviary) part 1 Breviarium Aberdonense (The Aberdeen Breviary) part 2 The Colbertine Breviary The Hereford Breviary Breviarium ad usum insignis ecclesiae Sarum (The Sarum Breviary) Breviarium ad usum insignis Ecclesie Eboracensis (The York Breviary) Breviary offices from lauds to compline inclusive, tr. from the Sarum book supplemented by Gallican and Monastic Uses Breviaries according the diocesan usages of France including that of Nantes, Orleans, Rheims, etc. Breviarium Parisiense, Pars Verna (The Paris Breviary) Breviarium Gothicum (The Mozarabic Breviary part 1) Breviarium Gothicum (The Mozarabic Breviary part 2) Breviarium Sacrum Ordinum Cartusiensis (The Carthusian Breviary) Breviarium Ambrosianum Breviarium juxta ritum sacri Ordinis prædicatorum (Dominican Breviary) Breviarium canonicorum regularium Ordinis Præmonstratensis. Pars hyemalis (Praemonstrian Breviary) Contemporary (i.e. post-Vatican II) Breviaries Universalis Online Breviary Liturgy of the Hours by eBreviary (A5 size booklet arrangement for those requiring print-outs, whether for individual Hours or all the Hours of a day combined) Liturgy of the Carthusian Order of the Catholic Church Non-Catholic Breviaries The Treasury of Daily Prayer, the classic Christian hours of prayer, as used within the Lutheran Church since the 16th century, with Psalms, hymns, Scripture and readings, for every day. The Missio Dei Breviary Simpler and relatively accessible breviary composed from an Anabaptist theology. 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2,994 | Ethical_naturalism | Ethical naturalism (also called moral naturalism or naturalistic cognitivistic definism Garner and Rosen, p. 228. ) is the meta-ethical view which claims that: Ethical sentences express propositions. Some such propositions are true. Those propositions are made true by objective features of the world, independent of human opinion. These moral features of the world can be reduced to some set of non-moral features. This makes ethical naturalism a definist form of moral realism, which is in turn a form of cognitivism. Ethical naturalism stands in opposition to ethical non-naturalism, which denies that moral terms refer to anything other than irreducible moral properties, as well as to all forms of moral anti-realism, including ethical subjectivism (which denies that moral propositions refer to objective facts), error theory (which denies that any moral propositions are true), and non-cognitivism (which denies that moral sentences express propositions at all). Ethical naturalism has been criticized most prominently by ethical non-naturalist G. E. Moore, who formulated the Open Question Argument. Garner and Rosen say that a common definition of "natural property" is one "which can be discovered by sense observation or experience, experiment, or through any of the available means of science." They also say that a good definition of "natural property" is problematic but that "it is only in criticism of naturalism, or in an attempt to distinguish between naturalistic and nonnaturalistic definist theories, that such a concept is needed." Garner and Rosen, p. 239. It is important to distinguish the versions of ethical naturalism which have received the most sustained philosophical interest, for example, Cornell Realism, from the position that 'what is, is right'. This later view is often criticized by proponents of sociobiology, as part of a defense of the fact-value distinction. However, a sophisticated ethical naturalist does not believe, in any straightforward sense, such a slogan. Moreover, ethical naturalism rejects the fact/value distinction: it suggests that inquiry into the natural world can increase our moral knowledge in just the same way it increases our scientific knowledge. Theory of value The theory of value — an important branch of ethics — contains a number of theories of what "good" means or, construed differently, what sorts of things are good. One could look at the theory of value as a way of determining how to reduce goodness to non-ethical properties, for there are many examples of such reductions in value theory. Hedonism, for example, is the view that goodness is ultimately just pleasure. It should be noted, however, that not all philosophers working on value theory would view their theories as "reductions". Ethical theories which can be naturalistic Altruism Cornell realism Ethical egoism Natural law libertarianism Objectivism Humanistic ethics Utilitarianism Notes References External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Moral Naturalism", by James Lenman, first published Thu June 1, 2006; substantive revision Mon August 7, 2006 Philosophy 302: Naturalistic Ethics | Ethical_naturalism |@lemmatized ethical:15 naturalism:10 also:2 call:1 moral:12 naturalistic:4 cognitivistic:1 definism:1 garner:3 rosen:3 p:2 meta:1 view:4 claim:1 sentence:2 express:2 proposition:6 true:3 make:2 objective:2 feature:3 world:3 independent:1 human:1 opinion:1 reduce:2 set:1 non:5 definist:2 form:3 realism:4 turn:1 cognitivism:2 stand:1 opposition:1 deny:4 term:1 refer:2 anything:1 irreducible:1 property:4 well:1 anti:1 include:1 subjectivism:1 fact:3 error:1 theory:10 criticize:2 prominently:1 naturalist:2 g:1 e:1 moore:1 formulate:1 open:1 question:1 argument:1 say:2 common:1 definition:2 natural:4 one:2 discover:1 sense:2 observation:1 experience:1 experiment:1 available:1 mean:2 science:1 good:3 problematic:1 criticism:1 attempt:1 distinguish:2 nonnaturalistic:1 concept:1 need:1 important:2 version:1 receive:1 sustained:1 philosophical:1 interest:1 example:3 cornell:2 position:1 right:1 late:1 often:1 proponent:1 sociobiology:1 part:1 defense:1 value:7 distinction:2 however:2 sophisticated:1 believe:1 straightforward:1 slogan:1 moreover:1 reject:1 suggest:1 inquiry:1 increase:2 knowledge:2 way:2 scientific:1 branch:1 ethic:3 contain:1 number:1 construe:1 differently:1 sort:1 thing:1 could:1 look:1 determine:1 goodness:2 many:1 reduction:2 hedonism:1 ultimately:1 pleasure:1 note:2 philosopher:1 work:1 would:1 altruism:1 egoism:1 law:1 libertarianism:1 objectivism:1 humanistic:1 utilitarianism:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 philosophy:2 james:1 lenman:1 first:1 publish:1 thu:1 june:1 substantive:1 revision:1 mon:1 august:1 |@bigram ethical_naturalism:6 meta_ethical:1 ethical_subjectivism:1 non_cognitivism:1 ethical_egoism:1 external_link:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 |
2,995 | Dr._Dre | Andre Romelle Young (born February 18, 1965), primarily known by his stage name Dr. Dre, is an American record producer, rapper, record executive, and actor. He is the founder and current CEO of Aftermath Entertainment and a former co-owner and artist of Death Row Records, also having produced albums for and overseeing the careers of many rappers signed to those record labels, such as Snoop Dogg and Eminem. As a producer he is credited as a key figure in the popularization of West Coast G-funk, a style of rap music characterized as synthesizer-based with slow, heavy beats. Dr. Dre began his career in music as a member of the World Class Wreckin' Cru and he later found fame with the influential gangsta rap group N.W.A with Eazy-E and Ice Cube which popularized the use of explicit lyrics in rap to detail the violence of street life. His 1992 solo debut, The Chronic, released under Death Row Records, led him to become one of the best-selling American performing artists of 1993 and to win a Grammy Award for the single "Let Me Ride." In 1996, he left Death Row to found his own label, Aftermath Entertainment, producing a compilation album, Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath, in 1996, and releasing a solo album titled 2001, in 1999, for which he won the Grammy producer's award the next year. During the 2000s, he focused his career on production for other artists, while occasionally contributing vocals to other artists' songs. Rolling Stone named him among the highest-paid performers of 2001 and 2004. Dr. Dre has also had acting roles in movies such as Set It Off, and the 2001 films The Wash and Training Day. Early life The first child of Verna and Theodore Young, Dr. Dre was born André Romelle Young on February 18, 1965, when his mother was 16. She married his father, Theodore Young, after he was born. Young's middle name, "Romelle," came from Theodore Young's unsigned, amateur R&B singing group, The Romells. In 1968 his mother divorced Theodore Young and later married Curtis Crayon. They had 3 more children together, two sons named Jerome and Tyree (both deceased) and daughter Shameka. In 1976 Young began attending Vanguard Junior High School but due to gang violence around Vanguard he transferred to the safer suburban Roosevelt Junior High School. Verna later married Warren Griffin, whom she met at her new job in Long Beach, which added three new stepsisters and one new stepbrother to the family. That stepbrother, Warren Griffin III, would eventually become a rapper under the stage name Warren G. Young attended Centennial High School in Compton during his freshman year in 1979, but transferred to Fremont High School due to poor grades. Young attempted to enroll at Northrop Aviation Company in an apprenticeship program, but poor grades at school made him ineligible. Thereafter, he focused on his social life and entertainment for the remainder of his high school years. Young fathered a son, Curtis, born December 15, 1981, with Lisa Johnson. Curtis Young was brought up by his mother and didn't meet his father until Curtis had become a rapper about 20 years later, with his stage name being Hood Surgeon. Music career World Class Wreckin' Cru (1984–1985) Dr. Dre during his time in WCWC Inspired by the Grandmaster Flash song "The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel", he often attended a club called The Eve After Dark to watch many DJs and rappers performing live. Thus, he became a DJ in the club, initially under the name "Dr. J", based on the nickname of Julius Erving, his favorite basketball player. At the club, he met aspiring rapper Antoine Carraby, later to become member DJ Yella of N.W.A. Soon afterwards he adopted the moniker Dr. Dre, a mix of previous alias Dr. J and his first name, referring to himself as the "Master of Mixology". He later joined the musical group World Class Wreckin' Cru under the independent Kru-Cut Records in 1984. The group would become stars of the electro-hop scene that dominated early 1980s West Coast hip hop, and their first hit "gangsta bois" would prominently feature Dr. Dre on the turntables and sell 50,000 copies within the Compton area. Dr. Dre and DJ Yella also performed mixes for local radio station KDAY, boosting ratings for its afternoon rush-hour show The Traffic Jam. Dr. Dre's earliest recordings were released in 1994 on a compilation titled Concrete Roots. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the website Allmusic described the compiled music, released "several years before Dre developed a distinctive style", as "surprisingly generic and unengaging" and "for dedicated fans only". His frequent absences from school jeopardized his position as a diver on his school's swim team. After high school, he attended Chester Adult School in Compton following his mother's demands for him to get a job or continue his education. After brief attendance at a radio broadcasting school, he relocated to the residence of his father and residence of his grandparents before returning to his mother's house. He later dropped out of Chester to focus on performing at the Eve's After Dark nightclub. N.W.A and Ruthless Records (1986–1991) N.W.A.'s debut became a bestseller, despite its controversial content. Dre is second from right. In 1986 he met rapper Ice Cube, who collaborated with Dr. Dre to record songs for Ruthless Records, a rap record label run by local rapper and drug dealer Eazy-E. N.W.A., along with fellow west coast rapper Ice T are widely credited as seminal artists of the gangsta rap genre, a profanity-heavy subgenre of hip hop, replete with gritty depictions of urban crime and the black gangster lifestyle. Not feeling constricted to racially charged political issues pioneered by rap artists such as Public Enemy or Boogie Down Productions, N.W.A favoured hardcore themes and uncompromising lyrics, offering stark descriptions of violent, inner-city streets. Propelled by the hit "Fuck tha Police", the group's first full album Straight Outta Compton became a major success, despite an almost complete absence of radio airplay or major concert tours and warnings from the FBI. The FBI sent letters to Arabian Prince, Ice Cube and Eazy-E urging them to stop releasing their music as a response to the large number of complaints they had received about the group's lyrical content and use of expletives. After Ice Cube left N.W.A over financial disputes, Dr. Dre produced and performed for much of the group's second album Efil4zaggin. He also produced tracks for a number of other rap acts on Ruthless Records, including Above the Law, and The D.O.C. for the album No One Can Do It Better. In 1991, at a music industry party in Hollywood, he assaulted television host Dee Barnes of the Fox television program Pump it Up, feeling dissatisfied with a news report of hers regarding the feud between the remaining N.W.A members and Ice Cube. Thus, Dr. Dre was fined $2,500 and given two years' probation and 240 hours of community service, as well as a spot on an anti-violence public service announcement on television. The Chronic and Death Row Records (1992–1995) Dr. Dre's debut solo album, The Chronic, was among the top-selling albums of the 1990s and spawned three hit singles. After a dispute with Eazy-E, Dre left the group at the peak of its popularity in 1991 under the advice of friend, and N.W.A lyricist, The D.O.C. and his bodyguard at the time, Suge Knight. Knight, a notorious strongman and intimidator, was able to have Wright release Young from his contract and, using Dr. Dre as his flagship artist, founded Death Row Records. In 1992 Young released his first single, the title track to the film Deep Cover, a collaboration with rapper Snoop Dogg, whom he met through Warren G. Dr. Dre's debut solo album was The Chronic, released under Death Row Records. Young ushered in a new style of rap, both in terms of musical style and lyrical content. On the strength of singles such as "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang", "Let Me Ride", and "Fuck wit Dre Day (and Everybody's Celebratin')" (known as "Dre Day" for radio and television play), all of which featured Snoop Dogg as guest vocalist, The Chronic became a cultural phenomenon, its G-funk sound dominating much of hip hop music for the early 1990s. In 1993 the Recording Industry Association of America certified the album multi-platinum, and Dr. Dre also won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance for his performance on "Let Me Ride". For that year, Billboard magazine also ranked Dr. Dre as the eighth best-selling musical artist, The Chronic as the sixth best-selling album, and "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" as the 11th best-selling single. Besides working on his own material, Dr. Dre produced Snoop Dogg's debut album Doggystyle, which became the first debut album for an artist to debut at number one on the Billboard 200 album charts. In 1994 Dr. Dre produced the soundtracks to the films Above the Rim and Murder Was the Case. He collaborated with fellow N.W.A member Ice Cube for the song "Natural Born Killaz" in 1995. For the film Friday, Dre recorded "Keep Their Heads Ringin'", which reached #10 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #1 on the Hot Rap Singles (now Hot Rap Tracks) charts. In 1995, just as Death Row Records was signing rapper 2Pac and positioning him as their major star, Young left the label amidst a contract dispute and growing concerns that label boss Suge Knight was corrupt, financially dishonest and out of control. Thus, in 1996, he formed his own label, Aftermath Entertainment, under the distribution label for Death Row Records, Interscope Records. Consequently, Death Row Records suffered poor sales by 1997, especially following the death of 2Pac and the racketeering charges brought against Knight. Move to Aftermath Entertainment (1996–1998) The Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath album, released on November 26, 1996, featured songs by Dr. Dre himself, as well as by newly signed Aftermath artists, and a solo track "Been There, Done That", intended as a symbolic farewell to gangsta rap. Despite being classified platinum by the RIAA, the album was not very popular among music fans. In October 1996 Dr. Dre appeared on the sketch comedy program Saturday Night Live, broadcast on the NBC television network in the United States, to perform "Been There, Done That". In 1997, Dr. Dre produced several tracks on The Firm's The Album; it was met with largely negative reviews from critics. Rumors began to abound that Aftermath was facing financial difficulties. Aftermath Entertainment also faced a trademark infringement lawsuit by the underground thrash metal band Aftermath. Tsiolis v. Interscope. Records. Inc., 946 F.Supp. 1344, 1349 (N.D.III. 1996). First Round Knock Out, a compilation of various tracks produced and performed by Dr. Dre was also released in 1996, with material ranging from World Class Wreckin' Cru to N.W.A to Death Row recordings. The turning point for Aftermath came in 1998, when Jimmy Iovine, the head of Aftermath's parent label Interscope, suggested that Dr. Dre sign Eminem, a rapper from Detroit. Dre produced three songs and provided vocals for two on Eminem's successful and controversial debut album The Slim Shady LP, released in 1999. The Dr. Dre-produced lead single from that album, "My Name Is", would help propel Eminem into stardom. 2001 (1999–2000) Dr. Dre's second solo album, 2001, released on November 16th, 1999, was considered an ostentatious return to his gangsta rap roots. It was initially titled The Chronic 2000 to imply being a sequel to his debut solo effort The Chronic but was re-titled 2001 after Death Row Records released an unrelated compilation album with the title Chronic 2000: Still Smokin in May of 1999. Other tentative titles included The Chronic 2001 and Dr. Dre. The album featured numerous collaborators, including Devin the Dude, Hittman, Snoop Dogg, Xzibit, Nate Dogg and Eminem. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the website Allmusic described the sound of the album as "adding ominous strings, soulful vocals, and reggae" to Dr. Dre's style. The album was highly successful, charting at number two on the Billboard 200 charts and has since been certified six times platinum, validating a recurring theme on the album: Dr. Dre was still a force to be reckoned with, despite the lack of major releases in the previous few years. The album included popular hit singles "Still D.R.E." and "Forgot About Dre", both of which Dr. Dre performed on NBC's Saturday Night Live on October 23, 1999. Dr. Dre won the Grammy Award for Producer of the Year in 2000, and joined the Up in Smoke Tour with fellow rappers Eminem, Snoop Dogg, and Ice Cube that year as well. During the course of 2001'''s popularity, Dr. Dre was involved in several lawsuits. Lucasfilm Ltd., the film company behind the Star Wars film franchise, sued him over the use of the THX-trademarked "Deep Note". The Fatback Band also sued Dr. Dre over alleged infringement regarding its song "Backstrokin'" in his song "Let's Get High" from the 2001 album; Dr. Dre was ordered to pay $1.5 million to the band in 2003. The online music file-sharing company Napster also settled a lawsuit with him and heavy metal rock band Metallica in the summer of 2001, agreeing to block access to certain files that artists do not want to have shared on the network. Focus on production (2001–present) Following the success of 2001, Dr. Dre focused on producing songs and albums for other artists. He co-produced six tracks on Eminem’s landmark Marshall Mathers LP, including the Grammy-winning lead single, “The Real Slim Shady”. The album itself earned a Grammy and proved to be the fastest-selling rap album of all time, moving 1.76 million units in its first week alone . He produced the single "Family Affair" by R&B singer Mary J. Blige for her album No More Drama in 2001. He also produced "Let Me Blow Ya Mind", a duet by rapper Eve and No Doubt lead singer Gwen Stefani and signed R&B singer Truth Hurts to Aftermath in 2001. Dr. Dre was the executive producer of Eminem’s 2002 release, The Eminem Show. He produced three songs on the album, one of which was released as a single, and he appeared in the award-winning video for “Without Me”. Another copyright-related lawsuit hit Dr. Dre in the fall of 2002, when Sa Re Ga Ma, a film and music company based in Calcutta, India, sued Aftermath Entertainment over an uncredited sample of the Lata Mangeshkar song "Thoda Resham Lagta Hai" on the Aftermath-produced song "Addictive" by singer Truth Hurts. In February 2003, a judge ruled that Aftermath would have to halt sales of Truth Hurts' album Truthfully Speaking if the company would not credit Mangeshkar. Another successful album that Dr.Dre produced for Aftermath was Get Rich or Die Tryin', the 2003 major-label debut album by Queens, New York-based rapper 50 Cent. It featured the Dr. Dre-produced hit single "In da Club", a joint production between Aftermath, Eminem's boutique label Shady Records and Interscope. In April 2003, rapper Ja Rule released a mixtape of freestyle raps criticizing Dr. Dre and his associated artists 50 Cent and Eminem. Eminem's fourth album since joining Aftermath, Encore, again saw Dre taking on the role of executive producer, and this time he was more actively involved in the music, producing or co-producing a total of eight tracks, including three singles. In November 2004, at the Vibe magazine awards show in Los Angeles, Dr. Dre was attacked by a fan named Jimmy James Johnson, who was supposedly asking for an autograph. In the resulting scuffle, then-G-Unit rapper Young Buck stabbed the man. Johnson claimed that Suge Knight, president of Death Row Records, paid him $5,000 to assault Dre in order to humiliate him before he received his Lifetime Achievement Award. Knight immediately went on CBS's The Late Late Show to deny involvement and insisted that he supported Dr. Dre and wanted Johnson charged. In September 2005, Johnson was sentenced to a year in prison and ordered to stay away from Dr. Dre until 2008. Dr. Dre also produced "How We Do", a 2005 hit single from rapper The Game from his album The Documentary. For an issue of Rolling Stone magazine in April 2005, Kanye West praised Dr. Dre as among the greatest performing artists of all time. In November 2006 Dr. Dre began working with Raekwon on his album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx II. He also produced tracks for the rap albums Buck the World by Young Buck , Curtis by 50 Cent, , Tha Blue Carpet Treatment by Snoop Dogg, and Kingdom Come by Jay-Z. Dre also appeared onTimbaland's track "Bounce", from his 2007 solo album, Timbaland Presents Shock Value along side, Missy Elliott, and Justin Timberlake. . Planned but unreleased albums during Dr. Dre's tenure at Aftermath have included a full-length reunion with Snoop Dogg titled Breakup to Makeup, an album with fellow former N.W.A member Ice Cube which was to be titled Heltah Skeltah, an N.W.A reunion album, and a joint album with fellow producer Timbaland titled Chairmen of the Board. Other upcoming albums for which he will produce include The Reformation by Bishop Lamont, The Nacirema Dream by Papoose, Here I Am by Eve, and an upcoming album by Queen Latifah. Detox (2009)Detox is to be Dr. Dre's final album. In 2002, Dre told Corey Moss of MTV News that he intended Detox to be a concept album. Work for the album dates back to early 2004, but later in that year he decided to stop working on the album to focus on producing for other artists, but then changed his mind; the album had initially been set for a fall 2005 release. After several delays, the album was finally scheduled to be released sometime in 2009 by Interscope Records, which has not set a firm release date for the album as of February 2009. Producers confirmed to work on the album include DJ Khalil, Bernard "Focus" Edwards Jr., Hi-Tek, J.R. Rotem, RZA, RZA Interview. Roland U.S. Accessed August 9, 2007. Jay-Z, Warren G, and Boi-1da. Specials : Wrap Up Pt.5 MuchMusic.com. Retrieved on 2009-01-22. Snoop Dogg claimed that Detox was finished, according to a June 2008 report by Rolling Stone magazine. After another delay based on producing other artists' work, Detox is now scheduled for a 2009 release, coming after 50 Cent's Before I Self Destruct and Eminem's Relapse, an album for which Dr. Dre will handle the bulk of production duties. Dre appeared in the remix of the song "Set It Off" by Canadian rapper Kardinal Offishall (also with Pusha T); the remix debuted on DJ Skee's radio show in December 2008. At the beginning of 2009, Dre produced, and made a guest vocal performance on, the single "Crack a Bottle" by Eminem and the single sold a record 418,000 downloads in its first week. and reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart on the week of February 12, 2009. In a Dr. Pepper commercial that debuted on May 28, 2009, he premiered the first official snippet of Detox. 50 Cent and Eminem asserted in an interview on BET's 106 & Park that Dr. Dre had around a dozen songs finished for Detox. Film career Dr Dre made his first on screen appearance in the bank robbery movie Set It Off as a weapons dealer. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0117603/fullcredits#cast In 2001, Dr. Dre also appeared in the movies The Wash and Training Day. A song of his, "Bad Intentions" (featuring Knoc-Turn'Al) and produced by Mahogany, was featured on The Wash soundtrack. Dr. Dre also appeared on two other songs "On the Blvd." and "The Wash" along with his co-star Snoop Dogg. In February 2007 it was announced that Dr. Dre would produce dark comedies and horror films for New Line Cinema-owned company Crucial Films, along with longtime video director Phillip Atwell. Dr. Dre announced "This is a natural switch for me, since I've directed a lot of music videos, and I eventually want to get into directing." Entrepreneur In July 2008, Dr. Dre released his high-performance brand of headphones, Beats by Dr. Dre. The headphones are made by Monster. Beats by Dr. Dre MonsterCable.com (2008). Retrieved on 2008-07-26. He is also planning to release an "Aftermath Cognac and vodka" at around the same time he releases Detox. Will Dr. Dre Drop Booze And Detox Within Next Two Months? Accessed August 6, 2008. Musical influences and style Dr. Dre has said that his primary instrument in the studio is the Akai MPC3000, a drum machine and sampler, and that he uses as many as four or five to produce a single recording. He cites George Clinton, Isaac Hayes and Curtis Mayfield as primary musical influences. Unlike most rap producers, he tries to avoid samples as much as possible, preferring to have studio musicians re-play pieces of music he wants to use, because it allows him more flexibility to change the pieces in rhythm and tempo. In 2001 he told Time magazine, "I may hear something I like on an old record that may inspire me, but I'd rather use musicians to re-create the sound or elaborate on it. I can control it better." Other equipment he uses include the E-mu SP-1200 drum machine and other keyboards from such manufacturers as Korg, Rhodes, Wurlitzer, Moog, and Roland. After founding Aftermath Entertainment in 1996, Dr. Dre took on producer Mel-Man as a co-producer, and his music took on a more synthesizer-based sound, using fewer vocal samples (as he had used on "Lil' Ghetto Boy" and "Let Me Ride" on The Chronic, for example). Mel-Man has not shared co-production credits with Dr. Dre since approximately 2002, but fellow Aftermath producer Focus has credited Mel-Man as a key architect of the signature Aftermath sound. About.com ranked Dr. Dre #2 (tied with Pete Rock) on their "Top 50 Hip-Hop Producers" list. In 1999 Dr. Dre started working with Mike Elizondo, a bassist, guitarist, and keyboardist who has also produced, written and played on records for female singers such as Poe, Fiona Apple and Alanis Morissette, In the past few years Elizondo has since worked for many of Dr. Dre's productions. Dr. Dre also told Scratch magazine in a 2004 interview that he has been studying piano and music theory formally, and that a major goal is to accumulate enough musical theory to score movies. In the same interview he stated that he has collaborated with famed 1960s songwriter Burt Bacharach by sending him hip hop beats to play over, and hopes to have an in-person collaboration with him in the future. Work ethic Dr. Dre has stated that he is a perfectionist and is known to pressure the artists with whom he records to give flawless performances. In 2006 Snoop Dogg told the website Dubcnn.com that Dr. Dre had made new artist Bishop Lamont re-record a single bar of vocals 107 times. Dr. Dre has also stated that Eminem is a fellow perfectionist, and attributes his success on Aftermath to his like-minded work ethic. A consequence of this perfectionism is that some artists that initially sign deals with Dr. Dre's Aftermath label never release albums. In 2001, Aftermath released the soundtrack to the movie The Wash. featuring a number of Aftermath acts such as Shaunta, Daks, Joe Beast and Toi. To date, none have released full-length albums on Aftermath and have apparently ended their relationships with the label and Dr. Dre. Other noteworthy acts to leave Aftermath without releasing albums include King Tee, 2001 vocalist Hittman, 1980s rap icon Rakim. However, over the years word of other collaborators has surfaced. During his tenure at Death Row Records, it was alleged that Dr. Dre's stepbrother Warren G and Tha Dogg Pound member Daz made many uncredited contributions to songs on his solo album The Chronic and Snoop Doggy Dogg's album Doggystyle (Daz received production credits on Snoop's similar-sounding, albeit less successful album Tha Doggfather after Young left Death Row Records). Tha Dogg Pound. (2005). DPG Eulogy [DVD]. Innovative Distribution Network. Accessed April 27, 2008. It is known that Scott Storch, who has since gone on to become a successful producer in his own right, contributed to Dr. Dre's second album 2001; Storch is credited as a songwriter on several songs and played keyboards on several tracks. In 2006 he told Rolling Stone: "At the time, I saw Dr. Dre desperately needed something," Storch says. "He needed a fuel injection, and Dr. Dre utilized me as the nitrous oxide. He threw me into the mix, and I sort of tapped on a new flavor with my whole piano sound and the strings and orchestration. So I'd be on the keyboards, and Mike [Elizondo] was on the bass guitar, and Dr. Dre was on the drum machine". Current collaborator Mike Elizondo, when speaking about his work with Young, describes their recording process as a collaborative effort involving several musicians. In 2004 he claimed to Songwriter Universe magazine that he had written the foundations of the hit Eminem song "The Real Slim Shady", stating, "I initially played a bass line on the song, and Dr. Dre, Tommy Coster Jr. and I built the track from there. Eminem then heard the track, and he wrote the rap to it." This account is essentially confirmed by Eminem in his book Angry Blonde, stating that the tune for the song was composed by a studio bassist and keyboardist while Dr. Dre was out of the studio but later programmed the song's beat after returning. Furthermore, in the September 2003 issue of The Source, a group of disgruntled former associates of Dr. Dre complained that they had not received their full due for work on the label. A producer named Neff-U claimed to have produced the songs "Say What You Say" and "My Dad's Gone Crazy" on The Eminem Show, the songs "If I Can't" and "Back Down" on 50 Cent's Get Rich or Die Tryin', and the beat featured on Dr. Dre's commercial for Coors beer. Although Young studies piano and musical theory, he serves as more of a conductor than a musician himself, as Josh Tyrangiel of Time magazine has noted: Every Dre track begins the same way, with Dre behind a drum machine in a room full of trusted musicians. (They carry beepers. When he wants to work, they work.) He'll program a beat, then ask the musicians to play along; when Dre hears something he likes, he isolates the player and tells him how to refine the sound. "My greatest talent," Dre says, "is knowing exactly what I want to hear." Although Snoop Dogg retains working relationships with Warren G and Daz, who are alleged to be uncredited contributors on the hit albums The Chronic and Doggystyle, he states that Dr. Dre is capable of making beats without the help of collaborators, and that he is responsible for the success of his numerous albums. It should be noted that Dr. Dre's prominent studio collaborators, including Scott Storch, Elizondo, Mark Batson and Dawaun Parker, have shared co-writing, instrumental, and more recently co-production credits on the songs where he is credited as the producer. It is also widely acknowledged that most of Dr. Dre's raps are written for him by others, though he retains ultimate control over his lyrics and the themes of his songs. As Aftermath Producer Mahogany told Scratch: "It's like a class room in [the booth]. He'll have three writers in there. They'll bring in something, he'll recite it, then he'll say. 'Change this line, change this word,' like he's grading papers." As seen in the credits for tracks Young has appeared on, there are often multiple people who contribute to his songs (although it should be noted that often in hip hop many people are officially credited as a writer for a song, even the producer). As a member of N.W.A, The D.O.C. wrote lyrics for him while he stuck with producing. Popular New York City rapper Jay-Z ghostwrote lyrics for the single "Still D.R.E." from Dr. Dre's album 2001. Discography *The Chronic (1992), Death Row2001 (1999), AftermathDetox (2009), Aftermath Awards and nominations "Let Me Ride"—Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance - 1994 "California Love"—Grammy Award Nomination as Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group (with 2Pac and Roger Troutman) - 1997. "No Diggity"—Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals (with Blackstreet and Queen Pen) - 1998 "Forgot About Dre"—Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance By A Duo Or Group - 2001 | (with Eminem) "Still D.R.E."—Grammy Award Nomination Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group (with Snoop Dogg) and The Source Awards Nomination Single of the year (2000)The Marshall Mathers LP—Grammy Award for Best Rap Album - 2001 (with Eminem)Various Production—Grammy Award for Producer of the Year - 2001 Personal life Marriages and family He had a second son, Andre Young Jr, with then-girlfriend Jenita Porter. Andre Young Jr. died at the age of 20 on August 23, 2008 at his Woodland Hills home. The coroner determined that he died from an overdose of heroin and morphine. Lee, Ken. "Coroner: Dr. Dre's Son Died From Overdose of Heroin and Morphine" People Magazine. Retrieved Jan 2, 2009 From 1990 to 1996 Dr. Dre dated singer Michel'le, who frequently contributed vocals to Death Row Records albums. In 1991 the couple had a son, Marcel. In May 1996 Dr. Dre married Nicole Threatt, the ex-wife of NBA player Sedale Threatt. Dr. Dre and Nicole have two children together: a son named Truth (born 1997) and a daughter named Truly (born 2001). Income In 2001, Dr. Dre earned a total of about $52 million from selling part of his share of Aftermath Entertainment to Interscope Records and his production of such hit songs that year as "Family Affair" by Mary J. Blige. Rolling Stone'' magazine thus named him the second highest-paid artist of the year. Dr. Dre was ranked 44th in 2004 from earnings of just $11.4 million, primarily from production royalties from such projects as albums from G-Unit and D12 and the single "Rich Girl" by singer Gwen Stefani and rapper Eve. He was ranked 9th in 2008 from earnings of $15 million earn Filmography Year Title Role Notes 1992 Niggaz4Life: The Only Home Video Himself Documentary 1996 Set It Off Black Sam 2000 Up in Smoke Tour Himself Documentary 2001 Training Day Paul The Wash Sean Notes References External links Dr. Dre at the Aftermath Music blog Official website (archived) Fan website Detox website Beats by Dr. Dre official site | Dr._Dre |@lemmatized andre:3 romelle:3 young:24 born:4 february:6 primarily:2 know:5 stage:3 name:14 dr:97 dre:113 american:2 record:34 producer:19 rapper:21 executive:3 actor:1 founder:1 current:2 ceo:1 aftermath:34 entertainment:9 former:3 co:8 owner:1 artist:20 death:17 row:15 also:22 produce:32 album:67 oversee:1 career:5 many:6 sign:6 label:13 snoop:15 dogg:17 eminem:22 credit:11 key:2 figure:1 popularization:1 west:4 coast:3 g:11 funk:2 style:6 rap:25 music:16 characterize:1 synthesizer:2 base:6 slow:1 heavy:3 beat:9 begin:5 member:7 world:5 class:5 wreckin:4 cru:4 later:9 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2,996 | Cardiff | Cardiff (, ) is the capital, largest city and most populous county of Wales. The city is Wales' chief commercial centre, the base for many national cultural and sporting institutions, the Welsh national media, and the seat of the National Assembly for Wales. According to recent estimates, the population of the unitary authority area is 321,000 and is one of the fastest growing cities in the UK. Wales’s Population A Demographic Overview 2009 Cardiff is a significant tourist centre and the most popular visitor destination in Wales with 11.7 million visitors in 2006. The city of Cardiff is the county town of the historic county of Glamorgan (and later South Glamorgan). Cardiff is part of the Eurocities network of the largest European cities. Cardiff Urban Area covers a slightly larger area, including Dinas Powys, Penarth and Radyr. A small town until the early 19th century, the city came to prominence as a major port for the transport of coal following the arrival of industry in the region. Cardiff was made a city in 1905, and proclaimed capital of Wales in 1955. Since the 1990s Cardiff has seen significant development with a new waterfront area at Cardiff Bay which contains the new Welsh Assembly Building and the Wales Millennium Centre arts complex. The city centre is undergoing a major redevelopment. International sporting venues in the city include the Millennium Stadium (rugby union and football) and SWALEC Stadium (cricket). History Origins of the name The front wall of Cardiff Castle, showing part of the original Roman fort from which the city may have derived its name. The name Cardiff and its Welsh equivalent Caerdydd are both believed by most modern experts to derive from post-Roman Brythonic words meaning "the fort on the Taff". "Dydd" or "Diff" are both modifications of "Taff", the river on which Cardiff Castle stands, with the T mutating to D in Welsh. According to Professor Hywel Wyn Owen, a leading modern authority on toponymy, the Welsh pronunciation of "Caerdyff" as "Caerdydd" shows the colloquial alternation of Welsh "-f" and "-dd". Hywel Wyn Owen, The Place-names of Wales, 1998, ISBN 0-7083-1458-9 In the past, antiquarians such as William Camden suggested that the name Cardiff might derive from the name "Caer-Didi" ("the Fort of Didius") given in honour of Aulus Didius Gallus, governor of a nearby province at the time when the Romans established a fort at Cardiff. Although some websites repeat this theory as fact, it is disputed by modern scholars on linguistic grounds, with Professor Gwynedd Pierce of Cardiff University recently describing it as "rubbish". Roman period to the Middle Ages The history of what is now Cardiff began with a Roman fort on the site, built in 75 AD. As Roman rule in Britannia ended near the start of the 5th century the fort was abandoned. John Speed's map of Cardiff from 1610 In 1091 Robert Fitzhamon began work on the castle keep within the walls of the old Roman fort. Cardiff Castle has been at the heart of the city ever since. The castle was substantially altered and extended during the Victorian period by John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute, and the architect William Burges. Original Roman work can, however, still be distinguished in the wall facings. Soon a small town grew up in the shadow of the castle, made up primarily of settlers from England. Cardiff had a population of between 1,500 and 2,000 in the Middle Ages, a relatively normal size for a Welsh town in this period. By the end of the 13th century, Cardiff was the only town in Wales with a population exceeding 2,000, but it was relatively small compared with most other notable towns in the Kingdom of England. View of Caerdiffe (Cardiff) Castle In the early 12th century a wooden palisade was erected around the city to protect it. Cardiff was a busy port in the Middle Ages, and was declared a Staple port in 1327. In 1404 Owain Glyndwr burned Cardiff and took Cardiff Castle. As the town was still very small, most of the buildings were made of wood and the town was destroyed. However, the town was soon rebuilt and began to flourish once again. County town of Glamorganshire In 1536, the Act of Union between England and Wales led to the creation of the shire of Glamorgan, and Cardiff was made the county town. Around this same time the Herbert family became the most powerful family in the area. In 1538, Henry VIII closed the Dominican and Franciscan friaries in Cardiff, the remains of which were used as building materials. A writer around this period described Cardiff: "The River Taff runs under the walls of his honours castle and from the north part of the town to the south part where there is a fair quay and a safe harbour for shipping." Cardiff had become a Free Borough in 1542. In 1573, it was made a head port for collection of customs duties, and in 1581, Elizabeth I granted Cardiff its first royal charter. Pembrokeshire historian George Owen described Cardiff in 1602 as "the fayrest towne in Wales yett not the welthiest., and the town gained a second Royal Charter in 1608. During the Second English Civil War, St. Fagans just to the west of the town, played host to the Battle of St. Fagans. The battle, between a Royalist rebellion and a New Model Army detachment, was a decisive victory for the Parliamentarians and allowed Oliver Cromwell to conquer Wales. It is the last major battle to occur in Wales, with about 200 (mostly Royalist) soldiers killed. In the ensuing century Cardiff was at peace. In 1766, John Stuart, 1st Marquess of Bute married into the Herbert family and was later created Baron Cardiff, and in 1778 he began renovations on Cardiff Castle. In the 1790s a racecourse, printing press, bank and coffee house all opened, and Cardiff gained a stagecoach service to London. Despite these improvements, Cardiff's position in the Welsh urban hierarchy had declined over the 18th century. Iolo Morgannwg called it "an obscure and inconsiderable place", and the 1801 census found the population to be only 1,870, making Cardiff only the twenty-fifth largest town in Wales, well behind Merthyr and Swansea. Building of the docks In 1793, John Crichton-Stuart, 2nd Marquess of Bute was born. He would spend his life building the Cardiff docks and would later be called "the creator of modern Cardiff". A twice-weekly boat service between Cardiff and Bristol was established in 1815, and in 1821, the Cardiff Gas Works was established. Cardiff Docks was the point where coal was shipped throughout the world, fuelling the British Empire. The town grew rapidly from the 1830s onwards, when the Marquess of Bute built a dock which eventually linked to the Taff Vale Railway. Cardiff became the main port for exports of coal from the Cynon, Rhondda, and Rhymney valleys, and grew at a rate of nearly 80% per decade between 1840 and 1870. Much of the growth was due to migration from within and outside Wales: in 1841, a quarter of Cardiff's population were English-born and more than 10% had been born in Ireland. By the 1881 census, Cardiff had overtaken both Merthyr and Swansea to become the largest town in Wales. Cardiff's new status as the premier town in South Wales was confirmed when it was chosen as the site of the University College South Wales and Monmouthshire in 1893. Cardiff faced a challenge in the 1880s when David Davies of Llandinam and the Barry Railway Company promoted the development of rival docks at Barry. Barry docks had the advantage of being accessible in all tides, and David Davies claimed that his venture would cause "grass to grow in the streets of Cardiff". From 1901 coal exports from Barry surpassed those from Cardiff, but the administration of the coal trade remained centred on Cardiff, in particular its Coal Exchange, where the price of coal on the British market was determined and the first million-pound deal was struck in 1907. The city also strengthened its industrial base with the decision of the owners of the Dowlais Ironworks in Merthyr (who would later form part of Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds) to build a new steelworks close to the docks at East Moors, which was opened on 4 February 1891 by Lord Bute. City and capital city status King Edward VII granted Cardiff city status on 28 October 1905, and the city acquired a Roman Catholic Cathedral in 1916. In subsequent years an increasing number of national institutions were located in the city, including the National Museum of Wales, Welsh National War Memorial, and the University of Wales Registry Building—however, it was denied the National Library of Wales, partly because the library's founder, Sir John Williams, considered Cardiff to have "a non-Welsh population". After a brief post-war boom, Cardiff docks entered a prolonged decline in the interwar period. By 1936, their trade was less than half its value in 1913, reflecting the slump in demand for Welsh coal. Bomb damage during the Cardiff Blitz in World War II included the devastation of Llandaff Cathedral, and in the immediate postwar years the city's link with the Bute family came to an end. The city was proclaimed capital city of Wales on 20 December 1955, by a written reply by the Home Secretary Gwilym Lloyd George. Caernarfon had also vied for this title. Cardiff therefore celebrated two important anniversaries in 2005. The Encyclopedia of Wales notes that the decision to recognise the city as the capital of Wales "had more to do with the fact that it contained marginal Conservative constituencies than any reasoned view of what functions a Welsh capital should have". Although the city hosted the Commonwealth Games in 1958, Cardiff only became a centre of national administration with the establishment of the Welsh Office in 1964, which later prompted the creation of various other public bodies such as the Arts Council of Wales and the Welsh Development Agency, most of which were based in Cardiff. The East Moors Steelworks closed in 1978 and Cardiff lost population during the 1980s, consistent with a wider pattern of counter urbanisation in Britain. However, it recovered and was one of the few cities (outside London) where population grew during the 1990s. During this period the Cardiff Bay Development Corporation was promoting the redevelopment of south Cardiff; an evaluation of the regeneration of Cardiff Bay published in 2004 concluded that the project had "reinforced the competitive position of Cardiff" and "contributed to a massive improvement in the quality of the built environment", although it had failed "to attract the major inward investors originally anticipated". Esys Consulting Ltd, Evaluation of Regeneration in Cardiff Bay. A report for the Welsh Assembly Government, December 2004 In the 1999 devolution referendum, Cardiff voters rejected the establishment of the National Assembly for Wales by 55.4% to 44.2% on a 47% turnout, which Denis Balsom partly ascribed to a general preference in Cardiff and some other parts of Wales for a 'British' rather than exclusively 'Welsh' identity. Balsom, Denis. 'The referendum result'. In Jones, James Barry; Balsom, Denis (ed.), The road to the National Assembly for Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2000. The relative lack of support for the Assembly locally, and difficulties between the Welsh Office and Cardiff Council in acquiring the original preferred venue, Cardiff City Hall, encouraged other local authorities to bid to house the Assembly. However, the Assembly eventually located at Ty Hywel in Cardiff Bay in 1999; in 2005, a new debating chamber on an adjacent site, designed by Richard Rogers, was opened. The city was county town of Glamorgan until the council reorganisation in 1974 paired Cardiff and the now Vale of Glamorgan together as the new county of South Glamorgan. Further local government restructuring in 1996 resulted in Cardiff city's district council becoming a unitary authority, the City and County of Cardiff, with the addition of Creigiau and Pentyrch. Governance Since local government reorganisation in 1996, Cardiff has been governed by The City and County Council of Cardiff, which is based at County Hall in Atlantic Wharf, Cardiff Bay. Voters elect 75 councillors every four years, with the next elections due to be held in 2012. Since the 2004 local elections, no individual political party has held a majority on Cardiff County Council. The Liberal Democrats have 35 councillors, the Conservatives have 17, Labour have 13, Plaid Cymru have seven and three councillors sit as Independents. The Leader of the Council, Cllr Rodney Berman, is from the Liberal Democrats. The Liberal Democrats and Plaid Cymru have formed a partnership administration to run the council. Cardiff's City Hall The Senedd building. The National Assembly for Wales has been based in Cardiff Bay since its formation in 1999. The building which is now known as the Senedd (Welsh for Legislature, Parliament or Senate) was opened on 1 March 2006, by The Queen. Many Welsh Assembly Government civil servants are based in Cardiff's Cathays Park, with smaller numbers in a variety of other locations in the city centre, Coryton, Llanishen, Tremorfa and Morganstown. Welsh Assembly Government | All offices The Assembly Members (AMs), the Assembly Parliamentary Service and Ministerial support staff are based in Cardiff Bay. Cardiff elects four constituency Assembly Members (AMs) to the Assembly, with the individual constituencies for the Assembly being the same as for the UK Parliament. All of the city's residents have an extra vote for the South Wales Central region which increases proportionality to the Assembly. The most recent Welsh Assembly general election were held on 3 May 2007. Geography Cardiff is a relatively flat city bounded by hills on the outskirts to the east, north and west. Its geographic features were influential in its development as the world's largest coal port, most notably its proximity and easy access to the coal fields of the south Wales valleys. Satellite image of Cardiff, showing vegetation and land cover. Barry is shown bottom left Cardiff is built on reclaimed marshland on a bed of Triassic stones; this reclaimed marshland stretches from Chepstow to the Ely Estuary, which is the natural boundary of Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan. Triassic landscapes of this part of the world are usually shallow and low-lying which accounts and explains the flatness of the centre of Cardiff. The classic Triassic marl, sand and conglomerate rocks are used predominantly throughout Cardiff as building materials. Many of these Triassic rocks have a purple complexion, especially the coastal marl found near Penarth. One of the Triassic rocks used in Cardiff is "Radyr Stone", a freestone which as it name suggests is quarried in the Radyr district. Cardiff has also imported some materials for buildings: Devonian sandstones (the Old Red Sandstone) from the Brecon Beacons has been used. Most famously, the buildings of Cathays Park, the civic centre in the centre of the city, are built of Portland stone which was imported from Dorset. A widely used building stone in Cardiff is the yellow-grey Liassic limestone rock of the Vale of Glamorgan, including the very rare "Sutton Stone", a conglomerate of lias limestone and carboniferous limestone. Cardiff is bordered to the west by the rural district of the Vale of Glamorgan, which is also known as The Garden of Cardiff, to the east by the city of Newport, to the north by the South Wales Valleys and to the south by the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel. The River Taff winds through the centre of the city and together with the River Ely flows into the freshwater lake of Cardiff Bay. A third river, the Rhymney flows through the east of the city entering directly into the Severn Estuary. Cardiff is situated near the Glamorgan Heritage Coast, stretching westward from Penarth and Barry (which are commuter towns of Cardiff), with striped yellow-blue Jurassic limestone cliffs. The Glamorgan coast is the only part of the Celtic Sea that has exposed Jurassic (blue lias) geology. This stretch of coast, which has reefs, sandbanks and serrated cliffs, was a ship graveyard; ships sailing up to Cardiff during the industrial era often never made it as far as Cardiff as many were wrecked around this hostile coastline during west/south-westerly gales. Consequently, smuggling, deliberate shipwrecking and attacks on ships were common. Cityscape Modern-day Cardiff Bay Capital Tower, Cardiff "Inner Cardiff" is considered to consist of the following wards: Penylan, Plasnewydd, Gabalfa, Roath, Cathays, Adamsdown and Splott ward on the north and east of the city centre, and Butetown, Grangetown, Riverside and Canton to the south and west. The inner-city areas to the south of the A4161 road (known as the "Southern Arc") are, with the exception of Cardiff Bay, some of the poorest districts of Wales with low levels of economic activity and high ethnic minority populations. On the other hand Gabalfa, Plasnewydd and Cathays north of the 'arc' have very large student populations, and Pontcanna (situated north of Riverside and alongside Canton) is a favourite for students and young professionals. Penylan, which lies to the north east side of Roath Park, is an affluent area popular with those with older children and the retired. "Suburban Cardiff" can be broken down into three distinct areas. To the west lie Ely, Caerau and Fairwater which contain some of the largest housing estates in the United Kingdom. With the exception of some of the outlying privately built estates at Michaelston Super Ely and 1930s developments near Waun-Gron Road, this is an economically disadvantaged area with high numbers of unemployed households. Culverhouse Cross is a more affluent western area of the city. Radyr, Llandaff, Llandaff North, Whitchurch & Tongwynlais, Rhiwbina, Heath, Llanishen, Thornhill, Lisvane and Cyncoed which lie in an arc from the north west to the north east of the centre can be considered the main middle class suburbs of the city. In particular, Cyncoed, Radyr and Lisvane contain some of the most expensive housing in Wales. Further to the east lie the wards of Pontprennau & Old St Mellons, Rumney, Pentwyn, Llanrumney and Trowbridge. The latter three are again largely of public housing stock, although new private housing is being built in Trowbridge in considerable number. Pontprennau is the newest 'suburb' of Cardiff, whilst Old St Mellons has a history going back to the Norman Conquest in the 11th century. To the north west of the city lies a region that may be called "Rural Cardiff" containing the villages of St. Fagans, Creigiau, Pentyrch, Tongwynlais and Gwaelod-y-garth. St. Fagans, home to the Museum of Welsh Life, is protected from further development. Climate Cardiff has a temperate climate where summers and winters are generally mild. More specifically Cardiff has a maritime climate, with prevailing winds blowing in from the south-west over the Atlantic Ocean. Cardiff has a relatively dry climate compared with most of Wales, with an average rainfall of 1,065 millimetres (41.9 in). It is also a relatively mild city, with an average January temperature of and an average July temperature of Demography YearPopulation of Cardiff18016,342 185126,630 186148,965 187171,301 188193,637 1891142,114 1901172,629 1911209,804 1921227,753 1931247,270 1941257,1121951267,3561961278,5521971290,2271981274,5001991272,5572001292,1502007321,000*source: Vision of Britain except * ,which and is estimated by the Office for National StatisticsHistorical populations are calculatedwith the modern boundaries Following a period of decline during the 1970s and 1980s, Cardiff's population is growing. The local authority area had an estimated population of more than 321,000 in 2007, compared to a 2001 Census figure of 305,353. According to Census 2001 data, Cardiff was the 14th largest settlement in the United Kingdom, Key Statistics for urban areas in England and Wales, Census 2001, retrieved 2008-06-12 and the 21st largest urban area. Pointer, Graham, The UK’s major urban areas, Focus on People and Migration, 2005, retrieved 2008-06-12 Official estimates derived from the census regarding the city's total population have been disputed. The city council has published two articles that argue the 2001 census seriously under reports the population of Cardiff and, in particular, the ethnic minority population of some inner city areas. Cardiff has a ethnically diverse population due to its past trading connections, post-war immigration and the large numbers of foreign students who attend university in the city. The ethnic make-up of Cardiff's population at the time of the 2001 census was: 91.6% white, 2% mixed race, 4% South Asian, 1.3% Black, 1.2% Other ethnic origin. According to a report published in 2005, over 30,000 people from an ethnic minority live in Cardiff, around 8.4% of the city's total - many of these communities live in Butetown, where ethnic minorities make up around a third of the total population. This diversity, and especially that of the city's long-established African and Arab communities, has been celebrated in a number of cultural exhibitions and events, along with a number of books which have been published on this subject. Language See also: Cardiff accent Cardiff has a chequered linguistic history with Welsh, English, Latin, Norse and Norman-French preponderant at different times. Welsh was the majority language in Cardiff from the 13th century until the city's explosive growth in the Victorian era. As late as 1850, five of the twelve Anglican churches within the current city boundaries conducted their services exclusively in the Welsh language, while only two worshipped exclusively in English. By 1891, the percentage of Welsh speakers had dropped to 27.9% and only Lisvane, Llanedeyrn and Creigiau remained as majority Welsh-speaking communities. The Welsh language became grouped around a small cluster of chapels and churches, the most notable of which is Tabernacl in the city centre, one of four UK churches chosen to hold official services to commemorate the new millennium. Following the establishment of the city's first Welsh School (Ysgol Gymraeg Bryntaf) in the 1950s, Welsh has slowly regained some ground. Aided by Welsh-medium education and migration from other parts of Wales, the number of Welsh speakers in Cardiff rose by 14,451 between 1991 and 2001; Welsh is now spoken by 11% of Cardiffians. The highest percentage of Welsh speakers is in Pentyrch, where 15.9% of the population speak the language. In additional to English and Welsh, the diversity of Cardiff's population (including foreign students) means that a large number of languages are spoken within the city. One study has found that Cardiff has speakers of at least 94 languages, with Somali, Urdu, Bangla and Arabic being the most commonly spoken foreign languages. Llandaff Cathedral The former Cardiff Synagogue, located on Cathedral Road. There was once a fairly substantial Jewish population in South Wales, most of which has disappeared. This synagogue is now an office block. Religion Since 1922 Cardiff has included the suburban cathedral 'village' of Llandaff, whose bishop is also Archbishop of Wales since 2002. There is also a Roman Catholic cathedral in the city. Since 1916 Cardiff has been the seat of a Catholic archbishop, but there appears to have been a fall in the estimated Catholic population, with estimated numbers in 2006 being around 25,000 less than in 1980. Likewise, the Jewish population of the city has also appeared to have fallen—there are two synagogues in Cardiff, one in Cyncoed and one in Moira Terrace, as opposed to seven at the turn of the 20th century. There are a significant number of nonconformist chapels, an early-20th century Greek Orthodox church and eleven mosques. In the 2001 census 66.9% of Cardiff's population described itself as Christian, a percentage below the Welsh and UK averages. In the 2001 census Cardiff's Muslim population stood at 3.7%, above the UK average (2.7%) and significantly above the Welsh average. Cardiff has one of the longest-established Muslim populations in the UK, started by Yemeni sailors who settled in the city during the 19th century. The first mosque in the UK (on the site of what is now known as the Al-Manar Islamic Centre) opened in 1860 in the Cathays district of Cardiff. Cardiff is now home to over 11,000 Muslims from many different nationalities and backgrounds, nearly 52 per cent of the Welsh Muslim population. A Social Audit of the Muslim Community in Wales The oldest of the non-Christian communities in Wales is Judaism. Jews were not permitted to live Wales between the 1290 Edict of Expulsion and the seventeenth century. A Welsh Jewish community was re-established in the eighteenth century. The modern community is centered in the Cardiff United Synagogue. The proportion of Cardiff residents declaring themselves to be Hindu, Sikh and Jewish were all considerably higher than the Welsh averages, but less than the UK figures. The city has been home to a sizable Hindu community since Indian immigrants settled there during the 1950s and 1960s. The first Hindu temple in the city was opened in Grangetown on April 6 1979 on the site of an abandoned printing press (which itself was the former site of a synagogue). The 25th anniversary of the temple's founding was celebrated in September 2007 with a parade of over 3000 people through the city centre, including Hindus from across the United Kingdom and members of Cardiff's other religious communities. Today, there are over 2000 Hindus in Cardiff, worshiping at three temples across the city. In the 2001 census 18.8% of the city's population stated they had no religion, while 8.6% did not state a religion. Economy As the capital city of Wales, Cardiff is the main engine of growth in the Welsh economy. The economy of Cardiff and adjacent areas makes up nearly 20% of Welsh GDP and 40% of the city’s workforce are daily in-commuters from the surrounding south Wales area. Industry has played a major part in Cardiff's development for many centuries. The main catalyst for its transformation from a small town into a big city was the demand for coal required in making iron and later steel, brought to the sea by packhorse from Merthyr Tydfil. This was first achieved by the construction of a long canal from Merthyr (510 feet above sea-level) to the Taff Estuary at Cardiff. Eventually the Taff Vale Railway replaced the canal barges and massive marshalling yards sprang up as new docks were developed in Cardiff - all prompted by the soaring worldwide demand for coal from the South Wales valleys. At its peak, Cardiff's port area, known as Tiger Bay, became the busiest port in the world and—for some time—the world's most important coal port. In the years leading up to the First World War, more than 10 million tonnes of coal was exported annually from Cardiff Docks. In 1907, Cardiff's Coal Exchange was the first host to a business deal for a million pounds Sterling. After a period of decline, Cardiff's port has started to grow again - over 3 million tonnes of cargo passed through through the docks in 2007. Today, Cardiff is the principal finance and business services centre in Wales, and as such there is a strong representation of finance and business services in the local economy. This sector, combined with the Public Administration, Education and Health sectors, have accounted for around 75% of Cardiff's economic growth since 1991. The city was recently placed seventh overall in the top 50 European cities in the fDI 2008 Cities of the Future list published by the fDi magazine, and also ranked seventh in terms of attracting foreign investment. Notable companies such as Legal & General, Admiral Insurance, HBOS, Zurich, ING Direct, The AA, Principality Building Society, 118118, British Gas, Brains, SWALEC Energy and BT, all operate large national or regional headquarters and contact centres in the city, some of them based in Cardiff's office towers such as Capital Tower and Brunel House. Other major employers include NHS Wales and the National Assembly for Wales. On 1 March 2004, Cardiff was granted Fairtrade City status. Cardiff is the one of the most popular tourist destination cities in the United Kingdom, with one survey recording just under 12 million visitors in 2006. One result of this is that one in five employees in Cardiff are based in the distribution, hotels and restaurants sector, highlighting the growing retail and tourism industries in the city. There are a large number of hotels of varying sizes and standards in the city, providing almost 9,000 available bed spaces. Cardiff Central Market on St Mary Street in the city centre The majority of Cardiff's shopping portfolio is in the city centre around Queen Street and St. Mary's Street, with large suburban retail parks located in Cardiff Bay, Culverhouse Cross, Leckwith, Newport Road and Pontprennau, together with markets in the city centre and Splott. A major £675 million regeneration programme for Cardiff's St. David's Centre is underway which, when completed in 2009, will provide a total of of shopping space, making it one of the largest shopping centres in the United Kingdom. Cardiff is home to the Welsh media and the UK's largest film, TV & multimedia sector outside London with BBC Wales, S4C and ITV Wales all having studios in the city. In particular, there is a large independent TV production industry sector of over 600 companies, employing around 6000 employees and with a turnover estimated at £350m. Cardiff has several regeneration projects such as extension to the St David's Centre and surrounding areas of the city centre, and the $1.4billion International Sports Village in Cardiff Bay which will play a part in London 2012 Olympics. It features the only Olympic-standard swimming pool in Wales, the Cardiff International Pool, which opened on 12 January 2008. Landmarks and attractions Cardiff has many landmark buildings such as the Millennium Stadium, Pierhead Building and the National Assembly for Wales. However Cardiff is also famous for Cardiff Castle, St David's Hall, Llandaff Cathedral, the Wales Millennium Centre. Cardiff Castle is a major tourist attraction in the city and is situated in the heart of the city centre, near the main shopping area of Queen Street and St. Mary's Street. The National History Museum at St Fagans in Cardiff is a large open air museum housing dozens of buildings from throughout Welsh history that have been moved to the site in Cardiff. The Civic Centre in Cathays Park comprises a collection of Edwardian buildings such as the City Hall, National Museum and Gallery of Wales, Cardiff Crown Court, and buildings forming part of Cardiff University, together with more modern civic buildings. These buildings surround a small green space containing the Welsh National War Memorial and a number of other smaller memorials. Other major tourist attractions are the Cardiff Bay regeneration sites which include the recently opened Wales Millennium Centre and the Senedd, and many other cultural and sites of interest including the Cardiff Bay Barrage and the famous Coal Exchange. The New Theatre was founded in 1906 and completely refurbished in the 1980s. Until the opening of the Wales Millennium Centre in 2004, it was the premier venue in Wales for touring theatre and dance companies. Other venues which are popular for concerts and sporting events include Cardiff International Arena, St David's Hall and the Millennium Stadium. In total, Cardiff has over 1,000 listed buildings. These range from the more prominent buildings such as the castles, to smaller buildings, houses and structures. Cardiff has walks of special interest for tourists and ramblers alike, such as the Centenary Walk, which runs for within Cardiff city centre. This route passes through many of Cardiff's landmarks and historic buildings. A view of Cardiff City Hall (left) and the National Museum Gallery of Wales (right) Castles Complementing Cardiff Castle is a second castle north of the city, called Castell Coch (). The current castle is an elaborately decorated Victorian folly designed by Burges for the Marquess and built in the 1870s, as an occasional retreat. However, the Victorian castle stands on the footings of a much older medieval castle possibly built by Ifor Bach, a regional baron with links to Cardiff Castle also. The exterior has become a popular location for film and television productions. It rarely fulfilled its intended role as a retreat for the Butes, who seldom stayed there. For the Marquess, the pleasure had been in its creation, a pleasure lost following Burges's death in 1881. <small>Cardiff CastleNorth Gate<small> Cardiff Castle Keep <small> Castell Coch <small> St Fagans Castle Situated on the narrowest part of the south Wales coastal plain, Cardiff had a crucial strategic importance in the wars between the Normans (who had occupied lowland Wales) and the Welsh who maintained their hold on the uplands. As a result Cardiff claims to have the largest concentration of castles of any city in the world. As well as Cardiff Castle and Castell Coch, the remains of Twmpath Castle, the Llandaff Bishop's Palace and Saint Fagans Castle are still in existence, whilst the site of Treoda (or Whitchurch Castle) has now been built over. Culture and recreation Music and performing arts Cardiff has many cultural sites varying from the historical Cardiff Castle and out of town Castell Coch to the more modern Wales Millennium Centre and Cardiff Bay. Cardiff was a finalist in the European Capital of Culture 2008. In recent years Cardiff has grown in stature as a tourist destination, with recent accolades including Cardiff being voted the eighth favourite UK city by readers of the Guardian. The city was also listed as one of the top 10 destinations in the UK on the official British tourist boards website Visit Britain, and US travel guide Frommers have listed Cardiff as one of 13 top destinations worldwide for 2008. A large number of concerts are held within the city, the larger ones being played in St David's Hall, the Cardiff International Arena and occasionally the Millennium Stadium. A number of festivals are also held in Cardiff—the largest of these is the Big Weekend Festival, which is held annually in the city centre during the summer and plays host to free musical performances (from artists such as Ash, Jimmy Cliff, Cerys Matthews, the Fun Loving Criminals, Soul II Soul and The Magic Numbers), fairground rides and cultural events such as a Children's Festival that takes place in the grounds of Cardiff Castle. The annual festival claims to be the UK's largest free outdoor festival, attracting over 250,000 visitors in 2007. Cardiff hosted the National Eisteddfod in 1883, 1899, 1938, 1960, 1978 and 2008. Cardiff is unique in Wales in having two permanent stone circles used by the Gorsedd of Bards during Eisteddfodau. The original circle stands in Gorsedd Gardens in front of the National Museum while its 1978 replacement is situated in Bute Park. Since 1983, Cardiff has hosted the BBC Cardiff Singer of the World competition, a world renowned event on the opera calendar which is held every two years. The city also hosts smaller events. A number of performing arts venues are located within the city—the largest and most prominent of these is the Wales Millenium Centre, which hosts performances of opera, ballet, dance, comedy and musicals, and (as of autumn 2008) is home to the BBC National Orchestra of Wales. St David's Hall (which hosts the Singer of the World competition) has regular performances of classical music and ballet as well as music of other genres. The largest of Cardiff's theatres is the New Theatre, situated in the city centre just off Queen Street. Other such venues include the Sherman Theatre, Chapter Arts Centre and the The Gate Arts Centre. The Cardiff music scene is established and wide-ranging—it is home to the BBC National Orchestra of Wales and Welsh National Opera, has produced several leading acts itself and, as a capital city, has acted as a springboard for numerous Welsh bands to go and become famous both nationally and internationally. Acts who hail from Cardiff include Charlotte Church, Shirley Bassey, Catatonia, Super Furry Animals, The Oppressed, Kids In Glass Houses, Los Campesinos, The Hot Puppies, Pagan Wanderer Lu, Budgie, and Shakin' Stevens. Also, performers such as The Automatic, Manic Street Preachers, Lostprophets, Super Furry Animals, Catatonia and Bullet for My Valentine have links with the city and are associated with the Cardiff music scene. Recreation Cardiff has a strong nightlife and is home to many bars, pubs and clubs. Most clubs and bars are situated in the city centre, especially St. Mary's Street, and more recently Cardiff Bay has built up a strong night scene, with many modern bars & restaurants. The Brewery Quarter on St. Mary's Street is a recently developed venue for bars and restaurant with a central courtyard. Charles Street is also a popular part of the city. The lake at Roath Park, including the lighthouse erected as a memorial to Captain Scott Cardiff is known for its extensive parkland, with parks and other such green spaces covering around 10% of the city's total area. Cardiff's main park, Bute Park (which was formerly the castle grounds) extends northwards from the top of one of Cardiff's main shopping street (Queen Street); when combined with the adjacent Llandaff Fields and Pontcanna Fields to the north west it produces a massive open space skirting the River Taff. Other popular parks include Roath Park in the north, donated to the city by the 3rd Marquess of Bute in 1887 and which includes a very popular boating lake; Victoria Park, Cardiff's first official park; and Thompson's Park, formerly home to an aviary removed in the 1970s. Wild open spaces include Howardian Local Nature Reserve of the lower Rhumney valley in Penylan noted for it's Orchids & Forest Farm Country Park over along the river Taff in Whitchurch. Cardiff is one of the top ten retail destinations in the UK, with two main shopping streets (Queen Street and St. Mary Street), and three main shopping arcades; St. David's Centre, Queens Arcade and the Capitol Centre. The current expansion of St. David's Centre as part of the St. David's 2 project will see it become one of the largest shopping centres in the United Kingdom. As well as the modern shopping arcades, the city is also home to many Victorian shopping centres, such as High Street Arcade, Castle Arcade, Wyndham Arcade, Royal Arcade and Morgan Arcade. Also of note is The Hayes, home to Spillers Records, the world's oldest record shop. Cardiff has a number of markets, including the vast Victorian indoor Cardiff Central Market and the newly-established Riverside Community Market, which specialises in locally-produced organic produce. Several out-of-town retail parks exist, such as Newport Road, Culverhouse Cross, Cardiff Gate and Cardiff Bay. Media Cardiff is the Welsh base for the national television broadcasters (BBC, ITV1 Wales and S4C) along with Capital TV, a locally-based free-to-air television station serving the city on a Restricted Service Licence. The main local newspaper, the South Wales Echo and the national paper the Western Mail are based in Park Street in the city centre. Capital Times, Cardiff Post and the South Wales edition of Metro are also based and distributed in the city. There are also a number of magazines based in the city including Buzz magazine, Primary Times and a monthly Welsh language paper called Y Dinesydd (The Citizen). A number of other radio stations serve the city and are based in Cardiff, including 103.2 & 97.4 Red Dragon, Real Radio, BBC Radio Wales, BBC Radio Cymru, Radio Cardiff, Gold (radio), Radio Glamorgan and Xpress Radio. Xfm started broadcasting from Cardiff on 29 November 2007, making the South Wales region its fourth dedicated area. Transmissions have now been replaced by Nation Radio which is based in Neath. Use in media Cardiff, along with London, is one of the most-visited locations in the new series of Doctor Who, due to the programme being produced by BBC Wales there. The spin-off Torchwood is set exclusively in Wales, with all but one episode being mainly set in Cardiff. In both programmes, a "time rift" transects the city, with specific focus on Roald Dahl Plass and the Wales Millennium Centre. In "Boom Town" and "Utopia", the rift's recent activity is used to fuel the TARDIS, while in Torchwood, the eponymous secret agency is based under the paving. Parts of "Gavin and Stacey", "The Worst Witch", "Tracy Beaker" and other popular television series are also filmed within Cardiff. Cardiff was referenced by Tom Jones in the Tim Burton film Mars Attacks!, and was the setting for several scenes in the film Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man. It is the setting for the 1999 film "Human Traffic". Human Traffic at the Internet Movie Database Cardiff is also the birthplace of Dalek creator Terry Nation and popular children's author Roald Dahl, for whom the Roald Dahl Plass outside the Wales Millennium Centre is named. Sport Inside the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff The city is an international sporting venue, being the location of the 74,500 capacity Millennium Stadium, where the Welsh rugby team and the Welsh national football team plays, and hosting the Commonwealth Games. The Millennium Stadium also doubles up as a venue for other concerts and events such as motorsport's World Rally Championship as part of Wales Rally GB, with the first ever indoor special stages of the World Rally Championship being held at the Millennium Stadium in September 2005. It continues to host this annual event. The Millennium Stadium will host some events of the London 2012 Olympics. http://www.london2012.com/sports/olympic/football.php The city has a regional rugby union team, the Cardiff Blues, who play at their Cardiff Arms Park stadium. The city also has a rugby league team named the Cardiff Demons, as well as several amateur rugby clubs. The new Cardiff City stadium during construction Cardiff's main professional football club, Cardiff City F.C. (nicknamed the Bluebirds), play in the English Football League Championship. Their present stadium is Ninian Park, however a new stadium is under construction, which is due to be opened ready for the 2009–10 season and will be shared with the Cardiff Blues. Cardiff has numerous smaller clubs such as Grange Harlequins A.F.C., UWIC Inter Cardiff F.C., Cardiff Corinthians F.C., Inter Cardiff and Ely Rangers A.F.C. who all play in the Welsh Football System. Cardiff is also home to a county cricket side, Glamorgan CCC. The team play at the city's SWALEC Stadium, which has undergone a multi-million pound improvement in order to host a Test Match as part of the 2009 Ashes series. Cardiff's professional ice-hockey team, the Cardiff Devils, play in the temporary Cardiff Arena in Cardiff Bay. The capital is the one of the centres of British Baseball, and hosts the annual England-Wales international game every four years, usually at Roath Park. A stage of the Wales Rally GB, hosted inside the Millennium Stadium The Wales Empire Swimming Pool was demolished in 1998 to make way for the Welsh national stadium, the Millennium Stadium. The replacement pool, the Cardiff International Pool was opened on 12 January 2008 in Cardiff Bay as part of the International Sports Village, and is the only Olympic-standard swimming pool in Wales. Speedway was staged at Cardiff's White City Stadium in the pioneer years of the late 1920s. In 1951 the sport returned to the city at a purpose built stadium in Penarth Road but the track closed mid season 1953. The team, known as the Cardiff Dragons, raced in the National League Division Three in 1951 and 1952 and in the Southern League in 1953. Speedway returned to the city when the British Speedway Grand Prix, one of the World Championship events, moved in to the Millenium Stadium a few years ago. The track is a short life purpose built shale oval. Notable people Many notable people have hailed from Cardiff, ranging from historical figures such as the 12th century Welsh leader Ifor Bach and the 17th century pirate Henry Morgan to more recent figures such as Roald Dahl, Michael Aspel, Ken Follett and Griff Rhys Jones. In particular, the city has been home to many sports stars such as Tanni Grey-Thompson and Colin Jackson as well as many Premier League, Football League and international footballers, such as Gareth Bale (Tottenham Hotspur), Craig Bellamy (Manchester City), Ryan Giggs (Manchester United), Terry Yorath (Tottenham Hotspur) and the current manager of the Wales national football team John Toshack (Liverpool). Cardiff is also well-known for its musicians such as Ivor Novello, after whom the Ivor Novello Awards are named. Shirley Bassey is familiar to many as the singer of three James Bond movie theme tunes, whilst Charlotte Church is famous as a crossover classical/pop singer, and Shakin' Stevens was one of the top selling male artists in the UK during the 1980s. A number of Cardiff-based bands, such as Catatonia and Super Furry Animals were popular during the 1990s. Transport Cardiff is the major transport hub in Wales and is the focus for many arterial road and rail routes that connect the city with the rest of Wales, and with England. Road The M4 is the principal motorway in the region that connects Cardiff with Bridgend, Swansea and Carmarthen to the west, and Newport, Bristol, Swindon, Reading and London to the east. Cardiff is served by junctions 30 to 33 inclusive of the M4, plus junction 29a leading onto the A48(M). The A470 is another major road within the city that provides an important link with the Heads of the Valleys road, Mid and North Wales. The A4232 (also known as the Peripheral Distributor Road or PDR) when completed, will form part of the Cardiff ring-road system along with the M4 motorway between junctions 30 and 33. There are several road and rail bridges that cross the River Taff in Cardiff. These include the Clarence Road Bridge, a comparatively modern bridge which replaced a swing bridge. The original bridge was named after the Duke of Clarence. As with many other cities car traffic has caused congestion problems and as such the council has designated bus lanes to improve transport into and out of the city centre. The council has also revealed plans to introduce congestion charging, as in London, but only once there has been significant investment in the city's public transport network. Much of Cardiff's central shopping zone is pedestrianised, and further pedestrianisation is planned as part of the current St David's 2 regeneration scheme. As part of these plans, St Mary Street has been closed to private vehicles since 2007 with only buses and taxis permitted to use it, with a possible view to fully pedestrianise the road. This has proven controversial with many traders calling for it to be re-opened, but popular with shoppers. A final decision regarding St Mary Street is due in November 2008, together with the publication of a strategy for the city's public transport scheme. Rail Cardiff Central railway station, through which over nine million passengers a year pass. Cardiff Central railway station is the largest railway station in Wales with seven platforms, and one of the busiest in the UK. It provides direct services to nearby Newport and other major cities such as Bristol, Birmingham, London, Manchester, Nottingham, Southampton, Portsmouth, Newcastle upon Tyne, Edinburgh and Glasgow, as well as serving as an interchange for services from South West Wales. There is also a regular shuttle service to Holyhead (for ferries to Ireland) and Wrexham in North Wales. Cardiff Queen Street railway station is the second busiest in Wales and is the hub for routes via the Valley Lines services that connect the South Wales valleys and the Cardiff suburbs with the city centre. It is located at the eastern end of the city centre, and also provides services to Cardiff Bay. Cardiff has a suburban rail system known as Valley Lines, which is operated by Arriva Trains Wales. There are eight lines which serve 20 stations in the city, 26 in the wider urban area (including Taffs Well, Penarth and Dinas Powys) and more than 60 in the South Wales valleys and the Vale of Glamorgan. . Network Rail is currently proposing adding an extra two platforms to both Cardiff Central and Cardiff Queen Street station, and installing a light rail metro system in the city. http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/2008/11/26/train-tram-could-set-off-in-transport-proposals-91466-22341281/ Bus One of Cardiff Bus's new double deckers Cardiff has a comprehensive bus network, with municipal bus company Cardiff Bus providing the vast majority of routes in the city and to Newport, Penarth, Barry, Cardiff International Airport and Llantwit Major. Veolia Transport Cymru and Stagecoach in South Wales also provide services in the city. Cardiff Bus has introduced "bendy buses" on the 17 and 18 routes to Canton, Ely and Caerau and on the Cardiff Bay route. Its hub is Cardiff Central Bus Station. National Express provides direct services to other major cities, as well as to Swansea and Merthyr Tydfil. Megabus operates frequent discounted services to London. Air Cardiff Airport Domestic and international air links to Cardiff and South & West Wales are provided from Cardiff Airport (CWL), the only international airport in Wales. The airport is situated in the village of Rhoose, west of the city. There are regular bus services linking the airport with the Cardiff Central Bus Station as well as a train service from Rhoose Cardiff International Airport railway station to Cardiff Central. Water Two waterbus firms operate half-hourly services along the River Taff from Bute Park in the city centre to Cardiff Bay and onwards to Penarth. Throughout the summer (March to October), boats also depart from Cardiff Bay to take visitors to Flat Holm Island. The Paddle Steamer Waverley and MV Balmoral sail from Britannia Quay (in Roath Basin) to various destinations in the Bristol Channel. Cycle The Taff Trail is a walking and cycle path running for between Cardiff Bay and Brecon in the Brecon Beacons National Park. It runs through Bute Park, Sophia Gardens and many other green areas within Cardiff. It is possible to cycle the entire distance of the Trail almost completely off-road, as it largely follows the River Taff and many of the old disused railways of the Glamorganshire valleys. On Sundays in summer the Beacons Bike Bus enables cyclists to take their bikes into the Beacons and then ride back to Cardiff along the Trail. Education Cardiff University's main building Cardiff is home to four major institutions of higher education: Cardiff University, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, University of Glamorgan and the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama. Cardiff University was founded by Royal Charter in 1883 as the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, is a "red brick" university and member of the Russell Group of leading research led universities, having most of its campus in Cathays and the city centre. University of Wales Institute, Cardiff (UWIC) gained university status in 1997 and has campuses in the Llandaff, Cyncoed and City Centre areas. The Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama is a conservatoire established in 1949 and is based in the grounds of Cardiff Castle. The University of Glamorgan's Cardiff campus, Atrium, is home to the Cardiff School of Creative & Cultural Industries and is located close the city centre. The total number of higher education students in the city is around 43,900. The city also has two further education colleges: Coleg Glan Hafren and St. David's College, although further education is offered at most high schools in the city. Cardiff has eighty-six state primary schools (two bilingual, ten Welsh medium), eleven infant schools, ten junior schools and twenty state secondary schools, of which two are Welsh medium. There are also a number of independent schools in the city, including Llandaff Cathedral School, Kings Monkton and Howell's School, a single-sex girls' school (until sixth form). Notable schools include Whitchurch High School (the largest in Wales), Fitzalan High School (which is one of the most multi-cultural state schools in the UK), and Ysgol Gyfun Gymraeg Glantaf, which is the largest Welsh medium secondary in the country. As well as academic institutions, Cardiff is also home to other educational and learning organisations such as Techniquest, a hands-on science discovery centre that now has franchises throughout Wales, and is part of the Wales Gene Park in collaboration with Cardiff University, NHS Wales and the Welsh Development Agency (WDA). Cardiff is also home of the largest regional office of the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO). This office is home to the organisation's curriculum and assessment centre, which is responsible for overseeing the creation and grading of various IBDP assessments. Health There are seven NHS hospitals in the city, the largest of which is the University Hospital of Wales. The University Hospital of Wales is the third largest hospital in the UK and deals with most accidents and emergencies. The University Dental Hospital, which provides emergency dental treatment, is also located on this site. Llandough Hospital is located in the south of the city. The city's newest hospital, St. David's Hospital (built behind the former building) is located in the Canton area and provides services for the elderly and children. Cardiff Royal Infirmary is located on Newport Road, near the city centre. The majority of this hospital was closed in 1999 but with the West Wing remaining open for clinic services, genitourinary medicine and rehabilitation treatment. Rookwood Hospital and Whitchurch Hospital are also located within the city, along with Rookwood Hospital and Velindre Cancer Centre. All hospitals in Cardiff are administered by the Cardiff and Vale NHS Trust, with the exception of the Velindre site which is run by a separate trust. In addition Spire has a private hospital in the city which is located in Pentwyn. International relations Cardiff has twinning arrangements with : Luhansk, Luhansk Oblast, Ukraine. Hordaland county, Norway. Nantes, Pays de la Loire Region / Brittany, France. Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Xiamen, Fujian, China. A total of twenty-eight countries have a diplomatic presence in Cardiff. Many of these nations, such as Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Denmark, Canada, Thailand and the Czech Republic are represented by honorary consulates. The Republic of Ireland has a permanent consulate, and the British Embassy of the United States operates a satellite office. Telecommunications 029 is the current telephone dialling code for Cardiff, having previously been 0222 and then 01222. However it is vastly misconceived (in the city but on a larger scale in South Wales) to be 02920 because initially, at the time of the new dialing code system, all numbers began with 20. All newly issued numbers begin with 21. The code includes the neighbouring towns of Penarth, Dinas Powys and Caerphilly. The city's dialling code was changed on 22 April 2000 from 01222 to 029 in the Big Number Change along with London, Coventry, Portsmouth, Southampton and Northern Ireland in response to the rapid growth of telecommunications in the late 1990s and the impending exhaustion of numbers. This measure increased the numbers of digits in the subscriber telephone number from 6 to 8, therefore vastly increasing the possible telephone numbers available. See also Cardiff North Cardiff South Cardiff East Cardiff West Cardiff Bay Cardiff city centre Cardiff music scene List of cultural venues in Cardiff List of Parliamentary constituencies in South Glamorgan List of places in Cardiff National Assembly for Wales Big Number Change Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom UK telephone code misconceptions Wikitravel:Cardiff References External links Cardiff, BBC Cardiff Council site Cardiff in Open Street Map View of Cardiff from Space Cardiff Records: the full text of the edition of historical records for Cardiff, edited by J. H. Matthews (1898-1905.) Part of British History Online. 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2,997 | Foobar | The terms foobar, foo, bar, and baz, are common placeholder names (also referred to as metasyntactic variables) used in computer programming or computer-related documentation. They are commonly used to represent unknown values, typically when describing a scenario where the purpose of the unknown values are understood, but their precise values are arbitrary and unimportant. The terms can be used to represent any part of a complicated system or idea, including the data, variables, functions, and commands. The words themselves have no meaning in this usage, and are merely logical representations, much like the letters x and y are used in algebra. Foobar is often used alone; foo, bar, and baz are usually used in that order, when multiple entities are needed. Foo has entered the English language as a neologism and is considered by many to be the canonical example of a metasyntactic variable. It is used extensively in computer programming examples (sometimes expressed as "for once only") and pseudocode. Eric S. Raymond has called it an "important hackerism" alongside kludge and cruft. History The terms' origins are not known with certainty, and several anecdotal theories have been advanced to identify them. Foobar may derive from the vulgar military acronym FUBAR, or it may have gained popularity due to the fact that it is pronounced the same. FOO as an abbreviation of Forward Observation Officer was a British Army term in use as early as the First World War http://www.1914-1918.net/Diaries/wardiary-118siege.htm Extract from War Diary of 118th Siege Battery WO95/322 The etymology of foo is explored in the IETF Request for Comments 3092, which notes usage of foo in 1930s cartoons including The Daffy Duck and comic strips, especially Smokey Stover and Pogo. From there the term migrated into military slang, where it merged with FUBAR. The terms may have developed in electronics, where a digital signal which is considered "on" with a negative or zero-voltage condition, is identified with a horizontal bar over the signal label; the notation for an inverted signal foo would then be pronounced "foo bar". The use of foo in hacker and eventually in programming context may have begun in MIT's Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC). In the complex model system there were scram switches located at numerous places around the room that could be thrown if something undesirable was about to occur, such as a train going full-bore at an obstruction. Another feature of the system was a digital clock on the dispatch board. When someone hit a scram switch the clock stopped and the display was replaced with the word "FOO"; at TMRC the scram switches are therefore called "Foo switches". Because of this an entry in the 1959 Dictionary of the TMRC Language went something like this: "FOO: The first syllable of the misquoted sacred chant phrase 'foo mane padme hum.' Our first obligation is to keep the foo counters turning." The term foobar was propagated through computer science circles in 1960s and early 1970s by system manuals from Digital Equipment Corporation. Foobar was used as a variable name in the Fortran code of Colossal Cave Adventure (1977 Crowther and Woods version). The variable FOOBAR was used to contain the player's progress in saying the magic phrase "Fee Fie Foe Foo". Usage in code The terms are very often used in programming examples, much like the Hello World program is commonly used as an introduction. For example, foo and bar might be used to illustrate a simple string concatenation: //Java Code String foo = "Hello, "; String bar = "World"; System.out.println(foo + bar); //Hello, World is printed to the screen by printing the values of foo and bar Usage in culture $foo is the name of a Perl programming magazine, $foo PERL MAGAZIN and Foo Camp is an annual hacker convention (the name is also a backronym for Friends of O'Reilly, the event's sponsor). During the United States v. Microsoft trial, some evidence was presented that Microsoft had tried to use the Web Services Interoperability organization as a means to stifle competition, including e-mails in which top executives including Bill Gates referred to the WS-I using the codename "foo". Microsoft ploy to block Sun exposed See also Placeholder name Lorem ipsum, the name given to commonly used placeholder text John Doe, a placeholder name for a male party, in a legal action, case or discussion, whose true identity is either unknown or must be withheld for legal reasons FUBAR, a homophonous acronym Foo Camp, an annual hacker event hosted by publisher O'Reilly Media BarCamp, an international network of user generated conferences References External links RFC3092 Etymology of "Foo" The Free Online Dictionary of Computing entry on "foo" The Jargon File entry on "foobar" Foobar2000 is an advanced audio player for the Windows platform RFC 1639 - FTP Operation Over Big Address Records (FOOBAR) | Foobar |@lemmatized term:8 foobar:8 foo:26 bar:8 baz:2 common:1 placeholder:4 name:7 also:3 refer:2 metasyntactic:2 variable:5 use:15 computer:4 programming:2 related:1 documentation:1 commonly:3 represent:2 unknown:3 value:4 typically:1 describe:1 scenario:1 purpose:1 understood:1 precise:1 arbitrary:1 unimportant:1 part:1 complicated:1 system:5 idea:1 include:4 data:1 function:1 command:1 word:2 meaning:1 usage:4 merely:1 logical:1 representation:1 much:2 like:3 letter:1 x:1 algebra:1 often:2 used:2 alone:1 usually:1 order:1 multiple:1 entity:1 need:1 enter:1 english:1 language:2 neologism:1 consider:2 many:1 canonical:1 example:4 extensively:1 sometimes:1 express:1 pseudocode:1 eric:1 raymond:1 call:2 important:1 hackerism:1 alongside:1 kludge:1 cruft:1 history:1 origin:1 know:1 certainty:1 several:1 anecdotal:1 theory:1 advance:1 identify:2 may:4 derive:1 vulgar:1 military:2 acronym:2 fubar:3 gain:1 popularity:1 due:1 fact:1 pronounce:2 abbreviation:1 forward:1 observation:1 officer:1 british:1 army:1 early:2 first:3 world:4 war:2 http:1 www:1 net:1 diary:2 wardiary:1 htm:1 extract:1 siege:1 battery:1 etymology:2 explore:1 ietf:1 request:1 comment:1 note:1 cartoon:1 daffy:1 duck:1 comic:1 strip:1 especially:1 smokey:1 stover:1 pogo:1 migrate:1 slang:1 merge:1 develop:1 electronics:1 digital:3 signal:3 negative:1 zero:1 voltage:1 condition:1 horizontal:1 label:1 notation:1 inverted:1 would:1 hacker:3 eventually:1 program:4 context:1 begin:1 mit:1 tech:1 model:2 railroad:1 club:1 tmrc:3 complex:1 scram:3 switch:4 locate:1 numerous:1 place:1 around:1 room:1 could:1 throw:1 something:2 undesirable:1 occur:1 train:1 go:2 full:1 bore:1 obstruction:1 another:1 feature:1 clock:2 dispatch:1 board:1 someone:1 hit:1 stop:1 display:1 replace:1 therefore:1 entry:3 dictionary:2 syllable:1 misquote:1 sacred:1 chant:1 phrase:2 mane:1 padme:1 hum:1 obligation:1 keep:1 counter:1 turn:1 propagate:1 science:1 circle:1 manual:1 equipment:1 corporation:1 fortran:1 code:3 colossal:1 cave:1 adventure:1 crowther:1 wood:1 version:1 contain:1 player:2 progress:1 say:1 magic:1 fee:1 fie:1 foe:1 hello:3 introduction:1 might:1 illustrate:1 simple:1 string:3 concatenation:1 java:1 println:1 print:2 screen:1 culture:1 perl:2 magazine:1 magazin:1 camp:2 annual:2 convention:1 backronym:1 friend:1 reilly:2 event:2 sponsor:1 united:1 state:1 v:1 microsoft:3 trial:1 evidence:1 present:1 try:1 web:1 service:1 interoperability:1 organization:1 mean:1 stifle:1 competition:1 e:1 mail:1 top:1 executive:1 bill:1 gate:1 w:1 codename:1 ploy:1 block:1 sun:1 expose:1 see:1 lorem:1 ipsum:1 give:1 text:1 john:1 doe:1 male:1 party:1 legal:2 action:1 case:1 discussion:1 whose:1 true:1 identity:1 either:1 must:1 withhold:1 reason:1 homophonous:1 host:1 publisher:1 medium:1 barcamp:1 international:1 network:1 user:1 generate:1 conference:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 free:1 online:1 compute:1 jargon:1 file:1 advanced:1 audio:1 window:1 platform:1 rfc:1 ftp:1 operation:1 big:1 address:1 record:1 |@bigram foo_bar:6 bar_baz:2 metasyntactic_variable:2 eric_raymond:1 http_www:1 daffy_duck:1 comic_strip:1 string_concatenation:1 commonly_used:1 external_link:1 |
2,998 | Francis_Drake | "Calling upon this dull or effeminate Age, to follow his noble footsteps for gold and silver..."' Sir Francis Drake, Vice Admiral (1540 – 27 January 1596), was an English sea captain, privateer, navigator, slaver, and politician of the Elizabethan era. Queen Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581. He was second-in-command of the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588, subordinate only to Charles Howard and the Queen herself. He died of dysentery in January 1596 According to the English calendar then in use, Drake's date of death was 27 January 1595, as the new year began on 25 March. after unsuccessfully attacking San Juan, Puerto Rico. His exploits were legendary, making him a hero to the English but a pirate to the Spaniards, to whom he was known as El Draque. "Draque" is the Spanish pronunciation of "Drake". His name in Latin was Franciscvs Draco ("Francis the Dragon"). In 1590 his name was published in Latin as Franciscvs Draco: Theodor de Bry . King Philip II was claimed to have offered a reward of 20,000 ducats Cummins, John, Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero, 1996, Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312163657 (about £4m or $6m by modern standards) for his life. He is famous for (among other things) sailing around the world, returning to England in 1580. Birth and early years Miniature of Drake, age 42 by Nicholas Hilliard in 1581 Sir Francis Drake was born in Tavistock, Devon, in February or March of 1540. Turner, Michael. (2005). In Drake's Wake - The Early Voyages, Paul Mould Publishing. ISBN 978-1904959212 He was the eldest of the twelve sons Thomson,George Malcolm(1972), ‘Sir Francis Drake’, William Morrow & Company Inc. ISBN 978-0436520495 of Edmund Drake (1518–1585), a Protestant farmer who later became a preacher, and his wife Mary Mylwaye. The elder Drake is sometimes confused with his nephew John Drake (1573–1634), who was the son of Edmund's older brother, Richard Drake. (cf. John White, note 2). Francis Drake's maternal grandfather was Richard Mylwaye. Francis Drake married 1: Mary Newman; married 2: Elizabeth Sydenham (m.2 Sir William Courtenay of Powderham) 1585. Francis Drake was reportedly named after his godfather Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford, Tudor Place - Francis Drake bio and throughout his cousins' lineages are direct connections to royalty and famous personages, such as Sir Richard Grenville, Ivor Callely, Amy Grenville and Geoffrey Chaucer. However, James Froud states, "He told Camden that he was of mean extraction. He meant merely that he was proud of his parents and made no idle pretensions to noble birth. His father was a tenant of the Earl of Bedford, and must have stood well with him, for Francis Russell, the heir of the earldom, was the boy's godfather." Froude, James Anthony, English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century, London 1896 As with many of Drake's contemporaries, the exact date of his birth is unknown and could be as early as 1535, the 1540 date being extrapolated from two portraits: one a miniature painted by Nicholas Hilliard in 1581 when he was allegedly 42, the other painted in 1594 when he was said to be 53. 1921/22 edition of the Dictionary of National Biography, which quotes Barrow's Life of Drake (1843) p. 5. During the Prayer Book Rebellion of 1549, the family was forced to flee to Kent. Before he turned thirteen, Drake started his sea career when he became an apprentice member of the crew of a Barque trading between the Thames and the cross-Channel ports. He became owner-master of the ship at the age of twenty after the death of its previous captain, who bequeathed it to him. At age twenty-three, Drake made his first voyage to the New World, sailing, in company with his second cousin, Sir John Hawkins, on one of a fleet of ships owned by his relatives, the Hawkins family of Plymouth. In 1569 he was again with the Hawkins fleet when it was trapped by the Spaniards in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulua. He escaped along with Hawkins but the experience is said to have led him to his lifelong revenge against the Spanish. Drake's first victory Following the defeat at San Juan de Ulúa, Drake vowed for revenge & thus made two minor voyages to the West Indies, in 1570 and 1571, of which little is known. It was in 1572 that he embarked on his first major independent enterprise. He planned an attack on the Panama isthmus, known to the Spanish as Tierra Firme and the English as the Spanish Main. This was the point at which the silver and gold treasure of Peru had to be landed and sent overland to the Caribbean sea, where galleons from Spain would pick it up at Nombre de Dios. He left Plymouth on May 24, 1572, in two small vessels, the Pascha (70 tons) and Swan (25 tons), and with a crew of 73 men. With this force Drake proposed to capture the important town of Nombre de Dios. His first raid there came late in July, 1572. The raid succeeded initially and Drake and his men captured the town and its treasure. However his men noticed that Drake was bleeding profusely from a wound and they insisted on withdrawing to save his life, leaving the treasure. He remained in the vicinity of the isthmus for almost a year, raiding Spanish shipping and attempting to capture a treasure shipment. In 1573, he joined up with a French buccaneer, Guillaume Le Testu, in an attack on a richly laden mule train. This raid succeeded beyond any of their wildest dreams and Drake and his companions found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold. It was far too much for the few men to carry off and so much of the treasure was buried (which may have given rise to all subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure!). The Frenchman Le Testu was wounded, captured and later beheaded. The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some 18 miles of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left their small raiding boats. But when they got there their boats had vanished! Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, now had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind. At this point Drake showed exceptional leaderhip. He rallied his men, buried the treasure (again!) on the beach and built a raft to sail himself and two volunteers ten miles along the fearsome surf-lashed coast to where he had left his flagship. The raft was continally awash up to their chests and the salt water and the burning sun flayed the men alive. However, with almost superhuman effort they pushed onwards until they reached their ship. When Drake finally stood on her deck his men were alarmed at his bedraggled appearance. Fearing the worst they asked him how the raid had gone. Drake, in spite of everything, could not resist a joke and teased them by looking downhearted. Then he laughed, pulled a necklace of Spanish gold from around his neck and said "Our voyage is made, lads!" By August 9th, 1573, he was back in Plymouth, a rich man and ready for more adventure. Circumnavigating the earth Entering the Pacific Statue of Drake in Plymouth, England where he returned to on September 26, 1580 after circumnavigating the world With the success of the Panama isthmus raid, in 1577 Elizabeth I of England sent Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. He set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, but bad weather threatened him and his fleet, who were forced to take refuge in Falmouth, Cornwall, from where they returned to Plymouth for repair. After this major setback, he set sail once again on the 13th of December, aboard Pelican, with five other ships and 164 men. He soon added a sixth ship, Mary (formerly Santa Maria) which had been captured off the coast of Africa from the Spaniards. More importantly, he added its captain, Nuno de Silva, a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters. Drake's fleet suffered great attrition; he scuttled both Christopher and the flyboat Swan due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing. He then made landfall at the gloomy bay of San Julian, in what is now Argentina. Ferdinand Magellan had called here half a century earlier and here he had put to death some mutineers. Drake's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the grim Spanish gibbets. Here Mary was found to be rotten and was burned. Drake, following Magellan's example, tried and executed his own 'mutineer' Thomas Doughty, Drake decided to remain the winter in San Julian before attempting the Strait of Magellan. The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait, at the southern tip of South America. A few weeks later (September 1578) Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships in the strait and caused another to return to England, leaving only the Pelican. After this passage the Pelican was pushed south, and Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in Hakluyt's "The Principall Navigators" of 1589) along the Chilean coast Wagner, Henry R., Sir Francis Drake's Voyage Around The World: Its Aims And Achievements, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2006, ISBN 1-428-62255-1 . Despite popular lore, it seems unlikely that he reached Cape Horn or the eponymous Drake Passage, because his descriptions do not fit the first and his shipmates denied having seen an open sea, while the first report of his discovery of an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego was written after the 1618 publication of the voyage of Willem Schouten and Jacob le Maire around Cape Horn in 1616. Kelsey, Harry, Sir Francis Drake; The Queen's Pirate, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1998, ISBN 0-300-07182-5 He pushed onwards in his lone flagship, now renamed the Golden Hinde in honour of Sir Christopher Hatton (after his coat of arms). The Golden Hinde sailed north along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and rifling towns. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake used their more accurate charts. Before reaching the coast of Peru, Drake visited Mocha Island where he was seriously injured by hostile Mapuches. Later he sacked the port of Valparaíso further north in Chile. A most consequential action Near Lima, Drake captured a Spanish ship laden with 25,000 pesos of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000 ducats of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards). Drake also discovered news of another ship, Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, which was sailing west towards Manila. It would come to be called the Cacafuego. Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship which proved their most profitable capture. Aboard Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, Drake found of gold, a golden crucifix, jewels, 13 chests full of royals of plate and 26 tons of silver. This particular catch had far-reaching consequences because the Spanish ship, having been intercepted sailing due west in the Pacific, exposed to the whole world in early 1580 that the Spanish were active in the Far East, a concession which had been awarded to the Portuguese by the Pope at Rome. This crisis forced Philip II of Spain to invade Portugal in 1580 to claim the Portuguese crown. Charles Wehrenberg, Before New York, Solo Zone Publishing, San Francisco, 1995/2001, ISBN 1-886163-16-2 Nova Albion On 17 June 1579, Drake landed somewhere north of Spain's northern-most claim at Point Loma. He found a good port, landed, repaired and restocked his vessels, then stayed for a time, keeping friendly relations with the natives. He claimed the land in the name of the Holy Trinity for the English Crown as called Nova Albion — Latin for "New Britain". Assertions that he left some of his men behind as an embryo "colony" are founded merely on the reduced number who were with him in the Moluccas. Dismissed by John Cummins, Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero 1997:118: "In view of the prominence given in different versions to the crowning of Drake it would be odd if the establishment of a colony had gone unrecorded." The precise location of the port was carefully guarded to keep it secret from the Spaniards, and several of Drake's maps may even have been altered to this end. All first-hand records from the voyage, including logs, paintings and charts were lost when Whitehall Palace burned in 1698. A bronze plaque inscribed with Drake's claim to the new lands, fitting the description in Drake's own account, was discovered in Marin County, California, but was later declared a hoax. Another location often claimed to be Nova Albion is Whale Cove (Oregon), although to date there is no evidence to suggest this, other than a general resemblance to a single map penned a decade after the landing. Samuel Bawlf R. Samuel Bawlf, The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake: 1577-1580 (Walker Publishing) 2003. marshalled indications that "Nova Albion" was established at Comox on Vancouver Island, during an undocumented "secret voyage" north. It is known that Drake and his men sailed north from Nova Albion in search of a western opening to the Northwest Passage, a potentially valuable asset to the English at the time. During this venture the sailors accurately mapped the westward trend of the north-western corner of the North American continent, present-day British Columbia and Alaska. They had a rough voyage among the islands of the Alaskan panhandle, and were forced to turn back due to freezing weather. Bawlf argues that Drake's ship reached 56°N, much farther north than was recorded. The reason for this false record, Bawlf writes, was for political reasons: competition with the Spanish in the Americas. Queen Elizabeth wanted to keep any information on the Northwest Passage secret, with the result that the location of Nova Albion and the highest latitude the expedition reached is still a source of controversy today. Drake's brother endured a long period of torture in South America at the hands of Spaniards, who sought intelligence from him about Francis Drake's voyage. His voyage to the west coast of North America is important for a number of reasons. When he landed, his chaplain held Holy Communion; this was one of the first Protestant church services in the New World (though French Huguenots had founded an ill-fated colony in Florida in the 1560s). Drake was seen to be gaining prestige at the expense of the Papacy. What is certain of the extent of Drake's claim and territorial challenge to the Papacy and the Spanish crown is that his port was founded somewhere north of Point Loma; that all contemporary maps label all lands above the Kingdoms of New Spain and New Mexico as "Nova Albion", and that all colonial claims made from the East Coast in the 1600s were "From Sea to Sea". The colonial claims were established with full knowledge of Drake's claims, which they reinforced, and remained valid in the minds of the English colonists on the Atlantic coast when those colonies became free states. Maps made soon after would have "Nova Albion" written above the entire northern frontier of New Spain. These territorial claims became important during the negotiations that ended the Mexican-American War between the United States and Mexico. Continuing the journey A modern replica of Drake's Golden Hind Drake now headed westward across the Pacific, and a few months later reached the Moluccas, a group of islands in the south west Pacific, in eastern modern-day Indonesia. While there, Golden Hind became caught on a reef and was almost lost. After three days of waiting for expedient tides and dumping cargo, the barque was freed. Drake and his men befriended a sultan king of the Moluccas and involved themselves in some intrigues with the Portuguese there. He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Sierra Leone by 22 July 1580. On 26 September Golden Hind sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 remaining crew aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The Queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Drake was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth (and the second such voyage arriving with at least one ship intact, after Elcano's in 1520). Drake was awarded a knighthood, but not by Queen Elizabeth aboard Golden Hind, as is commonly thought. He was actually knighted by a French nobleman called Monsieur de Marchaumont. on 4 April 1581, The Encyclopaedia of Plymouth History: Sir Francis Drake and, in September 1581, became the Mayor of Plymouth. He was also a Member of Parliament in 1581, for an unknown constituency, and again in 1584 for Bossiney. In 1580 Drake purchased Buckland Abbey, a large manor near Yelverton in Devon. He lived there for fifteen years, until his final voyage, and it remained in his family for several generations. Buckland Abbey is now in the care of the National Trust and a number of mementos of his life are displayed there. The Queen ordered all written accounts of Drake's voyage to be considered classified information, and its participants sworn to silence on pain of death; her aim was to keep Drake's activities away from the eyes of rival Spain. Also considering the friction with Spain, on the occasion of the knighting, Elizabeth I handed the sword to the Marquis de Marchaumont, ambassador from France, and asked him to dub Drake as the knight. During the Victorian era, in a spirit of nationalism, the story was promoted that Elizabeth I had done the actual knighting. Coote, Stephen, Drake: The Life and Legend of an Elizabethan Hero Saint Martin's Press, New York, 2003. ISBN 0-312-34165-2 [[Image:Gheeraerts Francis Drake 1591.jpg|thumb|upright|"The "Drake Jewel Portrait, by Marcus Gheeraerts, 1591 (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich)]] On his return Drake presented the Queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation. It bore a ship with an ebony hull, enameled gold taken from a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, and an African diamond. For her part, the Queen gave Drake a jewel with her portrait, an uncommon gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake sported proudly in his portrait by Marcus Gheeraerts, 1591. On one side is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard, on the other a sardonyx cameo of double portrait busts, a regal woman and an African male. The "Drake Jewel", as it is known today, is a rare documented survivor among sixteen-century jewels; it is conserved at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. "The Drake Jewel" Spanish Armada War broke out between Spain and England in 1585. Drake sailed to the New World and sacked the ports of Santo Domingo and Cartagena. On the return leg of the voyage, he captured the Spanish fort of San Augustín in Spanish Florida. These exploits encouraged Philip II of Spain to order the planning for an invasion of England. Cadiz Raid In a pre-emptive strike, Drake "singed the beard of the King of Spain" by sailing a fleet into Cádiz and also La Coruña, two of Spain's main ports, and occupied the harbours, destroying 37 naval and merchant ships. The attack delayed the Spanish invasion by a year. Thompson, E. and Freeman, E.A. History of England, p. 188. Over the next month, Drake patrolled the Iberian Coasts between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent intercepting and destroying Spanish supply lines. Drake estimated that he captured around 1600-1700 tons of barrel staves, enough to make 25,000 to for containing provisions. Kraus, Hans. Sir Francis Drake: A Pictorial Biography, 1970 The Spanish Armada Defeat of the Spanish Armada Drake was vice admiral in command of the English fleet (under Lord Howard of Effingham) when it overcame the Spanish Armada that was attempting to invade England in 1588. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the Spanish galleon Rosario, along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and all his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Army in the Low Countries. Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern. By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the fleet into disarray overnight. On the night of 29 July, along with Howard, Drake organized fire-ships, causing the majority of the Spanish captains to break formation and sail out of Calais into the open sea. The next day, Drake was present at the Battle of Gravelines. The most famous (but probably apocryphal) anecdote about Drake relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of bowls on Plymouth Hoe. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards. There is no known eyewitness account of this incident and the earliest retelling of it was printed 37 years later. Adverse winds and currents caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer so it is easy to see how a popular myth of Drake's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat may have originated. Drake-Norris Expedition In 1589, the year after defeating the Armada, Drake and Sir John Norreys were given three tasks. They were ordered to first seek out and destroy the remaining ships, second they were to support the rebels in Lisbon, Portugal against King Philip II (king of Spain and Portugal then), and third they were to take the Azores if possible. Drake and Norreys destroyed a few ships in the harbour of La Coruña in Spain but lost more than 12,000 lives and 20 ships. This delayed Drake, and he was forced to forgo hunting the rest of the surviving ships and head on to Lisbon. Final years Drake's seafaring career continued into his mid-fifties. In 1595, following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America, where he suffered a number of defeats, he unsuccessfully attacked San Juan, Puerto Rico. The Spanish gunners from El Morro Castle shot a cannonball through the cabin of Drake's flagship, but he survived. In 1596, he died of dysentery, at age 56 while anchored off the coast of Portobelo, Panama where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter. Before dying he asked to be dressed in his full armour. He was buried at sea in a lead coffin, near Portobelo. Cultural impact Sir Francis Drake, circa 1581. This portrait may have been copied from Hilliard's miniature—note that the shirt is the same — and the somewhat oddly proportioned body added by an artist who did not have access to Drake. National Portrait Gallery, London. Drakes Bay and Sir Francis Drake Boulevard of Marin County, California are both named after him. The boulevard runs between Drakes Bay at Point Reyes to Point San Quentin on San Francisco Bay. Each end is near a site considered by some to be Drake's landing place in Central California. Olompoli contends with Drakes Bay as Drake's Bay Area landing place. Thomas, Robert C., Drake at Olompali Apala Press: 1979. A large hotel in Union Square, San Francisco also bears his name. In Devon, England there are various places named after him, especially in Plymouth, where a shopping centre has been named Drakes Circus. Drake's will was the focus of a vast confidence scheme which Oscar Hartzell perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s. He convinced thousands of people, mostly in the American Midwest, that Drake's fortune was being held by the British government, and had compounded to a huge amount. If their last name was Drake they might be eligible for a share if they paid Hartzell to be their agent. The swindle continued until a copy of Drake's will was brought to Hartzell's mail fraud trial and he was convicted and imprisoned. Rayner, Richard. The Admiral and the Con Man The New Yorker, April 22, 2002, p. 150 Modern workings of stories involving Drake include the 1961 British television series Sir Francis Drake, and the 2009 US television movie The Immortal Voyage of Captain Drake. Controversies Slave Trading Drake accompanied his second cousin Sir John Hawkins in making the third English slave-trading expeditions, making fortunes through the abduction and transportation of West African people, and then exchanging them for high-value goods. The first Englishman recorded to have taken slaves from Africa was John Lok, a London trader who, in 1555, brought to England five slaves from Guinea. A second London trader taking slaves at that time was William Towerson whose fleet sailed into Plymouth following his 1556 voyage to Africa and from Plymouth on his 1557 voyage. Despite the exploits of Lok and Towerson, John Hawkins of Plymouth is widely acknowledged to be the pioneer of the English slave trade. Around 1563 Drake first sailed west to the Spanish Main, on a ship owned and commanded by his uncle John Hawkins, with a cargo of people forcibly removed from the coast of West Africa. The Englishmen sold their African captives into slavery in Spanish plantations. These profitable activities (which he continued) undermine the tendency to view Drake as simply an untarnished English hero. Although slavery was legal throughout the world at the time, its expansion by Hawkins and Drake is now widely seen as a great blot upon their records. In general, the kidnapping and forced transportation of people was considered to be a criminal offence under English law at the time, although legal protection did not necessarily extend to slaves, non-Protestants or criminals. Hawkins' own account of his actions (in which Drake took part) cites two sources for their victims. One was military attacks on African towns and villages (with the assistance of rival African warlords). The other was privateer actions against Portuguese slave ships. Britain's slave trade later came to be regarded as a terrible stain on the moral history of the nation, and Drake's role in laying the technical, legal and political foundations for the slave trade cannot be overlooked. Conflict in the Caribbean During his early days as a slave-trader, Drake took an immediate dislike to the Spanish, at least in part due to their Catholicism and inherent mistrust of non-English. His hostility is said to have increased over an incident at San Juan de Ulua in 1568, when Drake was sailing with the fleet of his cousin John Hawkins. While negotiating to resupply and repair at the Spanish port, the fleet were attacked by Spanish warships, with all but two of the English ships lost. Drake survived the attack by swimming.The most celebrated of Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main was his capture of the Spanish Silver Train at Nombre de Dios in March 1573. With a crew including many French privateers and Maroons — African slaves who had escaped the Spanish — Drake raided the waters around Darien (in modern Panama) and tracked the Silver Train to the nearby port of Nombre de Dios. He made off with a fortune in gold, but had to leave behind another fortune in silver, because it was too heavy to carry back to England. It was during this expedition that he climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the Isthmus of Panama and thus became the first Englishman to see the Pacific Ocean. He remarked as he saw it that he hoped one day an Englishman would be able to sail it -- which he would do years later as part of his circumnavigation of the world. When Drake returned to Plymouth after the raids, the government signed a temporary truce with King Philip II of Spain and so was unable to acknowledge Drake's accomplishment officially. Drake was considered a hero in England for his raids. See especially Drake's Spanish nickname and its mythic power to frighten naughty children. John Cummins, Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero, page 273. ISBN 0312163657. Ireland In 1575 Drake was present at Rathlin Island, part of the English plantation effort in Ulster when 600 men, women, and children were massacred after surrendering. Brief mention of the massacre Francis Drake was in charge of the ships which transported John Norreys' Troops to Rathlin Island, commanding a small frigate called "Falcon", with a total complement of 25. At the time of the massacre, he was charged with the task of keeping Scottish vessels from bringing reinforcements to Rathlin Island. The people who were massacred were, in fact, the families of Sorley Boy MacDonnell's followers. John Sugden, "Sir Francis Drake" Simon Schuster New York, ISBN 0671758632 Execution of Thomas Doughty In 1578 Drake accused his co-commander Thomas Doughty of witchcraft in a shipboard trial. Doughty was charged with mutiny and treason. Drake then denied his requests to see Drake's commission from the Queen to carry out such acts and was denied a trial in England. The two main pieces of evidence against Doughty were the testimony of the ship's carpenter, Edward Bright and also that Doughty admitted to telling Lord William Burghley of the voyage. Drake consented to his request of Communion and dined with him. Thomas Doughty was beheaded on July 2 1578. See also Roberto Trefusis fictional nephew in Marvel 1602 Buckland Abbey, home of Sir Francis Drake. Drake in California Drake's Leat, a water supply for Plymouth, promoted by Drake. Drake's Plate of Brass, a forgery of a plate purported to have be posted by Drake in California. Francis William Drake, descendant of Sir Francis Drake. Giovanni Battista Boazio Drake's mapmaker Golden Hind Drake's flagship Thomas Doughty Drake's co-captain whose death is surrounded by controversy References Bibliography Bawlf, Samuel (2003) The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, 1577-1580 Walker & Company ISBN 0802714056 Hughes-Hallett, Lucy (2004) Heroes: A History of Hero Worship Alfred A. Knopf, New York, New York. ISBN 1-4000-4399-9 Kelsey, Harry (1998) Sir Francis Drake, the Queen's Pirate New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300071825 Mattingly, Garett (1959) The Defeat of the Spanish Armada ISBN 0-395-08366-4 – a detailed account of the defeat of the Spanish Armada, it received a special citation from the Pulitzer Prize committee in 1960 Merideth, Mrs Charles, Notes and Sketches of New South Wales, during a residence in that colony from 1839 to 1844; Bound With: "Life of Drake" by John Barrow (1st ed, 1844) [xi, 164; and xii, 187 pp. respectfully] Rodger, N.A.M. The Safeguard of the Sea; A Naval History of Britain 660-1649 (London, 1997) Wilson, Derek (1977) The World Encompassed: Drake’s Great Voyage, 1577–80. Harper & Row. ISBN 0060146796 External links The Circumnavigation Google Earth Tour of Drake's Circumnavigation Lesson plans for classroom use General Sites Francis Drake Hand-colored map depicting Sir Francis Drake's attack on Saint Augustine from the State Archives of Florida In Drake's Wake - "The world's best Drake resource" Kraus Collection of Sir Francis Drake at the Library of Congress Mission to rescue Drake's body Oliver Seeler's website "Sir Francis Drake" Drake's methods of Navigation be-x-old:Фрэнсіс Дрэйк | Francis_Drake |@lemmatized call:6 upon:3 dull:1 effeminate:1 age:5 follow:5 noble:2 footstep:1 gold:9 silver:8 sir:25 francis:34 drake:165 vice:2 admiral:4 january:3 english:21 sea:9 captain:6 privateer:3 navigator:3 slaver:1 politician:1 elizabethan:2 era:2 queen:11 elizabeth:8 award:3 knighthood:2 second:6 command:4 fleet:14 spanish:48 armada:10 subordinate:1 charles:3 howard:3 die:3 dysentery:2 accord:2 calendar:1 use:3 date:4 death:5 new:18 year:10 begin:1 march:3 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2,999 | Hearst_Corporation | Hearst Tower, in September 2006 Hearst Communications, Inc. is a privately-held American-based media conglomerate based in the Hearst Tower in New York City, USA. Founded by William Randolph Hearst as an owner of newspapers, the company's holdings now include a wide variety of media. The Hearst family is involved in the ownership and management of the company. Hearst is one of the largest diversified communications companies in the world. Its major interests include 15 daily and 49 weekly newspapers, including the Houston Chronicle and Albany Times Union; as well as interests in an additional 43 daily and 72 non-daily newspapers owned by subsidiary MediaNews Group, which include the Denver Post and Salt Lake Tribune; nearly 200 magazines around the world, including Cosmopolitan and O, The Oprah Magazine; 28 television stations through Hearst-Argyle Television which reach a combined 18% of U.S. viewers; ownership in leading cable networks, including Lifetime Television, A&E Television Networks, The History Channel and ESPN; as well as business publishing, Internet businesses, television production, newspaper features distribution and real estate. Trustees of William Randolph Hearst's Will Under William Randolph Hearst's will, a common board of 13 trustees—five family members and eight outsiders—administers the Hearst Foundation, the William Randolph Hearst Foundation, and the trust that owns (and selects the 18-member board of) the Hearst Corporation. The foundations shared ownership until tax law changed to prevent this. As of 2003, the trustees are: Frank A. Bennack Jr., vice chairman and chief executive of the corporation Anissa Bouadjakdji Balson, granddaughter of David Whitmire Hearst Sr. John G. Conomikes, vice president of corporation, oversees broadcast interests Ronald J. Doerfler, chief financial officer, senior vice president and a board member of Hearst Corporation George Randolph Hearst Jr., chairman of Hearst Corporation and president of the Hearst Foundation John Randolph Hearst Jr., an officer and director of the corporation Virginia Hearst Randt, daughter of late former chairman Randolph Apperson Hearst William Randolph Hearst III, president of the William Randolph Hearst Foundation Harvey L. Lipton, lawyer and former vice president and secretary of the Corporation Gilbert C. Maurer, succeeded Deems as head of Hearst Magazines, then preceded Ganzi as executive vice president and chief operating officer under Bennack, now a consultant Mark F. Miller, former executive vice president of Hearst Magazines David J. Barrett, president and chief executive officer of Hearst-Argyle Television, Inc. The trust dissolves when all family members alive at the time of Hearst's death in August 1951 have died. Actuarial tables have put this date at 2042 or 2043. David Nasaw, The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst (Mariner Books, 2001). History In December 2003, Marvel Entertainment acquired Cover Concepts from Hearst Communications, Inc. Assets A non-exhaustive list of its properties and investments includes: Magazines Cosmopolitan Country Living Esquire Good Housekeeping Harper's Bazaar House Beautiful Marie Claire O, The Oprah Magazine Popular Mechanics Redbook Seventeen SmartMoney (with Dow Jones) Town & Country Veranda Nat Mags Newspapers Albany Times Union Beaumont Enterprise Connecticut Post Edwardsville Intelligencer Greenwich Time Houston Chronicle Huron Daily Tribune Laredo Morning Times Midland Daily News (Michigan) Midland Reporter-Telegram (Texas) The News-Times The Advocate (Stamford) Plainview Daily Herald San Antonio Express-News Interests in an additional 43 daily and 72 non-daily newspapers owned by MediaNews Group, which include The Denver Post and Salt Lake Tribune MediaNews 10-Q Weekly Newspapers 210SA (TX) Advertiser North (NY) Advertiser South (NY) Ballston Journal (NY) Ballston Spa Pennysaver (NY) Beaumont Journal (TX) Bulverde Community News (TX) Business Express (TX) Cancha (TX) Canyon News (TX) Clifton Park North Pennysaver (NY) Clifton Park South Pennysaver (NY) Conexion (TX) Darien News-Review (CT) Fairfield Citizen-News (CT) Fort Sam News Leader (TX) Fronteras (TX) Glens Falls Moneysavers (NY) Greenwich Citizen (CT) Hardin County News (TX) Hill Country View (TX) Jasper NewsBoy (TX) Kelly USA Observer (TX) La Vibra (TX) La Voz (TX) Lackland Talespinner (TX) Latham Pennysaver (NY) Marlette Leader (MI) Medical Patriot (TX) Mid County Chronicle (TX) Muleshoe Journal (TX) Neighborhood News (TX) New Canaan news-Review (CT) New Milford Spectrum (CT) North Central News (TX) North San Antonio Times (TX) Northwest Weekly (TX) Norwalk Citizen-News (CT) Orange County News (TX) Pennysaver News (NY) Queensbury Moneysaver (NY) Randolph Wingspread (TX) Southside Reporter (TX) Spa City Moneysaver (NY) The Herald (TX) The Weekly (NY) Vassar Pioneer Times (MI) West Texas Country Trader (TX) Wesport News (CT) Television and Cable (investments) A&E Television Networks (Shared with Disney and NBC Universal) ESPN (owns 20%; shared with Disney, which owns the other 80%) Hearst-Argyle Television (owner of 26 local television stations; also manages three local television and two local radio stations) Lifetime Entertainment Services (joint venture with The Walt Disney Company) New England Cable News (owns 50%; shared with the Comcast Corporation) Internet 1UP.com GameTab.com GameVideos.com MyCheats.com UGO 40% of Kaango, LLC MediaNews 10-Q Answerology Kaboodle eCrush RealAge seattlepi.com (Seattle Post-Intelligencer) Other King Features Syndicate Antitrust allegations On July 14, 2006, San Francisco businessman and real estate investor Clint Reilly filed a lawsuit against Hearst Corp. (owner of the San Francisco Chronicle) and MediaNews Group (owner of the San Jose Mercury News, Contra Costa Times, Marin Independent Journal, Oakland Tribune and all other paid-circulation dailies in the Bay Area), alleging that the two companies have been conspiring to control advertising rates, a violation of antitrust laws. In November 2006, Reilly's attorney presented to U.S. District Judge Susan Illston a letter from Hearst senior vice president James Asher to MediaNews President Jody Lodovic that said the two companies agreed to "offer national advertising and internet advertising sales for their San Francisco Bay area newspapers on a joint basis, and to consolidate the San Francisco Bay Area distribution networks of such newspapers ..." Illston, suggesting she had been misled by the companies when they said they had not been collaborating, issued a 14-page ruling U.S. District Court Order Re: Second Application for Temporary Restraining Order, November 28 2006 forbidding Hearst and MediaNews from working together on national advertising sales or distribution. On December 21, 2006, the San Francisco Bay Guardian and nonprofit Media Alliance filed suit to make the details of Reilly's lawsuit—and MediaNews and the Chronicle's response—public. Williamson, Kate. San Francisco Examiner "Weekly, nonprofit sue to open records," December 22 2006 As a result of the filing, many documents in the case were voluntarily disclosed by the defendants. The judge allowed redacted versions of two more documents to be released. She kept 17 others under seal. One of the documents unsealed was the deposition of Hearst's Asher, who says that as of September 2006, his company had recorded cumulative losses of $330 million on its investment in the Chronicle, Said, Carolyn. San Francisco Chronicle, February 1 2007. ''Hearst, MediaNews talks included possible sale of Chronicle" which it acquired in mid-2000. He said Hearst proposed selling the Chronicle to MediaNews, but MediaNews didn't offer enough money. Asher also said Hearst and MediaNews have discussed working together for years. Although the trial was scheduled to start Monday, April 30 2007 in U.S. District Court in San Francisco, San Francisco Examiner "MediaNews, Hearst trial set to proceed," February 9 2007. the parties announced on April 25 2007 that a settlement had been reached. References External links Hearst Corporation home page The Hearst Foundation, Inc. Hearst Magazines Subscription Center See also Newsboys Strike of 1899 | Hearst_Corporation |@lemmatized hearst:40 tower:2 september:2 communication:3 inc:4 privately:1 hold:1 american:1 base:2 medium:3 conglomerate:1 new:4 york:1 city:2 usa:2 found:1 william:7 randolph:11 owner:4 newspaper:9 company:8 holding:1 include:9 wide:1 variety:1 family:3 involve:1 ownership:3 management:1 one:2 large:1 diversified:1 world:2 major:1 interest:4 daily:9 weekly:5 houston:2 chronicle:9 albany:2 time:9 union:2 well:2 additional:2 non:3 subsidiary:1 medianews:13 group:3 denver:2 post:4 salt:2 lake:2 tribune:4 nearly:1 magazine:7 around:1 cosmopolitan:2 oprah:2 television:11 station:3 argyle:3 reach:2 combined:1 u:4 viewer:1 lead:1 cable:3 network:4 lifetime:2 e:2 history:2 channel:1 espn:2 business:3 publishing:1 internet:3 production:1 feature:2 distribution:3 real:2 estate:2 trustee:3 common:1 board:3 five:1 member:4 eight:1 outsider:1 administer:1 foundation:6 trust:2 select:1 corporation:9 share:4 tax:1 law:2 change:1 prevent:1 frank:1 bennack:2 jr:3 vice:7 chairman:3 chief:5 executive:4 anissa:1 bouadjakdji:1 balson:1 granddaughter:1 david:3 whitmire:1 sr:1 john:2 g:1 conomikes:1 president:10 oversee:1 broadcast:1 ronald:1 j:2 doerfler:1 financial:1 officer:4 senior:2 george:1 director:1 virginia:1 randt:1 daughter:1 late:1 former:3 apperson:1 iii:1 harvey:1 l:1 lipton:1 lawyer:1 secretary:1 gilbert:1 c:1 maurer:1 succeed:1 deems:1 head:1 precede:1 ganzi:1 operate:1 consultant:1 mark:1 f:1 miller:1 barrett:1 dissolve:1 alive:1 death:1 august:1 die:1 actuarial:1 table:1 put:1 date:1 nasaw:1 life:1 mariner:1 book:1 december:3 marvel:1 entertainment:2 acquire:2 cover:1 concept:1 asset:1 exhaustive:1 list:1 property:1 investment:3 country:4 living:1 esquire:1 good:1 housekeeping:1 harper:1 bazaar:1 house:1 beautiful:1 marie:1 claire:1 popular:1 mechanic:1 redbook:1 seventeen:1 smartmoney:1 dow:1 jones:1 town:1 veranda:1 nat:1 mags:1 beaumont:2 enterprise:1 connecticut:1 edwardsville:1 intelligencer:2 greenwich:2 huron:1 laredo:1 morning:1 midland:2 news:18 michigan:1 reporter:2 telegram:1 texas:2 advocate:1 stamford:1 plainview:1 herald:2 san:12 antonio:2 express:2 q:2 tx:28 advertiser:2 north:4 ny:12 south:2 ballston:2 journal:4 spa:2 pennysaver:5 bulverde:1 community:1 cancha:1 canyon:1 clifton:2 park:2 conexion:1 darien:1 review:2 ct:7 fairfield:1 citizen:3 fort:1 sam:1 leader:2 fronteras:1 glens:1 falls:1 moneysavers:1 hardin:1 county:3 hill:1 view:1 jasper:1 newsboy:1 kelly:1 observer:1 la:2 vibra:1 voz:1 lackland:1 talespinner:1 latham:1 marlette:1 mi:2 medical:1 patriot:1 mid:2 muleshoe:1 neighborhood:1 canaan:1 milford:1 spectrum:1 central:1 northwest:1 norwalk:1 orange:1 queensbury:1 moneysaver:2 wingspread:1 southside:1 vassar:1 pioneer:1 west:1 trader:1 wesport:1 disney:3 nbc:1 universal:1 local:3 also:3 manage:1 three:1 two:4 radio:1 service:1 joint:2 venture:1 walt:1 england:1 comcast:1 com:5 gametab:1 gamevideos:1 mycheats:1 ugo:1 kaango:1 llc:1 answerology:1 kaboodle:1 ecrush:1 realage:1 seattlepi:1 seattle:1 king:1 syndicate:1 antitrust:2 allegation:1 july:1 francisco:9 businessman:1 investor:1 clint:1 reilly:3 file:2 lawsuit:2 corp:1 jose:1 mercury:1 contra:1 costa:1 marin:1 independent:1 oakland:1 pay:1 circulation:1 bay:4 area:3 allege:1 conspire:1 control:1 advertising:4 rate:1 violation:1 november:2 attorney:1 present:1 district:3 judge:2 susan:1 illston:2 letter:1 jam:1 asher:3 jody:1 lodovic:1 say:6 agree:1 offer:2 national:2 sale:3 basis:1 consolidate:1 suggest:1 mislead:1 collaborate:1 issue:1 page:2 ruling:1 court:2 order:2 second:1 application:1 temporary:1 restraining:1 forbid:1 work:2 together:2 guardian:1 nonprofit:2 alliance:1 suit:1 make:1 detail:1 response:1 public:1 williamson:1 kate:1 examiner:2 sue:1 open:1 record:2 result:1 filing:1 many:1 document:3 case:1 voluntarily:1 disclose:1 defendant:1 allow:1 redacted:1 version:1 release:1 keep:1 others:1 seal:1 unseal:1 deposition:1 cumulative:1 loss:1 million:1 carolyn:1 february:2 talk:1 possible:1 propose:1 sell:1 enough:1 money:1 discuss:1 year:1 although:1 trial:2 schedule:1 start:1 monday:1 april:2 set:1 proceed:1 party:1 announce:1 settlement:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 subscription:1 center:1 see:1 newsboys:1 strike:1 |@bigram william_randolph:7 randolph_hearst:9 real_estate:2 board_trustee:1 vice_president:6 marie_claire:1 dow_jones:1 san_antonio:2 joint_venture:1 walt_disney:1 post_intelligencer:1 san_francisco:9 san_jose:1 jose_mercury:1 contra_costa:1 oakland_tribune:1 francisco_examiner:2 external_link:1 |
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